INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS TRUST, et al., Defendants.
*734 Joseph R. Solfanelli, Solfanelli & Butler, Scranton, Pa., John M. Elliott, Louis B. Kupperman, Karen M. Scheller, Francis X. O'Brien, Jr., Baskin, Flaherty, Elliott & Mannino, P.C., Philadelphia, Pa., for plaintiff.
Bernard Smolens, Philadelphia, Pa., David S. Hope, Carl A. Solano, J. David Smith, Williamsport, Pa., for defendants.
On March 8, 1988, the Plaintiff, McClellan Realty Corporation ("McClellan"), filed its complaint against the Defendants Institutional Investors Trust, Institutional Investors Corporation, Unicorp American Corporation (collectively known as "the IIT Defendants"), and Chicago Title Insurance Company ("Chicago Title"). On May 13, 1988, the IIT Defendants filed a motion to dismiss Counts II, III, and IV of the complaint pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 12(b) (6) or, in the alternative, for summary judgment pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 56. Also on May 13, 1988, Chicago Title filed a motion to dismiss Counts I and V of the complaint or, in the alternative, for summary judgment. Oral argument on the motions was held in Williamsport on November 8, 1988, and these motions are now ripe for our disposition.
McClellan's complaint is derived from the outcome of prior litigation. Both the prior and current litigation are based upon certain notes and mortgages that were sold for approximately $4.2 million by Institutional Investors Trust to Pagnotti Enterprises ("Pagnotti") and then immediately assigned to its subsidiary, McClellan. The original notes and mortgages were part of a transaction in which Institutional Investors Trust lent Blue Coal Corporation, Raymond Colliery Company, Inc., Olyphant Associates and Glen Nan, Inc., $8,530,000. Blue Coal Corporation, Raymond Colliery Company, Inc., Olyphant Associates, and Glen Nan, Inc., executed mortgages on their respective lands to secure the loans. Chicago Title issued a "title insurance policy" in the face amount of $8,530,000. The purpose of the title insurance policy was to protect Institutional Investors Trust and its successors or assigns against the invalidity or unenforceability of the notes and mortgages. The purchase and sale of the notes and mortgages from Institutional Investors Trust occurred on December 15, 1976, and on December 16, 1976, an involuntary petition in bankruptcy was filed involving Blue Coal Corporation, one of the debtors.
*735 On December 12, 1980, the United States filed an action against McClellan seeking to invalidate the mortgages McClellan acquired from Institutional Investors Trust as fraudulent conveyances. The United States brought its action after this Court granted judgment in favor of the United States and against Raymond Colliery Company, Inc., and its subsidiaries in the amount of $2,795,795.16 plus interest for assessed and unpaid federal income taxes for fiscal years 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, and 1971. United States v. Gleneagles Investment Co., Inc., 584 F. Supp. 671, 677 (M.D. Pa.1984) ("Gleneagles III"); United States v. Gleneagles Investment Co., Inc., 565 F. Supp. 556, 560 (M.D.Pa.1983) ("Gleneagles I"). The United States argued that the mortgages in the hands of McClellan were void because McClellan had knowledge that the mortgages were fraudulent conveyances. Id. at 562. On March 26, 1985, we issued a final order and judgment setting aside the mortgages and liens as fraudulent conveyances. Paragraph 4 of that order subordinates McClellan's liens to a penultimate position of all creditors.
1. The assigned IIT mortgages and other security investments of McClellan as against the Trustee in Bankruptcy are void.
2. McClellan possesses no rights as a creditor with respect to the putative assignment of the IIT mortgages.
McClellan's present complaint contains five counts, with Counts I and V asserted only against Defendant Chicago Title, and Counts II, III, and IV asserted only against the IIT Defendants. We will address McClellan's claims against Chicago Title and the IIT Defendants respectively.
In considering a motion for summary judgment, we must ascertain, on the basis of pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, whether or not there are any genuine issues of material fact, and if none, whether the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Fed.R.Civ.P. 56; Peterson v. Lehigh Valley District Council, 676 F.2d 81, 84 (3d Cir.1982). An issue is genuine only if the evidence is such that a reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 106 S. Ct. 2505, 2510, 91 L. Ed. 2d 202 (1986); Hankins v. Temple University, 829 F.2d 437, 440 (3d Cir.1987); Equimark Community Finance Co. v. C.I.T. Financial Services Corp., 812 F.2d 141, 144 (3d Cir.1987). If evidence is merely colorable or not significantly probative, summary judgment must be granted in favor of the movant. Anderson, 106 S. Ct. at 2511. When the record, taken as a whole, could not lead one to find for the nonmoving party, summary judgment must be entered in favor of the movant. Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 106 S. Ct. 1348, 1356, 89 L. Ed. 2d 538 (1986).
When considering a motion to dismiss, the complaint must be liberally construed and viewed in the light most favorable to the plaintiff. Gomez v. Toledo, 446 U.S. 635, 636 n. 3, 100 S. Ct. 1920, 1934 n. 3, 64 L. Ed. 2d 572 (1980); Jennings v. Shuman, 567 F.2d 1213, 1216 (3d Cir.1977). The factual allegations contained in the complaint and every deducible inference therefrom must be accepted as true for the purposes of the motion. United States v. Mississippi, 380 U.S. 128, 85 S. Ct. 808, 13 L. Ed. 2d 717 (1965).
In Count I of its complaint, McClellan claims that it is insured under the title insurance policy which Chicago Title issued to IIT and it demands judgment in the full amount of the policy, $8,530,000, plus legal fees, expenses, and costs. Chicago Title's insurance policy covers the "owner of the indebtedness secured by the insured mortgage *736 and each successor in ownership of such indebtedness." (Complaint, ¶¶ 7-8). Therefore, by the very terms of the insurance policy cited by McClellan, there must have been a valid underlying indebtedness in existence in order for Chicago Title to be liable under its policy. McClellan can only recover from Chicago Title if the underlying debt insured by Chicago Title is or was a valid one. The first issue that we must address is whether McClellan is collaterally estopped from litigating in this action the question of whether the entire underlying indebtedness is deemed satisfied.
(4) The party against whom it is asserted [must have had] a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issue in question in a prior action.
Ranger, 800 F.2d at 330-31 (quoting Cohen, 616 F.2d at 707; Safeguard Mutual Insurance Co. v. Williams, 463 Pa. 567, 574, 345 A.2d 664, 668 (1975)). To assert the doctrine of collateral estoppel, Chicago Title need not have been a party to the prior litigation. Cohen, 616 F.2d at 707.
All four elements necessary to invoke collateral estoppel are present in the case before us. First, the issue decided in "Gleneagles III", and also by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in United States v. Tabor Court Realty Corp., 803 F.2d 1288 (3d Cir.1986), was whether McClellan retained any status as a creditor based upon the notes and mortgages which it purchased from Institutional Investors Trust. Since Chicago Title insured the mortgages now held by McClellan, we are again called upon to decide whether the notes and mortgages it purchased are valid. Second, there was a final judgment on the merits in the Gleneagles case. Third, Chicago Title has asserted the plea of collateral estoppel against McClellan, and McClellan was a party to the prior adjudication. Finally, McClellan had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the validity of the mortgages. We read the Court of Appeals decision in United States v. Tabor Court Realty Corp., 803 F.2d 1288 (3d Cir.1986), to hold that there are no facts that McClellan can prove to show that it is an unsecured creditor as opposed to no creditor at all. Therefore, we conclude that as a matter of law, McClellan had a full and fair opportunity to litigate whether it was entitled to be an unsecured creditor.
In Gleneagles III we discussed the status of the indebtedness underlying the mortgages held by McClellan. In that opinion, we noted that McClellan foreclosed on its security interests in certain personalty of Raymond Colliery Company, Inc., at a private sale conducted on February 28, 1978, at which the assets foreclosed upon were sold to Loree Associates for $50,000. Gleneagles, III, 584 F. Supp. at 680. In addition, McClellan also sold the stock of Raymond Colliery Company, Inc., held by it as collateral, at a private sale on October 6, 1978, to Joseph Solfanelli as Trustee for Pagnotti for $1.00. Id. We ruled that the private sales were commercially unreasonable. Id. We denied, however, the request of creditors that we conclude that the debt secured by the IIT mortgages was extinguished because of McClellan's unreasonable foreclosure and execution sales of Raymond Colliery's assets. Id. at 681. Consequently, we ruled that McClellan was entitled to a lien against the lands of Raymond Colliery Company, Inc.
The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in United States v. Tabor Court Realty Corp., 803 F.2d 1288 (3d *737 Cir.1986), ruled, however, that because of McClellan's commercially unreasonable sales, a presumption arose that the value of the collateral sold by McClellan equalled the indebtedness. Tabor, 803 F.2d at 1307 (citing Savoy v. Beneficial Consumer Discount Co., 503 Pa. 74, 78, 468 A.2d 465, 467 (1983)). Accordingly, the Court of Appeals reversed our decision in Gleneagles III to the extent that it recognized McClellan's status as a creditor against the Trustee in Bankruptcy. In our Order No. 2 of December 16, 1986, following the mandate issued to us by the Court of Appeals, we declared the mortgages assigned to McClellan to be void as against the Trustee in Bankruptcy, and also declared that "McClellan possesses no rights as a creditor with respect to the putative assignment of the IIT mortgages." McClellan never raised any objection to this order or took any appeal therefrom. Based upon the foregoing, we conclude that the debt owed to McClellan was extinguished completely with respect to all parties, not just the Trustee in Bankruptcy. Because the debt was extinguished, there is no longer any "indebtedness" to be insured by Chicago Title's title insurance policy and McClellan is collaterally estopped from relitigating this issue. We will direct judgment in favor of Chicago Title on Count I of McClellan's complaint.
Count V of McClellan's complaint states that "Chicago Title Insurance Company, intentionally or negligently issued a title insurance policy implicitly certifying to Institutional Investors Trust, and to potential purchasers or assignees of the notes and mortgages including the Plaintiff, McClellan Realty Corporation, that the mortgages represented valid, binding, and enforceable first liens upon the real estate of the borrowing corporations." (Complaint, ¶ 28). McClellan asserts that it justifiably relied upon these implicit misrepresentations. (Complaint, ¶ 29).
One who fraudulently makes a misrepresentation of fact for the purpose of inducing another to act or refrain from acting in reliance thereon in a business transaction is liable to the other for the harm caused him by his justifiable reliance upon the misrepresentation. Shane v. Hoffmann, 227 Pa. Super. 176, 181, 324 A.2d 532 (1974). To be justifiable, reliance must be such that common prudence or diligence could not have ascertained the truth. Reimer v. Tien, 356 Pa.Super. 192, 514 A.2d 566, 569 (1986) (citing Shane v. Hoffmann, 227 Pa.Super. 176, 182, 324 A.2d 532 (1974)). In United States v. Gleneagles Investment Co., Inc., 571 F. Supp. 935, 951 (M.D.Pa.1983), ("Gleneagles II"), we discussed McClellan's awareness that the mortgages were fraudulent conveyances. In Gleneagles II, we noted that McClellan's parent, Pagnotti Enterprises, was responsible for obtaining the assignment of the IIT mortgages to McClellan. Therefore, we looked to the knowledge and actions of Pagnotti Enterprises. We noted that under the Pennsylvania Uniform Fraudulent Conveyances Act (hereinafter "the Act"), the subsequent purchaser of a fraudulent conveyance or obligation takes subject to the rights of creditors under the Act unless the subsequent purchaser is a "purchaser for fair consideration without knowledge of the fraud at the time of the purchase." Id. (quoting 39 Pa.Stat. § 359(1)). We called such a purchaser a "bona fide purchaser." Id. We stated that under the Act, Pagnotti Enterprises would attain the status of a bona fide purchaser only if it could establish both that it purchased the IIT mortgages for fair consideration and that it neither knew nor should have known at the time of the purchase that the IIT mortgages were fraudulent conveyances. Id. at 951-52. We concluded that Pagnotti Enterprises either knew or should have known that the IIT mortgages were not supported by fair consideration and we also concluded that there were sufficient facts known to Pagnotti Enterprises which would have alerted a reasonably prudent person to the likelihood that the IIT mortgages were defective, and should thus have made further inquiry into the background of the IIT mortgages. Id. at 952. Our detailed findings of fact in Gleneagles II indicated that Pagnotti Enterprises did not obtain the mortgages in good faith. Id. at 952-53.
*738 The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in United States v. Tabor Court Realty Corp., 803 F.2d 1288, 1299 (3d Cir.1986), concluded that although McClellan had attempted to distance itself from Pagnotti, it could not do this successfully. The Court in Tabor stated that a well recognized rule provides that an assignee gets only those rights held by its assignor and no more. Id. Accordingly, the Court ruled that because McClellan's rights as an assignee were no greater than Pagnotti's and because McClellan did not show that our findings of fact in Gleneagles II were clearly erroneous, McClellan had the same quality of faith as that possessed by Pagnotti. Accordingly, we conclude that McClellan stands in the shoes of Pagnotti Enterprises with respect to the purchase of the IIT mortgages, and that Pagnotti Enterprises' lack of good faith means that McClellan cannot now successfully put forth a claim that it justifiably relied upon any misrepresentations which may have been made. Furthermore, we do not recall that any fresh representations were in fact made by Chicago Title directly to either Pagnotti or McClellan when Pagnotti bought the mortgages and obligation and McClellan makes no such claim. We shall dismiss Count V of McClellan's complaint.
Counts II, III, and IV of the complaint allege causes of action against the IIT Defendants. Count II of McClellan's complaint seeks recission of the sale of notes and mortgages by Institutional Investors Trust that occurred on January 26, 1977. Under Pennsylvania law, recission is to be granted only when the parties to the contract can be placed in their former positions with regard to the subject matter of the contract. Sullivan v. Allegheny Ford Truck Sales, Inc., 283 Pa.Super. 351, 423 A.2d 1292, 1295 (1980). When the party seeking recission cannot restore the opposite party to the status quo recission is unavailable as a remedy. Associated Hardware Supply Co. v. Big Wheel Distributing Co., 355 F.2d 114, 120-21 (3d Cir.1965). As we have already noted, McClellan extinguished the underlying debt by its own private sales of certain of the collateral, thereby causing the notes and mortgages evidencing and securing the debt to be satisfied. Tabor, 803 F.2d at 1306-07. McClellan has permanently and irreparably altered the status quo.
Fraudulent misrepresentation may also serve as a basis to rescind a contract. Berger v. Pittsburgh Auto Equipment Co., 387 Pa. 61, 127 A.2d 334, 335 (1956). McClellan's claim fails on this issue as well. As we previously noted, the actions of McClellan's principal, Pagnotti Enterprises, in the underlying transaction means that McClellan is unable to raise the issue of fraud in this case. See Tabor, 803 F.2d at 1299 (holding that McClellan is charged with having the same quality of faith as Pagnotti).
Finally, on the question of recission, we note that a party who discovers facts which warrant recission of his contract must act promptly, and in case he elects to rescind, he must notify the other party without delay, or within a reasonable time. Fichera v. Gording, 424 Pa. 404, 227 A.2d 642 (1967). In the case before us, rather than acting without delay to rescind the sales contract upon discovering the insolvency of the indebted companies, McClellan chose to foreclose on the assets in a commercially unreasonable manner.
109. At the December 14 and 15, 1976, meetings between Pagnotti Enterprises and IIT, counsel for IIT emphasized that the mortgaged debts were being sold "as is" and with absolutely no representations or warranties.
United States v. Gleneagles Investment Co., Inc., 571 F. Supp. 935, 944 (M.D.Pa. 1983).
*739 All of the elements of collateral estoppel discussed earlier in this opinion are again satisfied in Count III of McClellan's complaint. McClellan has failed to present any new facts on this question, and is unable to point to any express language of warranty contained in any of the documents which it claims support its cause of action. McClellan's claim for breach of warranty is without merit.
McClellan's third and final cause of action against the IIT Defendants, contained in Count IV of its complaint, alleges unjust enrichment. A cause of action for unjust enrichment requires the Plaintiff to prove two elements: first, an enrichment to another; second, a resulting injustice if recovery for the enrichment is denied. Efco Importers v. Halsobrunn, 500 F. Supp. 152, 157 (E.D.Pa.1980) (Cord, C.J.). The quasi-contractual doctrine of unjust enrichment is inapplicable, however, when the relationship between the parties is founded upon a written agreement or express contract. Id. at 158 (quoting Schott v. Westinghouse Electric Corp., 436 Pa. 279, 259 A.2d 443, 448 (1969)). The relationship of the parties in this case is governed by the written agreement of sale between Institutional Investors Trust and Pagnotti Enterprises. (IIT Defendants Motion for Summary Judgment, Exhibit C). As Pagnotti's assignee, McClellan is bound by the terms of the original agreement of sale between Pagnotti and Institutional Investors Trust.
For the foregoing reasons, we conclude that, even if all of McClellan's claims are deemed to be true, McClellan has failed to establish a basis to recover damages against either Chicago Title or the IIT Defendants. We conclude that all Defendants are entitled to judgment in their favor as a matter of law and we will issue an appropriate order.
1. The motion of Chicago Title Insurance Company to dismiss or, in the alternative, for summary judgment on Count I of McClellan Realty Corporation's complaint is granted insofar as it seeks summary judgment in its favor and is denied in all other respects.
2. The motion of Chicago Title Insurance Company to dismiss or, in the alternative, for summary judgment on Count V of McClellan Realty Corporation's complaint is granted insofar as it seeks to dismiss this count and is denied in all other respects as to Count V.
3. McClellan Realty Corp. may file a new complaint within 20 days as to the subject matter in Count V only. Such complaint shall be complete within itself and without reference to McClellan's previously filed complaint.
4. Failure of McClellan to file an amended complaint in compliance with ¶ 3 of this order will result in dismissal of this case.
5. The motion of Institutional Investors Trust, Institutional Investors Corporation, and Unicorp American Corporation to dismiss or, in the alternative, for summary judgment on Counts II, III, and IV of McClellan Realty Corporation's complaint is granted insofar as it seeks summary judgment in their favor and is denied in all other respects.
6. The Clerk of the Court shall enter judgment in favor of Institutional Investors Trust, Institutional Investors Corporation, Unicorp American Corporation, and Chicago Title Insurance Company on Counts I, II, III, and IV.


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157. Jones, C.D., V. Arora, P. Friedlingstein, L. Bopp, V. Brovkin, J. Dunne, H. Graven, F. Hoffman, T. Ilyina, J.G. John, M. Jung, M. Kawamiya, C. Koven, J. Pongratz, T. Raddatz, J.T. Randerson, and S. Zaehle. 2016. C4MIP – the Coupled-Climate Carbon Cycle Model Intercomparison Project: experimental protocol for CMIP6. Geoscientific Model Development. 9: 2853-2880. doi:10.5194/gmd-9-2853-2016.
156. Faivre, N., Y. Jin, M.L. Goulden, and J.T. Randerson. 2016. Spatial patterns and controls on burned area for two contrasting fire regimes in Southern California. Ecosphere. 7(5): e01210. doi: 10.1002/ecs2.1210.
155. Chen, Y., N. Andela, L. Giglio, D.C. Morton, and J.T. Randerson. 2016. How much global burned area can be forecast on seasonal time scales using sea surface temperatures? Environmental Research Letters. 11: 045001. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/045001.
154. Hopkins, F.M., E.A. Kort, S.E. Bush, J.R. Ehleringer, C.-Ta Lai, D.R. Blake, and J.T. Randerson. 2016. Spatial patterns and source attribution of urban methane in the Los Angeles Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. 121(5): 2490–2507. doi: 10.1002/2015JD024429.
153. Holden, S.R., B.M. Rogers, K.K. Treseder, and J.T. Randerson. 2015. Fire severity influences the response of soil microbes to a boreal forest fire. Environmental Research Letters. 11: 035004.
152. Luo, Y., A. Ahlström, S.D. Allison, N.H. Batjes, V. Brovkin, N. Carvalhais, A. Chappell, P. Ciais, E.A. Davidson, A. Finzi, K. Georgiou, B. Guenet, O. Hararuk, J.W. Harden, Y. He, F. Hopkins, L. Jiang, C. Koven, R.B. Jackson, C. Jones, M.J. Lara, J. Liang, A.D. McGuire, W. Parton, C. Peng, J.T. Randerson, A. Salazar, C.A. Sierra, M. Smith, H. Tian, K.E.O. Todd-Brown, M. Torn, K.J. van Groenigen, Y.P. Wang, T.O. West, Y. Wei, W.R. Wieder, J. Xia, X. Xu, X. Xu, T. Zhou. 2016. Toward more realistic projections of soil carbon dynamics by Earth system models. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 30(1): 40-56. doi: 10.1002/2015GB005239.
151. Mouteva, G.O., C.I. Czimczik, S.M. Fahrni, E.B. Wiggins, B.M. Rogers, S. Veraverbeke, X. Xu, G.M. Santos, J. Henderson, C.E. Miller, and J.T. Randerson. 2015. Black carbon aerosol dynamics and isotopic composition in Alaska linked with boreal fire emissions and depth of burn in organic soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 29(11): 1977-2000. doi:10.1002/2015GB005247.
150. LoPresti, A., A. Charland, D. Woodard, J. Randerson, N.S Diffenbaugh, and S.J Davis. 2015. Rate and velocity of climate change caused by cumulative carbon emissions. Environmental Research Letters. 10: 095001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/9/095001.
149. Mouteva, G.O., S.M. Fahrni, G.M. Santos, J.T. Randerson, Y.-L. Zhang, S. Szidat, and C.I. Czimczik. 2015. Accuracy and precision of 14C-based source apportionment of organic and elemental carbon in aerosols using the Swiss_4S protocol. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 8: 3729-3743. doi:10.5194/amt-8-3729-2015.
148. Jin, Y., M.L. Goulden, N. Faivre, S. Veraverbeke, F. Sun, A. Hall, M.S. Hand, S. Hook, and J.T. Randerson. 2015. Identification of two distinct fire regimes in Southern California: implications for economic impact and future change. Environmental Research Letters. 10: 094005. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/9/094005.
147. Bush, S.E., F.M. Hopkins, J.T. Randerson, C.T. Lai, and J.R. Ehleringer. 2015. Design and application of a mobile ground-based observatory for continuous measurements of atmospheric trace-gas and criteria pollutant species. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 8: 3481-3492. doi:10.5194/amt-8-3481-2015.
146. Chen, Y., D.C. Morton, and J.T. Randerson. 2015. Tropical North Atlantic atmosphere-ocean interactions synchronize forest carbon losses from hurricanes and Amazon fires. Geophysical Research Letters. doi: 10.1002/2015GL064505.
145. Veraverbeke, S., B.M. Rogers, and J.T. Randerson. 2015. Daily burned area and carbon emissions from boreal fires in Alaska. Biogeosciences. 12: 3579-3601. doi: 10.5194/bg-12-3579-201.
144. Randerson, J.T., K. Lindsay, E. Munoz, W. Fu, J.K. Moore, F.M. Hoffman, N.M. Mahowald, and S.C. Doney. 2015. Multicentury changes in ocean and land contributions to the climate-carbon feedback. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 29: 744–759. doi: 10.1002/2014GB005079.
143. Rogers, B.M., A.J. Soja, M.L. Goulden, and J.T. Randerson. 2015. Influence of tree species on continental differences in boreal fires and climate feedbacks. Nature Geosciences. 8: 228–234. doi: 10.1038/NGEO23.
142. Zscheischler, J., M. Reichstein, J. von Buttlar, M. Mu, J.T. Randerson, and M. D. Mahecha. 2014. Carbon-cycle extremes during the 21st century in CMIP5 models: future evolution and attribution to climatic drivers. Geophysical Research Letters. 41: 8853–8861. doi: 10.1002/2014GL062409.
141. Buenning, N., D. Noone, J. Randerson, W.J. Riley, C. and Still. 2014. The response of the 18O/16O composition of atmospheric CO2 to changes in environmental conditions. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 119(1): 55-79. doi:10.1002/2013JG002312.
140. Lindsay, K. G.B. Bonan, S.C. Doney, F.M. Hoffman, D.M. Lawrence, M.C. Long, N.M. Mahowald, J.K. Moore, J.T. Randerson, and P.E. Thornton. 2014. Preindustrial control and 20th century carbon cycle experiments with the Earth system model CESM1(BGC). Journal of Climate. 27: 8981-9005. doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00565.1.
139. Keppel-Aleks, G., A.S. Wolf, M. Mu, S.C. Doney, D.C. Morton, P.S. Kasibhatla, and J.T. Randerson. 2014. Separating the influence of temperature, drought, and fire on interannual variability in atmospheric CO2. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 28: 1295-1310. doi: 10.1002/2014GB004890.
138. Carvalhais, N., M. Forkel, M. Khomik, J. Bellarby, M. Jung, M. Migliavacca, M. Mu, S. Saatchi, M. Santoro, M. Thurner, U. Weber, B. Ahrens, C. Beer, A. Cescatti, J.T. Randerson, and M. Reichstein. 2014. Global covariation of carbon turnover times with climate in terrestrial ecosystems. Nature. 514: 213-217. doi: 10.1038/nature13731.
137. Rogers, B.M., G. Azzari, C.I. Czimczik, S.R. Holden, G.O. Mouteva, F. Sedano, K. K. Treseder, S. Veraverbeke, and J.T. Randerson. 2014. Quantifying fire-wide carbon emissions in interior Alaska using field measurements and Landsat imagery. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 119: 1608-1629. doi: 10.1002/2014JG002657.
136. Zscheischler, J., M.D. Mahecha, J. von Buttlar, S. Harmeling, M. Jung, A. Rammig, J.T. Randerson, B. Scholkopf, S.I. Seneviratne, E. Tomelleri, S. Zaehle, and M. Reichstein. 2014. A few extreme events dominate global interannual variability in gross primary production. Environmental Research Letters. 9: 035001. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/035001.
135. Faivre, N., Y. Jin, M.L. Goulden, and J.T. Randerson. 2014. Controls on the spatial pattern of wildfire ignitions in Southern California. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 23: 799-811. doi: 10.1071/WF13136.
134. Sedano, F.A. and J.T. Randerson. 2014. Multi-scale influence of vapor pressure deficit on fire ignition and spread in boreal forest ecosystems. Biogeosciences. 11: 3739–3755. doi: 10.5194/bg-11-3739-2014.
133. de Linage, C., J.S. Famiglietti, and J.T. Randerson. 2014. Statistical prediction of terrestrial water storage changes in the Amazon basin using tropical Pacific and North Atlantic sea surface temperature anomalies. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 18: 2089–2102. doi: 10.5194/hess-18-2089-2014.
132. Marlier, M.E., A. Voulgarakis, D.T. Shindell, G. Faluvegi, C.L. Henry, and J.T. Randerson. 2014. The role of temporal evolution in modeling atmospheric emissions from tropical fires. Atmospheric Environment. 89: 158-168. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.02.039.
131. Lin, H.W., J.L. McCarty, D. Wang, B.M. Rogers, D.C. Morton, G.J. Collatz, Y. Jin, and J.T. Randerson. 2014. Management and climate contributions to satellite-derived active fire trends in the contiguous United States. Journal of Geophysical Research- Biogeosciences. 119: 645-660. doi: 10.1002/2013JG002382.
130. Jin, Y., J.T. Randerson, S. Capps, A. Hall, N. Faivre, and M.L. Goulden. 2014. Contrasting controls on wildland fires in Southern California during periods with and without Santa Ana winds. Journal of Geophysical Research-Biogeosciences. 119:432-450. doi: 10.1002/2013JG002541.
129. Hoffman, F.M., J.T. Randerson, V.K. Arora, Q. Bao, P. Cadule, D. Ji, C.D. Jones, M. Kawamiya, S. Khatiwala, K. Lindsay, A. Obata, E. Shevliakova, K.D. Six, J.F. Tjiputra, E.M. Volodin, and T. Wu. 2014. Causes and implications of persistent atmospheric carbon dioxide biases in Earth system models. Journal of Geophysical Research-Biogeosciences. 119: 141-162. doi:10.1002/2013JG002381.
128. Todd-Brown, K.E.O., J.T. Randerson, F. Hopkins, V. Arora, T. Hajima, C. Jones, E. Shevliakova, J. Tjiputra, E.Volodin, T. Wu, Q. Zhang, and S. D. Allison. 2014. Changes in soil organic carbon storage predicted by Earth system models during the 21st century. Biogeosciences. 11: 2341–2356. doi: 10.5194/bg-11-2341-2014.
127. Veraverbeke, S., F. Sedano, S.J. Hook, J.T. Randerson, Y. Jin, and B.M. Rogers. 2014. Mapping the daily progression of large wildland fires using MODIS active fire data. International Journal of Wildland Fire.23: 655-667. doi: 10.1071/WF13015.
126. Loranty, M.M., L.T. Berner, S.J. Goetz, Y.F. Jin, and J.T. Randerson. 2014. Vegetation controls on northern high latitude snow-albedo feedback: observations and CMIP5 model simulations. Global Change Biology. 20(2): 594-606. doi:10.1111/gcb.12391.
125. Chen, Y., D.C. Morton, Y. Jin, G.J. Gollatz, P.S. Kasibhatla, G.R. van der Werf, R.S. DeFries, and J.T. Randerson. 2013. Long-term trends and interannual variability of forest, savanna, and agricultural fires in South America. Carbon Management. 4(6): 617-638.
124. Wunch, D., P.O. Wennberg, J. Messerschmidt, N.C. Parazoo, G.C. Toon, N.M. Deutscher, G. Keppel-Aleks, C.M. Roehl, C. M., J.T. Randerson, T. Warneke, and J. Notholt. 2013. The covariation of Northern Hemisphere summertime CO2 with surface temperature in boreal regions. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 13(18): 9447-9459. doi:10.5194/acp-13-9447-2013.
123. Yue, C., Ciais, P., Luyssaert, S., Cadule, P.. Harden, J., Randerson, J., Bellassen, V., Wang, T., Piao, S. L., Poulter, B., Viovy, N.. 2013. Simulating boreal forest carbon dynamics after stand-replacing fire disturbance: insights from a global process-based vegetation model. Biogeosciences. 10(12): 8233-8252. doi:10.5194/bg-10-8233-2013.
122. Keppel-Aleks, G., J.T. Randerson, K. Lindsay, B. B. Stephens, J.K. Moore, S.C. Doney, P.E. Thornton, N.M. Mahowald, F.M. Hoffman, C. Sweeney, P.P. Tans, P.O. Wennberg, and S.C. Wofsy. 2013. Atmospheric carbon dioxide variability in the Community Earth System Model: Evaluation and transient dynamics during the 20th and 21st centuries. Journal of Climate. 26: 4447-4475. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00589.1.
121. Tosca, M.G., J.T. Randerson, and C.S. Zender. 2013. Global impact of smoke aerosols from landscape fires on climate and the Hadley circulation. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 13: 5227–5241. doi:10.5194/acp-13-5227-2013.
120. Chen, Y., I. Velicogna, J.S. Famiglietti, and J.T. Randerson. 2013. Satellite observations of terrestrial water storage provide early warning information about drought and fire season severity in the Amazon. Journal of Geophysical Research- Biogeosciences. 118(2): 495–504. doi:10.1002/jgrg.20046.
119. Giglio, L., J.T. Randerson, and G.R. van der Werf. 2013. Analysis of daily, monthly, and annual burned area using the fourth-generation global fire emissions database (GFED4). Journal of Geophysical Research- Biogeosciences. 118: 317–328. doi:10.1002/jgrg.20042.
118. Marlier, M.E., R.S. DeFries, A. Voulgarkis, P.L. Kinney, J.T. Randerson, D.T. Shindell, Y. Chen, and G. Faluvegi. 2012. El Niño and health risks from landscape fire emissions in Southeast Asia. Nature Climate Change. 3: 131-136. doi:10.1038/nclimate1658.
117. Todd-Brown, K.E.O., J.T. Randerson, W.M. Post, F.M. Hoffman, C. Tarnocai, E.A.G. Schuur, and S.D. Allison. 2013. Causes of variation in soil carbon simulations from CMIP5 Earth system models and comparison with observations. Biogeosciences. 10: 1717–1736. doi:10.5194/bg-10-1717-2013.
116. Morton, D.C., G.J. Collatz, D. Wang, J.T. Randerson, L. Giglio, and Y. Chen. 2013. Satellite-based assessment of climate controls on U.S. burned area. Biogeosciences. 10: 247–260. doi:10.5194/bg-10-247-2013.
115. Rogers, B.M., J.T. Randerson, and G.B. Bonan. 2013. High latitude cooling associated with landscape changes from North American boreal forest fires. Biogeosciences. 10: 699–718. doi:10.5194/bg-10-699-2013.
114. Randerson, J.T., Y. Chen, G.R. van der Werf, B.M. Rogers, and D.C. Morton. 2012. Global burned area and biomass burning emissions from small fires. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 117: G04012. doi:10.1029/2012JG002128.
113. Ward, D.S., S. Kloster, N.M. Mahowald, B.M. Rogers, J.T. Randerson, and P.G. Hess. 2012. The changing radiative forcing of fires: Global model estimates for past, present, and future. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 12: 10857-10886. doi:10.5194/acp-12-10857-2012.
112. Luo, Y.Q., J.T. Randerson, G. Abramowitz, C. Bacour, E. Blyth, N. Carvalhais, P. Ciais, D. Dalmonech, J. B. Fisher, R. Fisher, P. Friedlingstein, K. Hibbard, F. Hoffman, D. Huntzinger, C.D. Jones, C. Koven, D. Lawrence, D.J. Li, M. Mahecha, S.L. Niu, R. Norby, S.L. Piao, X. Qi, P. Peylin, I.C. Prentice, W. Riley, M. Reichstein, C. Schwalm, Y.P. Wang, J.Y. Xia, S. Zaehle, and X.H. Zhou. 2012. A framework for benchmarking land models. Biogeosciences. 9: 3857-3874. doi:10.5194/bg-9-3857-2012.
111. Jin, Y., J.T. Randerson, M.L. Goulden, and S.J. Goetz. 2012. Post-fire changes in net shortwave radiation along a latitudinal gradient in boreal North America. Geophysical Research Letters. 39: L13403. doi:10.1029/2012GL051790.
110. Lin, H.-w., Y. Jin, L. Giglio, J.A. Foley, and J.T. Randerson. 2012. Evaluating greenhouse gas emissions inventories for agricultural burning using satellite observations of active fires. Ecological Applications. 22: 1345–1364.
109. Johnston, F.H., S.B. Henderson, Y. Chen, J.T. Randerson, M. Marlier, R.S. DeFries, P. Kinney, D.M.J.S. Bowman, and M. Brauer. 2012. Estimated global mortality attributable to smoke from landscape fires. Environmental Health Perspectives. 120: 695-701.
108. Zender, C.S., A. G. Krolewski, M. G. Tosca, and J. T. Randerson. 2012. Tropical biomass burning smoke plume size, shape, reflectance, and age based on 2001–2009 MISR imagery of Borneo. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 12: 3437–3454. doi:10.5194/acp-12-3437-2012.
107. Jin, Y., J.T. Randerson, S.J. Goetz, P.S.A. Beck, M.M. Loranty, and M.L. Goulden. 2012. The influence of burn severity on post-fire vegetation recovery and albedo change during early succession in North American boreal forests. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 117: G01036. doi:10.1029/2011JG001886.
106. Kloster, S., N.M. Mahowald, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Lawrence. 2012. The impacts of climate, land use, and demography on fires during the 21st century simulated by CLM-CN. Biogeosciences. 9: 509-525. doi:10.5194/bg-9-509-2012.
105. Mu, M., J.T. Randerson, G.R. van der Werf, L. Giglio, P. Kasibhatla, D. Morton, G.J. Collatz, R.S. DeFries, E.J. Hyer, E.M. Prins, D.W.T. Griffith, D. Wunch, G.C. Toon, V. Sherlock, and P.O. Wennberg. 2011. Daily and 3-hourly variability in global fire emissions and consequences for atmospheric model predictions of carbon monoxide. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. 116: D24303. doi:10.1029/2011JD016245.
104. Chen, Y., J.T. Randerson, D. C. Morton, R.S. DeFries, G. J. Collatz, P.S. Kasibhatla, L, Giglio, Y. Jin and M. Marlier. 2011. Forecasting fire season severity in South America using sea surface temperature anomalies. Science. 334: 787-791. doi:10.1126/science.1209472.
103. Kai, F.M., S.C. Tyler, J.T. Randerson, and D.R. Blake. 2011. Reduced methane growth rate explained by decreased northern hemisphere microbial sources. Nature. 476: 194-197. doi:10.1038/nature10259.
102. Jin, Y., J.T. Randerson, and M.L. Goulden. 2011. Continental-scale net radiation and evapotranspiration estimated using MODIS satellite observations. Remote Sensing of the Environment. 115: 2302–2319.
101. Beck, P.S.A., S.J. Goetz, M.C. Mack, H.D. Alexander, Y. Jin, J.T. Randerson, and M.M. Loranty. 2011. The impacts and implications of an intensifying fire regime on Alaskan boreal forest composition and albedo. Global Change Biology. 17: 2853–2866. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02412.x.
100. French, N.H.F., W.J. de Groot, L.K. Jenkins, B.M. Rogers, E. Alvarado, B. Amiro, B. de Jong, S. Goetz, E. Hoy, E. Hyer, R. Keane, B.E. Law, D. McKenzie, S.G. McNulty, R. Ottmar, D.R. Pérez-Salicrup, J. Randerson, K. M. Robertson, and M. Turetsky. 2011. Model comparisons for estimating carbon emissions from North American wildland fire. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 116: G00K05. doi:10.1029/2010JG001469.
99. Mahowald, N., K. Lindsay, D. Rothenberg, S.C. Doney, J.K. Moore, P. Thornton, J. Randerson , C.D. Jones. (2011). Desert dust and anthropogenic aerosol interactions in the Community Climate System Model coupled-carbon-climate model. Biogeosciences. 8(2): 387-414. 1726-4170. doi:10.5194/bg-8-387-2011.
98. Tosca, M.G., J.T. Randerson, C.S. Zender, D.L. Nelson, D.J. Diner, and J. A. Logan. 2011. Dynamics of fire plumes and smoke clouds associated with peat and deforestation fires in Indonesia. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 116: D08207. doi:10.1029/2010JD015148.
97. van Leeuwen, T.T., A.J. Frank, Y. Jin, P. Smyth, M.L. Goulden, G.R. van der Werf, and J.T. Randerson. 2011. Optimal use of land surface temperature data to detect changes in tropical forest cover. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 116: G02002. doi:10.1029/2010JG001488.
96. Anderson, R.G., J.G. Canadell, J.T. Randerson, R.B. Jackson, B.A. Hungate, D.D. Baldocchi, G.A. Ban-Weiss, G.B. Bonan, K. Caldeira, L. Cao, N.S. Diffenbaugh, K.R. Gurney, L.M. Kueppers, B.E. Law, S. Luyssaert, T.L. O’Halloran. 2011. Biophysical considerations in forestry for climate protection. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 9(3): 174-182. doi:10.1890/090179.
95. van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, L. Giglio, G.J. Collatz, M. Mu, P.S. Kasibhatla, D.C. Morton, R.S. DeFries, Y. Jin, and T.T. van Leeuwen. 2010. Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997–2009). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 10: 11707-11735. doi:10.5194/acp-10-11707-2010.
94. Amiro, B.D., A.G. Barr, J.G. Barr, T.A. Black, R. Bracho, M. Brown, J. Chen, K.L. Clark, K.J. Davis, A.R. Desai, S. Dore, V. Engel, J.D. Fuentes, A.H. Goldstein, M.L. Goulden, T.E. Kolb, M.B. Lavigne, B.E. Law, H.A. Margolis, T. Martin, J.H. McCaughey, L. Misson, M. Montes-Helu, A. Noormets, J.T. Randerson, G. Starr, J. Xiao. 2010. Ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes after disturbance in forests of North America. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 115: G00K02. doi:10.1029/2010JG001390.
93. Kai, F.M., S.C. Tyler, and J.T. Randerson. 2010. Modeling methane emissions from rice agriculture in China during 1961 – 2007. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences. 7(S1): 49–60.
92. Kloster, S., N.M. Mahowald, J.T. Randerson, P.E. Thornton, F.M. Hoffman, S. Levis, P.J. Lawrence, J.J. Feddema, K.W. Oleson, and D.M. Lawrence. 2010. Fire dynamics during the 20th century simulated by the Community Land Model. Biogeosciences. 7: 1877-1902.
91. Chen, Y., J.T. Randerson, G.R. van der Werf, D.C. Morton, M. Mu, P.S. Kasibhatla. 2010. Nitrogen deposition in tropical forests from savanna and deforestation fires. Global Change Biology. 16(7): 2024-2038. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02156.x.
90. Tosca, M.G., J.T. Randerson, C.S. Zender, M.G. Flanner, and P.J. Rasch. 2010. Do biomass burning aerosols intensify drought in equatorial Asia during El Nino? Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 10: 3515–3528.
89. Giglio, L., J.T. Randerson, G.R. van der Werf, P.S. Kasibhatla, G.J. Collatz, D.C. Morton, and R.S. DeFries. 2010. Assessing variability and long-term trends in burned area by merging multiple satellite fire products. Biogeosciences. 7: 1171–1186.
88. Yuan, W.P., S.G. Liu, H.P. Liu, J.T. Randerson, G.R. Yu, and L.L. Tieszen. 2010. Impacts of precipitation seasonality and ecosystem types on evapotranspiration in the Yukon River Basin, Alaska. Water Resources Research. 46: 0043-1397. doi:10.1029/2009wr008119.
87. Le Quéré, C., M.R. Raupach, J.G. Canadell, G. Marland, L. Bopp, P. Ciais, T.J. Conway, S.C. Doney, R. Feely, P. Foster, P. Friedlingstein, K. Gurney, R.A. Houghton, Johanna I. House, C. Huntingford, P. Levy, M.R. Lomas, J. Majkut, N. Metzl, J. Ometto, G.P. Peters, I.C. Prentice, J.T. Randerson, C. Rödenbeck, S.W. Running, J.L. Sarmiento, U. Schuster, S. Sitch, T. Takahashi, N. Viovy, G.R. van der Werf, and F.I. Woodward. 2009. Trends in the sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Nature Geosciences. 2 (12): 831-836. doi: 10.1038/ngeo689.
86. Thornton, P.E., S.C. Doney, K. Lindsay, J.K. Moore, N. Mahowald, J.T. Randerson, I. Fung, J.-F. Lamarque, J.J. Feddema, and Y.-H. Lee. 2009. Carbon-nitrogen interactions regulate climate-carbon cycle feedbacks: results from an atmosphere-ocean general circulation model. Biogeosciences. 6: 2099-2120. www.biogeosciences.net/6/2099/2009/.
85. Randerson, J.T., F.M. Hoffman, P.E. Thornton, N.M. Mahowald, K. Lindsay, Y-H. Lee, C.D. Nevison, S.C. Doney, G. Bonan, R. Stöckli, C. Covey, S.W. Running, and I.Y. Fung. 2009. Systematic assessment of terrestrial biogeochemistry in coupled climate-carbon models. Global Change Biology. 15: 2462–2484. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01912.x.
84. Chen Y., Q. Li, J.T. Randerson, E.A. Lyons, R.A. Kahn, D.L. Nelson, and D.J. Diner. 2009. The sensitivity of CO and aerosol transport to the temporal and vertical distribution of North American boreal fire emissions. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 9(17): 6559-6580.
83. Yi, S. A.D. McGuire, J. Harden, E. Kasischke, K. Manies, L. Hinzman, A. Liljedahl, J. Randerson, H. Liu, V. Romanovsky, S. Marchenko, and Y. Kim. 2009. Interactions between soil thermal and hydrological dynamics in the response of Alaska ecosystems to fire disturbance. Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences. 114: G02015. doi:10.1029/2008JG000841.
82. Hockaday, W.C., C.A. Masiello. J.T. Randerson, R.J. Smernik, J.A. Baldock, O.A. Chadwick, and J.W. Harden. 2009. Measurement of soil carbon oxidation state and oxidative ratio by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance. Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences. 114: G02014. doi:10.1029/2008JG000803.
81. Still, C.J., W.J. Riley, S.C. Biraud, D.C. Noone, N.H. Buenning, J.T. Randerson, M.S. Torn, J. Welker, J.W.C. White, R. Vachon, G.D. Farquhar, and J.A. Berry. 2009. Influence of clouds and diffuse radiation on ecosystem-atmosphere CO2 and CO18O exchanges. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 114: G01018. doi:10.1029/2007JG000675.
80. Chen, Y., Q.B. Li, R.A. Kahn, J.T. Randerson, and D.J. Diner. 2009. Quantifying aerosol direct radiative effect with Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer observations: Top-of-atmosphere albedo change by aerosols based on land surface types. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 114: D02109. doi:10.1029/2008JD010754.
79. van der Werf, G.R., D.C. Morton, R.S. DeFries, L. Giglio, J.T. Randerson, G.J. Collatz, and P.S. Kasibhatla. 2009. Estimates of fire emissions from an active deforestation region in the southern Amazon based on satellite data and biogeochemical modelling. Biogeosciences. 6:235-249.
78. van der Werf,, G.R., J. Dempewolf, S.N. Trigg, J.T. Randerson, P.S. Kasibhatla, L. Giglio, D. Murdiyarso, W. Peters, D.C. Morton, G.J. Collatz, A.J. Dolman, and R.S. DeFries. 2008. Climate regulation of fire emissions and deforestation in equatorial Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. 105: 20350–20355. doi:10.1073_pnas.0803375105.
77. DeFries, R.S., D.C. Morton, G.R. van der Werf, L. Giglio, G.J. Collatz, J.T. Randerson, R.A. Houghton, P.K. Kasibhatla, Y. Shimabukuro. 2008. Fire-related carbon emissions from land use transitions in southern Amazonia. Geophysical Research Letters. 35: L22705. doi:10.1029/2008GL035689.
76. Jackson, R.B., J.T. Randerson, J.G. Canadell, R.G. Anderson, R. Avissar, D.D. Baldocchi, G.B. Bonan, K. Caldeira, N.S, Diffenbaugh, C.B. Field, B.A. Hungate, E.G. Jobbagy, L.M. Kueppers, M.D. Nosetto, and D.E. Pataki. 2008. Protecting climate with forests. Environmental Research Letters. 3: 044006. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/4/044006.
75. Riley, W.J., D.Y. Hsueh, J.T. Randerson, M.L. Fischer, J.G. Hatch, D.E. Pataki, W. Wang, and M.L. Goulden. 2008. Where do fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions from California go? An analysis based on radiocarbon observations and an atmospheric transport model. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 113: G04002. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000625.
74. Smith-Downey, N.V, J.T. Randerson, J.M. Eiler. 2008. Molecular hydrogen uptake by soils in forest, desert, and marsh ecosystems in California. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 113: G03037. doi: 10.1029/2008JG000701.
73. Chahine, M.T., L. Chen, P. Dimotakis, X. Jiang, Q. Li, E.T. Olsen, T. Pagano, J. Randerson, and Y.L. Yung (2008), Satellite remote sounding of mid-tropospheric CO2. Geophysical Research Letters, 35: L17807. doi: 10.1029/2008GL035022.
72. van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, L. Giglio, N. Gobron, and A.J. Dolman. 2008. Climate controls on the variability of fires in the tropics and subtropics. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 22: GB3028. doi: 10.1029/2007GB003122.
71. Morton, D.C., R.S. DeFries, J.T. Randerson, L. Giglio, W. Schroeder, G.R. van der Werf. 2008. Agricultural intensification increases deforestation fire activity in Amazonia. Global Change Biology. 14: 2262-2275. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01652.x.
70. Chapin, F.S., J.T. Randerson, A.D. McGuire, J.A. Foley, and C.B. Field. 2008. Changing feedbacks in the climate-biosphere system. Ecological Frontiers. 6: 313-320.
69. Masiello, C.A., M.E. Gallagher, J.T. Randerson, R.M. Deco, and O.A. Chadwick. 2008. Evaluating two experimental approaches for measuring ecosystem carbon oxidation state and oxidative ratio. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 113: G03010. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000534.
68. Lyons, E.A., Y. Jin, and J.T. Randerson. 2008. Changes in surface albedo after fire in boreal forest ecosystems of interior Alaska assessed using MODIS satellite observations. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 113: G02012. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000606.
67. Mack, M.C., K.K. Treseder, K.L. Maines, J.W. Harden, E.A.G. Schuur, J.G. Vogel, J.T. Randerson, and F.S. Chapin. 2008. Recovery of aboveground plant biomass and productivity after fire in mesic and dry black spruce forests of interior Alaska. Ecosystems. 11: 209-225. doi: 10.1007/s10021-007-9117-9.
66. Nevison, C.D., N.M. Mahowald, S.C. Doney, I.D. Lima, G.R. van der Werf, J.T. Randerson, D.F. Baker, P. Kasibhatla and G.A.McKinley. 2007. Contribution of ocean, fossil fuel, land biosphere and biomass burning carbon fluxes to seasonal and interannual variability in atmospheric CO2. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 113: G01010. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000408.
65. Liu, H. and J.T. Randerson. 2008. Interannual variability of surface energy exchange depends on stand age in a boreal forest fire chronosequence. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 113: G01006. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000483.
64. Bowling, D.R., D.E. Pataki, and J.T. Randerson. 2008. Carbon isotopes in terrestrial ecosystem pools and CO2 fluxes. New Phytologist. Tansley Review. 178: 24-40. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02342.x.
63. Goetz, S.J., M.C. Mack, K.R. Gurney, J.T. Randerson, and R.A. Houghton. 2007. Ecosystem responses to recent climate change and fire disturbance at northern high latitudes: Observations and modeling results contrasting northern Eurasia and North America. Environmental Research Letters. 2: 045031. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/045031.
62. Peters, W., A.R. Jacobson, C. Sweeney, A.E. Andrews, T.J. Conway, K. Masarie, J.B. Miller, L.M.P. Bruhwiler, G. Petron, A.I. Hirsch, D.E.J. Worthy, G.R. van der Werf , J.T. Randerson, P.O. Wennberg, M.C. Krol, and P.P. Tans. 2007. An atmospheric perspective on North American carbon dioxide exchange: CarbonTracker. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104(48): 18925–18930. doi: 10.1073_pnas.0708986104.
61. Welp, L.R., J.T. Randerson, and H.P. Liu. 2007. The sensitivity of carbon fluxes to spring warming and summer drought depends on plant functional type in boreal forest ecosystems. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 147: 172–185. doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2007.07.010.
60. Yang, Z., R.A. Washenfelder, G. Keppel-Aleks, N.Y. Krakauer, J.T. Randerson, P.P. Tans, C. Sweeney, and P.O. Wennberg. 2007. New constraints on northern hemisphere growing season net flux. Geophysical Research Letters. 34: L12807. doi: 10.1029/2007GL029742.
59. Flanner, M.G., C.S. Zender, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Rasch. 2007. Present day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 112: D11202. doi: 10.1029/2006JD008003.
58. Miller, C.E., D. Crisp, P.L. DeCola, S.C. Olsen, J.T. Randerson, A.M. Michalak, A. Alkhaled, P. Rayner, D. J. Jacob, P. Suntharalingam, D. Jones, A.S. Denning, M.E. Nicholls, S.C. Doney, S. Pawson, H. Boesch, B.J. Connor, I.Y. Fung, D.O’Brien, R.J. Salawitch, S.P. Sander, B. Sen, P. Tans, G.C. Toon, P.O. Wennberg, S.C. Wofsy, Y.L. Yung, R.M. Law. 2007. Precision requirements for space-based XCO2 data. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 112: D10314. doi: 10.1029/2006JD007659.
57. Hsueh, D.Y., N.Y. Krakauer, J.T. Randerson, X. Xu, S.E. Trumbore, J.R. Southon, 2007. Regional patterns of radiocarbon and fossil fuel-derived CO2 in surface air across North America. Geophysical Research Letters. 34: L02816. doi:10.1029/2006GL027032.
56. Amiro, B.D., A.L. Orchansky, A.G. Barr, T.A. Black, S.D. Chambers, F.S. Chapin III, M.L. Goulden, M. Litvak, H. Liu, J.H. McCaughey, A. McMillan, and J.T. Randerson. 2006. The effect of post-fire stand age on the boreal forest energy balance. Agriculture and Forest Meteorology. 140: 41-50. doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2006.02.014.
55. F.S. Chapin, III, G.M Woodwell, J.T. Randerson, E.B. Rastetter, G.B. Lovett, D.D. Baldocchi, D.A. Clark, M.E. Harmon, D.S. Schimel, R. Valentini, C. Wirth, J.D. Aber, J.J. Cole, M.L. Goulden, J.W. Harden, M. Heimann, R.W. Howarth, P.A. Matson, A.D. McGuire, J.M. Melillo, H.A. Mooney, J.C. Neff, R.A. Houghton, M.L. Pace, M.G. Ryan, S.W. Running, O.E. Sala, W.H. Schlesinger, E.-D. Schulze. 2006. Reconciling carbon cycle concepts, terminology, and methods. Ecosystems. 9: 1041-1050. doi: 10.1007/s10021-005-0105-7.
54. Randerson, J.T., H. Liu, M.G. Flanner, S.D. Chambers, Y. Jin, P.G. Hess, G. Pfister, M.C. Mack, K.K. Treseder, L.R. Welp, F.S. Chapin, J.W. Harden, M.L. Goulden, E. Lyons, J.C. Neff, E.A.G. Schuur, C.S. Zender. The impact of boreal forest fire on climate warming. 2006. Science. 314: 1130-1132.
53. Krakauer, N.Y., J.T. Randerson, F.W. Primeau, N. Gruber, D. Menemenlis. 2006. Carbon isotope evidence for the latitudinal distribution and wind speed dependence of the air-sea gas transfer velocity. Tellus 58B: 390-417.
52. Van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, L. Giglio, G.J. Collatz, P.S. Kasibhatla, and A.F. Arellano, Jr. 2006. Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6: 3423–3441.
51. Smith-Downey, N.V., J.T. Randerson, and J.M. Eiler. 2006. Temperature and moisture dependence of soil H2 uptake measured in the laboratory. Geophysical Research Letters. 33: L14813. doi: 10.1029/2006GL026749.
50. Welp, L.R., J.T. Randerson, and H. Liu. 2006. Seasonal exchange of CO2 and d18O-CO2 varies with post-fire succession in boreal forest ecosystems. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 111: G03007, doi: 10.1029/2005JG000126.
49. Liu, H., J.T. Randerson, J. Lindfors, W.J. Massman, and T. Foken. 2006. Consequences of incomplete surface energy balance closure for CO2 fluxes from open-path CO2/H2O infrared gas analysers. Boundary Layer Meteorology. 120: 65-85. doi: 10.1007/s10546-005-9047-z.
48. Arellano, A.F., P.S. Kasibhatla, L. Giglio, G.R. van der Werf, J.T. Randerson, and G.J. Collatz. 2006. Time-dependent inversion estimates of global biomass-burning CO emissions using MOPITT measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 111: D09303. doi: 10.1029/2005JD006613.
47. Giglio, L. G.R. van der Werf, J.T. Randerson, G.J. Collatz, and P. Kasibhatla. 2006. Global estimation of burned area using MODIS active fire observations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 6: 957–974.
46. Randerson, J.T., C.A. Masiello, C.J. Still, T. Rahn, H. Poorter, and C.B. Field. 2006. Is carbon within the global terrestrial biosphere becoming more oxidized? Implications for trends in atmospheric O2. Global Change Biology. 12: 260-271. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01099.x.
45. Mahowald, N.M., P. Artaxo, A.R. Baker, T.D. Jickells, G.S. Okin, J.T. Randerson, A.R. Townsend. 2005. Impacts of biomass burning emissions and land use change on Amazonian atmospheric phosphorus cycling and deposition. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 19: GB4030. doi: 10.1029/2005GB002541.
44. Suntharalingam, P., J.T. Randerson, N.Y. Krakauer, D.J. Jacob, and J.A. Logan. 2005. Influence of reduced carbon emissions and oxidation on the distribution of atmospheric CO2: Implications for inversion analyses. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 19: GB4003. doi: 10.1029/2005GB002466.
43. Riley, W.J., J.T. Randerson, P.N. Foster, and T.J. Lueker. 2005. Influence of terrestrial ecosystems and topography on coastal CO2 measurements: A case study at Trinidad Head, California. Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences. 110 (G1): G01005. doi: 10.1029/2004JG000007.
42. Welp, L.R., J.T. Randerson, J.C. Finlay, Zimova, G.M., Davydova, A.I., Davydov, S.P., and S.A. Zimov. 2005. A high-resolution time series of oxygen isotopes from the Kolyma River: Implications for the seasonal dynamics of discharge and basin-scale water use. Geophysical Research Letters. 32: L14401. doi: 10.1029/2005GL022857.
41. Liu, H., J.T. Randerson, J. Lindfors, and F.S. Chapin. 2005. Changes in the surface energy budget after fire in boreal ecosystems of interior Alaska: An annual perspective. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 110: D13101. doi: 10.1029/2004JD005158.
40. Chambers, S.D., J. Beringer, J.T. Randerson, and F.S. Chapin. 2005. Fire effects on net radiation and energy partitioning: Contrasting responses of tundra and boreal forest ecosystems. Journal of Geophysical Research -Atmospheres. 110: D09106.
39. Randerson, J.T., G.R. van der Werf, G.J. Collatz, L. Giglio, C.J. Still, P. Kasibhatla, J.B. Miller, J.W.C. White, R.S. DeFries, and E.S. Kasischke. 2005. Fire emissions from C3 and C4 vegetation and their influence on interannual variability of atmospheric CO2 and d13CO2. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 19: GB2019. doi: 10.1029/2004GB002366.
38. Krakauer, N.Y., T. Schneider, J.T. Randerson, and S.C. Olsen. 2004. Using generalized cross-validation to select parameters in inversions for regional carbon fluxes. Geophysical Research Letters. 31: L19108. doi: 10.1029/2004GL020323.
37. Wennberg, P.O., S. Peacock, J.T. Randerson, and R. Bleck. 2004. Recent changes in the air-sea gas exchange of methyl chloroform. Geophysical Research Letters. 31(16): L16112. doi: 10.1029/2004GL020476.
36. Crisp D., R.M. Atlas, F.-M. Breon, L.R. Brown, J.P. Burrows, P. Ciais, B.J. Connor, S.C. Doney, I.Y. Fung, D.J. Jacob, C.E. Miller, D. O’Brien, S. Pawson, J.T. Randerson, P. Rayner, R.J. Salawitch, S.P. Sander, B. Sen, G.L. Stephens, P.P. Tans, G.C. Toon, P.O. Wennberg, S.C. Wofsy, Y.L. Yung, Z. Kuang, B. Chudasama, G. Sprague, B. Weiss, R. Pollock, D. Kenyon, and S. Schroll. 2004. The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) mission. Advances in Space Research. 34(2004): 700–709.
35. Still, C.J., J.T. Randerson, and I.Y. Fung. 2004. Large-scale plant light-use efficiency inferred from the seasonal cycle of atmospheric CO2. Global Change Biology. 10(8): 1240-1252.
34. Smith, N.V., S.S. Saatchi, and J.T. Randerson. 2004. Trends in high northern latitude soil freeze and thaw cycles from 1988-2002. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 109: D12101. doi: 10.1029/2003JD004472.
33. Arellano, A.F., P.S. Kasibhatla, L. Giglio, G.R. van der Werf, and J.T. Randerson. 2004. Top down estimates of global CO sources using MOPITT measurements. Geophysical Research Letters. 31(1): L01104. doi: 10.1029/2003GL018609.
32. Olsen, S.C. and J.T. Randerson. 2004. Differences between surface and column atmospheric CO2 and implications for carbon cycle research. Journal of Geophysical Research – Atmospheres. 109(D2): D02301. doi: 10.1029/2003JD003968.
31. van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, G.J. Collatz, L. Giglio, P. Kasibhatla, A. Arellano, S. Olsen, and E.S. Kasischke, 2004. Continental-scale partitioning of fire emissions during the 1997 to 2001 El Niño/La Niña period. Science. 303: 73-76.
30. Krakauer, N.Y. and J.T. Randerson. 2003. Do volcanic eruptions enhance or diminish net primary production? Evidence from tree rings. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 17(4): 1118. doi: 10.1029/2003GB002076.
29. Kasischke, E.S., J.H. Hewson, B.J. Stocks, G.R. van der Werf, and J.T. Randerson. 2003. The use of ATSR active fire counts for estimating relative patterns of biomass burning – a study from the boreal forest region. Geophysical Research Letters. 30(18): 1969. doi:10.1029/2003GL017859.
28. Angert, A., E. Barkan, B. Barnett, E. Brugnoli, E.A. Davidson, J. Fessenden, S. Maneepong, N. Panapitukkul, J.T. Randerson, K. Savage, D. Yakir, and B. Luz, 2003. Contribution of soil respiration in tropical, temperate, and boreal forests to the 18O enrichment of atmospheric O2. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 17(3): 1089. doi: 10.1029/2003GB002056. View pdf.
27. Hicke, J.A., G.P. Asner, E.S. Kasischke, N.H.F. French, J.T. Randerson, G.J. Collatz, B.J. Stocks, C.J. Tucker, S.O. Los, and C.B. Field. 2003. Postfire response of North American boreal forest net primary productivity analyzed with satellite observations. Global Change Biology. 9(8): 1145-1157.
26. van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, G.J. Collatz, and L. Giglio. 2003. Carbon emissions from fires in tropical and subtropical ecosystems. Global Change Biology. 9(4): 547-562.
25. Randerson, J.T., G.J. Collatz, J.E. Fessenden, A.D. Munoz, C.J. Still, J.A. Berry, I.Y. Fung, N. Suits, and A.S. Denning. 2002. A possible global covariance between terrestrial gross primary production and 13C discrimination: Consequences for the atmospheric 13C budget and its response to ENSO. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 16(4): 1136. doi: 10.1029/2001GB001845.
24. Randerson, J.T., I. Enting, E.A.G. Schuur, K. Caldiera, and I.Y. Fung. 2002. Seasonal and latitudinal variability of troposphere D14CO2: Post bomb contributions from fossil fuels, oceans, the stratosphere, and the terrestrial biosphere. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 16(4): 1112. doi: 10.1029/2002GB001876.
23. Rahn, T., J.M. Eiler, N. Kitchen, J.E. Fessenden, and J.T. Randerson. 2002. Concentration and dD of molecular hydrogen in boreal forests: Ecosystem-scale systematics of atmospheric H2. Geophysical Research Letters. 29(18): 1888. doi: 10.1029/2002GL015118.
22. Randerson, J.T., F.S. Chapin, J. Harden, J.C. Neff, and M. Harmon. 2002. Net ecosystem production: a comprehensive measure of net carbon accumulation by ecosystems. Ecological Applications. 12(4): 937-947.
21. Hicke, J.A., G.P. Asner, J.T. Randerson, C.J. Tucker, S.O. Los, R. Birdsey, J.C. Jenkins, C.B. Field, and E.A. Holland. 2002. Satellite-derived increases in net primary productivity across North America, 1982-1998. Geophysical Research Letters. 29(10): 1427. doi: 10.1029/2001GL013578.
20. Randerson, J.T., C.J. Still, J.J. Ballé , I.Y. Fung, S.C. Doney, P.P. Tans, T.J. Conway, J.W.C. White, B. Vaughn, N. Suits, and A.S. Denning. 2002. Carbon isotope discrimination of arctic and boreal biomes inferred by remote atmospheric measurements and a biosphere-atmosphere model. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 16(3): 1028. doi: 10.1029/2001GB001435.
19. Hicke, J.A., G.P. Asner, J.T. Randerson, C. J. Tucker, S.O. Los, R. Birdsey, J.C. Jenkins, and C.B. Field. 2002. Trends in North American net primary productivity derived from satellite observations, 1982-1998. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 16(2): 1018. doi: 10.1029/2001GB001550.
18. Gurney, K.R. R.M. Law, A.S. Denning, P.J. Rayner, D. Baker, P. Bousquet, L. Bruhwiler, Y.-H. Chen, P. Ciais, S. Fan, I.Y. Fung, M. Gloor, M. Heimann, K. Higuchi, J. John, T. Maki, S. Maksyutov, K. Masarie, P. Peylin, M. Prather, B. C. Pak, J. Randerson, J. Sarmiento, S. Taguchi, T. Takahashi, and C.-W. Yuen. 2002. Towards robust regional estimates of CO2 sources and sinks using atmospheric transport models. Nature. 415: 626-630.
17. Behrenfeld, M., J.T. Randerson, C. McClain, G. Feldman, S.O. Los, C.J. Tucker, P. Falkowski, C. Field, R. Frouin, W. Esaias, D. Kolber, and N. Pollack. 2001. Biospheric primary production during an ENSO transition. Science. 291: 2594-2597.
16. Hobbie, S.E., J.P. Schimel, S.E. Trumbore, and J. Randerson. 2000. Controls over carbon storage and turnover in high latitude soils. Global Change Biology. 6(S1): 196-210.
15. Chapin, F.S., A.D. McGuire, J. Randerson, R. Pielke, Sr., D. Baldocchi, S.E. Hobbie, N. Roulet, W. Eugster, E. Kasischke, E.B. Rastetter, S.A. Zimov, and S.W. Running. 2000. Arctic and boreal ecosystems of western North America as components of the climate system. Global Change Biology. 6: 211-223.
14. McGuire, A.D., J.M. Melillo, J.T. Randerson, W.J. Parton, M. Heimann, R.A. Meier, J.S. Clein, D.W. Kicklighter, and W. Sauf. 2000. Modeling the effects of snowpack on heterotrophic respiration across northern temperate and high latitude regions: Comparison with measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide in high latitudes. Biogeochemistry. 48: 91-114.
13. Randerson, J.T., C.B. Field, I.Y. Fung, and P.P. Tans. 1999. Increases in early season ecosystem uptake explain recent changes in the seasonal cycle of atmospheric CO2 at high northern latitudes. Geophysical Research Letters. 26: 2765-2768.
12. Randerson, J.T., M.V. Thompson, and C.B. Field. 1999. Linking 13C-based estimates of land and ocean sinks with predictions of carbon storage from CO2 fertilization of plant growth. Tellus. 51B: 668-678.
11. Thompson, M.V. and J.T. Randerson. 1999. Impulse response functions of terrestrial carbon cycle models: method and application. Global Change Biology. 5: 371-394.
10. Field, C. B., M. J. Behrenfeld, J.T. Randerson, and P. Falkowski. 1998. Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and oceanic components. Science. 281: 237-240.
9. Randerson, J.T., M.V. Thompson, T.J. Conway, I.Y. Fung, and C.B. Field. 1997. The contribution of terrestrial sources and sinks to trends in the seasonal cycle of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 11: 535-560.
8. Fung, I.Y., J.A. Berry, C.B. Field, M.V. Thompson, J.T. Randerson, P.M. Vitousek, G.J. Collatz, P. Sellers, C.M. Malmstrom, and J. John. 1997. 13C exchange between the atmosphere and biosphere. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 11: 507-533.
7. Fredeen, A.L., J.T. Randerson, N.M. Holbrook, and C.B. Field. 1997. Elevated atmospheric CO2 increases water availability in a water-limited grassland ecosystem. Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 33: 1033-1039.
6. Malmstrom, C.M., M.V. Thompson, G. Juday, J.T. Randerson, and C.B. Field. 1997. Interannual variation in global-scale net primary production: Testing model estimates. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 11: 367-392.
5. Thompson, M.V., J.T. Randerson, C.M. Malmstrom, and C.B. Field. 1996. Change in net primary production and heterotrophic respiration: How much is necessary to sustain the terrestrial carbon sink? Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 10: 711-726.
4. Randerson, J.T., M.V. Thompson, C.M. Malmstrom, C.B. Field, and I.Y. Fung. 1996. Substrate limitations for heterotrophs: Implications for models that estimate the seasonal cycle of atmospheric CO2. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 10: 585-602.
3. Field, C.B., J.T. Randerson and C.M. Malmstrom. 1995. Global net primary production: combining ecology and remote sensing. Remote Sensing of the Environment. 51: 74-88.
2. Potter, C.S., J.T. Randerson, C.B. Field, P.A. Matson, P.M. Vitousek, H.A. Mooney, and S.A. Klooster. 1993. Terrestrial ecosystem production: A process model based on global satellite and surface data. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 7: 811-841.
1. Randerson, J.T. and J.J. Simpson. 1993. Recurrent patterns in surface thermal fronts associated with cold filaments along the west coast of North America. Remote Sensing of the Environment. 46: 146-163.
RR6. National Research Council, 2010, Verifying Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Methods to Support International Climate Agreements, National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.
RR5. National Research Council, 2009. Letter Report on the Orbiting Carbon Observatory. ISBN: 0-309-14211-3, 9 pages.http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12723.html.
RR4. Pataki, D.E., J.T. Randerson, W. Wang, M. Herzenach, N.E. Grulke. 2010. The isotopic composition of plants and soils as biomarkers of pollution. In Isoscapes: Understanding movement, pattern, and process on Earth through isotope mapping. Edited by J.B. West, G.J. Bowen, T.E Dawson, and K.P. Tu. Springer. Pp. 407-423. Dordrecht, Germany.
RR3. Ryan, M.G., S.R. Archer, R.A. Birdsey, C.N. Dahm, L.S. Heath, J.A. Hicke, D.Y. Hollinger, T.E. Huxman, G.S. Okin, R. Oren, J.T. Randerson, and W.H. Schlesinger. 2008. Land Resources, in The effects of climate change on agriculture, land resources, water resources, and biodiversity. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. p. 362 pp, Washington D.C., USA.
RR2. Randerson, J.T., 2005. Terrestrial ecosystems and interannual variability in the global atmospheric budgets of 13CO2 and12CO2. In Stable Isotopes and Biosphere-Atmosphere Interactions: Processes and Biological Controls. Edited by L.B. Flanagan, J.R. Ehleringer, and D.E. Pataki. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego.
RR1. Randerson, J.T. 2001. The CASA terrestrial biogeochemical model. In Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, volume 2, The Earth system: Biological and Ecological Dimensions of Global Environmental Change. Eds. H.A. Mooney and J. Canadell. John Wiley and Sons.
Hoffman, F.M., J.T. Randerson, I.Y. Fung, P.E. Thornton, Y.-H. Lee, C.C. Covey, G.B. Bonan, and S.W. Running. 2008. ‘The Carbon-Land Model Intercomparison Project (C-LAMP): A Protocol and Evaluation Metrics for Global Terrestrial Biogeochemistry Models.’ Miquel Sànchez-Marrè, Javier Béjar, Joaquim Comas, Andrea E. Rizzoli, Giorgio Guariso (Eds.), Proceedings of the iEMSs Fourth Biennial Meeting: International Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software (iEMSs 2008), ISBN 978-84-7653-074-0, International Environmental Modelling and Software Society, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
R3. Hoffman, F. M., C. D. Koven, G. Keppel-Aleks, D. M. Lawrence, W. J. Riley, J. T. Randerson, A. Ahlström, G. Abramowitz, D. D. Baldocchi, M. Best, B. Bond-Lamberty, M. De Kauwe, A. S. Denning, A. Desai, V. Eyring, R. Fisher, P. J. Gleckler, M. Huang, G. Hugelius, A. K. Jain, N. Y. Kiang, H. Kim, R. D. Koster, S. V. Kumar, H. Li, Y. Luo, J. Mao, N. G. McDowell, U. Mishra, P. Moorcroft, G. S. H. Pau, D. M. Ricciuto, K. Schaefer, C.R. Schwalm, S. Serbin, E. Shevliakova, A. G. Slater, J. Tang, M. Williams, J. Xia, C. Xu, R. Joseph, and D. Koch. 2016. International Land Model Benchmarking (ILAMB) 2016 Workshop Report, DOE/SC-0186, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Germantown, Maryland, USA, 157 pp. doi: 10.2172/1330803.
R2. Oleson, K.W., D.M. Lawrence, G.B. Bonan, M.G. Flanner, E. Kluzek, P.J. Lawrence, S. Levis, S.C. Swenson, P.E. Thornton, A. Dai, M. Decker, R. Dickinson, J. Feddema, C. Heald, F. Hoffman, J.-F. Lamarque, N. Mahowald, G.-Y. Niu, T. Qian, J. Randerson, S. Running, K. Sakaguchi, A. Slater, R. Stöckli, A.Wang, Z.-L. Yang, X. Zeng, X. Zeng. 2010. Technical Description of version 4.0 of the Community Land Model (CLM). NCAR/TN-478+STR, National Center for Atmospheric Research Tech. Note. Boulder, CO 80307-3000. ISSN Electronic Edition 2153-2400. 257 pp.
R1. Manies, K.L., J.W. Harden, K. Yoshikawa, and J. Randerson. 2003. The effects of soil drainage on fire and carbon cycling in central Alaska. In Studies in Alaska by the U.S. Geological Survey. J. Galloway (ed.) U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1678. 24 pp.
C2. Randerson, J.T. 2013. Climate Science: Global warming and tropical carbon. Nature: 319–320. doi:10.1038/nature11949.
C1. van der Werf, G.R., D.C. Morton, R.S. DeFries, J.G.J. Olivier, P.S. Kasibhatla, R.B. Jackson, G.J. Collatz, and J.T. Randerson. 2009. CO2 emissions from forest loss. Nature Geoscience. Commentary. 2 (11): 737-738. doi:10.1038/ngeo671.

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Most of the compliance dates have now arrived. Regulations have been written and published. Q&As have been issued. The first regulatory guidance documents have come out, with the promise of many, many more in the not-so-distant future. Yet with all of the activity surrounding the first compliance deadlines and the first year of enforcement of the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), it’s fair to say that both the food industry and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are realizing that they have a lot to learn—from each other—about building open and collaborative food safety systems.
Both industry and FDA have acknowledged that FSMA represents a major change, but it is also becoming clear that the ongoing efforts at transparency and collaboration between industry and FDA will need to continue if FSMA’s promise of a truly preventive food safety network is to be realized. Food safety leaders in industry will need to get comfortable with sharing their assessments and records and explaining how they manage food safety across the enterprise. FDA investigators will need to get comfortable with taking a more holistic approach to food safety oversight and properly managing their new authority and access to processing records and written food safety programs.
Indeed, the activities of FDA and industry to date reflect a determination to effectuate positive change. As of this writing, FDA has taken several actions to cite facilities for violations of FSMA, but its emphasis has been on training and education. The agency has shared with industry that it is training its inspectors that they do not need to find a regulatory violation during every inspection.1 FDA appears willing to direct inspectors and facility managers toward a collaborative, “systems-oriented” food safety mindset and culture.
But food facility managers can expect that this approach will go only so far. Yes, FDA is being more open and cooperative. But industry managers must remember that FDA food enforcement tools now have sharper teeth. When FDA uncovers problems, deficiencies, or gaps at a facility, and no immediate public health risks, the agency has shown, at least at this stage, that it can be patient, cooperative, and educational. When there is a known public health risk, however, FDA is pushing harder and faster for facilities to remove known and suspected lots of problematic products. What’s more, there appears to be consensus within the agency that suspending a facility’s registration and thereby shutting down its operations—a new enforcement tool available under FSMA2—is an effective means of protecting public health if a facility does not respond swiftly and effectively to a food safety concern that puts the public at risk.
When addressing the FDLI enforcement conference in December, Scott McIntire, Director of the Division of Enforcement within FDA’s Office of Regulatory Affairs, observed that FSMA represented “a drastic change” not only for the food industry but for FDA as well.3 He wasn’t exaggerating. FSMA has, at long last, empowered FDA to shift its regulatory approach from reacting to food safety problems to preventing them. A bit of historical and legal background is helpful to understand the importance of this change.
Such actions were based on FDA’s interpretation of Section 402(a)(4) as providing implied authority to prescribe conditions under which food must be manufactured.8 In each case, the agency built a substantive administrative record to back up its findings and demonstrate that the public was at risk unless food was made in the prescribed manner. Generally speaking, FDA’s efforts were reactive in nature. In situations of serious concern, the agency reinforced its efforts with appeals to the public to avoid a food and to industry to conduct voluntary recalls.
When viewed against this backdrop of decades of FDA enforcement, the approach now imposed by FSMA is unprecedented. A broad-ranging obligation for protecting public health with a specific set of tools has now been placed squarely on the shoulders of processors, suppliers, distributors, and importers, i.e., everyone involved in manufacturing, holding, or transporting food. Their facilities must each adopt documented systems in which the organization and every responsible employee share in the task of ensuring safe food.
So, does this mean that a food produced under a system that incorporates some preventive controls, but not others, is adulterated within the meaning of Section 402? Possibly, but not necessarily. While FSMA specifically imposes the obligation of establishing a food safety plan based on risk-based hazard analysis and preventive controls, the law, by its wording, leaves some room for the exercise of professional judgment in designing a system of controls.
At the same time, recognizing that the success of a food safety system depends on the use of sound professional judgment should, in many respects, widen the focus of FDA inspections. Investigators, as will be discussed below, are now being instructed to look at food safety programs as a whole, rather than focusing solely on deficiencies in any particular manufacturing practice.21 While inspections may become more intensive in the short term, food companies should begin to see that success in an inspection will depend, in part, on providing FDA investigators with the information necessary to help them understand the judgments that the professionals made in analyzing hazards and designing a system of controls.
This past December, Scott McIntire of FDA’s Division of Enforcement told FDLI that the agency’s priorities would be to provide prevention-oriented compliance standards in guidance documents and develop tools and resources for outreach and education. In August 2016, just a month before the cGMP compliance deadline, FDA took an important step by issuing a five-chapter, 185-page draft guidance document with five appendices.26 This was the first installment of a comprehensive guidance document that will ultimately run to fourteen chapters and cover all of the critical elements of a hazard analysis and preventive controls program. In August 2017, the sixth chapter and the sixth appendix were released in draft form, with comment accepted by FDA until February 27, 2018.
A critically important first step toward creating a collaborative education and training program came much earlier, within a year after FSMA was enacted, literally while the ink was still drying on the bill as signed into law.
In 2011, the Food Safety and Preventive Controls Alliance (FSCPA) was created under a grant from FDA to the Illinois Institute of Technology’s Institute of Food Safety and Health. FSPCA was established as a broad-based alliance of FDA officials and representatives of industry, academia, and state regulatory agencies. FSPCA’s agenda is far-reaching, but the primary objective is to develop a standardized, FDA-recognized education and training course, including distance-learning modules, to teach food industry and regulatory professionals how to implement FSMA.
The regulations that took effect in September 2016 require, under subpart “C,” that a program of preventive controls be managed by a Preventive Controls Qualified Individual (PCQI). That person’s responsibilities shall include (1) preparation of the written food safety plan, (2) validation of preventive controls, (3) records review, and (4) periodic reanalysis of the plan.27 Indeed, the primary focus of FSCPA has been to develop cost-effective training and education programs following a consistent, science-based curriculum recognized by FDA as qualifying food safety and quality managers to serve as PCQIs.
Shortly after the formation of the FSPCA, working groups composed of food safety and quality executives from such companies as Nestle, PepsiCo, Heinz, Cargill, and Chobani began developing the PCQI curriculum. By November 2015,—10 months in advance of the first deadline for compliance with the PCHF regulation issued pursuant to FSMA—the Alliance had issued its first standardized, FDA-recognized training curriculum.28 A further update was released in February 2016. The Preventive Controls training curriculum has now been used to educate FDA headquarters and field investigators, state food safety regulators, food companies, universities, and consulting firms across the country and internationally.
The FSPCA training program for PCQIs is comprehensive. It follows a three-day curriculum with a 500-page participant manual covering sixteen chapters that outline the steps necessary to developing an FSMA-compliant food safety plan.
The course explains at the very outset that risk-based preventive controls should focus on the hazards and issues that are of higher risk and matter most for food safety. Such controls must be preventive, not reactive, and should be designed to work in conjunction with other food safety practices and procedures, such as cGMP programs and systems incorporating Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP).
In considering how to implement FSMA, FDA realized that it would not only have to reach out to the food industry, it would also have to reach out and re-educate its own investigators. Toward this end, FDA leveraged its work with FSPCA and appears to have begun re-orienting the perspectives and practices of its investigators. Indeed, in training its investigators, FDA is beginning to emphasize that they look not just at how a facility’s programs and practices match up with individual cGMPs but evaluate food programs and processes as connected and fully integrated parts of a holistic food safety system.30 This important new perspective emphasizes the importance of a “systems thinking” mindset.
A 16-page instructional memo dated August 31, 2017, addressed to FDA’s Import Division from the Office of Compliance of the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, makes clear that FSVP inspectors are still in the “educate while we regulate” phase of FSMA implementation.32 Inspectors will provide importers with copies of the final FSVP rule, and an agency summary of key requirements.33 Importantly, a prerequisite for an investigator to conduct an FSVP inspection will be to complete the FSPCA preventive controls and FSVP training courses and become an FDA-recognized PCQI.
Looking at the Big Picture: Step back and examine the dynamics of a system and the interrelationship of its parts. Systems thinkers balance their perspective between seeing the forest and the details of any particular tree.
Recognizing Interdependence: Uncover connections among parts of a food safety system and ask how they all work together.
Making Corrections: New information must be assessed and linked to what has already been learned or observed. Does the new data change the assessment of the facility’s programs?
Questioning Assumptions: Be aware of how past experiences can influence current thinking and form filters, biases, and mental models. An effective Systems Thinker is aware of the effect of personal assumptions and expectations.
Assessing from Many Perspectives: Work collaboratively and be open to seeing a situation from differing perspectives, and thereby increasing understanding.
If these training materials are any indication, FDA is encouraging its investigators to take a new, holistic approach to evaluating food safety systems under FSMA. For this approach to be successful, both industry and FDA will need to make a continuing commitment to transparency and accountability. The process will take time. Industry will no doubt feel uneasy presenting FDA with detailed processing and testing records, since they have not had to share a great deal in the past. FDA investigators will no doubt feel uneasy accepting information at face value, as they are trained to verify everything.
Food safety managers will need to ensure that FDA understands and has access to information about programs across their businesses, irrespective of whether the information resides at the facility, headquarters, or a supplier’s location. FDA investigators will need to feel that they are getting all that they need, and have visibility to where and how food safety programs are managed. Investigators will need to accept that food safety work proceeds across a diversity of locations, i.e., that process controls, allergen procedures, and environmental monitoring may be carried on at the facility itself, while supplier management, technical support, and standard-setting are conducted from a central office or other location, such as a research and development center. An importer will need to explain where food safety and verification activities occur throughout its supply chain, at foreign facilities, distribution centers, and domestic offices.
If these avenues of communication open up, and if all of these changes in behavior and perspectives begin to gel, then the experience of an inspection applying the core mandates of FSMA should be quite different from what food facilities have experienced in the past. Industry groups can play a critical role in collecting information about first-hand experiences with FSMA inspections and sharing those experiences with FDA so as to help make inspections more open and collaborative.37 In any event, both industry and the agency appear to recognize that they are in the early stages of ensuring that FSMA fulfills its potential. If both sides are open, trusting, and transparent, then FSMA could truly usher in an era of collaboration and commitment to protecting public health from threats emerging in the food supply.
The author gratefully acknowledges Charles M. Breen, a retired FDA District Director and an independent advisor for EAS Consulting Group, for his contributions in the preparation of this article.
An official of FDA’s Office of Regulatory Affairs informed members of the Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA) during a fall meeting that FDA investigators are being trained that they do not have to find a Section 483 infraction during every inspection, and that this was a shift away from current practice. During 2018, the agency is planning 400 domestic inspections and 100 foreign inspections.
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), § 415(b)(1); 21 U.S.C. § 350d(b)(1).
Scott J. MacIntire, Director, Division of Enforcement, FDA Office of Regulatory Affairs, “FSMA Enforcement: The First Year,” presentation to FDLI Enforcement and Litigation Conference, Washington, D.C., December 6, 2017.
FDCA Section 402; 21 U.S.C. § 342.
FDCA Section 402(a)(4); 21 U.S.C. § 342(a)(4) (emphasis added).
Frederick H. Degnan, from the introductory chapter to Food Safety Modernization Act: A Comprehensive, Practical Guide to the Landmark Legislation, James William Woodlee, ed., Food and Drug Law Institute, Washington, D.C., 2012, at pp. 3-5 (“Introduction: The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, the regulatory authority that the Food and Drug Administration has relied upon to help ensure the safety of food, reflects the diversity and complexity of the food supply”).
Working with industry, the agency succeeded in prescribing specific controls in certain categories of foods, e.g., canned or acidified foods or seafood, occurring all too often as a result of actual contamination, outbreaks, illness, or even deaths. Id., at pp. 8-9, 12-15.
Michael T. Roberts, Food Law in the United States, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, N.Y., 2016, at p. 83.
FSMA defines “facility” as a domestic or foreign facility that is required to register with the FDA under the Bioterrorism Act of 2002. FDCA § 418(o)(2), 21 U.S.C. § 350g(o)(2); registration is required of “any facility engaged in manufacturing, processing, packing, or holding food for consumption in the United States.” FDCA § 415(a), 21 U.S.C. § 350d(a).
FDCA §§ 418(b)(3), 418(h); 21 U.S.C §§ 350g(b)(3), 350g(h).
FDCA § 418(a), 21 U.S.C. § 350g(a) (emphasis added); appropriate allergen warnings are also mandatory, and failure to provide such warnings can render a food misbranded. FDCA §§ 418(b)(3), 418(h); 21 U.S.C §§ 350g(b)(3), 350g(h).
Mandatory elements of a food safety plan include corrective action procedures, monitoring to assure that the controls are effective, verification and recordkeeping, and periodic reanalysis of the system, in particular when any significant change occurs in activities at the facility or in its supply chain. See FDCA §§ 418(b)-(i), 21 U.S.C. §§ 350g(b)-(i).
FDCA § 418(o)(3), 21 U.S.C. § 350g(o)(3) (emphasis added).
FDCA § 418(o)(3); 21 U.S.C. § 350g(o)(3); note that the analysis and control of microbiological hazards in seafood, juice or canning operations are exempt from FSMA, since predecessor regulations cover these matters in some detail. FDCA § 418(j); 21 U.S.C. §350d(j).
FDCA § 418(o)(3)(A)-(G); 21 U.S.C. § 350g(o)(3)(A)-(G).
For example, control of moisture applies to some foods and not others. For those where it is applicable, moisture control measures might as well be a mandatory.
Significantly, the definition of “preventive controls” in Section 418 of the Act, cGMPs are identified as just one of seven categories of controls that can provide assurances against adulteration. FDCA § 418(o)(3)(F); 21 U.S.C. § 350d(o)(3)(F).
Remarks of Michael R. Taylor, FDA Deputy Commissioner, when giving the Harvey Wiley Lecture during the Food and Drug Law Institute Annual Conference, April 20, 2015.
80 Fed. Reg. 55908 (September 17, 2015).
The draft of Hazard Analysis and Risk-Based Preventive Controls: A Guide for Industry was published in August 2016 and is available at www.fda.gov; the final rule establishing FSMA-compliant current Good Manufacturing Practices, part 117 of the Code of Federal Regulations, was published almost one year earlier. 80 Fed. Reg. 55908 (September 17, 2015).
21 C.F.R., part 117, subpart C.
Food Safety Preventive Controls Alliance, Preventive Controls for Human Food: Participant Manual, First Edition – 2016 (Version 1.2, February 2016). FSCPA has also issued a curriculum for FSVP managers, FSPCA Foreign Supplier Verification Programs, First Edition (Version 1.0, January 2017).
FSCPA Preventive Controls Manual., at p. 1-4 to 1-6.
Memorandum, “FY 17 Foreign Supplier Verification Programs inspections,” August 31, 2017, at p. 8. (Obtained pursuant to the Freedom of Information Act).
Id., at p. 5; the course is identified as “IM220 Foreign Suppliers Verification Program Regulators Course” (hereafter, the “Regulators Course”).
Regulators Course at p. 18.
FSVP Course, at p. 19.
A working group within GMA is collecting information from members about their experiences with FSMA with an eye toward spotting trends in FDA inspectional observations and enforcement. The group is planning meetings with FDA early in 2018 to share these experiences.