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Thank you for your interest in sum.cumo GmbH. Data protection and privacy is particularly important for the management of sum.cumo GmbH. The internet pages of sum.cumo GmbH can be used without any indication of personal data. Should data collection become necessary and there is no legal basis for processing, we generally obtain the consent of the persons concerned.
The use of personal data, such as the name, address or e-mail address of the persons concerned, is always carried out in accordance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and in compliance with the specific data protection provisions applicable to sum.cumo GmbH. Through this data protection declaration we would like to inform the public about the type, scope and purpose of the personal data we process. Furthermore, interested parties are informed about their rights by means of this data protection declaration.
Sum.cumo GmbH has implemented comprehensive technical and organizational measures to ensure the best possible protection of the processed personal data. Nonetheless, Internet-based data transmissions can always contain security vulnerabilities, so that complete protection cannot be guaranteed. Therefore, each person concerned is free to transfer any personal data that may be required to us by alternative means, e. g. by post or telephone.
Personal data are all information that can be uniquely attributed to a natural person ("affected person") and are suitable for identifying them. An identifiable person is a person who can be uniquely identified by linking names, identifiers or the like to other data.
The data subject is the person whose personal data are processed by us.
Processing is any operation involving personal data such as the collection, storage, adaptation and alteration, use, transmission or any other form of provision or linking, deletion and destruction.
Restriction of processing is the identification of certain personal data with the aim of limiting their future use.
Profiling refers to the types of automated processing of personal data used for evaluations, analyses and forecasts, e. g. with regard to work performance, economic situation, health or whereabouts of these persons.
Pseudonymisation is the processing of personal data without direct identification of the person. This is ensured by means of technical and organisational measures that prevent the aggregation of information that could be used to identify the natural person.
The controller or controller shall be the natural or legal person, body or other body which, alone or in association with others, decides on the purposes and means of processing personal data.
A processor is a natural or legal person who processes personal data on behalf of the person actually responsible.
The recipient is the natural or legal person or other entity to which personal data are disclosed. Authorities receiving such data on a legal basis within the framework of an investigation shall not be considered as recipients.
Third parties shall be any other than the person concerned, the person responsible or the processor.
Consent is an expression of the will to process the data concerning the persons.
Any person concerned may contact the Data Protection Officer directly for all questions relating to data protection.
Cookies contain a so-called cookie ID. This ID can be used to identify an Internet browser when it is used to call up the website again. In the long term, we can evaluate their movements on the website and thus improve them.
You can also deactivate the storage of cookies in your browser. You will find instructions on how to do this in the help section of your browser.
We collect a number of general data and information with each visit to the site. These general data and information are stored in the log files of the server. This includes browser types and versions, the operating system used, the Internet site visited by our site (referrer), the subpage accessed, the date and time of access, the Internet protocol address (IP address), the Internet service provider and other data and information that are used to avert danger in the event of attacks on our systems.
The sum.cumo GmbH does not draw any conclusions about the person concerned. Rather, this data is used to deliver the content of our site and to optimize advertising for it, to guarantee the functionality of our systems and to support law enforcement agencies in the event of a violation. Only an anonymous statistical evaluation is carried out. The server log files are stored separately from the other data.
We process the data of the person concerned only for as long as it is necessary for the stated purpose or if this is required by law.If the purpose of data collection ceases or if the legally prescribed storage period expires, the data will be blocked or deleted.
Our data protection officer is available at all times as the first point of contact for exercising the rights listed below. He will initiate all further steps immediately.
In order to exercise its right of confirmation of the processing concerned, the data subject may at any time turn to our Data Protection Officer or to any other employee of the controller.
You have the right to have inaccurate personal data concerning you corrected. Furthermore, you may request the completion of incomplete data.
The purpose of the data collection has ceased to exist.
You revoke your consent in accordance with Article 6 (1)(a) of the GDPR or Article 9 (2)(a) of the GDPR, and there is no other legal basis for processing.
You file an objection pursuant to Art. 21 para. 1 GDPR and there are no primordial legitimate grounds for processing, or the data subject lodges an objection against processing pursuant to Art. 21 para. 2 GDPR.
The data have been processed without legal basis.
The deletion of data is necessary for the fulfilment of a legal obligation.
The personal data were collected in relation to the information society services offered in accordance with Art. 8 para. 1 GDPR.
If the data have been published by sum.cumo GmbH, we as the person responsible pursuant to Art. 17 para. 1 GDPR are obliged to delete the personal data, then sum.cumo GmbH takes appropriate measures to inform other persons in charge if necessary.
You deny the accuracy of the data and allow us sufficient time to verify this.
Processing is unlawful, but they refuse to delete personal data and instead demand that the use of the data be restricted.
We no longer need the data for the original purposes, but they do need the data for asserting, exercising or defending legal claims.
You have lodged an objection against the processing in accordance with Art. 21 para. 1 GDPR and it is still unclear whether our legitimate reasons outweigh their grounds.
You have the right to receive all data stored by us in a common format from us. You also have the right to transmit this data to another person in charge without hindrance by us, provided that the legal basis of the processing is correct (art. 6 par. 1 or art. 9 par. 2 GDPR) and the processing is carried out by means of automated procedures and is not necessary for the fulfilment of a task that is in the public interest or in the exercise of official authority. In addition, you can also arrange for personal data to be transferred directly from us to another person in charge, insofar as this is feasible and insofar as this does not affect the rights and freedoms of others.
You have the right to object at any time to the processing of your data on the basis of your personal situation, which is carried out on the basis of Art. 6 para. 1 letter e or f GDPR. In this case, we will no longer process your personal data unless we have legitimate grounds for processing that outweigh your interests or the processing serves to enforce legal claims. You have the right to object at any time to the processing of your personal data for advertising purposes and, if applicable, to profiling in connection with such advertising. Depending on their personal situation, they may object to the use of data that could be used by sum. cumo GmbH for scientific research purposes or for other purposes in accordance with Article 89 (1) GDPR, provided that such fulfilment of one is in the public interest.
You may object to the use of your data for the purpose of making automated case-by-case decisions (including profiling), provided that this decision would have legal effect or would otherwise affect them. Insofar as this is necessary for the performance of a contract between them and us, or if this is required by law or expressly approved by us, this right shall not apply. If the decision to fulfil the contract or with its consent is made, sum. cumo GmbH shall take appropriate measures to protect its rights and freedoms. This includes at least the right of sum. cumo GmbH to intervene on the part of a person and to present their position and to challenge the decision.
You may revoke your consent to the processing of your personal data at any time.
We collect personal data from applicants for the purpose of carrying out the application procedure. If we conclude an employment contract with the applicant, we store the data for the purpose of carrying out the employment relationship. If no employment contract is concluded, the application documents will be automatically deleted two months after the cancellation if no legitimate interests of sum.cumo GmbH stand in the way of deletion. A legitimate interest would be, for example, an obligation to provide evidence in proceedings under the General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG).
sum.cumo GmbH has integrated components of Facebook on this website. Facebook is a social network for the exchange of pictures, contributions and communication.
The operating company of Facebook is Facebook, Inc., 1 Hacker Way, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA. Facebook Ireland Ltd, 4 Grand Canal Square, Grand Canal Harbour, Dublin 2, Ireland, is responsible for the processing of personal data if a data subject lives outside the United States or Canada.
Each time you access one of the individual pages of this website of sum.cumo GmbH, the Internet browser on your computer is automatically prompted by the respective Facebook component to download a representation of the corresponding Facebook component from Facebook. A complete overview of all Facebook plug-ins can be found at developers.facebook.com/docs/plugins/?locale=en_DE . As part of this process, Facebook will be informed about which specific subpage of our site is visited by you if you are logged in to Facebook at the same time. This applies for the entire duration of your visit to our website. This information is collected by the Facebook component and associated with your Facebook account through Facebook. If you click on one of the Facebook buttons integrated into our site, such as the "Like" button, or leave a comment, Facebook assigns this information to your Facebook account and stores it.
This happens regardless of whether you click on the Facebook component or not. You can prevent this collection and transmission to Facebook by logging out of Facebook before visiting our website.
The data policy published by Facebook is available at de-de.facebook.com/about/privacy/ and provides information about the collection, processing and use of personal data by Facebook. It also explains what settings Facebook offers to protect your privacy.
We have integrated the component Google Analytics (with anonymization function) on this page. Google Analytics is a web analytics service. Web analysis involves the collection, collection and evaluation of data on the behaviour of website visitors. Among other things, the web analysis service collects data about which website it came from (referrer), which subpages of the website it accesses or how often and for how long it looks at a subpage. We use this to optimize the site and to analyse the cost-benefit analysis of Internet advertising.
We use the addition "_gat._anonymizeIp" for the web analysis via Google Analytics. This will reduce the IP address of your Internet connection by Google and thus make it anonymous if you access our site from the EU or another country party to the European Economic Area Agreement.
The purpose of the Google Analytics component is to analyse visitor flows on our site. Among other things, Google uses the data and information obtained to evaluate the use of our website in order to compile online reports for us that show the activities on our website and to provide other services related to the use of our website.
Google Analytics places a cookie on your computer. By setting the cookie, Google will be able to analyse the use of our site. Each time you access one of the individual pages of this site, your Internet browser is prompted by the Google Analytics component to submit data to Google. As part of this procedure, Google receives information about personal data, such as your IP address, which is used by Google, among other things, to trace the origin of the visitors and clicks and subsequently to enable commission payments.
The cookie is used to store your personal information, such as the access time, the place from which you accessed our site and the frequency of visits to our site by you. Whenever you visit our website, these personal data, including the IP address of the Internet connection used by the person concerned, are transmitted to Google in the United States of America. These personal data are stored by Google in the United States of America. Google may pass on this personal data collected via the technical procedure to third parties.
As already shown above, you can prevent a cookie and thus also the setting of cookies from permanently contradicting at any time by means of a corresponding setting of the Internet browser used. This browser setting would also prevent Google from setting a cookie on your computer. In addition, a cookie already set by Google Analytics can be deleted at any time via the browser.
We have integrated Google AdWords on this website. Google AdWords is an Internet advertising service that allows advertisers to place ads in both Google's search engine results and the Google advertising network. Google AdWords allows an advertiser to define certain keywords that allow advertisers to display an ad in Google's search results only when the user uses the search engine to retrieve a keyword relevant search result. In the Google advertising network, ads are distributed on topic-relevant websites using an automatic algorithm and in accordance with the previously defined keywords.
The purpose of Google AdWords is to promote our site by displaying relevant advertisements on the websites of third parties and in the search engine results of the Google search engine and by displaying third-party advertisements on our website.
If you access our site via a Google ad, a so-called conversion cookie is placed on your computer by Google. A conversion cookie loses its validity after thirty days and is not used for identification purposes. If the cookie is still valid, the conversion cookie will be used to track whether certain sub-pages on our site have been accessed. Through the conversion cookie, both we and Google can track whether you have generated sales or cancelled your visit to our website via an AdWords ad.
The data collected in this way will be used by Google to create visit statistics for our site. These statistics are in turn used by us to determine the total number of users who have been referred to us via AdWords ads, i.e. to determine the success or failure of the respective AdWords ads and to improve our AdWords ads for the future. Neither sum.cumo GmbH nor other advertising customers of Google AdWords receive information from Google that could be used to identify them.
The data is transmitted to and stored by Google in the United States of America. Google may pass on this personal data collected via the technical procedure to third parties.
You can prevent the setting of cookies by our site, as already shown above, at any time by means of an appropriate setting of the browser used and thus permanently contradict the setting of cookies. Such a setting of the browser used would also prevent Google from setting a conversion cookie on your computer. In addition, a cookie already set by Google AdWords can be deleted at any time via the browser.
Furthermore, it is possible for them to object to the interest-based advertising by Google. To do this, you must call up the link www.google.de/settings/ads from each of the browsers you use and make the desired settings there.
We have integrated Twitter components on this website. Twitter is a microblogging service on which users can publish tweets (short messages) limited to 280 characters. These short messages are available to everyone. The tweets are also displayed to the followers of the respective user. Followers observe the tweets of a user. In addition, Twitter enables a broader audience to be addressed via hashtags, links or retweets.
If you call up one of our pages on which a Twitter component (twitter button) is integrated, the browser will automatically download a representation of the corresponding Twitter component on your computer. For more information about the Twitter buttons, please visit about.twitter.com/de/resources/buttons . In the course of this process, Twitter is informed about which subpage of our website is visited by you. The purpose of integrating Twitter is to enable you to distribute the content of our site and increase the number of visitors.
If you are logged in to Twitter at the same time, Twitter recognizes with each visit to our site, during the entire duration of your stay, which concrete subpage of our site you visit. This information is collected and assigned to your account via Twitter. If you press one of the Twitter buttons integrated on our site, the transferred data will be assigned to your user account and saved by Twitter. If you do not wish to submit this information to Twitter, you can prevent it by logging out of your Twitter account before accessing our site.
We have integrated XING components on this website. XING is a social network that enables users to connect with business contacts and make new business contacts. The individual users create a personal profile for XING. Companies can create company profiles or post job vacancies on XING.
The operating company of XING is XING AG, Dammtorstraße 30,20354 Hamburg, Germany.
Each time you access one of our pages on which a XING component (XING plug-in) has been integrated, your Internet browser will prompt you to download a representation of the XING component. Further information on the XING plug-ins used can be found at dev.xing.com/plugins . XING thus gets to know which concrete subpage of our site is visited by you.
If you are logged in to XING at the same time, XING recognizes with each visit to our site, during the entire duration of your stay, which specific subpage you visit. This information is collected and assigned to your XING account by XING. If you press one of the integrated XING buttons, for example the "Share"-button, XING assigns this information to your XING user account and saves this personal data. If you do not wish this information to be transmitted to XING, you can prevent it from being transferred by logging out of your XING account before accessing our site.
We have integrated components of DoubleClick by Google on this website. DoubleClick is a brand of Google, under which mainly special online marketing solutions are marketed to advertising agencies and publishers.
DoubleClick by Google is operated by Google Inc, 1600 Amphitheatre Pkwy, Mountain View, CA 94043-1351, USA.
DoubleClick by Google transfers data to the DoubleClick server with every impression, click or other activity. Each of these data transfers triggers a cookie request to the browser of the person concerned. If the browser accepts this request, DoubleClick sets a cookie on your computer. What cookies are has already been explained above. The purpose of the cookie is to optimize and display advertising. The cookie is used, among other things, to place and display user-relevant advertising and to create or improve reports on advertising campaigns. Furthermore, the cookie serves to avoid multiple insertions of the same advertisement.
DoubleClick uses a cookie ID that is required to complete the technical process. For example, the cookie ID is required to display an ad in a browser. DoubleClick can also use the cookie ID to track which ads have already been displayed in a browser to avoid duplication. DoubleClick also uses the cookie ID to capture conversions. Conversions are recorded, for example, if a user has previously seen a DoubleClick advertisement and the user subsequently makes a purchase on the advertiser's website using the same Internet browser.
A DoubleClick cookie does not contain any personal data. However, a DoubleClick cookie may contain additional campaign identifiers. A campaign identifier is used to identify the campaigns with which the user has already been in contact.
Each time you access one of the individual pages of this website, which is operated by sum.cumo GmbH and on which a DoubleClick component has been integrated, your browser is automatically prompted by the respective DoubleClick component to transmit data to Google for the purpose of online advertising and billing of commissions. As part of this technical process, Google becomes aware of data that Google also uses to generate commission statements. Among other things, Google can understand that they have clicked certain links on our website.
You can prevent the setting of cookies by our website at any time, as already described above, by means of an appropriate setting of the Internet browser used and thus permanently object to the setting of cookies. Such a setting of the Internet browser used would also prevent Google from placing a cookie on your computer. In addition, cookies already set by Google can be deleted at any time via an Internet browser or other software programs.
Art. 6 para. 1 letter a GDPR serves sum.cumo GmbH as the legal basis for processing operations in which we obtain your consent for the respective processing purpose. If the processing of personal data is necessary for the performance of a contract to which they are party, as is the case, for example, with regard to processing operations necessary for the provision of a service or consideration, the processing shall be based on Article 6 (1)(b) of the GDPR. This also applies to pre-contractual measures, e. g. inquiries about our services. For the fulfilment of tax obligations, processing is based on Article 6 (1)(c) of the GDPR. If a visitor to our premises were injured, his or her name, age, health insurance data or other vital information would have to be passed on to a doctor, hospital or other third party. In this case, the processing would be based on Article 6 (1)(d) of the GDPR. Finally, processing operations could be based on Article 6 (1)(f) of the GDPR. This applies in cases in which sum.cumo GmbH or a third party is concerned with the protection of a legitimate interest, provided that their interests, fundamental rights and freedoms do not predominate. See also recital 47 sentence 2 of the GDPR.
If the processing of data, as mentioned above, is based on Art. 6 para. 1 letter f of the GDPR, our legitimate interest is to carry out our business activities for the benefit of the well-being of our employees and shareholders.
Our criteria for the storage duration of data are the respective legal retention periods. After the expiry of this period, your data will be deleted or blocked routinely, as long as it is not necessary for the fulfilment or initiation of a contract.
We would like to inform you that the provision of personal data is partly required by law or may result from contractual regulations. Sometimes it may be necessary to provide us with personal data in order to conclude a contract, which will then be processed by us. Failure to deliver would mean that the contract could not be concluded with you. Before any personal data is provided by you, you must contact our data protection officer. Our data protection officer will then inform you whether the provision of data is required by law or contract, whether there is an obligation to provide the data and what consequences it would have if the data were not made available.

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art. 9
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Art. 6


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A loan is only as good as its documents. Over the next four weeks, this series will review the potential implications that may go unnoticed in boilerplate language and the importance of customizing standard language in loan documents from one transaction to the next.
If there’s anything we’ve learned from this Great Recession, it’s that better loans make better asset-backed securities. While lots of attention has been focused on loan quality in terms of underwriting, not much has been said about how the quality of loan documents themselves affect collectability and, by extension, value to the pool. But when the time comes to enforce a loan or guaranty, the devil is in the drafting—not just of the negotiated terms, but of those standard provisions often copied from one transaction to another. Over the next few weeks, we’ll look at several standard “boilerplate” provisions found in loan documents, and discuss why it just might be time to give your forms a second look.
But before we get into specific provisions . . . a little context. Whether securitized or unsecuritized, backed by a guaranty or limited recourse, loan transactions are, at the core, contractual arrangements. MBS servicers and investors believe that enforcing their loans should be a quick and easy proceeding—after all, the borrower signed a contract. You just file suit, show the judge the contract, and come home with an enforceable judgment. In my business, that’s called “summary judgment,” where the moving party demonstrates that there are no genuine issues of material fact, and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. But defense lawyers with a little skill and savvy can capitalize on inartfully drafted loan documents to avoid summary judgment, generate fact issues for trial, and generally increase the expense of enforcement.
Time, as they say, is money. Even if a loan or guaranty is ultimately enforced after trial, lost time and energy are real costs that can turn even the most miraculous trial victory into a business loss. A little work on the front-end reviewing long-ignored standard provisions, however, can remove an arrow from the borrower’s quiver and increase the chance of quick, efficient loan enforcement.
Loan documents (generally the note, security instrument and guaranty) often contain waiver provisions. Some common waivers are indemnity provisions, waiver of the right to jury trial, waiver of defenses and waiver of notice. While parties seeking waivers might favor sneaking such provisions into the document, this can often backfire—and it is sure to for the waivers litigants care about most.
A “waiver” is the relinquishment of a right that is both (1) knowing and (2) voluntary. One way to help your lawyer show that a waiver in a contract is both knowing and voluntary is to make it conspicuous in the document.
How do I make a waiver conspicuous?
Simply put, a conspicuous waiver is one that jumps out at you. Use of ALL CAPS, contrasting type or color, for example, qualifies as conspicuous. Dresser Indus., Inc. v. Page Petroleum, Inc., 853 S.W.2d 505, 511 (Tex.1993). The most common, and probably best practice, is to make a provision conspicuous by setting it apart in bold, all-cap letters. E.g. In re Gen. Elec. Capital Corp., 203 S.W.3d 314, 316 (Tex. 2006) (orig. proceeding) (recognizing that contractual jury waiver provision that was “conspicuous”—because it was in bolded font and in all capital letters—met burden of party seeking to enforce provision to make prima facie showing that waiver was knowing and voluntary). Using a heading in addition that specifically states “waiver of jury trial” or “waiver of defenses” enhances conspicuousness and makes waiver provisions easier to defend.
Why is conspicuousness so important?
A conspicuous waiver is presumed to be knowing and voluntary, which shifts the burden to the other party to negate the presumption. Coupled with the general legal principle that persons are charged with knowledge of the contracts they sign and cannot use failure to read as a defense, In re Lyon Fin. Services, Inc., 257 S.W.3d 228, 232-33 (Tex. 2008), conspicuous waivers can be hard to beat.
More importantly, in the case of “extraordinary” risk-shifting waivers (you can read that as “waivers lenders should care about most”), conspicuousness is required. Examples of extraordinary waivers are indemnity agreements, agreements to release another in advance from liability for the other’s negligence, and waivers of jury trial. See Littlefield v. Schaefer, 955 S.W.2d 272, 273 (Tex.1997); Dresser Indus., Inc. v. Page Petroleum, Inc., 853 S.W.2d 505, 508 (Tex.1993); In re Bank of Am., 278 S.W.342 (Tex. 2009).
Extraordinary or not, every waiver could benefit from being conspicuous.
Another Thing about Waivers . . .
Just as many waivers must be conspicuous in order to qualify as an “intentional relinquishment” of a right, they should, in many circumstances, also be express. While the initial impulse may be to draft a general waiver clause that does not clue the other side into exactly what waivers are important to your client, the approach is not without risk. Better to start with specific waiver language and have it negotiated out, leaving the litigator with broad, general waiver language to fight about, than to forego the opportunity to be so clear that no fight can be had. This is certainly the case with respect to matters not yet resolved by the Texas Supreme Court, such as offset for fair market value of a foreclosed property in a deficiency suit.
Sections 51.003 and 51.005 of the Property Code allow the subject of a deficiency suit to seek a determination of fair market value of the property, and pay only the difference between the amount due and fair market value, rather than the difference between the amount due and the actual sale price. That means a lender selling at foreclosure or deciding on a credit bid cannot be sure that the recoverable deficiency will equal the actual deficiency.
Section 51.003 is an affirmative defense. Cabot Capital Corp. v. USDR, Inc., No. 08-07-00202-CV, 2009 WL 1164928, at *4 (Tex. App.—El Paso April 30, 2009, pet. denied). Because it is an affirmative defense, Fair Market Value (FMV) offset can be waived—but just what you need to accomplish a waiver remains unclear.
Reasoning from these two cases, trial courts have held that a generic statement that the guarantor or borrower “waives all defenses” is not sufficient to evidence an intent to waive the protections afforded by the deficiency statute. In a series of decisions late this summer, however, the Dallas Court of Appeals rejected this position, and held that a waiver of all defenses means just that—all defenses, including the statutory right to FMV offset, are waived. Interstate 35/Chisam Road, L.P. v. Moayedi, __ S.W.3d __, 2012 WL 3125148 (Tex. App.—Dallas Aug. 2, 2012, no pet. h.); Toor v. PNC Bank N.A., 2012 WL 3637284 (Tex.App.-Dallas Aug. 24, 2012, no pet. h.); King v. Park Cities Bank, 2012 WL 3144881 (Tex.App.—Dallas Aug. 3, 2012, no pet. h.).
While the Dallas cases can be reconciled with the earlier precedents, until the Texas Supreme Court rules on the issue, the state of the law is unclear. In some jurisdictions, a general waiver may suffice, and in others, use of the term “offset” or specific reference to Section 51.003 and 51.005 may be required. With the increase in foreclosures, this is an issue ripe for the Court’s consideration, so stay tuned . . .
If you want a waiver of defenses to include waiver of a right to a FMV determination and offset (and if you’re the lender, you do!), the safer practice—at least for now—is to state so explicitly. At a minimum, use the word “offset.” You may win without this language, but not without a fight. So why not include it? And while you are at it, go ahead and underline it. See Segal, 155 S.W.3d at 284 (noting that if conspicuousness were required, fact that property code provisions being waived was underlined met such requirement).

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53.1. A name of a family, genus or species, unless conserved (Art. 14) or sanctioned (Art. 15), is illegitimate if it is a later homonym, that is, if it is spelled exactly like a name based on a different type that was previously and validly published for a taxon of the same rank (see also Art. 6 Note 2 and Art. 53.2 and 53.4).
Ex. 1. The name Tapeinanthus Boiss. ex Benth. (1848), given to a genus of Labiatae, is a later homonym of Tapeinanthus Herb. (1837), a name previously and validly published for a genus of Amaryllidaceae. Tapeinanthus Boiss. ex Benth. is therefore unavailable for use. It was renamed Thuspeinanta T. Durand (1888).
Ex. 2. The name Torreya Arn. (1838) is a nomen conservandum and is therefore available for use in spite of the existence of the earlier homonym Torreya Raf. (1818).
Ex. 3. Astragalus rhizanthus Boiss. (1843) is a later homonym of the validly published name A. rhizanthus Royle (1835) and is therefore unavailable for use. Boissier renamed it A. cariensis Boiss. (1849).
Note 1. A later homonym is unavailable for use even if the earlier homonym is illegitimate or is otherwise generally treated as a synonym.
Ex. 4. Zingiber truncatum S. Q. Tong (1987) is illegitimate, being a later homonym of Z. truncatum Stokes (1812), even though the latter name is itself illegitimate under Art. 52.1 because in its protologue the name Amomum zedoaria Christm. (1779) was cited in synonymy. It was renamed Z. neotruncatum T. L. Wu & al. (2000).
Ex. 5. The name Amblyanthera Müll. Arg. (1860) is a later homonym of the validly published Amblyanthera Blume (1849) and is therefore unavailable for use, although Amblyanthera Blume is now considered to be a synonym of Osbeckia L. (1753).
53.2. A sanctioned name is illegitimate if it is a later homonym of another sanctioned name (see also Art. 15 Note 1).
53.3. When two or more generic or specific names based on different types are so similar that they are likely to be confused (because they are applied to related taxa or for any other reason) they are to be treated as homonyms (see also Art. 61.5). If established practice has been to treat two similar names as homonyms, this practice is to be continued if it is in the interests of nomenclatural stability.
* Ex. 6. Names treated as homonyms: Asterostemma Decne. (1838) and Astrostemma Benth. (1880); Pleuropetalum Hook. f. (1846) and Pleuripetalum T. Durand (1888); Eschweilera DC. (1828) and Eschweileria Boerl. (1887); Skytanthus Meyen (1834) and Scytanthus Hook. (1844).
* Ex. 7. The three generic names Bradlea Adans. (1763), Bradleja Banks ex Gaertn. (1790), and Braddleya Vell. (1827), all commemorating Richard Bradley, are treated as homonyms because only one can be used without serious risk of confusion.
* Ex. 8. The names Acanthoica Lohmann (1902) and Acanthoeca W. N. Ellis (1930), both designating flagellates, are sufficiently alike to be considered homonyms (Taxon 22: 313. 1973).
* Ex. 9. Epithets so similar that they are likely to be confused if combined under the same generic or specific name: chinensis and sinensis; ceylanica and zeylanica; napaulensis, nepalensis, and nipalensis; polyanthemos and polyanthemus; macrostachys and macrostachyus; heteropus and heteropodus; poikilantha and poikilanthes; pteroides and pteroideus; trinervis and trinervius; macrocarpon and macrocarpum; trachycaulum and trachycaulon.
* Ex. 10. Names not likely to be confused: Rubia L. (1753) and Rubus L. (1753); Monochaetum (DC.) Naudin (1845) and Monochaete Döll (1875); Peponia Grev. (1863) and Peponium Engl. (1897); Iris L. (1753) and Iria (Pers.) Hedw. (1806); Desmostachys Miers (1852) and Desmostachya (Stapf) Stapf (1898); Symphyostemon Miers (1841) and Symphostemon Hiern (1900); Gerrardina Oliv. (1870) and Gerardiina Engl. (1897); Urvillea Kunth (1821) and Durvillaea Bory (1826); Peltophorus Desv. (1810; Gramineae) and Peltophorum (Vogel) Benth. (1840; Leguminosae); Senecio napaeifolius (DC.) Sch. Bip. (1845, 'napeaefolius'; see Art. 60 Ex. 18) and S. napifolius MacOwan (1890; the epithets being derived, respectively, from Napaea and Brassica napus); Lysimachia hemsleyana Oliv. (1891) and L. hemsleyi Franch. (1895) (see, however, Rec. 23A.2); Euphorbia peplis L. (1753) and E. peplus L. (1753).
Ex. 11. Names conserved against earlier names treated as homonyms (see App. III): Lyngbya Gomont (vs Lyngbyea Sommerf.); Columellia Ruiz & Pav. (vs. Columella Lour.), both commemorating Columella, the Roman writer on agriculture; Cephalotus Labill. (vs Cephalotos Adans.); Simarouba Aubl. (vs. Simaruba Boehm.).
Ex. 12. The name Gilmania Coville (1936) was published as a substitute name for Phyllogonum Coville (1893) because the author considered the latter to be a later homonym of Phyllogonium Bridel (1827). Treating them as homonyms has become accepted, e.g. in Index Nominum Genericorum, and the name Gilmania has been accepted as legitimate ever since. Therefore the names Phyllogonum and Phyllogonium are to continue to be treated as homonyms.
53.4. The names of two subdivisions of the same genus, or of two infraspecific taxa within the same species, even if they are of different rank, are treated as homonyms, the later of which is illegitimate, if they have the same or a confusingly similar final epithet and are not based on the same type.
Ex. 13. The names Andropogon sorghum subsp. halepensis (L.) Hack. and A. sorghum var. halepensis (L.) Hack. (in Candolle & Candolle, Monogr. Phan. 6: 502. 1889) are legitimate, since both have the same type; repetition of the final epithet is in accord with Rec. 26A.1.
Ex. 14. Anagallis arvensis var. caerulea (L.) Gouan (Fl. Monsp.: 30. 1765), based on A. caerulea L. (1759), makes illegitimate the name A. arvensis subsp. caerulea Hartm. (Sv. Norsk Exc.-Fl.: 32. 1846), based on the later homonym A. caerulea Schreb. (1771).
Ex. 15. Scenedesmus armatus var. brevicaudatus (Hortob.) Pankow (in Arch. Protistenk. 132: 153. 1986), based on S. carinatus var. brevicaudatus Hortob. (in Acta Bot. Acad. Sci. Hung. 26: 318. 1981), is a later homonym of S. armatus f. brevicaudatus L. S. Péterfi (in Stud. Cercet. Biol. (Bucharest), Ser. Biol. Veg. 15: 25. 1963) even though the two names apply to taxa of different infraspecific rank. Scenedesmus armatus var. brevicaudatus (L. S. Péterfi) E. H. Hegew. (in Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 60: 393. 1982), however, is not a later homonym since it is based on the same type as S. armatus f. brevicaudatus L. S. Péterfi.
Note 2. The same final epithet may be used in the names of subdivisions of different genera, and of infraspecific taxa within different species.
Ex. 16. Verbascum sect. Aulacosperma Murb. (Monogr. Verbascum: 34, 593. 1933) is permissible, although there is an earlier Celsia sect. Aulacospermae Murb. (Monogr. Celsia: 34, 56. 1926). This, however, is not an example to be followed, since it is contrary to Rec. 21B.2.
53.5. When it is doubtful whether names or their epithets are sufficiently alike to be confused, a request for a decision may be submitted to the General Committee (see Div. III), which will refer it for examination to the committee(s) for the appropriate taxonomic group(s). A recommendation, whether or not to treat the names concerned as homonyms, may then be put forward to an International Botanical Congress, and, if ratified, will become a binding decision.
Ex. 17. Names ruled as likely to be confused, and therefore to be treated as homonyms: Ficus gomelleira Kunth (1847) and F. gameleira Standl. (1937) (Taxon 42: 111. 1993); Solanum saltiense S. Moore (1895) and S. saltense (Bitter) C. V. Morton (1944) (Taxon 42: 434. 1993); Balardia Cambess. (1829; Caryophyllaceae) and Ballardia Montrouz. (1860; Myrtaceae) (Taxon 42: 434. 1993).
Ex. 18. Names ruled as not likely to be confused: Cathayeia Ohwi (1931; extant Flacourtiaceae) and Cathaya Chun & Kuang (1962; fossil Pinaceae) (Taxon 36: 429. 1987); Cristella Pat. (1887; Fungi) and Christella H. Lév. (1915; Pteridophyta) (Taxon 35: 551. 1986); Coluria R. Br. (1823; Rosaceae) and Colura (Dumort.) Dumort. (1835; Hepaticae) (Taxon 42: 433. 1993); Acanthococcus Hook. f. & Harv. (1845; Rhodophyta) and Acanthococos Barb. Rodr. (1900; Palmae) (Taxon 42: 433. 1993); Rauia Nees & Mart. (1823; Rutaceae) and Rauhia Traub (1957; Amaryllidaceae) (Taxon 42: 433. 1993).
53.6. When two or more homonyms have equal priority, the first of them that is adopted in an effectively published text (Art. 29, 30, 31) by an author who simultaneously rejects the other(s) is treated as having priority. Likewise, if an author in an effectively published text substitutes other names for all but one of these homonyms, the homonym for the taxon that is not renamed is treated as having priority.
Ex. 19. Linnaeus simultaneously published "10." Mimosa cinerea (Sp. Pl.: 517. 1753) and "25." M. cinerea (Sp. Pl.: 520. 1753). In 1759, he renamed species 10 M. cineraria L. and retained the name M. cinerea for species 25, so that the latter is treated as having priority over its homonym.
Ex. 20. Rouy & Foucaud (Fl. France 2: 30. 1895) published the name Erysimum hieraciifolium var. longisiliquum, with two different types, for two different taxa under different subspecies. Only one of these names can be maintained.
Note 3. A homonym renamed or rejected under Art. 53.6 remains legitimate and takes precedence over a later synonym of the same rank, should a transfer to another genus or species be effected.
Ex. 21. Mimosa cineraria L. (1759), based on M. cinerea L. (Sp. Pl.: 517 [non 520]. 1753; see Art. 53 Ex. 19), was transferred to Prosopis by Druce (1914) as P. cineraria (L.) Druce. However, the correct name in Prosopis would have been a combination based on M. cinerea had not that name been successfully proposed for rejection.
(c) 2006, by International Association for Plant Taxonomy. This page last updated 16.03.2007 .

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In this article we demonstrate why mathematical models of the World System evolution are so important for the world-systems research, in general, and for the issue of systemic boundaries in particular. The point is that those mathematical models demonstrate in a rather convincing way that in order that a certain set of human societies would demonstrate systemic qualities (and – thus – could be described with a single mathematical model), it is sufficient that just one condition is observed – it is necessary that the technological innovations made in one society of a system could diffuse within a millennium throughout all the other societies of the system. As soon as this condition is satisfied, the respective set of human societies can be treated as a single system (and – what is important – can be described with a single mathematical model), and we do not know any better designation for such a system than the ‘world-system’. This, of course suggests rather specific criteria for the world-systemic boundaries.
In this article we will attempt to demonstrate why mathematical models of the World System evolution are so important for the world-systems research in general, and for the issue of systemic boundaries in particular. We will try to show that these models suggest a novel approach to the world-systems research allowing perceiving the issue of the systemic boundaries in a new light.
1) ‘the Malthusian (1978) assumption that population is limited by the available technology, so that the growth rate of population is proportional to the growth rate of technology’ (Kremer 1993: 681–682).3 This statement looks quite convincing. Indeed, throughout most of human history the world population was limited by the technologically determined ceiling of the carrying capacity of land. For example, with foraging subsistence technologies the Earth could not support more than 10 million people, because the amount of naturally available useful biomass on this planet is limited, and the world population managed to grow beyond this limit only when people started to apply various means to artificially increase the amount of available biomass, that is with the transition from foraging to food production. However, the extensive agriculture also can only support a limited number of people, and further growth of the world population only became possible with the intensification of agriculture and other technological improvements (see, e.g., Turchin 2003; Korotayev, Malkov, and Khaltourina 2006a, 2006b; Korotayev and Khaltourina 2006).
where K is the technologically determined carrying capacity of the Earth (as regards the humans).
2) ‘High population spurs technological change because it increases the number of potential inventors…4 In a larger population there will be proportionally more people lucky or smart enough to come up with new ideas’ (Kremer 1993: 685), thus, ‘the growth rate of technology is proportional to total population’.5 In fact, here Kremer uses the main assumption of the Endogenous Technological Growth theory (Kuznets 1960; Grossman and Helpman 1991; Aghion and Howitt 1992, 1998; Simon 1977, 1981, 2000; Komlos and Nefedov 2002; Jones 1995, 2003, 2005 etc.). As this supposition, to our knowledge, was first proposed by Simon Kuznets (1960), we shall denote the corresponding type of dynamics as ‘Kuznetsian’,6 while the systems in which the ‘Kuznetsian’ population-technological dynamics is combined with the ‘Malthusian’ demographic one will be denoted as ‘Malthusian-Kuznetsian’. In general, we find this assumption rather plausible – in fact, it is quite probable that, other things being equal, within a given period of time, one billion people will make approximately one thousand times more inventions than one million people.
As has been demonstrated on a number of occasions, when those two assumptions are expressed mathematically (e.g., in the way indicated above) and the two respective equations are united into a single mathematical system, the resultant mathematical model turns out to be capable of describing the global population growth in an extremely accurate way (Taagepera 1976, 1979; Kremer 1993; Podlazov 2000; Tsirel 2004; Korotayev 2005, 2012; Korotayev, Malkov, and Khaltourina 2006a: 21–36).
The resultant models provide a rather convincing explanation of why throughout most of human history the world population followed the hyperbolic pattern with the absolute population growth rate tending to be proportional to N2. For example, why will the growth of population from, say, 10 million to 100 million, result in the growth of dN/dt by 100 times? The above mentioned models explain this rather convincingly. The point is that the growth of world population from 10 to 100 million implies that human technology also grew approximately by ten times (given that it will have proven, after all, to be able to support a ten times larger population). On the other hand, the tenfold population growth also implies a tenfold growth of the number of potential inventors, and, hence, a tenfold increase in the relative technological growth rate. Hence, the absolute technological growth rate will grow 10 × 10 = 100 times (as, in accordance with equation (5), an order of magnitude larger number of people having at their disposal an order of magnitude wider technological basis would tend to make two orders of magnitude more inventions). And as N tends to the technologically determined carrying capacity ceiling, we have good reason to expect that dN/dt will also grow just by about 100 times.
In fact, it can be demonstrated (see, e.g., Korotayev, Malkov, and Khaltourina 2006a, 2006b; Korotayev and Khaltourina 2006) that the hyperbolic pattern of the world's population growth could be accounted for by the nonlinear second order positive feedback mechanism that was shown long ago to generate just the hyperbolic growth, known also as the ‘blow-up regime’ (see, e.g., Kurdjumov 1999; Knyazeva and Kurdjumov 2005). In our case this nonlinear second order positive feedback looks as follows: the more people – the more potential inventors – the faster technological growth – the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity – the faster population growth – with more people you also have more potential inventors – hence, faster technological growth, and so on (see Fig. 1).
It is remarkable that this model suggests ways to answer one of the main objections raised against the hyperbolic models of the world's population growth. Indeed, at present the academic social science community has not accepted the mathematical models of world population growth as a hyperbolic one.8 We believe that there are substantial reasons for such a position, and that the authors of the respective models are as much to blame for this rejection as are social scientists.
However, what may be true for elements which, because of lack of adequate communication among each other, have to resort to a competitive, (almost) zero-sum multiperson game may be false for elements that possess a system of communication which enables them to form coalitions until all elements are so strongly linked that the population as a whole can be considered from a game-theoretical point of view as a single person playing a two-person game with nature as its opponent (von Foerster, Mora, and Amiot 1960: 1292).
However, did, for example, in 1–1500 CE, the inhabitants of, say, Central Asia, Tasmania, Hawaii, Terra del Fuego, the Kalahari etc. (i.e. just the world population) really have ‘adequate communication’ to make ‘all elements… so strongly linked that the population as a whole can be considered from a game-theoretical point of view as a single person playing a two-person game with nature as its opponent’? For any historically-minded social scientist the answer to this question is perfectly clear and, of course, it is squarely negative. Against this background it is hardly surprising that those social scientists who have happened to come across hyperbolic models for world population growth have tended to treat them merely as ‘demographic adventures of physicists’ (note that indeed, nine out of twelve currently known authors of such models are physicists); none of the respective authors (von Foerster, Mora, and Amiot 1960; von Hoerner 1975; Taagepera 1976, 1979; Kapitza 1992, 1999; Kremer 1993; Cohen 1995; Podlazov 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004; Johansen and Sornette 2001; Tsirel 2004), after all, has provided any convincing answer to the question above.
However, it is not so difficult to provide such an answer.
But before let us consider why the mathematical models of the World System evolution are so important for the world-systems research, in general, and for the issue of systemic boundaries in particular. The point is that those mathematical models demonstrate in a rather convincing way that in order that a certain set of human societies would demonstrate systemic qualities (and – thus – could be described with a single mathematical model) it is sufficient that just one condition is observed – it is necessary that the technological innovations made in one society of a system could diffuse within a millennium throughout all other societies of the system. As soon as this condition is satisfied, the respective set of human societies can be treated as a single system (and – what is important – can be described with a single mathematical model), and we do not know any better designation for such a system than the ‘world-system’. This, of course suggests rather specific criteria for the world-systemic boundaries. The boundary of any particular world-system can be identified via defining the zone of diffusion of the main technological innovations within a respective world-system. Thus the contacts between Central Asia and China in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE can be said to have resulted in the incorporation of China into the Afroeurasian world-system (the World System) as they led to the borrowing on the part of China of major technological innovations of the western part of Afroeurasia (wheat, barley, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, bronze metallurgy, wheeled transport, plow and so on), whereas the Norse contacts with the New World in the early 2nd millennium CE did not result in any changes of the world-system boundaries, as those contacts (unlike the Columbian ones) did not result in any significant diffusions of technologies either from Europe to the New World or from America to the Old World.
The hyperbolic trend observed for the world population growth after 10,000 BCE does appear to be primarily a product of the growth of quite a real system, a system that seems to have originated in West Asia around that time in direct connection with the Neolithic Revolution. With Andre Gunder Frank (1990, 1993; Frank and Gills 1994), we denote this system as ‘the World System’ (see also, e.g., Modelski 2000, 2003; Devezas and Modelski 2003). As has been just mentioned, the presence of the hyperbolic trend itself indicates that the major part of the entity in question had some systemic unity, and the evidence for this unity is readily available. Indeed, we have evidence for the systematic spread of major innovations (domesticated cereals, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, plow, wheel, copper, bronze, and later iron technology, and so on) throughout the whole North African – Eurasian Oikumene for a few millennia BCE (see, e.g., Chubarov 1991, or Diamond 1999 for a synthesis of such evidence).
Below we will consider some of this evidence in more detail.
One of the earliest examples of diffusion through the information network of the World System is the spread of domesticated plants and animals from their initial location of domestication. Several such locations are currently known (see Table 1), the most ancient one with the greatest number of domestications being the Near East. The so-called Near Eastern founder crop package includes emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, pea, lentil, chickpea, bitter vetch, and one technical plant, namely linen9 (Zohary and Hopf 2000: 241–242). These primary domesticates spread wide from the Near East across the Central and Southern Asia about 8,000 BP (Zohary and Hopf 2000) and reached the major part of Europe about 7,000 BP (Brown et al. 2009: 108).
Source: Price and Bar-Yosef 2011: 170–171 unless stated otherwise in the footnotes.
– the fourth way starts in Iran and Iraq to pass Oman, and therefrom to get to Ethiopia and India (Badaeva et al. 2015: 13–17).
Along with wheat, barley was domesticated in the Near East about 10,500 BP (Zohary and Hopf 2000; Diamond 2002). However, currently there is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that the domestication of barley occurred more than once (Morrell and Clegg 2007; Jones et al. 2013). Research on the difference in haplotype frequency reveals two centers of barley domestication, one in the Fertile Crescent, and one 1,500–3,000 km further to the East, probably in Zagros mountains or even further to the East (Morrell and Clegg 2007; Saisho and Purugganan 2007), probably in Tibet (see Dai et al. 2012; Ren et al. 2013). The barley domesticated in the Fertile Crescent contributed the majority of diversity in European and American cultivars. The second domestication contributed most of the diversity in barley from Central Asia to the Far East (Morrell and Clegg 2007; Saisho and Purugganan 2007).
Another independent center of domestication (nearly as ancient as the Fertile Crescent one) existed in China. Millet, rice, soya beans, and later on buckwheat were all domesticated in the territory of modern China (Yang et al. 2012). Among these cultures, the greatest impact on the global nutrition landscape belongs to rice. Rice was domesticated around 9,000 BP (Molina et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2007). Currently the most recent archeological and genetic research localizes rice domestication in the Lower Yangtze river valley (for a substantial review see Gross and Zhao 2014), and recognizes a later separate domestication in Africa11 (Vaughan, Lu, and Tomooka 2008; Li, Zheng, and Ge 2011; Molina et al. 2011; Huang et al. 2012). Rice domestication in India has been under great discussion until recently, the main question being whether there was another separate domestication of rice in this country (apart from the two domestication mentioned above). The latest genetic research shows that though rice domestication started separately in the Lower Yangtze valley and in India, in the latter this process finalized only after the fully domesticated rice from the former had reached it (Fuller 2011; Huang et al. 2012; Gross and Zhao 2014).
Let us now briefly view the history of the diffusion of domesticated rice across the Afro-Eurasian World System. About 5,000–4,500 BP domesticated rice went up the Yangtze river, reaching Sichuan and later on Yunnan (Fuller 2011). Around 4,500 BP this cultivar reached Taiwan and spread further to the south, both into coastal and inner regions of South-Eastern Asia. In India the first evidence of the presence of Chinese domesticated rice can be traced back to the epoch of Harappa (4,500–4,000 BP)12, Around 4,000–3,000 BP domesticated rice reached Japan and Korea (Gross and Zhao 2014).
Having reached India and South-East Asia, rice spread further on to the Near East (about 3,000 BP) and diffused from Persia to many regions of the Persian Empire; Europeans got to know rice thanks to Alexander the Great's campaign in India (Chang 2000).
As regards animal domestication, the major part of the modern diversity in domesticated animals goes up to one or several (but very few) initial domestication localities, wherefrom they gradually diffused through the World System. Thus, mitochondrial DNA analysis (supporting earlier archeological data) shows that almost all domesticated goats descend from Eastern Anatolia and northern and central Zagros (Naderi et al. 2008; see Zeder and Hesse 2000). As for pig domestication, mitochondrial DNA analysis localizes it in the Near East about 10,500 BP. Later on (about 6,000 BP) domesticated pigs reached Europe through two ways: via the Danube and the Rhine river valleys into the northwestern Europe, and via the southern sea way into the Mediterranean region (Larson et al. 2007, 2010). Simultaneously, Europe started to domesticate its own wild pig population, and rather soon these domesticated pigs prevailed on the Near Eastern ones (Larson et al. 2007).
For many years scientists have been discussing the ways how domesticates reached new regions – whether they came with new settlers, or it was information exchange between various population groups (i.e. the information networks of the ancient World System) that transferred new knowledge on domestication of various species. Currently there exists enough scientific evidence to support both hypotheses (Zeder 2011: 202). Thus, the diffusion of emmer wheat is strongly linked to human migration, whereas, for example, the diffusion of domesticated pigs looks much more like an information exchange.
The technological space of the World System before the Silk Road was relatively small as compared to later periods. However, the sustenance of the increasingly complex agrarian societies, chiefdoms, temple communities, early states, and later on agrarian empires, was based on a set of constantly improved technologies. Sets of technologies existed in production of luxury and bulk goods, construction, land and sea transportation etc. Some basic technologies of the ancient World System (such as pottery production) were independently invented in a number of different places (Kuzmin 2013); other technologies, say, in metallurgy (smelting of copper, bronze, and iron) and warfare (chariots) had a single place of invention, wherefrom they diffused throughout the World System. Let us view these two examples in greater detail.
Scholars unanimously agree on the fundamental role of metallurgy in the sociopolitical and socioeconomic development of the ancient societies.
The emergence of early metal production, including mining, smelting and exchange, can be seen as a key element in the development of more complex social and political orders in the ancient world … Metal production marked an important transition towards increasing regional and interregional trade and the innovation and diffusion of new technologies, and routinely provided the material setting for wealth accumulation among emerging elite factions within early societies … Such conditions have been seen as contributing to the development of early ranked societies in Eurasia … and the rise and expansion of early states and empires from the fourth to early second millennia BC in the Near East (Hanks and Doonan 2009: 329–330).
Copper. The earliest evidence of the usage of natural copper and copper-based minerals appears in the Near East and Iran in 14,000 – 13,000 BP; copper becomes widely used in these regions in 10,000 – 9,000 BP (for a review see Killick and Fenn 2012: 562). However, the first evidence for copper smelting – the real start of copper metallurgy – is currently found in two regions, Iran, dating from 7,500 BP (Frame 2004: 1; Thornton 2009: 308), and Serbia, dating from 7,000 BP (Radivojević et al. 2010, 2013). By 6,000 BP copper metallurgy spread into east Turkey, southern Levant, and Central Europe (Roberts, Thornton, and Pigott 2009: 1014). As regards the spread of metallurgy from the Near East into the Far East, two most likely ways are suggested in literature, both starting in Anatolia and Iran. One way goes through the Caucasus and Eurasian steppe, the other passes the Amu-Darya river, Tianshan, and Kashgar (Tylecote 1976: 14; Linduff and Mei 2009: 275).
Bronze. The earliest tin-smelted bronze (found in the mountainous west of Iran) dates back to 6,000–5,000 BP. Around 5,000 BP the technology of tin-bronze smelting spread from here into Sumer, Arabia, the Mediterranean, then further on to Central Asia and Central Europe, and even to China (Darling 2002: 59–60; Roberts, Thornton, and Pigott 2009: 1015–1016). South-Eastern Asia received this technology via its contacts with the population of the Yellow and Yangtze river valleys (Higham et al. 2011: 227). Thus, all these regions appear to be part of a united network of information exchanges covering the whole of Eurasia.
Iron. Smelting iron ore was first carried out by the Hittites living in Anatolia about 3,500 BP (Headrick 2009: 36). Initially iron was inferior to bronze in terms of cracking and rusting, but superior to it thanks to the abundance of iron ore deposits and, consequently, relative cheapness of iron tools and weapons. In 3,200 BP, after the collapse of Hittite empire, the technology of iron ore smelting spread among the Near Eastern societies. Around 3,000 BP it got from Mesopotamia to India, in 2,800 BP from Arabia to Ethiopia, in 2,700 to Egypt and China, where it was substantially improved (Headrick 2009: 36–37).
Thus, all three technologies of metallurgy described above diffused through the World System very fast, reaching rather remote areas in just several centuries. In our opinion, this can be taken as a valid proof of the existence of a substantial information network tying together the World System far before the Silk Road came to existence.
In the words of Russian historian Chechushkov: ‘Chariot complex is one of the most large-scale historical phenomena, geographically spreading in the vast territories of Eurasia, and chronologically embracing a major part of the Bronze Age’ (Chechushkov 2011: 62). The role of wheeled vehicles in ancient Eurasia was huge (especially among the pastoralists). Not only did they serve as the main means of transportation, but also were widely used in warfare (Hudyakov 2002: 139).
The earliest usage of two-wheeled vehicles is documented for the Near East in the third millennium BCE (Chechushkov 2011: 63). However, these vehicles were still far from light war chariots. A number of innovations was required, first of all, spoked wheel (instead of the earlier cross-bar wheels), and the domestication of horse (to replace donkeys). Thus, chariots as a whole technological complex appear in the Near East only in the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries BCE, when Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos (Chechushkov 2011: 63).
The prime of chariots and a rapid spread of this complex technology chariot starts around 3,600 BP. In just a little more than a century the light chariots spread throughout the territory stretching from Greece to India, from Russia to southern Egypt (Moorey 1986: 196). The massive use of chariots is recorded about 1457 BCE in the Battle of Megiddo. Around 3,200 BP the chariot technology reached China (Shaughnessy 1988). The speed of spread of a rather sophisticated technology and a close similarity of the forms of chariots on the entire Eurasian territory point to the diffusion of this technology (as opposed to the multiple inventions). Moreover, it is commonly hypothesized that this spread has been associated with a particular group of people (Indo-Aryans) (Moorey 1986: 196).
As a result, the evolution of societies of the Afroeurasian world-system (= the World System) already at this time cannot be regarded as truly independent. By the end of the first millennium BCE we observe a belt of cultures, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with an astonishingly similar level of cultural complexity characterized by agricultural production of wheat and other specific cereals, the breeding of cattle, sheep, and goats; use of the plow, iron metallurgy, and wheeled transport; development of professional armies and cavalries deploying rather similar weapons; elaborate bureaucracies, and Axial Age ideologies, and so on – this list could be extended for pages. A few millennia before, we would find another belt of societies strikingly similar in level and character of cultural complexity, stretching from the Balkans up to the Indus Valley outskirts (Peregrine and Ember 2001: vols 4 and 8; Peregrine 2003). Note that in both cases, the respective entities included the major part of the contemporary world's population (see, e.g., McEvedy and Jones 1978; Durand 1977 etc.). We would interpret this as a tangible result of the World System's functioning. The alternative explanations would involve a sort of miraculous scenario that these cultures with strikingly similar levels and character of complexity somehow developed independently of each other in a very large but continuous zone, while for some reason nothing comparable to them appeared elsewhere in other parts of the world, which were not parts of the World System. We find such an alternative explanation highly implausible.
Thus, we would tend to treat the world population's hyperbolic growth pattern as reflecting the growth of quite a real entity – of the World System.
A few other points seem to be relevant here. Of course, there would be no grounds for speaking about a World System stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, even at the beginning of the first millennium CE, if we applied the ‘bulk-good’ criterion suggested by Wallerstein (1974, 1987, 2004), as there was no movement of bulk goods at all between, say, China and Europe at this time (as we have no reason to disagree with Wallerstein in his classification of the first century Chinese silk reaching Europe as a luxury rather than a bulk good). However, the first century CE (and even the first millennium BCE) World System definitely qualifies as such if we apply the ‘softer’ information-network criterion suggested by Chase-Dunn and Hall (1997). Note that at our level of analysis the presence of an information network covering the whole World System is a perfectly sufficient condition, which makes it possible to consider this system as a single evolving entity. Yet, in the first millennium BCE any bulk goods could hardly penetrate from the Pacific coast of Eurasia to its Atlantic coast. However, the World System had reached by that time such a level of integration that iron metallurgy could spread through the whole of the World System within a few centuries.
Of course, in the millennia preceding the European colonization of Tasmania its population dynamics – oscillating around the 4000 level (e.g., Diamond 1999) – were not influenced by World System population dynamics and did not influence it at all. However, such facts just suggest that since the tenth millennium BCE the dynamics of the world population reflect very vividly the very dynamics of the World System population.
We believe that the theory specified above can shed a new light on the issue of systemic boundaries. It could be suggested that within a new approach the main emphasis would be moved to the generation and diffusion of innovations. If a society borrows systematically important technological innovations, its evolution already cannot be considered as really independent, but should rather be considered as a part of a larger evolving entity, within which such innovations are systematically produced and diffused. The main idea of the world-system approach was to find the evolving unit. The basic idea was that it is impossible to account for the evolution of a single society without taking into consideration that it was a part of a larger whole. However, traditional world-system analysis concentrated on bulk-good movements, and core – periphery exploitation, thoroughly neglecting the above-mentioned dimension. Meanwhile, the technological innovations diffusion network turns out to be the oldest mechanism of the world-systems integration, and remained extremely important throughout the whole history, remaining important up to the present. It seems to be even more important than the core – periphery exploitation (e.g., without taking this mechanism into consideration it appears impossible to account for such things as the twentieth-century demographic explosion whose proximate cause was the dramatic decline of mortality, but whose main ultimate cause was the diffusion of innovations produced almost exclusively within the world-system core). This also suggests a redefinition of the world-system core. The core is not the world-system zone exploiting other zones, but rather it is the zone with the highest innovation donor/recipient ratio, the principal innovation donor.
The mathematical models specified above demonstrate in a rather convincing way that in order that a certain set of human societies would demonstrate systemic qualities (and – thus – could be described with a single mathematical model) it is sufficient that just one condition is observed – it is necessary that the technological innovations made in one society within a system could diffuse within a millennium throughout all the other societies of the system. As soon as this condition is satisfied, the respective set of human societies can be treated as a single system (and – what is important – can be described with a single mathematical model), and we do not know any better designation for such a system than the ‘world-system’. This, of course suggests rather specific criteria for the world-systemic boundaries. The boundary of any particular world-system can be identified by regarding the zone within which the main technological innovations made within the respective world-system diffused. Thus the contacts between Central Asia and China in the third and second millennia BCE can be said to have resulted in the incorporation of China into the Afroeurasian world-system as they led to the borrowing on the part of China of major technological innovations of the western part of Afroeurasia (wheat, barley, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, bronze metallurgy, wheeled transport, plow and so on), whereas the Norse contacts with the New World in the early second millennium CE did not result in any changes of the world-system boundaries, as those contacts (unlike the Columbian ones) did not result in any significant diffusions of technologies either from Europe to the New World or from America to the Old World.
This research has been supported by the Russian Science Foundation (project No. 15-18-30063).
1 To be exact, the equation proposed by von Foerster and his colleagues looked as follows: . However, as has been shown by von Hoerner (1975) and Kapitza (1992, 1999), it can be written more succinctly as .
2 Of course, von Foerster and his colleagues did not imply that the world population on that day could actually become infinite. The real implication was that the world population growth pattern that was followed for many centuries prior to 1960 was about to come to an end and be transformed into a radically different pattern. Note that this prediction began to be fulfilled only in a few years after the ‘Doomsday’ paper was published, starting from 1960 the world population growth began to diverge more and more from the blow-up regime, and now it is not hyperbolic any more (see, e.g., Korotayev, Malkov, and Khaltourina 2006a, where we present a compact mathematical model that describes both the hyperbolic development of the World System in the period prior to the early 1970s, and its withdrawal from the blow-up regime in the subsequent period).
3 In addition to this, the absolute growth rate is proportional to the population itself – with a given relative growth rate a larger population will increase more in absolute numbers than a smaller one.
4 ‘This implication flows naturally from the non-rivalry of technology… The cost of inventing a new technology is independent of the number of people who use it. Thus, holding constant the share of resources devoted to research, an increase in population leads to an increase in technological change’ (Kremer 1993: 681).
5 Note that ‘the growth rate of technology’ means here a relative growth rate (i.e. the level to which technology will grow in a given unit of time in proportion to the level observed at the beginning of this period).
6 In Economic Anthropology it is usually denoted as ‘Boserupian’ (see, e.g., Boserup 1965; Lee 1986).
7 Taagepera, Kremer, Podlazov, and Tsirel did not test this hypothesis empirically in a direct way. Note, however, that our own empirical test of this hypothesis has supported it (see Korotayev, Malkov, and Khaltourina 2006b: 141–146).
8 The title of an article by a social scientist discussing Kapitza's model – Demographic Adventures of a Physicist [Shishkov 2005] – is rather telling in this respect.
9 Triticum dicoccum Schübl., Triticum monococcum L., Hordeum vulgare L., Pisum sativum L., Lens culinaris Medik., Cicer arietinum L., Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd., Linum usitatissimum L.
10 In Abu-Hureira the first examples of rye with phenotypical features of domestication belong to 12,500 BP (Hillman et al. 2001).
11 Domestication of African rice is localized in Sahel, Upper Niger (Li, Zheng, and Ge 2011).
12 About 4,000 BP a number of other Chinese species reach the north-western regions of India and Pakistan, such as peach, apricot, millet, etc. (Fuller 2011).
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