Towards searching as a learning process : A review of current perspectives and future directions <s> Comprehensive search for critical and creative learning <s> Research tools critical for exploratory search success involve the creation of new interfaces that move the process beyond predictable fact retrieval. <s> BIB001 </s> Towards searching as a learning process : A review of current perspectives and future directions <s> Comprehensive search for critical and creative learning <s> This paper describes two studies that explore students' beliefs about critical and creative learning at two universities, and considers the implications of those beliefs in comparison to the universities' stated education goals. One is a mixed method study of students at a top university in Korea, and the second is a comparative study between the Korean university and a United States (US) university. The first study found that both high-achievers and the general population at a top Korean university perceived their critical and creative abilities as lower than their receptive learning abilities, and that higher achievers were neither more critical nor creative than lower achievers. The second study finds that the Korean university students, compared to US students, were more likely to rate their receptive learning ability as higher than their critical and creative learning abilities. Comparisons across year of higher education (HE) suggest that Korean students' perceptions did not significantly change wit... <s> BIB002
The perspective of Searching as a Learning Tool can be shifted towards a new perspective of Searching as a Learning Process through the concept of comprehensive search. Before describing the concept of comprehensive search, it is useful to review three modes of cognitive learning first. Receptive learning is defined as understanding, remembering and reproducing what is taught, such as facts, concepts, procedures and principles BIB002 . It corresponds to remembering and understanding in Bloom's taxonomy  . Critical learning is thinking differently with respect to an individual's own viewpoints by reviewing, criticizing and evaluating ideas gained from multiple sources. Critical learning includes applying, analysing and evaluating in Bloom's taxonomy. Creative learning is generating new ideas and designing new artefacts from what is learned. Although critical and creative learning involve higher cognitive activities in the learning taxonomy, this does not mean that they are more difficult than receptive learning. There might be easier critical learning assignments and more difficult receptive learning tasks. No matter how difficult the task is, it is within the receptive learning mode as long as its primary purpose is acquiring and receiving knowledge without any critical and creative evaluation. Each learning mode relates to the others, but they do not foster competencies in one another. For example, learning within only the receptive mode does not nurture critical thinking ability or creativity, no matter how intensively students study in receptive mode BIB002 . Cognitive processes and learning strategies differ across learning modes. As a result, each mode cultivates different types of competencies. Comprehensive search depicts iterative, reflective and integrative search sessions that support critical learning and creative learning modes. In other words, comprehensive search refers to a variety of search activities that facilitate individuals' critical abilities and/or the development of new ideas directly. What is new about comprehensive search is that we are relating people's search behaviour to cognitive learning modes, while making distinctions among search activities supporting critical learning and creative learning. For instance, comprehensive search activities include critically evaluating the usefulness of information for tasks, assessing the credibility of information, differentiating the value of information across multiple sources of information and prioritizing information through comparison. To some extent, comprehensive search shares similar characteristics with exploratory search. Marchionini BIB001 describes the following exploratory search activities that support learning: knowledge acquisition, comprehension, interpretation, comparison, aggregation, integration and socializing. According to Marchionini [8] , investigative exploratory search involves multiple iterations over time to achieve analysis, synthesis, evaluation, discovery, planning/forecasting and transformation. Comprehensive search is distinct from exploratory search in two important ways. While exploratory search looks at learning and investigation as tasks that people are trying to achieve through a variety of search activities, comprehensive search captures the kinds of learning that occur during the search process. We claim that exploratory search is conceptualized from the perspective of searching to learn or investigate. In contrast, the concept of comprehensive search has been developed from the perspective of searching as a learning process emphasizing the interplay between cognitive learning and search activities. Another difference between exploratory search and comprehensive search is that the goal of comprehensive search is to support not only critical learning but also creative learning in terms of cognitive learning modes, whereas exploratory search is pertinent to supporting critical learning (e.g. comparison, integration, aggregation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) and receptive learning (e.g. knowledge acquisition and comprehension). Figure 1 illustrates how different kinds of search mode -fact finding, specified search and unfocused browsing -can be associated with the three cognitive learning modes explained above. Associations between search mode and cognitive learning mode produce different search paradigms. Look-up search refers to the fact-finding search that seeks accurate factual information. It mostly involves the receptive learning mode as the primary purpose is finding and acquiring existing information. In comparison, higher level cognitive activities such as analysing (differentiating, organizing, attributing), evaluating (checking, critiquing) and creating (generating, planning, producing) can be learned through comprehensive search, which serves as a learning process in itself. Students learn to differentiate similarities and differences among diverse perspectives, and to structure and hierarchize abundant materials. Students can also develop more flexible thinking skills as they consider diverse opinions and approaches on a topic rather than seeking correct answers. Furthermore, by comparing diverse logics, students may develop their own critical logic that they can then use to filter inaccurate information. This critical thinking ability is ultimately connected to creative learning, including generating, planning and producing new ideas and thoughts. Table 1 shows how diverse learning and search behaviours relate to different cognitive learning modes. When people search in order to discover a new research theme, analyse and compare diverse perspectives about a topic, and/or brainstorm multiple solutions for a problem, they engage in distinct search and learning behaviours during the search process. Such behaviours may lead them to engage in critical rather than receptive learning.