Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Barriers to ITS in the Developing World <s> Foreword Note on graphic conventions 0. Introduction-Toward a Logic of Culture 0.1. Design for a semiotic theory 0.2. 'Semiotics': field or discipline? 0.3. Communication and/or signification 0.4. Political boundaries: the field 0.5. Natural boundaries: two definitions of semiotics 0.6. Natural boundaries: inference and signification 0.7. Natural boundaries the lower threshold 0.8. Natural boundaries: the upper threshold 0.9. Epistemological boundaries 1. Signification and Communication 1.1. An elementary communicational model 1.2. Systems and codes 1.3. The s-code as structure 1.4. Information, communication, signification 2. Theory of Codes 2.1. The sign-function 2.2. Expression and content 2.3. Denotation and connotation 2.4. Message and text 2.5 Content and referent 2.6. Meaning as cultural unit 2.7. The interpretant 2.8. The semantic system 2.9. The semantic markers and the sememe 2.10. The KF model 2.11. A revised semantic model 2.12. The model "Q" 2.13. The format of the semantic space 2.14. Overcoding and undercoding 2.15. The interplay of codes and the message as an open form 3. Theory of Sign Production 3.1. A general survey 3.2. Semiotic and factual statements 3.3. Mentioning 3.4 The prolem of a typology of signs 3.5. Critique of iconism 3.6. A typology of modes of production 3.7. The aesthetic text as invention 3.8. The rhetorical labor 3.9. Ideological code switching 4. The Subject of Semiotics References Index of authors Index of subjects <s> BIB001 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Barriers to ITS in the Developing World <s> The use of ICT in the classroom is very important for providing opportunities for students to learn to operate in an information age. Studying the obstacles to the use of ICT in education may assist educators to overcome these barriers and become successful technology adopters in the future. This paper provides a meta-analysis of the relevant literature that aims to present the perceived barriers to technology integration in science education. The findings indicate that teachers had a strong desire for to integrate ICT into education; but that, they encountered many barriers. The major barriers were lack of confidence, lack of competence, and lack of access to resources. Since confidence, competence and accessibility have been found to be the critical components of technology integration in schools, ICT resources including software and hardware, effective professional development, sufficient time, and technical support need to be provided to teachers. No one component in itself is sufficient to provide good teaching. However, the presence of all components increases the possibility of excellent integration of ICT in learning and teaching opportunities. Generally, this paper provides information and recommendation to those responsible for the integration of new technologies into science education. <s> BIB002 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Barriers to ITS in the Developing World <s> The purpose of this study is to investigate the main barriers and possible enablers for integrating information and communication technologies (ICTs) in Turkey’s pre-service teacher education programs. The data were collected by means of questionnaires from 53 deans in schools of teacher education (STE), 111 teacher educators, and 1,330 prospective teachers, and additionally from interviews of six teacher educators and six prospective teachers. The findings indicate that the majority of the stakeholders believe that lack of in-service training, lack of appropriate software and materials, and lack of hardware are the main barriers for integrating ICTs in pre-service teacher education programs. There was also agreement on the possible enablers; “having technology plans” was the strategy most strongly agreed upon in that category. Based on these findings, we propose the use of several strategies that should enhance successful ICTs integration. <s> BIB003 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Barriers to ITS in the Developing World <s> This study reports results of an ethnographic action research study, exploring mobile-centric internet use. Over the course of 13 weeks, eight women, each a member of a livelihoods collective in urban Cape Town, South Africa, received training to make use of the data (internet) features on the phones they already owned. None of the women had previous exposure to PCs or the internet. Activities focused on social networking, entertainment, information search, and, in particular, job searches. Results of the exercise reveal both the promise of, and barriers to, mobile internet use by a potentially large community of first-time, mobile-centric users. Discussion focuses on the importance of self-expression and identity management in the refinement of online and offline presences, and considers these forces relative to issues of gender and socioeconomic status. <s> BIB004 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Barriers to ITS in the Developing World <s> MCT-LAC - a Math Cognitive Tutor System - consists of a teaching-learning strategy based on "learning by doing", which is enhanced by the use of an interactive software tool that adapts itself to the student's interactions and responses. It is a system in the sense that includes both teaching-learning strategies and an interactive-adaptable technology. The strategy uses both an individual approach (in the computer lab) and a collaborative approach (in the classroom). The MCT-LAC software tools provide progress feedback to students and teachers, both in an individualized and a group format. As a side effect, the MCT-LAC system also serves as an excellent tool for teachers to re-enforce their math knowledge and associated teaching strategies. In this paper we describe the strategy and tools of the MCT-LAC system, the implementation of a pilot experience in several Latin American countries and some preliminary assessment results. <s> BIB005 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Barriers to ITS in the Developing World <s> Technology, especially e-learning technology, is being increasingly employed in instruction to enhance teaching and learning. This paper is a preliminary discussion of the advantages of and barriers to the use of technology in language instruction. Understanding the benefits and barriers of technology integration is a crucial step in integrating technology into education successfully. Lack of this knowledge may significantly impede stakeholders and educational centers from meeting the challenges of introducing and supporting the extensive use of technology by teachers in the classroom. Findings from empirical research in this area, as well as implications for language practitioners, are included in the discussion. Keywords: Language teaching, Technology, Barriers, Benefits. <s> BIB006 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Barriers to ITS in the Developing World <s> Technology has the promise to transform educational prac-tices worldwide. In particular, cognitive tutoring systems are an example of educational technology that has been ex-tremely effective at improving mathematics learning over traditional classroom instruction. However, studies on the effectiveness of tutor software have been conducted mainly in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, and little is known about how these systems might be used in other contexts with differing classroom practices and values. To understand this question, we studied the usage of mathematics tutoring software for middle school at sites in three Latin American countries: Brazil, Mexico, and Costa Rica. While cognitive tutors were designed for individual use, we found that students in these classrooms worked collaboratively, engaging in interdependently paced work and conducting work away from their own computer. In this paper we present design recommendations for how cognitive tutors might be incorporated into different classroom practices, and better adapted for student needs in these environments. <s> BIB007
Before considering the barriers to ITS in the developing world, it bears mentioning that the developing world is highly diverse, not a monolith. No universally agreed definition for a developing country exists, and development is probably better described as a multi-faceted continuum of wealth, opportunities, and social services. The most inclusive definitions of the "developing world" include any country not among the traditional most-developed countries (MDC), such as the World Bank's list of approximately 30 high-income Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries or their larger list of 74 high-income countries  . However, there are obviously major divisions among the remaining countries. Countries often labeled as newly-industrialized, such as Brazil and Mexico, are in vastly different positions than least developed or unstable countries such as Sudan and Somalia. Additionally, large countries such as China, India, and even the United States have vast inequalities across regions and subcultures. This paper does not seek to reduce or minimize these differences, as every educational technology should ideally be tuned to the specific intended learners and educational ecosystem. Instead, this study has looked for general trends, problems, and solutions that have emerged in some developing countries and may be important to tutoring systems globally. Barriers to educational technology are formidable, due to the large variety of stakeholders deeply invested in educational systems. This is further complicated in the developing world, where technology is often funded by and introduced from the most-developed countries. Figure 1 conceptualizes these stakeholders in terms of an ecological system for ITS. In terms of a  system, students have direct influences through their microsystems (family, peers, teachers, local administrators), indirect influences from the mesosystem (interactions between microsystem stakeholders), and macrosystem factors (infrastructure, governmental policies, cultures). Moreover, the developers of educational technologies such as ITS have their own ecosystem (e.g., collaborators, funding agencies, cultures). Cultural divides can exist between between technology sponsors, developers, host governments, and endusers. Availability and perceptions of appropriate educational technology must be communicated across these divides. To identify barriers that primarily impact the developing world, the barriers noted in developing countries were contrasted against the barriers encountered in most developed countries. Barriers for most developed countries were drawn from  BIB002 BIB003  BIB006 . These reviews focus primarily on formal settings in the US and Europe. Research in these contexts emphasized teacher and school factors, such as time constraints, in-service training, administrative support, match to teachers' pedagogical views, and teacher beliefs on ICT. Developing countries share these barriers, but have additional challenges as well. Barriers in developing world contexts were drawn from  , who reviewed barriers specific to developing nations at that time, and  , who presented barriers relevant to the Kwa-Zulu Natal province of South Africa. Evaluations of ITS interventions in developing countries were also considered, including a multiple-user math tutoring in India  , BIB007 . Based on this review, seven barriers to adoption were distinct to the developing world: 1. ICT hardware availability, 2. Electrical reliability, 3. Internet reliability, 4. Data costs, 5. Students' basic ICT skills, 6. Language, and 7. Lack of culturally appropriate content. Before ITS research can be developed for the majority of the world, these barriers must be understood. Of these, lack of ICT hardware remains the primary barrier in the developing world. As mobile phones are the primary computing platform in these areas, lack of software targeting these devices is a related problem. Information and communications technology (ICT) has favored wireless mobile access over wired access (e.g., landlines, cable) in developing nations. Mobile platforms for ITS delivery are a growing topic in ITS research, but the constraints of a developing country on data or device features may present unforeseen problems. Sustainable educational technologies need to heavily leverage existing technologies, such as by targeting mobile platforms or through sharing devices. Unreliable electrical and Internet infrastructure is a second technological barrier. Most-developed countries seldom struggle with their infrastructure, but this problem continues in developing areas, particularly in rural areas. With that said, despite common misconceptions, electrical access is seldom a primary barrier in developing countries overall. However, slow and inconsistent Internet infrastructure is a significant issue in many areas. Inconsistent Internet can be particularly vexing for a classroom setting; it is impossible to plan a lesson around an inconsistent resource. Even a relatively small rate of failure (e.g., 3 %) could ruin a week of classes each year. Slower data speeds also have implications. While over 90 % of the world's population is covered by 2G mobile data signals (usually 2-3 times faster than a dialup modem), only 45% of the world is covered by mobile broadband (3G or better) and, as of 2011, there were only 8 mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 people in the developing world (International Telecommunication Union 2012). Updated figures indicate that this will be closer to 21% by the end of 2014 (International Telecommunication Union 2014) . This has significant implications for transitioning data-intensive web applications. Data costs were not noted as a significant barrier for classroom use, but could significantly impact informal and home use. Additionally, research has shown that experience and perspectives on ICT play a significant role in successful adoption. Basic ICT skills by learners were not a major factor in classroom settings but posed major hurdles for individual ICT use. Classroom-based systems, such as Cognitive Tutor BIB005 ), LISTEN (Mills-Tettey et al. 2009 ), and others  , have found that lack of basic ICT skills was mitigated by having already set-up computers and peer support. However, BIB004 found that mobile-only Internet users in South Africa faced serious hurdles setting up their devices for Internet access and required a combination of tutorials and user groups to reach web applications. This means that informal learning environments may be particularly sensitive to students' basic ICT skills. Language barriers and culturally appropriate content were also considered significant issues. The dividing lines between these are not always completely clear. Figure 2 notes different levels of language and cultural localization from the standpoint of semiotics, which considers how signs are grounded in cultural meanings BIB001 . Language barriers primarily consider syntactics (relationships between signs) and semantics (meaning of isolated signs), which are used in translation. Syntax and semantics determine how knowledge is represented as educational content. From a language standpoint, educational technology unavailable in languages used locally for education will be a non-starter. Translation includes not only languages, but also other types of signs and symbols. Even "obvious" icons can be unfamiliar: in some cases, children have had trouble using software because hand-held microphones shown on icons were unfamiliar in their region. Without sufficient prior knowledge, some abstract concepts are hard to represent using icons, such as a "record" button for recording audio (McKnight and Read 2009). Beyond these fundamentals, cultural pragmatics emerge: the contexts, situations, and motivations that underlie the use of language and cultural symbols. Pragmatics constrain which contexts can be meaningfully presented in educational content. For example, culturally-grounded scenarios such as ice cream booths or hamburgers are entirely unfamiliar in some regions. These types of scenarios can prevent content from being culturally relevant. This introduces a conflict between cross-cultural technologies and anchored learning, where facts are grounded in realistic examples  . Anchored problems are harder to transfer across cultures, because "real life" examples assume certain prior life experiences. Finally, educational content is constrained by the surrounding norms, beliefs, and political environment. These pragmatics impact why content should (or should not) be presented. Cultural sensitivities and taboos vary significantly: some topics may be relevant but too controversial for a local educational context. For example, a math problem describing a woman driving a car would be a live-wire issue in some areas. Educational content may even be explicitly regulated, such as when laws mandate maps with particular interpretations of disputed borders. For domains such as history, differences in perspective could pose major barriers to sharing content at all. Views about the role of educational technology may also impact the types of uses that are acceptable (e.g., in-class practice, team projects, after school, web homework, etc.). Standardized assessments fall under this category as well. Content that corresponds with key tests and curriculum standards has an advantage over generic materials. These top-down pressures from the larger cultural macrosystem impact the ecological fitness of educational technology. Overall, there are significant additional barriers to designing or transitioning educational technology for developing countries. Intelligent tutoring systems, one of the most effective educational technologies, may be particularly affected by these issues. Compared to content-agnostic technologies such as learning management systems, ITS include large amounts of "baked-in" materials (e.g., hints, curriculum units). These materials offer a major advantage for teaching in resource-limited environments: they provide individual support to students, where large class sizes and shortages of trained teachers might make this otherwise impossible. However, traditional ITS research has focused primarily on WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) countries. As such, it is important to identify how much focus has been placed on each issue and the proposed solutions to these barriers.