Thermal cameras and applications: a survey <s> Animals <s> The application of infrared thermal imaging to the diagnosis of sarcoptic mange in the wild Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) was evaluated. Seventy-three ibexes (35 males, 38 females) of varying ages were studied. Each animal was observed using conventional binoculars (OT) to detect lesions characteristic of mange. Infrared thermography (IR) was then performed and the resultant image judged negative or positive. The distance from the thermograph to the animal was measured, and the animal killed. Skin samples were taken for mite detection by routine laboratory diagnosis (LAB). The most sensitive and specific technique for the tele-diagnosis of sarcoptic mange in the Spanish ibex is OT, as it permits diagnosis over greater distances than IR, which sensitivity is impaired at distances >100m. When disease prevalence is low, such as in initial and final phases of an epidemic, a more sensitive technique would be valuable in detecting all affected animals. <s> BIB001 </s> Thermal cameras and applications: a survey <s> Animals <s> Measurements on 28 pens of pigs containing 384 animals to be slaughtered at a commercial abattoir showed that the mean ear temperatures of the pigs in each pen, measured with a thermal imaging camera, were significantly correlated (r=0.71, P<0.001) with the mean temperature of the blood the pigs lost at exsanguination. In measurements on 220 pigs in 16 of the 28 pens, the mean activity of serum creatine kinase was positively correlated with the mean ear temperature (r=0.55, P<0.05) and the mean concentration of serum cortisol was positively correlated with the mean blood temperature (r=0.50, P<0.05), suggesting that the hotter pigs were suffering from a higher level of stress. <s> BIB002 </s> Thermal cameras and applications: a survey <s> Animals <s> Deer vehicle collision (DVC) is constantly a major safety issue for the driving on rural road. It is estimated that there are over 35,000 DVCs yearly in the US resulting in about 200 deaths and close to 4,000 reported property damages of one thousand dollars or more. This justifies many attempts trying to detect deer on road. However, very little success has been achieved. In order to reduce the number of DVCs, this work focused on the study of using an infrared thermal camera with tracking system to detect the presence of deer to avoid DVCs. The prototype consists of an infrared thermal temperature image grabbing and processing system, which includes an infrared thermal camera, a frame grabber, an image processing system and a motion tracking system, which includes two motors with their motion control system. By analyzing the infrared thermal images which are independent of visible light, the presence of an animal can be determined in either night or day time through pattern recognition and matching. <s> BIB003 </s> Thermal cameras and applications: a survey <s> Animals <s> Thermography is an imaging method which registers infrared waves in the electromagnetic spectrum that are emitted by all objects on the Earth. The state and properties of the studied objects and organisms can be evaluated by analyzing images of temperature distribution on their surface. Thermography has numerous practical applications, including in construction, industry, and the military and civil services. In natural sciences, thermal imaging techniques support safe and non-invasive measurements and the acquisition of results that cannot be obtained by any other method. Infrared thermography also creates a wide range of applications for human and veterinary medicine, ecology, zoology, and other natural sciences. Thermal imaging equipment is used to detect injuries, inflammations, and infectious diseases to control reproduction (detection of estrus and pregnancy, determination of male fertility) and lactation processes. The discussed method is applied to investigate thermoregulation in animals, to analyze the effect of environmental factors on animal behavior, to localize individuals and their habitats, and to determine the size of wildlife populations. Despite a wide range of practical applications, thermal imaging has a number of limitations which should be taken into account in studies that rely on infrared thermography techniques. <s> BIB004
Warm-blooded animals, such as humans, try to maintain a constant body temperature, while cold-blooded animals adapt their temperature to their surroundings. This property of warm-blooded animals makes them stand out from their surroundings in thermal images. Warm-blooded animals can warm their body by converting food to energy. To cool down, they can sweat or pant to lose heat by water evaporation. The radiation of heat from animals depends on their body insulation, such as hair, fur, or feathers. The temperature distribution over the body surface can be uneven, depending on blood circulation and respiration. In the studies of wild animals, thermal imaging can be useful for diagnosis of diseases and thermoregulation, control of reproductive processes, analysis of behaviour, as well as detection and estimation of population size BIB004 . Diseases will often affect the general body temperature, while injuries will be visible at specific spots, e.g. caused by inflammations. Thermal imaging has thereby been proven to work as a diagnostic tool for some diseases of animals. In [71] , it was observed that the temperature in the gluteal region of dairy cattle increases when the animal becomes ill and this could be detected in thermal images prior to clinical detection of the disease. If the observed animals are wild, the method of examining for a disease should be without contact with the animals. In BIB001 , thermal cameras are used for detecting sarcoptic mange in Spanish ibex. Although conventional binoculars have higher sensitivity over a greater distance, thermal cameras can give indication of the prevalence of the disease in a herd. Thermal imaging could also be Fig. 8 The thermal image reveals inflammation in the leg of a horse. The inflamed area is marked with a black box used to detect diseases among other wild animals; in [40] , it is found that rabies can be detected in raccoons by observing the temperature of the nose. The stress level of animals before slaughtering is important to the meat quality. The stress level is correlated with the blood and body temperature of the animal. It is therefore important to monitor and react to a rising temperature, e.g. during transport. The work of Warriss et al. BIB002 measures the temperature of pigs' ears and finds that it is positively correlated with the concentration of cortisol and the activity of creatine kinase. Thermal imaging can be beneficial when diagnosing lameness in horses. Yanmaz et al.  suggest using thermal imaging for detecting inflammations and other irregularities, especially in the legs and hoofs of horses. Figure 8 shows an example of inflammation in the leg. Analysis of the thermodynamic characteristics in ectotherm animals, such as frogs, has been carried out in [39] . They measured the temperature of different body parts of frogs during heating from 8 • C (artificial hibernation) to 23 • C (artificial arousal). In such experiments, it is a great advantage that the measurements are taken without harming or touching the animal. Large animals can pose a risk for traffic if they run onto the road. They can often be hard to spot with the eye, especially in the dark or haze, also if they are camouflaged beside the road. Deer are some of the animals that can be a threat to safety on the roads. In BIB003 , they proposed a system for detecting and tracking deer from a vehicle, to avoid collisions. Some car brands have implemented thermal cameras and screens in their cars for manual detection of unexpected hot objects [47] . Wild animals have a high risk of being injured or killed during farming routines with modern high-efficiency farming equipment. Therefore, Steen et al.  proposed automatic analysis of thermal images for detection of animals hidden in the vegetation. They used a pre-processing step by filtering the image with the Laplacian of Gaussian, before using adaptive thresholding for detecting the animal.