Olivetti et al . [ 57 ] synthesized the available data on consumption rates relative to available reserves for nickel ( Ni ) , manganese ( Mn ) , cobalt ( Co ) , lithium , ( Li ) , and natural graphite . They found that the ratio of known reserves to primary mine production ( also known as the static depletion index ) has increased for Co , Li , and natural graphite , suggesting that continued demand has resulted in additional exploration and extraction . Mn and Ni did not show an upward or downward trend , indicating that the ratio of production to known reserves has remained relatively constant . This highlights the challenge of attempting to place a single number on finite resource depletion as part of an LCA ; society 's understanding of available resources is not static . Increased demand drives advancements in exploration and recovery technologies . Material recovery potential through   recycling adds another layer of complexity . As Olivetti et al . [ 57 ] rightly point out , there is a time lag between when batteries are manufactured and when they reach the end of their life , so regardless of what can be recovered , recycling is unlikely to address any near - term ( 10 - 20 year ) material supply constraints . If battery technologies do not evolve away from reliance on these critical materials in coming decades , recycling can be an important long - term strategy . Pyrometallurgical recycling facilities will recover Ni , Co , Mn , and Copper ( Cu ) , [ 58 ] while hydrometallurgical recycling facilities will recover all of the aforementioned metals , as well as Li and aluminum ( Al ) . Direct recycling will recover an even larger range of materials , many of which can be reused without further processing . Given this context , it is worth revisiting the assertion by Peters et al . [ 11 ] that abiotic depletion ( an impact category representing depletion of non - renewable resources , such as minerals and fossil fuels ) is the most important impact of batteries on a normalized basis , exceeding the importance of GWP . Many of the nuances in critical material use and supply outlooks are lost in typical LCA practices and reducing these impacts to a single score is more likely to create confusion than generate useful insights , particularly when fossil fuel and critical material depletion are combined in a single score . This is particularly true for materials like Co and Li , for which demand is growing rapidly . In fact , a greater cause for concern is the geographic diversification , or lack thereof , in reserves and supply for some of these materials .