Children in the information technology design process: A review of theories and their applications <s> Usability <s> Methods for observing software users in the workplace will become increasingly important as the number of people using computers grows and developers improve existing systems. Successful redesigns rely, in part, on complete and accurate evaluations of the existing systems. Based on our evaluation experience, we have derived a set of practical guidelines to be used by designers in preparing for the evaluation, performing the field study, analyzing the data, and reporting the findings. By providing a general framework based on ethnographic research, we hope to reduce the likelihood of some common problems, such as overlooking important information and misinterpreting observations. Examples from our ongoing work with the Maryland Department of Juvenile Justice are used to illustrate the proposed guidelines. <s> BIB001 </s> Children in the information technology design process: A review of theories and their applications <s> Usability <s> Preface. 1. Introduction: Why Web Usability? 2. Page Design. 3. Content Design. 4. Site Design. 5. Intranet Design. 6. Accessibility for Users with Disabilities. 7. International Use: Serving A Global Audience. 8. Future Predictions: The Only Web Constant Is Change. 9. Conclusion: Simplicity in Web Design. Recommended Readings. Index. <s> BIB002
Within the various design theories relating to software design, usability is a critical component. Since usability issues influence and form an integral part of the software design process, it is important to define what is meant by this term within the design context. ''Usability'' emerged from HCI studies and is concerned with the development of systems that are user centered  . Although there are many competing definitions, most experts would probably agree that usability describes the ability of the user to easily and intuitively understand and then navigate through the components of an interface  BIB002 BIB001  . Since ''users want cognitive cues that are visible and familiar and that help them navigate'' (Head, 1997, p. 159) and ''usability is rooted in cognitive science-the study of how people perceive and process information through learning, the use of memory and attention'' (Head, 1999, p. 22) , usability is concerned with the design of a product that meets users' needs. Hudson (2001, p. 12 ) more broadly defines usability as ''the experience that a user has while interacting with your site.'' She states that ''one of the basic tenets of usability testing is that individuals experience sites differently according to their needs and abilities'' (p. 13). Rubin refers to the work of Booth in his operational definition of usability. Booth regards usefulness (the degree to which a product enables the user to achieve their goals and a measure of their motivation for using it), effectiveness (the ease of use), learnability (the user's ability to operate the system with some defined level of confidence after a predetermined amount and period of training and the ability to relearn the system after periods of inactivity), and attitude (likability or the user's perceptions, feelings, and opinions of the product) as comprising the essence of usability (Booth as summarized by Rubin, 1994, p. 18-19) . Microsoft Corporation regards usability as a practice in which ''strategies for getting information about users into the development process in a timely way'' are developed (Veldof, Prasse, & Mills, 1999, p. 117) . Usability, then, can be understood as a concept rooted in the operational experience of the user. As such, it has guiding principles, attributes, and practices that enable the designer to achieve a design that will meet the targeted users' needs. In an interview with Head (1999, p. 22) , Nielsen identifies five attributes of a usable interface: (1) it is easy to learn, (2) is efficient to use, (3) is easy to remember, (4) causes few errors, and (5) and is pleasant to use. This definition and its attributes of usability can be easily transferred to a child's context: The same rules apply but they do need to be adapted and implemented for this specific target group. Usability studies focus on how users think about, interact with, and retain information essential to the operation of the software. Most usability studies employ an iterative process whereby groups of users from the target market test the interfaces of software or Web sites. As part of the iteration, after the first testing session(s), the interface is redesigned again tested by users and then redesigned if necessary. This process continues until the desired design is achieved. If applied appropriately, usability studies can generate excellent data for analysis, enabling the designer to create a system embodying Nielsen's five attributes of usability. However, usability studies, like the technologies themselves, need to be designed with care. The usability of each new technology must be tested in a way most appropriate to its overall improvement. As Shneiderman (1992, p. 478) states, ''Procedures vary greatly depending on the goals of the usability study, the number of expected users, the dangers of errors, and the level of investment.'' Usability studies have only become an integral part of the design of new technologies within the last decade or so. As Nielsen (2000, p. 388) affirms, ''Usability used to be a suppressed and barely tolerated oddity in the computer industry. Computer companies have always refused to make usability the driving criterion in product development. Instead, features and performance were always the goals.'' If this was so, why has there been an overwhelming change in attitude towards usability studies in the past 15 or so years? One of the main reasons is profitability. Usability testing originally was performed on commercially released software to detect problems or areas that could be corrected in later versions. Soon, designers realized that usability studies, if done as part of the design process, could detect potential problems before the technology was released onto the market. Since testers represent real users doing real tasks and provide a measure of how well a technology will work for its intended user base, not only does it ensure that the end product is satisfying and valued by the target population, but it saves the producing company a lot of money by making the improvements to the technology before it is released onto the market  . Fichter (2001) recommends user-centered testing because the developers or designers are too close to the product to offer a truly objective evaluation of how well the technology works and how easy it is for an average person to use. It is better to have users say what is wrong since designers can always provide a rationale for not making changes to their design. BIB001 consider usability studies as being crucial to technology development because the user's perception of a system is critical to its success. Scaife et al. (1997, p. 343 ) take this one step further when they state, ''The real issue would seem . . . to be not one of whether involving users is good or bad but rather how to more effectively engage them in the design process.''