Andrzej Chwalba [SEP] languages spoken or written
Andrzej Chwalba


Andrzej Chwalba (born 1949 in Częstochowa) is a Polish historian. Professor of history at the Jagiellonian University (since 1995), the university's prorector of didactics (1999-2002), head of the Institute of Social and Religious History of Europe in 19th and 20th century, and the deacon and prodeacon of Department of History. Chwalba graduated from the Jagiellonian University in 1972. Later he worked as a teacher in Częstochowa. In 1977 he became a member of the Communist party - Polish United Workers' Party. He
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Andrzej Chwalba


gained a Ph.D. from the Jagiellonian University in 1982. Chwalba is a member of the Polish Historical Society, the Historical Commission of the Polish Academy of Science and several foreign historical societies (Intern. Tagung der Historik, Europ. Community Liaison Committee of Historians, Centre de recherches d'histoire des mouvement sociaux et du syndicalisme), as well as editor in chief of "Alternatywy" (1985-1989); and "Arka" (1994-1995). He is a member of the editorial board of "Historyka".
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Museum of Polish History


of the Museum of Polish History decided to officially close the Kraków branch in early 2013. The museum's director is Robert Kostro. The museum council includes Jolanta Choińska–Mika, Andrzej Chwalba, Andrzej Friszke, Rafał Habielski, Adolf Juzwenko, Marek Kraszewski, Krzysztof Mikulski, Andrzej Paczkowski, Kazimierz Przybysz, Wojciech Roszkowski, Andrzej Rottermund, Paweł Śpiewak, Henryk Samsonowicz, Wojciech Tygielski, and Zofia Zielińska. Previous board members include Władysław Bartoszewski, Andrzej Chojnowski, Norman Davies, Jarosław Gowin, Wojciech Kilar, Janusz Kurtyka, Ryszard
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History of Kraków


Marshal Ivan Konev claimed to have been informed by the Polish patriots of the German plan, and took an effort to preserve Kraków from destruction by ordering a lightning attack on the city while deliberately not cutting the Germans from the only withdrawal path, and by not aiding the attack with aviation and artillery. The credibility of those accounts has been questioned by Polish historian Andrzej Chwalba who finds no physical evidence of the German master plan for demolition and no written proof showing that Konev ordered the attack with the intention of preserving the city.
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Masurians


postulated them as mediators between German and Slav cultures. During the 1840s, the folklorist Gustaw Gizewiusz (Gustav Gisevius) collected Masurian folk songs which were later included in Oskar Kolberg's compilation "Dzieła Wszystkie". According to Andrzej Chwalba or Henryk Samsonowicz Polish national activists and Masurians already were engaged in cooperation in 1848 when Poles from Pomerania supported Masurian attempts to elect their representative Gustaw Gizewiusz who defended the use of Polish language and traditions For Piotr Wandycz the events of 1848 led to Polish national awakening in Masuria In contrast Andreas Kossert writes
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Polish Corridor


and merchants were introduced to the area, which influenced the population mix, according to Andrzej Chwalba. By 1921 the proportion of Germans had dropped to 18.8% (175,771). Over the next decade, the German population decreased by another 70,000 to a share of 9.6%. German political scientist Stefan Wolff, Professor at the University of Birmingham, says that the actions of Polish state officials after the corridor's establishment followed "a course of assimilation and oppression". As a result, a large number of Germans left Poland
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Władysław Sikorski's death controversy


were examined by Polish scientists, who in 2009 concluded that he died due to injuries consistent with an air crash, and that there was no evidence that Sikorski was murdered, ruling out theories that he was shot or strangled before the incident; however they did not rule out the possibility of sabotage, which is still being investigated by the Institute of National Remembrance. The investigation was ongoing . One of the IPN historians, Maciej Korkuć, has stated that "many facts suggest an assassination", although another, Andrzej Chwalba,
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Written language


A written language is the representation of a spoken or gestural language by means of a writing system. Written language is an invention in that it must be taught to children, who will pick up spoken language or sign language by exposure even if they are not formally instructed. A written language exists only as a complement to a specific spoken language, and no natural language is purely written. Written languages change more slowly than corresponding spoken languages. When at least one register of a language is strongly divergent from spoken language, the
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Polish Corridor


30 others were injured. According to Polish Historian Andrzej Chwalba, during the rule of the Kingdom of Prussia and the German Empire various means were used to increase the amount of land owned by Germans at the expense of the Polish population. In Prussia, the Polish nobility had its estates confiscated after the Partitions, and handed over to German nobility. The same applied to Catholic monasteries. Later, the German Empire bought up land in an attempt to prevent the restoration of a Polish majority in Polish inhabited areas in its eastern provinces
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West Prussia


after which they were reestablished as separate provinces. In 1840, King Frederick William IV of Prussia sought to reconcile the state with the Catholic Church and the kingdom's Polish subjects by granting amnesty to imprisoned Polish bishops and re-establishing Polish instruction in schools in districts having Polish majorities. However, after the region became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany, it was subjected to measures aimed at Germanization of Polish-speaking areas. The Polish historian Andrzej Chwalba cites Germanization measures that included: In the
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BCMC College of Engineering & Technology


Course; 03-months course 2. English Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 3. Spanish Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 4. German (Deutsch) Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 5. Arabic Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 6. Japanese Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 7. Korean Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 8. Chinese Language Training Course (Spoken &
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Language development


more skilled. Kroll considers the second phase in writing development to be consolidation. Here, children begin to consolidate spoken and written language. In this phase children's writing skills rely heavily on their spoken language skills, and their written and spoken language becoming integrated. Children's written language skills become stronger as they use their spoken language skills to improve their writing. Then in turn, when a development in children's written language skills is seen, their spoken language skills have also improved. A child's written language in this
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Kraków Uprising (1944)


where German forces were preparing their defence against the Soviet Red Army, so that Polish underground civilian authorities could take power before the arrival of the Soviets. Several operations took place i.e. Operation Ostra Brama, Lwów Uprising and the biggest and the most important – Warsaw Uprising, however, an uprising planned for months in another key city of the country, Kraków, failed to take place. According to professor Andrzej Chwalba from Kraków’s Jagiellonian University, AK planners wanted to start the uprising most probably on October 10, 1944 (earlier
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Language planning


often viewed as secondary to spoken language, the vocabulary, grammatical structures and phonological structures of a language often adopt characteristics in the written form that are distinct from the spoken variety. Second, the use of writing often leads to a folk belief that the written language is the 'real' language, and speech is a corruption of it. Written language is viewed as more conservative, while the spoken variety is more susceptible to language change. Isolated relic areas of the spoken language may be less innovative than the written form,
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Spoken language


especially in contrast to written transcriptions of signs. In spoken language, much of the meaning is determined by the context. That contrasts with written language in which more of the meaning is provided directly by the text. In spoken language, the truth of a proposition is determined by common-sense reference to experience, but in written language, a greater emphasis is placed on logical and coherent argument. Similarly, spoken language tends to convey subjective information, including the relationship between the speaker and the audience, whereas written language tends
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Spoken language


to convey objective information. The relationship between spoken language and written language is complex. Within the field of linguistics the current consensus is that speech is an innate human capability, and written language is a cultural invention. However some linguists, such as those of the Prague school, argue that written and spoken language possess distinct qualities which would argue against written language being dependent on spoken language for its existence. Both vocal and sign languages are composed of words. In vocal languages, words are made up from a limited set of
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Spoken language


A spoken language is a language produced by articulate sounds, as opposed to a written language. Many languages have no written form and so are only spoken. An oral language or vocal language is a language produced with the vocal tract, as opposed to a sign language, which is produced with the hands and face. The term "spoken language" is sometimes used to mean only vocal languages, especially by linguists, making all three terms synonyms by excluding sign languages. Others refer to sign language as "spoken",
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Lexis (linguistics)


dichotomy of spoken and written language which actually entails a shift in paradigm: while linguistic theory posits the superiority of spoken language over written language (as the former is the origin, comes naturally, and thus precedes the written language), or the written over the spoken (for the same reasons: the written language being the highest form of rudimentary speech), Halliday states they are two entirely different entities. He claims that speech is grammatically complex while writing is lexically dense. In other words, a sentence such as "
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Integrationism


, or the symbolization of phonetic signs, students are equipped with the literacy to understand the written texts. However, it is often the case that students have a hard time understanding and interpreting a poem even though they know every single word. The glittering example reveals the problem of treating spoken language and written language as the same and implies the need to treat them differently. According to Kravchenko, spoken language and written language are different in that spoken language is temporal and local, while written language is atemporal and non-local
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Integrationism


the community and society where one stays. With regard to it, this section first focuses on the distinction between spoken language (first-order language) and written language (second-order language) and how reading comprehension is achieved, and then aims at the impact of technology-enhanced interaction on reading comprehension. Traditionally, spoken language and written language are regarded as the two sides of the same coin In other words, written language is believed to fully represent its corresponding spoken language. Therefore, educators believe by teaching words
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Romanization


extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due to diachronic and synchronic variance no written language represents any spoken language with perfect accuracy and the vocal interpretation of a script may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language.
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Languages of Iraq


There are a number of languages spoken in Iraq, but Mesopotamian Arabic (Iraqi Arabic) is by far the most widely spoken in the country. The most widely spoken language in Iraq is the Arabic language (specifically Mesopotamian Arabic); the second most spoken language is Kurdish (mainly Sorani and Kurmanji dialects), followed by the Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialect of Turkish, and the Neo-Aramaic languages (specifically Chaldean and Ashuri). Arabic is written using the Arabic script and Kurdish is written with a modified Perso-
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Languages of Hong Kong


into Hong Kong from Canton Province, Cantonese is the dominant Chinese variant spoken in the territory with smaller numbers of speakers from other dialects. There are also numerous sinitic languages spoken by the native peoples of the New Territories, many of which are mutually unintelligible. Cantonese is a vernacular and when reduced to writing is normally converted to a standard written Chinese quite dissimilar to the spoken word. There is also a written language based on the vocabulary and grammar of spoken Cantonese known as written Cantonese. Although the "biliterate and trilingual"
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Gospel riots


spoken or "demotic" Greek had evolved far from its ancient roots, and the two languages were now mutually incomprehensible. As a compromise, a grammatically simplified version of Ancient Greek known as "katharevousa glossa" ("language that tends towards purity") had been adopted as the written language of the new state in 1830. This meant that the spoken and written languages were now intentionally different. It was hoped that written "katharevousa" would provide a model for imitation, and that spoken Greek would naturally "purify"
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Mizar system


The Mizar system consists of a formal language for writing mathematical definitions and proofs, a proof assistant, which is able to mechanically check proofs written in this language, and a library of formalized mathematics, which can be used in the proof of new theorems. The system is maintained and developed by the Mizar Project, formerly under the direction of its founder Andrzej Trybulec. In 2009 the Mizar Mathematical Library was the largest coherent body of strictly formalized mathematics in existence. The Mizar Project was started around 1973 by Andrzej Trybulec as an
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Language development


fact that males are more visible, and thus more often diagnosed. Research in writing development has been limited in psychology. In the research that has been conducted, focus has generally centred on the development of written and spoken language and their connection. Spoken and written skills could be considered linked. Researchers believe that children's spoken language influences their written language. When a child learns to write they need to master letter formation, spelling, punctuation and they also have to gain an understanding of the structure and the organisational patterns involved
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North Germanic languages


and written versions of the language, so the differences between spoken Norwegian and spoken Danish are somewhat more significant than the difference between their respective written forms. Written Danish is relatively close to the other Continental Scandinavian languages, but the sound developments of spoken Danish include reduction and assimilation of consonants and vowels, as well as the prosodic feature called "stød" in Danish, developments which have not occurred in the other languages (though the "stød" corresponds to the changes in pitch in Norwegian and Swedish, which are pitch-
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Maithili language


Maithili (; "Maithilī") is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent, mainly spoken in India and Nepal. In India, it is spoken in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand and is one of the 22 recognised Indian languages. In Nepal, it is spoken in the eastern Terai and is the second most prevalent language of Nepal. It is also one of the 122 recognized Nepalese languages. Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant
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Japanese: The Spoken Language


Japanese: The Spoken Language (JSL) is an introductory textbook series for learning Japanese. JSL was written by Eleanor Harz Jorden in collaboration with Mari Noda. "Part 1" was published in 1987 by Yale Language Press, "Part 2" in 1988, and "Part 3" in 1990. The series differs from most Japanese language textbooks in many ways, most basically in that it focuses exclusively on the spoken language and leaves discussion of any aspect of the written language to other textbooks, such as the parallel series
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Andrzej Ciołkosz


Andrzej Ciołkosz (19291952), "nom de plume" Joseph Marek, was a young Polish language writer, literary critic and translator. He is best known for his Polish-English translation of "A World Apart: The Journal of a Gulag Survivor", written by a renowned Polish World War II underground fighter, camp survivor, and dissident political writer Gustaw Herling-Grudziński. The book written in Polish, was a memoir combining various literary genres: novel, essay, psychological portrait, as well as sociological and political
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Heterography and homography


In linguistics, heterography is a property of a written language, such that it lacks a 1-to-1 correspondence between the written symbols and the sounds of the spoken language. Its opposite is homography, which is the property of a language such that written symbols of its written form and the sounds of its spoken form have a 1-to-1 correspondence. The orthography of the English language is, according to Larry Trask, a "spectacular example" of heterography. But most European languages exhibit it to some extent. Finnish is "very close"
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Duruwa language


Dhurwa (Odia: ପରଜି, Devanagari: दुरुवा) or Parji is a Central Dravidian language spoken by the Dhurwa tribe, a scheduled tribe people of India, in the districts of Koraput and Bastar in Chhattisgarh state. The language is related to Ollari and Kolami, which is also spoken by other neighbouring tribes. Dhurwa is a member of the Central Dravidian languages. Duruwa is a spoken language and is generally not written. Whenever it is written, it makes use of the Devanagari script in Bastar district and Odia script in Koraput
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Mongolia


, Korean and American nationalities. The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet in Mongolia, although in the past it was written using the
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Machine translation of sign languages


The machine translation of sign languages has been possible, albeit in a limited fashion, since 1977. When a research project successfully matched English letters from a keyboard to ASL manual alphabet letters which were simulated on a robotic hand. These technologies translate signed languages into written or spoken language, and written or spoken language to sign language, without the use of a human interpreter. Sign languages possess different phonological features than spoken languages, which has created obstacles for developers. Developers use computer vision and machine learning to recognize specific phonological parameters
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Koraga language


Koraga (also rendered "Koragar, Koragara, Korangi)" is a Dravidian language spoken by the Koraga people, a Scheduled tribe people of Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, and Kerala in South West India. The dialect spoken by the Koraga tribe in Kerala, Mudu Koraga, is divergent enough to not be intelligible with Korra Koraga. Koraga is a member of the Dravidian family of languages. It is further classified into the Southern Dravidian family. Koraga is a spoken language and generally not written, whenever it is written it makes
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Language development


writing and speaking are different. When writing and speaking development is looked at more closely it can be seen that certain elements of written and spoken language are differentiating and other elements are integrating, all in the same phase. Perera conducted a survey and her view mirrors that of Kroll to the extent that she used Kroll's four phases. When a child undergoes initial learning of the written language, they have not yet fully mastered the oral language. It is clear that their written language development is aided by their spoken language;
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Demotic (Egyptian)


development of the Late Egyptian language and shares much with the later Coptic phase of the Egyptian language. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those texts written in the Early Demotic script, it probably represented the spoken idiom of the time. But, as it was increasingly used for only literary and religious purposes, the written language diverged more and more from the spoken form, leading to significant diglossia between the Late Demotic texts and the spoken language of the time, similar to the use of classical Middle Egyptian during the
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Arabic


times and languages such as English and French in modern times. Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims, and Modern Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken
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Standard written English


spoken language. We don't have the spoken language standardised yet. When we say that we're speaking Standard English, what we're doing is transferring into our spoken vocabulary and syntax the elements of the written language. What is standard in what you and I are talking now is what we get from our writing. There are grammatical constructions and words that one uses in speech that one generally avoids in written compositions. Even in the most colloquial of online chats, interjections such as "like" are rarer than in speech
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Languages in censuses


, are also spoken. The public use of Chinese, especially Chinese written characters, was officially discouraged between 1966 and 1998. The majority of the population speaks the Persian language, which is also the official language of the country, as well as other Iranian languages or dialects. Turkic languages and dialects, most importantly Azerbaijani language, are spoken in different areas in Iran. In southwestern and southern Iran, the Luri language and Lari language are spoken. In Kurdistan Province and nearby area's Kurdish is widely spoken. In Khuzestan
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Bengali dialects


formal, written language and the vernacular, spoken language. Two styles of writing, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax, have emerged : Spoken Bengali exhibits far more variation than written Bengali. Formal spoken Bengali, including what is heard in news reports, speeches, announcements, and lectures, is modelled on Choltibhasha. This form of spoken Bengali stands alongside other spoken dialects, or "Ancholik Bangla" (আঞ্চলিক বাংলা) (i.e. 'regional Bengali'). The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one
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Nannūl


Nannūl () is a work on Tamil grammar written by a Jain ascetic Pavananthi Munivar around 13th century AD. It is the most significant work on Tamil grammar after Tolkāppiyam. The work credits Western Ganga vassal king Seeya Gangan of Kolar with patronising it. About 20 commentaries have been written on Nannūl up to 19th Century AD. Nannūl was divided into five sections: written language, spoken language, semantics, poetic language and rhetorical devices. The latter three sections have been lost, so only the parts on written and spoken language
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Ovambo language


The Ovambo () language, "Oshiwambo", is a dialect cluster spoken by the Ovambo people in southern Angola and northern Namibia, of which the written standards are Kwanyama and Ndonga. The native name for the language is Oshiwambo (also written "Oshivambo"), which is also used specifically for the Kwanyama and Ndonga dialects. It is the largest spoken local language in Namibia, particularly the Ovambo people. The language is closely related to that of the Herero and Himba, the Herero language ("Otjiherero")
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Deaf education


There are a variety of educational philosophies that differ in their views both regarding language use and goals for deaf and hard-of-hearing students. In this philosophy, deafness is approached as a cultural, not a medical, issue (see models of deafness). In a bilingual-bicultural program, deaf children learn sign language such as American Sign Language (ASL) as a first language, followed by a written or spoken language such as English as a second language. Bilingual-bicultural programs consider spoken or written language
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Maranao language


Maranao () is an Austronesian language spoken by the Maranao people in the provinces of Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur in the Philippines, and in Sabah, Malaysia. Iranun was once considered a dialect. Unique among other Danao languages, Maranaoan is spoken with a distinct downstep accent, as opposed to stress accent. Maranao is spoken in the following areas ("Ethnologue"). Maranaoan was historically written in Arabic letters, which were known as "Batang Arab". It is now written with Latin letters. Though
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Chavacano


language than a spoken language. In recent years, there have been efforts to encourage the use of Chavacano as a written language, but the attempts were mostly minor attempts in folklore and religious literature and few pieces of written materials by the print media. In Zamboanga City, while the language is used by the mass media, the Catholic Church, education, and the local government, there have been few literary work written in Zamboangueño and access to these resources by the general public is not readily available. As Chavacano is spoken
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Literary language


of written Chinese used from the end of the Han dynasty to the early 20th century when it was replaced by written vernacular Chinese, or "Baihua" (白話) spoken according to Standard Mandarin pronunciation. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese as the dialects of China became more disparate and as the Classical written language became less representative of the spoken language. At the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical language, and writers frequently borrowed Classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great
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Finnish verb conjugation


used in the formal, written language. Verb conjugation in the everyday spoken language is somewhat different. The present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect correspond fairly well to English: "speaks", "spoke", "has spoken", and "had spoken", respectively or in the passive voice, "it is spoken", "it was spoken", "it has been spoken", and "it had been spoken". The auxiliary verb "ei" used for negation, usually with the
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Swedish orthography


Swedish "sj"-sound. The Swedish sound can also be spelled several different ways, including , , , , , or , similarly to the "tj"-sound which can be spelled with (in some loanwords), , , or . Traditional spelling reflects an older pronunciation and often results in a large difference between written and spoken language (deep orthography). Many written languages of European origin have a written language that reflects an older spoken language. The traditional spelling also indicates assimilations, which often occur when certain difficult consonant combinations are pronounced
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Languages of Norway


There are a large number of languages spoken in Norway. Of these, the Norwegian language is the most widely spoken and the main official language of the country. The most widely spoken language in Norway is Norwegian. It is a North Germanic language, closely related to Swedish and Danish, all linguistic descendants of Old Norse. Norwegian is used by some 95% of the population as a first language. The language has two separate written standards: Nynorsk ("New Norwegian", "New" in the sense of contemporary
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Langues d'oïl


specific "10th-and-11th centuries" variant of langue d'oïl spoken in the Paris region; both variants contributed to the koine, as both were called "French" at that time. For political reasons it was in Paris and Île-de-France that this koiné developed from a written language into a spoken language. Already in the 12th century Conon de Béthune reported about the French court who blamed him for using words of Artois. By the late 13th century the written koiné had begun to turn into a spoken and written
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Tungusic languages


. Currently, Manchu proper is a dying language spoken by a dozen or so elderly people in Qiqihar province, China. However, the closely related Xibe language spoken in Xinjiang, which historically was treated as a divergent dialect of Jurchen-Manchu, maintains the literary tradition of the script, and has around 30,000 speakers. As the only language in the Tungustic family with a long written tradition, Jurchen-Manchu is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic. Other Tungusic languages have relatively short or no written
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Languages in Star Wars


The "Star Wars" science fiction universe, created by George Lucas, features dialogue that is not spoken in natural languages. The lingua franca of the franchise, for which the language the works are dubbed or written stand in, is Galactic Basic. Characters often speak languages other than Basic, notably "Shyriiwook" spoken by Chewbacca, droidspeak spoken by R2-D2 and BB-8, and Huttese spoken by Jabba the Hutt. The fictional languages were approached as sound design and developed largely by Ben Burtt, sound designer for both the original
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Utterance


In spoken language analysis, an utterance is the smallest unit of speech. It is a continuous piece of speech beginning and ending with a clear pause. In the case of oral languages, it is generally but not always bounded by silence. Utterances do not exist in written language, only their representations do. They can be represented and delineated in written language in many ways. In oral/spoken language utterances have several features including paralinguistic features which are aspects of speech such as facial expression, gesture, and posture. Prosodic
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Maithili Wikipedia


The Maithili Wikipedia is the Maithili language version of Wikipedia, run by the Wikimedia Foundation. The site was launched on November 6, 2014. Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant of Kaithi. Today it is written in the Devanagari script. Maithili is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Bihar and Jharkhand states of India and is one of the 22 recognised Indian languages which is also spoken in the eastern Terai of Nepal and is the second most
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Language production


In psycholinguistics, language production is the production of spoken or written language. It describes all of the stages between having a concept, and translating that concept into linguistic form. In computational linguistics/natural language processing and artificial intelligence, the term natural language generation (NLG) is more common, and those models may or may not be psychologically motivated. Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a nonlinguistic message into a spoken, signed, or written linguistic signal. Though the following steps proceed in this approximate order,
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Neil Cohn


such as in sand drawings used by Australian Aboriginals. Just as spoken languages differ, so do visual languages: Japanese manga are written in “Japanese Visual Language” while American comics are written in “American Visual Language.” In addition, Cohn has argued that the development of visual languages may follow similar constraints as learning spoken and signed languages, and that most people do not learn how to draw proficiently because they do not acquire visual vocabularies within a critical period. Cohn's primary research program with visual language theory emphasizes that
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Languages in censuses


"Well", "Average", "A little" and "Not at all". The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic
3806623
List of diglossic regions


such as Mandarin, Teochew, Hokkian and Hakka, along with Malay and English. Sinhala (also known as Sinhalese), spoken in Sri Lanka, is a diglossic language. There are several differences between the literary language (also known as Literary Sinhala, LS) and the spoken language (Spoken Sinhala, SS), especially about verbs: Literary or written Sinhala is commonly understood, and used in literary texts and formal occasions (public speeches, TV and radio news broadcasts, etc.), whereas the spoken language
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Languages of Greece


officially used standard, but there are several non-official dialects and distinct Hellenic languages spoken as well. Regional spoken dialects exist side by side with learned, archaic written forms. All surviving forms of modern Greek, except the Tsakonian language, are descendants of the common supra-regional ("koiné") as it was spoken in late antiquity. As such, they can ultimately be classified as descendants of Attic Greek, the dialect spoken in and around Athens in the classical era. Tsakonian, an isolated dialect spoken today
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Mizo culture


as the Hmar, Ralte, Lai, Lusei etc. A number of dialects are still spoken under the umbrella of Mizo; Mizo is the official language of Mizoram, along with English. Mizo language, or Mizo ṭawng, is a language belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages, spoken natively by the Mizo people in  Mizoram states of India and Chin State in Burma. Mizo literature is the literature written in Mizo ṭawng, the principal language of the Mizo peoples, which has both written and oral traditions. It
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Cyrillic alphabets


). Living Northwest Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. Abkhaz is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Georgia. Northeast Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. Avar is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republic of Dagestan, of the Russian Federation, where it is co-official together with other Caucasian languages like Dargwa, Lak, Lezgian and Tabassaran. All these alphabets, and other ones (Abaza, Adyghe, Chechen, Ingush, Kabardian) have an extra sign:
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Transcription (linguistics)


than orthographic transcription. Mapping spoken language onto written symbols is not as straightforward a process as may seem at first glance. Written language is an idealisation, made up of a limited set of clearly distinct and discrete symbols. Spoken language, on the other hand, is a continuous (as opposed to discrete) phenomenon, made up of a potentially unlimited number of components. There is no predetermined system for distinguishing and classifying these components and, consequently, no preset way of mapping these components onto written symbols. Literature is relatively
5515022
Hunnic language


The Hunnic language, or Hunnish, was the language spoken by Huns in the Hunnic Empire, a heterogeneous, multi-ethnic tribal confederation which ruled much of Eastern Europe and invaded the West during the 4th and 5th centuries. A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun Empire. A contemporary report by Priscus has that Hunnish was spoken alongside Gothic and the languages of other tribes subjugated by the Huns. As no inscriptions or whole sentences in the Hunnic language have been preserved, written evidence for the language is very limited,
4525531
Mongolian language


(but not written) by nearly 3.6 million people (2014 estimate), and the official provincial language (both spoken and written forms) of Inner Mongolia, China, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of
20449446
Temporoparietal junction


, and comprehension of both written and spoken language. This is the region of the brain wherein “Mentalese”, a term coined by Steven Pinker to explain the brain's language that translates itself into written and spoken language, is processed. According to Pinker, “knowing a language is knowing how to translate Mentalese into a string of words and vice versa.” The lTPJ succeeds in this matter by taking in observations from external environments, such as conversations, making connections in the brain regarding past memories or incidents and then
6816331
Rohingya language


Rohingya (), or Ruáingga (), is a language spoken by the Rohingya people of Rakhine State. It is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Bengali–Assamese branch, and is related to the Chittagonian language spoken in neighboring Bangladesh. Written in Arabic script, the first Rohingya language texts are more than 200 years old. While Arakan was under British rule (1826–1948), the Rohingya people used mainly English and Urdu for written communication. Since independence in 1948, Burmese has been used in all official
8222873
Georgian language


Georgian (, , ) is a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians. It is the official language of Georgia. Georgian is written in its own writing system, the Georgian script. Georgian is the literary language for all regional subgroups of Georgians, including those who speak other Kartvelian languages: Svans, Mingrelians and the Laz. Georgian is the most pervasive of the Kartvelian languages, a family that also includes Svan and Megrelian (chiefly spoken in Northwest Georgia) and Laz (chiefly spoken along the Black Sea coast of Turkey, from
19993813
Münch (family lineage)


/ Minicks / Minnix / Menix. The Old High German dialect was different because it was the written classical Church Latin and spoken Alemanni German. The interface was the resultant language. The Old High German Period was from 800-1050AD. The Old High German spoken language was first written in Classical and Church Latin, was preserved years after the period. The Latin written language was used by the Roman Catholic Church to enhance the suppression of paganism and spread Christianity. Old High German was derived from Latin. 350. In the
11772039
Official languages of the United Nations


. Hindi is one of the official languages of India and Fiji and is also spoken in Suriname, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. It is mutually intelligible to a high degree with Urdu which is spoken in Pakistan and together they are often considered the same language, referred to as Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu. Although very similar verbally, they do have different written scripts; Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and Urdu is written in the Nastaʿlīq script. Hindi has more than 550 million speakers in India alone,
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Dybuster


lead to difficulties in the task of translating the written language into the spoken language while reading, and, conversely, in writing the spoken language to the written language. The basic principle of Dybuster Orthograph is therefore to offer a word not only as black letters on white sheets of paper. Instead, each word is represented as a clearly defined and computed combination of colours, shapes, structures, and sounds. Dybuster thus implements multi-sensory learning, which is generally regarded as an efficient form of learning. As a specific
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SPEAKING


speech act. These include the method of communication (writing, speaking, signing or signaling), the language, dialect (a mutually intelligible subset of a language) or register (a variety of a language that is used in specific settings). Hymes described these instrumentalities generally as the Forms and styles of speech. For example, the instrumentality of the spoken word is different from the written word; the language spoken is unique to the speech act, as is the dialect. Similarly, the register that is spoken influences
12613554
Shan language


The Shan language (Shan written: , ), Shan spoken: , ), or , ; , ; , ) is the native language of the Shan people and is mostly spoken in Shan State, Burma. It is also spoken in pockets of Kachin State in Burma, in northern Thailand, and decreasingly in Assam. Shan is a member of the Tai–Kadai language family, and is related to Thai. It has five tones, which do not correspond exactly to Thai tones, plus a "sixth tone"
7381615
Khamti language


Khamti language ( Khamti : လိꩱ့်တဲးၵမ်းတီႈ (Khamti written), Khamti : ၵၢမ်းတဲးၵံးတီႈ (Khamti spoken) Shan ၶၢမ်းတႆးၶမ်းတီႈ , [kháːm táj], or Shan: ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆးၶမ်းတီႈ, [pʰàːsʰàː táj]; Burmese: ခန္တီးရှမ်းဘာသာ, [ʃáɴ bàðà]; Thai: ภาษาไทคำตี่ ) is a Southwestern Tai language spoken in Burma and India by the Khamti people. In Burma, Khamti is spoken by 3,500 in Sagaing Region, near Myitkyina and by 4,500 in Kachin State, Putao District (both reported in 2000). In India, it is spoken
17128886
Language development


phase mirrors their spoken language. In the third phase, differentiation, children begin to learn that written language regularly differs in structure and style from spoken language. The growth from consolidation to differentiation can be challenging for some children to grasp. Children can 'struggle with the transformation from the basically overt language of speech to the essentially covert activity of writing'. In this phase, the child learns that writing is generally considered more formal than spoken language, which is thought to be casual and conversational. Here, it is believed
11469662
Linguistic conservatism


say that written forms generally change more slowly than the spoken language does. This helps explain inconsistencies in writing systems such as that of English; since the spoken language has changed relatively more than the written language has, the match between spelling and pronunciation is inconsistent. (See Great Vowel Shift) A language may be conservative in one respect while simultaneously innovative in another. Bulgarian and Macedonian, closely related Slavic languages, are innovative in the grammar of their nouns, having dropped nearly all vestiges of the complex Slavic case system;
19584143
Phonocentrism


Phonocentrism is the belief that sounds and speech are inherently superior to, or more primary than, written language. Those who espouse phonocentric views maintain that spoken language is the primary and most fundamental method of communication whereas writing is merely a derived method of capturing speech. Many also believe that spoken language is inherently richer and more intuitive than written language. These views also impact perceptions of sign languages – especially in the United States. Oralism is the belief that deaf students should use sounds, speech reading, and primarily English instead of
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Embodied cognition


relevant action. Emotion helps drive adaptive behavior. The evolutionary perspective cites language, both spoken and written, as types of embodied cognition. Pacing and non-verbal communication reflect embodied cognition in spoken language. Technical aspects of written language, such as italics, all caps, and emoticons promote an inner voice and thereby a sense of feeling rather than thinking about a written message. George Lakoff and his collaborators have developed several lines of evidence that suggest that people use their understanding of familiar physical objects, actions and situations (such
12912595
Torne (river)


area Swedish speaking by teaching the school children only written Swedish and allowing only Swedish to be spoken during lessons, sometimes also during breaks. As an effect, during the second half of the 20th century, Swedish was the dominant language on the Swedish side. The Finnish spoken in informal conversation is similar on both sides of the river, although some newer words differ. To support the traditional language on the Swedish side a new written language has been devised, Meänkieli. On the Finnish side only Finnish is used in written communication
9495464
Southern Europe


Serbo-Croatian is spoken in Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Montenegro. Slovenian is spoken in Slovenia, Italy (in Friuli-Venezia Giulia) and Croatia (in Istria) and Macedonian is spoken in North Macedonia. Maltese is a Semitic language that is the official language of Malta, descended from Siculo-Arabic, but written in the Latin script with heavy Latin and Italian influences. The Basque language is spoken in the Basque Country, a region in northern Spain and southwestern France. The following table shows the busiest airports
18747726
Tahitian language


Tahitian (autonym , part of , languages of French Polynesia) is a Polynesian language, spoken mainly on the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It belongs to the Eastern Polynesian group. As Tahitian had no written tradition before the arrival of the Western colonists, the spoken language was first transcribed by missionaries of the London Missionary Society in the early 19th century. Tahitian is the most prominent of the indigenous Polynesian languages spoken in French Polynesia ("reo māꞌohi"). The latter also include: When Europeans first arrived in Tahiti
10318078
Jemez language


Jemez (also Towa) is a Tanoan language spoken by the Jemez Pueblo people in New Mexico. It has no common written form, as tribal rules do not allow the language to be transcribed; linguists describing the language use the Americanist phonetic notation. Its speakers are mainly farmers and craftsmen. The language is only spoken in Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico, but as 90% of the tribal Jemez members do speak it, it is not considered to be extremely endangered. It was also spoken at Pecos Pueblo until the 19th
21092116
Shoshoni language


Shoshoni, also written as Shoshoni-Gosiute and Shoshone (; Shoshoni: "Sosoni' ta̲i̲kwappe", "newe ta̲i̲kwappe" or "neme ta̲i̲kwappeh") is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, spoken in the Western United States by the Shoshone people. Shoshoni is primarily spoken in the Great Basin, in areas of Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and Idaho. The consonant inventory of Shoshoni is rather small, but a much wider range of surface forms of these phonemes appear in the spoken language. The language
3328255
Vallader dialect


Vallader () is a variety of the Romansh language spoken in the Lower Engadine valley ("Engiadina Bassa") of southeast Switzerland, between Martina and Zernez. It is also used as a written language in the nearby community of Val Müstair, where Jauer is spoken. In 2008, schools in the Val Müstair switched from Vallader to Rumantsch Grischun as their written language, but switched back to Vallader in 2012, following a referendum. The name of the dialect is derived from "val" 'valley'. It is
7034043
Kannada


number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as Kuvempu, Bendre, and V K Gokak. Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards, the highest number awarded to any Indian language. Besides being the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka, Kannada language is present in other areas: There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language. Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region. The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka. The Ethnologue reports "
16803018
List of diglossic regions


Singapore, South Africa. The classic form of the language – called "Senthamizh" – is different from the spoken form known since ancient times as "Iyatramizh". The classic form is preferred for writing, and is also used for public speaking. While the written Tamil language is mostly standard across various Tamil-speaking regions, the spoken form of the language differs widely from the written form. Perunchitthranar, a Tamil nationalist and others of his ilk, advocated that all Tamils speak only the pure form of the language,
17376140
Salar people


the Salar language. The Salar do not use any written script for the Salar language, instead using Chinese characters for practical purposes. Salar serves as their spoken language, while Chinese serves them as a both spoken and written language. China offered the Salar an official writing system but it was rejected. The Salars favor the continued use of Chinese characters which shows their "strong attachment to being citizens of the Chinese state". Many of the current generation of Salars are fluent in Chinese. In Amdo (Qinghai), Salar
17882633
Greek language question


promoted Korais' 'middle way', which he followed in practice in his book... He expressed the hope that the spoken and written language would eventually become one and the same, arguing that the spoken language could not be properly cultivated if it was so widely separated from the written variety that mutual influence between the two became impossible." "Katharevousa" thus formed part of a reasoned strategy for empowering ordinary people by improving the language in which they spoke and thought, admittedly not to Ancient Greek standards but as close as
378049
Phonemic orthography


represent the graphemes rather than vice versa. And in much technical jargon, the primary medium of communication is the written language rather than the spoken language, so the phonemes represent the graphemes, and it is unimportant how the word is pronounced. Moreover, the sounds which literate people perceive being heard in a word are significantly influenced by the actual spelling of the word. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word
9355173
Eastern Yugur language


Eastern Yugur is the Mongolic language spoken within the Yugur nationality. The other language spoken within the same community is Western Yughur, which is a Turkic language. The terms may also indicate the speakers of these languages. Traditionally, both languages are indicated by the term Yellow Uygur, from the autonym of the Yugur. Eastern Yugur speakers are said to have passive bilingualism with Southern Mongolian, the standard spoken in China. Grigory Potanin recorded a glossary of Salar, Western Yugur, and Eastern Yugur in his 1893 book written in Russian
12164904
Languages of Luxembourg


German dialect. The formalization of regional German dialects into national languages arose from the desire to impress a distinct national identity, not associated with the German State. In Switzerland, written German was maintained, albeit with some differences in vocabulary, differing strongly from the spoken Swiss-German speech which the average German cannot understand. In Luxembourg, the dialect was phonetically transcribed into a new language, and while Luxembourgish and a mix of other different languages are spoken on the street, French is often the main language spoken next to
3157825
Southwestern Brittonic languages


The Southwestern Brittonic languages are the Brittonic Celtic tongues spoken in South West England and Brittany since the Early Middle Ages. During the period of their earliest attestation, the languages appear to be indistinguishable, but eventually they evolved into the Cornish and Breton languages. They evolved from the Common Brittonic formerly spoken across most of Britain and were thus related to the Welsh and Cumbric varieties spoken in Wales and Hen Ogledd (northern Britain), respectively. The earliest stage of the languages, Primitive Cornish/Primitive Breton, is unattested. Written
5012674
Latin America


1963 book "The Rise of the West", William Hardy McNeill wrote that: Thomas C. Wright, meanwhile, has written that: Spanish and Portuguese are the predominant languages of Latin America. Spanish is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population, Portuguese is spoken by about 34% of the population and about 6% of the population speak other languages such as Quechua, Mayan languages, Guaraní, Aymara, Nahuatl, English, French, Dutch and Italian. Portuguese is spoken only in Brazil (Brazilian
18792138
Vulgar Latin


Latins, with some minor modifications, long before the rise of the Roman Empire. As with many languages, over time the spoken "vulgar" language diverged from the written language, with the written language remaining somewhat static. During the classical period spoken (Vulgar) Latin still remained largely common across the Empire, some minor dialectal differences notwithstanding. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire rapidly began to change this. The former western provinces became increasingly isolated from the Eastern Roman Empire, leading to a rapid divergence between the Latin
6793234
Egyptian Arabic


for more than a century along with the Egyptian music industry, making it the most widely spoken and one of the most widely studied varieties of Arabic. While it is essentially a spoken language, it is encountered in written form in novels, plays, and poems (vernacular literature), as well as in comics, advertising, some newspapers, and transcriptions of popular songs. In most other written media and in television news reporting, Literary Arabic is used. Literary Arabic is a standardized language based on the language of the
14582138
Poetism


century. The new grammar was not based on spoken language of the day. Instead, it was based on the written forms of the seventeenth century. Thus, the language system was developed to diglossia, which were two distinct dialects, the spoken Czech and written Czech. However, because of its complexity, it was easy to be mixed up. Thus, the Czech writers and poetists in the early twentieth century began to do experiment on their languages by mixing these two idioms. This not only showed the traditional Czech poetists
15299666
Byzantine Empire


Church, the language of scholarship and the arts, and to a large degree the "lingua franca" for trade between provinces and with other nations. Greek for a time became diglossic with the spoken language, known as Koine (eventually evolving into Demotic Greek), used alongside an older written form (Attic Greek) until Koine won out as the spoken and written standard. The emperor Diocletian () sought to renew the authority of Latin, making it the official language of the Roman administration also in the East, and
474484
Languages of Guinea


French was the only language used in business and schools. Fula (32%) is mostly spoken in Middle Guinea, where the major city is Labé. Malinké (30%) is mostly spoken in Upper Guinea, where Kankan is the major city. The Kankan variety of the language was used by Solomana Kante for the development of N'Ko, a standardized unified written Manding language, which is increasingly used in lietracy education and publishing books and newspapers in Guinea and neighboring countries. Susu (20%) is mostly spoken in
20358711
Revival of the Hebrew language


of the masses—exist within one culture. In Europe, this phenomenon has waned, starting with English in the 16th century, but there were still differences between spoken street language and written language. Among the Jews of Europe, the situation resembled that of the general population, but with: In the Arab Middle East, Ladino and Colloquial Arabic were the spoken languages most prevalent in Jewish communities (with Ladino more prevalent in the Mediterranean and Arabic, Aramaic, Kurdish, and Persian more widely spoken by Jews in the East
22140065
Languages of Catalonia


spoken by 38% of the population, then followed by Aranese, spoken by 23.4% of the population. In Aran, Catalan is the third language, habitually spoken by 16% of the population. According to Ethnologue, about 18,000 deaf Catalans use Catalan Sign Language (LSC, "Llengua de signes catalana"). Since, like other deaf sign languages, LSC has no generally used written form, there is no literacy data. As a part of the intense immigration process which Spain in general and Catalonia in particular
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