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1. When the facts material to a decision of the court on a motion to suppress evidence are not in dispute, the question of whether to suppress is a question of law over which an appellate court has unlimited review.
2. An officer making a stop must have a reasonable and articulable suspicion that the seized person is committing, has committed, or is about to commit a crime.
3. What is reasonable must be based on the totality of circumstances and is viewed in terms as understood by those versed in the field of law enforcement.
4. When evaluating the factors advanced by the State to show reasonable and articulable suspicion, our task is not to pigeonhole each purported fact as either consistent with innocent travel or manifestly suspicious. We make our determination with deference to a trained law enforcement officer's ability to distinguish between innocent and suspicious circumstances, remembering that reasonable suspicion represents a minimum level of objective justification which is considerably less than proof of wrongdoing by a preponderance of the evidence.
5. In making the reasonable and articulable suspicion determination that occupants of a vehicle were about to commit a crime, the location, time of day, previous reports of crime in the area, and furtive actions of the suspects may well justify a stop.
6. In considering the totality of the facts and circumstances, a reasonable and articulable suspicion determination need not rule out the possibility of innocent conduct.
7. The totality of the facts and circumstances known to trained law enforcement officers as fully set forth in our opinion constituted reasonable and articulable suspicion that the seized person was about to commit a crime and the vehicle in which he was a passenger was properly and lawfully stopped.
Appeal from Geary District Court; STEVEN L. HORNBAKER, judge. Opinion filed January 17, 2003. Reversed and remanded.
Tony Cruz, assistant county attorney, and Carla J. Stovall, attorney general, for appellant.
Linda Barnes-Pointer, of Junction City, for appellee.
Before GERNON, P.J., KNUDSON, J., and LARSON, S.J.
LARSON, J.: This is the State's interlocutory appeal from the district court's decision granting DeMarco Griffin's motion to suppress evidence.
Griffin was charged with felony possession of marijuana pursuant to K.S.A. 2001 Supp. 65-4105(d). In his motion to suppress evidence, he contended the search of the car in which he was a passenger was illegal because there was no reasonable and articulable suspicion that either he or the driver was involved in criminal acts. The underlying facts were developed from transcripts from a suppression and preliminary hearing before a magistrate judge that involved the driver of the car as well as Griffin.
The testimony showed that a search warrant was being executed at an apartment building in Junction City in February 2002. Ernestine Cherry occupied one apartment; a couple, Bessie Bingham and Larry Wellmaker, lived in another; an individual occupied a third; and the remaining three apartments in the building were vacant. The only other buildings on the street were businesses.
Primary testimony was provided by Sergeant Michael Life, who was part of the Drug Task Force of the Junction City Police Department. Controlled buys had been made at Cherry's apartment within the past 2 years where two prior search warrants had been executed resulting in Cherry's arrest along with the seizure of a large amount of cocaine. Bingham had previously been arrested in a different location for possession of cocaine with intent to sell and had moved to the apartment. Drug trafficking had previously been observed at the building.
On the evening in question, Kansas Bureau of Investigation (KBI) agents began surveillance on the apartment in early evening. Police vehicles were parked out of sight. Numerous individuals came to both the front and back of the apartment building, entered, stayed for a short time, and left. The KBI agents reported the high amount of activity and also that a person wearing a yellow shirt would leave the building, make contact with other persons, go back inside the building, and shortly thereafter return. Sergeant Life saw this person exchange what was believed to be cocaine for money from another person.
With this background, the officers began executing a search warrant around 10:30 p.m. Numerous officers were involved and arrested the occupants of Cherry's and Wellmaker's apartment, plus a female who drove up and stopped in the alley was arrested for possession of cocaine.
Around 11 p.m. Sergeant Life came out of the front of the apartment building. He did not see a parked car in front of the building when he went to the rear of the building. When he returned to the front of the building shortly thereafter, he saw two occupants in a parked car in front of the building. The distance between the parked car and the building was only about 30 feet. All of the businesses on the street were closed.
The area in front of the building was lit with street lights. The car was parked for only a minute, but no one exited as Sergeant Life approached the vehicle. It started to leave but the sergeant shined his light on the car, stepped in front of it, and motioned for it to stop, which it did.
Although Sergeant Life did not see the occupants of the car commit a traffic infraction, he believed they were involved in drug activity at the apartment because of the observations of earlier drug activity and the apartment was the only place they could have gone from where they were parked. Sergeant Life obtained the driver's license of the car's driver and found his name was Travis Jackson and that he had a Missouri license. When asked where he was going, Jackson said he was going to visit someone but gave a different address from where he had stopped.
When Sergeant Life looked into the car, he recognized the passenger as DeMarco Griffin. He had been involved with and seen Griffin many times previously and knew he was currently on bond for a pending drug case. He instigated a check on Jackson's driver's license and, while waiting for the response, called for another officer to have his drug canine check out the car.
Officer Oehm had gone a block or so away to get gas in his car and testified he arrived within half a minute of Sergeant Life's request with his trained drug dog, who walked around the vehicle. His dog alerted for the presence of drugs on both the driver's and passenger's side of the vehicle in which Griffin was a passenger.
After the drug dog alerted at the presence of drugs at the passenger door, Sergeant Life had Jackson exit the car. At this time, Life smelled a strong odor of burnt marijuana on Jackson and inside the car. Cocaine was found on Jackson.
Griffin was then asked to exit the vehicle. During a search of the car, marijuana cigarettes were found in a box on the passenger side of the front seat. Griffin was then arrested.
The district court held Sergeant Life did not have a reasonable and articulable suspicion for the stop and granted Griffin's motion to suppress. We conclude the court erred.
"When reviewing a motion to suppress evidence, an appellate court reviews the factual underpinnings of a district court's decision '"by a substantial competent evidence standard and the ultimate legal conclusion drawn from those facts by a de novo standard. An appellate court does not reweigh the evidence. The ultimate determination of the suppression of evidence is a legal question requiring independent appellate review.'" [Citations omitted.]"
It has further been said that "[w]hen the facts material to a decision of the court on a motion to suppress evidence are not in dispute, the question of whether to suppress is a question of law over which this court has unlimited review. [Citation omitted.]" State v. Jones, 270 Kan. 526, 527, 17 P.3d 359 (2001). The facts in this case are not in dispute.
'When evaluating these factors, we judge the officer's conduct in light of common sense and ordinary human experience. [Citation omitted.] "Our task . . . is not to pigeonhole each purported fact as either consistent with innocent travel or manifestly suspicious," [citation omitted], but to determine whether the totality of the circumstances justify the detention. [Citation omitted.] We make our determination with deference to a trained law enforcement officer's ability to distinguish between innocent and suspicious circumstances, [citation omitted], remembering that reasonable suspicion represents a "minimum level of objective justification" which is "considerably less than proof of wrongdoing by a preponderance of the evidence." United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7, 109 S. Ct. 1581, 1585, 104 L. Ed. 2d 1 . . . ." 118 F.3d at 1431.
The United States Supreme Court has described 'reasonable suspicion' as '"a particularized and objective basis" for suspecting the person stopped of criminal activity.' Ornelas, 517 U.S. at 696. Something more than an unparticularized suspicion or hunch must be articulated. United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7, 104 L. Ed. 2d 1, 109 S. Ct. 1581 (1989).
"Reasonable suspicion can arise from information that is less reliable than that required to show probable cause. Both reasonable suspicion and probable cause are dependent upon the content of information possessed by the detaining authority and the information's degree of reliability. Quantity and quality are considered in the 'totality of the circumstances--the whole picture' that must be taken into account when evaluating whether there is reasonable suspicion. Alabama v. White, 496 U.S. 325, 330, 110 L. Ed. 2d 301, 110 S. Ct. 2412 (1990)."
The narrow issue here is whether Sergeant Life had a reasonable and articulable suspicion that the occupants of the car were about to commit a crime. In making this determination, we said in State v. Kirby, 12 Kan. App. 2d 346, 353, 744 P.2d 146 (1987), aff'd 242 Kan. 803, 751 P.2d 1041 (1988), that "the Kansas Supreme Court has recognized that the location, time of day, previous reports of crime in the area, and furtive actions of the suspects may well justify a stop. [Citations omitted.]"
We view the overall circumstances of this stop differently than the trial court did. The trial court did not find any nexus between two individuals driving up and stopping in front of a known drug house at 11 p.m. with no other businesses in the neighborhood open and the raising of a reasonable suspicion in a trained law enforcement officer that the occupants were about to commit a crime.
We believe the facts of this case are somewhat similar to those in Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119, 145 L. Ed. 2d 570, 120 S. Ct. 673 (2000), where Wardlow attempted to flee officers in a high crime area and when caught and searched, led to the discovery of a handgun, resulting in his arrest and conviction of unlawful possession of a weapon by a felon. The United States Supreme Court reversed the Illinois Supreme Court decision that the officers acted without reasonable suspicion and stated in part: "Headlong flight--wherever it occurs--is the consummate act of evasion: It is not necessarily indicative of wrongdoing, but it is certainly suggestive of such." 528 U.S. at 124. "Allowing officers confronted with [an unprovoked] flight to stop the fugitive and investigate further is quite consistent with the individual's right to go about his business or to stay put and remain silent in the face of police questioning." 528 U.S. at 125. It concluded that the location of Wardlow in a high crime area and his flight collectively amounted to a reasonable suspicion to justify the officers "in suspecting that Wardlow was involved in criminal activity, and, therefore, in investigating further." 528 U.S. at 125. The area in question in our case had a clear and articulated history of criminal activity at the time of the stop.
In our case, the trial court's reliance on the attempted flight of the car only ignores all of the other facts utilized and known by Sergeant Life and all the other officers at the scene. Numerous persons came to and left from the apartment building where only three apartments were occupied by a total of four people; the KBI agents and Officer Life observed drug transactions at the apartment building within a few hours of the car stop; the car parked at the apartment building late at night when the other businesses on the street were closed; other drug arrests and search warrants for drugs had been made at the apartment building during the previous 2 years; convicted drug offenders resided at the apartment building; an earlier stop of a vehicle behind the apartment building had resulted in a drug arrest; and it was reasonable to infer from the facts that the occupants in the car decided to leave after seeing the other uniformed officers or Sergeant Life while the car was parked in front of the apartment building.
It appears the trial court did not consider the totality of the facts known by Sergeant Life and relied upon the fact that he had not ruled out innocent behavior. Such an analysis was recently rejected by the United States Supreme Court in United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 151 L. Ed. 2d 740, 122 S. Ct. 744 (2002), where in response to the argument that the facts suggested lawful conduct it stated that a reasonable suspicion determination "need not rule out the possibility of innocent conduct." 534 U.S. at 277. The Court noted the necessity of looking at the totality of the circumstances by the reviewing court and further said: "This process allows officers to draw on their own experience and specialized training to make inferences from and deductions about the cumulative information available to them that 'might well elude an untrained person.' [Citations omitted.]" 534 U.S. at 273.
Griffin's argument that the State stipulated that all of the facts surrounding the execution of the search warrant were not involved in the determination of reasonable and articulable suspicion is misplaced. The prosecutor did say the stop of the car was not solely based on the search warrant because neither Griffin nor the vehicle in which he was riding was listed in the search warrant. But, the State clearly relied on all of the information justifying the issuance of the search warrant and the officers' observations for the hours prior to and during the execution of the search warrant.
The canine officer appeared in an extremely timely manner while a proper Terry stop was being conducted. There was an absolute statutory right under K.S.A. 22-2402(1) to check Jackson's identity and story. When the canine alerted on the car, the actions of the law enforcement officers which followed were clearly proper and justified.
We will not further repeat all the circumstances which have been previously set forth, but, under our standard of review of the totality of the known facts and activity, we hold the vehicle was properly and lawfully stopped. We hold that reasonable and articulable suspicion existed and the trial court erred in sustaining the motion to suppress.
The trial court's ruling on the motion to suppress is reversed, and this matter is remanded for further proceedings.

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Sagittal sections of toad, rabbit, and monkey brain. Arrows, location of superior colliculi. Note the significant difference among these three species in the relative amount of brain tissue devoted to telencephalon and to colliculus.
Projection drawing of a transverse section through superior colliculus of the cat (cresyl violet stain) to show development of laminae. I1,2, sublaminae of stratum zonale; II1,2,3, sublaminae of stratum griseum superficiale; III, stratum opticum; IV, stratum griseum intermediale; V, stratum lemnisci; VI, stratum griseum profundum; VII, stratum album profundum; PAGL, periaquiductal gray, pars lateralis.
Representative types of neurons in frog optic tectum shown in a combined cytoarchitectonic diagram obtained from staining with hematoxylin‐eosin and reduced silver. Numerals at extreme left indicate the different layers; z, stratum zonale; p, plexiform sheets in layer 9. Golgi picture begins with a truncated ependymoglial cell. Numerals at right: 1, large pyramidal neuron with type 1 dendritic arborization pattern; 2 and 3, large pear‐shaped neurons with type 2 and 3 dendritic arborization patterns, respectively; 4, optic terminals; 5, ascending axon; 6, large ganglionic neuron; 7, small pear‐shaped neuron with descending axon; 8, small pear‐shaped neuron with a beaded axonlike process; 9, stellate neuron; 10, amacrine cell; 11, assumed endings of diencephalic afferent fibers.
Cell types in cat superior colliculus. Superior colliculus is divisible into two laminar divisions based on cell types seen in Golgi‐stained material. Superficial division (I, II, and upper portion of III) is characterized by neurons with vertically elongated (narrow‐field vertical cells, C) or horizontally elongated (horizontal cells, B) dendritic fields or by dendritic fields eccentrically distributed about the cell body (piriform cells, D; wide‐field vertical cells, F; inverted ganglion cells, E). The cat is unusual in apparently lacking marginal cells but having small stellate granule cells, A, in upper part of its superficial division. Stellate cells, G, are rarely seen in the middle of superficial division but become increasingly more frequent in its deep portion as it becomes transitional with deep division. Neurons of deep division (lower portion of III, IV, V, VI) are predominantly small‐ and medium‐sized stellate multipolar neurons, H, with occasional large or massive stellate neurons, I, usually in middle regions of layers IV and VI.
Topographic layout of visual field on surface of superior colliculus of mouse, rabbit, and cat. Derivation of 0° vertical meridian is different in each of these maps. In the mouse map the 0° vertical meridian is the vertical plane that intersects the projection of the long axis of the mouse's head. In the rabbit map the 0° vertical meridian intersects the perpendicular to the long axis of the head, which passes through the corneal vertex. In the cat map the 0° vertical meridian intersects the projection line of area centralis. In all three maps the 0° horizontal meridian intersects each of the described projection lines in the horizontal plane. Horizontal meridians run in the anteroposterior direction. The maps represent the contralateral retinal projection. A, anterior; P, posterior; M, medial; L, lateral.
Mouse data from Dräger and Hubel ; rabbit data from Hughes ; cat diagram courtesy of H. Sherk from data of Berman and Cynader and Feldon et al.
Retinotectal transformation. Top left: polar isograms for retinal surface of rabbit. The 0° vertical meridian intersects the perpendicular to the long axis of the head, which passes through the corneal vertex. The 0° horizontal meridian intersects the projection line in the horizontal plane. Stippled area, visual streak. Bottom left: approximate density distribution of retinal ganglion cells along horizontal, H, and vertical, V, meridians. Top right: collicular topography, polar coordinates. Stippled area, visual streak. Bottom right: collicular topography, rectilinear coordinates; transformation of circular spot on retina (black disk) is shown in colliculus by black oval area.
Location of transported protein in superior colliculi of rabbit, cat, and rhesus monkey after injection of labeled amino acids into right eye. In rabbit the projection is mostly contralateral. In the cat the ipsilateral projection is less dense than the contralateral projection. In monkey the ipsi‐ and contralateral projections are almost equal.
Schematic drawing of cat superior colliculus showing possible neuronal linkages in visuomotor transform. Thick arrows, major path; boxes outline representative slices of terminal fields from optic (retinal) tract and corticotectal tracts from areas 17, 18, 19, 21, C‐B, and 7; shaded areas, major foci of degeneration after lesions to these areas. MBSC, medial brachium of superior colliculus; LBSC, lateral brachium of superior colliculus; NIC, interstitial nucleus of Cajal and adjacent reticular formation; C‐B, Clare‐Bishop area; D, nucleus of Darkshevitch; OC, oculomotor nuclei; PAG, periaquiductal gray matter. Roman numerals represent the seven collicular laminae.
A: directionally selective unit in superior colliculus. Upper trace, microelectrode recording; lower trace, potentiometer recording of mirror movements indicating time course of moving light spot; solid arrows, direction of stimulus movement; ±, on‐off response to flashed light spot; ○, no response to light spot; large open arrow, preferred direction. B: distribution of direction‐selective neurons in cat superior colliculus. Number at end of each arrow gives percentage of cells in total sample of 317 cells that responded best in direction shown by arrow. Relative length of each line is proportional to percentage of cells represented by that line. Pooled data from left and right colliculi are computed in terms of directions relative to vertical meridian; directional preferences of majority of cells are for movement away from vertical meridian.
Distribution of ocular dominance of cells in cat superior colliculus. Total number of cells, 316. Numeral above each bar, number of cells per category. Cells in group 1 can be activated only through the contralateral eye, cells in group 4 are equally driven by either eye, and cells in group 7 are activated only by the ipsilateral eye. Groups 2, 3, 5, and 6 represent in‐between gradations.
A: histograms obtained from a single cell in monkey superior colliculus showing response to stimuli of varying diameters. Stimulus duration, 500 ms, presented once every 1,300 ms, 25 times per histogram. Response field, 18° from fovea; s/b, number of spikes per bin. B: response frequency as a function of stimulus size for four superior colliculus cells in cat superior colliculus. Each data point represents average of 12 repeated stimulus presentations obtained in a randomized order for each cell.
Representation of different body sections in cat superior colliculus. Coordinates are shown for a map of the visual field of the colliculus and is turned so that the anterior region faces the top of the figure. Note that a disproportionately large area is devoted to the trigeminal and forelimb representations.
A: map of somatosensory projection onto tectum of mouse. Letters refer to vibrissae, using notations shown in B; they indicate centers of tectal areas in which responses were recorded. Ovals, five overlapping regions within which the five rows of whiskers were represented. B: vibrissae. C: visual topography.
Selective enhancement of on‐response of a cell in monkey superior colliculus. Histograms on the right constructed from same cell discharges as displayed in rasters on left. Bin width, 8 ms; vertical scale, height of a bin if a cell discharged at 250 spikes/s per trial. Vertical scale line below histogram, stimulus onset; time between dots along abscissa on both rasters and histograms, 50 ms. A: cell discharge to receptive‐field stimulus, RF; dashed circle, excitatory central region of receptive field while the monkey was looking at fixation point, FP. B: increased response associated with saccades to receptive‐field stimulus; average latency after stimulus onset, 250 ms. C: saccades to a control stimulus, CON, in contralateral visual field; no enhancement.
Extracellular discharge characteristics of a single cell in oculomotor nucleus of monkey. This cell increases its firing rate in association with downward eye movement. Upper row, spontaneous saccadic eye movement with intervening periods of fixation. Lower row, unit activity during smooth pursuit brought about by moving the object in front of monkey. In each of the two rows: upper trace, unit activity; lower trace, vertical eye movement. Horizontal lines superimposed on eye movement record, coordinates in degrees of deviation from straight‐ahead gaze; upward deflection, elevation of eye; downward deflection, depression of eye.
Discharge characteristics of a unit in intermediate layers of monkey superior colliculus related to eye movement. Recordings obtained in an alert monkey with one eye surgically immobilized. A, B, C: unit discharge and eye movement in the light; moving eye unoccluded; cell discharges prior to small left and upward saccades. D: response to a 0.25° light spot moved back and forth with square wave motion within receptive field of immobilized eye; moving eye occluded. Marker, stimulus movement; HEM, horizontal eye movement record; VEM, vertical eye movement record.
Retinotopically coded motor field of a monkey superior colliculus unit. Each mark represents size and direction of a saccade. Open circles, saccades not associated with unit activity; filled circles, saccades preceded by a burst of spikes. Direction and size of saccade shown by quadrants designated left, right, up, down, and by degrees within these areas. Central crossing point, eye position prior to each saccade. Cell discharges only in association with small left saccades.
Unit activity associated with eye movement in superior colliculus of trained monkeys. A: standard tracking task: if monkey fixated center dot for 2 s the target was moved to one of the 24 positions indicated by the filled circles. B: burst index as a function of angle of movement (difference between the number of spikes occurring during a 500‐ms time sample for center target fixation and for a similar time period after eye movement to new target location): each point represents the median value of three observations. C: burst index as a function of angle and radius of eye movement. D: response of a superior colliculus unit to a series of saccades with a radius of 1° but varying in direction. Onset of target movement is indicated by arrow below each trace.
Relation between spike burst latency and saccade latency for two neurons in monkey superior colliculus. Abscissa, interval between target onset and onset of spike pulse. Ordinate, saccade latency.
Effects of electrical stimulation in abducens nucleus and superior colliculus of monkey as a function of burst duration and frequency. All eye movement records are horizontal, saccades going to the left. Left, stimulating frequency is constant and duration is varied; right, duration is constant and frequency is varied. Long staircase of saccades shown at bottom of figure was elicited by stimulating within the anterior tip of superior colliculus.
Electrical stimulation of monkey colliculus: dependence of evoked saccade amplitude and direction on initial eye position. A saccade is represented as a directed line starting at initial eye position and ending at position to which saccade carried the eye. A: examples of colliculus‐evoked saccades that did not depend on initial position. B: hypothetical example of way in which saccades would appear if they had been goal directed.
Results of experiment that paired single‐unit recordings and electrical stimulation at each of several sites in superficial layers of monkey superior colliculus. Map of visual field with receptive fields of 14 units is superimposed on map of motor responses, its arrow representing electrically elicited saccades at each of the 14 sites. Length of each arrow represents mean length of 8–14 stimulation‐elicited saccades; direction of each arrow represents mean direction of saccades. HM, horizontal meridian; VM, vertical meridian; hatched areas, receptive fields of single neurons. Numerals correlate receptive fields and saccades.
Effects of simultaneous stimulation at two collicular sites in monkey superior colliculus. Top: schematic for two sets of stimulation sites in colliculus (1 and 2). Bottom: types of saccades elicited to single (1 or 2) or paired (1 and 2) stimulation. Shaded areas, range over which saccades can be elicited by varying amount of current delivered through the two electrodes. A, anterior; M, medial; L, lateral; P, posterior; hm, horizontal meridian.
Experimental procedures demonstrating that both retinal error and eye position information are used to compute size and direction of saccadic eye movements. A: human subject fixates in total darkness on fixation spot F, which is extinguished when stimulus S1 is flashed. As subject initiates saccade toward S1 (horizontal arrow) a second target, S2, is flashed on at the time the eye is at position marked by x, appearing straight up from fovea. Upon reaching position S1 subject makes second saccade. If second saccade is straight up, only retinal error signal is computed. If second saccade is to S2, both retinal error and eye position information are utilized. Subjects always saccade to S2. B: schematic for experiment in which collicular stimulation in monkey is used to pull the eye to position S after brief appearance of target T to which animal has been trained to saccade. Utilization of retinal error signal alone should generate an eye movement to T′. Utilization of both retinal error and eye position signals should bring eye to T. C: two saccades are shown. For the first, going directly to T, target was flashed but colliculus was not stimulated. For the second, collicular stimulation displaced the eye toward S, but eye still ended up at T, suggesting utilization of both retinal error and eye position information.
Response characteristics of two units in superior colliculus of monkey before, during, and after cooling of visual cortex. A: unit 220 μm below surface of colliculus (stratum griseum superficiale). Bottom trace, time course of presentation of stimulus, a flashing spot centered in receptive field. B: unit 400 μm below surface of colliculus (stratum opticum); stimulus, a moving spot. Bottom trace, movement of stimulus.
Method for testing sensitivity in various parts of the visual field. Cat is restrained, its lateral canthi aligned along the 90° guidelines and its nose pointed along the 0° guideline to the fixation object (a piece of food in forceps). For tests of specific visual responses the novel stimulus (food in forceps or a painted ball at the end of a stiff wire) is introduced along one of the guidelines, after which the cat is freed from restraint and its behavior noted. For control tests of nonspecific responses the novel stimulus either is not introduced or is introduced laterally at approximately 120° (out of the cat's visual field) before the cat is freed.
Development of direction‐selective responses with age in superior colliculus of kitten. Height of each bar, proportion of cells in each age group that gave direction‐selective responses. N, number of cells.
Ocular dominance histograms for striate cortex and superior colliculus of cats raised either with eye suture or with induced strabismus. Cells in group 1 can be activated only through the contralateral eye; cells in group 4 are equally driven by either eye; and cells in group 7 are activated only by the ipsilateral eye.
Response characteristics of a cat superior colliculus cell as assessed through rotated (squares) and normal (stars) eye. Twelve directions of movement in 30° steps were presented eight times in a randomized order. Each eye was tested separately. Tuning curves in the two eyes are similar, indicating that this cell responded optimally to the same direction of stimulus movement in visual space through the two eyes despite the 90° rotation of one eye. Stimulus size, 3° square; stimulus velocity, 20°/s.
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