Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Mapping Study Results: Barriers to ITS <s> The Tactical Language and Culture Training System (TLCTS) helps learners acquire basic communicative skills in foreign languages and cultures. Learners acquire communication skills through a combination of interactive lessons and serious games. Artificial intelligence plays multiple roles in this learning environment: to process the learner's speech, to interpret and evaluate learner actions, to control the response of non-player characters, to generate hints, and to assess the trainee's mastery of the skills. AI is also used in the authoring process to assist in the generation and validation of lesson content. This article gives an overview of the system, and describes the experience to date in transitioning the system from research prototype into a training system that is in regular use by tens of thousands of users in the United States and elsewhere. Experimental results from field studies are presented, relating learning outcomes, motivational effects, and the role of game-based learning and intelligent tutoring in achieving the learning outcomes. <s> BIB001 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Mapping Study Results: Barriers to ITS <s> Technology has the promise to transform educational prac-tices worldwide. In particular, cognitive tutoring systems are an example of educational technology that has been ex-tremely effective at improving mathematics learning over traditional classroom instruction. However, studies on the effectiveness of tutor software have been conducted mainly in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, and little is known about how these systems might be used in other contexts with differing classroom practices and values. To understand this question, we studied the usage of mathematics tutoring software for middle school at sites in three Latin American countries: Brazil, Mexico, and Costa Rica. While cognitive tutors were designed for individual use, we found that students in these classrooms worked collaboratively, engaging in interdependently paced work and conducting work away from their own computer. In this paper we present design recommendations for how cognitive tutors might be incorporated into different classroom practices, and better adapted for student needs in these environments. <s> BIB002
Overall, a very small number of recent ITS papers approached any of these topics (<10 % for most categories and samples, excepting papers from major ITS families discussing mobile access, Internet reliability, culture, and language). Even fewer papers addressed these topics in any depth. For comparison, over 45 % of papers in the sample addressed student motivation (e.g., affect, games, etc.), and over 14 % considered student affect alone. Of these categories, mobile devices, culture, and language support received the greatest focus and were noted in over 4 % of papers. The higher numbers for language may be slightly misleading, however, as many of these systems addressed second-language learning (i.e., language was the domain). While mobile support was the most prevalent category, the focus was still low compared to their prevalence. While more people in the world use a smartphone than a computer (desktop or laptop), almost 95 % of ITS research still targets traditional computers. This is particularly important for emerging and developing economies, which currently appear to be leapfrogging traditional computers, similar to how they leapfrogged landline phones. Other topics were given even less attention. Students' basic ICT skills were considered by only 2 % of papers. Hardware sharing, data transmission, electricity issues, and Internet reliability were barely addressed within the sample. Examining the ITS families, similar patterns held. The ITS families shared the same ordinal relationships as the individual paper results, but with slightly higher percentages. Mobile platforms and students' basic ICT skills gained the most from this aggregation, which indicates that a larger number of systems are independently BIB002 . Secondly, the Tactical Language and Culture Training System (TLCTS) and related projects trained cross-cultural and language competencies, with support for mobile learning as well BIB001 ). These two systems account for half of the weight across the "Major ITS" row. The only topic addressed by multiple other systems was cultural factors, due to studies considering different subcultures within a country. Based on these results, ITS research appears to have given these barriers little attention and would probably struggle in the developing world as a result. The following subsections briefly summarize the current literature on how ITS and other educational technologies are approaching these barriers.