A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> GLONASS (Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System) is the most recent satellite navigation system developed by the Soviet Union and currently in the pre-operational stage. Obvious parallels exist between GLONASS and the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) developed in the United States and also, at present, in a pre-operational phase. In the progress towards operational status, the launch capability for NAVSTAR satellites has been seriously affected by the recent failure of the Space Shuttle Challenger, clearly increasing the prospects of GLONASS reaching operational status first. It is therefore the main purpose of this paper to discuss certain aspects of the GLONASS satellite navigation system, in particular its orbital features and radio-frequency signal characteristics. Comparisons with NAVSTAR are inevitable and for this reason, the paper begins with a brief resume of relevant features of the NAVSTAR GPS system for later reference. The main section of the paper then deals with orbital behaviour, radio frequency signal structure and channelisation using NAVSTAR as a reference point for discussion. <s> BIB001 </s> A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> The complexity of the design of a Global Positioning System (GPS) user segment, as well as the performance demanded of the components, depends on user requirements such as total navigation accuracy. Other factors, for instance the expected satellite/vehicle geometry or the accuracy of an accompanying inertial navigation system can also affect the user segment design. Models of GPS measurements are used to predict user segment performance at various levels. Design curves are developed which illustrate the relationship between user requirements, the user segment design, and component performance. > <s> BIB002 </s> A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> The Galileo system is the first satellite positioning and navigation system specifically designed for civil purposes. This system can not only provide global position service with high accuracy and high assurance, but also be compatible with GPS which guarantees us with great practicability and commercial benefit. This paper is focused on the study of Galileo system. First, it introduces the form of this system; then it leads into the Galileo System Simulation Facility (GSSF). Through this GSSF platform, the article conducts the stimulation of Visibility, Dilution of precision (DOP) and the Geometric Analysis of the Galileo system, GPS system and GNSS joint systems, then it compared and studied the results of the three aspects. Finally, this article highlights the superiority of Galileo system with through analyzing the simulating result. <s> BIB003 </s> A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Basic Methods Used in Positioning Systems Overview of Positioning Systems Comparison of Basic Methods and Positioning Systems Conclusion, Summary, and Future Applications References <s> BIB004 </s> A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> The new and modernized GNSS navigation systems will provide various navigation services and signals for civil user. The system operators work on basic interoperability agreements which simplify multi-system navigation receiver architecture and reduce its cost. The most current GNSS signals of GPS, GLONASS and Galileo can be processed by one or several classical E-L correlators with a look up table PRN generator of a length of 10,230 chips. Most signals are processed optimally, but for some signals, like Galileo E1b and E1c or GPS L1C, this signal processor does not utilize all signal components and properties. The proposed E-L correlator was implemented to the FPGA of the experimental software GNSS receiver and was tested on the Galileo E1b, E1c, and E5a signals. The target multi-system GNSS receiver architecture based on an ExpressCard peripheral card for the standard PC computer or notebook is described herein. Up to one hundred universal correlators and signal snapshot capture unit for DSP acquisition are programmed to the receiver FPGA. <s> BIB005 </s> A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> It is known that satellite radiolocalization was born in the military environment and was originally conceived for defense purposes. Nevertheless, the commercial explosion (dated to 20 years ago) of global positioning system (GPS) in the civil market (automotive, tourism, etc.) significantly changed the original perspectives of this technology. Another big change is expected when other global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) such as the European Galileo or the Chinese COMPASS become operational and commercial. In fact, modern GNSSs are conceived principally for the civil market (at the opposite of GPS, whose civil employment is given as a sort of “kind gift,” with lower performance than that one granted to military users). The scope of this paper is to provide readers with a clear focus about the potentialities of current and forthcoming GNSSs and associated technologies in a renewed mass-market perspective. The paper also opens a window to the future of radiolocalization technology beyond GPS and GNSS, dealing with the role of digital signal processing and software-defined radio (SDR) in next-generation navigation systems and with the seamless integration of satellite-based navigation with other technologies in order to provide reliable position information also in hostile environments. <s> BIB006 </s> A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on various satellite-based navigation systems. The most well-known and widespread system currently used for localization of a radio-receiving terminal is the global positioning system (GPS). All GPS satellites share the same frequency bands, making use of the code division multiple access (CDMA) technique. The transmitted signal on each sub-band is a low-rate binary phase shift keying (BPSK) digital signal containing the so-called navigation (NAV) data that are used by the receiver to perform ranging. Galileo is the European Global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) providing a global positioning service under civilian control. It has to be interoperable with GPS and GLONASS, the American and Russian GNSSs, respectively. Like GPS and Galileo, GLONASS is based on several ground stations that monitor and control the satellites and their signals. The GPS and Galileo stations are spread on the globe, to guarantee a better control of the constellation and its signals. Differential GPS (DGPS) is an enhancement to GPS that uses a network of fixed, ground-based reference stations to broadcast the difference between the position of a receiver located at each station, as derived instant by instant using the GNSS, and the known fixed positions of the stations themselves. <s> BIB007 </s> A State-of-the-Art Survey on Multidimensional Scaling-Based Localization Techniques <s> 1) Global Positioning System (GPS): <s> We present the methodology and results of GPS/GLONASS integration in network code differential positioning for regional coverage across Poland using single frequency. Previous studies have only concerned the GPS system and relatively short distances to reference stations of up to tens of kilometers. This study is limited to using GPS and GLONASS. However, the methodology presented applies to all satellite navigation systems. The deterministic and stochastic models, as well as the most important issues in GPS/GLONASS integration are discussed. Two weeks of the GNSS observations were processed using software developed by the first author. In addition to interpolation of pseudorange corrections (PRCs) within the polygon of reference stations, the effect of their extrapolation outside that polygon is also briefly presented. It is well known that the positioning accuracy in a network of heterogeneous receivers can be degraded by GLONASS---FDMA frequency-dependent hardware biases. Our research reveals that when using such networks, the effect of these biases on the network differential GNSS (NDGNSS) positioning results as derived from both GPS and GLONASS can be reduced by simple down-weighting of GLONASS observations. We found that the same approach for the homogeneous equipment is not required; however, it can enhance performance of NDGNSS. Yet, the addition of the down-weighted GLONASS pseudoranges still improves the positioning accuracy by 14---25 %. The representative NDGNSS estimation is characterized by 0.17, 0.12 and 0.32 m RMS errors for the north, east and up component, respectively. <s> BIB008
The global positioning system (GPS) is one of the most common and successful positioning systems in outdoor environments, which consists of 28 operational earth orbiting satellites. A user or an object with a GPS receiver can localize itself in terms of longitude, latitude, and altitude with the accuracy of a few meters BIB002 . Satellites orbit around the earth at the height of 12,000 miles and accomplish two rotations every 24 hours. The particular characteristics of the GPS satellites are such that at any time anywhere on the earth surface at least four satellites are visible BIB004 . The concept of GPS based localization requires precise time and the position of the satellites. Highly stable atomic clocks are carried by the satellites which are synchronized with the clocks on the ground segment as well as with each other. Similarly, the locations of satellites are known with high precision. The GPS receivers clocks are cheap, less stable and not synchronized with the satellite clock. GPS satellites continuously broadcast its time and location and the receiver computes the pseudo-ranges from each visible satellite. The receiver needs to have at least four satellites visible at the time of calculating the four unknowns (three location coordinates and a clock offset). 2) Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS): Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is a space-based navigational and localization system operated by Russia, which provides an alternative to the GPS BIB001 . GLONASS does not have broad coverage like GPS, yet the coverage and accuracy are certainly increased when both GPS and GLONASS are used together. GLONASS has an accuracy of up to 2 meters. The use of GPS with GLONASS allows users to be precisely positioned by a league of 55 satellites covering the globe. Therefore, when a user is in a location where GPS signals are blocked in an urban area by huge buildings, a user can be located by GLONASS satellites. A lot of more smartphones are being introduced with GPS+GLONASS technology to provide location-based services. For example, various localization, and tracking products of Wialon use both GPS and GLONASS signals [43] . Similarly, the integration of GPS and GLONASS signals are studied in BIB008 for improved coverage. 3) GALILEO System: GALILEO is another navigational and positioning system owned by the European space agency, delivering an extremely accurate, reliable global positioning facility under civilian control. GALILEO has inter-operability with GPS and GLONASS BIB005 . GALILEO system consists of 27 active and 3 spare satellites circulating the earth at an altitude of 24000 km. GALILEO and GPS have a similar bandwidth and center frequency band which means that GALILEO system is smoothly interoperable with GPS and its signal performance is far better than GPS BIB006 . The signal performance enhancement of GALILEO system is due to the use of novel modulation technique called composite binary offset carrier (CBOC) which improves the received power almost to the double of the C/A coded GPS signals  . Also, in spite of bringing in some more frequency band signals, the GALILEO system introduces a very little complexity to the receiver design BIB003 . 4) BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS): BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) is a Chinese satellite navigation system also called COMPASS. It consists of 12 operational satellites including five geosynchronous satellites, four medium earth orbit satellites, and three inclined geosynchronous orbits satellites BIB007 . BDS became operational in China in December 2011  ,  and began services in December 2012 in the Asia-Pacific region. Last year, 19 more satellites were launched in several orbits providing the accuracy up to 10 meters globally and up to 5 meters in the Asia Pacific region. BDS system provides high accuracy and reliability, support inter-satellite links, and augmentation systems [52] .