Juozas Gabrys [SEP] languages spoken or written
Juozas Gabrys


Juozas Gabrys or Juozas Gabrys-Paršaitis (February 22, 1880 – July 26, 1951) was a Lithuanian politician and diplomat, best remembered for his efforts to popularize the idea of Lithuania's independence in the West during World War I. Juozas Gabrys was born on February 22, 1880 in the town of Garliava, near the city of Kaunas, Lithuania. He went to the Garliava primary school starting at the age of seven. He graduated with a law degree from the University of Odessa in 1907. Gabrys was a secretary
4827719
Draugija


, including on Dionizas Poška, Antanas Baranauskas, , "Aušra". Juozas Gabrys published a synthesis that covered not only individual authors, but also Lithuanian Chronicles and Lithuanian folklore. A few articles were published on foreign authors (Dante Alighieri, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Xenophon). The magazine frequently published articles dealing with the Lithuanian language, its history, standardization, syntax, lexicon, often written by linguist Kazimieras Būga. In particular, the magazine dealt with identification of various loan words and barbarisms in Catholic texts and their replacement with
10974885
Zoroastrian Dari language


Zoroastrian Dari ( literally Behdīnān dialect) is a Northwestern Iranian ethnolect spoken as a first language by an estimated 8,000 to 15,000 Zoroastrians in and around the cities of Yazd and Kerman in central Iran, but until the 1880s was spoken by almost a million people in Central Iran. The ethnolect is often overlooked by linguists because the region is predominantly Muslim and because Dari is primarily spoken (rarely written). Dari is a Persian dialect. Dari is also known as Behdināni or pejoratively as Gabri (sometimes Gavrŭni or Gabrōni). Dari
9741128
1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania


, the Polish government maintained it had not inspired the coup. The official goal of the Polish plan was to "1) create an independent Lithuania, powerful, truly democratic, connected voluntarily with Poland in a union, with as much internal autonomy as possible and 2) acceptance of the Polish minority in Lithuania as a partner in the Lithuanian government and recognition of the Polish language as equal to the Lithuanian language in Lithuania." The PMO recruited Lithuanian activists Stanisław Narutowicz, Juozas Gabrys, Jurgis Aukštuolaitis, and Klemensas Vaitiekūnas.
2799122
Juozas Gabrys


because of his disagreements with the government officials. Because of his German government contacts during World War I, he ultimately "became virtually an "unperson"" in Lithuanian history despite his efforts to liberate the country. In 1919, with the help of the French, Gabrys unsuccessfully attempted to get a Lithuanian government position. From that point on, he dabbled in Lithuanian politics until he retired. In retirement, he became a gentleman-farmer in Switzerland. Gabrys died on 26 July 1951 at Corsier-sur-Vevey in
4827723
Lithuanian conferences during World War I


Lindhagen, mayor of Stockholm, secretary , editor of "Stockholms Dagblad", and Lithuanian manager Jonas Aukštuolis. The next conference was held in February 1916 in Fribourg (to confuse the police, conference's documents are dated 1–5 March 1916 in Bern). In addition to Swiss Lithuanians (Vladas Daumantas-Dzimidavičius, Juozas Gabrys, Juozas Purickis, Antanas Steponaitis, Justinas Tumėnas, Antanas Viskanta), it was attended by Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas and . The most important issue on the agenda was Lithuania's relationship with Poland.
8581816
Juozas Gabrys


Lithuania. He communicated the cruel treatment the Lithuanians were receiving from the German military when they were occupying Lithuania to the French authorities. He also called upon the Allies of World War I for assisting against German occupation. Gabrys involved the Vatican in a worldwide collection of millions of Swiss francs for Lithuanian victims of war, which ultimately ended up in his personal bank accounts. He labelled himself "Count of Garlawa" in his memoirs. When the new Lithuanian government started at the end of 1918, Gabrys was not a political participant
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Juozas Gabrys


. His campaigns were financed by Lithuanian immigrants of the United States and the German Foreign Ministry. He published articles in more than fifty European newspapers for his campaigns, sometimes bribing editors to get them through. His greatest success in organization was the Congress of Nationalities held in Switzerland in 1916 with 400 representatives from 23 nationalities. According to Alfred E. Senn, "Gabrys was undoubtedly the best known Lithuanian political figure on the European scene before 1916." During the time period of World War I, Gabrys hoped to secure independence for
4827721
Mykolas Sleževičius


the Jelgava Gymnasium in 1901. After failing to get accepted to the Riga Polytechnicum (now Riga Technical University), he started studying law at the Odessa University in 1902. While in Odessa, Sleževičius became politically involved, with Juozas Gabrys taking credit for converting him to the Lithuanian nationalist cause. He was also involved in a number of cultural and religious activities, organizing courses, concerts and plays, and arranging for religious mass in Lithuanian language. Sleževičius took part in the Russian Revolution of 1905, maintaining public order together with
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Dari language


the language of Iran called Dari or Gabri, which is a language of the Central Iranian subgroup spoken in some Zoroastrian communities. Note: according to the CIA Fact Book, the percentage of Persian/Dari speakers in Afghanistan is 80%. 1a The CIA Fact Book writes: Afghan Persian or Dari (official) 80% (Dari functions as the lingua franca), Pashto (official) 47%... Dari comes from Middle Persian which was spoken during the rule of the Sassanid dynasty. In general, Iranian languages are
18375222
Bible translations into Persian


in Afghanistan, and hence known as Afghan Persian in some western sources. As defined in the Constitution of Afghanistan, Dari is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan. Spoken by almost half of the population as first language, it also serves as the lingua franca in Afghanistan. The Iranian and Afghan dialects of Persian are mutually intelligible to a relatively high degree. Differences are found primarily in the vocabulary and phonology. Dari, spoken in Afghanistan, should not be confused with Dari or Gabri of Iran, a language of
15113256
Juozas Purickis


with a thesis on the Reformation in Lithuania. During World War I, he joined the efforts to establish independent Lithuania – he worked at the Lithuanian Information Bureau established by Juozas Gabrys, raised money for the Lithuanian prisoners of war and war refugees, attended the Lithuanian conferences in Switzerland. Together with Konstantinas Olšauskas, Purickis attended Vilnius Conference and presented on the German proposal to establish Kingdom of Lithuania. In 1918–1920, Purickis worked as Lithuanian diplomatic representative in Berlin, first as a deputy of Jurgis Šaulys, and played a key role
15235385
Great Seimas of Vilnius


elect the presidium of the Seimas. Jonas Basanavičius, officially nonpartisan, was elected as the chairman and Steponas Kairys, leader of the Social Democrats, was chosen as vice-chairman. Other members were Antanas Smetona, priest Pranciškus Būčys, and Juozas Stankūnas; the secretaries were Liudas Gira, Pranas Klimaitis, and Juozas Gabrys-Paršaitis. The organizational committee proposed a rather academic agenda geared toward cultural issues for the assembly; this initial agenda was vetoed by the delegates. They adopted a new schedule that was more political and highlighted
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Juozas Gabrys


of the Great Seimas of Vilnius during the 1905 Russian Revolution. He went into exile in 1907 to Paris. There, in 1911, he founded the Lithuanian Information Bureau. In 1912, he founded the Union des Nationalités. These two organizations supplied European powers with information on Lithuania and other exploited European countries that crusaded for human rights and freedom. In 1915, Gabrys moved from Paris to Lausanne, Switzerland. He started a campaign of political activities and held the first Lithuanian conferences during World War I to obtain freedom for Lithuania
4827720
Juozas Purickis


, after breaking up from the Polish committee, the society's mission was further expanded to encompass relief for all war victims and refugees. Purickis became secretary of a six-person committee that organized the world-wide donation drive on the Lithuanian Day – 20 May 1917 as declared by Pope Benedict XV. Purickis traveled to Marseille to mail the appeal for donation to bishops around the world and personally visited French bishops and priests promoting the donation drive. In early 1916, Lituania joined the Lithuanian Information Bureau established by Juozas Gabrys and
15235398
Lithuanian conferences during World War I


of Lithuania (Antanas Smetona, Steponas Kairys, Jurgis Šaulys, Alfonsas Petrulis, and Justinas Staugaitis) as well as Swiss Lithuanians (Vincas Bartuška, Vladas Daumantas, Juozas Purickis, Konstantinas Olšauskas, Juozas Gabrys, Antanas Steponaitis). Maironis attended as a guest. The conference discussed various issues, including territorial claims, relationship with ethnic minorities, strategies for securing independence, rebuilding after the war, form of government (democratic republic vs. constitutional monarchy – majority voted for monarchy, but the decision was not widely publicized). It
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Lithuanian conferences during World War I


exchange of information and ideas, coordination of financial aid and political efforts. The first conferences were organized by Juozas Gabrys and held in Switzerland, which became a hub of Lithuanian activities after Gabrys moved there from Paris. He had a talent for public relations and ran the Lithuanian Information Bureau which supplied European powers with information on Lithuania and its aspirations. The first conferences were more meetings and discussions between private individuals, but they steadily grew in clout and recognition. The first conference was held jointly with Latvians, the northern neighbors of
8581812
Written language


A written language is the representation of a spoken or gestural language by means of a writing system. Written language is an invention in that it must be taught to children, who will pick up spoken language or sign language by exposure even if they are not formally instructed. A written language exists only as a complement to a specific spoken language, and no natural language is purely written. Written languages change more slowly than corresponding spoken languages. When at least one register of a language is strongly divergent from spoken language, the
6491021
BCMC College of Engineering & Technology


Course; 03-months course 2. English Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 3. Spanish Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 4. German (Deutsch) Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 5. Arabic Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 6. Japanese Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 7. Korean Language Training Course (Spoken & Written); 06-months course 8. Chinese Language Training Course (Spoken &
1156668
Language development


more skilled. Kroll considers the second phase in writing development to be consolidation. Here, children begin to consolidate spoken and written language. In this phase children's writing skills rely heavily on their spoken language skills, and their written and spoken language becoming integrated. Children's written language skills become stronger as they use their spoken language skills to improve their writing. Then in turn, when a development in children's written language skills is seen, their spoken language skills have also improved. A child's written language in this
11469661
Language planning


often viewed as secondary to spoken language, the vocabulary, grammatical structures and phonological structures of a language often adopt characteristics in the written form that are distinct from the spoken variety. Second, the use of writing often leads to a folk belief that the written language is the 'real' language, and speech is a corruption of it. Written language is viewed as more conservative, while the spoken variety is more susceptible to language change. Isolated relic areas of the spoken language may be less innovative than the written form,
16819092
David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer


, Lorimer was a noted scholar of the peoples of Hunza and Gilgit . He worked as a linguist with the languages of Iran and Pakistan, including Khowar, Shina, Bakhtiari, Wakhi and the Persian dialects of Kerman and Gabri. He wrote a standard work on Burushaski, a language spoken only in the Karakoram in what is today Pakistan. Lorimer was awarded the Leverhulme Research Fellowship in 1933-1935 and in 1953 he became an honorary member of the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the University of London
19123864
Spoken language


especially in contrast to written transcriptions of signs. In spoken language, much of the meaning is determined by the context. That contrasts with written language in which more of the meaning is provided directly by the text. In spoken language, the truth of a proposition is determined by common-sense reference to experience, but in written language, a greater emphasis is placed on logical and coherent argument. Similarly, spoken language tends to convey subjective information, including the relationship between the speaker and the audience, whereas written language tends
6491018
Spoken language


to convey objective information. The relationship between spoken language and written language is complex. Within the field of linguistics the current consensus is that speech is an innate human capability, and written language is a cultural invention. However some linguists, such as those of the Prague school, argue that written and spoken language possess distinct qualities which would argue against written language being dependent on spoken language for its existence. Both vocal and sign languages are composed of words. In vocal languages, words are made up from a limited set of
6491019
Spoken language


A spoken language is a language produced by articulate sounds, as opposed to a written language. Many languages have no written form and so are only spoken. An oral language or vocal language is a language produced with the vocal tract, as opposed to a sign language, which is produced with the hands and face. The term "spoken language" is sometimes used to mean only vocal languages, especially by linguists, making all three terms synonyms by excluding sign languages. Others refer to sign language as "spoken",
6491017
Lexis (linguistics)


dichotomy of spoken and written language which actually entails a shift in paradigm: while linguistic theory posits the superiority of spoken language over written language (as the former is the origin, comes naturally, and thus precedes the written language), or the written over the spoken (for the same reasons: the written language being the highest form of rudimentary speech), Halliday states they are two entirely different entities. He claims that speech is grammatically complex while writing is lexically dense. In other words, a sentence such as "
2341557
Integrationism


, or the symbolization of phonetic signs, students are equipped with the literacy to understand the written texts. However, it is often the case that students have a hard time understanding and interpreting a poem even though they know every single word. The glittering example reveals the problem of treating spoken language and written language as the same and implies the need to treat them differently. According to Kravchenko, spoken language and written language are different in that spoken language is temporal and local, while written language is atemporal and non-local
5778602
Konstantinas Olšauskas


was important not only because of the financial aspect but also as a moral issue – Lithuanians wanted to demonstrate that Lithuania is separate and different from Poland. Lithuanian activists had already petitioned the pope (by Juozas Gabrys in early 1915 and Yčas in summer 1916), but the pope asked to see a joint petition of Lithuanian bishops. Such joint letter proved impossible to obtain (possibly also because of the anti-Lithuanian attitudes of ). Olšauskas obtained an audience with the pope and explained that "if, due to unknown reasons
15482657
Integrationism


the community and society where one stays. With regard to it, this section first focuses on the distinction between spoken language (first-order language) and written language (second-order language) and how reading comprehension is achieved, and then aims at the impact of technology-enhanced interaction on reading comprehension. Traditionally, spoken language and written language are regarded as the two sides of the same coin In other words, written language is believed to fully represent its corresponding spoken language. Therefore, educators believe by teaching words
5778601
Romanization


extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due to diachronic and synchronic variance no written language represents any spoken language with perfect accuracy and the vocal interpretation of a script may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language.
8902055
John Fare


Gabriel Lester, Mariana Castillo Deball, "the estate of John Fare," René Gabri, Mario Garcia Torres, and Juozas Laivys explored themes of the story in a 2007 Gallery GB Agency exhibit in France. While Lester acknowledged Fare was "an apparition, an artist thought to have existed," he said Fare embodied the culmination of romantic myth of the artist cursed, "someone who has probably never existed, and yet lives forever." Christopher Priest wrote the short story "The Head and the Hand" with a
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Konstantinas Olšauskas


territories. Thus, for example, money collected in United States (about $130,000 – ) and United Kingdom were stuck. Money collected in Germany were sent directly to Bishop Karevičius instead of being routed via Switzerland. Treasurer did not produce a report on the collected funds and thus the total amount is not known, but is estimated at 1 million litas. In Switzerland, a neutral country, Lithuanians were able to establish organizations that discussed and developed Lithuanian political aspirations after the war. Juozas Gabrys ran the Lithuanian Information Bureau.
15482660
Konstantinas Olšauskas


recognized independent Lithuania on 23 March. Olšauskas more often resided in Berlin and continued to represent the Council of Lithuania in Germany but his relationship with the council was soured by a conflict between Juozas Gabrys and Augustinas Voldemaras. Lithuanians long wanted to replace , administrator of the Diocese of Vilnius, with a more pro-Lithuanian candidate. An opportunity arose while conducting negotiations with Germany. Olšauskas was recommended to Pope Benedict XV by German Chancellor Georg von Hertling and diplomat Matthias Erzberger in fall 1917. He was also supported by the Council of
15482666
Konstantinas Olšauskas


Conference. His primary goal was to obtain diplomatic recognition as well as financial and military support for Lithuania. Olšauskas together with representatives of minorities in Lithuania – Simon Yakovlevich Rosenbaum (Jewish), Dominik Semashko (Belarusian), and Jurgis Daujotas (Polish) – arrived to Paris in early January 1919 and already found Lithuanians working there – priest Adomas Vilimavičius, engineer Ernestas Galvanauskas, and poet Oscar Milosz. They were soon joined by Juozas Gabrys. Thus, there were three Lithuanian groups that sometimes competed with each other. On 6
15482669
Kiprijonas Nezabitauskis


original work was a slightly modified version of the ballad "Birutė" by . The unpublished 88-page manuscript was discovered by Juozas Gabrys at the Polish Library in Paris in 1909 and was first published in 1931. The poems reflect Nezabitauskis' nostalgia for the homeland and grief for its lost independence, disappointment in world order (including some complaints to God) and a rebellious attitude calling for the liberation of Poland–Lithuania. Though undated and unsigned, researchers believe that around 1835–1836 he translated and published two small booklets with excerpts from "
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Lithuanian conferences during World War I


Lithuania, in August 1915, when Lithuania was not yet fully overtaken by German forces. The conference was organized by Juozas Gabrys, who was introduced to Latvian activists by , and Antanas Viskantas. The representatives adopted a resolution which expressed their solidarity with the Entente Powers and condemned atrocities committed by German troops. They resolved to seek wast autonomy (not yet full independence) for a joint Lithuanian–Latvian state that would encompass a territory of . For comparison, present-day Latvia and Lithuania cover approximately . However, the plans
8581813
Lithuanian conferences during World War I


of Lithuanians in Russia (Martynas Yčas), in United States (Romanas Karuža), and in Switzerland (Vladas Daumantas-Dzimidavičius) and on operations of the refugee aid committee Lituania (Antanas Steponaitis) and Lithuanian Information Bureau (Juozas Gabrys). The conference was passionate and argumentative as representatives tried to decide which great power – Russia or Germany – should be relied on in hopes for future independence. Because Yčas was the chairman, the conference avoided anti-Russian statements but protested against exploitative German policies. One unifying point
8581820
Shakespeare's handwriting


having been written with slower deliberation, reveals more of Shakespeare's own quirks, or, as he put it, "more of the hand of the author". In addition there are in the three pages suggestions of a "tendency to formality and ornamental calligraphy." The problems editors or compositors can face when transforming the handwritten manuscript into the printed page are demonstrated in the printed edition of "Sir Thomas More", edited in 1990 by Gabrieli and Melchiori. In the following line spoken by More addressing the mob:
12988980
Languages of Iraq


There are a number of languages spoken in Iraq, but Mesopotamian Arabic (Iraqi Arabic) is by far the most widely spoken in the country. The most widely spoken language in Iraq is the Arabic language (specifically Mesopotamian Arabic); the second most spoken language is Kurdish (mainly Sorani and Kurmanji dialects), followed by the Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialect of Turkish, and the Neo-Aramaic languages (specifically Chaldean and Ashuri). Arabic is written using the Arabic script and Kurdish is written with a modified Perso-
20847912
Zamfir Arbore


Ecaterina Arbore was also noted for her political statements against a Russian alliance. Internationally, her father collaborated with "Annales des Nationalités", the anti-imperialist periodical put out by Jean Pélissier and Juozas Gabrys. Suspicion arose that Arbore was also in the pay of German intelligence, receiving at least 28,000 lei through such channels. In summer 1916, Romania disappointed Arbore by rallying with the Entente. After a short-lived offensive into Transylvania, the Romanian Land Forces were defeated, and the Central Powers invaded southern Romania. Arbore
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Lithuanian conferences during World War I


(Vincas Bartuška, Balys Mastauskas, Kazys Pakštas, Juozas Dabužis), Swiss Lithuanians. Instead of increased coordination of efforts, a major ideological dispute further fragmented the Lithuanian independence movement and caused further confusion among foreigners when it aired in Swiss newspaper "Der Bund". Members of the Council maintained that the conference was only an advisory body, while Lithuanian émigrés, particularly Gabrys, wanted to establish an equal or a superior authority in the west. Lithuanians living abroad wanted to minimize any ties with Germany that was losing the war
8581834
Zoroastrian Dari language


the people of good religion") or pejorative yet common name, 'Gabri' ("language of the infidels"). The roots of the name 'Gabri' date back to Muslim invasion of Iran and is resented by indigenous speakers of Dari to refer to their language. As Farudi and Toosarvandani point out: "For them, choosing to call their language Dari, the speakers of the language invoke their ancestral connections to a pre-Islamic Iran." The Dari language has traditionally been divided into two main dialects
9741130
Languages of Hong Kong


into Hong Kong from Canton Province, Cantonese is the dominant Chinese variant spoken in the territory with smaller numbers of speakers from other dialects. There are also numerous sinitic languages spoken by the native peoples of the New Territories, many of which are mutually unintelligible. Cantonese is a vernacular and when reduced to writing is normally converted to a standard written Chinese quite dissimilar to the spoken word. There is also a written language based on the vocabulary and grammar of spoken Cantonese known as written Cantonese. Although the "biliterate and trilingual"
2224386
Society of Saint Casimir


its roots to 1888 when Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas organized a secret student society, known as the Lovers of Lithuania Society ("Lietuvos mylėtojų draugija"), at the Kaunas Priest Seminary. At that time Lithuania was part of the Russian Empire and Lithuanian-language books we banned by the Tsarist authorities. The society had a written program which emphasized service the church and Lithuania, use of the Lithuanian language, publication of Lithuanian religious literature, and development of Lithuanian patriotism. Leaving written evidence was dangerous as its activities were illegal
15376821
Gospel riots


spoken or "demotic" Greek had evolved far from its ancient roots, and the two languages were now mutually incomprehensible. As a compromise, a grammatically simplified version of Ancient Greek known as "katharevousa glossa" ("language that tends towards purity") had been adopted as the written language of the new state in 1830. This meant that the spoken and written languages were now intentionally different. It was hoped that written "katharevousa" would provide a model for imitation, and that spoken Greek would naturally "purify"
19598876
Language development


fact that males are more visible, and thus more often diagnosed. Research in writing development has been limited in psychology. In the research that has been conducted, focus has generally centred on the development of written and spoken language and their connection. Spoken and written skills could be considered linked. Researchers believe that children's spoken language influences their written language. When a child learns to write they need to master letter formation, spelling, punctuation and they also have to gain an understanding of the structure and the organisational patterns involved
11469658
North Germanic languages


and written versions of the language, so the differences between spoken Norwegian and spoken Danish are somewhat more significant than the difference between their respective written forms. Written Danish is relatively close to the other Continental Scandinavian languages, but the sound developments of spoken Danish include reduction and assimilation of consonants and vowels, as well as the prosodic feature called "stød" in Danish, developments which have not occurred in the other languages (though the "stød" corresponds to the changes in pitch in Norwegian and Swedish, which are pitch-
19865425
Maithili language


Maithili (; "Maithilī") is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent, mainly spoken in India and Nepal. In India, it is spoken in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand and is one of the 22 recognised Indian languages. In Nepal, it is spoken in the eastern Terai and is the second most prevalent language of Nepal. It is also one of the 122 recognized Nepalese languages. Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant
12237739
Japanese: The Spoken Language


Japanese: The Spoken Language (JSL) is an introductory textbook series for learning Japanese. JSL was written by Eleanor Harz Jorden in collaboration with Mari Noda. "Part 1" was published in 1987 by Yale Language Press, "Part 2" in 1988, and "Part 3" in 1990. The series differs from most Japanese language textbooks in many ways, most basically in that it focuses exclusively on the spoken language and leaves discussion of any aspect of the written language to other textbooks, such as the parallel series
9995425
Heterography and homography


In linguistics, heterography is a property of a written language, such that it lacks a 1-to-1 correspondence between the written symbols and the sounds of the spoken language. Its opposite is homography, which is the property of a language such that written symbols of its written form and the sounds of its spoken form have a 1-to-1 correspondence. The orthography of the English language is, according to Larry Trask, a "spectacular example" of heterography. But most European languages exhibit it to some extent. Finnish is "very close"
773908
Duruwa language


Dhurwa (Odia: ପରଜି, Devanagari: दुरुवा) or Parji is a Central Dravidian language spoken by the Dhurwa tribe, a scheduled tribe people of India, in the districts of Koraput and Bastar in Chhattisgarh state. The language is related to Ollari and Kolami, which is also spoken by other neighbouring tribes. Dhurwa is a member of the Central Dravidian languages. Duruwa is a spoken language and is generally not written. Whenever it is written, it makes use of the Devanagari script in Bastar district and Odia script in Koraput
284442
Theatre music


also shows the lyrics. Since the earliest days of the theatre, music has played an important part in stage drama. In Greek drama in the fifth century BC, choric odes were written to be chanted and danced between the spoken sections of both tragedies and comedies. Only fragments of the music have survived. Attempts to recreate the form for revivals from the Renaissance to modern times have branched in several directions. Composers from Andrea Gabrieli to Mendelssohn to Vaughan Williams have composed chorus music for productions of plays by Sophocles, Aristophanes and
18659349
Mongolia


, Korean and American nationalities. The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet in Mongolia, although in the past it was written using the
19552363
Machine translation of sign languages


The machine translation of sign languages has been possible, albeit in a limited fashion, since 1977. When a research project successfully matched English letters from a keyboard to ASL manual alphabet letters which were simulated on a robotic hand. These technologies translate signed languages into written or spoken language, and written or spoken language to sign language, without the use of a human interpreter. Sign languages possess different phonological features than spoken languages, which has created obstacles for developers. Developers use computer vision and machine learning to recognize specific phonological parameters
11747827
Koraga language


Koraga (also rendered "Koragar, Koragara, Korangi)" is a Dravidian language spoken by the Koraga people, a Scheduled tribe people of Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, and Kerala in South West India. The dialect spoken by the Koraga tribe in Kerala, Mudu Koraga, is divergent enough to not be intelligible with Korra Koraga. Koraga is a member of the Dravidian family of languages. It is further classified into the Southern Dravidian family. Koraga is a spoken language and generally not written, whenever it is written it makes
21515602
Language development


writing and speaking are different. When writing and speaking development is looked at more closely it can be seen that certain elements of written and spoken language are differentiating and other elements are integrating, all in the same phase. Perera conducted a survey and her view mirrors that of Kroll to the extent that she used Kroll's four phases. When a child undergoes initial learning of the written language, they have not yet fully mastered the oral language. It is clear that their written language development is aided by their spoken language;
11469665
Demotic (Egyptian)


development of the Late Egyptian language and shares much with the later Coptic phase of the Egyptian language. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those texts written in the Early Demotic script, it probably represented the spoken idiom of the time. But, as it was increasingly used for only literary and religious purposes, the written language diverged more and more from the spoken form, leading to significant diglossia between the Late Demotic texts and the spoken language of the time, similar to the use of classical Middle Egyptian during the
10531270
Arabic


times and languages such as English and French in modern times. Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims, and Modern Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken
285746
Standard written English


spoken language. We don't have the spoken language standardised yet. When we say that we're speaking Standard English, what we're doing is transferring into our spoken vocabulary and syntax the elements of the written language. What is standard in what you and I are talking now is what we get from our writing. There are grammatical constructions and words that one uses in speech that one generally avoids in written compositions. Even in the most colloquial of online chats, interjections such as "like" are rarer than in speech
10151272
Languages in censuses


, are also spoken. The public use of Chinese, especially Chinese written characters, was officially discouraged between 1966 and 1998. The majority of the population speaks the Persian language, which is also the official language of the country, as well as other Iranian languages or dialects. Turkic languages and dialects, most importantly Azerbaijani language, are spoken in different areas in Iran. In southwestern and southern Iran, the Luri language and Lari language are spoken. In Kurdistan Province and nearby area's Kurdish is widely spoken. In Khuzestan
3806607
Bengali dialects


formal, written language and the vernacular, spoken language. Two styles of writing, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax, have emerged : Spoken Bengali exhibits far more variation than written Bengali. Formal spoken Bengali, including what is heard in news reports, speeches, announcements, and lectures, is modelled on Choltibhasha. This form of spoken Bengali stands alongside other spoken dialects, or "Ancholik Bangla" (আঞ্চলিক বাংলা) (i.e. 'regional Bengali'). The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one
19431759
Nannūl


Nannūl () is a work on Tamil grammar written by a Jain ascetic Pavananthi Munivar around 13th century AD. It is the most significant work on Tamil grammar after Tolkāppiyam. The work credits Western Ganga vassal king Seeya Gangan of Kolar with patronising it. About 20 commentaries have been written on Nannūl up to 19th Century AD. Nannūl was divided into five sections: written language, spoken language, semantics, poetic language and rhetorical devices. The latter three sections have been lost, so only the parts on written and spoken language
19636936
Ovambo language


The Ovambo () language, "Oshiwambo", is a dialect cluster spoken by the Ovambo people in southern Angola and northern Namibia, of which the written standards are Kwanyama and Ndonga. The native name for the language is Oshiwambo (also written "Oshivambo"), which is also used specifically for the Kwanyama and Ndonga dialects. It is the largest spoken local language in Namibia, particularly the Ovambo people. The language is closely related to that of the Herero and Himba, the Herero language ("Otjiherero")
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Deaf education


There are a variety of educational philosophies that differ in their views both regarding language use and goals for deaf and hard-of-hearing students. In this philosophy, deafness is approached as a cultural, not a medical, issue (see models of deafness). In a bilingual-bicultural program, deaf children learn sign language such as American Sign Language (ASL) as a first language, followed by a written or spoken language such as English as a second language. Bilingual-bicultural programs consider spoken or written language
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Maranao language


Maranao () is an Austronesian language spoken by the Maranao people in the provinces of Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur in the Philippines, and in Sabah, Malaysia. Iranun was once considered a dialect. Unique among other Danao languages, Maranaoan is spoken with a distinct downstep accent, as opposed to stress accent. Maranao is spoken in the following areas ("Ethnologue"). Maranaoan was historically written in Arabic letters, which were known as "Batang Arab". It is now written with Latin letters. Though
21261341
Chavacano


language than a spoken language. In recent years, there have been efforts to encourage the use of Chavacano as a written language, but the attempts were mostly minor attempts in folklore and religious literature and few pieces of written materials by the print media. In Zamboanga City, while the language is used by the mass media, the Catholic Church, education, and the local government, there have been few literary work written in Zamboangueño and access to these resources by the general public is not readily available. As Chavacano is spoken
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Literary language


of written Chinese used from the end of the Han dynasty to the early 20th century when it was replaced by written vernacular Chinese, or "Baihua" (白話) spoken according to Standard Mandarin pronunciation. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese as the dialects of China became more disparate and as the Classical written language became less representative of the spoken language. At the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical language, and writers frequently borrowed Classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great
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Music of Lithuania


Sousa Carvalho, libretto by Gaetano Martinelli was written in 1782 to celebrate the birth of Pedro III, King of Portugal. "I Lituani" ("The Lithuanians") - is an opera consisting by Amilcare Ponchielli to an Italian libretto by Antonio Ghislanzoni, based on the historical poem Konrad Wallenrod written by Adam Mickiewicz. It premiered at La Scala in Milan on 7 March 1874. One of the first professional Lithuanian musicians was Juozas Kalvaitis (1842-1900). He composed a four-voiced Mass in the Lithuanian language
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Finnish verb conjugation


used in the formal, written language. Verb conjugation in the everyday spoken language is somewhat different. The present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect correspond fairly well to English: "speaks", "spoke", "has spoken", and "had spoken", respectively or in the passive voice, "it is spoken", "it was spoken", "it has been spoken", and "it had been spoken". The auxiliary verb "ei" used for negation, usually with the
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Swedish orthography


Swedish "sj"-sound. The Swedish sound can also be spelled several different ways, including , , , , , or , similarly to the "tj"-sound which can be spelled with (in some loanwords), , , or . Traditional spelling reflects an older pronunciation and often results in a large difference between written and spoken language (deep orthography). Many written languages of European origin have a written language that reflects an older spoken language. The traditional spelling also indicates assimilations, which often occur when certain difficult consonant combinations are pronounced
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Languages of Norway


There are a large number of languages spoken in Norway. Of these, the Norwegian language is the most widely spoken and the main official language of the country. The most widely spoken language in Norway is Norwegian. It is a North Germanic language, closely related to Swedish and Danish, all linguistic descendants of Old Norse. Norwegian is used by some 95% of the population as a first language. The language has two separate written standards: Nynorsk ("New Norwegian", "New" in the sense of contemporary
11715982
Langues d'oïl


specific "10th-and-11th centuries" variant of langue d'oïl spoken in the Paris region; both variants contributed to the koine, as both were called "French" at that time. For political reasons it was in Paris and Île-de-France that this koiné developed from a written language into a spoken language. Already in the 12th century Conon de Béthune reported about the French court who blamed him for using words of Artois. By the late 13th century the written koiné had begun to turn into a spoken and written
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Tungusic languages


. Currently, Manchu proper is a dying language spoken by a dozen or so elderly people in Qiqihar province, China. However, the closely related Xibe language spoken in Xinjiang, which historically was treated as a divergent dialect of Jurchen-Manchu, maintains the literary tradition of the script, and has around 30,000 speakers. As the only language in the Tungustic family with a long written tradition, Jurchen-Manchu is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic. Other Tungusic languages have relatively short or no written
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Languages in Star Wars


The "Star Wars" science fiction universe, created by George Lucas, features dialogue that is not spoken in natural languages. The lingua franca of the franchise, for which the language the works are dubbed or written stand in, is Galactic Basic. Characters often speak languages other than Basic, notably "Shyriiwook" spoken by Chewbacca, droidspeak spoken by R2-D2 and BB-8, and Huttese spoken by Jabba the Hutt. The fictional languages were approached as sound design and developed largely by Ben Burtt, sound designer for both the original
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Utterance


In spoken language analysis, an utterance is the smallest unit of speech. It is a continuous piece of speech beginning and ending with a clear pause. In the case of oral languages, it is generally but not always bounded by silence. Utterances do not exist in written language, only their representations do. They can be represented and delineated in written language in many ways. In oral/spoken language utterances have several features including paralinguistic features which are aspects of speech such as facial expression, gesture, and posture. Prosodic
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Maithili Wikipedia


The Maithili Wikipedia is the Maithili language version of Wikipedia, run by the Wikimedia Foundation. The site was launched on November 6, 2014. Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant of Kaithi. Today it is written in the Devanagari script. Maithili is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Bihar and Jharkhand states of India and is one of the 22 recognised Indian languages which is also spoken in the eastern Terai of Nepal and is the second most
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Language production


In psycholinguistics, language production is the production of spoken or written language. It describes all of the stages between having a concept, and translating that concept into linguistic form. In computational linguistics/natural language processing and artificial intelligence, the term natural language generation (NLG) is more common, and those models may or may not be psychologically motivated. Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a nonlinguistic message into a spoken, signed, or written linguistic signal. Though the following steps proceed in this approximate order,
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Neil Cohn


such as in sand drawings used by Australian Aboriginals. Just as spoken languages differ, so do visual languages: Japanese manga are written in “Japanese Visual Language” while American comics are written in “American Visual Language.” In addition, Cohn has argued that the development of visual languages may follow similar constraints as learning spoken and signed languages, and that most people do not learn how to draw proficiently because they do not acquire visual vocabularies within a critical period. Cohn's primary research program with visual language theory emphasizes that
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Languages in censuses


"Well", "Average", "A little" and "Not at all". The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic
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List of diglossic regions


such as Mandarin, Teochew, Hokkian and Hakka, along with Malay and English. Sinhala (also known as Sinhalese), spoken in Sri Lanka, is a diglossic language. There are several differences between the literary language (also known as Literary Sinhala, LS) and the spoken language (Spoken Sinhala, SS), especially about verbs: Literary or written Sinhala is commonly understood, and used in literary texts and formal occasions (public speeches, TV and radio news broadcasts, etc.), whereas the spoken language
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Languages of Greece


officially used standard, but there are several non-official dialects and distinct Hellenic languages spoken as well. Regional spoken dialects exist side by side with learned, archaic written forms. All surviving forms of modern Greek, except the Tsakonian language, are descendants of the common supra-regional ("koiné") as it was spoken in late antiquity. As such, they can ultimately be classified as descendants of Attic Greek, the dialect spoken in and around Athens in the classical era. Tsakonian, an isolated dialect spoken today
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Mizo culture


as the Hmar, Ralte, Lai, Lusei etc. A number of dialects are still spoken under the umbrella of Mizo; Mizo is the official language of Mizoram, along with English. Mizo language, or Mizo ṭawng, is a language belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages, spoken natively by the Mizo people in  Mizoram states of India and Chin State in Burma. Mizo literature is the literature written in Mizo ṭawng, the principal language of the Mizo peoples, which has both written and oral traditions. It
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Cyrillic alphabets


). Living Northwest Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. Abkhaz is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Georgia. Northeast Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. Avar is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republic of Dagestan, of the Russian Federation, where it is co-official together with other Caucasian languages like Dargwa, Lak, Lezgian and Tabassaran. All these alphabets, and other ones (Abaza, Adyghe, Chechen, Ingush, Kabardian) have an extra sign:
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Transcription (linguistics)


than orthographic transcription. Mapping spoken language onto written symbols is not as straightforward a process as may seem at first glance. Written language is an idealisation, made up of a limited set of clearly distinct and discrete symbols. Spoken language, on the other hand, is a continuous (as opposed to discrete) phenomenon, made up of a potentially unlimited number of components. There is no predetermined system for distinguishing and classifying these components and, consequently, no preset way of mapping these components onto written symbols. Literature is relatively
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Hunnic language


The Hunnic language, or Hunnish, was the language spoken by Huns in the Hunnic Empire, a heterogeneous, multi-ethnic tribal confederation which ruled much of Eastern Europe and invaded the West during the 4th and 5th centuries. A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun Empire. A contemporary report by Priscus has that Hunnish was spoken alongside Gothic and the languages of other tribes subjugated by the Huns. As no inscriptions or whole sentences in the Hunnic language have been preserved, written evidence for the language is very limited,
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Mongolian language


(but not written) by nearly 3.6 million people (2014 estimate), and the official provincial language (both spoken and written forms) of Inner Mongolia, China, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of
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Temporoparietal junction


, and comprehension of both written and spoken language. This is the region of the brain wherein “Mentalese”, a term coined by Steven Pinker to explain the brain's language that translates itself into written and spoken language, is processed. According to Pinker, “knowing a language is knowing how to translate Mentalese into a string of words and vice versa.” The lTPJ succeeds in this matter by taking in observations from external environments, such as conversations, making connections in the brain regarding past memories or incidents and then
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Rohingya language


Rohingya (), or Ruáingga (), is a language spoken by the Rohingya people of Rakhine State. It is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Bengali–Assamese branch, and is related to the Chittagonian language spoken in neighboring Bangladesh. Written in Arabic script, the first Rohingya language texts are more than 200 years old. While Arakan was under British rule (1826–1948), the Rohingya people used mainly English and Urdu for written communication. Since independence in 1948, Burmese has been used in all official
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Georgian language


Georgian (, , ) is a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians. It is the official language of Georgia. Georgian is written in its own writing system, the Georgian script. Georgian is the literary language for all regional subgroups of Georgians, including those who speak other Kartvelian languages: Svans, Mingrelians and the Laz. Georgian is the most pervasive of the Kartvelian languages, a family that also includes Svan and Megrelian (chiefly spoken in Northwest Georgia) and Laz (chiefly spoken along the Black Sea coast of Turkey, from
19993813
Münch (family lineage)


/ Minicks / Minnix / Menix. The Old High German dialect was different because it was the written classical Church Latin and spoken Alemanni German. The interface was the resultant language. The Old High German Period was from 800-1050AD. The Old High German spoken language was first written in Classical and Church Latin, was preserved years after the period. The Latin written language was used by the Roman Catholic Church to enhance the suppression of paganism and spread Christianity. Old High German was derived from Latin. 350. In the
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Official languages of the United Nations


. Hindi is one of the official languages of India and Fiji and is also spoken in Suriname, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. It is mutually intelligible to a high degree with Urdu which is spoken in Pakistan and together they are often considered the same language, referred to as Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu. Although very similar verbally, they do have different written scripts; Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and Urdu is written in the Nastaʿlīq script. Hindi has more than 550 million speakers in India alone,
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Dybuster


lead to difficulties in the task of translating the written language into the spoken language while reading, and, conversely, in writing the spoken language to the written language. The basic principle of Dybuster Orthograph is therefore to offer a word not only as black letters on white sheets of paper. Instead, each word is represented as a clearly defined and computed combination of colours, shapes, structures, and sounds. Dybuster thus implements multi-sensory learning, which is generally regarded as an efficient form of learning. As a specific
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SPEAKING


speech act. These include the method of communication (writing, speaking, signing or signaling), the language, dialect (a mutually intelligible subset of a language) or register (a variety of a language that is used in specific settings). Hymes described these instrumentalities generally as the Forms and styles of speech. For example, the instrumentality of the spoken word is different from the written word; the language spoken is unique to the speech act, as is the dialect. Similarly, the register that is spoken influences
12613554
Shan language


The Shan language (Shan written: , ), Shan spoken: , ), or , ; , ; , ) is the native language of the Shan people and is mostly spoken in Shan State, Burma. It is also spoken in pockets of Kachin State in Burma, in northern Thailand, and decreasingly in Assam. Shan is a member of the Tai–Kadai language family, and is related to Thai. It has five tones, which do not correspond exactly to Thai tones, plus a "sixth tone"
7381615
Khamti language


Khamti language ( Khamti : လိꩱ့်တဲးၵမ်းတီႈ (Khamti written), Khamti : ၵၢမ်းတဲးၵံးတီႈ (Khamti spoken) Shan ၶၢမ်းတႆးၶမ်းတီႈ , [kháːm táj], or Shan: ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆးၶမ်းတီႈ, [pʰàːsʰàː táj]; Burmese: ခန္တီးရှမ်းဘာသာ, [ʃáɴ bàðà]; Thai: ภาษาไทคำตี่ ) is a Southwestern Tai language spoken in Burma and India by the Khamti people. In Burma, Khamti is spoken by 3,500 in Sagaing Region, near Myitkyina and by 4,500 in Kachin State, Putao District (both reported in 2000). In India, it is spoken
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Language development


phase mirrors their spoken language. In the third phase, differentiation, children begin to learn that written language regularly differs in structure and style from spoken language. The growth from consolidation to differentiation can be challenging for some children to grasp. Children can 'struggle with the transformation from the basically overt language of speech to the essentially covert activity of writing'. In this phase, the child learns that writing is generally considered more formal than spoken language, which is thought to be casual and conversational. Here, it is believed
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Linguistic conservatism


say that written forms generally change more slowly than the spoken language does. This helps explain inconsistencies in writing systems such as that of English; since the spoken language has changed relatively more than the written language has, the match between spelling and pronunciation is inconsistent. (See Great Vowel Shift) A language may be conservative in one respect while simultaneously innovative in another. Bulgarian and Macedonian, closely related Slavic languages, are innovative in the grammar of their nouns, having dropped nearly all vestiges of the complex Slavic case system;
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Phonocentrism


Phonocentrism is the belief that sounds and speech are inherently superior to, or more primary than, written language. Those who espouse phonocentric views maintain that spoken language is the primary and most fundamental method of communication whereas writing is merely a derived method of capturing speech. Many also believe that spoken language is inherently richer and more intuitive than written language. These views also impact perceptions of sign languages – especially in the United States. Oralism is the belief that deaf students should use sounds, speech reading, and primarily English instead of
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Embodied cognition


relevant action. Emotion helps drive adaptive behavior. The evolutionary perspective cites language, both spoken and written, as types of embodied cognition. Pacing and non-verbal communication reflect embodied cognition in spoken language. Technical aspects of written language, such as italics, all caps, and emoticons promote an inner voice and thereby a sense of feeling rather than thinking about a written message. George Lakoff and his collaborators have developed several lines of evidence that suggest that people use their understanding of familiar physical objects, actions and situations (such
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Torne (river)


area Swedish speaking by teaching the school children only written Swedish and allowing only Swedish to be spoken during lessons, sometimes also during breaks. As an effect, during the second half of the 20th century, Swedish was the dominant language on the Swedish side. The Finnish spoken in informal conversation is similar on both sides of the river, although some newer words differ. To support the traditional language on the Swedish side a new written language has been devised, Meänkieli. On the Finnish side only Finnish is used in written communication
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