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Development of visual acuity in human infants. Data gathered using the preferential‐looking (PL) procedure. Targets were high‐contrast square‐wave gratings matched with homogeneous gray fields of same space‐averaged luminance.
Contrast sensitivity functions of human infants at 1, ▴; 2, ▪; and 3, • mo of age. Data gathered by PL procedure for large sine‐wave gratings. Data for adults, ⋄, were obtained on same apparatus.
Development of visual acuity for square‐wave gratings for a single Macaca nemestrina monkey. Data obtained using PL procedure.
Contrast sensitivity functions measured on 3 infant monkeys (Macaca nemestrina) at ages shown, in weeks, beside each curve. Data obtained by PL procedure.
Development of visual acuity for square‐wave gratings in kittens obtained on jumping stand . Various symbols denote measurements made on different animals.
Development of stereopsis in human infants. Data gathered using PL procedure. Infants sat 60 cm from 2 rear projection screens onto which 2 sets of stimuli were presented. Both sets of stimuli comprised 3 vertical bars 2° wide and spaced 2° apart. By means of polarizing filters in projectors and in lightweight goggles worn by infants, 1 set of stimuli was imaged with zero disparity and so appeared as 3 bars coplanar with screen, whereas on other screen the 2 outside bars were imaged with a known binocular disparity to appear (to a normal adult) as lying either in front of or behind central bar. Eight disparities ranging from 1 to 58 min of arc were tested. Data show smallest divergent disparities for which infants showed a preference on at least 80% of trials for 3 representative subjects of 16 examined.
Adapted from Held et al.
Development of binocular depth perception in kittens measured using jumping stand . Data show threshold retinal disparity corresponding to smallest separation of target surfaces in depth that could be discriminated at various ages. Binocular disparity was calculated from knowledge of viewing distance and interocular separation. Each symbol represents data from different animal.
Optical quality of kitten eye compared with eye of adult cat. Calculated retinal contrasts [(Imax − Imin)/(Imax + Imin)] of 100% contrast square‐wave gratings imaged by eyes of 16‐ and 30‐day‐old kittens, and by eye of normal adult cat. Each data point represents contrast of retinal image computed from measurements of optical modulation transfer function at different ages. Latter functions derived from fundus photographs of retinal blood vessels.
Mean improvement in spatial resolution of foveal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) cells with age in normal and monocularly deprived monkeys. Each symbol depicts mean resolution of X‐cells with receptive fields located within 2° of central fovea. Recordings made in right LGN ipsilateral to deprived eye of monocularly occluded monkeys (stars). Filled circles depict resolution of cells driven by left eye; open circles plot comparable data from right eye. Data points from both eyes of individual animals joined by vertical line. Monocular deprivation was from day of birth until time of recording. Note that monocular deprivation does not hinder improvement in resolution with age, and that even in normal animals LGN cells driven by ipsilateral (right) eye possess slightly lower acuity than cells driven by contralateral eye.
A: proportion of types of orientation selectivity within a population of visually responsive cells recorded from normal kittens at ages shown. Or., orientation selective; O.B., orientation biased; N.O., nonoriented. Number of visually responsive cells recorded in each age group shown on top. B: orientation specificity of orientation‐selective cells as function of age for both normal (filled circles) and dark‐reared (open circles) kittens. Ordinate indicates half width of tuning curve at half of maximum response. Bar represents ± 1 SEM, and numbers beside each symbol indicate number of cells studied at each age.
Tuning of most selective binocular cortical cells to horizontal retinal disparity at various stages of development in kittens. Each circle indicates mean number of spikes (from 8–10 repetitions) elicited by movement of preferred stimulus over both receptive fields. Mean level of response elicited by monocular stimulation indicated by dotted horizontal lines. All cells were located within 5° of area centralis. Prior to 4th wk cells exhibited binocular facilitation that was relatively insensitive to changes in retinal disparity. Over course of next week zone of binocular facilitation became progressively narrower, and binocular response when receptive fields were not aligned fell below responses elicited monocularly.
Development of visual acuity for square‐wave gratings for 4 cats that had been reared in total darkness from time of natural eye opening until either 4, 6, 8, or 10 mo of age indicated at top of graphs. During period indicated by horizontal line, animals were unable to perform pattern discriminations on jumping stand. Arrows indicate 1st day on which animals were able to discriminate an open from a closed door on jumping stand using visual cues alone.
Comparison of effects of binocular deprivation with those of normal visual experience on development of various receptive‐field types in visual cortex of kittens. Open circles show percentages of each type of receptive field among sample of cells recorded from 7 normal kittens of different ages. Filled symbols show comparative data from 6 binocularly deprived kittens. In both cases curves originate from data from 9‐day‐old kitten recorded when eyelids were just beginning to part naturally. Data from animals deprived by bilateral lid suture are indicated by filled circles; those deprived by dark rearing are depicted by filled squares. Filled triangles show results from animals deprived by bilateral suture of nictitating membrane. Numbers beneath data points for top set of curves indicate total number of cells recorded in each animal.
Ocular dominance histograms for A: 223 cells recorded from visual cortex of a number of normal adult cats; B: 199 cells recorded from visual cortex of 5 kittens monocularly deprived by eyelid suture from time of natural eye opening until recording at between 8 and 14 wk of age; C: 26 cells recorded from single adult cat deprived by eyelid suture for 3 mo. In B and C, recordings were made from hemisphere contralateral to monocularly deprived eye. Cells are classified into 7 subjective ocular dominance groups according to relative influence of each of the 2 eyes. Cells classified as group 1 or 7 are excited exclusively by visual stimuli presented to eye contralateral or ipsilateral to recording electrode, respectively. Remaining groups are binocular; those classified as group 4 are influenced equally by the 2 eyes. Cells classified as belonging to groups 3 and 2 show progressively greater bias toward contralateral eye, whereas those classified as groups 5 and 6 exhibit increasing bias toward ipsilateral eye. Cells visually unresponsive denoted by letters VU (B). Letters C and I in A indicate groups dominated by contralateral and ipsilateral eye, respectively. Letters D and N in B and C beneath histograms denote ocular dominance group dominated by deprived and nondeprived eye, respectively.
Autoradiographic montages showing labeling pattern of ocular dominance columns of layer IVc of normal (A and B) and monocularly deprived (C) monkeys (Macaca mulatta). A: pattern of labeling in hemisphere contralateral to injected eye of normal adult monkey. B: labeling pattern from 6‐wk‐old normal monkey ipsilateral to injected eye. Labeled bands are as distinct as in adults. C: labeling pattern from monkey whose right eye was closed by eyelid suture at 2 wk of age. Left eye injected when animal was 18 mo old. Note expansion of labeled columns from open eye at expense of unlabeled columns for deprived eye. However, periodicity of columns, about 750 μm for a left‐right pair, was identical to that of normal monkey. Unlabeled horizontal bars are 1 mm long.
From Hubel and Weisel and LeVay et al.
Behavioral recovery of visual acuity (for square‐wave gratings) of deprived eye of 4 cats monocularly deprived by eyelid suture from time of natural opening until ages indicated. After termination of period of monocular occlusion, visual input was allowed to both eyes. Measurement of visual acuity of formerly deprived eye was made with large opaque contact lens occluder covering nondeprived eye. During period indicated by horizontal lines animals were unable to make pattern discriminations on jumping stand. Arrows indicate days on which animals showed ability to discriminate a closed versus an open door on jumping stand using visual cues alone.
A‐K: ocular dominance distribution of sample of visual cortical neurons recorded in each of 11 kittens subjected to 10 and 12 days of monocular deprivation at progressively later ages. L: distribution of cortical ocular dominance of 4 normal kittens recorded at 45, 48, 55, or 135 days of age, respectively, is shown for comparison. Periods over which kittens (A‐K) were monocularly deprived were: A, 8–19 days; B, 18–27 days; C, 28–37 days; D, 38–47 days; E, 48–57 days; F, 58–67 days; G, 69–79 days; H, 80–90 days; I, 91–100 days; J, 99–109 days; K, 109–120 days. Right eye was deprived by eyelid suture in every case, and recordings were made in left (contralateral) hemisphere. Ocular dominance groups are as defined in Fig. .
Profile of sensitive period for monocular deprivation in kittens. Filled circles depict degree of functional disconnection resulting from 10–12 days of monocular deprivation imposed on various kittens at ages indicated. Effect of deprivation period expressed by index based on proportion of cells dominated by ipsilateral (nondeprived) eye [(percentage of cells in groups 5–7) − N]/[100% − N.], where N was average percentage of cells in groups 5–7 (36%) in 4 normal kittens (see Fig. L). Open circles show data of Blakemore and Van Sluyters obtained from kittens reverse sutured for 9 wk at ages indicated. Again, effect of period of reverse suture is expressed by index equal to proportion of cells dominated by originally deprived eye (percentage of cells in groups 5–7).
Distribution of ocular dominance among samples of cells recorded from visual cortex of a number of cats monocularly deprived for 3 mo at ages indicated. In each case microelectrode was located in hemisphere contralateral to deprived eye.
Distribution of ocular dominance among sample of visual cortical cells recorded in each of 6 monkeys subjected to a period of monocular deprivation at progressively later ages. Periods of eyelid closure were from A, day 2 to day 24; B, day 21 to day 36; C, 5.5 wk to 16 mo; D, 10 wk to 16 mo; E, 1 yr to 2 yr; and F, 6 yr to 7.5 yr. Although effects of period of monocular deprivation were assessed only in right hemisphere of 3 monkeys (C, D, and F), results from these particular animals are depicted as if obtained from left hemisphere, contralateral to deprived eye. Ocular dominance groups are as defined for Fig. . Letter D indicates group completely dominated by the deprived eye.
Adapted from LeVay et al.
Profile of sensitive period of visual cortex of monkeys to anatomical and physiological effects of monocular deprivation. Filled circles show effects of periods of monocular deprivation on cortical ocular dominance in cortical layers other than IVc (left ordinate), whereas open and filled squares depict concurrent effects on ocular dominance column area within layer IVc (right ordinate). Each filled circle depicts results from individual monkeys monocularly deprived at various ages for a duration indicated by length of horizontal line to right of each symbol. Physiological effects of period of monocular occlusion are expressed in form of normalized deprivation index calculated as follows: mean ocular dominance was first calculated from distribution of ocular dominance for sample of cortical cells recorded from each animal (such as those shown in Fig. ). This was then normalized with respect to mean ocular dominance for normal animals of 4.3 by using the formula (4.3 − mean ocular dominance)/3.3 for animals in which recordings were made in right hemisphere ipsilateral to deprived eye and the formula (mean ocular dominance −4.3)/2.7 for animals in which recordings were made in left hemisphere. Filled and open squares show effects of monocular deprivation on ocular dominance column area in layer IVc expressed as ratio L − R/L + R, where L and R denote area in layer IVc devoted to left (nondeprived) and right (deprived) eye, respectively. Filled symbols indicate effects on column area in left hemisphere contralateral to deprived eye, and open symbols show effect in right hemisphere.
Visual acuity of 23 human subjects with unilateral cataract (usually traumatic) immediately following restoration of normal visual input on removal of crystalline lens. Each subject is represented by a horizontal bar, whose length spans period of monocular deprivation and whose position with respect to ordinate defines first visual acuity score measured on careful optical correction following surgical removal of lens. Ordinate shows decimal acuity score where score of 1.0 represents an acuity of 6/6, and score of 0.1 is equivalent to 6/60. Subjects able to perceive only absence or presence of light (light perception) are designated by LP.
Comparison of effects of 3‐mo monocular deprivation on distribution of ocular dominance in visual cortex of light‐reared or dark‐reared animals of same age. Ocular dominance groups are as defined for Fig. . Letter D indicates ocular dominance group completely dominated by deprived eye. In every case the recording electrode was located in hemisphere contralateral to monocularly deprived eye.
Comparison of effects of optically and surgically induced strabismus on distribution of ocular dominance of cells in visual cortex. A, B: ocular dominance histograms from 2 kittens subjected to surgical (divergent) strabismus at 4 wk of age, then kept in darkness except for a period of visual exposure of 1 h each day until recording at 6 wk of age. C, D: histograms obtained from 2 kittens fitted with goggles that contained a total of 10Δ of vertical prism (5Δ base‐up in front of right eye and 5Δ base‐down before left eye) at 4 wk of age. As with other pair of kittens, animals received 1 h of exposure each day; at all other times they were kept in total darkness until recording at 6 wk of age. E: control data from normal kitten allowed visual experience for only 1 h each day from 4 wk of age until date of recording at 6 wk of age.
Polar histograms of preferred orientations for samples of orientation‐specific cortical cells recorded from 2 kittens reared with monocular visual exposure to contours of a single orientation, analyzed by method described in text. Receptive fields were plotted with a Dove prism before the eye that was rotated a variable, but known, angle between each cell. Preferred orientations plotted here are corrected for setting of prism. Solid arrows indicate contour orientation to which kittens were exposed, horizontal for K330 and vertical for K370.
Effects of different degrees of astigmatism on appearance of a target, A, consisting of a radiating series of lines of different orientations. When axes of the astigmatism are horizontal and vertical, as shown, contours parallel to focal line imaged in film plane (vertical) are imaged clearly, whereas contours of other orientations become progressively more blurred toward horizontal.
Contrast sensitivity functions for gratings of various orientations measured A: on normal adult human; B: on optically corrected adult astigmat with meridional amblyopia, whose early visual input was similar to that depicted in Fig. ; and C: for left eye of a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) with oblique axis astigmatism that was optically corrected for these measurements. In A, filled and open symbols indicate results obtained with vertical horizontal gratings, respectively. Similar symbols in B depict contrast sensitivities for gratings that were nearly vertical and horizontal (75° and 165°) close to axes of astigmatism. Filled and open triangles in C indicate contrast sensitivities for gratings oriented at 45° and 135°, respectively. In contrast to normal humans, A, astigmat in B resolved vertical gratings far better than horizontal gratings, even though optical astigmatism was fully corrected. Similarly, astigmatic monkey, C, exhibited equally large differences in resolution between gratings at 45° and 135°, again in marked contrast to results from normal monkeys , which resolve gratings of these two orientations equally well. Astigmatic errors were B: −0.25D spherical error; cylindrical error −4.50D axis 20°; C: L + 1.25D spherical error; cylindrical error −1.00D axis 45°.
Adapted from Mitchell and Wilkinson and Harwerth et al.
Tuning of 3 binocular cells recorded in visual Wulst of an adult barn owl (Tyto alba) for horizontal retinal disparity. Recordings were made simultaneously from both right and left visual Wulst. Unit B8, recorded from right visual Wulst, served as a reference cell that was held for some time while first unit A4 and then A10 were investigated in left visual Wulst. Connected symbols show response of each cell to a vertical slit swept across 2 receptive fields. Data points to right indicate response of each cell to monocular presentations of stimulus (R, right eye; L, left eye). Connected symbols show response of each cell to binocular stimulation as a function of changes in horizontal retinal disparity produced by alterations of setting of a variable‐power (Risley) prism mounted in front of left eye. Because visual axes are divergent under paralysis, each cell gives its best response with convergent setting of prism. Nevertheless each cell exhibits clear preference for a different retinal disparity.
Ocular dominance histograms for cells recorded from visual Wulst of A: normal barn owls (Tyto alba); and B: 2 owlets subjected to monocular deprivation by eyelid suture for 2–3 mo from postnatal day 11 or 29. In all cases microelectrode was located in left hemisphere, which for monocularly deprived owlets was contralateral to deprived eye. Ocular dominance groups are as for cats in Fig. . Group 4 cells in filled portion of histogram in A could be driven only by simultaneous presentation of stimuli to both eyes at a certain precise binocular disparity and could not be excited at all monocularly. Cells unresponsive to visual stimulation are indicated by U.
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To the United States Supreme Court, there is no question. Courts must enforce arbitration agreements according to their terms. Thus, an employee who agrees to arbitrate all claims individually cannot later file a class action lawsuit against his employer. See AT&T Mobility, LLC v. Conception, 563 U.S. 321 (2011).
The National Labor Relations Board (“NLRB”) disagrees. To the NLRB, class litigation is a form of “concerted activity,” and “concerted activity” is a protected right. See National Labor Relations Act (“NLRA”), Section 7, at 29 U.S. Code § 157. As a result, the NLRB has ordered Hilton Hotels to abandon an arbitration agreement that a federal court previously ruled was enforceable.
Nelson Chico was an employee of the Kyoto Grand Hotel in Los Angeles, California. In 2004, he filed a class action lawsuit against his employers. Chico alleged that the hotel owners violated the law by failing to pay overtime and failing to provide adequate meal and rest breaks.
Chico had signed an arbitration agreement when he accepted the job. Thus, the defendants moved to compel arbitration. Further, the agreement contained no mention of class action claims. Accordingly, defendants asked the court to require Chico to arbitrate individually. The court granted the defendants’ motion on October 7, 2014, and a copy of the order is available here.
Thereafter, Chico filed an Unfair Labor Practice (“ULP”) claim with the NLRB. He argued that NLRA Section 7 protects his right to engage in concerted activity, including class litigation. By forcing him to arbitrate individually, Chico claimed that the defendants violated his Section 7 rights.
Relying on the National Labor Relations Board’s decision in In re D.R. Horton, Inc., 357 NLRB No. 184 (2012), Plaintiff contends that requiring him to arbitrate his claims on an individual basis violates sections 7 and 8 of the National Labor Relations Act (“NLRA”), which protect concerted employee activities. However, “the two courts of appeals, and the overwhelming majority of the district courts, to have considered the issue have determined that they should not defer to the NLRB’s decision in D.R. Horton on the ground that it conflicts with the explicit pronouncements of the Supreme Court concerning the policies undergirding the Federal Arbitration Act (“FAA”), 9 U.S.C. §§ 1-16.” Richards v. Ernst & Young, LLP, 744 F.3d 1072, 1075 (9th Cir. 2013) (citing cases). Indeed, “every district court in this circuit to consider [D.R. Horton] has declined to follow it.” Miguel v. JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., 2013 WL 452418, at *9 (C.D. Cal. Feb. 5, 2014). Recently, the California Supreme Court considered this issue, and also concluded “in light of the FAA’s liberal federal policy favoring arbitration, that sections 7 and 8 of the NLRA do not represent a contrary congressional command overriding the FAA’s mandate.” Iskanian v. CLS Transportation Los Angeles, LLC, 59 Cal. 4th 348, 373 (2014) (quotations and citations omitted). The Court agrees with the majority of courts that have considered the issue, and concludes that the NLRA does not prohibit the individual arbitration of Plaintiff’s claims.
See Order Granting the RIM Defendants’ Petition to Compel Arbitration, Chico v. Hilton Worldwide, Inc., et al., Civ. Act. No. 14-cv-5750-JFW (C.D. Cal. Oct. 7, 2014).
Eventually, Chico settled his claims against the defendants. However, the NLRB refused to dismiss his ULP charge. On June 15, 2016, Administrative Law Judge Jeffrey D. Wedekind ruled that the NLRB was not bound by the court’s ruling on the arbitration agreement. Thus, opposite of the federal court, Judge Wedekind ruled that the defendants violated Chico’s Section 7 rights, and he he ordered the defendants to stop using the arbitration agreement immediately. Further, he ordered the defendants to reimburse Chico the attorney’s fees he spent opposing the motion to compel arbitration before the federal court, even though Chico had lost. A copy of ALJ Wedekind’s ULP Decision (Rim Hospitality, Case No. 21–CA–137250) is available here.
If the NLRB continues to disregard federal court rulings, the Supreme Court will eventually get involved. Hopefully for employers, the Court will provide clarity sooner rather than later. Until then, employers using arbitration agreements to prevent class actions will risk defending ULP charges before the NLRB.
If you have questions about your company’s arbitration agreement, please feel free to contact us at (470) 839-9300, or beau@freedhoward.com.


8 U.S.C. §1324(B)(IV) - Bringing in and harboring certain aliens resulting in death.
18 U.S.C. §§ 32, 33, 34 - Destruction of aircraft, motor vehicles, or related facilities resulting in death.
18 U.S.C. § 36 - Murder committed during a drug-related drive-by shooting.
18 U.S.C. § 37 - Murder committed at an airport serving international civil aviation.
18 U.S.C. § 115(b)(3) by reference to 18 U.S.C. § 1111 - Retaliatory murder of a member of the immediate family of law enforcement officials.
18 U.S.C §§ 241, 242, 245, 247 - Civil rights offenses resulting in death.
18 U.S.C. § 351 by reference to 18 U.S.C. § 1111 - Murder of a member of Congress, an important executive official, or a Supreme Court Justice.
18 U.S.C. § 794 - Espionage.
18 U.S.C. § 844 (d), (f), (i) - Death resulting from offenses involving transportation of explosives, destruction of government propeorty, or destruction of property related to foreign or interstate commerce.
18 U.S.C. § 924(j) - Murder committed by the use of a firearm during a crime of violence or a drug trafficking crime.
18 U.S.C. § 930 - Murder committed in a Federal Government facility.
18 U.S.C. § 1091 - Genocide.
18 U.S.C. § 1111 - First degree murder.
18 U.S.C. § 1114 - Murder of a Federal judge or law enforcement official.
18 U.S.C. § 1116 - Murder of a foreign official.
18 U.S.C. § 1118 - Murder by a Federal prisoner.
18 U.S.C. § 1119 - Murder of a U.S. national in a foreign country.
18 U.S.C. § 1120 - Murder by an escaped Federal prisoner already sentenced to life imprisonment.
18 U.S.C. § 1121 - Murder of a State or local law enforcement official or other person aiding in a Federal investigation; murder of a State correctional officer.
18 U.S.C. § 1201 - Murder during a kidnapping.
18 U.S.C. § 1203 - Murder during a hostage taking.
18 U.S.C. § 1503 - Murder of a court officer or juror.
18 U.S.C. § 1512 - Murder with the intent of preventing testimony by a witness, victim, or informant.
18 U.S.C. § 1513 - Retaliatory murder of a witness, victim or informant.
18 U.S.C. § 1716 - Mailing of injurious articles with intent to kill or resulting in death.
18 U.S.C. § 1751 - Assassination or kidnapping resulting in the death of the President or Vice President.
18 U.S.C. § 1958 - Murder for hire.
18 U.S.C. § 1959 - Murder involved in a racketeering offense.
18 U.S.C. § 1992 - Willful wrecking of a train resulting in death.
18 U.S.C. § 2113 - Bank-robbery-related murder or kidnapping.
18 U.S.C. § 2119 - Murder related to a carjacking.
18 U.S.C. §§ 2241, 2242, 2243, 2244, 2245 - Death resulting from aggravated sexual abuse, sexual abuse of a minor or ward, or abusive sexual conduct.
18 U.S.C. § 2251 - Murder related to sexual exploitation of children.
18 U.S.C. § 2280 - Murder committed during an offense against maritime navigation.
18 U.S.C. § 2281 - Murder committed during an offense against a maritime fixed platform.
18 U.S.C. § 2332 - Terrorist murder of a U.S. national in another country.
18 U.S.C. § 2332a - Use of a weapon of mass destruction resulting in death.
18 U.S.C. § 2332b - Crimes against persons in the United States resulting in death, committed by a person engaged in conduct transcending national boundaries.
18 U.S.C. §§ 2340, 2340A - Murder involving torture.
18 U.S.C. § 2381 - Treason.
18 U.S.C. § 3005 - Appointment of counsel in capital cases.
18 U.S.C. § 3235 - Venue in capital cases.
18 U.S.C. § 3281 - Statute of limitations.
18 U.S.C. § 3432 - Indictment and list of jurors and witnesses for prisoner in capital cases.
18 U.S.C. § 3510 - Rights of crime victims to attend and observe trial.
18 U.S.C. § 3591 - Sentence of death (including gateway mental state factors).
18 U.S.C. § 3592 - Mitigating and aggravating factors to be considered.
18 U.S.C. § 3593 - Sentencing hearing to determine whether death sentence is justified.
18 U.S.C. § 3594 - Imposition of sentence of death.
18 U.S.C. § 3595 - Review of a death sentence.
18 U.S.C. § 3596 - Implementation of death sentence.
18 U.S.C. § 3597 - Use of state facilities for implementation of death sentence.
18 U.S.C. § 3598 - Special provisions for Indian Country.
18 U.S.C. § 3599 - Counsel for financially unable defendants.
18 U.S.C. § 3771 - Rights of crime victims.
21 U.S.C. § 848(e) - Murder related to a continuing criminal enterprise or drug trafficking offense, or drug-related murder of a Federal, State, or local law enforcement officer.
49 U.S.C. § 46502 - Death resulting from aircraft piracy.