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Dr. Brown's research interests center on observational, theoretical, and laboratory studies of planetary surfaces and surface processes.
His recent work has focused on: models of processes acting on icy surfaces in the outer solar system, the surface composition and geology of Saturn's Titan, the design and construction of advanced spacecraft instrumentation, determination of the chemical and isotopic composition of icy surfaces, laboratory/theoretical studies of evaporative isotopic fractionation on comets and icy satellites and spacecraft studies of the outer solar system.
Of particular interest in his research are Titan and the rest of Saturn's icy moons.
Member, Satellites Working Group, Voyager Project Science Group, for the Uranus and Neptune flybys.
(1) Fanale, F. P., R. H. Brown, D. P. Cruikshank and R. N. Clark (1979). Significance of absorption features in Io's IR reflectance spectrum. Nature 280, 761-763.
(2) Terrile, R. J., R. W. Capps, D. E. Bachman, E. E. Becklin, D. P. Cruikshank, C. A. Beichman, R. H. Brown and J. A. Westfall (1979). Infrared images of Jupiter at 5-micrometer wavelength during the Voyager 1 encounter. Science 204, 67-68.
(3) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank and A. T. Tokunaga (1981). The rotation period of Neptune's upper atmosphere. Icarus 47, 159-165.
(4) Cruikshank, D. P and R. H. Brown (1981). The Uranian satellites: Water ice on Ariel and Umbriel. Icarus 45, 607-611.
(5) Brown, R. H. (1982). The Uranian satellites: Spectrophotometric and radiometric studies of their surface properties and diameters. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hi. 96822.
(6) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank and D. Morrison (1982). Diameters and albedos of satellites of Uranus. Nature 300, 423-425.
(7) Brown, R. H., D. Morrison, C. M. Telesco and W. E. Brunk (1982). Calibration of the radiometric asteroid scale using occultation diameters. Icarus 52, 188-195.
(8) Cruikshank, D. P., J. F. Bell, M. J. Gaffey, R. H. Brown, R. Howell, C. Beerman and M. Rognstad (1982). The dark side of Iapetus. Icarus 53, 90-104.
(9) Cruikshank, D. P. and R. H. Brown (1982). Surface composition and radius of Hyperion. Icarus 50, 82-87.
(10) Morrison, D., D. P. Cruikshank and R. H. Brown (1982). Diameters of Triton and Pluto. Nature 300, 425-427.
(11) Brown, R. H. (1983). The Uranian satellites and Hyperion: New spectrophotometry and compositional implications. Icarus 56, 414-425.
(12) Brown, R. H. and D. P. Cruikshank (1983). The Uranian satellites: Surface compositions and opposition brightness surges. Icarus 55, 83-92.
(13) Brown, R. H. and D. Morrison (1983). Diameters and albedos of 35 asteroids. Icarus 59, 20-24.
(14) Cruikshank, D. P. and R. H. Brown (1983). The nucleus of comet P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 1. Icarus 56, 377-380.
(15) Dwek, E., M. F. A'Hearn, E. E. Becklin, R. H. Brown, R. W. Capps, H. L. Dinerstein, I. Gatley, D. Morrison, C. M. Telesco, A. T. Tokunaga, M. W. Werner and G. C. Wynn-Williams (1983). The evolution of the infrared emission from the type II supernova 1980k in NGC 6946: The dust formation model. Ap. J. 274, 168-174.
(16) Brown, R. H. (1984). Physical properties of the Uranian satellites. Invited paper in Uranus and Neptune (J. Bergstrahl, Ed.) NASA conference publication #2330, pp. 437-459.
(17) Brown, R. H. and R. N. Clark (1984). Surface of Miranda: Identification of water ice. Icarus 58, 288-292.
(18) Clark, R. N., R. H. Brown, P. D. Owensby and J. A. Steele (1984). Saturn's satellites: Near-infrared spectrophotometry (0.65 2.5 mm) of the leading and trailing sides and compositional implications. Icarus 58, 265-281.
(19) Cruikshank, D. P., R. H. Brown and R. N. Clark (1984). Nitrogen on Triton. Icarus 58, 293-305.
(20) Johnson, T. V., D. Morrison, D. L. Matson, G. J. Veeder, R. H. Brown and R. M. Nelson (1984). Io volcanic hot spots: Stability and longitudinal distribution. Science 226, 134-137.
(21) Brown, R. H. (1985). Ellipsoidal geometry in asteroid thermal models: The standard radiometric model. Icarus 64, 53-63.
(22) Brown, R. H. (1985). Icy satellites of Uranus. Invited paper in the proceedings of the NATO advanced study workshop entitled, Ices in the Solar System (A. Dollfus and J. Klinger, Eds.).
(23) Brown, R. H. and D. P. Cruikshank (1985). Satellites of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. Scientific American 253, 38-47.
(24) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank and D. Griep (1985). Temperature of comet Iras-Araki-Alcock (1983d). Icarus 62, 273-281.
(25) Cruikshank, D. P., R. H. Brown and R. N. Clark (1985). Methane ice on Triton and Pluto. Invited review in the proceedings of the NATO advanced study workshop, Ices in the Solar System (A. Dollfus and J. Klinger, Eds.), pp. 817-827, Dordrecht Reidel.
(26) Cruikshank, D. P. and R. H. Brown (1986). Satellites of Uranus and Neptune, and the Pluto-Charon system. In Satellites, (J. Burns and M. S. Matthews, Eds.), pp. 836-874, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
(27) Lebofsky, L. A., M. V. Sykes, E. F. Tedesco, G. J. Veeder, D. L. Matson, R. H. Brown, J. C. Gradie, M. A. Feierberg and R. J. Judy (1986). A refined "standard" thermal model for asteroids based on observations of asteroid 1 Ceres and 2 Pallas. Icarus 68, 239-251.
(28) Orton, G. S., K. H. Baines, J. T. Bergstalh, R. H. Brown, J. Caldwell and A. T. Tokunaga (1986). Infrared radiometry of Uranus and Neptune at 21 and 32 microns. Icarus 69, 230-238.
(29) Smith, B. A., L. A. Soderblom, R. Beebe, D. Bliss, J. M. Boyce, A. Brahic, G. A. Briggs, R. H. Brown, S. A. Collins, A. F. Cook II, S. K. Croft, J. N. Cuzzi, G. E. Danielson, M. E. Davies, T. E. Dowling, D. Godfrey, C. J. Hansen, C. Harris, G. E. Hunt, A. P. Ingersoll, T. V. Johnson, R. J. Krauss, H. Masursky, D. Morrison, T. Owen, J. B. Plescia, J. B. Pollack, C. C. Porco, K. Rages, C. Sagan, E. M. Shoemaker, L. A. Sromovsky, C. Stoker, R. G. Strom, V. E. Suomi, S. P. Synnott, R. J. Terrile, P. Thomas, W. R. Thompson and J. Veverka (1986). Voyager 2 at Uranus: Imaging Science Results. Science 233, 43-64.
(30) Brown, R. H. and D. L. Matson (1987). Thermal effects of insolation propagation into the regoliths of airless bodies. Icarus 72, 84-94.
(31) Cruikshank, D. P. and R. H. Brown (1987). Organic matter on asteroid 130 Elektra. Science 238, 183-184.
(32) Johnson, T. V., R. H. Brown and J. B. Pollack (1987). Uranus' satellites: Densities and compositions. Jour. of Geophys. Res. 92, A13, 14959-14968.
(33) Johnson, T. V., R. H. Brown and L. A. Soderblom (1987). The Uranian satellites. Scientific American 256, 48-75.
(34) Thomas, P., J. Veverka, P. Helfenstein, R. H. Brown and T. V. Johnson (1987). Titania's opposition effect: Analysis of Voyager observations. Jour. Geophys. Res. 92, A13, 14911-14917.
(35) Thomas, P., J. Veverka, P. Helfenstein, T. V. Johnson and R. H. Brown (1987). Voyager observations of 1985U1. Icarus 72, 79-83.
(36) Veverka, J., P. Thomas, P. Helfenstein, R. H. Brown and T. V. Johnson (1987). Satellites of Uranus: Disk-integrated photometry from Voyager imaging. Jour. Geophys. Res. 92, A13, 14895-14904.
(37) Bell, J. F., R. H. Brown and B. Ray Hawke (1988). Composition and size of Apollo asteroid 1984KB. Icarus 73, 482-486.
(38) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank, A. T. Tokunaga, R. G. Smith and R. N. Clark (1988). Search for volatiles on icy satellites I: Europa. Icarus 74, 262-271.
(39) Cruikshank, D. P., R. H. Brown, A. T. Tokunaga, R. G. Smith and J. R. Piscitelli (1988). Volatiles on Triton: The infrared spectral evidence, 2.0 2.5 micrometers. Icarus 74, 413-423.
(40) Goguen, J. D., W. M. Sinton, D. L. Matson, R. R. Howell, H. M. Dyck, T. V. Johnson, R. H. Brown, G. J. Veeder, A. L. Lane, R. M. Nelson and R. A. McLaren (1988). Io hot spots: Infrared photometry of satellite occultations. Icarus 76, 465-484.
(41) Johnson, T. V., G. J. Veeder, D. L. Matson, R. H. Brown, R. M. Nelson and D. Morrison (1988). Io: Evidence for silicate volcanism in 1986. Science 242, 1280-1283.
(42) Tokunaga, A. T., K.-W. Hodapp, E. E. Becklin, M. Rigler, R. H. Brown and D. P. Cruikshank (1988). The infrared spectrum and image of G29 38. Ap. J. Lett. 332: L71-L74.
(43) Goguen, J., H. Hammel and R. H. Brown (1989). V photometry of Titania, Oberon and Triton. Icarus 77, 81-95.
(44) Matson, D. L. and R. H. Brown (1989). Solid-state greenhouses and their implications for icy satellites. Icarus 77, 67-81.
(45) Cruikshank, D. P., R. H. Brown, L. P. Giver and A. T. Tokunaga (1989). Triton: Do we see the surface? Science 245, 283-286.
(46) Smith, B. A. et al. including R. H. Brown (1989). Imaging science at Neptune. Science, 246, 1422-1449.
(47) Fanale, F. P., J. R. Salvail, D. L. Matson and R. H. Brown (1990). The effect of volume phase changes, mass transport, sunlight penetration and densification on the thermal regime of icy regoliths. Icarus, 88, 193-204.
(48) Brown, R. H., T. V. Johnson, S. Synnott, J. D. Anderson, R. A. Jacobson, S. F. Dermott and P. Thomas (1990). Physical properties of the Uranian satellites. In Uranus, (J. Bergstralh and E. Miner, Editors), pp. 513-527, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
(49) Veverka, J., R. H. Brown and J. F. Bell (1990). Surface properties of the satellites of Uranus. In Uranus (J. Bergstalh and E. Miner, Editors), pp. 528-560, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
(50) Brown, R. H., T. V. Johnson, R. L. Kirk, T. V. Johnson and L. A. Soderblom (1990). Energy sources for Triton's geyser-like plumes. Science 250, 431-434.
(51) Hillier, J., P. Helfenstein, A. Verbischer, J. Veverka, R. H. Brown, J. Goguen and T. V. Johnson (1990). Voyager disk-integrated photometry of Triton. Science 250, 419-420.
(52) Kirk, R. L., R. H. Brown and L. A. Soderblom (1990). Subsurface energy storage and transport for solar-powered geysers on Triton. Science 250, 424-428.
(53) Soderblom, L. A., S. W. Keiffer, T. L. Becker, R. H. Brown, A. F. Cook II, C. J. Hansen, T. V. Johnson, R. L. Kirk, and E. M. Shoemaker (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes: Discovery and basic characterization. Science 250, 410-414.
(54) Cruikshank, D. P., D. J. Tholen, W. K., J. F. Bell and R. H. Brown (1991). Three basaltic asteroids and the source of the Eucrites. Icarus 89, 1-13.
(55) Brown, R. H., T. V. Johnson, J. D. Goguen, G. Schubert and M. N. Ross (1991). Triton's global heat budget. Science 251, 1465-1467.
(56) Cruikshank, D. P., W. K. Hartmann, D. J. Tholen, L. J. Allamandola, R. H. Brown, and C. N. Matthews (1991). Solid C°N-bearing material on solar system bodies. Icarus 94, 345 353.
(57) Duxbury, N. S. and R. H. Brown (1993). The phase composition of Triton's polar caps. Science 261, 748-751.
(58) Cruikshank, D. P., T. E. Roush, T. Owen, T. Geballe, C. De Bergh, B. Schmitt, R. H. Brown and M. J. Bartholemew (1993). Ices on the surface of Triton. Science 261, 742-745.
(59) Gaffey, M. J., J. F. Bell, R. H. Brown, T. H. Burbine, J. Piatek, K. L. Reed, and D. A. Chakey (1993). Mineralogical variations within the S-type asteroid class. Icarus 103, 573-602.
(60) Tryka, K. A., R. H. Brown, and V. A. Anicich (1993). Spectroscopic determination of the phase composition and temperature of nitrogen ice on Triton. Science 261, 751-754.
(61) Cruikshank, D. P. and R. H. Brown (1993). Remote sensing of ices and ice-mineral mixtures in the outer solar system. In Remote Geochemical Analyses: Elemental and Mineralogical Composition (C. Pieters and P. Englert, Eds.).
(62) Owen, T. C., D. P. Cruikshank, T. L. Roush, J. Elliot, L. Young, C. deBergh, B. Schmitt, R. H. Brown, and K. Jones (1993). Pluto: Surface ices and atmospheric composition. Science 261, 745-748.
(63) Brown, R. H. and R. L. Kirk (1994). Coupling of internal heat and volatile transport on Triton. J.G.R. Planets 99, NO. E1, 1965-1981.
(64) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank, J. Eluszciewicz, J. Veverka and P. Helfenstein (1994). Surface composition and photometric properties of Triton. In Neptune and Triton (D. P. Cruikshank, Ed.), University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
(65) Yelle, R., J. I. Lunine, R. H. Brown and J. Pollack (1994). Atmospheric structure, composition and volatile transport on Triton. In Neptune and Triton (D. P. Cruikshank, Ed.), University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
(66) Soderblom, L. A., R. L. Kirk, R. H. Brown and S. W. Kieffer (1994). Triton's eruptive plumes: Discovery, characteristics and models. In Neptune and Triton (D. P. Cruikshank, Ed.), University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
(67) Tryka, K. A., R. H. Brown, D. P. Cruikshank, T. C. Owen, T. R. Geballe and C. DeBergh (1994). Temperature of Nitrogen ice on Pluto and its implications from flux measurements. Icarus 112, 513-527.
(68) Calvin, W. M., R. N. Clark, R. H. Brown and J. R. Spencer (1995). Spectra of the icy Galilean satellites from 0.2 to 5 µ: A compilation, new observations and a recent summary. J.G.R. Planets 100, 19041-19048.
(69) Tryka, K. A., R. H. Brown, and V. A. Anicich (1995). Near-Infrared absorption coefficients of solid nitrogen as a function of temperature. Icarus 116, 409-414.
(70) Beauchamp, P. M., Brown, R. H., Bruce, C. F., Chen, G.-S., Chrisp, M. P., Fraschetti, G. A., Krabach, T. N., Petrick, S. W., Rodgers, D. H., Rodriguez, J., Soll, S. L., Vaughan, A. H., Soderblom, L. A., Sandel, B. R., and Yelle, R. V. (1995). Pluto integrated camera spectrometer (PICS) instrument. Acta Astronautica 35, 99-108.
(71) Veverka, J., Adams, G. L., Binzel, R. P., Brown, R. H., Evans, L., Gaffey, M. J., Gavin, T., Klaasen, K., Miller, S. L., Squyers, C., Thomas, P. C., Trombka, J., & Yeomans, D. K. (1995). MASTER: a Discovery-class mission for the detailed study of large mainbelt asteroids. Acta Astronautica (UK) 35, Suppl. issue, 201-210.
(72) Cruikshank, D. P., T. L. Roush, J. Moore, M. Sykes, T. C. Owen, R. H. Brown, and K. A. Tryka (1997). The surfaces of Pluto and Charon. In Pluto and Charon, (D. J. Tholen and S. A. Stern, Eds.), University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
(73) Brown, R. H. and D. P. Cruikshank (1997). Determination of the composition and state of icy surfaces in the outer solar system. In Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences 25, 243-277.
(74) Duxbury, N. S. and R. H. Brown (1997). The role of an internal heat source for the eruptive plumes on Triton. Icarus 125, 83-93.
(75) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank, Y. Pendleton and G. J. Veeder (1997). Surface composition of Kuiper Belt object 1993 SC. Science 276, 937-939.
(76) Cruikshank, D. P., R. H. Brown, W. Calvin and T. L. Roush (1998). Ices on the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. In Solar System Ices (M. Festou and B. Schmitt, Eds.), p.p. 579-606.
(77) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank, Y. Pendleton and G. J. Veeder (1998). Identification of water ice on Centaur 1997 CU26. Science 280, 1430-1432.
(78) Trilling, D. and R. H. Brown (1998). Infrared Imaging of a Circumstellar Disk around 55 Cancri. Nature 395, 775-777.
(79) Duxbury, N. S., R. H. Brown, and V. Anicich (1998). Condensation of Nitrogen: Implications for Pluto and Triton. Icarus, in press.
(80) Cruikshank, D. P., T. L. Roush, M. J. Bartholomew, L. V. Moroz, T. R. Geballe, S. M. White, J. F. Bell III, Y. J. Pendleton, J. K. Davies, T. C. Owen, C. deBergh, D. J. Tholen, M. P. Bernstein, R. H. Brown, and K. A. Tryka (1998). The composition of planetesimal 5145 Pholus. Icarus 135, 389-407.
(81) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank, Y. Pendleton and G. J. Veeder (1999). Water ice on Nereid. Icarus 139, 374-378.
(82) Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank, and Y. Pendleton (1999). Identification of water ice on Kuiper Belt object 1996 TO66. Ap. J. Letters 519, L101-104.
(83) Leggett, S. J., D. W. Toomey, T. R. Geballe and R. H. Brown (1999). Refined flux measurements of Gliese 229B. Ap. J.Letters, 517 L139-142.
(84) Lunine, J. I., T. C. Owen and R. H. Brown (2000). The outer solar system: Chemical constraints at low temperatures on planet formation. In Protostars and Planets IV (V. Mannings, A. Boss and S. Russell, eds.), 1055-1080.
(85) Trilling, D. E., R. H. Brown, and A. S. Rivkin (2000). Circumstellar dust disks around stars with known planetary companions. Ap. J. Letters 529, 499-505.
(86) Girard, T. M., H. Wu, J. T. Lee, S. E. Dyson, W. F. van Altena, E. P. Horch, R. L. Gilliland, K. G. Schaefer, H. E. Bond, C. Ftaclas, R. H. Brown, D. W. Toomey, H. L. Shipman, J. L. Provencal, D. Poirbaix (2000). A redetermination of the mass of Procyon. Astron. J. 119, 2428-2436.
(87) Kern, S., D. McCarthy, M. W. Buie, R. H. Brown, H. Campins (2000). Compositional variation on the surface of Centaur 1995 GO. Ap. J. Lett., 542, L155-L159.
(88) Trilling, D. E., and R. H. Brown (2000). Red, grey, and blue: Near infrared spectrophotometry of faint moons of Uranus and Neptune. Icarus 148, 301-306 (note).
(89) Dumas, C., R. J. Terrile, R. H. Brown, G. Schneider and T. Owen (2000). HST/NICMOS spectroscopy of Charon's leading and trailing hemispheres. Astron. J. 121, 1163-1170.
(90) Baines, K. H., G. Bellucci, J.-P. Bibring, R. H. Brown, B. J. Burratti, E. Bussoletti. F. Capaccioni, P. Cerroni, R. N. Clark, A. Coradini, D. P. Cruikshank, P. Drossart, V. Formisano, R. Jaumann, Y. Langevin, D. L. Matson, T. B. McCord, V. Mennella, R. M. Nelson, P. D. Nicholson, B. Sicardy, C. Sotin, J. J. Aiello, S. Amici (2000). Detection of sub-micron radiation of Venus by Cassini VIMS. Icarus 148, 307-311.
(91) Trilling, D. E., D. W. Koerner, J. Barnes, C. Ftaclas, and R. H. Brown (2001). Near-infrared imaging of the circumstellar disk around TW Hydrae. Ap. J. Lett. 552, 151-154.
(92) Cruikshank, D. P., T. R Geballe, T. C. Owen, C. M. Dalle Ore, T. L. Roush, R. H. Brown, J. H. Lewis (2002). Search for the 3.4-µm C-H spectral bands on low-albedo asteroids. Icarus 156, 434-441.
(93) Rivkin, A. S., R. H. Brown, D. E. Trilling, J. Bell and J. Plassman (2002). Near-infrared spectrophotometry of Phobos and Deimos. Icarus 156, 64-75.
(94) Soderblom, L.A., T. L. Becker, G. Bennett, D. C. Boice, D. T. Britt, R. H. Brown, B. J. Buratti, C. Isbell, B. Giese, T. Hare, M. D. Hicks, E. Howington-Krause, R. L. Kirk, M. Lee, R. M. Nelson, J. Oberst, T. C. Owen, B. R. Sandel, S. A. Stern, N. Thomas, and R. V. Yelle (2002). Preliminary results from observations of comet 19P/Borrelly by the Miniature Integrated Camera Spectrometer aboard Deep Space 1. Science 296, 1087-1091.
(95) Boice, D. C., L. A. Soderblom, D. T. Britt, R. H. Brown, B. R. Sandel, R. V. Yelle, B. J. Buratti, M. D. Hicks, R. M. Nelson, M. D. Rayman, J. Oberst, N. Thomas (2002). The Deep Space 1 encounter with comet 19P/Borrelly. Earth, Moon and Planets 89, 301-324.
(96) Bellucci, G., R. H. Brown, V. Formisano, K. H. Baines, J.-P. Bibring, B. J. Buratti, F. Capaccioni, P. Cerroni, R. N. Clark, A. Coradini, D. P. Cruikshank, P. Drossart, V. Formisano, R. Jaumann, Y. Langevin, D. L. Matson, T. B. McCord, V. Mennella, R. M. Nelson, P. D. Nicholson, B. Sicardy, and C. Sotin (2002). Cassini/VIMS observations of the moon. Advances in Space Research 30(8), 1889-1894.
(97) Brown, R. H., K. A. Baines, G. Bellucci, J.-P. Bibring, B. J. Buratti, F. Capaccioni, P. Cerroni, R. N. Clark, A. Coradini, D. P. Cruikshank, P. Drossart, V. Formisano, R. Jaumann, Y. Langevin, D. L. Matson, T. B. McCord, V. Mennella, R. M. Nelson, P. D. Nicholson, B. Sicardy, C. Sotin, S. Amici, M. A. Chamberlain, G. Filacchioni, G. Hansen, K. Hibbitts, M. Showalter (2003). Observations with the Visual and Infared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) During the Cassini Flyby of Jupiter. Icarus 164, 461-470.
(98) A. S. Rivkin, J. K. Davies, J. R. Johnson, S. L. Ellison, D. E. Trilling, R. H. Brown, and L. A. Lebofsky (2003). Hydrogen concentrations on C-class asteroids derived from remote sensing. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 38, Nr. 9, 1383-1398.
(99) Emery, J. P. and R. H. Brown (2003). Constraints on the surface composition of Trojan asteroids from near-infrared (0.8-4.0 um) spectroscopy. Icarus 164, 104-121.
(100) Formisano, V., D'Aversa, E., Bellucci, G., Baines, K. H., Bibring, J. P., Brown, R. H., Buratti, B. J., Capaccioni, F., Cerroni, P., Clark, R. N., Coradini, A., Cruikshank, D. P., Drossart, P., Jaumann, R., Langevin, Y., Matson, D. L., McCord, T. B., Mennella, V., Nelson, R. M., Nicholson, P. D., Sicardy, B., Sotin, C., Chamberlain, M. C., Hansen, G., Hibbitts, K., Showalter, M., & Filacchione, G. (2003). Cassini-VIMS at Jupiter: solar occultation measurements using Io. Icarus 166, 75-84.
(101) L.A. Soderblom, D. C. Boice, D. T. Britt, R. H. Brown, B. J. Buratti, R. L. Fink, M. Lee, R. M. Nelson, J. Oberst, B. R. Sandel, S. A. Stern, N. Thomas, and R. V. Yelle (2004). Imaging Borrelly. Icarus 167, 4-15.
(102) L. A. Soderblom, R. H. Brown, B. J. Buratti, R. L. Kirk, T. C. Owen, and R. V. Yelle (2004). Short-wavelength infrared (1.3-2.6 um) observations of the Nucleus of 19P/Borrelly. Icarus 167, 100-112.
(103) B. Buratti, D. Britt, L. Soderblom, M. Hicks, D. Boice, R. Brown, J. Oberst, T. Owen, W. Sandel, S. A. Stern, N. Thomas, R. Yelle, A. Rivkin, R. Meier, R. Nelson (2004). 9969 Braille: Deep Space 1 infrared observations and classification. Icarus 167, 129-135.
(104) T. B. McCord, A. Coradini, C. A. Hibbitts, F. Capaccioni, G. R . Hansen, G. Fillacchione, R. N. Clark, P. Cerroni, R. H. Brown, K. H. Baines, G. Bellucci, J.-P. Bibring, B. J. Buratti, E. Bussoletti, M. Combes, D. P. Cruikshank, P. Drossart, V. Formisano, R. Jaumann, Y. Langevin, D. L. Matson, R. M. Nelson, P. D. Nicholson, B. Sicardy and C. Sotin (2004). Cassini VIMS observations of the Galilean satellites including the VIMS callibration procedure. Icarus 172, 104-126.
(105) M. A. Chamberlain and R. H. Brown (2004). Near-infrared spectroscopy of Himalia. Icarus 172, 163-169.
(106) Bellucci, G., E. D. Aversa, V. Formisano, D. Cruikshank, R. M. Nelson, R. N. Clark, K. H. Baines, D. Matson, R. H. Brown, T. B. McCord, B. J. Buratti, P. D. Nicholson (2004). Cassini/VIMS observation of a post-eclipse brightening event. Icarus 172, 141-148.
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(228) Filacchione, G., D'Aversa, E., Capaccioni, F., Clark, R. N., Cruikshank, D. P., Ciarniello, M., Cerroni, P., Bellucci, G., Brown, R. H., Buratti, B. J., Nicholson, P. D., Jaumann, R., McCord, T. B., Sotin, C., Stephan, K., Dalle Ore, C. M. (2016). Saturn's icy satellites investigated by Cassini-VIMS. IV. Daytime temperature maps. Icarus 271, 292-313.
(229) Stephan, K.; Wagner, R.; Jaumann, R.; Clark, R. N.; Cruikshank, D. P.; Brown, R. H.; Giese, B.; Roatsch, T.; Filacchione, G.; Matson, D.; Ore, C. D.; Capaccioni, F.; Baines, K. H.; Rodriguez, S.; Krupp, N.; Buratti, B. J.; Nicholson, P. D. (2016). Cassini's geological and compositional view of Tethys. Icarus 274, 1-22.
Matsoukas, C., Schoenfeld, A. (2018) The Spectral Nature of Titan's Major Geomorphological Units: Constraints on Surface Composition. JGR 123 (2), 489-507.
(231) Buratti, B. J., Hansen, C. J., Hendrix, A. R., Esposito, L. W., Mosher, J. A., Brown, R. H., Clark, R. N., Baines, K. H., Nicholson, P. D. (2018). The Search for Activity on Dione and Tethys With Cassini VIMS and UVIS. GRL 45 (12), 5860-5866.
(232) Baines, K. H., Sromovsky, L. A., Fry, P. M., Momary, T. W., Brown, R. H., Buratti, B. J., Clark, R. N., Nicholson, P. D., Sotin, C. (2018). The Eye of Saturn's North Polar Vortex: Unexpected Cloud Structures Observed at High Spatial Resolution by Cassini/VIMS. GRL 45 (12), 5867-5875.
(233) Le Mouélic, S., Rodriguez, S., Robidel, R., Rousseau, B., Seignovert, B., Sotin, C., Barnes, J. W., Brown, R. H., Baines, K. H., Buratti, B. J., Clark, R. N., Nicholson, P. D., Rannou, P., Cornet, T. (2018). Mapping polar atmospheric features on Titan with VIMS: From the dissipation of the northern cloud to the onset of a southern polar vortex. Icarus 311, 371-383.
V., Soderblom, J. M. (2019). The Cassini VIMS archive of Titan: From browse products to global infrared color maps. Icarus 319, 121-132.

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Art.2.2.d (d) The institutions of any regional economic integration organization referred to in article 17 which is a Party to this Convention.
Art.2.5 5. "The public concerned" means the public affected or likely to be affected by, or having an interest in, the environmental decision-making; for the purposes of this definition, non-governmental organizations promoting environmental protection and meeting any requirements under national law shall be deemed to have an interest.
Art.3.1 1. Each Party shall take the necessary legislative, regulatory and other measures, including measures to achieve compatibility between the provisions implementing the information, public participation and access-to-justice provisions in this Convention, as well as proper enforcement measures, to establish and maintain a clear, transparent and consistent framework to implement the provisions of this Convention.
Art.3.4 4. Each Party shall provide for appropriate recognition of and support to associations, organizations or groups promoting environmental protection and ensure that its national legal system is consistent with this obligation.
Art.3.7 7. Each Party shall promote the application of the principles of this Convention in international environmental decision-making processes and within the framework of international organizations in matters relating to the environment.
Art.4.1.b.ii (ii) The information is already publicly available in another form.
Art.4.3.c (c) The request concerns material in the course of completion or concerns internal communications of public authorities where such an exemption is provided for in national law or customary practice, taking into account the public interest served by disclosure.
Art.4.4.h (h) The environment to which the information relates, such as the breeding sites of rare species.
Art.4.4.ix The aforementioned grounds for refusal shall be interpreted in a restrictive way, taking into account the public interest served by disclosure and taking into account whether the information requested relates to emissions into the environment.
Art.4.7 7. A refusal of a request shall be in writing if the request was in writing or the applicant so requests. A refusal shall state the reasons for the refusal and give information on access to the review procedure provided for in accordance with article 9. The refusal shall be made as soon as possible and at the latest within one month, unless the complexity of the information justifies an extension of this period up to two months after the request. The applicant shall be informed of any extension and of the reasons justifying it.
Art.4.8 8. Each Party may allow its public authorities to make a charge for supplying information, but such charge shall not exceed a reasonable amount. Public authorities intending to make such a charge for supplying information shall make available to applicants a schedule of charges which may be levied, indicating the circumstances in which they may be levied or waived and when the supply of information is conditional on the advance payment of such a charge.
Art.5.2.c (c) Providing access to the environmental information contained in lists, registers or files as referred to in subparagraph (b) (i) above free of charge.
Art.5.3.d (d) Other information, to the extent that the availability of such information in this form would facilitate the application of national law implementing this Convention, provided that such information is already available in electronic form.
Art.5.5.c (c) Other significant international documents on environmental issues, as appropriate.
Art.5.9 9. Each Party shall take steps to establish progressively, taking into account international processes where appropriate, a coherent, nationwide system of pollution inventories or registers on a structured, computerized and publicly accessible database compiled through standardized reporting. Such a system may include inputs, releases and transfers of a specified range of substances and products, including water, energy and resource use, from a specified range of activities to environmental media and to on-site and off-site treatment and disposal sites.
Art.6.1.c (c) May decide, on a case-by-case basis if so provided under national law, not to apply the provisions of this article to proposed activities serving national defence purposes, if that Party deems that such application would have an adverse effect on these purposes.
Art.6.2.e (e) The fact that the activity is subject to a national or transboundary environmental impact assessment procedure.
Art.6.4 4. Each Party shall provide for early public participation, when all options are open and effective public participation can take place.
Art.6.6.f (f) In accordance with national legislation, the main reports and advice issued to the public authority at the time when the public concerned shall be informed in accordance with paragraph 2 above.
Art.6.11 11. Each Party shall, within the framework of its national law, apply, to the extent feasible and appropriate, provisions of this article to decisions on whether to permit the deliberate release of genetically modified organisms into the environment.
Art.8.2x The result of the public participation shall be taken into account as far as possible.
Art.9.1.ax In the circumstances where a Party provides for such a review by a court of law, it shall ensure that such a person also has access to an expeditious procedure established by law that is free of charge or inexpensive for reconsideration by a public authority or review by an independent and impartial body other than a court of law.
Art.9.1.bx Final decisions under this paragraph 1 shall be binding on the public authority holding the information. Reasons shall be stated in writing, at least where access to information is refused under this paragraph.
Art.9.2.b (b) Maintaining impairment of a right, where the administrative procedural law of a Party requires this as a precondition, have access to a review procedure before a court of law and/ or another independent and impartial body established by law, to challenge the substantive and procedural legality of any decision, act or omission subject to the provisions of article 6 and, where so provided for under national law and without prejudice to paragraph 3 below, of other relevant provisions of this Convention.
Art.9.2.b.iix The provisions of this paragraph 2 shall not exclude the possibility of a preliminary review procedure before an administrative authority and shall not affect the requirement of exhaustion of administrative review procedures prior to recourse to judicial review procedures, where such a requirement exists under national law.
Art.9.3 3. In addition and without prejudice to the review procedures referred to in paragraphs 1 and 2 above, each Party shall ensure that, where they meet the criteria, if any, laid down in its national law, members of the public have access to administrative or judicial procedures to challenge acts and omissions by private persons and public authorities which contravene provisions of its national law relating to the environment.
Art.9.4 4. In addition and without prejudice to paragraph 1 above, the procedures referred to in paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 above shall provide adequate and effective remedies, including injunctive relief as appropriate, and be fair, equitable, timely and not prohibitively expensive. Decisions under this article shall be given or recorded in writing. Decisions of courts, and whenever possible of other bodies, shall be publicly accessible.
Art.11.2 2. Regional economic integration organizations, in matters within their competence, shall exercise their right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of their member States which are Parties to this Convention. Such organizations shall not exercise their right to vote if their member States exercise theirs, and vice versa.
Art.19.2 2. This Convention shall be open for accession as from 22 December 1998 by the States and regional economic integration organizations referred to in article 17.
Art.20.2 2. For the purposes of paragraph 1 above, any instrument deposited by a regional economic integration organization shall not be counted as additional to those deposited by States members of such an organization.
Art.20.3 3. For each State or organization referred to in article 17 which ratifies, accepts or approves this Convention or accedes thereto after the deposit of the sixteenth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit by such State or organization of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.


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Homeless persons advisers are rightly aghast at the Supreme Court decision in R (o/a ZH & CN) v. Newham LBC & Lewisham LBC  UKSC 62, upholding the Court of Appeal in that case and the earlier cases of Mohamed v Manek and Kensington and Chelsea LBC (1995) 27 H.L.R. 439, CA, Desnousse v Newham London Borough Council  EWCA Civ 547;  QB 831;  H.L.R. 38: I appeared for the appellants and I certainly am! The delay in commenting on it reflects the need for my blood temperature to reduce from boiling point to a mere simmer!
(e) use of the accommodation was nonetheless as a dwelling for the purposes of the housing benefit legislation (s.130, Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992).
“it is difficult to see a distinction between the two: [they] used these premises for the purpose for which they were licensed to occupy them” (at ).
“Many (indeed one suspects the great majority) of those provided with temporary accommodation under Part 7 of the 1996 Act are in receipt of housing benefit. The whole system of funding local authorities’ duties under the 1996 Act would fall apart if housing benefit were not available to those who cannot afford to pay for the (often expensive) temporary accommodation arranged for them. Section 130 of the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 provides that a person is entitled to housing benefit if he is ‘liable to make payments in respect of a dwelling…which he occupies as his home’. If the temporary and transient nature of his occupation is not sufficient to prevent the dwelling being his home for this purpose, I find it very difficult indeed to see how that same temporary and transient nature is sufficient to prevent the licence under which he is permitted to occupy the dwelling also being for the purpose of his occupying it as his home, that is, dwelling or residing or living rather than merely staying there” (at ).
“do not represent a substantial incursion into the property rights of the owners of premises, and they reflect a policy that people who have been lawfully living in premises should not be summarily evicted or locked out. Because of the nature of the rights accorded by these provisions and their aim of protecting people against the inconvenience and humiliation of being deprived of their homes summarily, one would expect the two sections to have a wide, rather than a narrow, meaning, a conclusion supported by the passages which I have referred to in the opinions in Uratemp” (at ).
“I accept that, when considering the proper interpretation of a statute, a court can, and where appropriate should, take into account policy considerations, and I sympathise with the view that policy considerations favour dismissing these appeals… However, judges have to be very careful before adopting an interpretation of a statute based on policy considerations, and should only to do so where those considerations point clearly in one direction. In this case, it seems to me to be particularly difficult to justify dismissing the appeal on policy grounds, given that (i) it involves departing from the natural meaning of the relevant statutory words, (ii) the policy argument is not overwhelming, (iii) there are policy considerations pointing the other way, and (iv) Parliament has apparently considered the policy – in section 3A” (at ).
Lady Hale rejected the authorities’ argument based on earlier case-law.
“Counsel… have put in considerable work in order to persuade us that the words must be read in the light of the construction given to similar (but not identical) wording in other provisions in the Rent Acts. For the reasons given by Lord Neuberger, which I need not repeat, I do not find any of that work persuasive, let alone convincing. I share his view that ‘dwelling’ is at least as wide as ‘residing’.” ().
“The answer to the practical problems is a properly tailored legislative exception, as has already been provided for some other situations in section 3A of the 1977 Act” (at ).
The irony is that the decision will probably cost authorities more – possibly much more – than they will save. As well as contending that the arrangements fell within s.3, 1977 Act, there was a subordinate argument, that – under Art.8 – any eviction from a home by a public authority must be by way of court order, relying not so much on the recent case-law (though that too) as on the origins of the Convention itself: would Strasbourg really uphold the notion that public authorities could simply come along with no judicial oversight and throw people into the street?
“…the decisions of this court in 2011, in Manchester City Council v Pinnock  UKSC 45;  2 A.C. 104;  H.L.R. 7 and Hounslow London Borough Council v Powell  UKSC 8;  2 A.C. 186;  H.L.R. 23 extended the powers of the county court when hearing applications by a local authority to recover possession of a property in order to comply with article 8 of ECHR. It appears to me that it is necessary for the same reason to interpret section 204 of the 1996 Act as empowering that court to assess the issue of proportionality of a proposed eviction following an adverse section 184 decision (if the issue is raised) and resolve any relevant dispute of fact in a section 204 appeal. As there is no other domestic provision involving the court in the repossession of the accommodation after an adverse decision, the section 204 appeal, which reviews the authority’s decision on eligibility for assistance, is the obvious place for the occupier of the temporary accommodation to raise the issue of the proportionality of the withdrawal of the accommodation. …” (at ).
This was not what the authorities (or Secretary of State) – let alone the appellants – has submitted, so there was no argument about it, nor citation of previous cases such as Ali v. Birmingham CC  UKSC 8;  2 A.C. 39;  H.L.R. 22 and Bubb v. Wandsworth LBC  EWCA Civ 1285;  H.L.R. 13 as to the limits of a s.204 appeal.
The implications of this are considerable. While the s.204 appeal is limited in its scope, if the occupier wants to challenge the proportionality of the eviction (even on the basis, e.g. that the conduct which led to an intentionality decision did not happen, or that the facts germane to a finding that s/he is not vulnerable, or that an offer was unreasonably refused), the court will have to conduct a fact-finding exercise which means longer hearings, adjournments for public funding and much greater cost.
The decision means that private landlords, their agents and employees, can peremptorily evict some of the most vulnerable members of society from their homes, even if only temporary homes (but temporary here may well have meant months); the practice has not hitherto been widespread, but is bound to become so; it is arrived at by an analysis of case-law, wholly undermined by the dissenting judgment of Lord Neuberger (who is, after all, the most authoritative spokesperson on landlord-tenant, having been one of its leading practitioners throughout his career); the absurdity of holding that the accommodation was not intended to be occupied as a dwelling for one purpose while actually being occupied (as intended) for another is the sort of distinction that brings the law into disrepute; and, its root in a free-standing approach to policy rather than the legislation itself is a dangerous precedent.
It is also, and perhaps above all, a mean decision: let’s save a few more pounds at who knows (or cares) what cost of indignity and suffering to what may be the most vulnerable members of society of all – those whom the authorities refuse to assist into the basic amenity of a place to live.
Andrew Arden QC and Clare Cullen consider gatekeeping and the recent Crisis “mystery shopper” report.
Gatekeeping remains prevalent amongst many local authorities finds the Crisis report, Turned Away, The treatment of single homeless people by local authority homeless services in England, October 2014. It is unsurprising; anecdotally, reports of local authorities sending homeless applicants away without taking an application or providing interim accommodation are commonplace. Nevertheless, the report is still depressing to read.
Local authorities are under a duty to make inquiries where they have “reason to believe” that a person “may be” homeless or threatened with homelessness (ss.183(1) and 184(1), Housing Act 1996) and to provide interim accommodation where they have “reason to believe” that a person “may be” homeless, eligible for assistance and in priority need (s.188(1), 1996 Act). For both these duties, it is universally accepted that the threshold is designedly low.
A 19-year old who claimed to have been forced to leave the parental home because of overcrowding.
In all, there were 87 visits spread across the different authorities. In each case, the process was found to be confusing and participants often left without knowing whether or not a homeless application had in fact been made! The report says that one participant described the process as “Kafkaesque”. Only on eight out of 87 visits was there any mention of the opportunity to make a homeless application.
Gatekeeping was a particular problem in London: in 29 visits, participants were not assessed at all, and the process taken no further, either on the ground that they were not in priority need or that they had provided insufficient proof of identity or other paperwork. The first of these is entirely unsound: by s.183, Part 7 applies whenever an applicant applies whom the authority have reason to believe is homeless – priority need is not a pre-condition; not only is the applicant who is not in priority need entitled to appropriate advice and assistance – preceded by an assessment (see 1.192(4)) with information about the likelihood of accommodation being available in the area appropriate to the applicant’s assessed needs (with details about location and sources of accommodation) – see s.192(5)) but there is also a power to house notwithstanding the absence of priority need (se.192(3)) which, as a matter of law, the authority must consider exercising (even if most will rarely decide to do so)..
In only 37 out of the 87 national visits was assistance actually provided: in 27 visits, temporary accommodation was offered pending inquiries; in 20 visits, a priority need was accepted; and in 10 visits, assistance was afforded to help the participant to return to a previous address until temporary accommodation could be offered. In the majority of visits, however, participants received limited or no support.
It follows that in a majority of cases there was an unlawful failure properly to apply the1996 Act.
Gatekeeping is not new (see, for example, Audit Commission, Homelessness: Responding to the new agenda, 2003) and it has occasionally come to the attention of the courts.
As these cases demonstrate, when the issue of gatekeeping comes before the courts, judges are not supportive of local authorities. There will, however, be many cases of gatekeeping which never reach the courts: more often than not, it can be assumed that applicants won’t have access to legal advice or know their rights, and gatekeeping practices can take place without any repercussions for the local authority. If a challenge is issued or threatened in respect of gatekeeping, an application is usually then accepted or interim accommodation provided by the local authority so that the claim becomes academic and is no longer pursued.
As highlighted in Crisis’ report, in England, there is no compulsory and audited quality framework or inspection of housing options and homelessness services. This is in contrast to Scotland where the Scottish Regulator has responsibility for undertaking inspections of homelessness services. Whilst in April 2013, the Government introduced a new Gold Standard for homelessness support initiatives and, in 2011, the Local Government Ombudsman was critical of local authority gatekeeping practices, offering guidance in Homelessness: How councils can ensure justice for homeless people, Focus Report: learning lessons from complaint, these measures appear to have done little to address gatekeeping practices.
It is perhaps only fair to acknowledge that the prevalence of gatekeeping is likely to be part of the much wider problem of lack of resources both in terms of staffing and available properties. If properties are not available or front line officers are inadequately trained or understaffed, gatekeeping will inevitably continue to take place. Whilst these underlying issues need to be addressed (see May 15 – the Home Stretch<https://laghousinglaw.com/2014/10/14/may-2015-the-home-stretch/>), there can be no excuse for these practices: however they want to dress it up, they comprise the refusal by authorities to do the job that Parliament has imposed on them – put like that, it is not merely a question of illegality but one of failing to recognise their own raison d’être: they are there to provide the services Parliament deems to be needed, for the people Parliament identifies, not for those they choose.
There may be an argument for greater regulation – as in Scotland and as recommended in the report – but it is, for those who admire local government – a very great shame if regulation is needed for authorities to be compelled to perform their functions (as opposed to how they perform them): no more than authorities themselves should homelessness officers have any part of it.

matches: v. UKSC EWCA Art.8 UKSC UKSC v. UKSC v. EWCA


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One of the outcomes that the UK Government has repeatedly insisted needs to be a consequence of the Brexit negotiations is that they will bring an end to the jurisdiction of the CJEU in the UK (the CJEU Red Line). That has led most to conclude that the UK’s exit from the ECAA is inevitable. The ECAA comprises a single market in aviation services across the EU and the “ECAA Partners” (Norway, Iceland, Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo). The ECAA is given effect to by a Multilateral Agreement signed by the EU on 9 June 2006 (the Multilateral Agreement). The Multilateral Agreement provides for certain disputes to be resolved by the CJEU and so the UK remaining a party to it as an additional ECAA Partner would superficially seem to be incompatible with the CJEU Red Line.
However, the publication by the UK Government of its future partnership paper on post-Brexit options for enforcement and dispute resolution for UK-EU agreements, with the dilution of the CJEU Red Line to refer to the CJEU’s “direct” jurisdiction, has opened the door for a possible solution to this apparent impasse. For a more detailed discussion of that partnership paper please see our post here. It sets out various dispute resolution models which the EU has used in treaties with third party states and which could be said to give the CJEU indirect jurisdiction. One of those models arises in treaties which make provision for voluntary references to be made to the CJEU. Examples cited are the EEA Agreement and the EU Moldova Association Agreement. The latter provides for the establishment of an arbitration panel which can refer certain disputes to the CJEU. The key is that this model does not involve one party being able to refer a dispute, unilaterally, to the CJEU.
If the UK were to accept that the Moldova model creates jurisdiction of the CJEU over the UK which is sufficiently indirect not to cross the CJEU Red Line, it may be that it would accept remaining in the ECAA as an “ECAA Partner”.
by the parties to a dispute if they have submitted that dispute to the Joint Committee which has failed to make a decision within four months (Article 20.3 – but, importantly, one party on its own may not make a reference to the CJEU).
In neither of these cases can the UK be forced to accept the jurisdiction of the CJEU against its will.
The EU would need to agree to admit the UK as an ECAA Partner. That agreement would probably need to be reached in the context of the overall post-Brexit agreement between the EU and the UK to avoid concerns that the UK was being allowed to cherry pick by the back door.

matches: CJEU CJEU CJEU CJEU CJEU CJEU CJEU CJEU CJEU


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The assignee of a judgment founded on a contract suing in a circuit or district court of the United States, on the ground of citizenship, to recover on the judgment, cannot maintain the action unless it appears affirmatively in the record that both the plaintiff and his assignor were not citizens of the same state with the defendant.
The fact that a suit is brought to recover the amount of a judgment of a court of the United States does not of itself make it a suit arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States.
Where the original jurisdiction of a circuit court of the United States is invoked upon the sole ground that the determination of the suit depends upon some question of a federal nature, it must appear at the outset, in order to give the court jurisdiction, that the suit is one of which the court, at the time its jurisdiction is invoked, can properly take cognizance.
court over the present suit was suggested at the bar, the case was argued entirely with reference to the construction and effect of the statute of Wisconsin, prescribing, in respect to causes of action accruing before November 1, 1878, ten years as the period within which must be commenced "an action upon a judgment or decree of any court of record of any state or territory within the United States, or of any court of the United States," while twenty years was fixed by the same statute for the commencement of "an action upon a judgment or decree of any court of record of this [that] state." The court below held the suit to be barred by the limitation of ten years. Rev.Stat. Wisconsin, 1858, c. 138, §§ 1, 14, 15, 16; ib., 1878, c. 177, §§ 4206, 4219, 4220, 4221. We are not, however at liberty to express any opinion upon the question of limitation if the court whose judgment has been brought here for review does not appear from the record to have had jurisdiction of the case, and whether that court had or had not jurisdiction is a question which we must examine and determine even if the parties forbear to make it or consent that the case be considered upon its merits. Mansfield &c. Railway Co. v. Swan, 111 U. S. 379, 111 U. S. 382; King Bridge Co. v. Otoe County, 120 U. S. 225; Blacklock v. Small, 127 U. S. 96, 127 U. S. 105; Cameron v. Hodges, 127 U. S. 322, 127 U. S. 326.
made. This view is fatal to the jurisdiction of that court so far as its jurisdiction depends upon the above provision of the statute, because it now here appears in the record of what state the plaintiff's assignors were citizens when this action was commenced. Indeed, it is consistent with the record that they were at that time citizens of the same state with the defendant. Walker v. Powers, 104 U. S. 245, 104 U. S. 248; Continental Ins. Co. v. Rhoads, 119 U. S. 237, 119 U. S. 239; Peper v. Fordyce, 119 U. S. 469, 119 U. S. 471; Everhart v. Huntsville College, 120 U. S. 223; Menard v Goggan, 121 U. S. 253, and the cases before cited.
Nor can the jurisdiction of the circuit court be maintained upon the theory that this suit is one arising under the Constitution or laws of the United States. The fact that it was brought to recover the amount of a judgment of a court of the United States does not of itself make it a suit of that character, for the plaintiff, without raising by his complaint any distinct question of a federal nature and without indicating by proper averment how the determination of any question of that character is involved in the case, seeks to enforce an ordinary right of property by suing upon the judgment merely as a security of record showing a debt due from the City of Watertown. Provident Savings Society v. Ford, 114 U. S. 635, 114 U. S. 641. The plaintiff, it is true, contends that the limitation of ten years could not, consistently with the Constitution of the United States, be applied to an action upon a judgment or decree of a court of the United States when a longer period was given within which to sue upon a judgment or decree of a court of record established by the laws of Wisconsin. And if the plaintiff properly invoked the original jurisdiction of the circuit court of the United States in respect to the cause of action set out in his complaint, the question of limitation, under one construction of the local statute, would be decisive of the case. But is the present suit therefore one arising under the Constitution or the laws of the United States within the meaning of the act of 1875? We think not.
that the record did not show jurisdiction in the circuit court.
It results that from any view of the case as presented by the record, it is one in respect to which the plaintiff could not, under the act of 1875, invoke the original jurisdiction of the circuit court. The judgment must therefore be reversed, and the cause remanded with directions for such further proceedings as may be consistent with law, the plaintiff in error to pay the costs in this Court. It will be for the court below to determine whether the pleadings can be so amended as to present a case within its jurisdiction. King Bridge Co. v. Otoe County, 120 U. S. 225, 120 U. S. 227; Menard v. Goggan, 121 U. S. 253.

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