Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> A series of experiments were conducted to determine the physiological impact of acute sublethal molybdenum exposure to juvenile kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka Kennerlyi). Molybdenum was found to be relatively non-toxic to kokanee as the 96 h LC(50) was greater than 2,000 mg Mo l(-1). Exposure to either 25 or 250 mg Mo x l(-1) for 7 days was found to stimulate a significant 1.6- to 1.7-fold increase in ventilation which was later characterized to be dose-dependent between 5 and 250 mg Mo l(-1). Acute sublethal molybdenum exposure was found to have little or no impact on kokanee oxygen consumption at rest or immediately following a bout of forced activity or on physiological indicators of stress such as plasma lactate, sodium and cortisol. Despite these findings, prior exposure to 25 or 250 mg Mo l(-1) resulted in post-exercise loss of equilibrium and exercise-induced delayed mortality that were not observed in controls. Molybdenum accumulation in gill and liver of kokanee was also characterized. The findings of this study suggest that despite the non-toxic nature of molybdenum, acute sublethal exposure to this metal has physiological consequences to those fish exposed even for only a brief period. Further studies are needed to more fully elucidate the metabolism and mode of action of this metal in fish. <s> BIB001 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Following its discovery by Siegfried Ruhemann in 1910, ninhydrin rapidly became a practical analytical tool. In 1954 it was found to be an important reagent to develop fingerprints on porous surfaces. Since its use in forensic chemistry, many efforts have focused on improving the reagent. Many of the shortcomings of ninhydrin have been met by the synthesis of a variety of ninhydrin analogues. This tutorial review provides a short introduction to ninhydrin and highlights the different synthetic approaches used in the development of analogues for the detection of latent fingerprints. <s> BIB002 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Cyanoacrylate fuming is a widely used forensic tool for the development of latent fingerprints, however the mechanistic details of the reaction between the fingerprint residue and the cyanoacrylate vapor are not well understood. Here the polymerization of ethyl-cyanoacrylate vapor by sodium lactate or alanine solutions, two of the major components in fingerprint residue, has been examined by monitoring the time dependence of the mass uptake and resultant polymer molecular weight characteristics. This data provides insight into the molecular level actions in the efficient development of latent fingerprints by superglue fuming. The results show that the carboxylate moiety is the primary initiator of the polymerization process and that a basic environment inhibits chain termination while an acidic environment promotes it. The results also indicate that water cannot be the primary initiator in this forensic technique. <s> BIB003 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Evaluating both new and existing processes for primary metal production to assess their environmental impacts is often difficult due to the many inputs and outputs involved. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a methodology that can be used for such purposes to identify those parts of the metal production life cycle that have significant environmental impacts. LCA has been used by CSIRO Minerals to assess the “cradle-to-gate” environmental impacts of a number of metal production processes practised either currently or potentially in Australia. The metals considered included copper, nickel, aluminium, lead, zinc, steel, stainless steel and titanium, by both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical routes in some instances. The environmental profile included greenhouse and acid rain gas emissions, solid waste emissions and gross energy consumption. The results for various metals are compared in this paper. New process technologies for primary metal production can be expected to reduce the environmental impacts of metal production, and estimates of likely reductions for technologies involving stainless steel, titanium and aluminium are also presented in this paper. <s> BIB004 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Abstract Various methods have been reported for the development of latent fingerprints on different surfaces in the literature. This paper presents a new powdering method which is simple, non-toxic for the development of latent fingerprints that can be employed on different substrates. In this investigation a less expensive, simple and easily available, turmeric powder, a common ingredient in Indian food, has been used to decipher the latent fingerprints on nine different substrates. It is found that it gives very clear results in majority of the surfaces. <s> BIB005 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Abstract A short continuation study was done to investigate whether three fingerprint methods can recover latent fingerprints on transparent foil submerged in water. Donors intentionally placed fingerprints on transparent foil surfaces. The surfaces to be examined were exposed to the influences of stagnant water during different time intervals. Latent fingerprints were recovered with Swedish soot mixture powder, small particle reagent (SPR) and cyanoacrylate (CA). Although good results were achieved with all methods, SPR technique proved to be the best. The experiment established and confirmed that finger marks on transparent foil surfaces can be developed even after having been exposed to water for at least one week. <s> BIB006 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Abstract There are various methods available for the development of latent fingerprints on different substrates. This paper presents a new powder method for the development of latent fingerprints on different substrates. In this study, a less expensive, simple and easily available, silica gel G powder (usually used in TLC plates preparation) has been used to develop the latent fingerprints on eight commonly encountered different substrates i.e., plastic, glass, ordinary mirror and metallic substrates, aluminium foil sheet, carbon paper, matchbox, cardboard, glossy-painted wooden substrates, top and writable surface of CD and glazed coloured magazine paper surface. It is observed that it gives very clear results on most of the substrates with clear ridges. <s> BIB007 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Physical developer (PD) is a fingermark development technique that deposits silver onto fingermark ridges. It is the only technique currently in routine operational use that gives results on porous substrates that have been wet. There is a reasonable understanding of the working solution chemistry, but the chemical constituent(s) contained in fingermark residue that are specifically targeted by PD are largely unknown. A better understanding of the PD technique will permit a more informed selection of alternative or complementary detection methods, and greater usage in operational laboratories. Recent research by our group has shown that PD does not selectively target the lipids present in the residue. This research investigated the hypothesis that PD targets the eccrine constituents in fingermark residue. This was tested by comparison of PD and indanedione-zinc (Ind-Zn) treated natural fingermarks that had been deposited successively, and marks that had been deposited with a ten second interval in between depositions. Such an interval allows for the regeneration of secretions from the pores located on the ridges of the fingers. On fingermark depletions with no time interval between depositions, PD and Ind-Zn treated depletions successively (and comparatively) decreased in development intensity as the amount of residue diminished. Short time intervals in between successive depletions resulted in additional secretions from the pores intermittently occurring, the increased development of which was visualised by treatment with both PD and Ind-Zn. The changes in development intensity were seen with both techniques on the same split depletions in a series, comparably and proportionately. These results indicate that the components targeted by PD are contained in the material excreted by the friction ridge pores through its mirrored development with Ind-Zn. Repetition of the experiments on marks that only contained eccrine material showed good Ind-Zn development but poor results with PD. This indicates that there are other constituents contained in "natural" fingermarks that are required to be present for PD to be able to target constituents in the eccrine sweat. It may be that the required constituents in the natural residues are non-water soluble, and that these protect the eccrine constituents from solubilisation in the aqueous washes employed in the PD method. Further research is being undertaken to determine whether PD is targeting specific compounds in the pore secretions, or a mixture of compounds consisting of the eccrine material, epidermal lipids and sebaceous lipids typically present in latent fingermark residues. <s> BIB008 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Abstract: Latent fingerprints are subject to easy damage and destruction owing to their fragile nature. Powder dusting is the easiest and fastest of the methods used for latent fingerprint development (LFPD). In the present study, Robin® powder blue, a common household product (used as a post-wash whitening agent and popularly known in India as ‘neel’) which is user friendly, less expensive, non toxic, non hazardous, environment friendly, simple and easily available substitute to the commercially available and costlier powders, has been used for LFPD. The powder was tested on twenty-four strategically chosen surfaces, keeping in mind the high frequency at which they are commonly encountered on various crime scenes. It was shown that this powder gives very good results, even on most of the intricate and multi-colored surfaces tested. <s> BIB009 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Nano-sized bismuth oxybromide (BiOBr) particles are being considered for applications within the semiconductor industry. However, little is known about their potential impact on human health. In this study, we comparatively investigated the cytotoxicity of BiOBr and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) using human skin keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT) as a research model. Results indicate that lamellar-shaped BiOBr (length: 200 nm, width: 150 nm, and an average thickness: around 15 nm) has less toxic effects on cell viability and intracellular organelles than TiO2 (P25) NPs. BiOBr mainly induced late cell apoptosis, while for TiO2, both early apoptosis and late apoptosis were involved. Cell cycle arrest was found in cells on both NPs exposure, and more prominent in TiO2-treated cells. More cellular uptake was achieved after TiO2 exposure, particularly at 10 μg mL(-1), presence of TiO2 resulted in more than 2-fold increase in cellular granularity compared with BiOBr. Furthermore, TiO2 had a high potential to generate intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells, where a 2.7-fold increase in TiO2 group and 2.0-fold increase in BiOBr group at the same concentration of 25 μg mL(-1). Higher cellular uptake and ROS stimulation should contribute to the more hazards of TiO2 than BiOBr NPs. This knowledge is a crucial component in the environmental and human hazard assessment of BiOBr and TiO2 NPs. <s> BIB010 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Abstract: Small particle reagent (SPR) is a widely used method for developing latent fingerprints on non-porous wet surfaces. SPR based on zinc carbonate hydroxide monohydrate, ZnCo 3 ·2Zn(OH) 2 ·H 2 O – also called basic zinc carbonate – has been formulated. The other ingredients of the formulation are crystal violet dye and a commercial liquid detergent. The composition develops clear, sharp and detailed fingerprints on non-porous items, after these were immersed separately in clean and dirty water for variable periods of time. The ability of the present formulation to detect weak and faint chance prints not only enhances its utility, but also its potentiality in forensic case work investigations. The raw materials used to prepare the SPR are cost-effective and non-hazardous. <s> BIB011 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Abstract Background Exposure to metals, including essential and nonessential elements, has been linked to male reproductive health in animals. However, findings from human studies are inconsistent. Objective To examine the associations between metal exposure at environmental levels and semen quality in a Chinese population by performing repeated measurements of urinary metals to estimate individual-level exposure. Methods From March to June 2013, 1052 men seeking semen evaluation were recruited from the Reproductive Center of Tongji Hospital in Wuhan, China. Each man provided one semen sample and two urine sample. Semen quality parameters and urinary levels of 18 metals were determined. Associations between the urinary metal levels and semen quality parameters were assessed using confounder adjusted linear and logistic regressions. Restricted cubic spline analysis was performed to assess dose-response relationships between continuous metal measurements and outcomes. Results Urinary levels of cadmium were significantly inversely associated with progressive sperm motility and total motility (both P P P Conclusion Our findings suggest that environmental exposure to cadmium, molybdenum and lead may contribute to a decline in human semen quality. <s> BIB012 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Nanoscale titanium dioxide (nTiO2) has been widely used in cosmetics, catalysts, varnishes, etc., which is raising concerns about its potential hazards to the ecosystem, including the marine environment. In this study, the toxicological effect of nTiO2 on the marine phytoplankton Phaeodactylum tricornutum was carefully investigated. The results showed that nTiO2 at concentrations ≥20mg/L could significantly inhibit P. tricornutum growth. The 5-day EC50 of nTiO2 to P. tricornutum growth is 167.71mg/L. Interestingly, nTiO2 was found to exert its most severe inhibition effects on the first day of exposure, at a lower EC50 of 12.65mg/L. During the experiment, nTiO2 aggregates were found to entrap algae cells, which is likely responsible for the observed toxic effects. Direct physical effects such as cell wall damage from the algae entrapment were confirmed by flow cytometry and TEM imaging. Moreover, low indirect effects such as shading and oxidative stress were observed, which supported the idea that direct physical effects could be the dominant factor that causes nTiO2 toxicity in P. tricornutum. Our research provides direct evidence for the toxicological impact of nTiO2 on marine microalgae, which will help us to build a good understanding of the ecological risks of nanoparticles in the marine environment. <s> BIB013 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Abstract: Small particle reagent (SPR) is a technique performed to detect latent fingerprints left on wet and moist surfaces based upon the reaction between fatty acid residuals present in the traces and hydrophobic tails of the specific reagent. Those tails are linked to a hydrophilic head of zinc carbonate based formulation to give coloured precipitate. In the present study, we have prepared a novel SPR formulation constituting of zinc carbonate based on basic fuchsin dye for the development of latent fingerprints on wet surfaces. It was shown to develop clear, sharp and detailed fingerprints on non-porous surfaces after these were immersed in water for up to 45 days. The ability of the present formulations to detect weak and chance prints not only enhances its utility, but also its potentiality in forensic casework investigations. The raw materials used to prepare the SPR are cost-effective and non-hazardous. <s> BIB014 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> ABSTRACTThe ability of cyanoacrylates (CA) to develop fingerprints was first discovered in 1977. Since then, the cyanoacrylate fuming method has reached widespread use, becoming one of the primary techniques for processing fingerprints. It has, however, almost exclusively been limited to the use of ethyl cyanoacrylate, even though many other alkyl CAs could theoretically be used for this purpose, potentially with a higher efficacy. In order to examine the possibility, cyanoacrylate fuming methods for the processing of fingerprints were optimized for four different CAs: methyl, ethyl, n-butyl and 2-octyl. The development quality and sensitivity yielded by these CAs were then compared using depletion series of natural fingerprints deposited by six donors on three types of surfaces (glass, metal and plastic) and aged during three different periods of time (less than 24h, one week and one month). It was found that, on most age/surface pairs tested, butyl CA produced equivalent or even better results than ethy... <s> BIB015 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Optimal fingermark developing product would have the following attributes; small, rounded and well-dispersed particles, which has high affinity for the fingermark residue but exhibits minimal interaction with the substrate bearing the fingermark. However, most commercial powder formulations still utilise fine particles in the range of 1 to 10 μm. Ageing of the filtrate from rice husk acid digestion produced amorphous nanocarbon powder (NP) that exhibited non-smooth, slightly irregular spherical particles with a higher degree of agglomeration. Particle size distribution fell in the range of 100 to 500 nm with mean particle size of 300 nm. Molecular bonding and chemical composition of the NP was characterised using spectroscopic techniques. Findings revealed that the nanoparticle powders and reagent performed on par with the existing commercial powders and exhibited higher selectivity. Nanoparticle synthesis from low-cost precursor in this research did not require special equipment, addition of resins or adhesives, or surface passivation. Nanocarbon powder is exploitable as fingermark developing powder generated from a sustainable source. <s> BIB016 </s> Relevant visualization technologies for latent fingerprints on wet objects and its challenges: a review <s> Latent fingerprints: challenges and future insights <s> Waterways are popular locations for the disposition of criminal evidence because the recovery of latent fingerprints from such evidence is difficult. Currently, small particle reagent is a method often used to visualize latent fingerprints containing carcinogenic and hazardous compounds. This study proposes an eco-friendly, safranin-tinted Candida rugosa lipase (triacylglycerol ester hydrolysis EC 3.1.1.3) with functionalized carbon nanotubes (CRL-MWCNTS/GA/SAF) as an alternative reagent to the small particle reagent. The CRL-MWCNTS/GA/SAF reagent was compared with the small particle reagent to visualize groomed, full fingerprints deposited on stainless steel knives which were immersed in a natural outdoor pond for 30 days. The quality of visualized fingerprints using the new reagent was similar (modified-Centre for Applied Science and Technology grade: 4; p > 0.05) to small particle reagent, even after 15 days of immersion. Despite the slight decrease in quality of visualized fingerprints using the CRL-MWCNTS/GA/SAF on the last three immersion periods, the fingerprints remained forensically identifiable (modified-Centre for Applied Science and Technology grade: 3). The possible chemical interactions that enabled successful visualization is also discussed. Thus, this novel reagent may provide a relatively greener alternative for the visualization of latent fingerprints on immersed non-porous objects. <s> BIB017
It has to be mentioned here that "criminals often seek a watery repository for weapons and other evidence of wrongdoing"  ). Under such circumstance, water-soluble constituents of latent fingerprints such as amino acids, sodium/salt, and proteins would have been washed off by water, leaving only the non-water-soluble (e.g., lipid) constituents BIB008 . Considering the reported amount of sebaceous constituents in natural fingerprints is generally lower than that of eccrine, this could potentially further complicate the visualization process. Furthermore, latent fingerprints on objects immersed in water are vulnerable to several uncontrollable physico-chemical parameters (e.g., pH, turbidity, and biochemical oxygen demand) of the water which may accelerate the degradation of the latent fingerprints. Generally, the primary goal in forensic fingerprint method development is always focusing on increasing the contrast between fingerprints and its surface. However, the physical/chemical mechanisms/interactions between the chemicals and target constituents of fingerprints which correspond to the successful visualization of latent fingerprints have been scarcely studied. Hence, it is important that such chemical studies to be explored exhaustively so that room for further improvements can be recognized. While fingerprint visualization methods on dry surfaces are widely available, such cannot be said for wet surfaces. Examples of fingerprint visualization methods suggested for dry surfaces include, but not limited to, powder dusting  BIB005 BIB007 BIB009 , cyanoacrylate fuming BIB003 BIB015 , and amino acids sensitive reagents BIB002  . Currently, there are only limited well-established visualization methods that are meant for wet surfaces. Among the well-established methods are SPR and PD for non-porous and porous surfaces, respectively. While SPR utilizes suspension of fine particles (e.g., MoS 2 and TiO 2 ) in a surfactant  BIB008 , toxicities arising from the long-term use of such hazardous chemicals have been associated with numerous adverse effects on human (International Agency for Research on Cancer 2010; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 2011; BIB010 BIB012 ) and ecology BIB001 BIB004 BIB013 ). On top of that, the consistent inadequate quality of fingerprints recovered from immersed evidence continues to pose an uphill challenge, presumably due to the duration of immersion BIB006 BIB011 BIB014 as well as different types of water BIB011 . Such observation was also supported by  whereby the authors reported on relatively poor performance of SPR in visualizing latent fingerprints on glass, metal and plastic surfaces, particularly after exposure to sea and lake waters in different aquaria for more than 24 h. Moreover, visualizing latent fingerprints on textured surfaces such as unplastered concrete walls, natural rocks, and bricks require very special techniques. Taking into consideration the need to visualize latent fingerprints for forensic identification as well as the possible adverse effects that those chemicals may exert on human and ecology, it is therefore becoming imperative to explore a greener and safer alternative in developing visualizing reagents, preferably via biotechnology routes. Recently, BIB016 proposed a green approach of visualizing latent fingermark on various porosity of dry substrates using nanocarbon powder obtained from the by-product of acid digestion of rice husk. However, its efficacy for visualizing latent fingerprints on wet objects is yet to be explored. Currently, review of literature reveals only one study that explored the use of green biotechnological route for visualizing latent fingerprints BIB017 ) on wet non-porous objects. Despite their successful attempt at visualizing latent fingerprints on immersed objects, the method appears tedious and laborious, requiring the use of three different solutions over the span of nine minutes of fingerprint visualization. In addition, the method did not comply with the prevailing International Fingerprint Research Group (IFRG) guidelines, limiting its general acceptance by the forensic fingerprint community. In this context, formulation of a rapid visualization technique using a single optimized nanobio-based reagent with comparable performance as the conventional methods (e.g., SPR and PD) acquires forensic significance. Although the IFRG Steering Committee has endorsed the guidelines for the assessment of fingermark detection techniques for evaluating a novel or modified method, such guidelines did not outline the protocol for preparing split fingerprints on difficult-to-bisect substrates such as knives, in order to eliminate the intra-donor variability between the two visualization methods (International Fingerprint Research Group 2014) . Considering the fact that knife is one of the common weapons used in crime, the protocol for preparing split fingerprints on knives for proposing novel or modified visualization method is therefore deemed necessary. Moreover, because pictorial representation for visualized fingerprints relating to the available grading scales remains unavailable, discrepancies in judgment among the different analysts may prevail, leading to problematic assessments in the evidential values of fingerprint for forensic practical caseworks. Therefore, the suggestive representative photographs of visualized fingerprints on selected substrates against the absolute scale reported by the Centre of Applied Science and Technology (International Fingerprint Research Group 2014) provided here (Table 2 ) may prove useful.