Linnaean taxonomy [SEP] based on
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Taxonomy (biology)


order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. With the advent of such fields of study as phylogenetics, cladistics, and systematics, the Linnaean system has progressed to a system of modern biological classification based on the evolutionary relationships between organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core
11753005
Evolutionary taxonomy


Linnaean taxonomy (producing orderly lists only), in that it builds evolutionary trees. While in phylogenetic nomenclature each taxon must consist of a single ancestral node and all its descendants, evolutionary taxonomy allows for groups to be excluded from their parent taxa (e.g. dinosaurs are not considered to "include" birds, but to have "given rise" to them), thus permitting paraphyletic taxa. Evolutionary taxonomy arose as a result of the influence of the theory of evolution on Linnaean taxonomy. The idea of translating Linnaean taxonomy into a
15750349
Linnaean taxonomy


several orders. The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were: The classes based on the number of stamens were then subdivided by the number of pistils, e.g. "Hexandria monogynia" with six stamens and one pistil. Index to genera p. 1201 Only in the Animal Kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes, in the tenth edition, of
17642650
Linnaean taxonomy


1758, these were: His taxonomy of minerals has long since dropped from use. In the tenth edition, 1758, of the "Systema Naturae", the Linnaean classes were: This rank-based method of classifying living organisms was originally popularized by (and much later named for) Linnaeus, although it has changed considerably since his time. The greatest innovation of Linnaeus, and still the most important aspect of this system, is the general use of binomial nomenclature, the combination of a genus name and a second term
17642651
Linnaean taxonomy


has largely been supplanted in modern taxonomic work by a division into three domains: Bacteria and Archaea, which contain the prokaryotes, and Eukaryota, comprising the remaining forms. These arrangements should not be seen as definitive. They are based on the genomes of the organisms; as knowledge on this increases, classifications will change. Representing presumptive evolutionary relationships, especially given the wide acceptance of cladistic methodology and numerous molecular phylogenies that have challenged long-accepted classifications, within the framework of Linnaean taxonomy, is sometimes seen as problematic. Therefore
17642662
Mollicutes


yet not always the case. Traditionally, the taxonomy of bacteria was based on similarities and differences in morphology (Linnaean taxonomy). In 1962, R.G.E. Murray proposed to divide the kingdom Bacteria into three divisions (= phyla) on the basis of the cell wall types: For classification and nomenclature of Mollicutes, there are special rules, which are maintained by the "International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes (ICSP) Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Mollicutes" (formerly the "International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology (ICSB) Subcommittee on taxonomy
14999442
Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)


the evolutionary history of the phylum Mollusca. Bouchet & Rocroi's classification system is a hybrid of the pre-existing, more traditional Linnaean taxonomy along with some more recent far-reaching revisions which are based on molecular work and use clades as taxa, (see cladistics). In the past, the taxonomy of gastropods was largely based on the morphological characters of the taxa, such as the shell characteristics (including the protoconch) in shelled species, and the internal anatomy, including the structure of the radula and details of
1948687
Linnaean taxonomy


Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts: Linnaean name also has two meanings: depending on the context, it may either refer to a formal name given by Linnaeus (personally), such as "Giraffa camelopardalis" Linnaeus, 1758, or a formal name in the accepted nomenclature (as opposed to a modernistic clade name). In his "Imperium Naturae", Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namely "Regnum Animale", "Regnum Vegetabile" and "Regnum Lapideum". This approach, the Animal, Vegetable
17642647
Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)


system was the first complete gastropod taxonomy that primarily employed the concept of clades, and was derived from research on molecular phylogenetics; in this context a clade is a "natural grouping" of organisms based upon a statistical cluster analysis. In contrast, most of the previous overall taxonomic schemes for gastropods relied on morphological features to classify these animals, and used taxon ranks such as order, superorder and suborder, which are typical of classifications that are still inspired by Linnaean taxonomy. In the Bouchet & Rocroi taxonomy, clades are used
1948681
Linnaean taxonomy


ought to reflect the phylogeny of organisms, their descent by evolution. This led to evolutionary taxonomy, where the various extant and extinct are linked together to construct a phylogeny. This is largely what is meant by the term 'Linnaean taxonomy' when used in a modern context. In cladistics, originating in the work of Willi Hennig, 1950 onwards, each taxon is grouped so as to include the common ancestor of the group's members (and thus to avoid phylogeny). Such taxa may be either monophyletic (including all
17642660
Abelisauridae


. Abelisauridae is a family in rank-based Linnaean taxonomy, within the infraorder Ceratosauria and the superfamily Abelisauroidea, which also contains the family Noasauridae. It has had several definitions in phylogenetic taxonomy. It was originally defined as a node-based taxon including "Abelisaurus", "Carnotaurus", their common ancestor, and all of its descendants. Later, it was redefined as a stem-based taxon, including all animals more closely related to "Abelisaurus" (or the more complete "Carnotaurus") than to "
19559613
Linnaean taxonomy


and treats "homo" as the genus of a species "Homo sapiens", with "sapiens" (Latin for "knowing" or "understanding") playing a differentiating role analogous to that played, in the Scholastic system, by "rationalis" (the word "homo", Latin for "human being", was used by the Scholastics to denote a species, not a genus). A strength of Linnaean taxonomy is that it can be used to organize the different kinds of living organisms, simply and
17642654
Goethean science


the most exact physical apparatus that can exist." While the fixed Linnaean system, like classical physics, its distinctions broke down increasingly at the border, reflected in the increasing confusion as to how to classify the growing number of plant forms being brought forward. This led to greater division rather than greater unity. Goethe's discovery of an underlying order directly challenged the fixed, static view of nature of the Linnaean taxonomy (based on artificial types arrived at by choosing certain features and ignoring others), but also the tendency of
13475157
Taxonomy (biology)


considered pre-Linnaean. Whereas Linnaeus aimed simply to create readily identifiable taxa, the idea of the Linnaean taxonomy as translating into a sort of dendrogram of the animal and plant kingdoms was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before "On the Origin of Species" was published. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Erasmus Darwin's 1796 "Zoönomia" and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's "Philosophie Zoologique" of 1809. The idea was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but
11753026
Linnaean enterprise


The Linnaean enterprise is the task of identifying and describing all living species. It is named after Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, ecologist and physician who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of taxonomy. As of 2006, the Linnaean enterprise is considered to be barely begun. There are estimated to be 10 million living species, but only about 1.5-1.8 million have been even named, and fewer than 1% of these have been studied enough to understand the basics of their ecological roles. Linnaean enterprise plays a larger
20265073
Linnaean taxonomy


, which together uniquely identify each species of organism within a kingdom. For example, the human species is uniquely identified within the animal kingdom by the name "Homo sapiens". No other species of animal can have this same binomen (the technical term for a binomial in the case of animals). Prior to Linnaean taxonomy, animals were classified according to their mode of movement. Linnaeus's use of binomial nomenclature was anticipated by the theory of definition used in Scholasticism. Scholastic logicians and philosophers of nature defined the species man
17642652
Carl Linnaeus


transferred to Uppsala. The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the "Linnaean taxonomy"; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification
4960761
Folk taxonomy


systems are a vital aid to survival and include information such as the fruiting patterns of trees and the habits of large mammals. These localised naming systems are folk taxonomies. Theophrastus recorded evidence of a Greek folk taxonomy for plants, but later formalized botanical taxonomies were laid out in the 18th century by Carl Linnaeus. Some anthropologists say race is a folk taxonomy. Scientists generally recognize that folk taxonomies conflict at times with Linnaean taxonomy or current interpretations of evolutionary relationships, and can tend to refer to generalized rather than quantitatively informative traits in
5983745
Hierarchy


be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc. Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of "Systema Naturae"), a human can be formulated as: Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same. In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested
14250731
Taxonomy (biology)


taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use. The cladistic method has emerged since the 1960s. In 1958, Julian Huxley used the term clade. Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic. The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical evolutionary tree, ignoring ranks. A taxon is called monophyletic, if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed paraphyletic, while groups representing more than one
11753029
Linnaean taxonomy


genera" (singular: "genus"), and "species" (singular: "species"). There are ranks below species: in zoology, "subspecies" (but see "form" or "morph"); in botany, "variety" (varietas) and "form" (forma), etc. Groups of organisms at any of these ranks are called "taxa" (singular: "taxon") or "taxonomic groups". The Linnaean system has proven robust and it remains
17642657
Virus


1962, André Lwoff, Robert Horne, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the Linnaean hierarchical system. This system based classification on phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties (not those of their hosts) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes. In 1966, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was never fully
5611935
Gastropoda


was largely based on phenetic morphological characters of the taxa. The recent advances are more based on molecular characters from DNA and RNA research. This has made the taxonomical ranks and their hierarchy controversial. The debate about these issues is not likely to end soon. In the Bouchet, Rocroi "et al." taxonomy, the authors have used unranked clades for taxa above the rank of superfamily (replacing the ranks suborder, order, superorder and subclass), while using the traditional Linnaean approach for all taxa below the rank of
11931122
Phylogenetic nomenclature


claiming that the categories of his system had "individuality and reality" in contrast to the "timeless abstractions" of morphology-based classifications. Formal classifications based on cladistic reasoning are said to emphasize ancestry at the expense of descriptive characteristics. Nonetheless, most taxonomists today avoid paraphyletic groups whenever they think it is possible within Linnaean taxonomy; polyphyletic taxa have long fallen out of fashion. The "ICPN", or "PhyloCode", is a draft code of rules and recommendations for phylogenetic nomenclature. The number of supporters for widespread
4744934
Evidence of common descent


structure that is specialized to perform a variety of functions to adapt different environmental conditions and modes of life, it is called adaptive radiation. The gradual spreading of organisms with adaptive radiation is known as divergent evolution. Taxonomy is based on the fact that all organisms are related to each other in nested hierarchies based on shared characteristics. Most existing species can be organized rather easily in a nested hierarchical classification. This is evident from the Linnaean classification scheme. Based on shared derived characters, closely related organisms can be placed in one group
7261720
Operational taxonomic unit


An operational taxonomic unit (OTU) is an operational definition used to classify groups of closely related individuals. The term was originally introduced by Robert R. Sokal and Peter H. A. Sneath in the context of numerical taxonomy, where an "Operational Taxonomic Unit" is simply the group of organisms currently being studied. In this sense, an OTU is a pragmatic definition to group individuals by similarity, equivalent to but not necessarily in line with classical Linnaean taxonomy or modern evolutionary taxonomy. Nowadays, however, the term "OTU" is
11105353
Tyrannosauridae


noun. Tyrannosauridae is a family in rank-based Linnaean taxonomy, within the superfamily Tyrannosauroidea and the suborder Theropoda. Tyrannosauridae is uncontroversially divided into two subfamilies. Albertosaurinae comprises the North American genera "Albertosaurus" and "Gorgosaurus", while Tyrannosaurinae includes "Daspletosaurus", "Teratophoneus", "Bistahieversor", "Tarbosaurus", "Nanuqsaurus", "Zhuchengtyrannus", and "Tyrannosaurus" itself. Some authors include the species "Gorgosaurus libratus" in the genus "Albertosaurus" and "Tarbosaurus bataar" in the genus
18977490
Taxonomy (biology)


of the flower. Thus the Linnaean system was born, and is still used in essentially the same way today as it was in the 18th century. Currently, plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with the exception of spiders published in "Svenska Spindlar"). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are
11753025
Filippo Bonanni


avoided. Zoological taxonomies of the time were based on visual characteristics, and Bonanni paid special attention to both form and color, and showed details (sometimes fanciful) of the creatures inside the shells. Although his work predated the adoption of Linnaeus' system of binomial nomenclature (genus + species), Bonanni laid the foundation for the new discipline of conchology. Several later Linnaean names were based on Bonanni's work, including the name of the class "Bivalvia", which he introduced. Among other topics, Bonanni wrote of
3432685
Systema Naturae


used in that sense well into the 19th century. The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were: Linnaeus's taxonomy of minerals has long since fallen out of use. In the 10th edition, 1758, of the "", the Linnaean classes were: Gmelin's thirteenth ("decima tertia") edition of "Systema Naturae" (1788–1793) should be carefully distinguished from the more limited "Systema Vegetabilium" first prepared and published by Johan Andreas Murray in 1774 (but labelled as "thirteenth edition
7844288
Ichnotaxon


An ichnotaxon (plural ichnotaxa) is "a taxon based on the fossilized work of an organism", i.e. the non-human equivalent of an artifact. "Ichnotaxa" comes from the Greek ίχνος, "ichnos" meaning "track" and ταξις, "taxis" meaning "ordering". Ichnotaxa are names used to identify and distinguish morphologically distinctive ichnofossils, more commonly known as trace fossils. They are assigned genus and species ranks by ichnologists, much like organisms in Linnaean taxonomy. These are known as ichnogenera and ichnospecies
1726636
Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)


the traditional Linnaean ranks for superfamilies and all taxa below the rank of superfamily (i.e., family, subfamily, tribe, genus, subgenus, and species. The clades have been given names which are similar to, or in some cases the same as, traditional Linnaean names for taxa above the level of superfamily. Whenever monophyly (a single ancestry) has not yet been tested and confirmed, or where a traditional taxon of gastropods has already been discovered to be paraphyletic (that it excludes some of its descendants) the term
1948689
Linnaean taxonomy


clades) and this sometimes leads to a desire for more ranks. An example of such complexity is the scheme for mammals proposed by McKenna and Bell. Over time, the understanding of the relationships between living things has changed. Linnaeus could only base his scheme on the structural similarities of the different organisms. The greatest change was the widespread acceptance of evolution as the mechanism of biological diversity and species formation, following the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species". It then became generally understood that classifications
17642659
Taxonomy of Liliaceae


meaning "visible seed", hence "Endogenæ phanerogamæ". Candolle also instituted the concept of ordered ranks, based on classes, subclasses, "familles" (Latin: "ordines naturales") and "tribus" (tribes), subdividing the Liliaceae. Lindley was the first post-Linnaean English systematist, publishing his work in 1830, and following the reasoning of Jussieu he used the term tribe to describe the Liliaceae as a division of the hexapetaloid monocots, characterised by a superior ovary, highly developed perianth, inward
8709299
Taxonomy (biology)


branch from the tree of life are called polyphyletic. The "International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature" or "PhyloCode" is intended to regulate the formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks will be optional under the "PhyloCode", which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as the top rank, dividing the physical world into the plant, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made classification of microorganisms possible,
11753030
William Withering


Britain", an early and influential British Flora. It was the first in English based on the then new Linnaean taxonomy — a classification of all living things — devised by the eminent Swedish botanist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). At the time he was criticised for having produced a bowdlerised version of Linnaeus, deliberately omitting any references to sexual reproduction, out of a desire to protect 'female modesty', notably by 'A Botanical Society, at Lichfield' - almost always incorrectly named as The Botanical Society of Lichfield
14554131
Clade


. The idea of a clade did not exist in pre-Darwinian Linnaean taxonomy, which was based by necessity only on internal or external morphological similarities between organisms – although as it happens, many of the better known animal groups in Linnaeus' original Systema Naturae (notably among the vertebrate groups) do represent clades. The phenomenon of convergent evolution is, however, responsible for many cases where there are misleading similarities in the morphology of groups that evolved from different lineages. With the increasing realization in the first half of the 19th
6815149
Sarcopterygii


four-limbed vertebrates. The fin-limbs of lobe-finned fishes such as the coelacanths show a strong similarity to the expected ancestral form of tetrapod limbs. The lobe-finned fishes apparently followed two different lines of development and are accordingly separated into two subclasses, the Rhipidistia (including the Dipnoi, the lungfish, and the Tetrapodomorpha which include the Tetrapoda) and the Actinistia (coelacanths). The classification below follows Benton 2004, and uses a synthesis of rank-based Linnaean taxonomy and also reflects evolutionary relationships. Benton
9046452
Thecodontia


. Robert Carroll in his book "Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution" (1988) replaces Pseudosuchia with Rauisuchia, Ornithosuchia, and the traditional category "incertae sedis" (of uncertain placement), while retaining the other three suborders. This is the last major textbook that still recognizes the taxon Thecodontia, as it uses a traditional Linnaean based taxonomy. Brian Gardiner (1982) attempted to define Thecodontia within a cladistic framework, thus giving the old name to a new concept. All more recent cladistic studies (e.g. Jacques Gauthier 1986)
15892463
Arcovenator


in Linnaean taxonomy has the rank of family. This taxonomical group has as close relatives noasaurids within the Abelisauroidea. The latter in turn along with "Limusaurus" and "Ceratosaurus" nests within Ceratosauria. Distinguishing characters of abelisaurids are their short, tall skulls with extensively sculptured external surfaces, the drastically reduced fore limbs, and the stout hind limbs. Thierry Tortosa and colleagues conducted a phylogenetic analysis, which is summarized in the cladogram below and is based, in part, on previously published works including both the newly discovered fossil remains
16786275
Alethinophidia


The Alethinophidia are an infraorder of snakes that includes all snakes other than blind snakes and thread snakes. Snakes have long been grouped into families within Alethinophidia based on their morphology, especially that of their teeth. More modern phylogenetic hypotheses using genetic data support the recognition of 19 extant families (see below), although the taxonomy of alethinophidian snakes has long been debated, and ultimately the decision whether to assign a particular clade to a particular Linnaean rank (such as a superfamily, family, or subfamily) is arbitrary. The infraorder
19144395
Dinosaur classification


, it also retains the traditional ranks used in Linnaean taxonomy. The classification has been updated from the second edition in 2000 to reflect new research, but remains fundamentally conservative. Michael Benton classifies all dinosaurs within the Series Amniota, Class Sauropsida, Subclass Diapsida, Infraclass Archosauromorpha, Division Archosauria, Subdivision Avemetatarsalia, Infradivision Ornithodira, and Superorder Dinosauria. Dinosauria is then divided into the two traditional orders, Saurischia and Ornithischia. The dagger (†) is used to indicate taxa with no living members. The following is based on the
2036197
Proteaceae


the distribution of many taxa has changed drastically with the passage of time and that the family has suffered a general decline, including high levels of extinction during the Cenozoic. First described by French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, the family Proteaceae is a fairly large one, with around 80 genera, but less than 2000 species. It is recognised by virtually all taxonomists. Firmly established under classical Linnaean taxonomy, it is also recognised by the cladistics-based APG and APG II systems. It is placed in the order Proteales,
2665300
Paleontology


are built. Analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to explain major transitions such as the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Naming groups of organisms in a way that is clear and widely agreed is important, as some disputes in paleontology have been based just on misunderstandings over names. Linnaean taxonomy is commonly used for classifying living organisms, but runs into difficulties when dealing with newly discovered organisms that are significantly different from known ones. For example: it is hard to decide at what level to place a new higher-level grouping
3473770
Genera Plantarum


and must know all genera, and must memorise their ‘definitions’ (diagnosis). The natural definitions given in the various editions of the "Genera Plantarum" are intended to facilitate this. Stability of generic taxonomy was one of his first aims, and the way he went about achieving it aroused the criticism of many of his contemporaries. Yet, this generic reform was one of his greatest achievements: his genera and their nomenclature stand at the beginning of the victory of Linnaean taxonomy. He dealt with the theory of generic
13621431
Trace fossil classification


is used, just as in animal and plant taxonomy, with a genus and specific epithet. However, the binomial names are not linked to an organism, but rather just a trace fossil. This is due to the rarity of association between a trace fossil and a specific organism or group of organisms. Trace fossils are therefore included in an "ichnotaxon" separate from Linnaean taxonomy. When referring to trace fossils, the terms "ichnogenus" and "ichnospecies" parallel genus and species respectively. The most promising cases of phylogenetic
15356809
Zoology


all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term may be italicized or underlined. The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. The classification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of zoological organisms is administered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize nomenclature, but has yet to be formally adopted. Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior under natural conditions, as opposed to behaviourism,
15779193
Linnaean taxonomy


practically. Every species can be given a unique (and, one hopes, stable) name, as compared with common names that are often neither unique nor consistent from place to place and language to language. This uniqueness and stability are, of course, a result of the acceptance by working systematists (biologists specializing in taxonomy), not merely of the binomial names themselves, but of the rules governing the use of these names, which are laid down in formal nomenclature codes. Species can be placed in a ranked hierarchy
17642655
Linnaean taxonomy


points of nomenclature; his binomials (names for species) and generic names take priority over those of others. However, the impact he had on science was not because of the value of his taxonomy. His classes and orders of plants, according to his "Systema Sexuale", were never intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to his "ordines naturales" in his "Philosophia Botanica") but only for use in identification. They were used for that purpose well into the nineteenth century. Within each class were
17642649
Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)


"group" or "informal group" has been used. Both Linnaean taxa and clades are invalid if it turns out they are polyphyletic, in other words if they consist of more than one lineage. In this taxonomy 611 valid families are recognized. Of these, 202 families are exclusively fossil, and this is indicated here with a dagger †. Superfamily names are standardized so that they all end in the suffix "-oidea", also commonly used for superorders and subclasses, replacing the "-acea" ending found especially in the
1948690
Jacques Gauthier


papers still form the core of essentially all gross-anatomy-based phylogenetic analyses of these groups, and as such are among the most highly cited papers in amniote morphology and paleobiology. The 1988 amniote paper is also frequently cited to demonstrate the importance of taxon sampling in phylogenetic analysis, in particular the importance of sampling rare or fossil taxa that can break 'long branches' along which convergence can occur. Gauthier has argued together with Kevin de Queiroz for replacing Linnaean taxonomy with the PhyloCode. In addition to his theoretical work on
22172630
Brain morphometry


statistical methods have to be in place to compare the measurements quantitatively. Shape feature comparisons form the basis of Linnaean taxonomy, and even in cases of convergent evolution or brain disorders, they still provide a wealth of information about the nature of the processes involved. Shape comparisons have long been constrained to simple and mainly volume- or slice-based measures but profited enormously from the digital revolution, as now all sorts of shapes in any number of dimensions can be handled numerically. In addition, though the extraction of morphometric parameters like brain
260020
Taxonomy of the Conoidea (Tucker & Tenorio, 2009)


"Conus" has been dismembered." In 1979, Jerry G. Walls emulated Tomlin by confining all species to the genus "Conus", stating that "although many subgenera or genera have been devised for the cones, only the single genus "Conus" with no subgenera is recognized here." Subsequent experts in the field of cone snail taxonomy followed Tomlin and Walls, and retained all species of cones in the single genus "Conus", making the Conidae a monogeneric family. This traditional Linnaean classification system, placing all
10775853
Littorinimorpha


Littorinimorpha is a large clade of snails, gastropods, consisting primarily of sea snails (marine species), but also including some freshwater snails (aquatic species) and land snails (terrestrial species). Previously, the Linnaean taxonomy used in the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Ponder & Lindberg (1997) ranked like this: subclass Orthogastropoda, superorder Caenogastropoda, order Sorbeoconcha, suborder Hypsogastropoda, infraorder Littorinimorpha. The order Littorinimorpha contains many gastropoda families that were formerly placed in the order Mesogastropoda, as introduced by J. Thiele in his work
16967891
Amphibian


analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy, and included them elsewhere under cladistic taxonomy. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group. All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura
28245
Bird


, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry. The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume "Ornithologiae". Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use. Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda. Aves and a sister group, the order Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
3074468
Animals Drawn from Nature and Engraved in Aqua-tinta


sometimes acknowledge. Catton did not use Linnaean taxonomy and his descriptions were those of an artist experienced in careful observation, not of an experienced naturalist. Hence, except when he uses the same name as is extant (even if rather archaic), this section records what experienced naturalists have later claimed are the specific identifications (sometimes from first-hand knowledge) or what Catton himself said were other naturalists' identifications. No attempt is made here to make identifications based on Catton's physical or behavioural descriptions, or from his illustrations
125727
Apostles of Linnaeus


collections and journals were sent to Saint Petersburg to be later completed and published as "Beyträga zur topografischen Kenntniss des Russichen Reichs" in 1785–86 by Samuel Georg Gmelin. Daniel Solander (1733–82) was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage and telling Solander that he would become his successor. Based on Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760 where he spread the Linnaean taxonomy. Two years later Linnaeus got
5126724
Londa Schiebinger


focuses on Carl Linnaeus and how his taxonomies contributed to naturalizing the role of “woman” in modern culture. Quaint hyperbole of plants celebrating steamy nuptials on softly perfumed pedaled beds surrounded the discovery of plant sexuality. Plant sexuality was strongly assimilated to heterosexual models of human affections, even though the majority of the flowers are hermaphroditic. Here Schiebinger reveals how Linnaean taxonomy recapitulated social hierarchies by setting the taxon defined by the male stamens above that defined by female pistils. Best known is her chapter “Why Mammals are Called Mammals.”
12111538
Dinosaur classification


cladistics is the predominant classificatory system among paleontology professionals, the Linnean system is still in use, especially in works intended for popular distribution. As most dinosaur paleontologists have advocated a shift away from traditional, ranked Linnaean taxonomy in favor of rankless phylogenetic systems, few ranked taxonomies of dinosaurs have been published since the 1980s. The following schema is among the most recent, from the third edition of "Vertebrate Palaeontology", a respected undergraduate textbook. While it is structured so as to reflect evolutionary relationships (similar to a cladogram)
2036196
Phylogenetic nomenclature


de Queiroz and the botanist Philip Cantino to start drafting their own code of nomenclature, the "PhyloCode", for regulating phylogenetic nomenclature. Willi Hennig's pioneering work provoked a spirited debate about the relative merits of phylogenetic nomenclature versus Linnaean taxonomy, or the related approach of evolutionary taxonomy, which has continued down to the present. Some of the debates in which the cladists were engaged had been running since the 19th century. While Hennig insisted that different classification schemes were useful for different purposes, he gave primacy to his own,
4744933
Linnaean taxonomy


, starting with either "domains" or "kingdoms". Domains are divided into kingdoms. Kingdoms are divided into "phyla" (singular: "phylum") — for animals; the term "division", used for plants and fungi, is equivalent to the rank of phylum (and the current International Code of Botanical Nomenclature allows the use of either term). Phyla (or divisions) are divided into "classes", and they, in turn, into "orders", "families", "
17642656
Twenty Questions


"yes," the "questioner" can use the next question to narrow down the answer; if the "answerer" responds with "no," the "questioner" has successfully eliminated a number of possibilities for the answer. The most popular variant is called "Animal, Plant, Mineral." This is taken from the Linnaean taxonomy of the natural world. In this version, the "answerer" tells the "questioners" at the start of the game whether the subject belongs to the animal, vegetable or
15921233
Hierarchy


general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level "Mammalia" "is a" member of the level "Animalia"; more specifically,
14250734
Linnaean taxonomy


and Mineral Kingdoms, survives today in the popular mind, notably in the form of the parlour game question: "Is it animal, vegetable or mineral?". The work of Linnaeus had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation for biological nomenclature, now regulated by the nomenclature codes. Two of his works, the first edition of the "Species Plantarum" (1753) for plants and the tenth edition of the "Systema Naturae" (1758), are accepted as part of the starting
17642648
Cryptogam


group, Cryptogamae are the opposite of the Phanerogamae (Greek , = "visible") or Spermatophyta (Greek , = "seed" and , = "plant"), the seed plants. The best-known groups of cryptogams are algae, lichens, mosses and ferns, but it also includes non-photosynthetic organisms traditionally classified as plants, such as fungi, slime molds, and bacteria.The classification is now deprecated in Linnaean taxonomy. At one time, the cryptogams were formally recognised as a group within the
1982169
Extensional and intensional definitions


is defined by first stating the broad category it belongs to and then distinguished by specific properties, is a type of intensional definition. As the name might suggest, this is the type of definition used in Linnaean taxonomy to categorize living things, but is by no means restricted to biology. Suppose one defines a miniskirt as "a skirt with a hemline above the knee". It has been assigned to a "genus", or larger class of items: it is a type of skirt. Then, we've described
15954814
Linnaean taxonomy


, for example, as "Animal rationalis", where "animal" was considered a genus and "rationalis" (Latin for "rational") the characteristic distinguishing man from all other animals. Treating "animal" as the immediate genus of the species man, horse, etc. is of little practical use to the biological taxonomist, however. Accordingly, Linnaeus's classification treats "animal" as a class including many genera (subordinated to the animal "kingdom" via intermediary classes such as "orders"),
17642653
Elongatoolithus


. Most, if not all, elongatoolithid nests would not have been buried by their parents. However, according to a statistical analysis of eggshell pore density by Tanaka "et al." (2015), it is possible that "E. elongatus" eggs were buried. Fossilized eggs are classified in their own, parataxonomic system parallel to Linnaean taxonomy. "Elongatoolithus" and the closely-related oogenera "Macroolithus" and "Nanhsiungoolithus" were the first oogenera described in this system. These oogenera are all classified in the oofamily
11657659
Nepenthes distillatoria


Nepenthes distillatoria (; from New Latin from Latin: "destillo" = to distill, "-oria" = adjectival ending; something from which a liquid is distilled, i.e., pitcher) is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sri Lanka. It was the second "Nepenthes" species to be described in print and the first to be formally named under the Linnaean system of taxonomy. It is therefore the type species of the genus. "Nepenthes distillatoria" was the second "Nepenthes" species to be described in print, after
1201252
Ecology


, behavioural, and genetic traits, for example, can be mapped onto evolutionary trees to study the historical development of a species in relation to their functions and roles in different ecological circumstances. In this framework, the analytical tools of ecologists and evolutionists overlap as they organize, classify, and investigate life through common systematic principals, such as phylogenetics or the Linnaean system of taxonomy. The two disciplines often appear together, such as in the title of the journal "Trends in Ecology and Evolution". There is no sharp boundary
9631654
Nanhsiungoolithus


bury their eggs. Fossilized eggs are classified by a parataxonomic system similar to Linnaean taxonomy. According to this system, "Nanhsiungoolithus" is an oogenus in the oofamily Elongatoolithidae. Along with "Macroolithus" and "Elongatoolithus", it was the first oogenus ever given a formal parataxonomic name; it is a monotypic oogenus, with the single oospecies "N. chuetienensis". "Nanhsiungoolithus" eggs were first discovered in Southern China by the pioneering Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian. In 1965, he described several types of eggs from Nanxiong (
14440070
Camarasaurus


, later-surviving population of animals. "Camarasaurus lewisi" species was originally named as "Cathetosaurus lewisi" and later synonymized with "Camarasaurus". A 2013 analysis split the two genera again. The scientific classification of "Camarasaurus", using the Linnaean system, is given in the box to the upper right but, among palaeontologists, this method of taxonomic classification of dinosaurs is being supplanted by the cladistics inspired phylogenetic taxonomy. Simplified cladogram of Macronaria after D'Emic (2012) is shown below: "Camarasaurus" is considered
14603769
Paramecium


phrase "slipper animalcule" remained in use as a colloquial epithet for "Paramecium", throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The name "Paramecium" – constructed from the Greek παραμήκης (paramēkēs, "oblong") – was coined in 1752 by the English microscopist John Hill, who applied the name generally to "Animalcules which have no visible limbs or tails, and are of an irregularly oblong figure". In 1773, O. F. Müller, the first researcher to place the genus within the Linnaean system of taxonomy,
17620796
Majungasaurus


await preparation and description in future publications. The dentary was made the neotype specimen after a 2009 petition to the ICZN. "Majungasaurus" is classified as a member of the theropod clade Abelisauridae, which is considered a family in Linnaean taxonomy. Along with the family Noasauridae, abelisaurids are included in the superfamily Abelisauroidea, which is in turn a subdivision of the infraorder Ceratosauria. Abelisaurids are known for their tall skulls with blunt snouts, extensive sculpturing on the outer surfaces of the facial bones (convergent with carcharodontosaurids), very reduced
21078735
Senegalia catechu


Senegalia catechu is a deciduous, thorny tree which grows up to in height. The plant is called "khair" in Hindi, and "kachu" in Malay, hence the name was Latinized to "catechu" in Linnaean taxonomy, as the type-species from which the extracts cutch and catechu are derived. Common names for it include kher, catechu, cachou, cutchtree, black cutch, and black catechu. "Senegalia catechu" is found in parts of South Asia and Southeast Asia, including India, Myanmar,
21096615
Carl Linnaeus


by Linnaeus. The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera ("singular:" genus), which were divided into species ("singular:" species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as "variety" in botany and "subspecies" in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of
4960762
Megalosaurus


ever applied to an extinct dinosaur. Plot's engraving of the Cornwell bone was again used in a book by Richard Brookes in 1763. Brookes, in a caption, called it "Scrotum Humanum," apparently comparing its appearance to a pair of "human testicles". In 1970, paleontologist Lambert Beverly Halstead pointed out that the similarity of "Scrotum humanum" to a modern species name, a so-called Linnaean "binomen" that has two parts, was not a coincidence. Linnaeus, the founder of modern taxonomy
510693
Scarlet ibis


. The legitimacy of "Eudocimus ruber" as a biological classification, however, is in dispute. Traditional Linnaean taxonomy classifies it as a unique species, but some scientists have moved to reclassify it as a subspecies of a more general American ibis species, along with its close relative, the American white ibis ("Eudocimus albus"). The species was first classified by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Initially given the binomial nomenclature of "Scolopax rubra" (the name incorporates the Latin adjective "ruber", "red"
9369960
Biology


species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term may be italicized or underlined. The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code
9649305
Family (biology)


Family (, plural ") is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy; it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks between the ranks of family and genus. The official family names are Latin in origin; however, popular names are often used: for example, walnut trees and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae, but that family is commonly referred to as being the "walnut family". What does or does not belong to a
11543920
Catnip


), before the commencement of Linnaean taxonomy. The plant terpenoid nepetalactone is the main chemical constituent of the essential oil of "Nepeta cataria". Nepetalactone can be extracted from catnip by steam distillation. "Nepeta cataria" is cultivated as an ornamental plant for use in gardens. It is also grown for its attractant qualities to house cats and butterflies. The plant is drought-tolerant and deer-resistant. It can be a repellent for certain insects, including aphids and squash bugs. Catnip is best grown in full sunlight
19614361
James Sherard


and a major work for the pre-Linnaean taxonomy of South African plants, notably the succulents of the Cape Province. Dillenius' herbarium specimens from Eltham are preserved in the herbarium of the Oxford Botanical Garden. In 1728, Sherard's brother died, and he was left in charge of executing William's will. He successfully negotiated his brother's endowment of the Sherardian Professorship of Botany at the University of Oxford; following the terms of the will, Dillenius was named the first Sherardian Professor. For his work in endowing the
20175916
Euteleostomi


Euteleostomi is a successful clade that includes more than 90% of the living species of vertebrates. Euteleostomes are also known as "bony vertebrates". Both its major subgroups are successful today: Actinopterygii includes the majority of extant fish species, and Sarcopterygii includes the tetrapods. "Osteichthyes" in the paleontological sense (i.e., "bony vertebrates"), is synonymous with Euteleostomi. However, in ichthyology and Linnaean taxonomy Osteichthyes, literally "bony fish," refers to the paraphyletic group that differs by excluding tetrapods. The name
3979695
Macroolithus


a gradual decline in diversity and eventual disappearance of fossil eggs from the Nanxiong Basin. According to their interpretation, "Macroolithus" survived 250,000 years into the early Paleocene. However, Buck "et al." (2004) disputed these claims, arguing that debris flows mixed and reworked the sediments near the boundary, causing a blurring of the iridium anomaly and the appearance of eggshell fragments on both sides. Fossilized eggs are classified in their own, parataxonomic system parallel to Linnaean taxonomy. "Macroolithus", "Elongatoolithus",
86766
Pythonoidea


family Pythonidae, as well as two lesser-known families, Loxocemidae (1 species of Mexican burrowing "python" in the genus "Loxocemus") and Xenopeltidae (2 species of sunbeam snakes in the genus "Xenopeltis"). The taxonomy of pythons, boas, and other henophidian snakes has long been debated, and ultimately the decision whether to assign a particular clade to a particular Linnaean rank (such as a superfamily, family, or subfamily) is arbitrary. The clade name Pythonoidea emphasizes the relatively close evolutionary relationship
9290040
Goethean science


via faith. To seek to know the realm beyond the senses amounts to what Kant termed an 'adventure of reason'. Goethe undertook his 'adventure of reason', starting with the "crisis" in botany, the merely and purely mechanical classification-taxonomy of plant life. In so doing Goethe also "wagered a sweeping theory about Nature itself." Goethe was concerned with the narrowing specialization in science and emphasis on accumulating data in a merely mechanical manner, devoid of human values and human development. Linnaean botanic taxonomic
13475146
Linnaean taxonomy


the only extant working classification system at present that enjoys universal scientific acceptance. However, although the number of ranks is unlimited, in practice any classification becomes more cumbersome the more ranks are added. Among the later subdivisions that have arisen are such entities as phyla, families, and tribes, as well as any number of ranks with prefixes (superfamilies, subfamilies, etc.). The use of newer taxonomic tools such as cladistics and phylogenetic nomenclature has led to a different way of looking at evolution (expressed in many nested
17642658
Linnaean taxonomy


descendants) such as genus "Homo", or paraphyletic (excluding some descendants), such as genus "Australopithecus". Originally, Linnaeus established three kingdoms in his scheme, namely for Plants, Animals and an additional group for minerals, which has long since been abandoned. Since then, various life forms have been moved into three new kingdoms: Monera, for prokaryotes (i.e., bacteria); Protista, for protozoans and most algae; and Fungi. This five kingdom scheme is still far from the phylogenetic ideal and
17642661
Pederpes


, it falls under the traditional class Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy. "Pederpes" is an important fossil because it comes from the period of time known as Romer's gap and provides biologists with rare information about the development of tetrapods in a time where terrestrial life was rare. The fossil was discovered in the Ballagan Formation, Inverclyde Group, claviger-macra (CM) palynozone (348 to 347.6 mya), Tournaisain Tn3c, Courceyan, Dinantian, Lower Carboniferous. "Pederpes" was 1 m long, making it average-
18794601
John Horsefield


books and without rules; a sort of members, but no body, having only one object in common – their love of plants". The Whitefield society arranged for funds to be pooled to buy books for communal use, enabling the 16-year-old Horsefield to read James Lee's 1760 work, "An Introduction to Botany". It provided information on Linnaean taxonomy as it applied to plants, and from it Horsefield copied details onto a piece of paper he pinned to his loom to commit them to memory while he was
19205744
Cultivated plant taxonomy


taxa" in the same way we do for the products of natural selection in the wild? To overcome this difficulty the term "culton" (pl. "culta") has been suggested to replace the word taxon when speaking about cultigens. Then, most "wild" plants fit neatly into the nested hierarchy of ranks used in Linnaean classification (species into genera, genera into families etc.) which aligns with Darwinian descent with modification. Choosing classification categories for cultigens is not clear-cut. Included among cultigens are
20100805
August Wilhelm Henschel


at the university of that city. Henschel was of Jewish origin, the son of the physician Elias Henschel (1755-1839); in 1820 he converted to Christianity. In 1820, Henschel published his first important work, "Von der Sexualität der Pflanzen", on the linnaean taxonomy, which attracted considerable attention in the world of science. He was appointed assistant professor at his "alma mater" in 1821, and in 1832 professor of anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Henschel is best known through his researches into
4132241
Prospero Alpini


Emo or Hemi, the Venetian consul in Cairo. The position was obtained with help from Antonio Morosini. From 1587 to 1590 he worked in Venice, Bassano and then at Genoa as physician to Giovanni Andrea Doria. In Egypt he spent three years, and from a practice in the management of datepalms, which he observed in that country, he learned of sexual difference in plants, which was later to become important in the foundation of the Linnaean taxonomy system. He says that "the female date-trees or palms do
4355234
Chordate


from certain other biological lineages, but are not part of the formal definition: The following schema is from the third edition of "Vertebrate Palaeontology". The invertebrate chordate classes are from World. While it is structured so as to reflect evolutionary relationships (similar to a cladogram), it also retains the traditional ranks used in Linnaean taxonomy. Craniates, one of the three subdivisions of chordates, all have distinct skulls. They include the hagfish, which have no vertebrae. Michael J. Benton commented that "craniates are characterized by
4896212
Catechu


kachu in Malay (hence the Latinized "Acacia catechu" chosen as the Linnaean taxonomy name of the type-species Acacia plant which provides the extract). As an astringent it has been used since ancient times in Ayurvedic medicine as well as in breath-freshening spice mixtures—for example in France and Italy it is used in some licorice pastilles. It is also an important ingredient in South Asian cooking paan mixtures, such as ready-made paan masala and gutka. The catechu mixture is high in natural vegetable tannins (
5446536
Sauropodomorpha


have historically placed both sets of herbivores within a group called "Phytodinosauria" or "Ornithischiformes". In Linnaean taxonomy, Sauropodomorpha (which means "lizard feet forms") is either a suborder or is left unranked. It was originally established by Friedrich von Huene in 1932, who broke it into two groups: the basal forms within Prosauropoda, and their descendants, the giant Sauropoda. Phylogenetic analyses by Adam Yates (2004, 2006) and others firmly placed Sauropoda within a paraphyletic "Prosauropoda". Recent cladistic analyses suggest
6364784
Goethean science


could all contribute to conclusions reached by the experimenter. Linnaean taxonomy was already coming under criticism from Comte de Buffon, who argued the mechanistic classification of the outer forms of nature (natura naturata) needed to be replaced by a study of the interrelation of natural forces and natural historical change. For Goethe, the production of new knowledge is inseparable from a "Geschichte des Denkens und Begreifens," a history of thinking and conceptualization. Knowledge is also about association, not only about separation, as Coleridge also was at pains to
13475148
On the Proteaceae: the evolution and classification of a southern family


On the Proteaceae: the evolution and classification of a southern family is a highly influential monograph on the evolution, biogeography and taxonomy of the flowering plant family Proteaceae. Authored by Lawrie Johnson and Barbara Briggs, it appeared in Volume 70 of "Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society" in 1975. Johnson and Briggs had presented what would become the paper at a meeting of the Linnaean Society on 6 December 1973 amid celebrations of 200 years since the birth of Robert Brown. One of its most important and long-lasting contributions was
13914223
Botanischer Garten der Universität Würzburg


This space was intensively cultivated, however, and contained over 6000 species. In 1833 the garden was reorganized by Linnaean taxonomy, and in 1854 was administratively assigned to the university proper rather than being held jointly with the hospital. As part of this new arrangement, the garden moved in 1854 onto university grounds, then moved again in 1873 to a site near the former Physics Institute, now marked by the X-ray Monument honoring the 1895 discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. Beginning in 1960 the garden moved
14062451