Masaccio: Foreclosure Fraud Isn’t Mere Paperwork By masaccio, first posted at FireDogLake. Yves here. Note that masaccio uses “indorsed” when laypeople would use “endorsed”. For some weird reason, in bankruptcy matters, the term of art is “indorse”. To masaccio’s post: The administration and the banks want you to believe that there is nothing more to foreclosure fraud than just mere paperwork. I point out here that the false affidavits and rocket dockets can rob people of their legal rights. But that was just the first grade primer. When home mortgages are securitized, a whole new level of legal rights and duties are set up that go far beyond the minimal requirements of the Uniform Commercial Code. The interaction of these rights and duties make it difficult to determine who is entitled to enforce securitized mortgage notes. I am grateful to Yves Smith for introducing me to this set of issues. Introduction We will be looking at a specific securitization, that of GSAMP Trust 2007-NC1, which we will call the Trust. The letters stand for Goldman Sachs Alternative Mortgage Product, and New Century, the giant mortgage originator that collapsed into bankruptcy with an array of fraud claims. The Trust is governed by a Pooling and Servicing Agreement, the PSA, which is here. There are seven parties to the PSA, and the rights and duties of each are described in excruciating detail. The basic idea of the PSA is that New Century will transfer a specific group of promissory notes secured by residential mortgages to the Trust. The Trust is a special purpose vehicle created for the limited purpose of holding the mortgage loans. It sells debt securities, bonds, to investors. The bonds will be paid solely from the payments made on the mortgage loans. The PSA describes the bonds and how the Trust is to pay out the money it receives. This is the slicing and dicing part of the creation of real estate backed mortgage securities. First let’s look at some of the critical legal and practical requirements for the Trust. Then we will look at the ramifications of what the banks say is just problem paperwork that needs a few tweaks. REMIC The Trust will receive income from the interest on the promissory notes, and possibly other income. It is crucial to investors that the Trust is not liable for federal or state income taxes. Internal Revenue Code § 860A creates special rules for Real Estate Mortgage Investment Conduit, or REMIC. If the Trust qualifies, it will not be taxed on its income. The PSA contains provisions that, if complied with, should enable the Trust to qualify as a REMIC. That makes compliance with the REMIC requirements essential for the Trust. . . . Accounting Rules The FDIC has rules on accounting for banks, and specifically for the calculation of their net capital. It is crucial to a bank that it sell all of its interest in the mortgage loans with no possibility that the Trust could make it buy them back. If it doesn’t, it will have to show a liability for the possibility that it might have to buy back the mortgage loans. General accounting rules also require a complete disposition to count as a sale. The PSA contains provisions which attempt to insure that New Century is selling with no possibility that it will have to buy back the mortgage loans. See, for example, § 12.04. Bankruptcy Remoteness All parties want to insure that if one of them or the Trust files bankruptcy, it won’t affect any of the other parties. This is called bankruptcy remoteness. The PSA contains provisions that should insure bankruptcy remoteness. New York Trust Law The PSA says that the parties choose to be governed by the laws of the State of New York. § 12.03. New York law governing the operation of trusts and the actions of trustees applies to the PSA. That law is detailed, and well-developed through case law. Speaking very generally, a trustee has only the authority granted by the instruments creating the trust. In our case, the Trustee is LaSalle Bank, which is now owned by Bank of America. LaSalle Bank has no discretion to disregard the provisions of the PSA, and is not allowed to act contrary to the PSA. The duties of the Trustee are enumerated in § 8.01, along with exculpatory provisions. The main provision is in subsection (a): (a) the duties and obligations of the Trustee shall be determined solely by the express provisions of this Agreement, the Trustee shall not be liable except for the performance of the duties and obligations specifically set forth in this Agreement, no implied covenants or obligations shall be read into this Agreement against the Trustee, …. PSA Requirements for Delivery of Mortgage Loans The PSA is quite specific about the mortgage loans that go into the Trust. § 2.01 goes into great detail about the documents that must be delivered and the form they must take. Here is an example from §2.01(b)(i), which requires delivery of: (i) the original Mortgage Note (except for up to 1.00% of the Mortgage Notes for which there is a lost note affidavit and a copy of the Mortgage Note) bearing all intervening endorsements, endorsed “Pay to the order of _________, without recourse” and signed in the name of the last endorsee. To the extent that there is no room on the face of the Mortgage Notes for endorsements, the endorsement may be contained on an allonge unless the Trustee (and Custodian) is advised by the Responsible Party that state law does not so allow. If the Mortgage Loan was acquired by the Responsible Party in a merger, the endorsement must be by “[last endorsee], successor by merger to [name of predecessor]“. If the Mortgage Loan was acquired or originated by the last endorsee while doing business under another name, the endorsement must be by “[last endorsee], formerly known as [previous name]“;…. § 2.01 explains in similar detail the other documents, including the mortgage itself, which must be delivered, and the forms they must have. These complex provisions are crucial deal points. They are all necessary to achieve REMIC status, bankruptcy remoteness, and outright sale. They are not discretionary with the Trustee. Who Can Enforce The Note? If the Trustee has possession (through a custodian) of a promissory note that meets all of the requirements of § 2.01, then the Trustee is the holder and is entitled to enforce the note and to foreclose on the mortgage. What about a note that is not properly indorsed? The transfer of a promissory note is governed by UCC § 3-203: (a) An instrument is transferred when it is delivered by a person other than its issuer for the purpose of giving to the person receiving delivery the right to enforce the instrument. In the case of an improperly indorsed note, there was no transfer, because the PSA does not allow the Trustee to accept delivery of a promissory note that does not meet its requirements. If the note has not been effectively transferred, the Trustee has no rights in it, and cannot enforce it. Whether or not this comports with the UCC is irrelevant, because the UCC permits parties to contract for more restrictive terms than those in the UCC itself. UCC § 1-302. The PSA contains more restrictive terms regarding indorsement and delivery than those of the UCC, and terms of the PSA are enforceable. It isn’t clear that this can be fixed by getting the missing indorsements, because the time specified for the closing of the transfers has long since passed. A further problem arises when the originator of the mortgage is out of business. This is an opportunity for the homeowner, certainly. It also matters to the investor. If the note has not been properly transferred, the Trust might lose its status as a REMIC. It matters to New Century (or it would if New Century was still around) because it might create a liability to take back the mortgage loan. It matters to the IRS, which has to figure out whether the Trust owes taxes. It also matters to the Trustee of the Trust, which may have violated the PSA. Who can enforce an improperly indorsed note? Good question. This will clog up courts for a long time. Conclusion The Administration and the banks and all the other players in the securitization game want us to look ahead, and not back at this disaster. Investors and homeowners should adjust their rear view mirrors and take a careful look at every single document.


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Monday, January 19, 1835.Vandalia, IL.
Lincoln votes against amendment to female academy incorporation bill which would bind property of trustees on payment of contracts. He then votes with majority to pass act.House Journal.
Tuesday, January 19, 1836-Wednesday, January 20, 1836.
Tuesday, January 19, 1836-Wednesday, January 20, 1836.En route to New Salem, IL.
Saturday, January 19, 1839.Vandalia, IL.
Tuesday, January 19, 1841.Springfield, IL.
Lincoln attends legislature for at least part of day, but he "is reduced and emaciated in appearance and seems scarcely to possess strength enough to speak above a whisper. His case at present is truly deplorable but what prospect there may be for ultimate relief I cannot pretend to say." Carl Sandburg and Paul M. Angle, Mary Lincoln, 179.
Friday, January 19, 1844.Springfield, IL.
Argument begun yesterday in England v. Clark is continued by Edwards and Bledsoe for defendant and concluded by Lincoln for plaintiff. (On February 8, 1844, judgment of lower court is affirmed.)Record; 5 Ill. 486.
Monday, January 19, 1846.Springfield, IL.
Lincoln writes Hardin refusing to accept Hardin's new plan for selecting Whig candidate for Congress, and gives his reasons. "I am entirely satisfied with the old system." He promises to "keep cool." On Lincoln's motion, Supreme Court reinstates Curyea et al. v. Hayward.Abraham Lincoln to John J. Hardin, 19 January 1846, CW, 1:356-58; Record.
Wednesday, January 19, 1848.Washington, DC.
From Committee on Post Office and Post Roads Lincoln reports bill for relief of William Fuller and Orlando Saltmarsh.Globe; Report in United States House of Representatives Concerning Petition of William Fuller and Orlando Saltmarsh, 19 January 1848, CW, 1:442-44.
He writes to Herndon regarding case in Christian County, and to J. R. Diller, postmaster at Springfield, promising that he will do what he can to have his allowance for clerk hire and other expenses increased.Abraham Lincoln to William H. Herndon, 19 January 1848, CW, 1:445; Abraham Lincoln to Jonathan R. Diller, 19 January 1848, CW, 1:444-45.
Friday, January 19, 1849.Washington, DC.
Lincoln votes against reconsideration of bill granting compensation for slave sent west with Indians. He votes against passage, but it passes 101-95. Globe.
To J. B. Herrick, who has recommended William M. Black for register of Land Office at Vandalia, Lincoln writes: "I shall, when the time comes, try to do right, in view of all the lights then before me." Abraham Lincoln to Josiah B. Herrick, 19 January 1849, CW, 2:23-24.
Saturday, January 19, 1850.Springfield, IL.
Supreme Court hands down opinions. In Adams et al. v. Logan County, Illinois, decision of Circuit Court is upheld, declaring conveyance of land to county in consideration of location of county seat does not deprive legislature of right of removal. In Austin v. People for use of Burr et al. judgment of Circuit Court is reversed and case is remanded. Webster & Huntington v. French et al. is also reversed and remanded. Record; 11 Ill., 254, 336, 452.
Monday, January 19, 1852.Springfield, IL.
Lincoln wins his appeal in Dorman et ux. v. Yost when Supreme Court reverses decision of Circuit Court. Record; 13 Ill. 127-31.
Orville H. Browning of Quincy delivers lecture on "The Dignity of Labor" at Third Presbyterian Church. "After the lecture," he records in his Diary, "went to Mr. Lincoln's to supper."
Wednesday, January 19, 1853.Springfield, IL.
Lincoln writes and signs petition for Supreme Court review of Alton & Sangamon RR v. Carpenter. Herndon-Weik Collection, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
Monday, January 19, 1857.Springfield, IL.
In case in which he wrote affidavit for Rowan January 14, 1857, Lincoln himself makes affidavit that he has no knowledge of bond for costs having been filedand that he has seen none in papers in case. Original owned by James A. Jones, Springfield, Ill.
Tuesday, January 19, 1858.Springfield, IL.
Lincoln writes Joseph Gillespie to "come right up" about embarrassing case in Supreme Court—People ex rel. Lanphier & Walker v. Hatch. Case involved reapportionment act passed in 1857. Gov. Bissell had signed it inadvertently, then crossed off his name. Democrats bring suit to compel secretary of state to certify act. Case involves politics and Lincoln's senatorial ambitions, for reapportionment changed districts to Republican disadvantage. Lincoln also telegraphs George T. Brown, Alton Republican, to send Gillespie "at once. Don't fail[.]" Abraham Lincoln to Joseph Gillespie, 19 January 1858, CW, 2:432; Abraham Lincoln to George T. Brown, 19 January 1858, CW, 2:432; 19 Ill. 283.
Lincoln & Herndon file bill in chancery in Sangamon Circuit Court in Doup v. Gibson et al.Photocopy.
Wednesday, January 19, 1859.Springfield, IL.
Lincoln, in Supreme Court, appears for Illinois Central in six suits in which railroad is defendant. All are continued (see January 14, 1860). Record.
Thursday, January 19, 1860.Springfield, IL.
Lincoln files declaration in Piatt v. Wilson in U.S. Circuit Court. Defendant is charged with unlawful possession of land in Hamilton County. Hay and Cullom enter defendant's appearance, waive service of declaration and notice, and file plea of general issue, which Lincoln wrote. Files; Record.
Saturday, January 19, 1861.Springfield, IL.
In evening Cong. William Kellogg (Ill.), member of House Committee of Thirty-three, arrives in Springfield to confer with Lincoln. "His object is supposed to be in reference to a compromise of the national difficulties." N.Y. Tribune, 22 January 1861.
Matias Romero, Mexican chargé d'Affaires in Washington, calls upon Lincoln at home. Ernest G. Hildner, Jr., "The Mexican Envoy Visits Lincoln," Abraham Lincoln Quarterly 6 (September 1950):184.
Lincoln deposits $200 in Springfield Marine Bank and withdraws $31.25. Pratt, Personal Finances, 164, 175.
Monday, January 19, 1863.Washington, DC.
President replies to laudatory address from workingmen of Manchester, England: "It is now a pleasant duty to acknowledge the demonstration you have given of your desire that a spirit of peace and amity towards this country may prevail in the councils of your Queen." Abraham Lincoln to the Workingmen of Manchester, England, 19 January 1863, CW, 6:63-65.
In afternoon J. E. Murdoch gives patriotic readings to select group at White House. In evening President and Mrs. Lincoln attend readings in Senate Chamber for benefit of sick and wounded soldiers. Murdoch reads "Sleeping Sentinel" by Francis De Haes Janvier. LL, No. 544; Daily National Republican (Washington, DC), 19 January 1863, 2d ed., 3:3, 20 January 1863, 2d ed., 2:1; Washington Chronicle, 20 January 1863.
Tuesday, January 19, 1864.Washington, DC.
President telegraphs Robert: "There is a good deal of smallpox here. Your friends must judge for themselves whether they ought to come or not." Abraham Lincoln to Robert T. Lincoln, 19 January 1864, CW, 7:137.
Confers with former Cong. Joshua R. Giddings (Ohio), consul general to British North American Provinces, who wants Maj. Grotius R. Giddings, his son, made brigadier general. Abraham Lincoln to Edwin M. Stanton and Henry W. Halleck, 19 January 1864, CW, 7:137-38.
Cabinet discusses admission of cotton into Union lines. Welles, Diary.
Thursday, January 19, 1865.Washington, DC.
President Lincoln writes to Lieut.-General Ulysses S. Grant regarding Robert Lincoln, the President's oldest son, who "wishes to see something of the war before it ends." Lincoln instructs Grant to respond with his honest opinion and without regard to Lincoln's position as President. Lincoln directs Grant to reserve "commission[s]" for more deserving candidates, and asks if Robert "could . . . without embarrassment to you, or detriment to the service," obtain "some nominal rank, I, and not the public, furnishing his necessary means?" Abraham Lincoln to Ulysses S. Grant, 19 January 1865, CW, 8:223-24.
Interviews Col. John Coburn regarding exchange of prisoners. Abraham Lincoln to Ethan A. Hitchcock, 19 January 1865, CW, 8:224.
At 11:30 A.M. receives Baron Nicholas G. de Wetterstedt, minister plenipotentiary from Sweden. Seward to Lincoln, 18 January 1865, Abraham Lincoln Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
Committee from Maryland Legislature asks President to remove H. W. Hoffman and appoint Sen. Hicks (Md.) to place. Frazier to Lincoln, 23 January 1865, Abraham Lincoln Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
Lincoln attends ceremonies of U.S. Christian Commission in House of Representatives. LL, No. 450.
Directs Sec. Stanton to consider investigating appeals "made to us by persons claiming to have attempted to come through our lines with their effects to take the benefit of the Amnesty proclamation." Abraham Lincoln to Edwin M. Stanton, 19 January 1865, CW, 8:225.
Notifies Sec. Usher that he will appoint Vital Jarrot of Illinois, Indian Agent of Sioux on the Platte, if there is no objection. Abraham Lincoln to John P. Usher, 19 January 1865, CW, 8:225-26.
Lincoln writes to Major General Edward O. C. Ord regarding Frank Judd, who currently assumes an alias. Judd is the son of Norman B. Judd, who managed Lincoln's 1860 presidential campaign and who now serves as Minister to Prussia. Lincoln explains, "You have a man in arrest for desertion passing by the name of Stanley—William Stanley I think—but whose real name is different. He is the son of so close a friend of mine that I must not let him be executed. Please let me know what is his present and prospective condition." Abraham Lincoln to Benjamin F. Butler, 29 December 1864, CW, 8:189-190; Abraham Lincoln to Edward O. C. Ord, 19 January 1865, CW, 8:224.

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In 1994, a small group of us thought that one could, and indeed should go further than emulated paper. We argued  that journals should be activated by delivering not merely the logic of a scientific argument, but also the data on which it might have been based. Of course, we encountered the usual problem; doing this might cost publishers more in production resources, and in the absence of a market prepared to pay the extra, the business model did not make sense (to the publishers). Well, 15 years later, and most publishers are indeed now thinking about how their journals can be enhanced. A number of interesting projects (the RSC’s Project Prospect is one which strives to bring science alive) have emerged. Another is the topic of this blog; the activation of the journal with molecular coordinates and data using the Jmol applet.
Initially (~2005), this project met with resistance from publishers, and the issue really amounted to what the definitive version of a scientific article should be. Should that definitive version be printable? That model, after all had served the community well for more than 300 years! And journals from the very beginning are still as readable now as when first published. In other words, print lasts! But print is pretty limiting after all. For a start, it is limited to 2D static representations. Molecules, by and large, do their magic in a dynamic three dimensions (4D in an Einsteinian sense). But print is also expensive; not merely to produce, but to transport paper around the world.
From the turn of the millennium, a number of publishers, amongst them the American Chemical Society, started to evolve the scientific article such that the pre-eminent version would now be considered to be the HTML form (perhaps as a prelude to phasing out print entirely? See an interesting commentary by a journal editor) and perhaps a digital Acrobat form which would be deemed to loose some of its functionality once printed (again see here for how Acrobat can be used to enhance things). Again however, a chicken-and-egg scenario resulted. To enhance the articles with extra functionality (such as data), they would need to find authors prepared to put the extra work into preparing the material. In fact, most authors already do that, but they call it supporting information. This is often highly data rich, covering materials such as spectra, coordinates and other information nowadays provided to researchers for analysis. Unfortunately, what has been missing is the education of authors to provide this information in a proper digital form which can be easily re-used by others, and on a Web page, converted automatically to nice interactive models. Most spectra which form part of the supporting information are in fact still scanned versions of printed spectra!
Enter computational chemists. Nowadays, they live in a world that truly does not need printing! Almost all of their data is already suitably digital. So perhaps it is no surprise to find that when enhanced journal articles started appearing around 2005, many were produced by this group of chemists. By now perhaps you are wondering what such an article might look like. Well, the remainder of this blog will be devoted to listing some examples. You will also notice that they come exclusively from our own publications. Perhaps someone will find the time to collect a far more representative set to better illustrate the diversity of this form, and how it is evolving. Meanwhile, you might wish to take a look at the following.
These examples all relied on a browser plugin called Chime, which is no longer with us! Hence the pages designed to invoke it no longer display properly. But the data associated with the articles is still there!
in 1995 here as the final full article. I am told that this was the article that actually inspired the developers of Chime to enhance (Netscape) with a chemical plugin.
This one from 1998 illustrates how articles can decay in functionality when Chime is no longer available.
An ab initio and MNDO-d SCF-MO Computational Study of Stereoelectronic Control in Extrusion Reactions of R2I-F Iodine (III) Intermediates, M. A. Carroll, S. Martin-Santamaria, V. W. Pike, H. S. Rzepa and D. A. Widdowson, Perkin Trans. 2, 1999, 2707-2714 with the supporting information here.
Huckel and Mobius Aromaticity and Trimerous transition state behaviour in the Pericyclic Reactions of , ,  and  Annulenes. Sonsoles Martên-Santamarêa, Balasundaram Lavan and H. S. Rzepa, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans 2 , 2000, 1415. with the supporting information here.
Peter Murray-Rust, H. S. Rzepa and Michael Wright, “Development of Chemical Markup Language (CML) as a System for Handling Complex Chemical Content”, New J. Chem., 2001, 618-634. DOI: 10.1039/b008780g. This article broke new ground in that the supporting information was something of a misnomer. It was expressed entirely in XML, including all the chemistry data, and used XSLT transforms on the fly to regenerate the article. In that sense, it was actually a superset of the published article. It would be fair to say that this article was rather ahead of its time (although it does seem appropriate to publish it in a new journal!).
M. Jakt, L. Johannissen, H. S. Rzepa, D. A. Widdowson and R. Wilhelm, “A Computational Study of the Mechanism of Palladium Insertion into Alkynyl and Aryl Carbon-Fluorine bonds”, Perkin Trans. 2, 2002, 576-581 and supporting information.
P. Murray-Rust and H. S. Rzepa, chapter in “Handbook of Chemoinformatics. Part 2. Advanced Topics.”, ed. J. Gasteiger and T. Engel, 2003, Vol 1, was not enhanced per se, but did lay out the principles of how it might/should be done.
K. P. Tellmann, M. J. Humphries, H. S. Rzepa and V. C. Gibson, “An experimental and computational study of β-H transfer between organocobalt complexes and 1-alkenes”, Organometallics, 2004, 23, 5503-5513. DOI: 10.1021/om049581h and supporting information.
These four examples all now invoke Jmol, which downloads upon request and hence does not rely on the presence of any browser plugin. The four articles were submited with supporting information in the form of HTML. These were associated with the main article, but were not formal part of that article. In that sense, they represent an incarnation of the traditional model, with all the data firmly resident in the supporting information.
Gibson, Vernon C.; Marshall, Edward L.; Rzepa, H. S. ” A computational study on the ring-opening polymerization of lactide initiated by β-diketiminate metal alkoxides: The origin of heterotactic stereocontrol”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2005, 127, 6048-6051. DOI: 10.1021/ja043819b and supporting information.
H. S. Rzepa, Mobius aromaticity and delocalization”, Chem. Rev., 2005, 105, 3697 – 3715. DOI: 10.1021/cr030092l and supporting information.
H. S. Rzepa, “Double-twist Mšbius Aromaticity in a 4n+2 Electron Electrocyclic Reaction”, 2005, Chem Comm, 5220-5222. DOI: 10.1039/b510508k The supporting information is also available directly.
H. S. Rzepa, “A Double-twist Mobius-aromatic conformation of annulene”, Org. Lett., 2005, 7, 637 – 4639. DOI: 10.1021/ol0518333 and supporting information.
A. P. Dove, V. C. Gibson, E. L. Marshall, H. S. Rzepa, A. J. P. White and D. J. Williams, “Synthetic, Structural, Mechanistic and Computational Studies on Single-Site β-Diketiminate Tin(II) Initiators for the Polymerization of rac-Lactide”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2006,128, 9834-9843. DOI: 10.1021/ja061400a The enhancement can be seen in Figure 11.
H. S. Rzepa, “Lemniscular Hexaphyrins as examples of aromatic and antiaromatic Double-Twist Möbius Molecules”, Org. Lett., 2008, 10, 949-952.DOI:10.1021/ol703129z The enhancement can be seen in Web Table 1.
D. C. Braddock and H. S. Rzepa, “Structural Reassignment of Obtusallenes V, VI and VII by GIAO-based Density functional prediction”, J. Nat. Prod., 2008, DOI: 10.1021/np0705918 and WEO1.
H. S. Rzepa, “Wormholes in Chemical Space connecting Torus Knot and Torus Link π-electron density topologies”, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2009, 1340-1345. DOI: 10.1039/b810301a and enhanced Table.
H. S. Rzepa, “The distortivity of π-electrons in conjugated Boron rings.”, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2009, DOI: 10.1039/B911817A and enhanced table.
H. S. Rzepa, “The importance of being bonded”, Nature Chem., 2009, DOI: 10.1038/nchem.373 and the exploratorium.
King Kuok Hii, J.L.Arbour, H.S.Rzepa, A.J.P.White, “Unusual Regiodivergence in Metal-Catalysed Intramolecular Cyclisation of γ-Allenols”, Chem. Commun, 2009, DOI: 10.1039/b913295c and enhanced table.
L. F. V. Pinto, P. M. C. Glória, M. J. S. Gomes, H. S. Rzepa, S. Prabhakar, A. M. Lobo. “A Dramatic Effect of Double Bond Configuration in N-Oxy-3-aza Cope Rearrangements – A simple synthesis of functionalised allenes”, Tet. Lett., 2009, 50, 3446-3449. DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2009.02.228 and interactive table.
H. S. Rzepa and C. S. M. Allan, “Racemization of isobornyl chloride via carbocations: a non-classical look at a classic mechanism”, J. Chem. Educ., 2010, DOI: 10.1021/ed800058c and interactive table.
K. Abersfelder, A. J. P. White, H. S. Rzepa, and D. Scheschkewitz “A Tricyclic Aromatic Isomer of Hexasilabenzene”, Science, 2010, DOI: 10.1126/science.1181771 and interactive table.
A. C. Spivey, L. Laraia, A. R. Bayly, H. S. Rzepa and A. J. P. White “Stereoselective Synthesis of cis- and trans-2,3-Disubstituted Tetrahydrofurans via Oxonium−Prins Cyclization: Access to the Cordigol Ring System”, Org. Lett., 2010, DOI 10.1021/ol9024259 and interactive table.
J. Kong, P. v. R. Schleyer and H. S. Rzepa, “Successful Computational Modeling of Iso-bornyl Chloride Ion-Pair Mechanisms”, J. Org. Chem., 2010, DOI: 10.1021/jo100920e and interactive table.
A. Smith, H. S. Rzepa, A. White, D. Billen, K. K. Hii, “Delineating Origins of Stereocontrol in Asymmetric Pd-Catalyzed α-Hydroxylation of 1,3-Ketoesters”, J. Org. Chem., 2010, 75, 3085-3096. DOI: 10.1021/jo1002906 and interactive table.
H. S. Rzepa “The rational design of helium bonds”, Nature Chem., 2010, 2, 390-393. DOI: 10.1038/NCHEM.596 and web enhanced table.
H. S. Rzepa, “The Nature of the Carbon-Sulfur bond in the species H-CS-OH”, J. Chem. Theory. Comput., 2010, 49, DOI: 10.1021/ct100470g and interactive table.
H. S. Rzepa, “The past, present and future of Scientific discourse”, J. Cheminformatics, 2011, 3, 46. DOI: 10.1186/1758-2946-3-46 and interactive figure 3, figure 4 and figure 5.
H. S. Rzepa, “A computational evaluation of the evidence for the synthesis of 1,3-dimethylcyclobutadiene in the solid state and aqueous solution”, Chem. Euro. J., 2012, in press.
J. L. Arbour, H. S. Rzepa, L. A. Adrio, E. M. Barreiro, P. G. Pringle and K. K. (Mimi) Hii, “Silver-catalysed enantioselective additions of O-H and N-H to C=C bonds: Non-covalent interactions in stereoselective processes”, Chem. Euro. J., 2012, in press, Web table 1 and Web table 2.
H. S. Rzepa, “Chemical datuments as scientific enablers”, J. Chemoinformatics, submitted.
D. C. Braddock, D. Roy, D. Lenoir, E. Moore, H. S. Rzepa, J. I-Chia Wu and P. von R. Schleyer, “Verification of Stereospecific Dyotropic Racemisation of Enantiopure d and l-1,2-Dibromo-1,2-diphenylethane in Non-polar Media”, Chem. Comm., 2012, just published. DOI: 10.1039/C2CC33676F and interactivity box.
H. S. Rzepa, “Chemical datuments as scientific enablers”, J. Chemoinformatics, 2013, 4, DOI: 10.1186/1758-2946-5-6. The interactivity box is integrated into the body of the article.
M. J. Cowley, V. Huch, H. S. Rzepa, D. Scheschkewitz, “A Silicon Version of the Vinylcarbene – Cyclopropene Equilibrium: Isolation of a Base-Stabilized Disilenyl Silylene”, 2013, Nature Chem., 5, 876–879. doi:10.1038/nchem.1751 and Webtable.
M. J. S. Gomes, L. F. V. Pinto, H. S. Rzepa, S. Prabhakar, A. M. Lobo, “N-Heteroatom Substitution Effects in 3-Aza-Cope Rearrangements”, Chemistry Central, 2013, 7:94. doi:10.1186/1752-153X-7-94 and Table.
H. S. Rzepa and C. Wentrup, “Mechanistic Diversity in Thermal Fragmentation Reactions: a Computational Exploration of CO and CO2 Extrusions from Five-Membered Rings”, J. Org. Chem., DOI: 10.1021/jo401146k and Table.
D. C. Braddock, J. Clarke and H. S. Rzepa “Epoxidation of Bromoallenes Connects Red Algae Metabolites by an Intersecting Bromoallene Oxide – Favorskii Manifold”, Chem. Comm., 2013, DOI: 10.1039/C3CC46720A and Table.
A. Armstrong, R. A. Boto, P. Dingwall, J. Contreras-García, M. J. Harvey, N. Mason and H. S. Rzepa, “The Houk-List Transition states for organocatalytic mechanisms revisited”, Chem. Sci., 2014, 5, 2057-2071. doi:10.1039/C3SC53416B and data, data, data, data, data, data, data, data.
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Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian strata of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin are exposed within the Canadian Cordillera (Fig. 6.1). All exposures have been transported northeastward from their original site of deposition by structures that formed during Late Jurassic to Eocene deformation of the eastern Canadian Cordillera. This chapter deals with three major unconformity-bounded successions: Middle Proterozoic (~1.5 - 1.2 Ga), Upper Proterozoic (~0.78 - 0.54 Ga) and Lower Cambrian (0.54 - 0.53 Ga). Each succession is dominated by clastic strata and is notable for great thicknesses: up to 11 km for the Middle Proterozoic, 9 km for the Upper Proterozoic, and 4 km for the Lower Cambrian. Upper Proterozoic and Lower Cambrian strata form part of a narrow, sinuous belt of correlative rocks that extend for over 4000 km, from Alaska to northern Mexico (Stewart, 1972). Underlying Middle Proterozoic strata lack this longitudinal continuity (Fig. 6.1). These successions record multiple extension events in the early history of the western margin of the North American craton and the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. In this chapter each succession (Middle Proterozoic, Upper Proterozoic, Lower Cambrian) are discussed separately.
Two Middle Proterozoic assemblages are recognized - the Purcell (Belt) Supergroup in southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta, and the Muskwa assemblage in northeastern British Columbia (Fig. 6.1). Both assemblages were deposited some time within an 800 million year interval bracketed by the age of the unconformably underlying Proterozoic crystalline basement (1.57-1.78 Ga) and the unconformably overlying Upper Proterozoic Windermere Supergroup (0.73-0.77 Ga). Each assemblage consists predominantly of fine-grained clastic and carbonate rocks that form successions several kilometres thick. The Purcell Supergroup hosts one giant and numerous smaller Pb-Zn (Ag) deposits. Many thick basic sills (Moyie sills) intrude the basal part of the supergroup. U-Pb zircon dating indicates that most of these were intruded between 1.45 and 1.33 Ga (Zartman et al., 1982; Höy, 1989).
Local lithostratigraphy and sedimentology are generally well known. However, the paucity of reliable radiometric dates and the absence of biostratigraphic control has hindered correlation within and between the assemblages and precluded accurate dating of each assemblage. Interpretation of geological, geochronological and paleomagnetic data suggests Belt-Purcell sedimentation occurred between 1.5 and 1.2 Ga (cf. McMechan and Price, 1982a), although not all workers agree. The isotopically undated Muskwa assemblage has been correlated with the Purcell (Bell, 1968) or Mackenzie Mountains (0.8-1.2 Ga; Eisbacher in Hoffman, 1989) supergroups.
In this chapter we focus on eastern and central exposures of the Purcell Supergroup. Information on northern and western assemblages, where the sediments are commonly intensely deformed, can be obtained from the references cited below.
Recent summaries of the lithologies, ages and tectonic settings of the Purcell and Muskwa assemblages are included in Ross et al. (1989) and Aitken and McMechan (in press). These include recent stratigraphic descriptions and assignments from western exposures of Purcell strata suggested by Reesor (1984, pers. comm.). Numerous workers have examined the Purcell Supergroup in the course of bedrock mapping and mineral exploration studies. Important regional stratigraphic and tectonic syntheses are presented in McMechan (1981) and Price (1964). Höy (1982) and Morton et al. (1973) summarized the main mineral deposit types and occurrences. Details of the giant Sullivan Pb-Zn (Ag) mine are described in Hamilton et al. (1982). Bell (1966, 1968) is the only geologist to have published significant information on the Muskwa assemblage.
Two different interpretations of the tectonic setting of the Belt-Purcell Basin have been proposed. Canadian geologists have generally suggested a subsiding delta environment in a continental- margin setting (Walker, 1926; Reesor, 1957; Price, 1964) with the succession representing the initiation and formation of a passive margin (McMechan, 1981). Recently, increasing evidence for a west side to the Belt-Purcell Basin in the United States (e.g., Finch and Baldwin, 1984; Winston et al., 1984) has led to the reconsideration of an intracratonic basin setting (e.g., Winston et al., 1984), an idea initially proposed by Walcott (1910) and then abandoned. Chemical trends from Moyie Sills exposed in the southern Purcell Mountains are typical of basic volcanism in an incipient rift environment, or the early stages of continental rifting (Höy, 1989).
The quartzite and carbonate strata forming the lower part of the Muskwa assemblage were derived from the northeast and deposited on a shallow-water shelf. The deeper-water slates that make up the upper part were transported to the northwest, possibly along the axes of linear troughs developed parallel to the margin of the craton (Bell, 1968).
Exposure of Muskwa assemblage formations is limited areally. The nomenclature and general lithologies of this assemblage are summarized in Figure 6.2 .
A volcanic unit (Nicol Creek Formation, Purcell Lava) forms the only chronostratigraphic marker within the Purcell Supergroup and is the main tie line of the correlation chart (Fig. 6.3). Because of the lack of biostratigraphy and paucity of geochronological control, intrabasinal correlation of other units is based strictly on lithostratigraphic correlation of homologous strata. This can result in the correlation of facies that are not exact correlatives in time. In addition, alternative lithostratigraphic correlations may be possible for some parts of the succession. The cross section of Figure 6.4 contains an example of this for the lower part of the succession between Cate Creek- St. Eloi Brook, Sage Creek and Shell Grouse. The favoured correlation, shown on the correlation chart, has the lower Altyn, Waterton and Tombstone Mountain formations changing basinward into the upper unit of the Aldridge Formation. In the alternative correlation (inset, Fig. 6.4), only the Tombstone Mountain Formation changes facies into the upper unit of the Aldridge Formation.
The thick, fine-grained clastic- and carbonate-dominated succession forming the Purcell Supergroup can be divided into four broad divisions (basal, lower, middle carbonate and upper) on the bases of distinctive rock types and readily correlatable sequences (Fig. 6.5; McMechan, 1981). Variations in thickness and facies are most pronounced in the basal division, with a thinner, platformal, carbonate succession in the east and a thick, clastic, basinal succession in the west. Facies and thickness variations in the fine-grained clastics of the lower division reflect the embayed configuration of the basin margin and the interplay between sources of detritus to the east and south. The middle carbonate division is in a thin, platformal facies along the northeastern limit of exposure and a thicker, more basinal facies elsewhere. The upper division represents a variety of subaerial and shallow-water environments (Fig. 6.5). The only widespread disconformity recognized within the Purcell succession occurs within the upper division at the base of the Sheppard Formation. However, if Phanerozoic successions serve as an analogue for Middle Proterozoic strata, there surely must be many unrecognized disconformities within the Purcell Supergroup. Important lithological changes in the upper part of the upper division occur near the western and northern limits, rather than near the northeastern limit of exposure as in the underlying units. These changes (summarized in Aitken and McMechan, in press) may reflect the influence of source areas to the west (Root, 1987).
The regional cross section (Fig. 6.4) clearly illustrates the great thickening of the Purcell Supergroup away from its eastern margin and its predominantly fine-grained clastic and carbonate composition. Rocks of the Purcell Supergroup are generally brightly colored. The obvious change in the basal division from platformal carbonates near the basin margin to basinal turbidites and argillites contrasts with the subtle lithological changes in overlying divisions. The section is oriented across the rectilinear basin margin (see inset Fig. 6.4). The Sage Creek-Pacific Atlantic Flathead section represents a more basinal locale than the adjacent sections and forms the key section for correlation of basal division platformal and basinal facies (see McMechan, 1981; Fermor and Price, 1983, for details). Two different lithostratigraphic correlations proposed for this important section are illustrated.
The great variation in the stratigraphic position of the overlying sub-Middle Cambrian or sub-Devonian unconformity is largely a function of the northwestward uplift of the lower Paleozoic (Montania) high (Norris and Price, 1966), complicated by pre-Devonian block faulting near its crest, which apparently reactivated fault structures formed during extrusion of the Purcell volcanics (McMechan and Price, 1982b). The upper Purcell synsedimentary block faulting occurred between the Mount Baker and Steeples sections (Fig. 6.4).
Petroleum exploration wells drilled in the 1980s provide excellent reference logs for the eastern facies and the western, basal turbidite facies of the Purcell Supergroup (Fig. 6.6). Thick mafic sills intruded into the turbidite succession are clearly recognized in the DEI Moyie well by their blocky, low gamma-ray response. The relatively high conductivities found in the unnamed and Tombstone Mountain formations in the Shell Grouse well may be due to the presence of graphitic layers such as those that occur in equivalent strata exposed nearby.
The present structure of the Purcell Supergroup reflects its distribution on thrust sheets of the Rocky Mountain Thrust and Fold Belt. In Canada, all sections have been transported over 100 km northeastward from their site of deposition. Thickness variations in the lower and also the middle carbonate division of the Purcell outline a rectilinear basin margin with a prominent northeast-trending re-entrant near the northwest corner of the isopach map (Fig. 6.7a,b). The almost 200 km east-west jog in the shape of the basin margin is mirrored by the northeastern limit of Purcell exposure, suggesting that the thrust faults carrying Purcell strata step upsection near the margin of the basin. The pattern of thickness variation for the upper division (excluding the Roosville Formation) is different from that of the underlying divisions. These changes suggest a reorganization of the basin. This reorganization was associated with extrusion of volcanic rocks and the development of a fault-controlled sub-basin (Fig. 6.7; McMechan, 1981). The northeast-trending re-entrant, apparent on all isopach maps, is a graben structure that formed during Middle Proterozoic extension (McMechan, 1981). It appears to be the western extension of a buried, graben-like structure in the basement of southern Alberta (Kanasewich et al., 1969).
Within the Upper Proterozoic Windermere Supergroup it is not yet possible to correlate individual beds or events on a basin-wide scale, with the possible exception of 'the marker', which is discussed below. In the southern Canadian Cordillera, strata of the Windermere Supergroup unconformably overlie the Middle Proterozoic Purcell Supergroup in the central Purcell and southern Selkirk mountains, and nonconformably overlie the Deserters gneiss (728 + 8, -7 Ma; Evenchick et al., 1984) in the Deserters Range, and Malton and associated gneisses south of Valemont, B.C. (Murphy, 1990); elsewhere the base of the Upper Proterozoic is not exposed (Fig. 6.8). The Windermere Supergroup consists predominantly of coarse-grained, feldspathic conglomerate and pebbly sandstone ('grits') and pelitic shale, and less common carbonates. These strata were deposited some time within a 210 to 230 million year interval bracketed by the age of the basal Windermere Supergroup (730-770 Ma, Evenchick et al., 1984; Devlin et al., 1988) and the overlying Lower Cambrian Gog Group (540 Ma). Isolated studies have established the local stratigraphy and lithostrati- graphic correlations; however, the lack of biostratigraphic markers and the paucity of good radiometric age determinations have hampered detailed time-stratigraphic correlations within and between the various assemblages. In this chapter we focus on exposures of the Windermere Supergroup south of 57°N.
Detailed structural, stratigraphic and sedimentological studies have been conducted locally in areas of the southern Canadian Cordillera. Recent preliminary syntheses of the lithologies, age and tectonic setting of the Windermere Supergroup are given in Ross et al. (1989), Aitken (1990), Aitken and McDonough (1990), and Campbell and Gabrielse (in press). Bond and Kominz (1984) discuss a possible tectonic evolution and subsidence history for the Upper Proterozoic and the overlying lower Paleozoic succession of the Canadian Cordillera.
In the southern Canadian Cordillera, most of the Windermere Supergroup comprises deep-water (below wave base) mass-flow deposits emplaced as part of a rift-margin and/or continental- margin succession. Locally, glaciation strongly influenced sedimentary facies and sequence patterns at the base of the succession in the south and in the middle part of the Windermere succession between 54° and 57°N. By contrast, concurrent with glaciation in the adjacent highlands, equivalent strata in eastern and central Idaho were deposited in deep to shallow water in an active volcanic rift-basin (Link, 1983; Elston et al., in press).
The top of the Windermere generally is eroded. In parts of the southern Rocky Mountains, 2 to 3 km of strata are bevelled beneath the sub-Lower Cambrian unconformity (Aitken, 1969; Simony and Aitken, 1990). Deposition was locally affected by small- and large-scale basin structures. Large-basin structures include the'Windermere High', a northwest-trending offshore high that developed south of 53°N, and which extended southeastward to the more prominent 'Montania' high.
There are many problems concerning the geological framework of the Windermere Supergroup (see Simony and Aitken, 1990). The issues include: 1) the involvement of rifting; 2) structural controls on sedimentation; 3) intra-Windermere correlation; 4) the emplacement of thick and extensive deep-water, coarse-grained feldspathic "grits" with little or no apparent facies changes; 5) the source of carbonate detritus (the "vanished" carbonate platforms); and 6) the role of glaciation both in sedimentation and as a possible control on eustatic sea-level variation. The coarser grained lower parts of the Windermere Supergroup have been interpreted as having been deposited either within a single rift basin or in a complex of rift basins (e.g., Stewart, 1972). This was followed by development of a passive margin, resulting in the deposition of the upper, finer grained, more uniform continental succession (Gabrielse, 1972). The timing of the rifting events and their relation to the subsequent breakup and drift of the margins of the proto-Pacific ocean remain controversial (Thompson et al., 1987; Devlin et al., 1988; Gabrielse, 1972; Stewart, 1976; among others).
A number of different stratigraphic names have been applied to the various units within the Windermere Supergroup (Fig. 6.8). Some of these formations most likely are time-correlative but the exact details of the correlations are uncertain and controversial.
A distinctive sedimentary unit, informally known as'the marker', occurs within the mainly coarse-grained grits of the Windermere. This marker is characterized by a pelitic succession, dominated by rhythmic marble-silty pelite and sulfidic pelite in the Cariboo Mountains (Ross and Murphy, 1988) and is interpreted as correlative with distal turbidites and hemipelagites in the Baird Brook division of the Purcell Mountains (Kubli, 1990) and with the deep-water resedimented carbonates and pelites in the Old Fort Point Formation, near Jasper (Dechesne, 1990). The'marker' and its equivalents have been interpreted as relative sea-level highstand deposits and have been tentatively correlated on a basin-wide scale for over 35 000 km2 (Ross and Murphy, 1988). In some sections, such as at Cushing Creek (Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map), there is more than one carbonate and pelite horizon similar to the'marker', suggesting that the Old Fort Point and other limestone breccias correlated with the'marker' may not be unique. The use of the'marker' as a basin-wide time-correlation tool remains equivocal, but with the lack of any other suitable litho-, bio- or chronostratigraphic datum within the Windermere, the'marker' and its equivalents are used as a tie line in the correlation chart (Fig. 6.8) and the regional cross sections. Primitive trace and body fossils in the East Twin, Isaac and Byng formations may assist in correlating the upper part of the Windermere (see biostratigraphy).
The Mount Nelson Formation (Fig. 6.8) in its type section, west of Invermere, British Columbia, is interpreted by Root (1987) to be the basal unit of the Windermere Supergroup. Here the Mount Nelson consists mainly of shallow-water dolostone, sandstone, siltstone, and argillite. At the type section of the Mount Nelson Formation, there are local occurrences of'Toby-like' diamicton included within the Mount Nelson, and of 'Mount Nelson-like' dolostone within the Toby Formation, suggesting that the Mount Nelson and the Toby are somehow genetically related (Root, 1987). Elsewhere, units mapped as the'Mount Nelson Formation' probably are older strata belonging to the uppermost Purcell Supergroup (Reesor, 1984). The type-area Mount Nelson records the earliest stages of subsidence associated with the initial Windermere extension (Root, 1987).
The Toby Formation (Fig. 6.8) unconformably overlies the type-area Mount Nelson Formation and units of the Purcell Supergroup, ranging from the Gateway, Dutch Creek to'Mount Nelson' formations. Up to 2.3 km of section have been eroded beneath the sub-Toby unconformity (Root, 1987). The Toby Formation typically comprises massive, matrix-supported diamictite, consisting of sand- to boulder-size clasts set in an argillite matrix. Clast and matrix composition varies widely, depending upon the composition of the tilted fault blocks that provided the source material (see Aalto, 1971; Root, 1987). The rare occurrence of striated clasts, dropstone structures and "exotic" granitic clasts suggests that the Toby successions are, in part, glacial or glaciomarine in origin (Aalto, 1971). Recent sedimentological studies show that part of the succession may have originated as subaqueous debris flows at the base of tilted fault blocks, and that part of the succession was affected by syndepositional faulting (Root, 1987). Basic volcanics (Irene, Fig. 6.8) locally overlie the Toby in the southern Selkirk Mountains (Rice, 1941; Little, 1960).
The next succeeding units within the Windermere, comprising much of the Horsethief Creek, Miette and Kaza groups, consist predominantly of coarse-grained, feldspathic, pebbly sandstone and conglomerate ('grit'), which alternate with thick, varicoloured argillites (Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map). The argillites locally contain thin interbeds of siltstone and fine-grained sandstone, many of which show Bouma sequences typical of deep-water turbidites. Less commonly, other argillites have siltstone and fine-grained sandstone interbeds that may represent bottom current or contourite deposits (Ross, pers. comm. 1990; Kubli, pers. comm., 1990). Local studies show that some of the grits occurred as submarine channels on small, tilted fault blocks (Arnott and Hein, 1986), or as larger submarine-channel complexes that flowed between fault blocks (McDonough, 1989). Locally, finer grained strata (argillite and deep-water limestone, Cushing Creek Formation) are exposed beneath the main grit-bearing units in central exposures (Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map).
The grits are most notable for their uniform character along depositional strike and lack of obvious, well-defined vertical facies patterns. One interpretation is that they represent "midfan submarine fan facies" (Carey and Simony, 1985; Ross et al., 1989; among others). A problem with this interpretation is accounting for midfan facies occurring in apparently continuous zones for over 700 km along strike, and 400 km across strike (Simony and Aitken, 1990). Some of the channel fills show northwest trends parallel to the northwest depositional strike (McDonough, 1989); whereas other channel fills have north to northeast transport directions perpendicular to the strike of the paleoslope (Arnott and Hein, 1986). An alternative interpretation is that the grits were emplaced on coalescing deep-water slope aprons along graben margins (cf. Hein, 1989, for examples).
In the central Rocky Mountains, a thick succession of diamictite (Vreeland Formation, Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map) occurs in a stratigraphic interval equivalent to the lower part of the middle Miette McKale Formation. This diamictite includes a large proportion of plutonic and volcanic boulders, derived from crystalline basement, set in an argillaceous matrix (Ross et al., 1989). Diamictites of the Vreeland Formation are underlain by siltstone, argillite, calcareous siltstone and rare grit of the Paksumo Formation in exposures near Paksumo Pass, and by an unnamed succession of quartzose chloritic wacke, quartzite, pelite, amphibolite (may be younger intrusives) and minor limestone in the Deserter's Range (Fig. 6.8b). From Mt. Vreeland the diamictite abruptly changes facies into grits and argillites of the lower part of the McKale Formation near 54°N (McMechan, 1990). Because the Vreeland diamictite occurs well above the base of the Windermere succession, where it nonconformably overlies 728 Ma gneiss, it is younger than the approximately 770 Ma diamictites found at the base of the Windermere succession in the Mackenzie Mountains (Rapitan Group) and probably younger than the basal Toby diamictite found to the south. The Vreeland diamictite has dropstone structures and represents glaciogenic sedimentation. This glaciation would correlate with the younger glacial interval (Ice Brook Formation) recognized by Aitken (1988, 1989a, 1991) in the Mackenzie Mountains (McMechan, 1990).
The Vreeland diamictite is abruptly overlain by either a thin banded limestone or fine-grained clastics. Large blocks of platformal carbonate (olistostromes) occur within dark argillites of the lower Framstead Formation immediately above the diamictite (Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map, north end). Locally, deep-water limestone occurs within the argillite sequence. A westward-thickening grit unit occurs within the argillites beneath the shallow-marine carbonates of the Chowika Formation. These grits are traceable into grits forming the top of the McKale Formation (Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map, Paksumo Pass to Cushing Creek; McMechan, 1990). The Chowika carbonate platform shales out to the west and south into the East Twin Formation.
The upper Miette Group (East Twin and Byng formations) primarily consists of argillites, with thinner units of sandstone. Locally, the argillites coarsen-and shallow-upward into platform carbonates. These platform carbonates occur in the Jasper area (e.g., Basilica Mountain, Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map) and are disconformably overlain by the Gog Group. Poulton (1973) described a similar 200 m thick stromatolitic carbonate bank disconformably overlain by the Lower Cambrian Hamill Group in the Rogers Pass area. This carbonate passes westward into deep-water resedimented carbonates and clastic slope successions. In the Cariboo Mountains, carbonates of the Cunningham Formation (Figs 6.8, 6.9a, 6.9a map) are probably correlative with the Byng Formation near Jasper (Fig. 6.8). The carbonate breccias and detritus found in units of the McKale, Old Fort Point, and Isaac show that similar but older carbonate banks and platforms must have existed east of the exposed Windermere succession.
In a few areas, puzzling unconformity-bounded, coarse clastic units occur between typical upper Windermere and typical Lower Cambrian lithotypes. These include the Jasper Formation near Jasper, and the Three Sisters Formation in the southern Selkirk Mountains (Figs. 6.9c, 6.9c map, 6.9d, 6.9d map) Both consist of crossbedded, feldspathic to arkosic sandstones and conglomerates, with minor argillites and siltstones (Charlesworth et al., 1967; Little, 1960; Devlin and Bond, 1988). Both units have been interpreted as Late Proterozoic or Early Cambrian in age by various authors. On Figures 6.8 and 6.9c, 6.9c map, 6.9d, 6.9d map we interpret these units as being older than the widespread, locally feldspathic sandstones at the base of the Hamill and Gog groups. In the Cariboo Mountains, the top of the Upper Proterozoic consists of interbedded carbonates and terrigenous clastics of the Yankee Belle Formation (Fig. 6.8). This unit is probably younger than most of the upper Miette Group strata, and is disconformably or conformably overlain by the sandstone-dominated Yanks Peak Formation, which is equivalent to the basal Gog Group to the southeast.
In the Mackenzie and Wernecke mountains, Northwest Territories, the Windermere Supergroup contains simple trace fossils and Ediacaran megafossils throughout the topmost 2.5 km of section (Narbonne and Hofmann, 1987). The first trace fossils and Ediacaran megafossils occur in the deep-water grits below a tillite, indicating that significant colonization of the deep seafloor began in the Late Precambrian and may relate to waning glaciation (Aitken, 1989a). Ediacaran-bearing limestones also occur near Jasper (Byng Formation, Fig. 6.9d, 6.9d map; Hofmann et al., 1985) and medusoid forms resembling the Ediacaran fossils have been reported from the upper Isaac Formation in the Cariboo Mountains (Ferguson and Simony, 1991). Diversity and complexity of trace fossils increases upward toward the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary, commonly marked by the abrupt occurrence of complex two- and three-dimensional forms in the Cambrian (Narbonne et al., 1987). Preliminary biostratigraphic zones appear to be correlative across North America (Narbonne et al., 1987), and as such they may provide a correlation tool for the uppermost Windermere strata and aid in the distinction of the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary.
In the southern Canadian Cordillera, the lower Paleozoic successions, including the Gog, upper Cariboo, Hamill and lower Lardeau groups (Fig. 6.8), are notable for their striking similarity along tectonic strike. A number of units are very widespread and can be used for long-distance correlation (Fig. 6.8). The base of the Gog Group is most likely Early Cambrian (570 Ma) and this unit and the correlative Hamill Group unconformably or disconformably overlie the Upper Proterozoic Windermere Supergroup. Sediments are predominantly sandstones deposited on a rapidly subsiding continental margin at a time marked by a worldwide transgression (Vail et al., 1977). The Peyto Limestone Member and Hota Formation at the top of the Gog Group contain very late Early Cambrian Ollenellus (trilobite) fauna. Thus, the age range for the Gog Group is Early Cambrian to very late Early Cambrian. In the southern Canadian Cordillera, the top of the Gog Group is bevelled by the sub-Middle Cambrian unconformity (Aitken, 1989b). East of the Rockies in the Alberta Basin the relationship of the Gog quartzite to the Basal Sandstone is uncertain; however, most workers consider the Basal Sandstone to be the temporal equivalent of the Middle Cambrian Mount Whyte Formation of the Rockies (Aitken, 1968; Pugh, 1975).
In the southern Canadian Cordillera, detailed structural, stratigraphic and sedimentological studies have been conducted in local study areas, but regional studies are lacking for the Gog Group. Recent preliminary syntheses of the lithologies, age and tectonic setting of the Gog Group are given by Aitken (1989b) and Campbell and Gabrielse (in press b). Bond and Kominz (1984) modelled the subsidence history of these lower Paleozoic successions. Devlin and Bond (1988) discussed regional correlations of the Lower Hamill Group in southeastern British Columbia.
The style of sedimentation indicates that most of the Gog and Hamill groups was deposited along a stable passive continental margin. Local structural controls included the influence of Montania and the Windermere High in the southeast and the McBride Arch, with the inboard Robson Trough, to the northwest (Young, 1979). Subsidence analysis led Bond and Kominz (1984) to conclude that the thermal subsidence of the lower Paleozoic passive margin was initiated by a latest Proterozoic or earliest Cambrian rifting event. Greenstones interbedded with deep-water mass-flow deposits in the northern Selkirk Mountains (Fig. 6.9b, 6.9b map) are considered direct evidence for an episode of extensional tectonism during the earliest Cambrian (Devlin, 1989).
A number of formations are recognized within the Lower Cambrian succession of the southern Canadian Cordillera. Many of these formations are very uniform throughout the area, although in general, they become more shaly toward the west. Because of the fairly uniform nature of most of the units, correlations are more certain than in the underlying Windermere, and are summarized in Figure 6.8. Two sedimentary units are used as datums. These are the base of the archeocyathid-bearing Mural Formation, and the base of the Ollenellus-bearing Peyto Member/Hota Formation (Figs. 6.8, 6.9). The Mural correlates regionally with the archeocyathid- bearing limestones of the Donald, Mohican/Badshot formations of the Dogtooth and Purcell mountains, and with the Old Dominion Limestone of northwestern Washington (Fig. 6.9b, 6.9b map, 6.9c, 6.9c map).
Initial deposits of the Lower Cambrian are feldspathic, poorly sorted, conglomeratic or pebbly sandstones. In the basal McNaughton, very thick successions of massive conglomerate were emplaced by fan deltas and possibly braided rivers in the central Rocky Mountains (Fig. 6.9a, 6.9a map; Young, 1979). Farther south, feldspathic conglomerates are generally absent. Devlin and Bond (1988) interpreted the Three Sisters Formation as an Early Cambrian fluvial succession, which may be equivalent to the basal McNaughton. However, we have followed the pre-Hamill Group interpretation of Little (1960) on our regional cross section (Fig. 6.9c, 6.9c map). In the northern Selkirk Mountains, the lower sandstone within the Hamill Group (Fig. 6.9b, 6.9b map) is unchannelled and uniform along strike, and has features indicating a shallow-marine origin (Devlin, 1989). The next unit in this area is a greenstone and graded sandstone unit, which is interpreted as representing a period of volcanism, creation of a deep-water paleoslope or fault scarp, and the emplacement of large volumes of submarine mass flows along the base-of-slope. Sedimentation is interpreted to have been strongly influenced by syndepositional faulting. With waning tectonic activity and filling of the fault basin, shallow-marine deposition returned and the upper sandstone unit resulted (Fig. 6.9b, 6.9b map). Finally, as clastic supply dwindled, carbonate sedimentation associated with a possible transgression ensued, resulting in deposition of the Badshot limestone (Fig. 6.9c, 6.9c map).
Lateral equivalents to the upper sandstone in the northern Selkirks are very well exposed in the Kicking Horse Pass area, where they have been studied in detail (Hein, 1987; Hein et al., in press; Fig. 6.9b, 6.9b map, 6.9c, 6.9c map). Here, the tidally-dominated Fort Mountain Formation consists of quartzite and less common shale. This is succeeded by the shaly, shallow-marine Lake Louise Formation which, in turn, is overlain by shelf sandstone ridges of the St. Piran Formation. As with the clastic successions in the Selkirk Mountains, clastic supply diminished through time, with the capping limestone of the Peyto Formation completing the sequence.
To the northwest, in the central Rocky Mountains, sandstones of the lower McNaughton are shallow marine and strongly tidally influenced (Fig. 6.9a, 6.9a map). In the Robson Trough (Walker Creek and Bastille Creek, Fig. 6.9a, 6.9a map) the middle and upper McNaughton formations are shallow-marine successions. Laterally equivalent strata to the west, over the McBride Arch, are subaerial (Yanks Peak Formation; Mt. Cochran and Dome Creek, Fig. 6.9a, 6.9a map; Young, 1979). During deposition of the Midas Formation, sand supply was greatly diminished, and weak tidal currents moved material in the Robson Trough and to the west. Finally, the Robson Trough was infilled and an iron-rich, calcareous green shale, interpreted as a lateritic paleosol (Young, 1979), was deposited above the McNaughton, forming the basal unit of the Mural. Shallow-marine carbonates of the Mural Formation record a transgression. Overlying quartz sandstones of the Mahto Formation (Fig. 6.8) record two large-scale sandstone-shale successions deposited in shallow-marine to alluvial environments. The Mural Formation thins and becomes sandier to the south and east (Figs. 6.9c, 6.9c map, 6.9d, 6.9d map). Where the Mural is no longer recognized, the Mahto is not distinguished from underlying strata. Clastic supply diminished and limestones of the Hota Formation (Peyto Member) occur at the top of the group.
The clastic successions within the Gog Group lack body fossils but contain a diverse trace fossil assemblage (Magwood, 1988). Some of the common traces documented in the Kicking Horse Pass/ Lake Louise area include: Bergaueria, Cruziana, Skolithos, Didymaulichnus, Rusophycus, Gordia, Planolites, Chondrites, Phycodes, Teichichnus and Zoophycus, plus others. Most of these forms and their abundance suggest that these traces belong to the Cruziana ichnofacies. Concentrations of Skolithos (called'pipestone rock' locally) occur in coarser grained, and higher energy deposits (Fig. 6.9c, 6.9c map). The presence of well developed Cruziana and Rusophycus within the Gog Group in the Lake Louise area indicates it is Atdabanian in age (Magwood, 1988). This is supported by the presence of the Olenellus index fossils in the Peyto Member, which also are Atdabanian in age. Elsewhere, lower Gog Group strata contain more simple traces and a less diverse ichnofacies (Young, 1979).
We would like to thank Shell Canada Limited for providing detailed lithology logs for the Shell Grouse and Shell MacDonald wells; Kevin Root and Rick Young for their careful review of the manuscript; Peter Fermor for discussions on Purcell correlations and lithotypes in the Lewis thrust sheet; and Peter Gubitz, Peter Neelands and Elizabeth Johnston for drafting of original figures.
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