Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Swainson's hawks (Buteo swainsoni) were observed in the grasslands (pampas) of Argentina during the austral summer of 1995–96. Widespread agrochemical use to control insects had a profound effect on flocks of hawks foraging on grasshoppers and caterpillars throughout the pampas. We describe 19 mortality incidents and an estimated 5,095 dead hawks. Forensic analysis indicated that the organophosphate insecticide monocrotophos was responsible for the deaths at six separate sites, accounting for over 4,000 of the mortalities. Brain cholinesterase was lethally inhibited (>95%) and monocrotophos residues (n=31/45, mean=0.20 ppm, range 0.05–1.08 ppm) were found in the contents of the gastrointestinal tract. No other insecticide residues were found. Sample analyses, combined with interviews with farmers, indicated that monocrotophos was responsible for deaths at 17 of 19 mortality incidents. <s> BIB001 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Studying fine-scale habitat selection of wild mammals relative to environmental parameters requires 1) correctly sampling the species' activity in time and space and 2) measuring the environmental variables at those locations. We propose a procedure using Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) technology to achieve these goals. A data set from red deer (Cervus elaphus) was used to demonstrate the method. We validated an individual-based relative method using the count provided by a GPS collar activity sensor to separate active from inactive behaviors. This method allowed the correct classification of locations as active or inactive (82-97% of correct allocations depending on the fix interval used). We analyzed activity sampling using various fix intervals (5, 10, and 15 min) and the resulting spatial sampling when we retained only highly accurate locations (<10-m error radius). We demonstrated that long intervals between fixes could cause a loss of information for the shortest activity bouts, which make up 5 and 11.5% of the daily budget using 10- and 1 5-min fix intervals, respectively. The proposed spatial sampling allowed 65 to 73% of the total fixes to be kept. Active bouts were slightly undersampled, whereas inactive bouts were oversampled. We used a subsample of animal locations that were relocated using hand-held DGPS to measure several environmental variables in situ and examined the variations relative to animal and activity combinations. <s> BIB002 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> We manipulated the primary brood size of Eurasian treecreepers (Certhia familiaris) breeding in different sized forest patches (0.5–12.8 ha) in moderately fragmented landscapes. We examined the effects of brood size manipulation (reduced, control, enlarged) and forest patch size on physiological stress (heterophil– lymphocyte ratios; H/L), body condition and cell-mediated immunocompetence (phytohaemagglutinin test). Nestlings’ H/L ratios were negatively related to forest patch area in control and enlarged broods, whereas no effects were found in reduced broods. The effects of forest patch area were strongest in enlarged broods, which had, in general, twofold higher H/L ratios than control and reduced broods. The elevated H/L ratios were positively related to nestling mortality and negatively correlated with bodycondition indices suggesting that the origin of stress in nestlings was mainly nutritional. Cell-mediated immunity of nestlings was not related to brood manipulation or to forest patch size. Also, the H/L ratios of adults were not related to brood manipulation or forest patch size. In addition, parental H/L ratios and body condition were not related to nestling H/L ratios. Our results suggest that during the breeding period the deleterious effects of habitat loss are seen explicitly in growing young. <s> BIB003 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Measuring activity levels in animals provides important information about their behavioral ecology and may be a relevant factor in management and conservation. We tested an individual-based method to discriminate active and passive behaviors on brown bears (Ursus arctos), using a dual-axis motion sensor mounted on Global Positioning System-Global System for Mobile Communications (GPS-GSM) collars. The method takes into account individual variation in activity levels and does not require further calibration. We validated the method through direct observations of captive bears and an extensive survey of wild bear signs in the boreal forest of central Sweden. We found good correspondence between sensor-measured and observed activity on captive bears. Analysis of wild bear signs at GPS locations and its comparison with the collar-based activity status confirmed the possibility of successfully applying the method to study brown bear activity patterns in the wild. The method provided 94.3% correct activity classification on captive bears and about 78.2% on wild bears. We tested the possibility of using this technique to measure increasing levels of activity by analyzing the correlation between the collar-derived numeric activity and the intensity of bear movement. At a broader scale (active vs. passive), the sensor-measured value provided information on the degree of activity, but no correlation was evident at a finer scale (specific behaviors). We suggest that using more sensors in different regions of a bear's body could overcome this difficulty and improve our knowledge of animal behavior in the wild, through remote monitoring of activity levels. We conclude that this method can be useful in the study of behavioral ecology of a wide range of animals, especially species that are difficult to observe or move great distances. <s> BIB004 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Habitat loss and fragmentation can create severe environmental problems for forest species, and may ultimately lead to local population extinction. One mechanism that might play a role in this process is the physiological stress response of individuals, because animals that experience chronic stress might show reduced rates of reproduction and survival. In this study, we investigated whether black howler monkeys Alouatta pigra inhabiting forest fragments experienced greater physiological stress than those in continuous forest. Faecal cortisol metabolite levels were compared between monkeys inhabiting fragmented and continuous forests in Southern Mexico. The sex of the animals was taken into consideration, while activity patterns and aggressive events were also recorded to examine differences in behaviour and sociality. A chemiluminescent enzyme immunoassay was utilized to determine faecal cortisol metabolite levels. Our results showed that cortisol metabolite levels were higher in howler monkeys from forest fragments, and that they vary through time. Patterns of locomotion also differed between forest types, as monkeys from fragments travelled at higher frequencies, while monkeys from continuous forests performed more of their movements within tree crowns. There was no difference in the frequency of feeding, resting and social interactions between fragmented and continuous forest monkeys. Higher faecal cortisol metabolite levels in fragmented areas are likely the result of suboptimal environments and could have long-term adverse effects on monkey health, fertility and survival. We propose that faecal cortisol metabolite measurements can be a useful conservation tool for monitoring populations of long-lived species subsisting under suboptimal conditions. <s> BIB005 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Amongst many ongoing initiatives to preserve biodiversity, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment again shows the importance to slow down the loss of biological diversity. However, there is still a gap in the overview of global patterns of species distributions. This paper reviews how remote sensing has been used to assess terrestrial faunal diversity, with emphasis on proxies and methodologies, while exploring prospective challenges for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. We grouped and discussed papers dealing with the faunal taxa mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates into five classes of surrogates of animal diversity: (1) habitat suitability, (2) photosynthetic productivity, (3) multi-temporal patterns, (4) structural properties of habitat, and (5) forage quality. It is concluded that the most promising approach for the assessment, monitoring, prediction, and conservation of faunal diversity appears to be the synergy of remote sensing products and auxiliary data with ecological biodiversity models, and a subsequent validation of the results using traditional observation techniques. <s> BIB006 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Tracking animals over large temporal and spatial scales has revealed invaluable and spectacular biological information, particularly when the paths and fates of individuals can be monitored on a global scale. However, only large animals (greater than approximately 300 g) currently can be followed globally because of power and size constraints on the tracking devices. And yet the vast majority of animals is small. Tracking small animals is important because they are often part of evolutionary and ecological experiments, they provide important ecosystem services and they are of conservation concern or pose harm to human health. Here, we propose a small-animal satellite tracking system that would enable the global monitoring of animals down to the size of the smallest birds, mammals (bats), marine life and eventually large insects. To create the scientific framework necessary for such a global project, we formed the ICARUS initiative (www.IcarusInitiative.org), the International Cooperation for Animal Research Using Space. ICARUS also highlights how small-animal tracking could address some of the ;Grand Challenges in Environmental Sciences' identified by the US National Academy of Sciences, such as the spread of infectious diseases or the relationship between biological diversity and ecosystem functioning. Small-animal tracking would allow the quantitative assessment of dispersal and migration in natural populations and thus help solve enigmas regarding population dynamics, extinctions and invasions. Experimental biologists may find a global small-animal tracking system helpful in testing, validating and expanding laboratory-derived discoveries in wild, natural populations. We suggest that the relatively modest investment into a global small-animal tracking system will pay off by providing unprecedented insights into both basic and applied nature. Tracking small animals over large spatial and temporal scales could prove to be one of the most powerful techniques of the early 21st century, offering potential solutions to a wide range of biological and societal questions that date back two millennia to the Greek philosopher Aristotle's enigma about songbird migration. Several of the more recent Grand Challenges in Environmental Sciences, such as the regulation and functional consequences of biological diversity or the surveillance of the population ecology of zoonotic hosts, pathogens or vectors, could also be addressed by a global small-animal tracking system. Our discussion is intended to contribute to an emerging groundswell of scientific support to make such a new technological system happen. <s> BIB007 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Knowing what an animal is doing where and when is crucial for understanding habitat use as well as for detecting deviations from the norm, e.g. the animal’s responses to disturbances or predators. While an animal’s position can quite easily be assigned using VHF- or GPS-telemetry, determining its behaviour from a distance is still limited. A new generation of GPS-collars, equipped with a dual-axis acceleration sensor allows insights into the animal activity by continuously (5-minute intervals) delivering x- and y-values on a scale from 0 to 255. However, until now it has not been possible to tell which activity values can be attributed to which kind of behaviour. Therefore, the overall aim of our study was to find a method to distinguish different behavioural categories from these activity values. We used four captive red deer Cervus elaphus (one male and three females) and equipped them with GPScollars while simultaneously observing their behaviour. Values for different behavioural categories were compared statistically using ANOVA with 'individual' as random effect and Tukey’s follow-up test. Threshold values between the categories were determined by recursive partitioning and were assured by 5,000 bootstraps. While the difference between feeding and slow locomotion was significant in the x- but not in the y-values, each of these two categories differed significantly from resting and fast locomotion. Specific thresholds were established between the three categories resting, feeding with slow locomotion and fast locomotion. Subsequent comparison of the behaviour determined by these threshold values with observed behaviour revealed a high percentage of correctly assigned behaviour (93%). Taken together, this preliminary study demonstrates the potential of dual-axis acceleration sensors in GPS-collars for estimating the activity of wild-living red deer. However, further observations of activity on more individuals of each age and sex class should be performed to take into account inter-individual variability and to improve the predictive power of the threshold values. <s> BIB008 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Interactions between humans and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have become common, often resulting in management actions to mitigate negative impacts. Changes in population size are generally used to judge management actions. We examined deer population estimation techniques during 2 mark-resighting experiments in a woodland- grassland habitat in central New York State and in a suburban area. We compared program NOREMARK, Lincoln-Peterson estimates, and Jacobson's (1997) buck:doe ratios (BDR) for estimating deer abundance. In the fi rst fi eld trial, we sought to validate the camera survey methods and computer applications. We used infrared-triggered cameras (IRCs) to survey a white-tailed deer population of known size that inhabited a fenced, woodland-grassland area (11-day survey, 1 camera/33 ha, fall 1999). We estimated deer abundance with program NOREMARK (Bowden estimator). Analysis of the photographic data with this technique produced an accurate and precise population estimate in the fi rst experiment. In the second experiment, we used program NOREMARK and 2 similar estimators in a previously untested suburban landscape. We surveyed a suburban white-tailed deer population with IRCs during spring and fall 2000 (10-day surveys, 1 camera/38 ha), using program NOREMARK (Bowden estimator), the Jacobson BDR method, and the Lincoln-Peterson estimator. All 3 methods produced similar estimates of deer abundance. We concluded that IRCs, in conjunction with either program NOREMARK or the Jacobson BDR method will provide reliable estimates of deer abundance in suburban areas. <s> BIB009 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Centre for Ecology and Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter Department of Animal Ecology, Lund University, Sweden c SEATURTLE.org, U.S.A. Ascension Island Turtle Group, Ascension Island, South Atlantic Wildlife Conservation Society, Gabon f Institute of Environmental Sustainability, Swansea University, U.K. Dipartimento di Biologia, University of Pisa, Italy Ascension Island Conservation, Ascension Island, South Atlantic <s> BIB010 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> The behavior of individuals determines the strength and outcome of ecological interactions, which drive population, community, and ecosystem organization. Bio-logging, such as telemetry and animal-borne imaging, provides essential individual viewpoints, tracks, and life histories, but requires capture of individuals and is often impractical to scale. Recent developments in automated image-based tracking offers opportunities to remotely quantify and understand individual behavior at scales and resolutions not previously possible, providing an essential supplement to other tracking methodologies in ecology. Automated image-based tracking should continue to advance the field of ecology by enabling better understanding of the linkages between individual and higher-level ecological processes, via high-throughput quantitative analysis of complex ecological patterns and processes across scales, including analysis of environmental drivers. <s> BIB011 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Summary ::: Reliable assessment of animal populations is a long-standing challenge in wildlife ecology. Technological advances have led to widespread adoption of camera traps (CTs) to survey wildlife distribution, abundance and behaviour. As for any wildlife survey method, camera trapping must contend with sources of sampling error such as imperfect detection. Early applications focused on density estimation of naturally marked species, but there is growing interest in broad-scale CT surveys of unmarked populations and communities. Nevertheless, inferences based on detection indices are controversial, and the suitability of alternatives such as occupancy estimation is debatable. ::: We reviewed 266 CT studies published between 2008 and 2013. We recorded study objectives and methodologies, evaluating the consistency of CT protocols and sampling designs, the extent to which CT surveys considered sampling error, and the linkages between analytical assumptions and species ecology. ::: Nearly two-thirds of studies surveyed more than one species, and a majority used response variables that ignored imperfect detection (e.g. presence–absence, relative abundance). Many studies used opportunistic sampling and did not explicitly report details of sampling design and camera deployment that could affect conclusions. ::: Most studies estimating density used capture–recapture methods on marked species, with spatially explicit methods becoming more prominent. Few studies estimated density for unmarked species, focusing instead on occupancy modelling or measures of relative abundance. While occupancy studies estimated detectability, most did not explicitly define key components of the modelling framework (e.g. a site) or discuss potential violations of model assumptions (e.g. site closure). Studies using relative abundance relied on assumptions of equal detectability, and most did not explicitly define expected relationships between measured responses and underlying ecological processes (e.g. animal abundance and movement). ::: Synthesis and applications. The rapid adoption of camera traps represents an exciting transition in wildlife survey methodology. We remain optimistic about the technology's promise, but call for more explicit consideration of underlying processes of animal abundance, movement and detection by cameras, including more thorough reporting of methodological details and assumptions. Such transparency will facilitate efforts to evaluate and improve the reliability of camera trap surveys, ultimately leading to stronger inferences and helping to meet modern needs for effective ecological inquiry and biodiversity monitoring. <s> BIB012 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> A tool commonly used in wildlife biology is density estimation via camera-trap monitoring coupled with capture–recapture analysis. Reliable regional density estimations of animal populations are required as a basis for management decisions. However, these estimations are affected by the session design, such as the length of the monitoring session, season, and number of trap sites. This method is regularly used to monitor Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) which mostly occupy the forested mountain ranges in Central Europe. Here we used intensive field sampling data of a major Central European lynx population to investigate (1) the optimal monitoring session length considering the trade-off between population closure and number of recaptures for density estimates, (2) the optimal time window within the year considering the stability of density estimates, detection probability, recapture number, and reproduction, and (3) the number of trap sites and trap spacing required to achieve robust density estimates. Using two closure tests, we found that 80 days are the minimum to ensure adequate data quality. A spatially explicit capture–recapture model revealed the best monitoring period to be late summer to early winter. Based on our results, we recommend for similar management units of comparable size (~300 km2) and similar recapture numbers to sample for at least 80 days in autumn with traps spaced about every 2.5–3 km. Our results also indicated that stable density estimates could still be maintained when the sampling area is enlarged to 760 km2 with trap spacing every 5–6 km if session lengths are increased. <s> BIB013 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Abstract. Wildlife aerial surveys require time and significant resources. Multispecies detection could reduce costs to a single census for species that coexist spatially. Traditional methods are demanding for observers in terms of concentration and are not adapted to multispecies censuses. The processing of multispectral aerial imagery acquired from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) represents a potential solution for multispecies detection. The method used in this study is based on a multicriteria object-based image analysis applied on visible and thermal infrared imagery acquired from a UAV. This project aimed to detect American bison, fallow deer, gray wolves, and elks located in separate enclosures with a known number of individuals. Results showed that all bison and elks were detected without errors, while for deer and wolves, 0–2 individuals per flight line were mistaken with ground elements or undetected. This approach also detected simultaneously and separately the four targeted species even in the presence of other untargeted ones. These results confirm the potential of multispectral imagery acquired from UAV for wildlife census. Its operational application remains limited to small areas related to the current regulations and available technology. Standardization of the workflow will help to reduce time and expertise requirements for such technology. <s> BIB014 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Due to global climate change, the winter conditions in the North are predicted to change, as the time with an intact insulating snow cover gets shorter or disappears altogether. For small mammals, this could cause exposure to strong temperature fluctuations and increased predation risk, inducing severe stress and leading to alterations in the physical condition and behavior. To test this, we exposed bank voles (Myodes glareolus) to different temperature regimes and cues of predator threat under laboratory conditions. The test animals experienced either a stable but cool temperature regime resembling the stable conditions under snow cover, or an unstable temperature regime with cold nights and warmer days simulating the climate change scenario with unstable winter. After 3 weeks, the animals were additionally exposed to owl calls or sounds of non-predatory bird species. Stress levels, activity, food consumption, and body mass were monitored. We observed that the voles exposed to unstable temperatures adjusted their normal, mostly nocturnal, and circadian activity pattern towards a more diurnal rhythm without any significant responses in their stress level. Introducing the sound manipulation elevated the stress levels in females but not in males. The sound-induced stress levels did not differ between the temperature treatments. However, the temperature regime tended to affect anti-predator behavior as individuals experiencing unstable temperatures and a threatening sound decreased their overall activity, unlike individuals under stable temperature treatments. It seems that behavioral plasticity in bank voles may diminish the risk of accumulation of stress in cases of multiple simultaneous stressors.Significance statementThe future course of many ecosystems in the northern hemisphere has raised many questions as climate change is predicted to have notable consequences especially in these regions due to alterations in winter conditions. Our results suggest that these environmental changes could alter the circadian activity pattern and possibly, even the anti-predator behavior of bank voles. However, the adaptability and behavioral plasticity in this species may diminish the risk of pathological accumulation of stress effects. <s> BIB015 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Abstract Impacts of human civilization on ecosystems threaten global biodiversity. In a changing environment, traditional in situ approaches to biodiversity monitoring have made significant steps forward to quantify and evaluate BD at many scales but still, these methods are limited to comparatively small areas. Earth observation (EO) techniques may provide a solution to overcome this shortcoming by measuring entities of interest at different spatial and temporal scales. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the role of EO to detect, describe, explain, predict and assess biodiversity. Here, we focus on three main aspects related to biodiversity − taxonomic diversity, functional diversity and structural diversity, which integrate different levels of organization − molecular, genetic, individual, species, populations, communities, biomes, ecosystems and landscapes. In particular, we discuss the recording of taxonomic elements of biodiversity through the identification of animal and plant species. We highlight the importance of the spectral traits (ST) and spectral trait variations (STV) concept for EO-based biodiversity research. Furthermore we provide examples of spectral traits/spectral trait variations used in EO applications for quantifying taxonomic diversity, functional diversity and structural diversity. We discuss the use of EO to monitor biodiversity and habitat quality using different remote-sensing techniques. Finally, we suggest specifically important steps for a better integration of EO in biodiversity research. EO methods represent an affordable, repeatable and comparable method for measuring, describing, explaining and modelling taxonomic, functional and structural diversity. Upcoming sensor developments will provide opportunities to quantify spectral traits, currently not detectable with EO, and will surely help to describe biodiversity in more detail. Therefore, new concepts are needed to tightly integrate EO sensor networks with the identification of biodiversity. This will mean taking completely new directions in the future to link complex, large data, different approaches and models. <s> BIB016 </s> Understanding Forest Health with Remote Sensing -Part I—A Review of Spectral Traits, Processes and Remote-Sensing Characteristics <s> Direct Monitoring of Stress on Animal Species in FES with RS <s> Predators affect ecosystems not only through direct mortality of prey, but also through risk effects on prey behavior, which can exert strong influences on ecosystem function and prey fitness. However, how functionally different prey species respond to predation risk and how prey strategies vary across ecosystems and in response to predator reintroduction are poorly understood. We investigated the spatial distributions of six African herbivores varying in foraging strategy and body size in response to environmental factors and direct predation risk by recently reintroduced lions in the thicket biome of the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa, using camera trap surveys, GPS telemetry, kill site locations and Light Detection and Ranging. Spatial distributions of all species, apart from buffalo, were driven primarily by environmental factors, with limited responses to direct predation risk. Responses to predation risk were instead indirect, with species distributions driven by environmental factors, and diel patterns being particularly pronounced. Grazers were more responsive to the measured variables than browsers, with more observations in open areas. Terrain ruggedness was a stronger predictor of browser distributions than was vegetation density. Buffalo was the only species to respond to predator encounter risk, avoiding areas with higher lion utilization. Buffalo therefore behaved in similar ways to when lions were absent from the study area. Our results suggest that direct predation risk effects are relatively weak when predator densities are low and the time since reintroduction is short and emphasize the need for robust, long-term monitoring of predator reintroductions to place such events in the broader context of predation risk effects. <s> BIB017
Animals are constantly subjected to pressure from predators, environmental changes, stress and disturbances  . Stress leads to changes in species distributions, species losses, changes in habitat patterns and fragmentation as well as the different morphological adaptation mechanisms of animal species. It has long been recognised, for example, that birds are extremely sensitive to the intensive use of pesticides such as DDT in the landscape BIB001 . Similarly, it was discovered that the dramatic decline in bee populations as a reaction to pesticides and land use changes has led to a loss of pollination, one of the most important ecosystem functions. There exist many studies examining the effect of forest fragmentation and forest patch size on the physiological stress response in forest animals and animal communities BIB003 BIB005 BIB015 . Therefore, animals are crucial bio-indicators of disturbances, stress and environmental changes. Recording animal species with RS is only possible under certain circumstances. Comprehensive reviews on detecting animals using RS techniques can be found in BIB016 BIB006 BIB011 . Factors that are important if animal species are to be directly recorded using RS are: (i) their characteristic traits such as body size, shape, colour, surface characteristics, movement, sounds or body temperature; (ii) the characteristics of the RS sensors; and (iii) the RS platforms that are used (in-situ RS platforms such as camera traps, UAV, airborne, spaceborne RS platforms, see Figure 2 ). The GPS lifetime tracking of animal species in FES has proven to be successful (e.g., for lynx, wild boar, red deer, storks, cranes, gulls, geese, brown bears, chimpanzee) in recording movement and behaviour and helps to gain a better understanding of population effects from environmental changes in FES BIB007 BIB004 BIB002 BIB008 BIB010 . The most state-of-the-art lifetime tracking technology will soon enable smaller animals such as bees or beetles to carry transmitters. In addition to GPS information, multi-sensors will also be increasingly implemented to record images and videos, and to monitor numerous physiological parameters such as body temperature, physiological stress indicators, but also activity patterns, habitat characteristics, and mating and feeding behaviour. All transmitter information will be recorded in the future over the "satellite-based ICARUS system, which is to be installed by German and Russian space agencies in 2017"  . Data will be stored centrally in the movement database BIB007 BIB010 . Recently, the implementation of camera traps has increased in FES to estimate population sizes, to understand behavioural and activity patterns and under some circumstances to record the habitat of animals BIB012 BIB017 . Low cost camera traps with high battery lifetimes and memory capacity integrate thermal and movement sensors as well as RGB-photo and video technology and can record animals in FES BIB012  BIB017 BIB013 . Thermal cameras and multi-sensor combinations with optical sensors and LiDAR on UAV-and airborne platforms have been used to record wild animal species such as the white-tailed deer   BIB014 . In this instance, the body temperature of the animals is used, as it differs considerably from the surrounding environment (especially at night, at dusk or dawn). Direct classification of FES animals have been conducted using satellite RS techniques such as RapidEye or Worldview-2 for a number of animal species such as deer, wildebeest or birds BIB006 BIB009 , and UAV technology is becoming more commonly applied in recording wild animal species BIB014 . However, the success of UAV and satellite technologies for recording wild animals within forest has been found to be very limited.