Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Conclusions and Future Directions <s> The use of ICT in the classroom is very important for providing opportunities for students to learn to operate in an information age. Studying the obstacles to the use of ICT in education may assist educators to overcome these barriers and become successful technology adopters in the future. This paper provides a meta-analysis of the relevant literature that aims to present the perceived barriers to technology integration in science education. The findings indicate that teachers had a strong desire for to integrate ICT into education; but that, they encountered many barriers. The major barriers were lack of confidence, lack of competence, and lack of access to resources. Since confidence, competence and accessibility have been found to be the critical components of technology integration in schools, ICT resources including software and hardware, effective professional development, sufficient time, and technical support need to be provided to teachers. No one component in itself is sufficient to provide good teaching. However, the presence of all components increases the possibility of excellent integration of ICT in learning and teaching opportunities. Generally, this paper provides information and recommendation to those responsible for the integration of new technologies into science education. <s> BIB001 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Conclusions and Future Directions <s> Higher education research is a growing, inter-disciplinary and increasingly international field of study. This article examines the citation patterns of articles published in six leading higher education journals—three published in the United States and three published elsewhere in the world—for what they reveal about the development of this field. The analysis shows that the American journals are not only dominated by American-based authors, but that they also cite predominantly articles, books, chapters and other publications published in the United States. By contrast, the three non-American journals accommodate a much broader spread internationally of both authors and citations. Possible explanations for these patterns, and whether they matter, are discussed. <s> BIB002
New opportunities for intelligent tutoring systems are opening up in the developing world, due to changes in ICT availability as well as recent research seeking solutions to developing world barriers. While only a small portion of recent ITS research has addressed these barriers, these papers have outlined possible solutions to many of these issues. This study summarized these barriers and existing solutions, with the hope that later projects can leverage these solutions. Across the papers reviewed, the prevalence of both barriers and solutions is likely understated. The reasons behind this are multi-faceted. First, some of these barriers are prone to selection bias: researchers implement their tutoring systems in classrooms that meet the systems' basic requirements (e.g., sufficient computers, stable electricity, Internet access). As a result, the true prevalence of barriers will be consistently understated. Second, many of these topics are often considered throwaway "implementation details." This is somewhat ironic: implementation factors are seldom studied systematically because they require large-scale, multi-site studies. Since most studies only have one site, their details are often under-reported, even though such data is hard to collect. In aggregate, the implementation considerations of a large number of varied implementations can offer significant insight, but such data often has no clear home. This is due to a larger pattern of specialization: as the overall output of research articles has increased, most journals and conferences have grown into separate silos segmented by subdiscipline  and nationality BIB002 . Venues outside of education (e.g., computer science, psychology), and even some inside education, may feel that their readers will not be interested in a discussion of implementation challenges and solutions. Unfortunately, researchers who publish primarily in such venues may not find time to publish such details elsewhere, discarding casestudy data on barriers to adoption. Journal editors may be able to mitigate such losses. For each study in a real educational context (e.g., field study), at least one paragraph should explicitly outline barriers that impacted the system design or implementation. If this minimal standard was held across venues, a clearer picture of stumbling blocks and usability issues would emerge. Despite the limitations of the available data, meaningful patterns were observed. While these barriers were examined from the standpoint of ITS, they are also relevant to other educational technologies and contexts. The greater prevalence of mobile-based ITS in developing contexts may be evidence of a partial leap-frogging of traditional computer-based ITS or a move toward ubiquitous ITS systems that span multiple platforms. However, this possibility has two significant caveats. First, home-grown ITS were more likely to target tertiary education, such as universities. Universities are more likely to have effective technology infrastructure and support, which may make mobile learning more feasible. Second, work on mobile learning was dominated by large emerging economies (e.g., Mexico, India). These countries have large enough internal disparities that mobile ITS might only be feasible in certain regions or communities. With that said, a mobile ITS only feasible for one-third of India would still serve a population the size of the United States. When considering mobile ITS, a significant issue exists for targeting new research projects: How advanced will mobile phones be in a region by the time a certain educational technology is ready? At present, mobile broadband still has a fairly low penetration in developing countries (21 %). Of such subscriptions, not all users are accessing using smartphones. Based on logistic models commonly used to model diffusion of innovation  , Africa does not project to have 50 % smartphone penetration until 2020, but other continents are projected to exceed that level by the end of 2016  ). However, researchers should probably avoid using aggregate numbers, even at the national level, for considering mobile ITS. There are wide differences in smartphone adoption across countries, as well as strong urban-rural and age-based divides, where younger city-dwellers tend to adopt earlier (International Telecommunication Union 2014). In a given region, a three-year research project could probably see a shift from adoption levels of 20 % to well over 50 % in some cities. For new projects in most regions, smartphones are likely a better platform than feature phones. Nokia's feature phones have previously been a major part of the market, but these are being displaced by low-cost smartphones. Since Nokia moved from its proprietary Symbian OS to Windows Phone OS, three smartphone operating systems cover nearly the entire market (Apple iOS, Google Android, and Windows Phone), and iOS phones have lower adoption in developing regions. However, if targeting feature phones, it should be noted that most feature phones now support Java ME for third-party applications, providing a (somewhat) common platform. A second conclusion from this study was that educational context is very important when considering barriers to adoption. Barriers to classroom use are quite different from home use, which calls for different models of technology for these settings. For classroom use, shared laptops running installed software show promise. For independent use, mobile applications downloaded at community centers or mobile-to-mobile over Bluetooth might be more accessible. In either context, language and cultural localization are important to adoption. Future research may address such questions as: How do multiple-input devices impact user models? How might existing ITS and other technologies be adapted for the mobile interfaces and hardware capabilities? Can parts of localization be automated? Because developing nations have pressing educational needs and existing studies present a culturally-biased sample due to under-representation of these areas  , increased focus on ITS and other learning technologies for the developing world is warranted. Finally, while the developing world has unique barriers to adoption of ITS, the most challenging barriers may be the ones that are shared by all countries. Teacher beliefs on ICT, the pedagogical match of the ITS to teachers, limited training time, curriculum restrictions, and many other barriers have impacted educational technology in most-developed and developing countries BIB001  . The level of attention by ITS to these barriers must be evaluated, to identify challenges and potential solutions. For this reason, this analysis is continuing as a mapping study to consider recent developments in ITS, with a special focus on barriers to adoption. Current work is exploring barriers to adoption identified predominantly in the most developed countries, which also are likely to impact ITS in the developing world. Additionally, a website is under development to easily browse and download the metadata accumulated through this study. This site is intended to facilitate locating ITS papers that address particular barriers to ITS adoption, as well as consider trends in ITS publishing. Hopefully, this site should help scholars locate relevant research and potential collaborators in the worldwide ITS community. 