A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> The scenarios and design process for a childcare robot, PaPeRo, are presented. The design process mainly consists of production and evaluations. The production is composed of three observations, namely, one in the user field, one with respect to the world view, and one about the assumed users and results for the basic role of the robot, its personality, and classification of users. Our investigation of available technologies deepened our understanding of the robot performance and characteristics. Preproduction, which consisted of a scenario design, prototyping, and a short play, made the scenario details more sophisticated. A six-month demonstration at the 2005 Aichi Expo started with seven different scenarios, which were improved using additional recognition words, more attractive robot personalities, and additional scenarios through on-site observations and discussion with staff members there. We conducted an extensive study on the robot personalities and recognizable words. Our study will play an important role in the scenario design process. <s> BIB001 </s> A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> As robot technologies develop, many researchers have tried to use robots to support education. Studies have shown that robots can help students develop problem-solving abilities and learn computer programming, mathematics, and science. However, few studies discuss the use of robots to facilitate the teaching of second languages. We discuss whether language teaching needs robot support, whether robots present an appropriate medium for language instruction, and what challenges must be overcome. In order to explore the possibility of using robots as an instructional tool for teaching a second language, this paper reviews prior studies concerning educational robots and analyzes the characteristics of robots and instructional media. Furthermore, we report on the design and testing of five instruction scenarios for teaching second language. Based on our empirical experience, we provide suggestions for future research directions in the realm of robots for language education. Keyword <s> BIB002 </s> A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> The current paper presents a case study conducted to evaluate the robot rabbit Nabaztag functioning as a vocabulary trainer for beginners of English. Hedonic aspects and motivating function, as well as the general usability and overall impression evoked by rabbit, were tested. A group of 18 5th grade students of an English class at a German junior high school were instructed to practice 20 pairs of vocabulary. Ten students were assisted by the speaking robot rabbit, while eight learned by applying an ordinary paper-and-pencil method. Results show that after one week, students who had learned with the Nabaztag had, on average, a higher recall than the control group. Moreover, the evaluation of the hedonic and pragmatic quality of interacting with the rabbit was high, as was the evaluation of both ease of use and perceived usefulness. Students learning with the rabbit were in a better mood afterwards than those who learned by means of the traditional method. <s> BIB003 </s> A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> The main aim of the modern popular teaching method of authentic learning has been to provide students with everyday-life challenges that develop knowledge and skills through problem solving in different situations. Many emerging information technologies have been used to present authentic environment in pedagogical purpose. However, there are few studies that have been discussed the sense of authenticity and characters in scene and how students interact with the characters involved in the task. We designed a system, RoboStage, with authentic scenes by using mixed-reality technology and robot to investigate the difference in learning with either physical or virtual characters and learning behaviors and performance through the system. Robots were designed to play real interactive characters in the task. The experiment of the study conducted with 36 junior high students. The results indicated that RoboStage significantly improved the sense of authenticity of the task and also positively affected learning motivation. Learning performance was conditionally affected by RoboStage. <s> BIB004 </s> A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> This study introduces the educational assistant robots that we developed for foreign language learning and explores the effectiveness of robot-assisted language learning (RALL) which is in its early stages. To achieve this purpose, a course was designed in which students have meaningful interactions with intelligent robots in an immersive environment. A total of 24 elementary students, ranging in age from ten to twelve, were enrolled in English lessons. A pre-test/post-test design was used to investigate the cognitive effects of the RALL approach on the students??? oral skills. No significant difference in the listening skill was found, but the speaking skills improved with a large effect size at the significance level of 0.01. Descriptive statistics and the pre-test/post-test design were used to investigate the affective effects of RALL approach. The result showed that RALL promoted and improved students??? satisfaction, interest, confidence, and motivation at the significance level of 0.01. <s> BIB005 </s> A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> This paper investigates the role of interaction and communication kinesics in human–robot interaction. This study is part of a novel research project on sign language (SL) tutoring through interaction games with humanoid robots. The main goal is to motivate the children with communication problems to understand and imitate the signs implemented by the robot using basic upper torso gestures and sound. We present an empirical and exploratory study investigating the effect of basic nonverbal gestures consisting of hand movements, body and face gestures expressed by a humanoid robot, and having comprehended the word, the participants will give relevant feedback in SL. This way the participant is both a passive observer and an active imitator throughout the learning process in different phases of the game. A five-fingered R3 robot platform and a three-fingered Nao H-25 robot are employed within the games. Vision-, sound-, touch- and motion-based cues are used for multimodal communication between the robot, child and therapist/parent within the study. This paper presents the preliminary results of the proposed game tested with adult participants. The aim is to evaluate the SL learning ability of participants from a robot, and compare different robot platforms within this setup. <s> BIB006 </s> A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> This paper presents a design for a cutting-edge English program in which elementary school learners of English as a foreign language in Taiwan had lively interactions with a teaching assistant robot. Three dimensions involved in the design included (1) a pleasant and interactive classroom environment as the learning context, (2) a teaching assistant robot designed and built by the researchers as instructional technology (instructional tool/medium), and (3) the need for improved motivation and learning outcomes and positive learning experiences of the students as the core research problem. This Human–Robot Interaction (HRI) led to better pedagogical effects on learning and teaching by (1) employing a vivid, enjoyable teaching approach; (2) adopting practical, interesting learning materials; and (3) creating a natural, enjoyable learning context. Both quantitative and qualitative findings of this study indicate that the students' English learning experiences were enhanced, as were their motivation and learn... <s> BIB007 </s> A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL) <s> Form <s> This paper presents a socially interactive humanoid robot-assisted system for sign language (SL) tutoring for children with communication impairments by means of imitation-based interaction games. In this study, a five-fingered robot platform Robovie R3 is used to express a set of chosen words in Turkish sign language (TSL) using hand and body movements combined with facial expressions. The robot is able to recognize signs through a RGB-D camera and give vocal, visual and motional (as signs) feedback. The proposed game consists of an introductory phase where participants are introduced to the robot and the signs; an imitation-based learning phase where participants are motivated to imitate the signs demonstrated by the robot, and a test phase where the signs taught in the previous phases are tested within a guessing game. The current paper presents results from the studies with three different test groups. The presented humanoid robot is used as an assistive social companion in the game context using sign language and visual clues to interact with the children. The robot is evaluated according to the participant’s sign recognition ability within different setups. The results indicate that the robot has a significant effect on the sign learning performance of participants. <s> BIB008
Robots used in RALL (Table 1) can be classified into four groups based on their appearance: anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, mechanomorphic, or cartoon-like ( Figure 1 ). In Table 1 , robots are classified as anthropomorphic (A) if they have a human-like torso, arms, legs, and facial features (e.g., NAO) or a realistic human face (e.g., Furhat). Robots are indicated as cartoon-like (C) if they have exaggerated and caricature-like features (e.g., DragonBot). Robots meant to mimic an animal, partly or completely, are designated as zoomorphic (Z) (e.g., iCat). Mechanomorphic (M) is given as a label for robots that have machine-like qualities, such as the ability to transform into multiple shapes, a more industrial appearance, or the lack of distinct facial features (e.g., Scribbler). It should be noted that some robots, such as PET and Robosem, are mixtures of types. Therefore, robots are sometimes classified under multiple categories. As is apparent, anthropomorphic robots are the most often used (NAO being the most widely used robot), followed by cartoon-like robots. Anthropomorphic robots are often considered superior for supporting language learning. When recommending desired characteristics, Chang, Lee, Chao et al. include the importance of a humanlike appearance, which is postulated to increase student engagement and attribution of the robot as a real conversational partner BIB002 . However, this opinion is not universally shared. Wu et al. postulated that zoomorphic or cartoon-like robots are likely more appropriate, at least for young children, as they may be less afraid of these forms BIB007 . This view highlights the influence of form on the affective filter (e.g., the experience of anxiety), and the role of cute and likeable agents in reducing it. It also emphasizes that chosen robots should appeal to the students BIB007 . There is some support for this view. Previous research "did not find a positive effect of pedagogical agents on motivation or learning on the general level, but demonstrated that likeable agents lead to a higher motivation and increased transfer performance" BIB003 (summarizing Domagk 2008). In the one study in RALL that surveyed preferences of robotic form (in Taiwan), it was reported that boys preferred to learn from robots that looked like cartoon or video game characters and that were made out of wood, while girls preferred robots that looked like stuffed animals  . Yet, there were methodological limitations to this study, the most obvious being that human was not included as an answer choice. Therefore, we cannot conclude where humanoid would fall on their lists. When children were surveyed in one study, some expressed displeasure with how the robot looked BIB005 . This is non-trivial as form, even subtle variations of it, clearly affects perceptions of robots. Osada, Ohnaka, and Sato saw that people ascribe distinct personalities to differently colored Papero robots BIB001 . Different forms have also been linked with attributions of different social roles. Size can factor into the equation when determining whether a robot is a toy or a social other BIB006 BIB008 . More research needs to be conducted into preferences in robot form, and if this correlates with increased language learning. Age, gender, and cultural effects should be examined. There are some insights that can be obtained on this issue by looking at studies done with NAO and Robovie in sign language learning. When testing Turkish sign recognition with videos of NAO or Robovie, Köse et al. found that there was no difference in performance between learning with NAO or Robovie  . This was true within the three groups for which results were reported: children with beginning sign language experience, children with advanced sign language experience, and adults with no experience  . However, when adults were tested using a physical NAO or a physical Robovie, they recognized signs at a much higher rate when Robovie performed them. BIB006 . Robovie's longer arms, five fingers (as opposed to NAO's three fingers), and larger size may be the cause  , though it is interesting that no difference was seen with video learning. This suggests that form may have an influence in 3D interactions that it does not have in 2D. It is worth studying whether exact agent form is more important for learning when the actor is physically present, and relatively less so when in videos. Additionally, Köse et al. compared subjects' results from learning from Robovie in video format to those with the physically present Robovie  . Children with advanced knowledge of sign and adults did equally well in both conditions, but children with beginner's knowledge of sign did significantly better with the embodied Robovie. No effects by gender were seen  . By contrast, Chang, Lee, Wang, and Chen found no difference in word learning between eighth-graders using an embodied or virtual Scribbler, but found they reported higher levels of engagement, motivation, and perceived authority with the physical robot BIB004 . It is important to note, however, that while Köse et al. used an objective measure of learning, Chang et al. relied on self-reports of word learning, making it a less reliable indicator of whether learning actually occurred. The participants in this study were also older than the children in the Kose study. These results allow for many possible interpretations. One is that embodiment may be more important for children in earlier stages of learning, though effects on motivation and other factors may be seen at any age or level. As these were very short-term studies, it is difficult to conclude how long-term interactions might alter the relationships that were seen. More research needs to be conducted into how form relates to outcomes in the long-term and in studies with larger sample sizes. As well, as Robovie had an advantage over NAO in its physical capacity to perform the signs, studies need to be conducted to inform whether differences in the look of the robots, but not in their capabilities to teach the language, can influence learning.