Víctor Paz Estenssoro [SEP] member of political party
Víctor Paz Estenssoro


Víctor Paz Estenssoro co-founded (along with Hernán Siles and others) the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, MNR), originally a reformist revolutionary movement and later a centrist party. Paz became an influential member in the cabinet of Colonel Gualberto Villarroel (1943–1946), but was forced out of that government as a result of pressure emanating from Washington. The United States was at the time involved in World War II, and suspected some members of the MNR leadership of harboring pro-fascist sympathies. Paz Estenssoro nonetheless
18093644
Authentic Revolutionary Party (Bolivia)


The Authentic Revolutionary Party (, PRA) was a political party in Bolivia. The Authentic Revolutionary Party was founded in 1960 as a faction of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), the ruling party under the presidency of Víctor Paz Estenssoro by Wálter Guevara Arze, formerly a major MNR ideologist and foreign minister, who unsuccessfully opposed Víctor Paz Estenssoro in the 1960 presidential election, polling 14% of the votes. The party was led by Guevara Arze, Jorge Ríos Gamarra and José Luis Jofre. The Authentic Revolutionary Party adopted a
1773924
Authentic Revolutionary Party (Bolivia)


its continued opposition to Víctor Paz Estenssoro. The Authentic Revolutionary Party supported the General René Barrientos Ortuño coup of 4 November 1964, overthrowing Víctor Paz Estenssoro. Wálter Guevara Arze and the PRA formally backed René Barrientos' presidential candidacy in 1966, and the Authentic Revolutionary Party served as part of the governing coalition of parties until 1969. Even after Barrientos' death, Guevara Arze continued as Bolivia's ambassador to the United Nations under Presidents Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas and Alfredo Ovando Candía, until 1970. The Authentic Revolutionary Party was in less
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


's radical left vice-president Lechín. Of Marxist political persuasion, the latter opposed the disarming of the militias and the reconstitution of the traditional military, urged the passing of more far-reaching reforms. Paz Estenssoro disagreed and, continuing the policies started by Siles, increasingly leaned on the "new" armed forces for support. This produced the inevitable final rift, and Lechín was expelled from the party prior to the 1964 elections. Increasingly unable to control events, and considering himself the only man who could keep the MNR
18093650
1985 Bolivian general election


General elections were held in Bolivia on 14 July 1985. As no candidate for the presidency received over 50% of the vote, the National Congress was required to elect a President on 4 August. Although Hugo Banzer of Nationalist Democratic Action received the most public votes, Congress elected Víctor Paz Estenssoro of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement. Only Hugo Banzer of Nationalist Democratic Action and Víctor Paz Estenssoro of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement contested the Congressional ballot. Whilst Banzer was only supported by his own party, Paz also received the votes of the
18512046
Juan Lechín Oquendo


a left-wing opposition within the ruling party. To reduce these tensions and prevent fragmentation, Víctor Paz Estenssoro was persuaded to return from retirement and lead the MNR in the 1960 presidential elections. The conciliatory Paz chose Lechín as his vice-presidential candidate, apparently with a promise that he (Lechín) would be the presidential candidate in 1964. This was not to be, for Lechín's intransigence on political issues eventually forced Paz into not only reneging on his promise but also into expelling vice-president Lechín from the MNR
12302706
Revolutionary Nationalist Movement–Julio


The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement–Julio (Spanish: "Movimiento Nacionalista Revolu-Julio", MNR-J) was a pro-military political party in Bolivia. In 1971, the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement supported the far-Right coup triggered by Colonel Hugo Banzer Suárez, and the Party became officially a member of the regime, along with the party's traditional enemy, the Bolivian Socialist Falange. Víctor Paz Estenssoro, meanwhile, had difficulties in maintaining discipline over his own followers. When he and the military differed so sharply over
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


coalition together, in 1964 Paz decided to amend the constitution to allow himself to run for re-election. Traditionally, attempts such as these (known as "prorroguismo") have been strongly condemned by the Bolivian political elites, many of whose members may have been waiting for their turn to occupy the presidential palace for years. This was no exception, and Paz's move ended up being his undoing. To symbolize Paz's steady rightward drift, he chose the charismatic commander of the Bolivian Air Force, General René Barrientos
18093651
Revolutionary Nationalist Movement


The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement ( , MNR) is a Bolivian political party and the leading force behind the Bolivian National Revolution. It influenced much of the country's history since 1941. The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement was begun in 1941 by future presidents Víctor Paz Estenssoro and Hernán Siles Zuazo. It soon attracted some of the brightest members of the Bolivian intelligentsia. Among the party's most prominent supporters are historic figures such as Humberto Guzmán Fricke, Juan Lechín, Carlos Montenegro, Walter Guevara Arze, Javier del Granado, Augusto Céspedes, Lydia
1891142
Shock therapy (economics)


Zuazo received scant support from the political parties or members of congress, most of whom were eager to flex their newly acquired political muscles after so many years of authoritarianism. Zuazo refused to take extra-constitutional powers (as previous military governments had done in similar crises) and concentrated on preserving the democracy instead, shortening his term by one year in response to his unpopularity and the crisis racking his country. On 6 August 1985, President Víctor Paz Estenssoro was elected. He appointed his President of the Senate, Gonzalo Sánchez de
3651538
Mamerto Urriolagoitía


by the economic and mining interests that upheld it. In the 1951 presidential elections, time finally caught up with the old system, and the opposition party, led by Víctor Paz Estenssoro, was declared the winner, despite the fact that under the law only about 200,000 privileged, educated, and propertied Bolivians could vote. Urriolagoitia refused to give power to Paz Estenssoro. Instead he installed the head of the Bolivian military, General Hugo Ballivián Rojas as President on May 16, 1951 thus inflicting a coup against the democratic order.
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


Wálter Guevara, who felt he had been stepped over. The second Paz Estenssoro administration was plagued by violence, dissent, and continued hemorraghing of the original leadership. Of great importance during this period was the thorny issue of disarming the miners and workers' militias who had combatted in the 1952 Revolution and who had been for the most allowed to keep their weapons since. They had served as a useful counterbalance to the possibility of a conservative or military reassertion against the Revolution, but by 1960 were serving the interests of the party
18093649
Bolivia


a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines. Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a
3229013
Julio Garrett Ayllón


to the Senate of Bolivia, representing Oruro, in 1966. A proponent of bilateral relations with socialist and communist nations, Garrett was appointed as Bolivia's first Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1969 until 1973. In December 1973, Garrett joined the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) political party. Just one month later, Garrett, along with former President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, another member of the MNR, were forced into exile in January 1974. Garrett remained in exile in Paraguay and Argentina for five years, until his return
5387078
Jaime Otero Calderón


at the Higher University of San Andrés in La Paz where he taught Constitutional and Roman Law. He was one of the main leaders of the Party of the "Pachakutismo", which proposed a moral revolution, and was headed by Fernando Diez de Medina. The Pachakutismo later dissolved and many of its members, Otero among them, joined the growing Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) that was led by Víctor Paz Estenssoro. In 1951 the MNR won the national elections but their victory was annulled. The revolution of 1952 placed the
19034198
Víctor Paz Estenssoro


Ángel Víctor Paz Estenssoro (2 October 1907 – 7 June 2001) was a Bolivian politician who served as President of Bolivia from 1952 to 1956, 1960 to 1964 and 1985 to 1989. He ran for president eight times (1947, 1951, 1960, 1964, 1978, 1979, 1980 and 1985) and was victorious in 1951, 1960, 1964 and 1985. His 1951 victory was annulled by a military junta led by Hugo Ballivián, and his 1964 victory was interrupted by the 1964 Bolivian coup d'état. In 1941
18093643
Revolutionary Party of the Nationalist Left


The Revolutionary Party of the Nationalist Left (, PRIN) was a left-wing political party in Bolivia. It was founded in 1963 by the labor leader Juan Lechín Oquendo and by Mario Torres Calleja and Edwin Moller in lesser roles. The PRIN seceded from the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) in protest against Víctor Paz Estenssoro's decision to seek a third elected term as president in 1964, rather than permit then Vice-President Juan Lechín to have the MNR's presidential nomination. The PRIN combined the left wing of the
12878298
Anti-Communist Bolivian Front


The Anti-Communist Bolivian Front (Spanish: "Frente Boliviano Anticomunista", FBA) was a small right-wing political party in Bolivia. The Anti-Communist Bolivian Front was formed in 1964. This party of recent origin was allegedly financed by the government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro to provide a token opposition, because other opposition parties boycotted the election on 31 May 1964. The Anti-Communist Bolivian Front presented many candidates for the 10 Senate and 36 Chamber of Deputies seats up for election, but it garnered only a
1774111
María Eugenia Estenssoro


María Eugenia Estenssoro is a Bolivian Argentine politician, journalist and activist for women's rights. She represented the city of Buenos Aires in the Argentine Senate. Estenssoro was born in La Paz. Her great-grandfather is credited with discovering oil in Bolivia and her grandfather founded the national oil company, YPFB. Her family also includes two former Presidents of Bolivia, Víctor Paz Estenssoro and Hugo Banzer. Her parents came to Argentina with her in 1964, and her father ran the Argentine oil company, YPF. She was raised in
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


in the years to come, especially in future elections. Paz was apparently under the impression that Banzer would rule for a year or two before calling elections. Presumably, since the MNR was still by some distance the largest party in the country, this would allow Paz to return to the presidency. However, Banzer had other ideas. He broke with the MNR in 1974, exiled Paz, and proceeded to rule only with military support until 1978. While Paz had tarnished his image by associating himself with the reviled Hugo Banzer
18093655
Alfredo Ovando Candía


that installed in power the reformist Revolutionary Nationalist Movement party, better known as the MNR. Ovando lived through the relative deprivation, reduced budgets, and loss of prestige of the defeated Bolivian army during the early years of MNR rule. By the early 1960s, President Víctor Paz Estenssoro came to rely more heavily on the military in the face of growing political divisions among the governing elites. Equally as important in this rebirth was the considerable pressure exerted by the United States to modernize and equip the troops for a decidedly more political role
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


% threshold for direct election. It was in fact the first time an opposition party gained power peacefully in a free election, even though there had long been multi-party competition in elections. The now-nearly octogenarian Paz began his fourth (and final) term as President in 1985. The economic situation was indeed dire, but Paz and his aides had a radical neo-liberal plan. Through Decree 21060 important economic reforms designed to curb galloping hyperinflation (inherited from Hernán Siles) were instituted, the labor unions were
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Leftwing Revolutionary Nationalist Movement


and the MNR became officially a member of the regime, along with the party's traditional enemy, the Bolivian Socialist Falange (FSB). Víctor Paz Estenssoro's entry into the pro-Hugo Banzer Popular Nationalist Front with the FSB provoked Hernán Siles Zuazo's formal exit from the party, to form the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement of the Left. The MNRI sought the establishment of a government "truly representative of workers and peasants"; an end to "fratricidal struggles"; the suppression of the drug trade, and the renegotiation
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


, as his running mate. To be fair, Paz's increased reliance on the armed forces was to some extent influenced by Washington's constant demands that the military be fully reconstituted and equipped to fight possible Cuban-style Communist insurgencies. In any case, the René Barrientos choice was a final act of folly, as Paz did not seem to have noticed the deep resentment of the outwardly loyal commanders of the "new, revolutionary" military toward the MNR's manipulation of the armed forces for political ends. On 4 November
18093652
Jaime Paz Zamora


's Víctor Paz Estenssoro was elected president (1985–89). During the 1985-1989 period, the MIR underwent major ideological transformations, with Paz and Oscar Eid advocating a break with Marxist notions and with any call for class-based struggle. These were the days of Perestroika, and the handwriting seemed to be on the wall (so to speak) for the Eastern European totalitarianisms. The MIR's programmatic shift entailed some major defections (most notable of which was that of Antonio Araníbar), but at least the party emerged
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Mining Parliamentary Bloc


The Mining Parliamentary Bloc (Spanish: "Bloque Minero Parlamentario", BMP) was an electoral political alliance of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) and Revolutionary Workers' Party (POR) in Bolivia. The Mining Parliamentary Bloc was established in 1946, for the 1947 presidential and congressional elections. The Mining Parliamentary Bloc presented as its presidential candidate Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the leader of the MNR. The Bloc elected two senators (Juan Lechín Oquendo (MNR) and Lucio Mendivil (POR)) and seven deputies (Jesús Aspiazu
1552081
Religion in Bolivia


President Víctor Paz Estenssoro. Endorsing the position adopted at the Latin American Bishops Conference in Puebla, Mexico, in 1979, the CEB suggested that Paz Estenssoro's New Economic Policy ("Nueva Política Económica –" NPE) would generate increasing levels of inequality in society. The bishops followed up this pastoral letter by mediating negotiations in 1986 between the government and the Bolivian Labor Federation (Central Obrera Boliviana). In 1986 the Roman Catholic Church was organized into four archdioceses (La Paz, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba, and Sucre)
1312987
History of Bolivia (1982–present)


leadership, forced Siles Zuaso to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term. In the 1985 elections, the Nationalist Democratic Action (ADN) of General Hugo Banzer Suárez won a plurality of the popular vote, followed by former President Víctor Paz Estenssoro's Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) and former Vice President Jaime Paz Zamora's Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR). But in the congressional run-off, the MIR sided with the MNR, and Paz Estenssoro was chosen for a fourth term
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


second place, but the military intervened rather than allow Hernán Siles (now associated with parties deemed to be from the "far left") to take office. General Luis García Meza grabbed the reins of power in the bloody coup d'état of 17 July 1980, and Paz once more flew to exile. In 1982, the beleaguered military finally left the Palacio Quemado and confirmed the results of the 1980 elections, making Hernán Siles president. Paz's MNR opposed Hernán Siles on every front, as his administration plunged the country into
18093658
Hugo Banzer


given full power as president. Conversely, President Juan José Torres was forced to take refuge in Buenos Aires, Argentina where five years later he was kidnapped and assassinated by right-wing death squads associated with the Videla government and with the acquiescence of Banzer. His murder was part of Operation Condor. Banzer received the political support of the center-right Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR) of former president Víctor Paz Estenssoro and the conservative Falange Socialista Boliviana of Mario Gutiérrez, considered to be the two largest parties in the country.
2201939
Popular Christian Movement


The Popular Christian Movement (, MPC) was a political party in Bolivia, "de facto" controlled by the military junta. The MPC was founded by General René Barrientos Ortuño in 1966 after the overthrow on 5 November 1964 of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) government of President Víctor Paz Estenssoro by a military coup under the leadership of René Barrientos and General Alfredo Ovando Candía. Its purpose was to support René Barrientos in the general election the military regime arranged on 3 July 1966. During the three years René Barrientos remained
2273906
Leftwing Revolutionary Nationalist Movement


The Leftwing Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (, MNRI) was a centre-left political party in Bolivia. The Leftwing Revolutionary Nationalist Movement was founded by Hernán Siles Zuazo, a leader leftist sector of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement. He had earlier been Vice-President (1951), had led a revolution (1952) and had been President (1956–1960); he had been in exile in 1946–1951 and 1964–1978. In 1971, a leader of MNR Víctor Paz Estenssoro supported the far-Right coup triggered by Colonel Hugo Banzer Suárez,
2468044
History of Bolivia (1920–64)


came from the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement ("Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario", MNR). The first party with widespread support in Bolivian history, the MNR had a membership that included intellectuals and both white-collar and blue-collar workers. It was founded in 1941 by a small group of intellectual dissidents from the middle and upper classes and represented persons from a wide range of political persuasions who were united by their discontent with the status quo. Among its leaders were Víctor Paz Estenssoro, a professor of economics; Hernán Siles Zuazo
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


ran for president in 1947, earning 3rd place, and again in 1951, when the MNR surprisingly won the electoral contest, despite the fact that the laws of that time confined the vote to a small, propertied stratum of the citizenry. The elections, however, were unilaterally annulled by the ultra-conservative government of Mamerto Urriolagoitía, and the MNR at that point went underground, coming to power after a popular national revolution the next year. Among the many important structural reforms adopted by the popular Paz Estenssoro government was the
18093645
Víctor Paz Estenssoro


repressed in order to reestablish government authority, and 30,000 miners were expunged from state payrolls to reduce the size of the government. The readjustment policies—conducted to a large extent by Paz Estenssoro's vigorous Minister of Planning, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, who was later to serve as President of Bolivia—came to be known as the New Economic Policy (NEP). The latter restructured the bulk of the hitherto-statist Bolivian economy and transformed it into a neo-liberal, privatization-oriented one. However, Bolivia remained
18093661
Juan Lechín Oquendo


his beleaguered regime with crippling strikes and other non-cooperation measures. Lechín also vigorously opposed the neoliberal administration of Víctor Paz Estenssoro, who served his fourth term from 1985 to 1989. The closure of most of the country's tin mines by Paz Estenssoro (due to declining production and the collapse of world prices) led to considerable in-fighting in the unions. In 1987, Lechín—now aged 73—retired from the leadership of the FSTMB and was voted out as head of the COB. He was replaced in the FSTMB
12302710
Supreme Decree 21060


Supreme Decree 21060 (, "DS 21060", or "DS Nº 21060"), promulgated by Bolivian President Víctor Paz Estenssoro on 29 August 1985, was a legal instrument that imposed neoliberal economic policies in order to end Bolivia's twin crises of international debt and hyperinflation. In 1985, under the fourth (and final) term of President Paz Estenssoro, the economic situation in Bolivia was undermined with a galloping hyperinflation (inherited from Hernán Siles Zuazo) and the country was unable to pay its debt to the International Monetary
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


Guevara and an increasingly assertive left-leaning faction commanded by the charismatic leader of the Central Obrera Boliviana (Bolivian Workers' Central, COB), Juan Lechín. To prevent the fracturing of his party, Paz returned from London (where he had been serving as Bolivian ambassador) and ran for re-election in 1960, winning with an ample majority of the votes. His choice as vice-presidential running mate was the increasingly hard-to-manage Juan Lechín, an action that prompted the defection from the MNR of
18093648
Víctor Paz Estenssoro


a hyperinflationary spiral. In fact, this was Bolivia's most serious economic crisis in its history, one largely prompted by the collapse of international tin prices and the onset of the Latin American debt crisis. The gravity of the situation prompted "Congreso Nacional" (National Congress) to prevail upon Hernán Siles to call early elections in 1985. Paz again came second (this time to former dictator Hugo Banzer) but was elected president by "Congreso Nacional" since, as usual, none of the parties had attained the 50
18093659
Hugo Banzer


the excesses of the 1980-82 dictatorship, it was decided to accept the 1980 election results and reconvene the Congress elected that year. That body duly elected Siles as president. Banzer opposed bitterly the UDP government of Siles which lasted from 1982 to 1985, but turned more conciliatory when Víctor Paz Estenssoro was elected president (by congress, due to the virtual inattainability of the 50% necessary for direct election) in 1985. Indeed, Banzer's party claimed authorship of some of the most important neoliberal economic reforms instituted by Paz
2201951
Nationalist Democratic Action


third place in 1979 and 1980, and won a plurality of the 1985 vote, but, since he did not attain the 50% necessary for direct election, Congress (in accordance with the Bolivian Constitution) selected the chief executive. Its choice was the second-place finisher, Dr. Víctor Paz Estenssoro. Banzer's party at that point opted for supporting the MNR in a coalition government. Indeed, ADN would go on to claim authorship to some of the most important neoliberal economic reforms instituted by President Paz to curb galloping
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Hernán Siles Zuazo


pillars of the Old Regime), in 1941 he founded along with Víctor Paz Estenssoro and others, the influential Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario, or MNR). The MNR was behind the coup that installed the progressive military administration of Gualberto Villarroel (1943–46), but was forced from power due to U.S. pressure and also by Villarroel's overthrow in 1946 after which Siles was exiled to Argentina. There he worked as a correspondent for Associated Press from November 1947 until September 1948. In the 1951 elections Paz Estenssoro run
18093695
Independent Socialist Party (Bolivia)


The Independent Socialist Party (Spanish: "Partido Socialista Independiente", PSI) was founded in March 1938 by Víctor Paz Estenssoro, Carlos Salamanca, Jorge Aráoz Campero, Carlos Montenegro and Augusto Céspedes, following a split in the United Socialist Party. Independent Socialist Party was created by a radical sector and was “"the advocate economic nationalism and are in favor of controlling foreign capital, and its re-investment in Bolivia"”. The Independent Socialist Party was associated with the revolutionary government of Colonel Germán Busch Becerra, between
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


, for his part, had supported René Barrientos and served in his administration. In 1969 René Barrientos died and new, populist military governments of progressive bend gained power in Bolivia (1970–1971). When the "excesses" of the left-leaning Torres military government (1970–71) became unbearable to most civilian elites of centrist and conservative persuasion, Torres was overthrown in a bloody coup d'état led by then-Colonel Hugo Banzer with the MNR's full support. This too was a move that would cost Paz and his party dearly
18093654
Revolutionary Left Movement (Bolivia)


disassociated itself from Marxist dogmas and any notion of class struggle. The MIR was revitalized when it became one of the most vocal critics of the austerity and neoliberal measures of the president that followed Siles, Víctor Paz Estenssoro of the MNR. After the 1989 elections, the MIR at long last attained the presidency of Bolivia, despite having finished third in the popular vote. Since no party had obtained the 50% majority needed for direct election, Congress was called upon to decide who should be Chief Executive; Paz Zamora got the
18901255
Republican Socialist Unity Party


presidency when Hertzog resigned because of ill health. In the 1951 elections, Gabriel Gosalvez ran for the PURS but received far fewer votes than the winner, Víctor Paz Estenssoro. PURS supported the military takeover which followed the elections, in order to prevent Paz from becoming President on the basis of his popular plurality. The PURS would never come close to taking power again. It nominally continued to exist through the early 1970s, but largely became inactive after 1952. For the 1966 elections, the PURS was a component of the Democratic
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


extension of universal suffrage to all adult citizens (natives and illiterates included), the nationalization of the largest tin-mining concerns, and an extensive program of land distribution (agrarian reform). Much of the military, which had served so well the interests of the economic elites prior to the Revolution, was dismantled and re-organized as a virtual arm of the MNR party. Clearly, the idea was to fashion a hegemonic party in the image of Mexico's Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party, PRI).
18093646
Jeffrey Sachs


Hugo Banzer to advise him on an anti-inflation economic plan to implement once he was voted to office. This stabilization plan centered around price deregulation, particularly for oil, along with cuts to the national budget. Sachs stated that his plan could end Bolivian hyperinflation which had reached up to 14,000% in a single day. Although Banzer ultimately lost the race to the party of former elected President and traditionally developmentalist Víctor Paz Estenssoro, Sachs's plan was still implemented through plans that excluded most of Paz's cabinet. Inflation quickly
7087300
Popular Christian Movement


in power, the Popular Christian Movement was the government party. The organizing cadres for the party were drawn from a variety of sources with the largest single source being from the old anti-Víctor Paz Estenssoro factions of the MNR. The Popular Christian Movement differed somewhat from other official parties in that it sought – and to a degree maintained – contact with peasant union organizations. This rallying of peasant support was part of René Barrientos's strategy of allying the military with the conservative post-reform peasantry. No subsequent military leader has
2273907
Social Democratic Party (Bolivia)


relic of the prerevolutionary period, surviving only because its leaders were relatively young. After Víctor Paz Estenssoro's overthrow in 1964, the Social Democratic Party obtained a new lease on life and cooperated with the military regime of General René Barrientos Ortuño. Their influence no doubt was stimulated by the growing prominence of "technocrats" in the military dictatorships of Brazil and Argentina. For the 1966 general elections PSD allied with the Revolutionary Left Party, Authentic Revolutionary Party and Popular Christian Movement and backed Barrientos as the coalition's presidential candidate. The
1492032
Authentic Revolutionary Party (Bolivia)


the Revolutionary Party of the Nationalist Left, who had also backed Víctor Paz Estenssoro in the 1979 general election. As interim President, Lidia Gueiler Tejada was entrusted with the task of conducting the nation to new general elections in 1980. The Authentic Revolutionary Party has little popular following or basis for existence beyond Guevara Arze's personal ambitions and prestige, and it is chiefly useful for backstage maneuvering and coalition-building. When the party ran Wálter Guevara Arze as its candidate on 29 June 1980, it garnered only a 02.78% vote
1773929
Federación Sindical de Trabajadores Mineros de Bolivia


politics once again with the restoration of democracy in 1982. In 1985 the world tin market crashed. The MNR-led government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro conceded to an economic restructuring plan set forward by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. As part of the plan, the government closed or privatized most of the state-controlled tin mines. Between 1985 to 1987, the workforce of the state mining company fell from 30,000 to just 7,000. This devastated the membership of the FSTMB. Many retired mining workers remained active in political
12200013
Enrique Hertzog


Party (Bolivia) factions (former Saavedrists, Genuines, etc.) calling themselves Republican Socialist Unity Party "(Partido de la Unión Republicana Socialista" [PURS]). He won against the Liberal leader Fernando Guachalla and the reformist candidate Víctor Paz Estenssoro, who led the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (Nationalist Revolutionary Movement). Hertzog faced innumerable obstacles during his term, mostly in the form of constant rebellion from the lower sectors of society, as represented by striking miners and union workers. He was also saddled with the implacable
1426620
Authentic Revolutionary Party (Bolivia)


sympathy with the Hugo Banzer Suárez government and opposed that regime's continuance after 1974, when Guevara Arze was sent into exile after he criticized the Government. In the 1978 and 1979 presidential elections the Authentic Revolutionary Party supported Víctor Paz Estenssoro's candidacy for the presidency, with Guevara Arze as his running mate in 1978. In 1979 Guevara Arze was elected president of the Senate. On 8 August 1979, when Congress could not agree on a choice of president between the two major candidates, he was appointed interim President of the Republic
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Víctor Paz Estenssoro


. The elections again proved inconclusive, however, in as much as none of the candidates polled the required 50% of the vote to win direct election, and thus the outcome was to be decided by Congress. Partisan intransigences prevailed and the latter could not agree on any of the candidates, eventually settling on naming as provisional President the head of the senate, Wálter Guevara, then in alliance with Paz's MNR. He was charged with calling elections again in 1980. Those elections reconfirmed Hernán Siles' victory and Paz's
18093657
Víctor Paz Estenssoro


dictatorship, Hernán Siles was turning steadily to the left and gaining adherents at Paz's expense. When at long last elections were called in 1978, it was apparently Hernán Siles who won it (there were vast irregularities and the elections were annulled), with Paz getting only third place. It was a major decline from what the MNR had been used to obtaining in the 1950s and early 1960s. Elections were re-scheduled for 1979, and when they took place Hernán Siles won again but this time Paz got second place
18093656
Víctor Paz Estenssoro


1964, the MNR government was overthrown in a military coup led by vice-president René Barrientos and Alfredo Ovando, commander of the army, with the aid of the US CIA. Paz flew to a long exile abroad, bitter toward René Barrientos' betrayal and unhappy that the "Revolution" had taken such a sad turn. It was not until 1982 (with minor and very temporary exceptions) that military rule ended. By this time Paz and Hernán Siles Zuazo had split, with Siles supporting more leftist policies. Guevara
18093653
Bernardino Bilbao Rioja


"Concordancia" (the agglomeration of most of the oligarchic, old-style parties united behind one candidate). Thus, Bilbao was promptly detained and then flown to exile in Chile. But he eventually returned, and indeed, ran for President in 1951 and 1966, both times representing the right-of-center Bolivian Socialist Falange. In the 1951 election, he placed third while Víctor Paz Estenssoro of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement came first; the anti-system MNR and FSB won a combined majority of the vote,
20578844
Tupac Katari Revolutionary Movement


personal rivalries divided it into three factions. For the 1979 general elections, the fraction that retained the name MRTK, led by Macabeo Chila Prieto, was the component of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement-Alliance, with the MNR's Víctor Paz Estenssoro as the coalition's presidential candidate. The second fraction was led by Clemente Ramos Flores and joined the Democratic and Popular Union backing Hernán Siles Zuazo. The third and largest was led by Jenaro Flores Santos, who declined to compete and "instructed the party's adherents to vote for the
2697463
Christian Democratic Party (Bolivia)


Movement (MRTK). The Alliance ran a MNR’s leader Víctor Paz Estenssoro as its Presidential candidate and a PDC’s leader Luis Ossio Sanjines as its Vice-Presidential candidate. In 1979 the Christian Democratic Party won nine seats in the Chamber of Deputies and three in the Senate. In 1980 the PDC took part in an electoral coalition Democratic Revolutionary Front-New Alternative backing ex-President Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas, which polled few votes; the leader of the PDC Benjamín Miguel Harb ran as Vice-Presidential candidate. Soon
731305
Bolivian Socialist Falange


chief among which was Óscar Únzaga de la Vega), the FSB initially drew its inspiration from Spanish falangism. Indeed, in those early years it came close to espousing a Fascist agenda, in the style of Spain's Francisco Franco and Italy's Benito Mussolini. It was reformist, however, in that it advocated major transformations to the existing (largely oligarchic) social and political order. This brought it more into the sphere of other "revolutionary" movements such as the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement of Víctor Paz Estenssoro, which would
15887677
Liberation Front of the National Left


The Liberation Front of the National Left (Spanish: "Frente de Liberación de Izquierda Nacional", FLIN) was organized in 1964 by Communist Party of Bolivia (PCB) in opposition to Víctor Paz Estenssoro's bid for a third term. The FLIN has opposed the junta of René Barrientos Ortuño and the United States. The Liberation Front of the National Left was reestablished in 1966, for the 1966 presidential and congressional elections. It presented as its presidential candidate Felipe Iñíguez Medrano (PCB) and Mario Miranda Pacheco (PCB)
2274043
René Barrientos


of mixed Quechua and Spanish descent. He was a career military officer, graduating from the military academy in 1943 and earning his pilot's license in 1945. Later in the 1940s, he gravitated toward the reformist Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario, or MNR) party of Víctor Paz Estenssoro. Barrientos played a part in the Bolivian National Revolution of 1952, when the MNR toppled the established order and took power. In fact, he was given the honor of flying out of the country to bring back the revolutionary leader
2328694
History of Bolivia


(PIR). The party initiated a brief but bloody civil war in October 1949, but was defeated. The MNR emerged victorious in the 1951 elections, but the results were called fraudulent by the opposition, and its right to the presidency was denied. On 9 April 1952, the MNR led a successful revolt and set into motion the Bolivian National Revolution. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro and later, Hernan Siles, the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, nationalized the country's largest tin mines, carried out a sweeping land
8300688
Douglas Henderson (ambassador)


rank of ambassador. When Henderson assumed his new post in the Bolivian capital of La Paz in December 1963 the nation was in a state of tremendous turmoil. The government of President Víctor Paz Estenssoro was moribund and subject to deep internal divisions. More alarming from the American perspective were the frequent clashes between government forces and militant tin miners protesting the government’s plans to overhaul the mining industry. In the climate of the Cold War the weakness of the Paz government and the growing radicalism of Bolivia's miners aroused fears among many US
6284132
José Manuel Pando Province


José Manuel Pando is a province in the La Paz Department in Bolivia. It was founded on April 22, 1986 during the presidency of Víctor Paz Estenssoro. The province was named after José Manuel Pando (1848-1917) who was the president of Bolivia from 1899 till 1904. Its capital is Santiago de Machaca. The province is situated in the western part of the Bolivian Altiplano, south of Lake Titicaca. To the west it is bordered by Peru, to the southeast by the Pacajes Province and to the northeast by
117808
Wálter Guevara


Wálter Guevara Arze (March 11, 1912, Ayopaya Province, Cochabamba Department, Bolivia – June 20, 1996, La Paz, Bolivia) was a Bolivian statesman, cabinet minister, writer, diplomat, and president (1979). Guevara was born in Ayopaya Province, Cochabamba Department on March 11, 1912. Trained as a lawyer and economist, he studied in the United States. He co-founded the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR) in 1941, alongside Víctor Paz Estenssoro, Hernán Siles, and others. When
4007485
Javier del Granado


that spanned more than half a century. His death was marked by three national days of mourning, and his funeral was a state event. Bolivia has dedicated a plaza and two avenues (one of them, La Paz's longest boulevard) in his honour, and put up a monument to his memory. Along with Víctor Paz Estenssoro and others, del Granado formed the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario. The MNR was at the forefront of the Bolivian Revolution of 1952, which radically changed the country, bringing about land redistribution, universal
15623411
Víctor Paz Estenssoro


The crucial difference between the MNR and PRI was the decidedly de-centralised structure of the country's new military power (i.e., armed workers and peasants), which was largely overseen by the left-wing minority bloc in the MNR, headed by COB leader, Juan Lechín. Paz was not allowed to run for another consecutive term, and Hernán Siles was elected, serving as President from 1956 until 1960. During the Hernán Siles administration, the MNR began to polarize and fragment, with a conservative wing led by Wálter
18093647
Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada


Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada y Sánchez de Bustamante (born July 1, 1930), familiarly known as "Goni", is a Bolivian politician and businessman, who served as President of Bolivia for two non-consecutive terms. He is a lifelong member of the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR). As Minister of Planning in the government of President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, Sánchez de Lozada used "shock therapy" in 1985 to cut hyperinflation from an estimated 25,000% to a single digit within a period of less than 6 weeks
16072865
History of Bolivia (1920–64)


and Paz Estenssoro assumed the presidency on April 16, 1952. The "reluctant revolutionaries", as the leaders of the multiclass MNR were called by some, looked more to Mexico than to the Soviet Union for example. But during the first year of Paz Estenssoro's presidency, the radical faction in the party, which had gained strength during the "sexenio" when the party embraced the workers and their ideology, forced the MNR leaders to act quickly. In July 1952, the government established universal suffrage, with neither literacy
3420980
History of Bolivia


before the end of his constitutional term. In the 1985 elections, the Nationalist Democratic Action Party (ADN) of Gen. Banzer won a plurality of the popular vote, followed by former President Paz Estenssoro's MNR and former Vice President Jaime Paz Zamora's Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR). In the congressional run-off, the MIR sided with MNR, and Paz Estenssoro was chosen for a fourth term as President. When he took office in 1985, he faced a staggering economic crisis. Economic output and exports had been
8300697
Revolutionary Nationalist Movement


the country until 1964 when it was overthrown by the military coup of René Barrientos. During the presidencies of Paz Estenssoro (1952–56 and 1960–64) and Hernán Siles Zuazo (1956–60) were the top leaders of the Revolutionary period, establishing the universal vote, nationalizing the tin mines, and instituting an extensive agrarian reform. During this time many of the old elitist parties which had previously dominated Bolivian politics either disappeared or faded into irrelevance. This left the MNR in the center of the Bolivian political spectrum. Siles and Paz split in
1891144
Wálter Guevara


left it abruptly to form his own political organization when Paz Estenssoro decided to return to Bolivia and run for re-election. The party Guevara founded was the Partido Revolucionario Auténtico, in whose representation he ran for president in 1960, finishing second to Paz. In 1964, Guevara supported the military coup d'état that toppled the MNR from power, and once more served as Minister of Foreign Relations, this time to President René Barrientos. The long years in exile following the establishment of the 1971-78 dictatorship of General Hugo Banzer
4007487
Ileana Leonidoff


Condor of the Andes by president Víctor Paz Estenssoro. Leonidoff laid the foundation for the development of ballet in Bolivia and was the first to use live music rather than recorded music in productions. In 1954, she took the Bolivian company on tour to Lima, Peru and at that time, left the company, returning to Guayaquil. When Leonidoff returned to the House of Culture, Kitty Sakilarides had already organized the dancers into beginners, intermediate and advanced classes, but Leonidoff restructured the organization into a ballet company with a "corps
13572166
Lidia Gueiler Tejada


. She also became the vice-president of the Revolutionary Left Front. Upon returning to Bolivia in 1979, Gueiler again ran for Congress and was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia (the lower house of the Bolivian Congress) as part of the MNR alliance of former president Víctor Paz Estenssoro. As no presidential candidate in the 1979 elections had received the necessary 50% of the vote, it fell to Congress to decide who should be president. Surprisingly, no agreement could be reached, no matter how many
4015897
Intercultural bilingual education


with no official source of higher education within the IBE category. A goal of the National Revolution in Bolivia in 1952 was to end discrimination of the indigenous people by integrating them into the majority society. Education in schools was emphasized, to be adapted to the linguistic situation. The government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro assigned education and hispanization in the eastern lowlands to the SIL, granting them at the same time the right to evangelize. Instruction in the first two grades of primary school took place in the indigenous languages to facilitate acquisition by
5567448
Quechua people


led to revolts by the indigenous farmers, which were forcibly suppressed. The largest of these revolts occurred 1780–1781 under the leadership of José Gabriel Kunturkanki. Some indigenous farmers re-occupied their ancestors' lands and expelled the landlords during the takeover of governments by infamous dictatorships in the middle of the 20th century, such as in 1952 in Bolivia (Víctor Paz Estenssoro) and 1968 in Peru (Juan Velasco Alvarado). The agrarian reforms included the illegal expropriation of large landowners. In Bolivia there was a redistribution of the land to
8599239
History of Bolivia (1920–64)


support, backed military intervention in politics, and hoped to prevent excessive foreign control over Bolivia's natural resources. In December 1943 the Radepa-MNR alliance overthrew the Peñaranda regime. Major Gualberto Villarroel López (1943–46) became president, and three MNR members, including Paz Estenssoro, joined his cabinet. The MNR ministers resigned, however, when the United States refused to grant its recognition, repeating its charge of ties between the MNR and Nazi Germany. The ministers returned to their posts in 1944, after the party had won
3420968
History of Bolivia (1920–64)


called for a restructuring of the tin-mining industry. The plan demanded the end of the workers' control over Comibol operations, the firing of workers, and a reduction in their salaries and benefits; it was strongly opposed by the COB and Lechín's MNR faction. In 1964 Paz Estenssoro decided to run again for president, and accepted General René Barrientos Ortuño as vice presidential candidate. Because most opposition groups abstained, Paz Estenssoro was reelected with the support of the military and the peasants. Paz Estenssoro had come to rely
3420988
Hugo Ballivián


Hugo Ballivián Rojas (7 June 1901 – 15 July 1993) as 51st President of Bolivia between 1951 and 1952. A career military officer, he was Commander of the Bolivian Armed Forces when President Mamerto Urriolagoitía called upon him to take over as extra-Constitutional chief executive in order to prevent the swearing-in of the reform-minded President-elect, Víctor Paz Estenssoro. This was a self-coup that became popularly known as the "Mamertazo." Installing himself in the Palacio Quemado, Ballivián was the oligarchy's
1485139
President of Bolivia


Víctor Paz Estenssoro, who previously served as the longest-serving president with just over 12 years in office, but these terms were nonconsecutive. During its more than 192 years of independence, Bolivia has been ruled by the military leaders who fought for independence, the leaders of the War of the Pacific, representatives of the aristocracy, and democratically elected leaders. Also, the history of the presidency has involved civil wars, more than 190 coups and violence. Different titles have been used, such as "Liberator of Bolivia"
16424497
President of Bolivia


(used by Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre), and "Supreme Protector" (by Andrés de Santa Cruz). The following table contains a list of the individuals who have served as President of Bolivia. In 1983, a poll was taken by the newspaper "Última Hora" to determine which seven historical presidents were regarded as most significant. The "winners" were Antonio José de Sucre, Andrés de Santa Cruz, Manuel Isidoro Belzu, Mariano Melgarejo, Aniceto Arce, Ismael Montes, and Víctor Paz Estenssoro
16424498
Land reform in Bolivia


Before the Bolivian National Revolution of 1952, land in Bolivia was unequally distributed — 92% of the cultivable land was held by estates of 1,000 hectares or more. On August 2, 1953, the MNR government led by president Víctor Paz Estenssoro decreed the Agrarian Reform Law (Law Decree 3464). The law abolished forced peasantry labor, and established a program of expropriation and distribution of the rural property of the traditional landlords to the Indian peasants. Only estates with low productivity were completely distributed. More productive small and medium-
16507825
Tarija Department


region has chosen to align with pro-autonomy forces which aim at the devolution of considerable powers away from the central government in favor of the departments. More than 20 different indigenous tribes, ranging in population from 20 persons up to 1500, live in the region. The Guaraní is the largest tribe. Important battles and events related to the 1932-35 Chaco War with Paraguay took place in the department's eastern dry lands. Tarija was the home of Víctor Paz Estenssoro, leader of the 1952 Bolivian Revolution and four-
176004
Alfonso Gumucio Dagron


Alfonso Gumucio Dagron (born October 31, 1950) is a Bolivian writer, filmmaker, journalist, photographer and development communication specialist. His father was Alfonso Gumucio Reyes, a leader of the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), Minister of Economy during the Government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro, and Ambassador to Uruguay and Spain. He is the author of several books on film and [communication for social change, as well as documentary films, photographic exhibits and hundreds of articles in journals. He has worked in five continents on social
18386556
Alfonso Gumucio Reyes


; and the main roads from the highlands to the eastern part of the country, the lower lands. From 1957 to 1960 he was appointed Ambassador to Uruguay, by President of Bolivia Hernán Siles Zuazo. From 1960 to 1964 he became Minister of Economy under the government of President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, and was responsible for the economic development of the country. In 1964, when he had recently travelled to Spain as Bolivian Ambassador, a military coup took place in Bolivia, led by General René Barrientos. Gumucio Reyes stayed in
18545484
René Barrientos


Víctor Paz Estenssoro, then in exile, once the rebellion succeeded. In 1957, Barrientos was rewarded when he was named commander of the Bolivian Air Force. Known as a rather obsequious, sycophantic supporter of the MNR, he slowly became famous throughout the country for his uncommon, and very public, feats of valor. In 1960, for example, a live parachute-drop demonstration by Air Force soldiers ended in disaster when their equipment failed and three of the fifteen parachutists fell to their death before a large crowd assembled to
2328695
Shock therapy (economics)


. In the long term, Chile has had higher GDP growth than its neighbouring countries, but also high gini index, expressed in a noticeable inequality. The term "shock therapy" originates from Bolivia's tackling of hyper-inflation in 1985, and was thought to have been coined by the media. On 29 August, just three weeks after the election of Víctor Paz Estenssoro as President, and the appointment of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, the architect of shock therapy, as Planning Minister, Decree 21060 was passed. This
3651536
Guido Vildoso


formally take office later that day. Nonetheless, Vildozo and his cabinet were loudly booed by the population present at the transfer of power to Siles. The Bolivian Congress did later acknowledge Vildoso for his two main accomplishments: restoring democracy to Bolivia with no bloodshed and developing the fundamentals of the economic plan, 21060, that was later used by Víctor Paz Estenssoro to restore sound macroeconomic variables to the nation. After the handover of authority, Vildozo retired from the military and currently lives in Cochabamba, Bolivia. He is reportedly highly regarded
5062155
Julio Garrett Ayllón


of Bolivia from 1982 until 1985. In 1985, Garrett was elected Vice President of Bolivia as the running mate of President Víctor Paz Estenssoro. Garrett, who served as Vice President from 1985 to 1989, established the Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar in Sucre during his tenure. Garrett was re-elected to the Senate in 1989, but his election was later invalidated by the Court of Elections. He was appointed to the Andean Parliament, the deliberative body of the Andean Community, in 1992. Garrett was elected to the national Senate
5387080
History of Bolivia


, won out. Paz Zamora assumed the presidency, and the MIR took half the ministries. Banzer's center-right ADN took control of the National Political Council (CONAP) and the other ministries. Paz Zamora was a moderate, center-left President whose political pragmatism in office outweighed his Marxist origins. Having seen the destructive hyperinflation of the Siles Zuazo administration, he continued the neoliberal economic reforms begun by Paz Estenssoro, codifying some of them. Paz Zamora took a fairly hard line against domestic terrorism, personally ordering the
8300700
Mamerto Urriolagoitía


became chief executive and immediately stepped up the repression of the reformist movement which was growing around the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (Nationalist Revolutionary Movement) of Víctor Paz Estenssoro, Juan Lechín, Hernán Siles Zuazo, and others. A counter-reaction took place and a series of violent nationwide rebellions catalyzed the so-called Civil War of May–September 1949. The Urriolagoitia government barely regained control of the situation, but the die was cast on the moribund "Oligarchic State" of 1880–1936, resuscitated only temporarily (1940–43 and 1946–52)
1426643
Agustín Fernández (composer)


, and extensive properties in Ayopaya province, the Fernández clan were dispossessed as a result of stringent land reforms implemented by the government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro’s MNR (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolutionario) in 1952. His father’s younger brothers became active in resistance operations, including a failed coup d’état in 1956, resulting in two of the composer’s uncles being confined in concentration camps. Fernández Sr himself had to flee state persecution in 1960, finding refuge with his young family in Montero, a smaller town north of Santa Cruz de la
14627682
Martín Redrado


Hernán Martín Pérez Redrado (born September 10, 1961) is an Argentine economist and policy-maker. He served as President of the Central Bank of Argentina between September 2004 and January 2010. Born Hernán Martín Pérez Redrado in Buenos Aires in 1961, he enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires and received a degree in Economics. He joined U.S. economist Jeffrey Sachs as part of his advisory board, which had been invited by Bolivian President Víctor Paz Estenssoro in 1985 to implement a restructuring of the Bolivian economy, then in crisis
17226790
Hernán Siles Zuazo


smuggled out of Europe with the assistance of the United States, and was often employed by the 1964-82 dictatorships as an interrogation specialist. Following his extradition he was condemned for his crimes and died in a French prison. By 1985 the government's impotence prompted Congress to call early elections, citing the fact that Siles had been originally elected five long years before. His old rival, MNR's Víctor Paz Estenssoro was elected president, and Siles left for Uruguay, a country where he had lived before in exile and for
18093709
1966 Bolivian general election


General elections were held in Bolivia on 3 July 1966. René Barrientos of the Front of the Bolivian Revolution (FRB) was elected President with 67% of the vote, whilst the FRB won a majority in both houses of Congress. James Dunkerley describes the election as not free and fair since a major segment of the opposition was excluded from participating. Following the 1964 elections, Barrientos had led a military coup to remove Víctor Paz Estenssoro from power. In May 1965, Juan Lechín Oquendo, a labor leader who was the
18911004
1951 Bolivian general election


General elections were held in Bolivia on 6 May 1951. Víctor Paz Estenssoro of the opposition Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) received the most votes in the presidential election, but as he did not obtain an absolute majority, the National Congress was constitutionally obliged to elect a President on 6 August from the three candidates who received the most public votes. However, on 16 May a military junta assumed responsibility for the Government with Brigadier General Hugo Ballivián as President. The National Congress was ultimately dissolved by Supreme Decree of 7 June,
19117360
Coca in Bolivia


US$1 billion annually in the 1980s, depending on prices and output. Formally, coca in Bolivia is regulated by Law 1008, the Coca and Controlled Substances Regime Law () which was passed by the government of President Víctor Paz Estenssoro in July 1988. Some US priorities, however, were excluded from the law which bans defoliants, herbicides, and aerial spraying of crops in eradicating coca. Articles 8 through 11 of Law 1008 define three regions of coca growing under separate regulations: This framework was effectively modified by agreement between
2065054
Bolivia


fish as Bolivia is a landlocked country. In addition, there are more than 3,000 types of butterfly, and more than 60 domestic animals. Bolivia has gained global attention for its 'Law of the Rights of Mother Earth', which accords nature the same rights as humans. Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982; prior to that, it was governed by various dictatorships. Presidents Hernán Siles Zuazo (1982–85) and Víctor Paz Estenssoro (1985–89) began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has continued,
3229039