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Racine Foster, Editor, 718 Magnolia Ave., Orlando, Florida.
Harper & Brothers, Publishers in the fall of 1958.
A bromeliad tree — meaning a tree planted with bromeliads — can be a decorative accent in many indoor gardens. While the luxuriant growth on the greenhouse specimen pictured on the cover cannot always be duplicated in the house, highly satisfactory results can generally be obtained if interesting plants are used on unusually shaped stumps or roots. Driftwood is good for this purpose. Its gray color contrasts with the blue-green of much of the bromeliad foliage, and it can often be found in complicated and twisted shapes with natural cavities for planting.
The tree in the picture was the root of a giant sycamore, which was uprooted and washed free of soil in the hurricane of 1955. What looks like the trunk is actually the portion of the root nearest the stump, and the branches are the smaller roots that extended outward into the soil. Like the roots of many trees, they fused together as they crisscrossed through the earth — forming intricate loops and occasionally enfolding a rock in their twining grasp. You can see the bottom of such a rock just below and to the right of the center of the mass. Two feet of the root stem is buried in the ground so that it stands firmly in place.
Aechmeas, Billbergias and Cryptanthi are the most prominent bromeliads on the tree. In addition, if you look closely, you will see less common members of the family like the pendant Acanthostachys on the right and the Spanish moss on the top, and also some other epiphytic plants such as the birds nest fern near the bottom. An Anthurium which is scarcely visible in the center of the picture has grown well and bloomed several times.
Preparing the tree for planting is a fascinating task. In your mind's eye, picture where the clumps of bromeliads will look best and then search for natural crevices near these spots — knotholes, patches of decay or crotches where the tree has branched — which you can enlarge enough to accommodate the plants. I use an augur and a heavy gouge to shape the cavities, and I bore at least a half inch hole downwards from the bottom of each to provide drainage. Indeed, many of the cavities more nearly resemble tunnels, tapering slightly, so that osmunda fiber can be packed firmly into them. Naturally the dimensions vary. I try to get at least as much space as a 2" pot.
The bromeliads are "planted" by wrapping their roots in sphagnum and osmunda and pressing them firmly into the cavity or crevice. The trick is to use small plants, which take hold faster and grow better, and to apply real pressure to the osmunda around them, anchoring them securely and establishing close contact between the fiber and the roots. If you want a plant at a spot where no cavity can be hollowed out, the wad of osmunda can be held in place with cork bark and wire or with wire alone. Again be sure that the wire is tight and the anchorage firm.
After several months the bromeliads will fasten themselves in place with a new system of holdfast roots and will begin to put out shoots and offsets, forming the massive clumps shown in the picture. Culture is about the same as for bromeliads in pots, although watering may be needed a bit more frequently if a large proportion of the osmunda is exposed to the air. Because the water must, and will, drain rapidly out of the fiber, the tree should be in a ground bed or the floor beneath it should be protected from drip.
Northwestern Ave. & Thomas Road, Philadelphia 18, Pa.
Research Service, Crops Research Division, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.
Seeds of Puya berteroniana required light for germination in 1956 tests ( Bromel. Soc. Bull. 6: 67-68, 1956). Additional seeds of this species supplied by Mulford Foster enabled us to study further its germination requirements. Throughout the latter experiments no germination occurred in the dark, whereas 75 percent of the seeds germinated when irradiated daily for 8 hours with light from incandescent-filament lamps. Realizing that the quality of the radiant energy emitted by the incandescent lamps was partially inhibitory to germination (Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 7: 299-324, 1956), we tested fluorescent lamps and obtained more germination than with incandescent ones.
Since many light-sensitive seeds, such as those of lettuce, peppergrass, and tobacco, germinate very well after brief irradiations (10-seconds to several minutes), it seemed unlikely that seeds of Puya berteroniana required 8 hours of light daily for the first 10 days of the 17-day period of germination. Attempts to induce germination by exposures to light for 30 minutes each day for 10 days were not successful. However, if each 30 minutes of light was divided into two 15-minute periods separated by 12 hours of darkness, germination was equal to that obtained by use of 8 hours of light per day. Reducing the duration of each exposure below 15 minutes resulted in a decrease in germination. However, one of the two daily exposures could be reduced to 4 minutes if the other exposure made 8 to 12 hours later was for 15 minutes; then about 70 percent of the seeds germinated.
All experiments mentioned so far were conducted at a temperature of 70° F. The natural habitat of Puya berteroniana is 400 to 1,500 meters with no forests and often freezing temperatures. Therefore, it seemed reasonable to assume that seeds of this species probably germinate in nature at temperatures somewhat less than 70° F. A germination test made at several temperatures and at two durations of light showed that maximum germination was obtained at 60° F (Table 1). Subsequent tests showed that germination was less at still lower temperatures.
Table 1. Effect of light and temperature on the germination of seeds of Puya berteroniana.
Mulford Foster pointed out that seeds of most bromeliads do not germinate well when covered by sand, peat or other potting medium (Bromeliads — A Cultural Handbook, 1953). Thus, it seemed probable that the seeds of many bromeliads besides Puya might require light for germination.
With Dr. Lyman Smith acting as intermediary, we obtained seeds of many species of bromeliads from Mrs. A. Abendroth of Teresopolis, Brazil. These seeds were collected from individual plants and each test was made with seeds from a single plant. Since the species tested grow in the area around Rio de Janeiro, we selected 74° F as the temperature for our germination tests. Other procedures were also standardized. The seeds were placed in glass-covered dishes (Petri dishes) on blotters soaked in tap water. As soon as the seeds were counted onto the blotters, the dishes were placed under two layers of black cloth. About 48 hours later all dishes except the dark controls were placed under lights, where they received the treatments listed in table 2. The light was obtained from two 40-watt standard cool white fluorescent lamps that provided an illumination of about 70 fc.
Table 2 shows the results obtained in tests with seeds of 22 species of bromeliads of 9 genera. Seeds of Vriesia lubbersii, V. incurvata, and V. petropolitana germinated in the dark. Germination of seeds of V. lubbersii, however, was somewhat better in the light and that of seeds of V. incurvata and V. petropolitana were very much better. The three Tillandsia species germinated equally well in light or darkness at the temperature used. However, it is known from work with other kinds of seeds that such seeds may become light-requiring under somewhat unfavorable temperature conditions.
Table 2. Germination of seeds of several species of bromeliads under several light conditions at 74° F.
It was notable that seeds produced in capsule-type fruits, such as those of Tillandsia, Vriesia and Pitcairnia, required a longer period for germination than did seeds produced in baccate fruits, such as those of Neoregelia, Nidularium, Aechmea, Canistrum, Billbergia and Quesnelia. Moreover, additional experiments with seeds of Billbergia elegans indicated that when light is required for germination, seeds from baccate fruits require less than do those from dry fruits. In fact, seeds of B. elegans germinated in 5 days when only 4 minutes of light was given once on each of the first three of these days.
Although the sample was small in comparison to the total number of genera and species in the family, it nevertheless indicates the range of the light requirement and the range of days necessary for germination. From this sample of species one would predict that the majority of species of the Bromeliaceae produce seeds that require light for germination.
There have been many articles dealing with the methods used by members for bromel seed sowing, but no one appears to have recorded in the Bulletins their observations on the early life of the plant after it has left its seed case behind and started to look around at its new surroundings. It is with this in mind that I pen these notes.
In passing I would say that seed sowing with me has generally been successful so far, although I cannot remember preparing the seeds specially when my first sowing was made. On that occasion I had some orchid compost of osmunda fibre and Sphagnum in a 2" deep 5" diameter clay pan which was sunk in a tray of mixed vermiculite and sand, wet and heated below by means of soil heating cables. Don't think that this was a professional set-up; it was not, but it served its purpose well.
Within three days those seeds were up and starting to grow with vigour. The seeds were of a tall growing tubular Billbergia very similar to Billbergia Rosea and were not cleaned. I remember that some of them were buried in the mixture for this was at a time when I did not have the Bulletins to guide me nor did I have any cultural experience of bromel seed sowing to go on. The pan was covered with the transparent cellophane lid from a chocolate box.
Prickles were visible through a magnifying glass on the third or fourth leaf and were very fine and minute. At six months the plantlets were about three inches tall, with leaves disproportionately long and drooping. At this age they were individually potted into small 1½ inch peat cubes each with an individual hole for planting; the little plants were well firmed. They were replaced in the heated tray.
Growth proceeded without interruption and at nine months they were moved into small 3" flower pots and potted in pure oak tan bark and sand, after having as much peat removed as possible, and again they were well firmed. The young plants' roots had in most cases penetrated right through the peat cubes into the vermiculite of the tray, and were very wiry and inclined to be brittle so that care had to be taken to confine the roots into their new homes. Some were replaced in the heated tray and others were strung up to the roof.
Daily observation when watering does not allow one to note the growth, but visitors who saw the plants at intervals expressed surprise at the increase in size.
After a further six months it was most noticeable that those hung up are sturdier and larger than those in the heated tray. This surely confirms the advice in the Bulletins that better bromels are obtained by raising them aloft. One curious thing however is that two or three of the hanging plants have sprung offshoots already — in one case a plant has three — which are as large, or nearly so, as the main youngster. The main plant is not injured in any way and I am wondering what is likely to happen next.
At fifteen months the plants are in the region of nine inches tall and so far do not show any tendency for the leaves to take on the gray-green color of the old parent plants or even to show any of the bands or spots of scale markings; they are a rich bright apple green. Of course these small plants have another two years or so to go before reaching maturity. The leaves are tremendously long for the size of the plants, reaching two feet in length and one inch in width, firm in texture but not rigid. The diameter of the plants vary but the sturdiest is about ¾ inch.
Slow growth has been made throughout the winter. Now that the main growing period is coming round again it will be very interesting to see the rate of growth in the plants' second year. It would appear that growth will have to be much more rapid to enable the plants to reach two-thirds maturity by the end of this year; it will be interesting to watch this, and also if and when the scale markings appear.
FLORIDA WEST COAST BROMELIAD SOCIETY DISPLAYS BROMELIADS IN "LAVA"
Once again, by invitation of the Orchid Society of St. Petersburg, Florida, the Florida West Coast Bromeliad Society arranged a beautiful display of bromeliads at the Orchid Show held in the ballroom of the "Million Dollar" Pier at St. Petersburg, on January 25-26-27.
The theme of the entire show, this year, was Hawaiian. So, with numerous orange crates and boxes cleverly covered with crumpled black (flame-proof) crepe paper and a back-drop, twenty feet long, of sheeting dyed sky-blue on which was a clever painting of Hawaiian coastline with mountains and fleeting, white clouds, the stage was set for the "planting" of bromeliads in this seeming lava. All bromeliads displayed in this "cascade of lava", ten feet from back drop to front, were supplied by members from their own homes and gardens.
When completed it called forth many favorable comments from experts and public alike. One factor was particularly noticed this year. The public, today, seemed more understanding, more knowledgeable, may we say, in regard to bromeliads. There were fewer who referred to them as succulents or cacti although one, somewhat shortsighted lady loudly insisted that several fine Neoregelia spectabilis were Christmas Cactus (Zygocactus truncatus) as she "certainly could see those little red flowers at the ends of the branches."
In general, the "lava" provided an excellent foundation color for bromeliads and all specimens showed to very good advantage. There were excellent Vriesia carinata and V. × "Marie" whose "painted feathers" caught all eyes; colorful Neoregelia farinosa with crimson cups; a tall, not definitely identified Billbergia with a huge pendant inflorescence; and a fine specimen of Aechmea miniata var. discolor × Ae. calyculata with its large, berry-like inflorescence of an orange color and the "berries" tipped with little flowers which turn white.
At the left of the exhibit was an eight foot "driftwood" tree on which were growing many Vriesias and Tillandsias. At the foot was a large pineapple plant in fruit surrounded by many smaller Ananas. Picture, if you can, then, a twenty-foot wide display with the scenic background and this cascade of "lava" with the Bromelia-adorned driftwood tree and then, in the crevices and on the flat "rocks", the brilliant colored beauties of the Bromeliad kingdom—tall Aechmea Marmorata, and Fasciata, with colorful Schultesiana, × "Foster's Favorite", rich Miniata var. discolor and × "Royal Wine"; Billbergias meyerii, amoena viridis (a large, colorful specimen), Saundersii hybrids × "Muriel Waterman and others; Neoregelias and Nidulariums; interesting Guzmania, Orthophytum and Ochagavia specimens; delicate Cryptbergia Meadii and, scattered along the front at floor level, many colorful Cryptanthus hybrids.
Judging was ably done by Mr. John Hall of Orlando and Dr. M. W. Dexter of Clearwater. Many ribbons are now the prized possession of members. The exhibit was readied on Friday, January 24th. The show opened on Saturday and, through that day, and through Sunday and Monday some 8,000 persons paid for admission. Much credit is due to all who aided in the work, but especially to Mrs. Harry F. Klein, chairman of the special show committee and to our president, Mr. John Beckner who painted the "mountains of Hawaii", Mr. Ray Martin and Mrs. Jos. Appleton, committee members, and to all other members who lent invaluable assistance both in erecting the exhibit, as hostesses, and in the final razing of this beautiful display.
Early in February of this year we received a call from two ladies from the Clearwater Garden Club who asked that we put on an educational display of Bromeliads at their forthcoming Garden Show. Naturally, we were delighted to have an opportunity such as this and readily agreed. We live just half way between St. Petersburg and Clearwater, Florida and thus have interests in both cities. Later on a layout of the contemplated show in the Clearwater Auditorium was brought to us and we were amazed (and pleased!) to find we had been allotted a ten-foot square in the center of the hall at the end of an aisle and immediately in front of the stage.
The entire show received almost 100% rating from the State judges and a very nice letter tells us that our exhibit had much to do with this judgment. To accomplish this we obtained two three-level display racks, 24 inches high by five feet long. These were placed back to back and covered with black flame-proof crepe paper. Pots were covered with foil and when all were placed Tillandsia usneoides (Spanish Moss) was interlaced between the plants. Some fifty or more plants were used in this four-sided display, on the shelves and on the floor around, with one large specimen plant at each corner of a roped-in enclosure. To further the educational idea each plant was ticketed with the botanical name in large, clearly-read letters.
The accompanying photograph shows one side, towards the stage, and, as a matter of interest, the plants shown were, from left to right: Top row: Billbergia amoena var. viridis, Aechmea miniata var. discolor × Calyculata (bloom), Neoregelia Carolinae var. tricolor, Billbergia pyramidalis (Winter bloom — twin plants both in full bloom), Aechmea × "Foster's Favorite" with 7" inflorescence. Next row down: A. Foster's Favorite (bloom), A. Racinae (bloom), A. Orlandiana (three identical plants in single pot), A. × "Bert", A. calyculata. Second row down: A. miniata discolor, Cryptanthus bromelioides, A. Pineliana (dwarf variety), Cr. bromelioides tricolor, Neoregelia hybrid. On floor: B. Horrida var. Tigrina, V. × "Marie" (bloom), A. Schultesiana.
The other side included such others as Till. Lindenii, A. × "Royal Wine", Quesnelia arvensis, Neoregelia spectabilis and N. marmorata, Cryptbergia Meadii and others. At the ends were plants mounted on hanging driftwood pieces and some tall plants such as A. Marmorata, B. Meyerii and B. Saundersi hybrids, while, prominently at corner positions stood a large A. Distichantha, A. Mexicana, Portea Petropolitana and a fine large specimen with two well-balanced, tall offshoots of Aechmea fasciata.
Judging by the amount of interest exhibited and questions asked, we feel that many more people now have a knowledge of, and interest in, these fascinating Bromeliads.
In Largo, Florida, situated half-way between St. Petersburg and Clearwater, the County Agent has his headquarters in the County Fair Grounds. In one of the halls, once a month, meet some 250-300 people from the area, interested in horticulture. This group is known as the Pinellas County Horticultural Society.
On February 20th, by invitation, John Beckner, president of the Florida West Coast Bromeliad Society, gave a talk on bromeliads and answered many questions. A number of interesting plants were on display. Following this E. H Palmer showed a number of colored slides of bromeliads with a running, explanatory commentary.
The amount of interest generated was evident in the fact that both were surrounded with questioners at the close of the meeting.
It occurred to me to wonder if there might be present on stolons in addition to the actively growing tips, dormant lateral buds like those at the leaf bases of mature plants. Accordingly to find out, in removing an offshoot (Aechmea × "Foster's Favorite"), instead of making the cut close to the base of the parent plant I left a stub of the stolon and kept it under observation for some time; but no further growth occurred on this stolon. However, with another Aechmea (miniata discolor), after the short leaves on a developing offshoot had been accidentally broken off at the base, not one but three new shoots formed, so it is evident that the stolons do carry latent buds. It seems likely that the significant difference in the two cases is not the varieties of the plants, but the fact that in the first instance the stolon was dry and woody, and in the second plump and succulent. The observation suggests that more abundant propagation by offsets might be attained by amputating the growing tips of the basal growths that start; the method would be of particular importance with such of the rarer varieties as cannot be grown from seed, Aechmea chantinii for instance.
A suggestion by Mr. R. G. Wilson of Miami has been found greatly to facilitate the removal of damaged or drying leaves from bromeliads: if a leaf is split or slit, it can be torn off at the base from the middle out much more readily than in the reverse fashion. If the halves are pulled simultaneously in opposite directions, almost no strain on the plant results.
3122 N. Calvert St., Baltimore 18, Md.
As bromeliads are an American family bromeliad fans in the rest of the world must depend on the generosity of the members who live in brom-land for the introduction of new species. Nothing is more disheartening to a real plant lover than to know that he or she cannot enlarge their collections any further. If a few requests for seed were put in occasionally and a small paragraph was inserted each issue to remind people I am sure much more seed would become available. One of my hopes is that in the not too far distant future I can send some seed back to the Society for what has already been sent to me.
Professor Werner Rauh of the University of Heidelberg has brought back to Germany a number of rare and new Bromeliads in his collections of living plants from the Andes of Peru and Ecuador. Of these, Puya argentea and Puya Rauhii have been described in "Phytologia" (vol. 5, pp. 397 and 398), and now material and photographs of a giant Tillandsia have been received. The plants grow on bare vertical cliffs and must have presented quite a problem in collection. In naming this new species in honor of Professor Rauh we hope that he will solve a second problem and establish it in cultivation.
TILLANDSIA RAUHII L. B. Smith, sp. nov.
Planta spectabilis facie Tillandsiam Racinae L. B. Smith revocans sed laminis foliorum ligulatis, spicis latis complanatis, sepalis posterioribus carinatis differt.
Flowering plant about 2 meters high when extended; leaves numerous, rosulate, 1-1.5 meters long, the blades ligulate, broadly rounded and apiculate with the apex sharply reflexed, 4-5 cm. wide, purple at apex, very obscurely punctulate-lepidote; scape stout, decurved; scape-bracts erect, densely imbricate, subfoliaceous; inflorescence pendent, laxly bipinnate, glabrous; primary bracts broadly ovate, mostly shorter than the sterile bases of the branches; spikes linear, acute, about 7 dm. long, 4 cm. wide, sigmoid-curved, strongly complanate, very many-flowered; floral bracts densely imbricate, elliptic, obtuse, 5 cm. long, ecarinate and broadly rounded on the back, coriaceous with a narrow thin margin, finely nerved when dry; sepals free, elliptic, obtuse, 30 mm. long, the posterior ones carinate; petals emerging between the bracts on the underside of the spike, soon flaccid and hanging straight down, 55 mm. long, the blade narrowly elliptic, dark violet; stamens exserted.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected on vertical cliff walls below Florida in the valley of the Rio Sana, Department of Piura, Peru, alt. 700 meters, in 1956, by W. Rauh (P-379). Isotype in the Botanical Institute of the University, Heidelberg, Germany.
Tillandsia Rauhii presents a very striking combination of colors with its green and purple leaves, white bracts, and dark violet corollas. It should prove most popular in cultivation.
United States National Herbarium Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
After spending an evening answering numerous requests for cultural information, your secretary wonders whether some of you who grow your bromeliads under similar conditions would not like to form a Round Robin, thus exchanging ideas and perhaps plants. It is difficult for one who lives in "The Land of Eternal Summer" and who grows her bromeliads under entirely different conditions from those to be found in most parts of the country to understand completely the problems of others.
The Bromeliad Society started from a Round Robin — one that had been formed by THE FLOWER GROWER MAGAZINE to put people with kindred interests in touch with one another. A Bromeliad Round Robin for each section of the country might be of value and interest to many of you. If you are interested in getting in touch with those members who are confronted with the same growing problems as yours, write to your secretary and she will send you a list of names.
Some notes by R. K. Taylor, "Speculation on Starting Side Shoots," in the July-August 1956 ( Vol. VI, No. 4) Bulletin, although very short, were quite interesting.
We have found that the greater number of, at least the more commonly known bromeliads, form their side shoots at or near the base of the plant. And this rule seems to apply fairly well throughout the subfamily Bromelioideae. Such genera as Aechmea, Billbergia, Neoregelia, Nidularium, Canistrum and others of this subfamily — all produce their offshoots from or near the base.
It is always interesting to make an observation of what appears to be a general rule and then, later, to discover the exceptions. I cannot recall any of the Bromelioideae, except Cryptanthus and some species of Orthophytum, and Ananas, that send offshoots from or near the axis. One exception being in Cryptanthus which are quite apt to produce side shoots from the base of even the topmost leaves directly under the axis cluster of male flowers. It is quite often that new offshoots may appear from the same axil from where the perfect flowers appear. Generally, the first offshoots appear in the upper part of the plant very soon after flowering. If these upper offshoots are removed or injured other off-shoots may continue to appear all the way down to the basal leaves. In fact, I have had a Cryptanthus plant produce as many as fifteen to twenty separate plants all fastened to one offshoot bud from the axil of a single basal leaf. Some of the pineapples (Ananas) will produce as many as ten to twenty offshoots at the top and or bottom of the mature fruit as well as below the leaves at base of plant. A similar condition has been found in Orthophytum Fosterianum where the new offshoots appear in the top of the inflorescences.
It is not always necessary for growth to be stopped in the axis in order to produce offshoots from below. In fact, a number of Aechmea, Billbergia and other genera in the Subfamily Bromelioideae will produce offshoots at the base of the plant possibly one or two years before the plant has matured and its growth has stopped in the axis by producing the flowers and fruit. However, the general rule is that in most of the Bromelioideae the offshoots do not appear at least until the flowering period approaches.
We find this rhythm which is so constant in Bromelioideae to have a number of other variations especially in Tillandsioideae.
It is here that we find some of the most interesting exceptions in the family.
The first time I was impressed with this exception was when I collected plants of Tillandsia grandis in Mexico, in 1937. I found many seedling plants of this species from three to eight inches high with as many as twenty little offshoots attached to their bases. They were not the usual offshoots closely united and emerging from the side near the base for they had the appearance of seedlings rather than offshoots; instead, they were tiny little plantlets attached with a thread-like stolon. Usually species with this habit do not send basal offshoots at maturity.
A number of other species within this same subfamily have very similar habits, Vriesia funebris is an outstanding example.
On the other hand, Tillandsia utriculata, rarely, if ever, sends out offshoots after maturity; it dies and depends upon its countless plumose seeds for its continued existence.
Tillandsia karwinskyana sends off many typical stoloniferous shoots from one to two inches long covered with tiny leaf-like scales. These little stolons continue to appear from the basal leaves throughout the life of the plant. They develop into new plants and even though the mature plant, when it blooms, is but ten to twelve inches high, it rarely sends any of the usual offshoots after it matures, but there are many small plantlets continually developing to form a mass of plants.
Tillandsia multicaulis also produces small seedling-like plantlets around the base of the plants. The inflorescences appear midway between the axis and the base of the many-leafed rosette. There may be from one to five of these lateral inflorescences and rarely is one seen appearing from the axis; there may be more but I have seen only one or two exceptions. In this species, however, we have still a different combination for there may appear the usual strong offshoots at the base after the main plant has died long after the miniature plantlets surrounding it had appeared. Either or both miniature plantlets and usual vigorous offshoots may reach maturity causing a large cluster of plants.
This same system or variation also appears in other Tillandsias and Vriesias.
We find yet another condition. In Guzmania sanguinea I have rarely ever seen an offshoot from the base of the plant of this species, but within a few days after the last flower has past, deep down in the axis, may be found one or more offshoots already appearing immediately next to the inflorescence. This inflorescence does not have a scape and is quite low in the rosette, appearing more like a small inflorescence of a Neoregelia. The new plant head appears up through the water-filled rosette, and the cluster of seed pods when mature appear to hang from the base of the new plant after the old leaves have disappeared.
Although I have made many attempts to remove leaves so as to expose the light to the base of this species, in fact, to remove all the leaves excepting the new upper leaves, I have never been able to encourage any offshoots from below, and when all the leaves are removed it tends to slow down the whole works; the roots generally die at the base of the plant and later a new system of roots appear at the base of the new offshoot which has developed from around the axis of the plant. This habit causes a caulescent growth and it is not uncommon to find a plant of this species with its rosette of brilliant leaves at the axis of a long caulescent stem showing the scars along its sides where the plant has matured into fruiting heads in years past.

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LoRusso Law Firm » Use of Force: As Seen on TV!
Use of Force: As Seen on TV!
The phrase, “As seen on TV”, became iconic in the 1970s. It was plastered on toys, home products, and tools following televised commercials for the products. It was an added marketing boost when a consumer picked up a package in a store. I suppose the line was intended to lend credibility to the product and perhaps provide a testament as to the quality. While that may have worked and been appropriate for the Popeil now Ronco Pocket Fisherman, when it comes to the use of force, if you saw it on a TV show or a movie, it was likely someone’s fantasy of what the law allows, what LEOs are trained to do, and what actually happens during a use of force incident.
I recently watched some teasers about two new cop shows. They were horrible. It seems that someone gathered every LEO cliche and the writers are engaged in a cage match to see who can incorporate the most into an episode. When it comes to the use of force, this is nothing new. “As Seen on TV” means unlawful searches, excessive force, unjustified shootings, and LEOs carrying on with business as usual following each example. Quite frankly, I do not know what is more disturbing- the fact that the people making these TV shows actually believe that is how LEOs operate or that the public has come to believe these examples are reality. I do know that LEOs suffer the results of these inaccurate portrayals every day.
The injury to individual LEOs and law enforcement in general from these inaccurate TV portrayals of LEOs is immeasurable. When people see a video of an actual use of force, they naturally compare it with the only reference they have-what they saw on TV or in a movie. Even a recent controversy involving a LEO who simply took someone to the ground who was actively resisting created a firestorm. I’m convinced that the uproar when a LEO lawfully shoots a subject in the back stems largely from western movies from the 60s and 70s when to do so was considered cowardly. In fact, people move during a gunfight, and it is entirely possible for a person to point a weapon at a LEO and get shot in the back at the same time.
When I wrote When Cops Kill: the aftermath of a critical incident, one of my goals was to present a realistic portrayal of the investigations that follow a LEO’s use of deadly force. I have succeeded in that goal in several respects. A lot of people, including journalists, have read the book, and I’ve been interviewed hundreds of times which has allowed me to get the word out. I also know the book has sparked the conversation and perhaps motivated some to do their homework before they spew inaccuracies.
While there are no easy answers as to how we change this perception, I approach it as a knowledge gap and see the only fix to be education. Everyone from PIOs to sheriffs and police chiefs needs to get out front of this issue after, and preferably before, an officer involved shooting. Before you put out a video, explain why what the public will see has nothing to do with the most recent episode of the currently popular cop show. Invite journalists to visit a simulator to see what LEOs perceive in real time. You can also distribute copies of Graham v. Connor, Tennessee v. Garner, City and County of San Francisco v. Sheehan, Scott v. Harris, White v. Pauly, and Plumhoff v. Rickard. As I state in my book Blue News, if you do not tell your story, someone else will.
With commitment and a bit of consistency, we can make a distinction between what people see on TV or in the movies and what they see on a LEO’s body-worn camera. It will be an uphill climb, but one worth the effort. If you’re wondering why, consider this, retailers still sell the Pocket Fisherman with the ad “As Seen on TV.” Stay safe.

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When Cuba lost the former Soviet Union’s economic support, the island entered what is commonly called the Special Period. Stretching now for over a decade, the Special Period has been marked by material deprivation, ongoing legal and illegal emigration, societal malaise, and government efforts to prop up revolutionary fervor.
But the Special Period has also featured domestic legal changes1 aimed at implementing economic recovery and long-term development strategies based on diversified foreign and domestic investment in capitalistic ventures. While the efficacy of these legal developments and the goals and planning behind them remain hotly debated, Cuba has indeed formed significant legal structures that are fomenting economic (and perhaps, ultimately, political) change within closely guarded parameters. This paper will summarize some of the more significant of these legal developments, emphasize how they interrelate to set limits for change, and briefly explore those limits’ implications and consequences.
This is hardly an exhaustive list, and it by no means intends to give short shrift to laws affecting civil and political rights. Rather, its length acknowledges this paper’s limits in discussing what even multiple volumes could not completely cover. Secondly, it reflects an admittedly subjective (and perhaps jaundiced) view that, to a large extent, economics, finance, and money flows are and will continue to be key foundational factors in Cuba’s development. According to this perspective, the strong arm of corporate investment, rather than human rights campaigns, will do far more to bring structural change. Thirdly, and in any case, most laws enacted during the Special Period that touch on civil, human, and political rights have done little to advance the cause of democracy and individual liberty. In addition, such laws’ reach, viability, practical application, and developmental effects are, at present, unclear.
The Constitution of 1992 (a reformed version of the 1976 document) sets the framework for economic change within government parameters. It sets the stage for a tension — a push and pull, as it were — that has existed over the last decade between the need for economic opening and private capital on the one hand and, on the other, the desire to maintain centralized, socialist control; Cuban national sovereignty; and the sanctity of the environment and public health. Thus, while the Constitution envisions joint ventures and establishes a rationale for later-enacted laws governing limited private enterprise and wholly foreign-owned property, it lays strict ground rules and establishes the tough tone and approach Cuba has taken toward economic reforms. The result is like a scale that balances, however unevenly at times, legal and economic reforms and absolute government control.
None of these commercial provisions constitutes a government concession. Those would come later. Rather, the Constitution establishes a vision of controlled growth and leaves for more specific laws the task of rolling out economic reforms. The latter would open the door to foreign capital and the influence of foreign economic power.
• Requirement that all three types of approved investment entities establish “accounts in freely convertible currency”25 through the Cuban National Banking System.
• Strict labor requirements obligating joint ventures, international economic-association contract parties, and totally foreign capital companies to hire their Cuban employees through a Cuban “employing entity” specified by the Cuban government.26 The investing company pays wages to the employing entity in “convertible foreign currency”27 (typically U.S. dollars), while the employees receive their wages from that entity in Cuban pesos.28 (The rub here is that employees receive the official one-to-one exchange rate. This significantly lowers their purchasing power and their ability to accumulate wealth.).
This process [i.e., opening the economy to foreign investment] has been carried forward in an orderly way, with negotiations examined one by one, based on the criterion of what is beneficial for the country, without permitting the interests of sectors, territories or institutions to take precedence over those of the nation. In every phase of the process, the economic and social development of the country is present and holds first place.
We speak with complete clarity to the entrepreneurs of other countries with whom we associate. We are a socialist country that has been and is respectful of the agreements to which we have committed and will commit ourselves.
The creation and development of Free Zones and Industrial Parks in the national territory offer new opportunities for foreign investment, as the investors established therein enjoy a special regime as to customs, banking, taxation, labor, migration, public order, capital investment and foreign trade, and this will mean the generation of new jobs, a source of hard currency and technological, economic and social progress for the country.
The Constitution, the Foreign Investment Act, and the laws establishing free-trade zones and the Central Bank registry system are but a few of the important legal developments during the Special Period that have facilitated foreign investment and economic development. Others include laws governing taxation, real estate, and intellectual property. Yet the four covered in this paper have been highlighted because they are the structural building blocks that form a broad and deep foundation upon which tax, real estate, and other laws and regulations are built. In addition, they form a natural progression both chronologically and in terms of increasing specificity. Thus, while the Constitution quite rightly sets out broad provisions, the other three laws proceed from and are built upon that document. They provide the details and rubrics that aim to execute and make real the government’s development vision and goals.
These four laws, however, also set parameters for — and limits on — such development in the near and far term. They and other laws, including the Law of the Environment and the Law of Mines, form a matrix of legal requirements, policy, and centralized control that moderate and modulate the pace, scope, quantity, and quality of foreign investment. The goal seems to be to allow foreign capital inflows without compromising certain national interests — in particular, government supremacy, the environment (the protection of which ensures the viability of tourism, among other things), and public health.
These goals and the built-in restrictions designed to achieve them raise serious and as-yet unanswered questions. For example, what effect will these laws have on foreign companies’ willingness to invest seriously in Cuba? Furthermore, what concessions might Cuba be forced to make to attract and retain qualified investors? After all, making investment proposals’ approval contingent on assurances of minimal environmental harm may dismay important sources of capital. As some companies are turned away, others will opt not to apply at all. In addition, companies face the disincentive of being barred from paying employees directly in U.S. dollars (or other freely convertible currency) and instead of having to pay workers’ dollar salaries to the Cuban government. This not only stands to demoralize employees and make them resentful but also removes an important incentive for ensuring productivity and quality. Companies also confront the hurdle of financial oversight by the Central Bank. Not only must investors contribute to a risk fund, but they are also subject to forcible intervention and liquidation.
These and many other concerns raise the risk that Cuba is discouraging rather than fostering healthy investment and capital flows. Such circumstances also increase the likelihood that the most determined investors will be able to buy flexibility or nonenforcement through bribes or other perks extended to military or civilian gatekeepers of foreign investment. In addition, it is unclear whether and to what extent Cuba is prepared to resist pressure (from corporations and other sources) to make concessions in exchange for corporate willingness to invest. Cuba is a hungry and needy country; the prospect of money, jobs, and economic growth are hard to forgo on an empty stomach.
Finally, since the military is the primary shareholder in Cuban corporations investing in Cuban tourism, and since tourism is an economic staple, there is concern that Cuba’s future rests in a capitalist military dictatorship. Under this scenario, the military would be the principle shareholder in and key beneficiary of key economic growth sectors. A Pinochet-style government is therefore not beyond the pale. Others speculate that even if a civilian government assumes control, the military will maintain the greatest hold on Cuba’s purse strings.
All of these questions, along with reports of Cuba’s recent retreat from economic reforms, raise significant concerns about the country’s willingness to travel the necessary road to recovery, growth, and prosperity. The four structural legal changes discussed above were a hopeful first sign of evolution. It remains to be seen what positive, specific, and effective steps will come next.
1. This paper will not explore Cuba’s entry into bilateral or multilateral agreements during the Special Period. Though such agreements are certainly important, this paper looks at how domestic laws are laying the groundwork — and setting the limits — for change.
2. Constitución de la República de Cuba [hereinafter Constitution of 1992]. The full text is available on the Internet at http:// www2.cuba.cu/gobierno/cuba.htm, accessible through Cuba’s official website, http://www.cubaweb.cu. The Constitution was originally published in the Gaceta Oficial de la República de Cuba, no. 7, Aug. 1, 1992, and was printed in book format by Editora Política (1992). The 1992 Constitution is a revised version of the Constitution of 1976 and contains reforms approved by the Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular in July 1992.
3. Ley No. 77 Sobre las Inversiones Extranjeras [Law No. 77: Foreign Investments] (1995) [hereinafter Foreign Investment Act], translated at http://www.geo.unipr.it/~davide/cuba/economy/LAW95/law1.html.
4. Decreto-Ley Número 165 de las Zonas Francas y Parques Industriales [Decree-Law 165: Duty-Free Zones and Industrial Parks] (1996) [hereinafter Duty-Free Zones and Industrial Parks Law], translated at http://www.giraldilla.com/lawsDL165.htm).
5. Decreto-Ley Numero 173 Sobre los Bancos e Instituciones Financieras no Bancarias [Decree-Law 173: Banks and Non-Banking Financial Institutions] (1997) [hereinafter Banks and Non-Banking Financial Institutions Law].
6. Constitution of 1992, supra note 2, at pmbl. (“Nosotros, ciudadanos cubanos, herederos y continuadores del trabajo creador y de las tradiciones de combatividad, firmeza, heroismo y sacrificio forjadas por nuestros antecesores; por los aborígenes que prefirieron muchas veces el exterminio a la sumisión; por los esclavos que se rebelaron contra sus amos; … [d]eclaramos nuestra voluntad de que la ley de leyes de la República este presidida por este profundo anhelo, al fin logrado, de José Martí: ‘Yo quiero que la ley primera de nuestra República sea el culto de los cubanos a la dignidad plena del hombre.’”).
7. Id. at art. 5.
8. Id. at art.11 (a)-(b).
9. Id. at art. 12 (“La República de Cuba hace suyos los principios antiimperialistas e internacionalistas …”).
10. Id. at art. 15.
11. Id. at art. 16 (“Artículo 16o.- El Estado organiza, dirige y controla la actividad económica nacional conforme a un plan que garantice el desarrollo programado del país …”) (translation in main text by author).
13. Id. at art. 23 (“El Estado reconoce la propiedad de las empresas mixtas, sociedades y asociaciones económicas que se constituyen conforme a la ley.”).
14. Id. at art. 18 (“El Estado dirige y controla el comercio exterior. La ley establece las instituciones y autoridades estatales facultadas para: —crear empresas de comercio exterior; —normar y regular las operaciones de exportación e importación; y —determinar las personas naturales o jurídicas con capacidad legal para realizar dichas operaciones de exportación e importación y concertar convenios comerciales.”).
15. Id. at art. 27 (“El Estado protege el medio ambiente y los recursos naturales del país. Reconoce su estrecha vinculación con el de sarrollo económico y social sostenible para hacer más racional la vida humana y asegurar la supervivencia, el bienestar y la seguridad de las generaciones actuales y futuras.”).
16. Foreign Investment Act, supra note 3.
17. Id. at ch. IV, art. 10.
18. Id. at ch. III, art. 3.
19. Id. at ch. V, art. 13.
21. Id. at ch. V, art. 14.
22. Id. at ch. V, art. 15.
23. Id. at ch. VI, art. 16.
24. Id. at ch. VIII, art. 20-25.
25. Id. at ch. IX, art. 26.
26. Id. at ch. XI, art. 33. It is important to note that article 31 provides that “workers in activities corresponding to foreign investments shall be, as a rule, Cubans or foreigners permanently residing in Cuba.”); see also Id. at ch. XI, art. 34 (1) (“The employing entity … individually contracts and directly hires Cuban workers and permanent residents. This employing entity pays those workers their wages.”).
27. Id. at ch. XI, art. 33 (4).
28. Foreign Investment Act, supra note 3, at ch. XI, art. 33 (4).
29. Id. at ch. XII, art. 39(a).
30. Id. at ch. XII, art. 39(b).
31. Id. at ch. XII, art. 39(c)(1).
32. Id. at ch. XII, art. 39(c)(2).
33. Id. at ch. XII, art. 38(c).
34. Id. at ch. XII, art. 38(d).
35. Id. at ch. XII, art. 38(e).
36. Id. at ch. XV, art. 50.
37. Id. at ch. XV, art. 51(1).
39. Id. at ch. XV, art. 51(2).
40. Id. at ch. XVI, art. 55.
41. Id. at ch. XVI, art. 56(1).
42. Id. at ch. XVI, art. 56(2).
43. Constitution of 1992, supra note 2, at ch. I, art. 23 (“El Estado reconoce la propiedad de las empresas mixtas, sociedades y asociaciones económicas …”) (translation in main text by author).
44. Foreign Investment Act, supra note 3, at introductory text (The Aim of the Law Is to Promote and Provide Incentives for Foreign Investment Within our National Territory.).
45. Constitution of 1992, supra note 2, at ch. I, art. 18 (“El Estado dirige y controla el comercio exterior.”).
46. Id. at ch. I, art. 23 (“El Estado reconoce la propiedad de las empresas mixtas, sociedades y asociaciones económicas …”).
47. Id. at ch. I, art. 16 (“El Estado organiza, dirige y controla la actividad económica nacional …”).
48. Presentation of the Draft of a Law on Foreign Investment, 5th Ordinary Period of Sessions, National Assembly of the People´s Power (Sept. 4, 1995), translated at http://www.geo.unipr.it/~davide/cuba/economy/ LAW95/ intro1.html.
49. Foreign Investment Act, supra note 3, at introductory text (The Aim of the Law Is to Promote and Provide Incentives for Foreign Investment Within our National Territory.).
50. Id. at ch. I, art. 1 (1).
51. Id. at ch. XI, art. 30-37.
52. Id. at ch. XVI, art. 54-56.
53. Duty-Free Zones and Industrial Parks Law, supra note 4.
54. Foreign Investment Act, supra note 3, at ch. XV, art. 53.
55. Id. at ch. XV, art. 50.
56. Duty-Free Zones and Industrial Parks Law, supra note 4, at introductory text.
57. Id. at ch. I, art. 1.3 (a)-(c).
58. Id. at ch. I, art. 1.4.
59. Id. at ch. II, art. 2.2.
65. Id. at ch. III, art. 3.
66. Id. at ch. III, art. 4.1.
67. Id. at ch. III, art. 4.2(a).
68. Id. at ch. III, art. 5.1.
69. Id. at ch. IV, art. 6.1.
70. Id. at ch. IV, art. 6.2.
71. Id. at ch. V, art. 7-16.
72. Id. at ch. VI, art. 17-27.
73. Id. at ch. VIII, §§ 1-6.
74. Id. at ch. VIII, § 1, art. 31.1.
75. Id. at ch. VIII, § 2, art. 32.1.
76. Duty-Free Zones and Industrial Parks Law, supra note 4, at ch. VIII, § 3, art. 35.1-35.2 (Note specifications in how exemptions are granted depending on the grantor’s or operator’s activities.).
77. Id. at ch. VIII, § 4, art. 38.1.
79. Id. at ch. VIII, § 5, art. 43.1.
80. Id. at ch. VIII, § 5, art. 44.
81. Id. at ch. VIII, § 5, art. 45.1.
82. Id. at ch. VIII, § 5, art. 45.4.
83. Foreign Investment Act, supra note 2, at ch. XI, art. 33 (4).
85. Banks and Non-Banking Financial Institutions Law, supra note 5.
86. Decreto-Ley Número 172 Sobre el Banco Central de Cuba [Decree-Law 172: The Central Bank of Cuba] (1997).
87. Banks and Non-Banking Financial Institutions Law, supra note 5, at ch. II, § 1, art. 11.
88. Id. at ch. II, § 1, art. 2.
89. Id. at ch. II, § 1, art. 3.
91. Id. at ch. II, § 1, art. 4.
92. Id. at ch. II, § 2, art. 6.
93. Id. at ch. II, § 1, art. 7-8.
94. Id. at ch. II, § 1, art. 9.
95. Id. at ch. II, § 1, art. 10.
96. Id. at ch. II, § 3, art. 13.
97. Id. at ch. II, § 4, art. 20.
98. Id. at ch. II, § 4, art. 21.
99. Id. at ch. II, § 4, art. 22.
100. Id. at ch. II, § 4, art. 23.
101. Id. at ch. III, § 1, art. 24.
102. Id. at ch. III, § 1, art. 26.
103. Id. at ch. III, § 1, art. 27.
104. Id. at ch. III, § 1, art. 29.
105. Id. at ch. III, § 2, art. 33.
106. Id. at ch. III, § 2, art. 38.
107. Id. at ch. III, § 2, art. 40.
108. Id. at ch. IV, art. 45.
109. Id. at ch. V, § 1, art. 46.
110. Id. at ch. V, § 1, art. 47.
111. Id. at ch. V, § 2, art. 49.
112. Id. at ch. VI, art. 54.
114. Id. at ch. VI, art. 56.
115. Id. at ch. VI, art. 57.
116. Id. at ch. VI, art. 58.
117. Id. at ch. VII, art. 60.
118. Id. at ch. VII, § 1, art. 61.
119. Id. at ch. VII, § 2, art. 68.
120. Id. at ch. VII, § 2, art. 71.
121. Id. at ch. VII, § 3, art. 78-79.
Stephen J. Kimmerling, an attorney, is a business development consultant for Morgan, Lewis & Bockius LLP. He served Senator Bob Kerrey as Director of Public Programming in the Office of the President at the New School. Mr. Kimmerling was also the New York University School of Law’s Cuba Conferences Director, where he organized symposia on vanguard legal issues in U.S.-Cuban affairs.

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After a petition for divorce has been filed, no transfer of property by either party, except a bona fide transfer in payment of preexisting debts, shall pass title so as to avoid the vesting thereof according to the final verdict of the jury in the case; provided, however, that the title to real property shall not be affected by the filing of an action for divorce unless a notice of lis pendens, as provided for by Code Section 44-14-610, is filed in the office of the clerk of the superior court of the county in which the real property is situated and is recorded by the clerk in a book kept by him for that purpose.
Orig. Code 1863, § 1677; Code 1868, § 1720; Code 1873, § 1721; Code 1882, § 1721; Civil Code 1895, § 2436; Civil Code 1910, § 2955; Code 1933, § 30-112; Ga. L. 1950, p. 365, § 1; Ga. L. 1979, p. 466, § 3; Ga. L. 1999, p. 81, § 19.


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Professor Mathai Varghese is well-known internationally for his research in geometric analysis and mathematical physics. He completed his PhD at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1986. He was a postdoc (Dickson Instructor) at the University of Chicago and since 1989, he has been at the University of Adelaide in varying ARC Postdoctoral positions, and was appointed Professor of Pure Mathematics in 2006 and the Elder Chair in Mathematics in 2013.
The quality of Professor Varghese’s research has been recognised with awards over the years (see below) including election to the Australian Academy of Science in 2011 and award of the prestigious Australian Laureate Fellowship (2018-2022). Professor Varghese has published over 100 scientific articles and has been awarded many ARC awards (Large Grants, Discovery Projects and Fellowships).
Professor Varghese has been very active in national leadership roles, including membership in sectional committee 1 of the Australian Academy of Science, various prize committees of the Australian Academy of Science and the Australian Mathematical Society. From 2006-2009, he was the Vice President (in charge of annual conferences) of the Australian Mathematical Society and also a member of the Steering Committee.
My recent research interests include: index theory of elliptic operators; secondary invariants of elliptic operators; geometric quantization: noncompact context; and noncommutative geometry. Recently my interests include gauge theory as well as topological obstructions to the existence of positive scalar curvature metrics on compact spin manifolds.
Several mathematical problems that I currently work on originate from physics, for example: topological field theories, Mathematics of Condensed matter physics:(fractional) quantum Hall effect 1985 & 1998 Nobel Prizes in Physics; topological insulators http://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1751-8121/labtalk/article/63194 ; topological semimetals https://jphysplus.iop.org/2017/02/24/3d-topological-semimetals/, 2016 Nobel Prize in Physics; Mathematics of string theory & duality in a background flux.
2018 Guo, H., Varghese, M., & Wang, H. (2018). Positive scalar curvature and Poincaré duality for proper actions. Journal of Noncommutative Geometry.
2018 Han, F., & Mathai, V. (2018). T-duality in an H-Flux: exchange of momentum and winding. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 363(1), 333-350.
2018 Varghese, M., & Rosenberg, J. (2018). Group dualities, T-dualities, and twisted K-theory. Journal of the London Mathematical Society, 97(1), 1-23.
2018 Linshaw, A., & Mathai, V. (2018). T-duality of singular spacetime compactifications in an H-flux. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 129, 269-278.
2018 Benameur, M., & Varghese, M. (2018). Gap-labelling conjecture with nonzero magnetic field. Advances in Mathematics, 325, 116-164.
2018 Hannabuss, K., Mathai, V., & Thiang, G. (2018). T-duality simplifies bulk-boundary correspondence: the noncommutative case. Letters in Mathematical Physics, 108(5), 1163-1201.
2018 Bouwknegt, P., Evslin, J., & Mathai, V. (2018). Spherical T-Duality and the spherical Fourier-Mukai transform. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 133, 303-314.
2017 Varghese, M., & Thiang, G. (2017). Differential topology of semimetals. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 355(2), 561-602.
2017 Mathai, V., & Thiang, G. (2017). Global topology of Weyl semimetals and Fermi arcs. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical, 50(11), 1-11.
2017 Hochs, P., & Mathai, V. (2017). Quantising proper actions on SpinC-manifolds. Asian Journal of Mathematics, 21(4), 631-686.
2017 Mathai, V., & Melrose, R. (2017). Geometry of pseudodifferential algebra bundles and fourier integral operators. Duke Mathematical Journal, 166(10), 1859-1922.
2016 Mathai, V., & Thiang, G. (2016). T-Duality simplifies bulk-boundary correspondence. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 345(2), 675-701.
2016 Mathai, V., & Thiang, G. (2016). T-Duality simplifies bulk–boundary correspondence: some higher dimensional cases. Annales Henri Poincare, 17(12), 3399-3424.
2016 Hannabuss, K., Mathai, V., & Thiang, G. (2016). T-duality simplifies bulk-boundary correspondence: the parametrised case. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, 20(5), 1193-1226.
2016 Hochs, P., & Varghese, M. (2016). Formal geometric quantisation for proper actions. Journal of Homotopy and Related Structures, 11(3), 409-424.
2016 Hochs, P., & Mathai, V. (2016). Spin-structures and proper group actions. Advances in Mathematics, 292, 1-10.
2015 Linshaw, A., & Varghese, M. (2015). Twisted chiral de Rham complex, generalized geometry, and T-duality. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 339(2), 663-697.
2015 Hochs, P., & Mathai, V. (2015). Geometric quantization and families of inner products. Advances in Mathematics, 282, 362-426.
2015 Bouwknegt, P., Evslin, J., & Mathai, V. (2015). Spherical T-duality II: an infinity of spherical T-duals for non-principal SU(2)-bundles. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 92, 46-54.
2015 Mathai, V., & Sati, H. (2015). Higher abelian gauge theory associated to gerbes on noncommutative deformed M5-branes and S-duality. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 92, 240-251.
2015 Bouwknegt, P., Evslin, J., & Mathai, V. (2015). Spherical T-duality. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 337(2), 909-954.
2015 Han, F., & Mathai, V. (2015). Exotic twisted equivariant cohomology of loop spaces, twisted Bismut–Chern character and T-duality. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 337(1), 127-150.
2015 Benameur, M. T., & Mathai, V. (2015). Spectral sections, twisted rho invariants and positive scalar curvature. Journal of Noncommutative Geometry, 9(3), 821-850.
2015 Varghese, M., & Thiang, G. (2015). T-duality of topological insulators. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical, 48(42), 42FT02-1-42FT02-10.
2014 Mathai, V., & Rosenberg, J. (2014). T-duality for circle bundles via noncommutative geometry. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, 18(6), 1437-1462.
2014 Benameur, M., & Mathai, V. (2014). Index type invariants for twisted signature complexes and homotopy invariance. Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 156(3), 473-503.
2014 Benameur, M., & Mathai, V. (2014). Corrigendum to "Conformal invariants of twisted Dirac operators and positive scalar curvature" [J. Geom. Phys. 70 (2013) 39-47]. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 76, 263-264.
2013 Dey, R., & Varghese, M. (2013). Holomorphic Quillen determinant line bundles on integral compact Kähler manifolds. Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 64(3), 785-794.
2013 Bernameur, M., & Varghese, M. (2013). Conformal invariants of twisted Dirac operators and positive scalar curvature. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 70, 39-47.
2012 Hekmati, P., & Varghese, M. (2012). T-duality of current algebras and their quantization. Contemporary Mathematics, 584, 17-37.
2012 Varghese, M., & Wu, S. (2012). Topology and Flux of T-Dual Manifolds with Circle Actions. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 316(1), 279-286.
2012 Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2012). Nonassociative strict deformation quantization of C*-algebras and nonassociative torus bundles. Letters in Mathematical Physics, 102(1), 107-123.
2012 Bouwknegt, P., Varghese, M., & Wu, S. (2012). Bundle gerbes and moduli spaces. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 62(1), 1-10.
2011 Varghese, M., & Wu, S. (2011). Analytic torsion for twisted de Rham complexes. Journal of Differential Geometry, 88(2), 297-332.
2011 Mahanta, S., & Varghese, M. (2011). Operator algebra quantum homogeneous spaces of universal gauge groups. Letters in Mathematical Physics, 97(3), 263-277.
2011 Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2011). Parameterized strict deformation quantization of C*-bundles and Hilbert C*-modules. Journal of the Australian Mathematical Society, 90(1), 25-38.
2011 Varghese, M., & Rosenberg, J. (2011). A noncommutative sigma-model. Journal of Noncommutative Geometry, 5(2), 265-294.
2011 Asghari, A. (2011). Psychometric properties of a modified version of the Roland-Morris disability questionnaire (M-RMDQ).. Archives of Iranian medicine, 14(5), 327-331.
2010 Mathai, V., Melrose, R., & Singer, I. (2010). The index of projective families of elliptic operators: The decomposable case. Asterisque, 328, 1-35.
2010 Varghese, M., & Zhang, W. (2010). Geometric quantization for proper actions. Advances in Mathematics, 225(3), 1224-1247.
2010 Varghese, M., & Wu, S. (2010). Twisted analytic torsion. Science China Mathematics, 53(3), 555-563.
2009 Varghese, M., Melrose, R., & Singer, I. (2009). The index of projective families of elliptic operators: the decomposable case. Asterisque, 328(328), 255-296.
2009 Chakraborty, P., & Varghese, M. (2009). The geometry of determinant line bundles in noncommutative geometry. Journal of Noncommutative Geometry, 3(4), 559-578.
2009 Green, R., & Varghese, M. (2009). Harmonic Cheeger-Simons characters with applications. Journal of Geometry and Physics, 59(5), 663-672.
2009 Bouwknegt, P., & Varghese, M. (2009). T-duality as a duality of loop group bundles. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical (Print Edition), 42(16), 162001-1-162001-8.
2009 Brodzki, J., Varghese, M., Rosenberg, J., & Szabo, R. (2009). Non-commutative correspondences, duality and D-branes in bivariant K-theory. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, 13(2), 497-552.
2008 Varghese, M., Melrose, R., & Singer, I. (2008). Equivariant and fractional index of projective elliptic operators. Journal of Differential Geometry, 78(3), 465-473.
2008 Brodzki, J., Varghese, M., Rosenberg, J., & Szabo, R. (2008). D-Branes, RR-Fields and Duality on Noncommutative Manifolds. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 277(3), 643-706.
2007 Varghese, M. (2007). T-Duality in type II string theory via noncommutative geometry and beyond. Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, 171(171), 237-257.
2007 Varghese, M., & Stevenson, D. (2007). Entire cyclic homology of stable continuous trace algebras. Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society, 39(1), 71-75.
2006 Carey, A., Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2006). Quantum Hall effect and noncommutative geometry. Journal of Geometry and Symmetry in Physics, 6(1), 16-36.
2006 Dodziuk, J., & Varghese, M. (2006). Kato's inequality and asymptotic spectral properties for discrete magnetic Laplacians. Contemporary Mathematics, 398, 69-82.
2006 Varghese, M. (2006). Heat kernels and the range of the trace on completions of twisted group algebras. Contemporary Mathematics, 398, 321-345.
2006 Varghese, M., Melrose, R., & Singer, I. (2006). Fractional analytic index. Journal of Differential Geometry, 74(2), 265-292.
2006 Varghese, M., & Rosenberg, J. (2006). T-duality for torus bundles with H-fluxes via noncommutative topology, II: the high-dimensional case and the T-duality group. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, 10(1), 123-158.
2006 Bouwknegt, P., Evslin, J., Jurco, B., Varghese, M., & Sati, H. (2006). Flux compactifications on projective spaces and the S-duality puzzle. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, 10(3), 345-394.
2006 Varghese, M., & Roberts, D. (2006). Yang-Mills theory for bundle gerbes. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical (Print Edition), 39(20), 6039-6044.
2006 Varghese, M., & Stevenson, D. (2006). On a generalised Connes-Hochschild-Kostant-Rosenberg theorem. Advances in Mathematics, 200(2), 303-335.
2006 Bouwknegt, P., Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2006). Nonassociative tori and applications to T-duality. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 264(1), 41-69.
2006 Dodziuk, J., Varghese, M., & Yates, S. (2006). Arithmetic properties of eigenvalues of generalized Harper operators on graphs. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 262(2), 269-297.
2005 Braverman, M., Carey, A., Farber, M., & Varghese, M. (2005). L2 torsion without the determinant class condition and extended L2 cohomology. Communications in Contemporary Mathematics, 7(4), 421-462.
2005 Kordyukov, Y., Varghese, M., & Shubin, M. (2005). Equivalence of spectral projections in semiclassical limit and a vanishing theorem for higher traces in K-theory. Journal fur die Reine und Angewandte Mathematik, 581(581), 193-236.
2005 Varghese, M., Melrose, R., & Singer, I. (2005). The index of projective families of elliptic operators. Geometry & Topology Online, 9(1), 341-373.
2005 Varghese, M., & Rosenberg, J. (2005). T-duality for torus bundles with H-fluxes via noncommutative topology. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 253(3), 705-721.
2005 Bouwknegt, P., Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2005). T-duality for principal torus bundles and dimensionally reduced Gysin sequences. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, 9(5), 749-773.
2004 Bouwknegt, P., Evslin, J., & Varghese, M. (2004). T-duality: Topology change from H-flux. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 249(2), 383-415.
2004 Bouwknegt, P., Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2004). T-duality for principal torus bundles. The Journal of High Energy Physics, 3(18), WWW 1-WWW 10.
2004 Varghese, M., & Sati, H. (2004). Some relations between twisted K-theory and E8 gauge theory. The Journal of High Energy Physics, 3(3), WWW 1-WWW 22.
2004 Bouwknegt, P., Evslin, J., & Varghese, M. (2004). Topology and H-flux of T-dual manifolds. Physical Review Letters, 92(18), 181601-1-181601-3.
2003 Varghese, M., & Stevenson, D. (2003). Chern character in twisted K-theory: Equivariant and holomorphic cases. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 236(1), 161-186.
2003 Dodziuk, J., Linnell, P., Varghese, M., Schick, T., & Yates, S. (2003). Approximating L2 invariants and the Atiyah conjecture. Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics, 56(7), 839-873.
2003 Varghese, M. (2003). The Novikov conjecture for low degree cohomology classes. Geometriae Dedicata, 99(1), 1-15.
2003 Varghese, M., Schick, T., & Yates, S. (2003). Approximating Spectral invariants of Harper operators on graphs II. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 131(6), 1917-1923.
2003 Dodziuk, J., Linnell, P., Mathai, V., Schick, T., & Yates, S. (2003). Approximating L2-Invariants and the Atiyah Conjecture. Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics, 56(7), 0839-0873.
2002 Varghese, M., & Shubin, M. (2002). Semiclassical asymptotics and gaps in the spectra of magnetic Schrödinger operators. Geometriae Dedicata, 91(1), 155-173.
2002 Varghese, M., & Yates, S. (2002). Approximating spectral invariants of Harper operators on graphs. Journal of Functional Analysis, 188(1), 111-136.
2001 Marcolli, M., & Varghese, M. (2001). Twisted index theory on good orbifolds, II: Fractional quantum numbers. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 217(1), 55-87.
2000 Bouwknegt, P., & Varghese, M. (2000). D-Branes, B-Fields and twisted K-theory. The Journal of High Energy Physics, 3(7), 1-11.
2000 Carey, A., Farber, M., & Varghese, M. (2000). Correspondences, von Neumann algebras and holomorphic L2 torsion. Canadian Journal of Mathematics-Journal Canadien de Mathematiques, 52(4), 695-736.
1999 Varghese, M., & Yates, S. (1999). Discrete Morse theory and extended L² homology. Journal of Functional Analysis, 168(1), 84-110.
1999 Varghese, M. (1999). K-theory of twisted group C*-algebras and positive scalar curvature. Contemporary Mathematics, 231, 203-225.
1999 Marcolli, M., & Mathai, V. (1999). Twisted index theory on good orbifolds, I: Noncommutative Bloch theory. Communications in Contemporary Mathematics, 1(4), 553-587.
1999 Carey, A., Hannabuss, K., & Mathai, V. (1999). Quantum Hall effect on the hyperbolic plane in the presence of disorder. Letters in Mathematical Physics, 47(3), 215-236.
1998 Carey, A., Hannabuss, K., Mathai, V., & McCann, P. (1998). Quantum hall effect on the hyperbolic plane. Communications in Mathematical Physics, 190(3), 629-673.
1998 Carey, A., Coulhon, T., Mathai, V., & Phillips, J. (1998). Von Neumann spectra near the spectral gap. Bulletin des Sciences Mathematiques, 122(3), 203-242.
1998 Varghese, M., & Rothenberg, M. (1998). On the homotopy invariance of L2 torsion for covering spaces. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 126(3), 887-897.
1998 Varghese, M. (1998). Von Neumann algebra invariants of Dirac operators. Journal of Functional Analysis, 152(1), 1-21.
1998 Dodziuk, J., & Varghese, M. (1998). Approximating L2 invariants of amenable covering spaces: A combinatorial approach. Journal of Functional Analysis, 154(2), 359-378.
1997 Block, J., Mathai, V., & Weinberger, S. (1997). Homotopy invariance of novikov-shubin invariants and L2 betti numbers. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 125(12), 3757-3762.
1997 Mathai, V., & Wu, S. (1997). Equivariant holomorphic morse inequalities I: A heat kernel proof. Journal of Differential Geometry, 46(1), 78-98.
1997 Carey, A., Farber, M., & Mathai, V. (1997). Determinant lines, von Neumann algebras and L2 torsion. Journal fur die Reine und Angewandte Mathematik, 484, 153-181.
1996 Mathai, V., & Shubin, M. (1996). Twisted L2 invariants of non-simply connected manifolds and asymptotic L2 Morse inequalities. Russian Journal of Mathematical Physics, 4(4), 499-526.
1996 Mathai, V. (1996). Inequalities for the novikov-shubin invariants. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 124(8), 2585-2588.
1992 Mathai, V. (1992). Non-negative scalar curvature. Annals of Global Analysis and Geometry, 10(2), 103-123.
1992 Carey, A., & Mathai, V. (1992). L2-torsion invariants. Journal of Functional Analysis, 110(2), 377-409.
1992 Mathai, V. (1992). Spectral flow, eta invariants, and von Neumann algebras. Journal of Functional Analysis, 109(2), 442-456.
1992 Mathai, V. (1992). L2-analytic torsion. Journal of Functional Analysis, 107(2), 369-386.
1992 Mathai, V. (1992). Heat kernels and Thom forms. Journal of Functional Analysis, 104(1), 34-46.
1986 Mathai, V., & Quillen, D. (1986). Superconnections, thom classes, and equivariant differential forms. Topology, 25(1), 85-110.
— Han, F., & Mathai, V. (n.d.). Exotic Twisted Equivariant K-Theory.
— Hekmati, P., & Mathai, V. (n.d.). T-duality of current algebras and their quantization. Contemporary Mathematics, 584 (2012) 17-38.
— Mahanta, S., & Mathai, V. (n.d.). Operator algebra quantum groups of universal gauge groups.
— Hallam, M., & Mathai, V. (n.d.). Positive scalar curvature via end-periodic manifolds.
— Mathai, V. (n.d.). Verlinde modules and quantization.
— Mathai, V., & Singer, I. M. (n.d.). Twisted K-homology theory, twisted Ext-theory.
— Han, F., & Mathai, V. (n.d.). Witten Genus and Elliptic genera for proper actions.
— Mathai, V., & Wilkin, G. (n.d.). Fractional quantum numbers via complex orbifolds.
— Guo, H., Hochs, P., & Mathai, V. (n.d.). Equivariant Callias index theory via coarse geometry.
2006 Varghese, M. (2006). K-theory. In J. P. Francoise, G. L. Naber, & T. S. Tsun (Eds.), Encyclopedia of mathematical physics (pp. 246-254). Academic Press.
2006 Varghese, M., & Rosenberg, J. (2006). On mysteriously missing T-duals, H-flux and the T-duality Group. In M. Ge, & W. Zhang (Eds.), Differential geometry and physics (Vol. 10, pp. 350-358). 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224: World Scientific Publishing.
2006 Marcolli, M., & Varghese, M. (2006). Towards the fractional quantum Hall effect: a noncummutative geometry perspective. In C. Consani, & M. Marcolli (Eds.), Noncommutative geometry and number theory (pp. 235-262). Germany: Springer.
1997 Varghese, M. (1997). L2 invariants of covering spaces. In Geometric analysis and lie theory in mathematics and physics, 1997 (pp. 209-242). Cambridge University Press.
2011 Varghese, M., & Wu, S. (2011). Analytic torsion of ℤ₂-graded elliptic complexes. In as published in Contemporary Mathematics Vol. 546 (pp. 199-212). Bonn, Germany: American Mathematical Society.
2010 Bouwknegt, P., Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2010). C*-algebras in tensor categories. In Motives, Quantum Field Theory, and Pseudodifferential Operators: Clay Mathematics Proceedings Vol 12 Vol. 12 (pp. 127-165). United States: American Mathematical Society.
2010 Hannabuss, K., & Varghese, M. (2010). Noncommutative principal torus bundles via parametrised strict deformation quantization. In American Mathematical Society. Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics Vol. 81 (pp. 133-147). United States: American Mathematical Society.
2008 Brodzki, J., Varghese, M., Rosenberg, J., & Szabo, R. (2008). D-branes, KK-theory and duality on noncommutative spaces. In International Conference on Non-commutative Geometry and Phsics; Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 103 Vol. 103 (pp. 012004-1-012004-13). United Kingdom: Institute of Physics Publishing.
2006 Varghese, M., & Dodziuk, J. (2006). Kato’s inequality for magnetic Laplacians on graphs. In The ubiquitous heat kernel: AMS special session, the ubiquitous heat kernel, October 2-4, 2003, Boulder, Colorado (pp. 69-81). USA: American Mathematical Society.
2001 Varghese, M. (2001). On positivity of the Kadison constant and noncommutative Bloch theory. In Seiki Nishikawa (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth Pacific Rim Geometry Conference (pp. 107-124). Sendai, Japan: TOHOKU UNIVERSITY.
(jointly with P. Bouwknegt, Jan. 2015- Dec. 2017, $370K awarded).

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As you’ve probably already read (see, e.g., WSJ Law Blog), yesterday the Supreme Court held in Synder v. Phelps that the First Amendment precluded Synder, father of deceased soldier Matthew Synder, from suing Fred Phelps, a hate-monger who protests funeral’s soldiers with a variety of bigoted and incoherent slogans, for intentional infliction of emotional distress.
I know what I’m supposed to write. I, like most attorneys I know, am a strong defender of the First Amendment. Free speech is essential to a free democracy. I’m suppose to cheer the opinion and pat myself on the back for being so tolerant that I want odious, malicious, and incoherent speech to have the same protections as genuine contributions to society. Most of the major newspapers already did that, as did most legal bloggers.
But I read the opinion with a sense of dread. The Supreme Court didn’t affirm the importance of free speech and didn’t strengthen protections for writers, activists, speakers, or even legitimate protests on public issues; instead, it merely gutted civil accountability for those who target private citizens for their own amusement and marketing purposes.
The Supreme Court claimed that its holding was “narrow.” Slip op., 14. It’s "narrow" in terms of the First Amendment, since it does nothing to enhance public debate and creates no new protections in favor of when and where a person may speak, but isn’t narrow in terms of destroying civil torts like intentional infliction of emotional distress. If a line is not drawn here — at deliberately targeting the grieving parents of a soldier while they buried their son — then there is no line. Malicious speech and conduct that would for hundreds of years result in liability for intentional infliction of emotional distress becomes, as Justice Alito described in his dissent, "immunized simply because it is interspersed with speech that is protected." Dissent, 9.
So what? Can an ex-boyfriend stand on the sidewalk outside of his ex-girlfriend’s place of business and calmly defame her so long as he makes a trivial effort to make derogatory remarks about women in general and thus cloak himself in the veil of free speech by claiming he’s commenting on gender relations? Can a bigot stand in a park across the street from the place of worship and politely damn everyone who goes in to hell and blame them for all the ills of the world and the deaths of their loved ones because, on some shallow level, he’s expressing his religious beliefs? Can the deranged threaten others with death so long as they toss in a few words about the marginal tax rate?
I’ve noticed that most children’s athletic fields are on public land, next to public roads. Can I manufacture some media attention and troll the public with offensive, sexually-descriptive signs condemning the kids to hellfire as long as I later claim I was expressing my preference for soccer over baseball or vice versa? Apparently, if I do, there will be nothing anyone can do about it.
They could have picketed the United States Capitol, the White House, the Supreme Court, the Pentagon, or any of the more than 5,600 military recruiting stations in this country. They could have returned to the Maryland State House or the United States Naval Academy, where they had been the day before. They could have selected any public road where pedestrians are allowed. (There are more than 4,000,000 miles of public roads in the United States.) They could have staged their protest in a public park.
They chose not to. They chose not to go where people would listen to their message. Instead, Westboro chose to "speak" in a manner calmly and maliciously calculated a means to ensure the ideas would be offensive and pointless; indeed, their primary defense at trial was that the people at the funeral couldn’t even hear or see them. Westboro freely admitted that they had no intention or expectation that the “audience” of their “free speech” — the grieving family members — would consider or accept their message.
That alone disqualifies them from First Amendment protection under Supreme Court precedent. The purported “audience” here — that is, the reason we grant the speech First Amendment protection at all, since we presume the speech is given to further democracy — was actually a targeted victim. There being no real audience, there is no free speech protection. Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc., 472 U. S. 749, 762 (1985)(speech solely for individual’s purposes with no public audience is not protected by First Amendment).
This is a very narrow tort with requirements that “are rigorous, and difficult to satisfy.” W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, R. Keeton, & D. Owen, Prosser and Keeton on Law of Torts §12, p. 61 (5th ed. 1984). To recover, a plaintiff must show that the conduct at issue caused harm that was truly severe. See Figueiredo-Torres v. Nickel, 321 Md. 642, 653, 584 A. 2d 69, 75 (1991) (“[R]ecovery will be meted out sparingly, its balm reserved for those wounds that are truly severe and incapable of healing themselves” (internal quotation marks omitted)); Harris v. Jones, 281 Md. 560, 571, 380 A. 2d 611, 616 (1977) (the distress must be“ ‘so severe that no reasonable man could be expected to endure it’ ” (quoting Restatement (Second) of Torts §46, Comment j (1963–1964))).
Alito was right. The majority of the Supreme Court here, however, said that it didn’t matter if Westboro admittedly had nothing to offer the public debate, and instead was merely trying to generate free publicity and laugh to themselves over a cruel joke by maliciously causing emotional distress to wholly innocent victims. In essence, the Supreme Court held: if you are not otherwise breaking the law, then you are free to say and do whatever you want, without criminal or civil responsibility for the damage you cause.
So let’s have a toast to the trolls, the liars, the stalkers, the bigots, and any other people who admittedly have nothing to offer society except malice for PR purposes: the Supreme Court doesn’t think we have a right to enforcement of court orders, only sometimes thinks we should have the right not to be entrapped and needlessly killed by police, but is darned certain that you have the right to manufacture outrage by tormenting the families of dead soldiers for publicity.