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"The history of psychology isn't long, but it's eventful: it starts with one group of professors who decide to test how people perceive the world by getting them to describe their sensory experiences. But soon after that another group decides that we shouldn't even talk about ‘thinking' anymore because that can't be measured, and we should only describe behaviors. Then a different group decides that thinking might just be important after all, and in fact maybe we should even research how people around the world think and behave rather than just people in Europe and the U.S. Makes me wonder how psychologists will change this science next time around?" Which of the following is the most accurate statement about the history of psychology described in the excerpt?

['(A)Psychology is an ancient science tracing its roots back to the Persians.', '(B)The science of psychology began with a group of professors who researched human perception.', '(C)The science of psychology has focused on the study of observable behaviors since the beginning.', '(D)Biopsychology and the study of the brain are increasingly central to the science of psychology.', "(E)Psychology began with Freud's observations about human perception and descriptions of sensory experiences."]

(B)Wilhelm Wundt and other professors in Germany are credited with starting the science of psychology because they used the scientific method and laboratory experiments to carefully investigate human perception. Choices A and D are not mentioned in the excerpt. Choice C is not an accurate statement about the history of psychology. Choice E is inaccurate because Freud did not begin psychology and did not investigate sensation.

"The history of psychology isn't long, but it's eventful: it starts with one group of professors who decide to test how people perceive the world by getting them to describe their sensory experiences. But soon after that another group decides that we shouldn't even talk about ‘thinking' anymore because that can't be measured, and we should only describe behaviors. Then a different group decides that thinking might just be important after all, and in fact maybe we should even research how people around the world think and behave rather than just people in Europe and the U.S. Makes me wonder how psychologists will change this science next time around?" Which of the following is the most accurate statement about the history of psychology described in the excerpt? Which important contemporary psychological perspective is not mentioned in the excerpt?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Functionalism', '(C)Structuralism', '(D)Biological', '(E)Behaviorism']

(D)Biopsychology is an important and current psychological perspective. However, this perspective (the influence of genetics and brain chemistry on thinking and behavior) is not mentioned in the excerpt. Evolutionary theory, choice A, is not mentioned in the excerpt. Choices B and C are both historical psychological perspectives but not contemporary ones. Choice E is another an important psychological perspective. However, it is referenced when the excerpt states, “another group decides that we shouldn’t even talk about ‘thinking’ anymore because that can’t be measured, and we should only describe behaviors.”

"The history of psychology isn't long, but it's eventful: it starts with one group of professors who decide to test how people perceive the world by getting them to describe their sensory experiences. But soon after that another group decides that we shouldn't even talk about ‘thinking' anymore because that can't be measured, and we should only describe behaviors. Then a different group decides that thinking might just be important after all, and in fact maybe we should even research how people around the world think and behave rather than just people in Europe and the U.S. Makes me wonder how psychologists will change this science next time around?" Which of the following is the most accurate statement about the history of psychology described in the excerpt? Which major disagreement between two psychological perspectives is described in the excerpt?

['(A)Biological versus evolutionary psychology', '(B)Trait theory versus humanism', '(C)Role playing versus dissociation theory', '(D)Psychoanalysis versus psychotherapy', '(E)Behaviorism versus cognitive psychology']

(E)The excerpt clearly describes the behaviorist perspective (“another group decides that we shouldn’t even talk about ‘thinking’ anymore because that can’t be measured, and we should only describe behaviors”) and cognitive psychology (“a different group decides that thinking might just be important after all”). Choice A does not list conflicting perspectives. Instead, these two perspectives align in their view of the biological causes of thinking and behavior. Choice B mixes a personality measure (trait theory) and a psychological perspective. Choice C lists two competing explanations of hypnosis. The terms in choice D both describe talk therapies.

Researchers analyzed the types of requests that most likely motivate individuals to donate their time to aid organizations. These researchers are most likely engaged in what kind of research?

['(A)Basic research', '(B)Introspection', '(C)Factor analysis', '(D)Applied research', '(E)Linkage analysis']

(D)Applied research tries to find solutions to specific problems, as in increasing volunteerism. Choice A focuses on increasing our knowledge of basic psychological phenomena. Choice B is a method where a subject provides a subjective report of his or her experiences. Choice C is a statistical technique used to identify trends in large amounts of data. Choice E is a way of determining which genes are involved in the expression of a trait by examining the DNA of family members who show that trait and those who do not.

Which of the following statements describes how a cognitive psychologist might explain why a student experiences test anxiety?

['(A)Students who experience repeated failures will react to tests with anxiety.', '(B)Increased heart rates and blood pressure are often interpreted as anxiety.', '(C)Unresolved unconscious conflicts emerge in stressful situations as anxiety.', '(D)Students who grow up in a family or school culture that emphasizes grades over learning may be more anxious about tests.', '(E)If students interpret low grades as a personal failure, they may experience increased test anxiety.']

(E)Cognitive psychologists research how our mental interpretations of the world (how we think about what happens to us) influence our actions. Choice E refers to students’ mental interpretations of the world and the impact of these interpretations on anxiety. Choice A refers to conditioning (learning theory). Choice B references biological influences (biological perspective). Psychoanalytic theory references the unconscious mind (choice C). Sociocultural psychologists emphasize the importance of cultural rules and conventions (choice D).

Researchers in which of the following psychological perspectives would be most interested in investigating different kinds of stimuli that cause physiological responses?

['(A)Humanistic', '(B)Behaviorist', '(C)Cognitive', '(D)Sociocultural', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(B)Behaviorists research conditioned and unconditioned relationships among stimuli and responses. Choices A, C, and D are psychological perspectives. However, they are not specifically interested in stimuli and automatic physiological responses. Choice E isn’t a psychological perspective. Developmental psychology is a psychological research subfield. However, developmental psychologists may use any of the psychological perspectives in their work.

The various psychological perspectives are not mutually exclusive. Many researchers use a combination of psychological perspectives to explain thinking and behavior. Which of the following combinations of psychological perspectives might a researcher be most likely to use when investigating the relationship between how we think about events and what we were rewarded and punished for in the past?

['(A)Humanistic and psychoanalytic', '(B)Sociocultural and structuralism', '(C)Cognitive and behaviorism', '(D)Biological and behavior genetics', '(E)Evolutionary and functionalism']

(C)Cognitive psychologists investigate our cognitive (thinking) interpretations of events and how the actions of others influence our behavior. Behavioral psychologists research the influence of rewards and punishments. The perspectives listed in choice A do not focus specifically on rewards/punishments or on cognitions. Choices B and E mix psychological perspectives (sociocultural and evolutionary) and historical psychological perspectives. Choice D lists two perspectives focused on the physiological causes of behavior, not on how we think about events or rewards/punishments.

What makes positive psychology different from other psychological perspectives/movements?

['(A)Positive psychology focuses on personality traits such as openness and extroversion rather than on negative personality attributes.', '(B)Most other psychological perspectives justify their theories using the experimental method, while positive psychology primarily uses case studies.', '(C)Positive psychology is exclusively used by clinical psychologists rather than other career areas.', '(D)All the psychological perspectives focus on explaining human behavior, while positive psychology attempts to explain human thinking.', '(E)Positive psychology focuses on human flourishing rather than on treating psychological disorders or researching issues related to deficiencies in human thinking and behavior.']

(E)The researchers who started the positive psychology movement were interested in investigating the “positive” end of the human experience—how we use our strengths and virtues to improve lives. Choices A and B are factually incorrect. Many clinical psychologists are interested in and use positive psychology (choice C). However, positive psychology is not used exclusively by clinical psychologists. Psychology is the science of human thinking and behavior, so choice D is incorrect.

Which of the following topics would a clinical psychologist most likely be interested in?

['(A)The processes involved as sensations become perceptions', '(B)Factors that influence conditioning of nonhuman animals', '(C)Psychological disorders common in different cultures', '(D)Statistical principles of experimental methodology', '(E)Reliability and validity issues involved in personality testing']

(C)Clinical psychologists treat psychological disorders or other cognitive/emotional issues. Choice A would be most relevant to developmental psychologists or to psychological historians. Choice B is a concept from learning/behavioral psychology. The experimental method (choice D) is used by all psychological researchers. Statistical principles might be interesting to experimental methodologists but probably not to clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists often work with clients on personality-related issues (choice E). However, the reliability and validity issues of personality testing are not the main focus of clinical psychology.

What makes psychoanalysis unique among the historical psychological movements?

['(A)The psychoanalytic movement was the first time talk therapy was used to help alleviate mental issues.', '(B)Other psychological movements used case studies and other anecdotal research methods, while psychoanalysts used experimentation.', '(C)Psychoanalysis focused on measuring behaviors rather than on internal mental states, like emotion.', '(D)As a group, psychoanalysts were among the first psychologists to recognize the need to study across different cultural groups.', '(E)The psychoanalytic movement focused on human strengths rather than on weaknesses.']

(A)Psychoanalysis, beginning with Sigmund Freud, was revolutionary because it involved talking with patients about mental issues. In many ways, the advent of psychoanalysis marks the beginning of clinical psychology. Practitioners of psychoanalysis primarily used case study methodology rather than experiments (choice B). They were interested primarily in internal states like emotion (choice C). In the early history of psychoanalysis, no attempts were made to investigate across cultures as referred to in choice D. Choice E refers to positive psychology, not psychoanalysis.

Which historical psychological movement is best summarized by the idea "in order to be a science, psychology needs to focus exclusively on what can be measured about humans rather than on unmeasurable internal cognitive states"?

['(A)Structuralism', '(B)Behaviorism', '(C)Gestalt psychology', '(D)Behavior genetics', '(E)Psychometrics']

(B)The early behaviorists wrote a manifesto declaring that for psychology to be a science, it needed to focus exclusively on what can be measured, which is behavior, rather than on internal cognitive states that can’t be observed. The other psychological movements referred to in choices A, C, D, and E would not have agreed with this statement. These other movements were all interested in internal cognitive states to greater or lesser degrees.

Dr. Gopnik demonstrated that infants show fear when presented with a toy snake but not when shown a toy bunny. She suggests that fear of objects that can be dangerous to us, like snakes, are biologically predisposed and allowed our ancestors to survive. Dr. Gopnik's view is most consistent with which of the following psychological perspectives?

['(A)Behavioral', '(B)Humanistic', '(C)Evolutionary', '(D)Cognitive', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(C)Evolutionary psychologists believe that certain behavioral predispositions, including fears, have been passed down through generations because these traits increase our chance of survival. Choice A focuses on observable behaviors learned from the environment. Choice B looks at human potential for growth and focuses on the role of free will in our behavior. Choice D supposes that our thoughts influence our behavior. Choice E considers the role of unconscious forces in shaping behavior.

Dr. Brunsman's research focuses on the impact of testing accommodations on the accuracy of measurements regarding students' reading achievement levels. Which of the following psychological career areas is the most appropriate label for Dr. Brunsman's research?

['(A)Developmental psychology', '(B)Human factors psychology', '(C)Social psychology', '(D)Psychometric psychology', '(E)Humanistic psychology']

(D)Psychometricians research how best to measure psychological constructs, such as reading achievement. Choice A is relevant to how we learn to read as young people, but developmental psychologists are not likely to be interested in specific issues related to this kind of testing. Choices B, C, and E do not specifically focus on measurement issues and are therefore not relevant to the scenario.

Dr. Keith spent much of his career researching how operant conditioning principles can be used to modify behaviors in positive ways. Late in his career, he changed his research to focus on whether or not these principles impact behaviors in the same way in different countries. Which psychological perspective best matches Dr. Keith's late-career research?

['(A)Sociocultural perspective', '(B)Behaviorism', '(C)Cognitive psychology', '(D)Humanistic perspective', '(E)Functionalism']

(A)Sociocultural psychologists (also known as cross-cultural psychologists) research how psychological principles do or do not influence human behavior in different countries and cultures. Choice B, behaviorism, matches Dr. Keith’s early research career. Cognitive psychologists, choice C, research how the ways we think and remember information influence our behaviors. Humanism and functionalism, choices D and E, are not relevant to this scenario. Neither one focuses on examining how psychological research applies across cultures. In addition, choice E refers to a historical perspective, not to a modern perspective.

Steve, your college roommate, tells you he wants to research how people throughout history became the "best they could be." He is fascinated by self-sacrificing people like Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. who devoted most of their lives to making others' lives better. He asks you what area of psychology he could research in order to find out more about these self-sacrificing historical figures. What area would you recommend?

['(A)Cognitive perspective', '(B)Behavior genetics', '(C)Personality psychology', '(D)Humanistic perspective', '(E)Gestalt psychology']

(D)Researchers from the humanist perspective, like Abraham Maslow, were interested in how people could become their “best selves.” Maslow used examples of “self-actualized” individuals throughout history (like Gandhi) to show how people progressed through different stages of needs as they grew into self-actualized individuals. Researchers specializing in the perspectives mentioned in choices A, B, and C might be interested in specific aspects of the topic Steve mentions. However, they don’t focus specifically on self-actualization. Choice E, Gestalt psychology, focuses on how people put individual elements into a “whole” perception, investigating the influence of details like grouping, similarity, and other factors.

Sigmund Freud's perspective on psychology was most dependent on which of the following concepts?

['(A)Conformity', '(B)Repression', '(C)Naturalistic observation', '(D)Overjustification effect', '(E)Experimentation']

(B)Freud believed that our conscious mind represses unacceptable impulses, anxieties, and fears. These repressed thoughts form our unconscious mind, which ultimately controls much of our thinking and behavior. Choice A refers to our tendency to conform to (agree with) the opinion of the majority of a group. Choice C is a direct observation of humans or other animals in their natural environments. Choice D refers to the negative impact of rewards on behaviors that are intrinsically motivated. Choice E involves the manipulation of an independent variable under controlled conditions and its effect on the dependent variable.

Wilhelm Wundt presented subjects with an object, such as a piece of fruit, and asked them to describe their thoughts or perceptions of it, such as the object's color, its shape, and how it felt when touched. What did Wundt call this method?

['(A)Random assignment', '(B)Free association', '(C)Active listening', '(D)Shaping', '(E)Introspection']

(E)Wundt used the method of introspection. He asked subjects to examine their own thoughts carefully and to report their conscious experiences in order to investigate mental experiences. Choice A refers to an experimental technique where subjects are assigned by chance to either an experimental or a control condition. Choice B describes a method used by psychoanalysts to gain insight into unconscious processes. Choice C is a skill used by humanistic therapists that involves mirroring back feelings communicated by a client. Choice D is an operant conditioning method used to teach new behaviors.

Dr. Leary conducts a study investigating whether the hormone oxytocin can be used to treat individuals who abuse opioids. Which psychological perspective is most applicable to Dr. Leary's study?

['(A)Humanistic', '(B)Behavioral', '(C)Evolutionary', '(D)Biological', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(D)Dr. Leary is interested in examining the relationship between biological processes (the impact of oxytocin) and behavior (drug use), which is the focus of the biological perspective. Choice A concentrates on the conditions that lead to growth. Choice B aims at explaining how observable behaviors are learned from the environment. Choice C centers on applying Darwin’s theory of evolution to behavioral traits. Choice E investigates the impact of unconscious processes on behavior.

Student Classes Missed in a Semester Grade Point Average 1 4 1.5 2 3 2.5 3 0 3.8 4 1 3.5 5 2 2.5 6 1 3.0 7 5 1.0 8 7 1.5 9 5 2.5 10 3 2.75 Researchers were interested in the relationship between the number of classes high school students missed during a semester and students' grade point averages. Which of the following scatter plots best represents the data presented in the chart?

['(A)', '(B)', '(C)', '(D)', '(E)']

(A)The data chart indicates that as school absences increase, grade point averages decrease. This is a negative correlation. This relationship is correctly depicted in choice A. Choice B depicts a positive correlation, where as one variable increases so does the other variable. Since the data points are without pattern in choice C, this scatter plot shows that there is no relationship between the two variables. Choice D illustrates a curvilinear relationship. That relationship occurs when one variable increases, so does the second variable, but only up to a certain point. Then, as one variable continues to increase, the other decreases. Choice E illustrates no relationship between the two variables.

Student Classes Missed in a Semester Grade Point Average 1 4 1.5 2 3 2.5 3 0 3.8 4 1 3.5 5 2 2.5 6 1 3.0 7 5 1.0 8 7 1.5 9 5 2.5 10 3 2.75 Based on the data presented in the chart, which of the following best describes the relationship between the number of classes missed during a semester and grade point average?

['(A)Positive', '(B)Perfect', '(C)Negative', '(D)Random', '(E)Significant']

(C)The data in the chart shows a negative relationship. As student absenteeism increases, grade point averages decrease. Choice A, a positive correlation, means that as the number of student absences increases, grade point averages also increase. A perfect relationship, choice B, means that the relationship between the two variables is either positive or negative 100% of the time. This is not indicated in the data provided in the chart. If there were no relationship between the two variables (choice D), researchers could not predict the presence of one variable from the presence of the other. This is not the relationship suggested by the data provided. Significance, choice E, refers to the likelihood that differences between groups are likely due to chance. The data provided do not allow for such an inference to be made.

Which of the following newspaper headlines would be most appropriate in reporting the findings of this study?

['(A)"Missing Classes in High School Causes Bad Grades"', '(B)"Increased School Absences Benefit High School Students!"', '(C)"School Absenteeism Decreases High School Grade Point Averages"', '(D)"More Absences from School Linked to Poor Grades"', '(E)"Researchers Find No Link Between High School Attendance and Grades"']

(D)Choice D illustrates the correct negative correlation between absenteeism and grades. It also uses appropriate correlational language. Choices A, B, and C use causal language. Since this is a correlational study, using language that suggests cause and effect would be inappropriate. In addition, choice B suggests a positive correlation between the two variables. Choice E suggests that no relationship was found between student absenteeism and grades, which was not suggested by the data.

Which of the following allows psychologists to generalize research findings to the intended population?

['(A)Replication', '(B)Random assignment', '(C)Double-blind technique', '(D)Use of a placebo', '(E)Random sampling']

(E)If a sample is drawn randomly from a population, that sample is more likely to be representative. Replication, choice A, is an important step in validating research findings, but it doesn’t specifically relate to generalizing results from a sample to a population. Choice B allows researchers to be sure that individual characteristics are distributed more evenly between the experimental and control groups so that differences between the groups are more likely due to the manipulation of the independent variable. Choice C allows researchers to control for experimenter bias and participant expectations. Choice D lets researchers control for the belief that a treatment will be effective.

Theories

['(A)are statements of precise procedures used in a research study.', '(B)describe the characteristics of a sample.', '(C)are random methods used to sort participants into different groups.', '(D)are requirements in place to protect the welfare of research subjects.', '(E)organize and integrate information understood about a specific phenomenon.']

(E)Theories attempt to explain events by proposing ideas that organize and integrate what has been observed about a particular phenomenon. Choice A describes an operational definition. Choice B focuses on the individual differences of those in a sample drawn from a population. Choice C concerns how participants in an experiment are randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control condition. Choice D relates to the ethical guidelines that direct the treatment of participants, including informed consent and debriefing, in research studies.

In research, a specific testable prediction is a(n)

['(A)correlation', '(B)meta-analysis', '(C)theory', '(D)hypothesis', '(E)independent variable']

(D)The hypothesis is central to research. It identifies what outcomes support or invalidate the theory from which the hypothesis was generated. Choice A, correlation, looks at the relationship between two variables. Choice B, meta-analysis, refers to a statistical technique that combines the results of numerous research studies. A theory, choice C, is an attempt to explain a particular phenomenon. A theory is the source for a hypothesis. Choice E, independent variable, is the factor manipulated across different conditions in an experiment.

Which of the following best illustrates the use of an operational definition?

['(A)"Students listening to music during class will have lower grade point averages than students who do not listen to music during class."', '(B)"Alcohol affects judgment."', '(C)"Happiness in college students is negatively impacted by the number of classes taken during a semester."', '(D)"Adults are more likely to experience empty nest syndrome later in life."', '(E)"Twelve-year-old children who watch violence on television will demonstrate less aggressive behavior if the characters are cartoons."']

(A)The key component of an operational definition is measurement. Researchers must specify how the variables will be measured. Choice A clearly outlines that the researcher will collect grade point averages to measure the impact of listening to music in class. Choice B does not provide a specific measurement for judgment. Choice C also does not provide a specific method for measuring happiness in college students. Choice D lacks detail about how the researchers would measure “empty nest syndrome.” Choice E does not explain what constitutes aggressive behavior and how that behavior will be measured.

Which of the following is central for the replication of a research study?

['(A)Random sampling of research subjects', '(B)Operational definitions of procedures', '(C)Random assignment of participants into experimental or control conditions', '(D)Use of the double-blind procedure', '(E)Debriefing of participants']

(B)When a researcher operationally defines his or her procedures, it assists others in repeating the earlier study. Random sampling, choice A, helps ensure that the sample is representative of the population. Random assignment, choice C, helps minimize the differences between those in the experimental group and those in the control group. The double-blind procedure, choice D, allows researchers to control for experimental bias and participant expectations. Choice E, the debriefing of participants at the end of a research study, is ethically required in an experiment.

Of the following, what is a major drawback of using a case study?

['(A)The results cannot be generalized to a large population.', '(B)The particular wording of questions can affect the results.', '(C)Neither the researcher nor the subject knows what condition the subject has been assigned to.', '(D)Since case studies are conducted quickly, they may lead to inaccurate conclusions.', '(E)Manipulating certain variables is not ethical.']

(A)Since a case study focuses either on one person or on a group of individuals who share a common unusual characteristic, generalizability to the population is a drawback of its use. Such atypical cases can lead researchers to draw conclusions that cannot be applied to all people. Choice B, which describes wording effects, is more of an issue when a researcher conducts a survey. Survey questions can be phrased in a way that impacts the results. Choice C describes the use of the double-blind technique to reduce experimental bias in an experiment. Choice D is not accurate in describing case studies as they tend to take a long time to complete. Choice E is more relevant to experimentation, which is the only method that involves the manipulation of variables.

Naturalistic observation

['(A)requires the manipulation of variables to isolate cause and effect.', '(B)involves the in-depth investigation of individuals in unusual circumstances.', '(C)provides a large amount of information on many cases.', '(D)shows whether two variables are related.', '(E)allows for careful examination of behavior in native environments.']

(E)Naturalistic observation allows researchers to observe and record the behavior of organisms in their natural environment. Choice A describes an advantage of using an experiment. Choice B describes the use of a case study in research. Choice C is a description of a survey. Choice D refers to the use of a correlational study.

When conducting survey research, what must a researcher do to generalize the results to the population?

['(A)Randomly assign participants to groups', '(B)Use the double-blind technique', '(C)Operationally define the procedures used', '(D)Randomly sample participants', '(E)Obtain informed consent']

(D)Random sampling helps a researcher obtain a group of participants that is representative of the population. From a sample that is representative, a researcher has greater confidence in generalizing the results to the population. Random assignment, choice A, is used in an experiment to minimize differences among representatives in the experimental and control conditions. The double-blind technique, choice B, allows a researcher to control for bias in an experiment. Operationally defining procedures, choice C, allows other researchers to replicate research studies. Informed consent, choice E, is required by the current ethical guidelines to ensure participants understand the nature of the study before agreeing to participate.

Which of the following allows researchers to determine how well one variable predicts the presence of another variable?

['(A)Random assignment', '(B)Case studies', '(C)Correlational studies', '(D)Surveys', '(E)Statistical significance']

(C)Correlational studies involve using a statistical measure, called a correlation coefficient, to determine how closely two variables are related. If a correlation exists between two variables, the presence of one variable can predict the presence of the other. Random assignment, choice A, is used to ensure that the subject variables in both the experimental and control groups are equalized. Case studies, choice B, allow researchers to study an unusual instance in detail. Surveys, choice D, provide researchers with self-reporting data on an individual’s attitudes. Statistical significance, choice E, indicates how likely chance is operating in differences found among groups in an experiment.

A visual representation of a correlation is called a

['(A)normal curve', '(B)factor analysis', '(C)histogram', '(D)statistical significance', '(E)scatter plot']

(E)A scatter plot contains an x-axis (horizontal), a y-axis (vertical), and a series of dots. Each dot signifies the values of the x- and y-variables in a data set. The points reveal the direction and strength of the relationship between the variables. A normal curve, choice A, is a visual representation of data. It is distributed in a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve with most scores near the mean and fewer scores near the extremes. Factor analysis, choice B, is a statistical technique that allows researchers to reduce large amounts of data by identifying clusters of related factors. A histogram, choice C, is a bar graph of a frequency distribution. Statistical significance, choice D, suggests how likely the differences between groups are due to chance.

A correlation coefficient of +.70 indicates that (A)there is an inverse relationship between the two variables.

['(B)there is a very weak relationship between the two variables.', '(C)the finding is statistically significant.', '(D)as one variable increases, another variable increases.', '(E)the data are normally distributed.']

(D)A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases. Choice A is incorrect because a positive correlation means the variables have a direct relationship, not an indirect relationship. Choice B is incorrect because a correlation of .70 suggests a strong relationship between the two variables. A finding that is statistically significant, choice C, indicates that differences between groups are probably not due to chance. Statistical significance is not reported by a correlation coefficient. Whether or not the data are normally distributed, choice E, cannot be inferred by a correlation coefficient.

Which of the following correlation coefficients reflects the weakest relationship between two variables?

['(A)–1.00', '(B) +.20', '(C) −.50', '(D) +.75', '(E) −.80']

(B)A correlation coefficient ranges from –1 to +1. The weaker the relationship is, the closer the number is to 0. In this case, +.20 is closest to zero and reflects the weakest relationship of the choices given. Choice A, –1.00, reflects a perfect negative relationship between two variables. Choices C, D, and E are closer to either +1 or –1 and suggest a stronger relationship between two variables.

Correlational studies

['(A)compare individuals of different ages at a specific time.', '(B)use statistical procedures that combine the results of many research studies.', '(C)measure how spread out the numbers are from the mean.', '(D)determine how likely it is that research results occurred by chance.', '(E)reveal relationships between variables but do not prove cause and effect.']

(E)Because there is no manipulation of a variable across carefully controlled conditions, correlational studies can only suggest possible cause-and-effect relationships. A possible third variable cannot be ruled out that may be leading to the perceived relationship. Choice A is defining a cross-sectional study. Choice B refers to doing a meta-analysis. Choice C describes a standard deviation. Choice D explains statistical significance.

A researcher is interested in the relationship between age and height in children from infancy to 18 years old. What type of correlation would you predict would be found between these variables?

['(A)Negative', '(B)Perfect', '(C)Positive', '(D)Illusory', '(E)Significant']

(C)Since individuals tend to grow taller as they get older, you could predict that a positive correlation would be found. A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases. A negative correlation, choice A, would indicate that as one variable increases, the other decreases. A perfect correlation, choice B, can either be positive (+1) or negative (–1). If a perfect correlation exists, knowing the value of one variable allows you to predict the value of the other variable exactly. An illusory correlation, choice D, exists when you perceive a relationship between variables that does not really exist. Significance, choice E, refers to the likelihood that differences in the collected data from either an experimental or a control group are likely due to chance.

Which of the following best illustrates an illusory correlation?

["(A)A high school football player wears his lucky socks for every game because his team hasn't lost since he started wearing them.", '(B)After staring at a flag of green stripes against a yellow background, a man sees red stripes against a blue background when he shifts his gaze to a white surface.', '(C)You feel uncomfortable when you let someone copy off your paper after you have previously expressed that cheating is wrong.', '(D)A woman perceives color, motion, form, and depth simultaneously when observing a car driving down her street.', '(E)A person knows that juice poured from a short, wide glass remains the same amount when poured into a tall, thin glass.']

(A)When a person perceives a relationship that doesn’t really exist, it is an illusory correlation. In this example, the football player sees a relationship between wearing his lucky socks and winning games. Choice B is an example of a color afterimage. Choice C illustrates the process of cognitive dissonance. Choice D is an example of parallel processing. Choice E reflects the ability to conserve, which is an ability first present in those who are concrete operational.

Which of the following is the only method that allows a researcher to establish a cause-and-effect relationship?

['(A)Correlational studies', '(B)Case studies', '(C)Naturalistic observations', '(D)Surveys', '(E)Experimentation']

(E)Since an experiment is conducted under controlled conditions and with at least two randomly assigned groups, it is the only research method listed that allows a researcher to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. Since correlational studies (choice A), case studies (choice B), naturalistic observations (choice C), and surveys (choice D) lack controlled conditions, a researcher cannot use these methods to specify cause and effect.

Which of the following is unique to experimental design?

['(A)Random sampling', '(B)Positive correlations', '(C)Operational definitions', '(D)Random assignment', '(E)Descriptive statistics']

(D)Random assignment is unique to experimental design because in an experiment, researchers manipulate an independent variable while holding constant other variables across experimental and control groups. In order to minimize the differences among individuals in different groups, researchers use random assignment. Random sampling, choice A, is not used only in experiments but also when a researcher does a survey to ensure that the sample is representative of the population. Positive correlations, choice B, are obtained only in correlational studies. It is important to define operationally the variables and procedures used in psychological research, not only in experiments. Therefore, choice C is incorrect. Descriptive statistics, choice E, are used to represent data collected from a number of research designs and are not unique to experiments.

In order to control for experimenter bias, researchers will often use

['(A)random assignment', '(B)inferential statistics', '(C)the double-blind technique', '(D)split-half reliability', '(E)random sampling']

(C)If a study uses the double-blind technique, neither the researcher nor the subject knows what condition the subject has been assigned to. This helps control for the expectations that the subject and researcher might have that could bias the results. Random assignment, choice A, helps to minimize any preexisting differences among members of the experimental and control conditions. Inferential statistics, choice B, help researchers know if their findings are likely to be due to random chance or to the effect of the intervention (independent variable). Split-half reliability, choice D, helps researchers determine if a test yields consistent results. Researchers first divide the test in half, into odds and evens. Then they administer the odd questions to half of the sample and the even questions to the other half. Random sampling, choice E, helps to ensure that the sample is representative of the population.

Which of the following measures of central tendency is most influenced by extreme scores?

['(A)Median', '(B)Range', '(C)Mode', '(D)Mean', '(E)Standard deviation']

(D)The mean is the arithmetic average. It is determined by adding all of the scores and dividing by the number of scores. Thus, extreme scores, called outliers, are more likely to impact this measure. The median, choice A, is the score at the 50th percentile. It is not impacted by extremes, which makes it a more accurate measure of data that includes outliers. The mode, choice C, is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution. It is not heavily impacted by outliers. The range and the standard deviation, choices B and E, are measures of variation, not of central tendency.

If the difference between the means of two groups is statistically significant, what does this mean?

['(A)The findings are important and will impact our understanding of a specific psychological phenomenon.', '(B)The scores in the distributions for the two groups are normally distributed.', '(C)Outliers have skewed the distribution of the scores for the different groups.', '(D)The two variables have a positive correlation.', '(E)The difference between the groups is not likely due to chance.']

(E)Statistical significance refers to the likelihood of chance operating in the differences between two tested groups. However, finding statistical significance does not, as suggested in choice A, mean that the findings are important. Statistical significance also does not focus on whether the distributions of scores are normally distributed (choice B) or if outliers have skewed the distribution (choice C). The key is whether the averages from the two groups are reliable and if the difference is relatively large. If those conditions are present, it is likely that the results are statistically significant. Choice D, which concerns a possible positive correlation, is not the issue. Whether or not a result is unlikely to happen by chance is central in establishing cause and effect from data collected. Correlational studies indicate if there is an association between variables. However, finding an association is not the same as finding causation, even if the findings are statistically significant.

Researchers believe that an over-the-counter supplement may be useful in reducing memory impairment in older adults. They randomly assign 40 adults between the ages of 50 and 90 years who had mild memory impairments to receive either a placebo or 90 milligrams of the supplement twice daily for 18 months. At six-month intervals, researchers conduct various memory tests. What type of research method is used to study the impact of the supplement on memory ability?

['(A)Survey', '(B)Case study', '(C)Naturalistic observation', '(D)Correlation', '(E)Experimentation']

(E)Since the participants were randomly assigned to two conditions where some are given the drug and the other a placebo, this research method is an experiment. Choice A is typically used to collect self-report data to assess attitudes. Choice B is an in-depth analysis of one person. Choice C is a careful observation done in one’s natural environment. Choice D looks for the relationship between two variables but does not include the manipulation of an independent variable as in an experiment.

Researchers believe that an over-the-counter supplement may be useful in reducing memory impairment in older adults. They randomly assign 40 adults between the ages of 50 and 90 years who had mild memory impairments to receive either a placebo or 90 milligrams of the supplement twice daily for 18 months. At six-month intervals, researchers conduct various memory tests. In the study described above, which of the following is the independent variable?

['(A)The supplement', '(B)The results of the memory tests', '(C)Adults between the ages of 50 and 90', '(D)The group that receives the placebo', '(E)The time periods between administration of the tests']

(A)The independent variable (IV) is the variable that is manipulated between the experimental and control conditions. In this case, the IV is administration of the supplement to one group and the placebo to the other. Choice B is the dependent variable, which is the results of the manipulation of the IV. Choice C refers to the subjects in the study. Choice D refers to the control group that received the fake treatment. Choice E was not manipulated; thus, it is not the IV.

Researchers believe that an over-the-counter supplement may be useful in reducing memory impairment in older adults. They randomly assign 40 adults between the ages of 50 and 90 years who had mild memory impairments to receive either a placebo or 90 milligrams of the supplement twice daily for 18 months. At six-month intervals, researchers conduct various memory tests. Why is it important that the individuals participating in the study are randomly assigned to either the group that receives the supplement or to the group that receives the placebo?

['(A)This increases the likelihood that the two groups are the same so that any differences between the two groups are due to the manipulation.', '(B)Without random assignment, data collection could be inconsistent and the results could be inaccurate.', '(C)Keeping the researchers blind helps prevent their own expectations from influencing the results of the study.', '(D)This method helps participants make a knowledgeable decision about whether or not they want to be a part of the study.', '(E)If the study can be repeated, the researchers will have more confidence in the results.']

(A)Random assignment balances the experimental group and the control group in terms of various subject variables, such as personality characteristics. As a result, researchers have more confidence that differences in the results are due to manipulation of the independent variable, not due to the characteristics of the people in the groups. Choice B refers to the importance of operationally defining variables. Choice C refers to the need to use a double-blind study to control for experimenter bias. Choice D refers to the need for gaining informed consent from the participants before conducting research. Choice E describes the need for replication to increase confidence in the experimental results.

Researchers were interested in whether drinking from a colored cup influenced perception of the sweetness of hot chocolate. Participants were divided into groups that received hot chocolate in either an orange-colored cup or a white cup. Researchers found that those who received colored cups found the hot chocolate to be sweeter. Those drinking hot chocolate from the orange cups

['(A)were participants in the control group.', '(B)were receiving the dependent variable.', '(C)were subjects in the experimental group.', '(D)were randomly sampled into this group.', '(E)were members of a placebo group.']

(C)Those who received the treatment were members of the experimental group. In this case, those who received hot chocolate in orange cups were exposed to the treatment. The group that received the white cups were acting as a control group to give researchers a basis for comparison. Thus, choice A is incorrect. Choice B is incorrect because the dependent variable is the outcome of the manipulation of the independent variable and cannot be given to a group. Choice D is incorrect because participants were not randomly sampled into different conditions. Instead, they were randomly assigned into different groups. Based on the description of this experiment, a placebo group was not used. Therefore, choice E is incorrect.

In an experiment, investigators randomly assigned subjects to one of two groups. In the first group, subjects attended an event and used media to record it. In the second group, subjects attended the same event but did not use media to record it. Subjects were then asked to recall the event. Researchers found that the group not using media remembered the event more accurately. What was the independent variable in this experiment?

['(A)Use of media', '(B)Recall accuracy of the experience', '(C)Number of subjects', '(D)Type of personal experience', '(E)Enjoyment of the experience']

(A)The use of media was the factor manipulated in the experiment and therefore is the independent variable. Choice B, recall accuracy of the event, was the dependent variable because it was the outcome measured in the experiment. Choice C, the number of subjects, is a concern of experimental design. However, it was not manipulated across the groups. Choice D may be a confounding variable, but it was not the independent variable outlined by the researchers. Choice E could possibly be measured by the experimenters but was not manipulated across the groups.

Researchers were interested in the impact of age on memory recall. Thirty 25-year-olds and 75-year-olds were asked to rehearse a list of 15 unrelated nouns 20 times. Participants were then tested on their recall of the list. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?

['(A)The number of participants', '(B)The list of 15 unrelated nouns', '(C)The number of words recalled', '(D)The number of rehearsals of the list', '(E)The ages of the participants']

(C)The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured in the experiment. In this case, it is the number of words recalled by the participants. Choices A, B, and D are important to the design of the experiment. However, none are the outcomes measured after manipulating the independent variable. Choice E is the independent variable, which is the factor manipulated across the experimental and control groups.

A researcher found that the closer students sat to the front of the classroom, the higher their final grades in the course. This finding reflects a(n)

['(A)inverse relationship.', '(B)statistically significant result.', '(C)positive correlation.', '(D)negative skew.', '(E)placebo effect.']

(C)A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases (how close to the front of the room the students sit), so does the other (higher grades). An inverse relationship, choice A, suggests that as one variable increases, the other decreases. If a result is statistically significant, choice B, chance was not likely the cause of group differences in an experiment. Negatively skewed results, choice D, demonstrates that in a distribution of scores, there are fewer low values than high values. The placebo effect, choice E, refers to the influence of belief on the effectiveness of a treatment.

In a study investigating stereotyping, African American students, who were aware of a negative stereotype regarding their academic performance, were randomly assigned into one of two groups. Those in Group A were exposed to an encouraging message from an African American role model. Students in Group B were not exposed to such a message. Members of both groups completed a test comprised of items from the SAT exam. Researchers found that those exposed to the positive message earned higher test scores. At the conclusion of the study, students' names and their corresponding test scores were sent to all participants. Why can researchers conclude there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables in the study described in the scenario?

['(A)The descriptive research methods used allowed researchers to maintain control of potential confounding variables.', '(B)The subjects were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group.', '(C)Researchers found a positive correlation between hearing a positive message and test scores.', '(D)Researchers found that students in Group A had higher test scores than those in Group B.', '(E)Researchers operationally defined the dependent variable.']

(B)Because researchers randomly assigned participants to different experimental conditions, the researchers can have more confidence that the differences between the groups are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. Participants are randomly assigned only in an experiment. Thus, choice A is incorrect because experimentation is not a descriptive research method. Choice C is also incorrect because the study is an experiment and not a correlational study. Choice D focuses on only the results of the study, which is not enough to conclude that a cause-and-effect relationship exists. Operationally defining the dependent variable happens in any study that collects data; thus, choice E is incorrect.

In a study investigating stereotyping, African American students, who were aware of a negative stereotype regarding their academic performance, were randomly assigned into one of two groups. Those in Group A were exposed to an encouraging message from an African American role model. Students in Group B were not exposed to such a message. Members of both groups completed a test comprised of items from the SAT exam. Researchers found that those exposed to the positive message earned higher test scores. At the conclusion of the study, students' names and their corresponding test scores were sent to all participants. In the study described in the scenario, how did researchers violate the current ethical guidelines regarding research participation?

['(A)Subjects were deceived and should have been debriefed at the conclusion of the study.', "(B)Researchers' values might affect their observations and interpretation of the results.", "(C)It wasn't fair that only members of one group received the encouraging message.", "(D)Researchers should have kept participants' names and test scores confidential.", '(E)SAT exams lack reliability and should not have been used to measure academic performance.']

(D)According to the current ethical guidelines, personal information from individual participants must remain confidential. Subjects in the described study were not deceived; thus, choice A is incorrect. Although it is important that researchers are aware of how their personal values may impact how they interpret research findings, this is not against current ethical guidelines. So, choice B is incorrect. For an experiment to be conducted, an independent variable must be manipulated across the experimental and control groups. Thus, choice C is incorrect. Choice E is also incorrect as items from the SAT exam could be used to measure academic performance.

A preschool teacher measured the amount of time students engaged in positive social play. The following is the distribution of scores: 5, 10, 10, 10, 15, 25, 25, 30. What was the mean amount of time students engaged in positive social play?

['(A)10 minutes', '(B)12.5 minutes', '(C)15 minutes', '(D)16.25 minutes', '(E)25 minutes']

(D)To determine the mean, you must add the scores and divide the sum by the number of scores. The sum for this distribution of scores is 5 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 15 + 25 + 25 + 30 = 130. Therefore, the mean is 130 ÷ 8 = 16.25. Choice A, 10 minutes, is the mode, which is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution. Choice B, 12.5 minutes, is the median score. Since there is an even number of scores in this distribution, the median is found by obtaining the average of the two middle scores when the scores are aligned in either ascending or descending order: 10 + 15 = 25 and 25 ÷ 2 = 12.5. Choice C is incorrect. Choice E reflects the range, which is a measure of variation. The range is found by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score: 30 – 5 = 25.

Six babies were born on the same evening in a local hospital. The following is the distribution of their birth weights (in grams): 3,866; 3,838; 3,837; 3,783; 3,746; 3,500; 1,745. What statistical measure would give the most accurate information about the variation in the data?

['(A)Mode', '(B)Mean', '(C)Standard deviation', '(D)Correlation coefficient', '(E)p value']

(C)The standard deviation would be the preferred statistical measurement for variation because it considers every score in the distribution. The mode, choice A, is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Choice B, the mean, is a measure of central tendency, not of variation. A correlation coefficient, choice D, is an indication of the relationship between two variables. A p value, choice E, is used to determine statistical significance.

A high school teacher collected the final test scores of students in her Honors United States History course. She found that the scores were normally distributed with a mean of 70 and a standard deviation of 10. What percentage of her students passed the exam with a score of 60 or above?

['(A)34%', '(B)68%', '(C)84%', '(D)95%', '(E)99.7%']

(C)If the scores are normally distributed, approximately 50% of the scores fall between 70 and 100, where a score of 100 is 3 standard deviations above the mean. An additional 34% of the scores fall between the mean and 1 standard deviation below the mean, which is 60. So 34% of scores fall between 60 and 70. Thus, the percentage of students with scores between 60 and 100 is 50% + 34% = 84%. Choice A reflects the percentage of scores 1 standard deviation above or below the mean. Choice B is the total number of scores 1 standard deviation above and below the mean. Choice D reflects the percentage of scores 2 standard deviations above and below the mean. Choice E represents the percentage of scores 3 standard deviations above and below the mean.

Researchers investigated whether students who distributed their study time earned higher grades on their final exams. Students were randomly assigned to two conditions. Group A (n = 35) studied a list of vocabulary words 15 minutes a night for 10 days. Group B (n = 35) studied the same list of words for 2.5 hours the night before the exam. Researchers found that in Group A, the mean test score was 80. In Group B, the mean test score was 70. Researchers determined that the results were statistically significant. What does statistical significance mean in the context of this study?

['(A)The p value is < .05.', '(B)The difference between groups is due to the manipulation of the independent variable.', '(C)The results are important.', '(D)The differences between the groups are not likely to have occurred by chance.', '(E)There is a strong positive correlation between distributed practice and ability to recall information.']

(D)If the results are statistically significant, the differences between groups are not likely to have occurred by chance. Choice A reflects the acceptable p value when stating that the results are statistically significant. However, it does not define what statistical significance means in the context of this study. Choice B is incorrect because it lacks a statement of probability, such as “The difference between groups is likely due to the manipulation of the independent variable.” Just because the results of a study are statistically significant does not mean that the results have practical importance. Thus, choice C is incorrect. Choice E is incorrect because correlation coefficients illuminate the association between two variables. Finding an association is not the same as establishing cause and effect, even if the findings are statistically significant.

Sigmund Freud was contacted by the father of Little Hans, a 5-year-old with a phobia of horses. Freud analyzed Hans's dreams, statements, and emotional reactions. Then Freud concluded that Hans's fear of horses came from his Oedipal conflict. Horses symbolized Hans's father. Freud believed that Hans was having sexual fantasies about his mother and feared his father's retaliation. Thus, Little Hans displaced his fear of his father onto horses. What type of research method did Freud most likely use to draw his conclusions?

['(A)Survey', '(B)Case study', '(C)Naturalistic observation', '(D)Correlation', '(E)Experimentation']

(B)A case study is an in-depth study of one individual. Choice A gathers self-report data from large groups using questionnaires. Choice C is a direct observation of humans or other animals in their natural environments. Choice D analyzes a possible relationship between two variables. Choice E involves the manipulation of an independent variable and its effect on the dependent variable under controlled conditions.

Research participants in Stanley Milgram's experiment were told it was an investigation into the effects of punishment on learning when it really concerned obedience to an authority figure. Based on today's ethical standards, what would Milgram be required to do because of this deception?

['(A)Obtain informed consent before beginning the study.', '(B)Keep information about participants confidential.', '(C)Attain approval from an Institutional Review Board (IRB).', '(D)Debrief participants at the conclusion of the study.', '(E)Protect participants from undue discomfort.']

(D)At the conclusion of a study, participants must have information about the research explained to them, including any deception. Choices A, B, and E are all ethical requirements but do not pertain directly to the deception that took place in the Milgram study. Choice C concerns the committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that all ethical guidelines have been considered.

In 1953, 27-year-old H. M. had most of his hippocampus removed in an attempt to control his epileptic seizures. After surgery, H. M. lost the ability to form new memories. In the decades that followed, researchers tried to understand the role of the hippocampus in forming memory by conducting numerous studies. In studying H. M., researchers were

['(A)replicating earlier work.', '(B)conducting a case study.', '(C)pioneering the work on the retention curve.', '(D)determining a correlation coefficient.', '(E)operating a double-blind experiment.']

(B)The study of H. M. was a case study. Researchers were examining one person in depth and hoped to learn more about the inner workings of the brain. H. M.’s case was unique. It was not a repeat of earlier studies, as suggested in choice A. The retention curve, choice C, was first studied by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909). A correlation coefficient, choice D, is a measure of the relationship between two variables and does not accurately describe the studies on H. M. In an experiment, participants are divided into different conditions. In order to control for bias, participants are kept blind about their assigned condition. This safeguard was not a part of the H. M. studies (choice E).

In Elizabeth Loftus's groundbreaking experiment on memory, participants watched films of traffic accidents. Afterward, participants were asked to describe what had happened and were asked specific questions. Some groups were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" Others were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?" What is the independent variable in this experiment?

['(A)The films of the traffic accidents', '(B)The age of the participants', '(C)The speed reported by the participants', '(D)The number of participants in each group', '(E)The wording of the questions']

(E)The independent variable is the one manipulated in an experiment. Since all participants viewed the same films of traffic accidents, these films are not a variable. Therefore, choice A is incorrect. The age of the participants (choice B) and the number of participants (choice D) were not manipulated. So, neither one is the independent variable. The speed reported by the participants, choice C, is the dependent variable.

In a correlational study, researchers found that the more time students spent on social media, the lower their overall grades were. The relationship between these two variables is

['(A)a positive correlation.', '(B)a causal relationship.', '(C)a negative correlation.', '(D)statistically significant.', '(E)a reliable finding.']

(C)A negative correlation means that higher values for one variable (more time on social media) are associated with lower values for the other variable (lower overall grades). Choice A would signify that higher values for one variable would be associated with higher values for the other variable. Choice B is not possible because in a correlational study, there is no random assignment to groups with the manipulation of an independent variable. Thus, a correlational study cannot determine a cause-and-effect relationship. Choice D indicates that the results of the study are unlikely to have been due to chance. This can be determined only using inferential statistics. Choice E focuses on whether or not test scores are stable over time.

Psychologists were interested in whether or not individuals talking on the phone would be more likely to strike traffic cones while driving on a course than those who were not talking on the phone. This testable prediction would most likely be called a(n)

['(A)naturalistic observation.', '(B)hypothesis.', '(C)illusory correlation.', '(D)random sample.', '(E)theory.']

(B)A hypothesis is a prediction that can be tested by researchers under controlled conditions. Choice A, naturalistic observation, is a method where researchers carefully watch and record the behavior of organisms in their natural conditions. Choice C, an illusory correlation, occurs when a relationship is perceived between two variables even though no relationship actually exists. A random sample, choice D, refers to a subset of the population, chosen by chance, that participates in a research study. A theory, choice E, is an integrated set of explanations for psychological phenomena. A good theory can lead to the creation of hypotheses.

Zajonc proposed that being watched by others generates physiological arousal that increases the probability that while performing a highly practiced task, a person will make fewer mistakes, but when doing an unpracticed task, a person will make more errors. Zajonc's proposal helps organize and explain human behavior as well as predict future actions. His explanation would most likely be called a(n)

['(A)hypothesis.', '(B)operational definition.', '(C)replication.', '(D)theory.', '(E)case study.']

(D)A theory helps organize and integrate observable phenomena as well as make predictions about future behavior. A hypothesis, choice A, is more specific than a theory. Hypotheses are generated from a theory and are testable. Choice B refers to the method used to measure a variable, not the overall theory referred to in this question. Choice C, replication, refers to a researcher repeating an earlier study to see if the results can be reproduced. Choice E is a specific research method that allows a researcher to do an in-depth study of a single person or group of people who share a common characteristic.

When is it appropriate to use a correlational study instead of experimentation?

['(A)When a researcher wishes to discover a cause-and-effect relationship', '(B)When a researcher wants to generalize from a small sample to a population', '(C)When a researcher is concerned about the impact of the placebo effect on the results of the study', '(D)When a researcher cannot randomly assign subjects to different conditions due to ethical concerns', '(E)When a researcher wants to establish if the results are statistically significant']

(D)When a researcher cannot randomly assign participants to an experimental or a control condition, a correlational study is appropriate and necessary. For example, if a researcher is investigating the impact of illegal drug use on depression, the researcher obviously can’t assign one group of people to take illegal drugs. The researcher will instead likely look for correlations between drug use and depression rates in people who already use illegal drugs. Choice A argues for the use of experimentation, not correlation, as cause and effect can be established only under the controls of an experiment. The focus of choice B is the ability to generalize from a small sample to a population. However, it is not the primary reason to use a correlational study over an experiment. Concern about the impact of the placebo effect in an experiment, the focus of choice C, may lead a researcher to use a placebo group as a control. The results of a correlational study, as suggested in choice E, do not establish whether or not the findings are statistically significant.

Researchers Craik and Tulving showed 24 participants a list of 60 words and then asked them questions that included, "Was the word in upper or lower case?" which tests shallow structural processing or "Does the word _____ fit into this sentence?" which tests deeper semantic processing. The researchers found that participants recalled more words that required deeper processing. Although the results supported the researchers' hypothesis, because of the small sample size critics might question this study's

['(A)replicability.', '(B)illusory correlation.', '(C)generalizability.', '(D)heritability.', '(E)ethics.']

(C)Because of the small sample size, the study is unlikely to be representative of the population. Since the procedures were defined, other researchers would be able to replicate this study. So, choice A is incorrect. An illusory correlation, choice B, happens when a relationship between two variables is perceived but does not actually exist. Heritability, choice D, refers to the impact of genetics on the differences in a trait within a population. Choice E, ethics, refers primarily to the treatment of participants. This is not related to the sample size, which is the focus of this question.

Researchers Craik and Tulving showed 24 participants a list of 60 words and then asked them questions that included, "Was the word in upper or lower case?" which tests shallow structural processing or "Does the word _____ fit into this sentence?" which tests deeper semantic processing. The researchers found that participants recalled more words that required deeper processing. Critics of the study described above point out that learning lists of words is not necessarily how we learn information in our daily lives, making this task artificial. Such concerns raise questions about the

['(A)framing of this study.', '(B)validity of this study.', '(C)reliability of this study.', '(D)statistical significance of this study.', '(E)heritability of this study.']

(B)Validity means that the experiment is testing what it is supposed to test. Framing, choice A, refers to how questions are posed or how information is presented that may impact an individual’s decisions. Reliability, choice C, focuses on whether or not the experiment can be repeated. Statistical significance, choice D, refers to the likelihood that chance factors led to the differences in the tested groups. Heritability, choice E, is related to the impact of genetics on differences in a trait within a population.

The research interests of Craik and Tulving are most consistent with which of the following psychological perspectives?

['(A)Psychodynamic', '(B)Behavioral', '(C)Cognitive', '(D)Neuroscience', '(E)Social-cultural']

(C)Craik and Tulving are interested in how we process and store information. This directly relates to the cognitive perspective. The psychodynamic perspective, choice A, focuses on the role of the unconscious in influencing behavior. Choice B, the behavioral approach, looks to explain how we learn observable behaviors from the environment. Neuroscience, choice D, stresses the role of the nervous and other physiological systems in influencing behavior. The social-cultural perspective, choice E, addresses the impact of our culture on our behavior.

Sigmund Freud suggested that traumatic experiences are repressed in the unconscious mind. He believed that although repressed feelings and memories are no longer accessible to our direct awareness, they fuel our behaviors and can lead to mental illness. From a scientific standpoint, why are Freud's ideas questioned today?

['(A)There is no correlation between traumatic experiences and personal well-being.', "(B)Freud's ideas are statistically significant, but they lack cohesiveness.", "(C)Case studies, which are the basis of Freud's theories, are not considered valid research methods today.", "(D)Testing Freud's assertions empirically would be difficult.", "(E)Freud's ideas do not link behavior with the functions of the brain."]

(D)Modern psychology focuses on careful observation of behavior and the careful collection of empirical data. Freud’s ideas lack hypotheses that can be tested empirically. Choice A is incorrect as it is not a major criticism. Furthermore, the data do suggest a link between these variables. Choice B is incorrect as Freud did not use experimentation to test his ideas. So, statistical significance cannot be determined. In choice C, the focus is on Freud’s use of case studies. This method is still considered a useful tool in psychological science. Although Freud’s research may lack a direct tie to the brain, it is not a major criticism of his work. So, choice E is incorrect.

The image of a flower is projected to the left visual field, while the image of a basket is projected to the right visual field. In a right-handed split-brain patient, what would you predict would occur?

['(A)Using his or her left hand, the person would be able to draw a picture of a basket.', '(B)When asked what he or she saw, the person would say, "I saw a basket."', '(C)Using his or her right hand, the person would pick up a flower from an array of objects.', '(D)Because of the damage to the optic nerve, the person would be unable to respond.', '(E)When asked what he or she saw, the person would say, "I saw a flower."']

(B)The image of the flower projected to the left visual field is processed by the right side of the retina in both eyes. Then the message travels via the optic nerve to the left visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Because the person’s language centers are in the left hemisphere, the person would be able to say, “I saw a basket.” Choice A is incorrect because the left hand is controlled by the right hemisphere. The image of the basket would not be seen by the right hemisphere. Choice C is incorrect since the right hand, which is controlled by the left hemisphere, did not see the image of the flower, so the person would be unable to select a flower from an array of objects. Choice D is incorrect because, although the corpus callosum is severed in the brain of a split-brain patient, the optic nerve is not damaged. Choice E is incorrect since the person does not have language abilities in the right hemisphere. He or she would not be able to say, “I saw a flower.”

Which part of the neuron receives the neurotransmitters from other cells and then combines that information?

['(A)Dendrites', '(B)Myelin sheath', '(C)Axon', '(D)Terminal branches', '(E)Vesicles']

(A)Dendrites receive the neurotransmitters from other neurons. The neurotransmitters bind with the receptor cells located in the dendrites. The myelin sheath, choice B, covers the axon and helps speed neural transmission. In the axon, choice C, is where an action potential is generated. Terminal branches, choice D, are the endings of the axon where the neural messages are passed from one neuron to the next. The vesicles, choice E, are located inside the buttons at the end of the terminal branches and contain the neurotransmitters.

Which of the following is the nerve fiber in a neuron that conducts electrical impulses from the soma?

['(A)Dendrite', '(B)Terminal branch', '(C)Vesicle', '(D)Axon', '(E)Glial cell']

(D)The axon conducts the electrical impulses from the soma down the length of the neuron. Choice A, the dendrite, is the part of the neuron that receives neurotransmitters from other neural cells. Choice B, the terminal branch, is one of the endings of the axon. The information will be sent to adjacent neurons from the terminal branch. Choice C, the vesicle, is a structure that houses the neurotransmitters in the terminal branches buttons. Glial cells, choice E, provide support and nourishment for neurons.

How is the myelin sheath involved in the process of neural firing?

['(A)It provides support and nourishment for the neurons.', "(B)It contains the nucleus that directs all functions necessary for the cell's survival.", '(C)It is the junction between cells.', '(D)It is where excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed and repackaged.', '(E)It insulates the cell and speeds up neural transmission.']

(E)The myelin sheath is a layer of insulation that forms around the axon. The myelin sheath allows messages to transmit quickly and efficiently along the neuron. Choice A is incorrect because myelin does not nourish the neural cell. Choice B refers to the soma, or cell body, of the neuron. The synapse, choice C, is the junction between the cells. Choice D concerns the function of the vesicles, where excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed and repackaged to be released again into the synapse.

When a neuron depolarizes, what does it produce that travels down the length of the axon?

['(A)Refractory period', '(B)Reflex', '(C)Action potential', '(D)Inhibitory impulse', '(E)Agonist']

(C)When the flow of sodium ions into the cell causes it to become positively charged relative to the outside, the neuron is depolarized. When the amount of depolarization is great enough, the neuron will initiate an action potential, which is the electrical charge that travels down the axon. The refractory period, choice A, is a brief period after the neuron fires an action potential when the cell is recharging so it can fire again. A reflex, choice B, is an automatic response generated in the spinal cord. An inhibitory response, choice D, decreases the likelihood that an action potential will be generated. An agonist, choice E, is a chemical that binds to a receptor cell and increases a neurotransmitter’s action, for example, by blocking reuptake at the synapse.

Which of the following surround and support neurons, provides insulation between cells, and participates in signal transmission?

['(A)Agonists', '(B)GABA', '(C)Interneurons', '(D)Glial cells', '(E)Receptor sites']

(D)Glial cells provide support for cells. They also participate in the transmission of a neural signal. Agonists, choice A, are chemicals that bind to receptor cells and that increase a neurotransmitter’s action. GABA, choice B, is a specific neurotransmitter. Interneurons, choice C, are the cells that make up the brain and spinal cord. Receptor sites, choice E, lie along the receiving dendrite and bind with the neurotransmitters.

Once a neuron reaches threshold, regardless of having a strong or a weak stimulus, it will always fire at the same intensity. This is referred to as

['(A)the difference threshold.', '(B)an all-or-none response.', '(C)the refractory period.', '(D)reuptake.', "(E)Weber's law."]

(B)Once a neuron reaches threshold, it fires in an all-or-none response. This means that the neuron always fires at the same intensity; there is no such thing as a weak or a strong message. The difference threshold, choice A, is the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to detect the difference between two stimuli. The refractory period, choice C, is the time between neural firings when the neuron recharges itself. Reuptake, choice D, is the process by which excess neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed by the sending neuron. Weber’s law, choice E, states that the stronger a stimulus is, the greater the difference required to tell that a change has occurred.

Which of the following is the location in the neuron from which neurotransmitters are released into the synapse?

['(A)1', '(B)2', '(C)3', '(D)4', '(E)5']

(E)Neurotransmitters are released from the endings of axon terminals into the synapse in order to communicate with adjacent neurons. Choice A is the soma, which contains the nucleus of the cell that maintains the cell’s basic functions. Choice B is pointing to the dendrites. These structures in the neuron contain receptor cells that receive the neurotransmitters. Choice C is the part of the neuron where the action potential is produced. The myelin sheath, choice D, is the outer covering of the axon that insulates the neuron and helps the message travel quickly down the neuron’s length.

No two neurons touch one another as they are separated by

['(A)a myelin sheath.', '(B)a synapse.', '(C)glial cells.', '(D)antagonists.', '(E)vesicles.']

(B)The synapse is the space between the sending and the receiving neuron. Choice A, myelin sheath, is the outer covering of the axon that helps speed up the neural message. Glial cells, choice C, provide support for the neuron and assist in neural transmission. Antagonists, choice D, are chemicals that block the action of the neurotransmitters at the receptor sites. Vesicles, choice E, are structures that house the neurotransmitters in the endings of the axon terminals.

The process of neurotransmitters binding with the receptor sites is most like

['(A)a toilet flushing after the handle is pressed.', '(B)dominoes falling one by one.', '(C)a key fitting into a lock.', "(D)pushing a car's gas pedal to make the vehicle travel faster.", '(E)hitting a nail with a hammer.']

(C)Neurotransmitters have specific chemical structures and can bind only with particular receptor sites. This is referred to as the lock and key phenomenon. The remaining scenarios (choices A, B, D, and E) do not appropriately illustrate this process.

Excitatory impulses

['(A)increase the likelihood that an action potential is initiated.', "(B)block a neurotransmitter's action at the synapse.", '(C)return the axon to its resting state.', '(D)produce a strong neural message.', '(E)cause the degradation of excess neurotransmitters at the synapse.']

(A)Excitatory signals increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential. Choice B is referring to chemicals, called antagonists, that occupy receptor sites and block the action of the neurotransmitter. Choice C is focusing on the refractory period, which is a time when a neuron is recharging before it is able to fire again. Choice D is incorrect because a neuron always fires at the same intensity, called the all-or-none response. Choice E is incorrect as it refers to an enzyme that can break down neurotransmitters in the synapse.

Which of the following neurotransmitters plays an essential role in our experience of pain?

['(A)Dopamine', '(B)Serotonin', '(C)Norepinephrine', '(D)Acetylcholine', '(E)Endorphins']

(E)The release of endorphins is connected to reducing the experience of pain. Choice A, dopamine, primarily affects sleep, mood, and attention. Serotonin, choice B, is involved in regulating mood. Norepinephrine, choice C, is released when our body is under stress. Norepinephrine is connected to our being alert. Acetylcholine, choice D, is involved in muscle contraction and memory.

The central nervous system is comprised of

['(A)the brain and spinal cord.', '(B)the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.', '(C)sensory and motor neurons.', '(D)the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.', '(E)the limbic and endocrine systems.']

(A)The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The link between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, choice B, provides the connections between the brain and endocrine system. Choice C is incorrect since the sensory neurons bring information into the central nervous system, while motor neurons carry messages outward from the central nervous system. The automatic and somatic nervous systems, choice D, are divisions of the peripheral nervous system. Choice E is incorrect as it references the limbic system, which is comprised of the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and amygdala, and the endocrine system, which is our glandular system.

Which of the following is responsible for initiating the fight or flight response?

['(A)Parasympathetic nervous system', '(B)Endocrine system', '(C)Hippocampus', '(D)Sympathetic nervous system', '(E)Medulla']

(D)The sympathetic nervous system arouses the body and mobilizes its energy during stressful situations. The parasympathetic nervous system, choice A, calms the body and initiates the rest-and-digest response. Choice B, the endocrine system, refers to the system of glands in our body that may be engaged during fight or flight but does not initiate the response. The hippocampus, choice C, assists in the formation of new long-term memories. The medulla, choice E, regulates autonomic functioning, such as breathing and heart rate. However, it does not initiate the fight or flight response.

Which brain scan measures the amount of glucose in various areas of the brain, allowing researchers to generate a picture of the brain's activity levels?

['(A)Electroencephalogram (EEG)', '(B)Positron emission tomography (PET)', '(C)Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)', '(D)Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)', '(E)Magnetoencephalography (MEG)']

(B)PET scans allow researchers to trace the brain’s consumption of glucose and produce an image of the brain that depicts its activity in different regions. An EEG, choice A, allows researchers to measure electrical activity on the surface of the brain. An MRI, choice C, allows researchers to generate a detailed picture of the brain. An fMRI, choice D, also allows researchers to create a picture of brain activity. However, an fMRI is based on measuring blood flow as it rushes to specific brain regions. An MEG, choice E, identifies activity in the brain by measuring magnetic fields produced in the brain.

Which of the following are located in the brainstem?

['(A)Hippocampus and amygdala', '(B)Thalamus and hypothalamus', '(C)Corpus callosum', '(D)Cerebellum', '(E)Medulla and pons']

(E)The medulla and pons, along with the midbrain, are located in the brainstem. The hippocampus and amygdala, choice A, are located above the brainstem. The thalamus and hypothalamus, choice B, are located on top of the brainstem. The corpus callosum, choice C, is the band of fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. The cerebellum, choice D, does share connections with the brainstem but is not considered a part of the brainstem. The cerebellum plays a central role in motor coordination.

Which of the following regions is associated with regulating heart rate, breathing, and other autonomic functions?

['(A)Thalamus', '(B)Hippocampus', '(C)Prefrontal cortex', '(D)Amygdala', '(E)Medulla']

(E)The medulla is responsible for regulating autonomic functions, including heart rate and breathing. Choice A, the thalamus, receives the sensory signals that come from the spinal cord and sends them to the appropriate areas in the forebrain. The hippocampus, choice B, is involved in the formation of new long-term memories. The prefrontal cortex, choice C, is primarily responsible for higher-level thinking and problem solving. Choice D, the amygdala, regulates emotional responses.

Which of the following relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex?

['(A)Hypothalamus', '(B)Pons', '(C)Reticular formation', '(D)Thalamus', '(E)Somatosensory cortex']

(D)The thalamus sends all sensory messages, except smell, to the cerebral cortex so they can be processed. The hypothalamus, choice A, is responsible for maintaining homeostasis by regulating such things as hunger and thirst. The pons, choice B, is involved in communicating messages between the cerebral cortex and other areas of the brain. Choice C, the reticular formation, is associated with helping us maintain an alert state. Choice E, the somatosensory cortex, processes incoming sensory messages related to touch sensations. It is located in the parietal lobe.

The reward center of the brain is most associated with which of the following regions?

['(A)Thalamus', '(B)Cerebellum', '(C)Hypothalamus', '(D)Reticular formation', '(E)Amygdala']

(C)Although not the only region of the brain associated with reward, the hypothalamus is a part of the reward system. The thalamus, choice A, is primarily responsible for transferring sensory signals to the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum, choice B, helps maintain balance and coordinate muscle movement. The reticular formation, choice D, helps maintain arousal and alertness. The amygdala, choice E, produces automatic emotional responses, such as anger and fear.

Which of the following includes the primary visual cortex?

['(A)Frontal lobe', '(B)Temporal lobe', '(C)Optic chiasm', '(D)Parietal lobe', '(E)Occipital lobe']

(E)The occipital lobe, located at the rear of the brain, contains the primary visual cortex. The frontal lobe, choice A, is associated with decision-making skills and motor abilities. The temporal lobe, choice B, contains the auditory cortex. The optic chiasm, choice C, is formed by the crossing of the optic nerve in the brain. The parietal lobe, choice D, houses the somatosensory cortex.

Which of the following is responsible for integrating information from the primary sensory areas in the cortex?

['(A)Corpus callosum', '(B)Association areas', '(C)Limbic system', '(D)Somatosensory cortex', "(E)Wernicke's area"]

(B)The association areas of the cortex combine information from the primary sensory areas and integrate that information with stored memory. The corpus callosum, choice A, connects the left and right hemispheres and allows them to communicate. The limbic system, choice C, is a collection of structures that manage memory and emotion and that regulate autonomic functioning in response to threats. The somatosensory cortex, choice D, is located in the parietal lobe. It processes sensory messages such as pain, pressure, and temperature. Wernicke’s area, choice E, is primarily involved in language comprehension.

Which of the following is the band of fibers that connects the right and left hemispheres and that allows the brain to communicate internally?

['(A)Optic chiasm', "(B)Broca's area", '(C)Corpus callosum', '(D)Somatosensory cortex', '(E)Association areas']

(C)The corpus callosum is a large band of fibers that connects the right and left hemispheres and that allows the halves of the brain to share information. The optic chiasm, choice A, is the spot where the optic nerves cross each other. Broca’s area, choice B, is an area in the brain that allows for speech production. The somatosensory cortex, choice D, processes touch sensations and is located in the parietal lobe. The association areas, choice E, are located throughout the cerebral cortex. They integrate information from the primary sensory areas with information previously stored in the cortex.

If the brain is damaged, it may reorganize itself and create new neural pathways to compensate. This is called

['(A)long-term potentiation.', '(B)dual processing.', '(C)blind sight.', '(D)plasticity.', '(E)lesioning.']

(D)Plasticity refers to changes in the brain that occur during one’s lifetime due to experience. Long-term potentiation, choice A, refers to the strengthening of synapses between neurons. Choice B, dual processing, refers to the brain’s ability to process simultaneously information both consciously and unconsciously. Blind sight, choice C, is a rare phenomenon where a blind individual can experience visual stimuli and respond to it without being consciously aware of the stimuli. Choice E, lesioning, is the destruction of brain cells in a specific location.

The left hemisphere typically specializes in

['(A)spatial reasoning.', '(B)moving the left hand.', '(C)initiating reflexes.', '(D)language comprehension and speech production.', '(E)instigating the fight or flight response.']

(D)The language centers, in individuals who are right-handed, are located almost exclusively in the left hemisphere. Spatial reasoning, choice A, is a specialty of the right hemisphere. Choice B is incorrect because the motor cortex in the right hemisphere is responsible for moving the left side of the body. Reflexes are initiated by the spinal cord. So, choice C is incorrect. The hypothalamus is responsible for instigating the fight or flight response when a person perceives a threat. So, choice E is incorrect.

Which neurotransmitter would be most directly responsible for allowing Kaitlyn to swing her tennis racket?

['(A)GABA', '(B)Acetylcholine', '(C)Endorphins', '(D)Serotonin', '(E)Norepinephrine']

(B)When acetylcholine is released, it causes the contraction of skeletal muscles that would allow Kaitlyn to swing her tennis racket. Choice A, GABA, is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that would not lead to the initiation of skeletal muscle contraction. Endorphins, choice C, are the body’s natural opiates that help control pain. Serotonin, choice D, is primarily involved in mood and arousal. Serotonin release does not cause skeletal muscles to contract. Choice E, norepinephrine, plays a role in helping maintain alertness but is not directly involved in moving muscles.

Naloxone is a medication used to reverse opioid overdose. It works by binding to opioid receptors and then reversing and blocking the effects of opioids. Naloxone is a(n)

['(A)agonist.', '(B)endorphin.', '(C)reuptake inhibitor.', '(D)antagonist.', '(E)stimulant.']

(D)Antagonists are drugs that block a neurotransmitter’s action by blocking it at the receptor site or by decreasing its availability. Agonists, choice A, mimic or increase the actions of a neurotransmitter. Endorphins, choice B, are the body’s natural opiates. They influence our perception of pain and pleasure. Reuptake inhibitors, choice C, stop reuptake from happening in the synapse, thus increasing the availability of specific neurotransmitters. Stimulants, choice E, are a category of drugs that increase the activity of the nervous system.

While walking home late at night, you see a shadow move into your peripheral vision. You suddenly feel your heart pounding, and you start sweating. Which of the following has been activated, initiating body responses to help you deal with this potential threat?

['(A)Parasympathetic nervous system', '(B)Reflex arc', '(C)Sympathetic nervous system', '(D)Limbic system', '(E)Central nervous system']

(C)The sympathetic nervous system arouses the body to deal with perceived threats, for example, by increasing the heart rate and raising blood pressure. Choice A, the parasympathetic nervous system, returns the body’s physiological state to normal. It does not increase heart rate or sweating. Choice B, the reflex arc, is the pathway taken by neural impulses in a reflex. Choice D, the limbic system, includes regions of the brain involved in memory formation and emotion. Choice E, the central nervous system, includes the brain and spinal cord.

Henry has been experiencing severe headaches, problems with maintaining balance, memory loss, and nausea. His physician suspects that Henry may have a brain tumor. Which of the following would be the most appropriate technique to determine if a tumor is present?

['(A)Triarchic abilities test', '(B)Electroencephalogram (EEG)', '(C)Lesioning', '(D)Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)', '(E)Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)']

(D)MRI scans allow for a detailed picture of the brain to be made that would reveal the presence of a brain tumor. The triarchic abilities test, choice A, is an assessment based on Robert Sternberg’s theory of personality. Choice B, an EEG, measures electrical activity on the surface of the brain. Choice C, lesioning, is a surgical technique where specific brain cells are destroyed to observe the effects. Choice E, TMS, is primarily used to stimulate nerve cells in specific areas of the brain as a method to treat depression.

Carl had a tumor attached to his cerebellum. Once the tumor was removed, he experienced a number of major changes in his day-to-day functioning. Which of the following would be expected after the removal of part of Carl's cerebellum?

['(A)Inability to form new memories', '(B)Difficulty seeing a portion of the visual field', '(C)Numbness on his left side', '(D)Trouble in recognizing facial expressions related to distress', '(E)Uncoordinated and jerky movements']

(E)The cerebellum is responsible for coordinating movement. Either damaging or removing part of the cerebellum would result in the patient having uncoordinated and jerky movements. Choice A refers to the impact of damage to the hippocampus. Choice B might occur if damage occurred in the occipital lobe. Choice C may occur if injury to the sensory cortex or spinal cord occurred. Trouble in recognizing faces related to distress, choice D, is consistent with damage to the amygdala.

Clive Wearing, an English musician, suffered brain damage from a viral infection. As a result, he lost the ability to form any new memories. Which part of Clive's brain was damaged?

['(A)Cerebellum', '(B)Hypothalamus', '(C)Frontal lobe', '(D)Hippocampus', '(E)Somatosensory cortex']

(D)The hippocampus assists in storing long-term memory; thus, it was the area damaged in Clive Wearing’s brain. The cerebellum, choice A, helps coordinate muscle movement and stores implicit memories. The hypothalamus, choice B, controls metabolic functions, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature. Choice C, the frontal lobe, is the center for decision making and higher-level reasoning. Choice E, the somatosensory cortex, processes touch information such as pain, pressure, and temperature.

Allison walked outside into the heat of a summer day. As a result, Allison's blood temperature increased, causing certain cells in her brain to increase their neural firing. Consequently, Allison began sweating to release the heat. What brain region functions to maintain Allison's internal temperature?

['(A)Hippocampus', '(B)Amygdala', '(C)Hypothalamus', '(D)Temporal lobe', '(E)Somatosensory cortex']

(C)The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, or internal balance, including body temperature. The hippocampus, choice A, is involved in memory formation. Choice B, the amygdala, produces emotions such as anger and fear. The temporal lobe, choice D, contains the primary auditory cortex. The somatosensory cortex, choice E, is located in the parietal lobe and processes messages related to touch sensations.

When researchers electrically stimulated a region of a cat's brain, the previously calm animal became aggressive and threatening. Which region of the brain was most likely stimulated?

['(A)Amygdala', '(B)Pons', '(C)Medulla', '(D)Cerebellum', '(E)Thalamus']

(A)When the amygdala is stimulated in a specific area, it can cause a docile animal to act violently. The pons, choice B, is primarily engaged during sleep and helps coordinate movement. Choice C, the medulla, is responsible for regulating autonomic functions like breathing and heart rate. Choice D, the cerebellum, helps coordinate movement and stores skill memory. The thalamus, choice E, is a sensory relay center that sends messages to the cortex for processing.

James stayed up late studying for an exam but was able to stay alert in class. What part of James's brain helped him pay attention and stay alert even when he was feeling sleepy?

['(A)Cerebellum', '(B)Corpus callosum', '(C)Medulla', '(D)Hypothalamus', '(E)Reticular formation']

(E)The reticular formation enables arousal and attention. The cerebellum, choice A, coordinates muscles and helps an individual balance. The corpus callosum, choice B, is a band of fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. The medulla, choice C, is responsible for regulating heartbeat and breathing. The hypothalamus, choice D, regulates homeostasis.

The image of your friend's face that is on the retinas in your eyes is sent to your brain through the optic nerve. Before you can perceive your friend's face, though, the image must be received and transmitted to the visual cortex by the

['(A)hypothalamus.', '(B)corpus callosum.', '(C)spinal cord.', '(D)thalamus.', '(E)pons.']

(D)The thalamus is a relay center for all sensory information except smell. It receives a sensory input and then transmits the input to the appropriate brain region for processing. Without the thalamus, you would not be able to see your friend. The hypothalamus, choice A, is primarily responsible for maintaining homeostasis so you don’t get too hot, too hungry, or too thirsty. The corpus callosum, choice B, is a band of fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres in the brain and allows the two halves to communicate. The spinal cord, choice C, is part of the central nervous system. It connects nearly all parts of the body to the brain. The pons, choice E, is located in the brainstem and is activated during sleep.