Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> Robots increasingly have the potential to interact with people in daily life. It is believed that, based on this ability, they will play an essential role in human society in the not-so-distant future. This article examined the proposition that robots could form relationships with children and that children might learn from robots as they learn from other children. In this article, this idea is studied in an 18-day field trial held at a Japanese elementary school. Two English-speaking "Robovie" robots interacted with first- and sixth-grade pupils at the perimeter of their respective classrooms. Using wireless identification tags and sensors, these robots identified and interacted with children who came near them. The robots gestured and spoke English with the children, using a vocabulary of about 300 sentences for speaking and 50 words for recognition. The children were given a brief picture-word matching English test at the start of the trial, after 1 week and after 2 weeks. Interactions were counted using the tags, and video and audio were recorded. In the majority of cases, a child's friends were present during the interactions. Interaction with the robot was frequent in the 1st week, and then it fell off sharply by the 2nd week. Nonetheless, some children continued to interact with the robot. Interaction time during the 2nd week predicted improvements in English skill at the posttest, controlling for pretest scores. Further analyses indicate that the robots may have been more successful in establishing common ground and influence when the children already had some initial proficiency or interest in English. These results suggest that interactive robots should be designed to have something in common with their users, providing a social as well as technical challenge. <s> BIB001 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> Advancement in robotic research enables robot can assist human in many way. However, few researches have been done on applying on education. This paper reports field trials of using robot in an English learning classroom. In our experiment, the robot plays as a partner of a teacher. Five models of collaboration between teachers and robot are proposed. Teachers design the course flow in advance based on the learning content and these five models. Formative evaluations of the experiments are presented to show the impact of adopting robot in the classroom. <s> BIB002 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> The goal of the RUBI project is to accelerate progress in the development of social robots by addressing the problem at multiple levels, including the development of a scientific agenda, research methods, formal approaches, software, and hardware. The project is based on the idea that progress will go hand-in-hand with the emergence of a new scientific discipline that focuses on understanding the organization of adaptive behavior in real-time within the environments in which organisms operate. As such, the RUBI project emphasizes the process of design by immersion, i.e., embedding scientists, engineers and robots in everyday life environments so as to have these environments shape the hardware, software, and scientific questions as early as possible in the development process. The focus of the project so far has been on social robots that interact with 18 to 24 month old toddlers as part of their daily activities at the Early Childhood Education Center at the University of California, San Diego. In this document we present an overall assessment of the lessons and progress through year two of the project. <s> BIB003 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> We report results of a study in which a low cost sociable robot was immersed at an Early Childhood Education Center for a period of 2 weeks. The study was designed to investigate whether the robot, which operated fully autonomously during the intervention period, could improve target vocabulary skills of 18-24 month of age toddlers. The results showed a 27 % improvement in knowledge of the target words taught by the robot when compared to a matched set of control words. The results suggest that sociable robots may be an effective and low cost technology to enrich Early Childhood Education environments. <s> BIB004 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> Betty’s Brain is a computer-based learning environment that capitalizes on the social aspects of learning. In Betty’s Brain, students instruct a character called a Teachable Agent (TA) which can reason based on how it is taught. Two studies demonstrate the protege effect: students make greater effort to learn for their TAs than they do for themselves. The first study involved 8th-grade students learning biology. Although all students worked with the same Betty’s Brain software, students in the TA condition believed they were teaching their TAs, while in another condition, they believed they were learning for themselves. TA students spent more time on learning activities (e.g., reading) and also learned more. These beneficial effects were most pronounced for lower achieving children. The second study used a verbal protocol with 5th-grade students to determine the possible causes of the protege effect. As before, students learned either for their TAs or for themselves. Like study 1, students in the TA condition spent more time on learning activities. These children treated their TAs socially by attributing mental states and responsibility to them. They were also more likely to acknowledge errors by displaying negative affect and making attributions for the causes of failures. Perhaps having a TA invokes a sense of responsibility that motivates learning, provides an environment in which knowledge can be improved through revision, and protects students’ egos from the psychological ramifications of failure. <s> BIB005 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> In this position paper, we will raise some critical issues on applying robotics technologies into the educational environment. The series of discussions are based on our previous study on toddlers - robots interaction at a nursery school. In reaction to the notice warning of its potential risk, we will present a scenario in which robots are employed with less ethical concern and more educational contribution. <s> BIB006 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> This paper presents the effect of robotics assisted language learning (RALL) on the vocabulary learning and retention of Iranian English as foreign language (EFL) junior high school students in Tehran, Iran. After taking a vocabulary pre-test, 46 beginner level female students at the age of 12, studying in their first year of junior-high participated in two groups of RALL (30 students) and non-RALL (16 students) in this study. The textbook used was the English book (Prospect-1) devised by the Iranian Ministry of Education for 7th graders, and the vocabulary taught and tested (pre-test and post-test) were taken from this book. Moreover, the treatment given by a teacher accompanied by a humanoid robot assistant in the RALL group took about five weeks in which half of the book was covered, and the non-RALL group was taught in a traditional method. Finally, the teacher administered the post-test and delayed post-test whose results of repeated measures ANOVA and Two Ways ANOVA indicated that there was a significant difference regarding participants' vocabulary gain and retention in RALL group comparing to non-RALL group. In addition, the teacher reported the students' positive reaction to RALL in learning vocabulary. Overall, the results revealed that RALL has been very influential in creating an efficient and pleasurable English learning environment. This study has some implications for technology-based education, language teaching, and social robotics fields. <s> BIB007 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> Changes in type of interaction (e.g., individual vs. group interactions) can potentially impact data-driven models developed for social robots. In this paper, we provide a first investigation in the effects of changing group size in datadriven models for HRI, by analyzing how a model trained on data collected from participants interacting individually performs in test data collected from group interactions, and \textit{vice-versa. Another model combining data from both individual and group interactions is also investigated. We perform these experimentsin the context of predicting disengagement behaviors in children interacting with two social robots. Our results show that a model trained with group data generalizes better to individual participants than the other way around. The mixed model seems a good compromise, but it does not achieve the performance levels of the models trained for a specific type of interaction. <s> BIB008 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> An increasing number of applications for social robots focuses on learning and playing with children. One of the unanswered questions is what kind of social character a robot should have in order to positively engage children in a task. In this paper, we present a study on the effect of two different social characters of a robot (peer vs. tutor) on children’s task engagement. We derived peer and tutor robot behaviors from the literature and we evaluated the two robot characters in a WoZ study where 10 pairs of children aged 6 to 9 played Tangram puzzles with a Nao robot. Our results show that in the peer character condition, children paid attention to the robot and the task for a longer period of time and solved the puzzles quicker and better than in the tutor character condition. <s> BIB009 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> An educational use of Pepper, a personal robot that was developed by SoftBank Robotics Corp. and Aldebaran Robotics SAS, is described. Applying the two concepts of care-receiving robot (CRR) and total physical response (TPR) into the design of an educational application using Pepper, we offer a scenario in which children learn together with Pepper at their home environments from a human teacher who gives a lesson from a remote classroom. This paper is a case report that explains the developmental process of the application that contains three educational programs that children can select in interacting with Pepper. Feedbacks and knowledge obtained from test trials are also described. <s> BIB010 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> This article presents a novel robotic partner which children can teach handwriting. The system relies on the learning by teaching paradigm to build an interaction, so as to stimulate meta-cognition, empathy and increased self-esteem in the child user. We hypothesise that use of a humanoid robot in such a system could not just engage an unmotivated student, but could also present the opportunity for children to experience physically-induced benefits encountered during human-led handwriting interventions, such as motor mimicry. By leveraging simulated handwriting on a synchronised tablet display, a NAO humanoid robot with limited fine motor capabilities has been configured as a suitably embodied handwriting partner. Statistical shape models derived from principal component analysis of a dataset of adult-written letter trajectories allow the robot to draw purposefully deformed letters. By incorporating feedback from user demonstrations, the system is then able to learn the optimal parameters for the appropriate shape models. Preliminary in situ studies have been conducted with primary school classes to obtain insight into children's use of the novel system. Children aged 6-8 successfully engaged with the robot and improved its writing to a level which they were satisfied with. The validation of the interaction represents a significant step towards an innovative use for robotics which addresses a widespread and socially meaningful challenge in education. <s> BIB011 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> With a growing number of applications involving social human-robot interactions, there is an increasingly important role for socially responsive speech interfaces that can effectively engage the user. For example, learning companions provide both task-related feedback and motivational support for students with the goal of improving learning. As a learning companion's ability to be socially responsive increases, so do learning outcomes. This paper presents a socially responsive speech interface for an embodied, robotic learning companion. We explore two methods of social responsiveness. The first method introduces social responses into the dialogue, while the second method augments these responses with voice-adaptation based on acoustic-prosodic entrainment. We evaluate the effect of a social, voice-adaptive robotic learning companion on social variables such as social presence and rapport, and we compare this to a companion with only social dialogue and one with neither social dialogue nor voice-adaptions. We contrast the effects against those of individual factors, such as gender. We find (1) that social presence is significantly higher with a social voice-adaptive speech interface than with purely social dialogue, and (2) that females feel significantly more rapport and are significantly more persistent in interactions with a robotic learning companion than males. <s> BIB012 </s> Social robots for education: A review <s> Robot role <s> The benefit of social robots to support child learning in an educational context over an extended period of time is evaluated. Specifically, the effect of personalisation and adaptation of robot social behaviour is assessed. Two autonomous robots were embedded within two matched classrooms of a primary school for a continuous two week period without experimenter supervision to act as learning companions for the children for familiar and novel subjects. Results suggest that while children in both personalised and non-personalised conditions learned, there was increased child learning of a novel subject exhibited when interacting with a robot that personalised its behaviours, with indications that this benefit extended to other class-based performance. Additional evidence was obtained suggesting that there is increased acceptance of the personalised robot peer over a non-personalised version. These results provide the first evidence in support of peer-robot behavioural personalisation having a positive influence on learning when embedded in a learning environment for an extended period of time. <s> BIB013
Social robots for education include a variety of robots having different roles. Beyond the typical role of a teacher or a tutor, robots can also support learning through peer-to-peer relationships and can support skill consolidation and mastery by acting as a novice. In this section, we provide an overview of the different roles a robot can adopt and what their educational benefits are. Robot as tutor or teacher As a tutor or teacher, robots provide direct curriculum support through hints, tutorials, and supervision. These types of educational robots, including teaching assistant robots BIB002 , have the longest history of research and development, often targeting curricular domains for young children. Early field studies placed robots into classrooms to observe whether they would have any qualitative impact on the learners' attitude and progress, but current research tends toward controlled experimental trials in both laboratory settings and classrooms  . The focus on younger children links robot education research with other scientific areas, such as language development and developmental psychology BIB003 . On the basis of the earlier work that studied socialization between toddlers and robots in a nursery school (67), a fully autonomous robot was deployed in classrooms. It was shown that the vocabulary skills of 18-to 24-month-old toddlers improved significantly BIB004 . Much of the work in which the robot is used as a tutor focuses on one-to-one interactions, because these offer the greatest potential for personalized education. In some cases, the robot is used as a novel channel through which a lecture is delivered. In these cases, the robot is not so much interacting with the learners but acts as a teacher or an assistant for the teacher BIB007 . The value of the robot in this case lies in improving attention and motivation in the learners, while the delivery and assessment is done by the human teacher. Here, the delivery is often one to many, with the robot addressing an entire group of learners BIB008 BIB002 BIB007 . Robot as peer Robots can also be peers or learning companions for humans. Not only does a peer have the potential of being less intimidating than a tutor or teacher, peer-to-peer interactions can have significant advantages over tutor-to-student interactions. Robovie was the first fully autonomous robot to be introduced into an elementary school BIB001 . It was an English-speaking robot targeting two grades (first and sixth) of Japanese children. Through field trials conducted over 2 weeks, improvements in English language skills were observed in some children. In one case, longer periods of attention on learning tasks, faster responses, and more accurate responses were shown with a peer robot compared with an identical-looking tutor robot BIB009 . A long-term primary school study showed that a peer-like humanoid robot able to personalize the interaction could increase child learning of novel subjects BIB013 . Often, the robot is presented as a more knowledgeable peer, guiding the student along a learning trajectory that is neither too easy nor too challenging. However, the role of those robots sometimes becomes ambiguous (tutor versus peer), and it is difficult to place one above the other in general. Learning companions BIB012 , which offer motivational support but otherwise are not tutoring, are also successful cases of a peer-like robot. Robot as novice Considerable educational benefits can also be obtained from a robot that takes the role of a novice, allowing the student to take on the role of an instructor that typically improves confidence while, at the same time, establishing learning outcomes. This is an instance of learning by teaching, which is widely known in human education, also referred to as the protégé effect BIB005 . This process involves the learner making an effort to teach the robot, which has a direct impact on their own learning outcomes. The care-receiving robot (CRR) was the first robot designed with the concept of a teachable robot for education BIB006 . A small humanoid robot introduced into English classes improved the vocabulary learning of 3-to 6-year-old Japanese children (5). The robot was designed to make deliberate errors in English vocabulary but could be corrected through instruction by the children. In addition, CRR was shown to engage children more than alternative technology, which eventually led to the release of a commercial product based on the principle of a robot as a novice BIB010 . This novice role can also be used to teach motor skills. The CoWriter project explored the use of a teachable robot to help children improve their handwriting skills BIB011 . A small humanoid robot in conjunction with a touch tablet helped children who struggled with handwriting to improve their fine motor skills. Here, the children taught the robot, who initially had very poor handwriting, and in the process of doing so, the children reflected on their own writing and showed improved motor skills BIB011 . This suggests that presenting robots as novices has potential to develop meta-cognitive skills in learners, because the learners are committing to instructing the learning material, requiring a higher level of understanding of the material and an understanding of the internal representations of their robot partner. In our meta-analysis, the robot was predominantly used as a tutor (48%), followed by a role as teacher (38%). In only 9% of studies was the robot presented as a peer or novice (Fig. 1B) . The robot was often used to offer one-to-one interactions (65%), with the robot used in a one-to-many teaching scenario in only 30% of the studies (Fig. 1C) . In 5%, the robot had mixed interactions, whereby, for example, it first taught more than one student and then had one-on-one interactions during a quiz.