Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Hardware Sharing <s> Technology has the promise to transform educational prac-tices worldwide. In particular, cognitive tutoring systems are an example of educational technology that has been ex-tremely effective at improving mathematics learning over traditional classroom instruction. However, studies on the effectiveness of tutor software have been conducted mainly in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, and little is known about how these systems might be used in other contexts with differing classroom practices and values. To understand this question, we studied the usage of mathematics tutoring software for middle school at sites in three Latin American countries: Brazil, Mexico, and Costa Rica. While cognitive tutors were designed for individual use, we found that students in these classrooms worked collaboratively, engaging in interdependently paced work and conducting work away from their own computer. In this paper we present design recommendations for how cognitive tutors might be incorporated into different classroom practices, and better adapted for student needs in these environments. <s> BIB001 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Hardware Sharing <s> Single Display Groupware (SDG) allows multiple people in the same physical space to interact simultaneously over a single communal display through individual input devices that work on the same machine. The aim of this paper is to show how SDG can be used to improve the way resources are used in schools, allowing students to work simultaneously on individual problems at a shared display, and achieve personalized learning with individual feedback within different cultural contexts. We used computational fluency to apply our concept of ‘One Mouse per Child’. It consists of a participatory approach that makes use of personal feedback on an interpersonal computer for the whole classroom. This allows for N simultaneous intelligent tutoring systems, where each child advances at his or her own pace, both within a lecture and throughout the curricular units. Each student must solve a series of mathematical exercises, generated according to his or her performance through a set of pedagogical rules incorporated into the system. In this process, the teacher has an active mediating role, intervening when students require attention. Two exploratory studies were performed. The first study was a multicultural experience between two such distanced socio-economic realities as Chile and India. It showed us that even in different environmental conditions, it is possible to implement this technology with minimal equipment (i.e. a computer, a projector, and one mouse per child). The second study was carried out in a third grade class in a low-income school in Santiago de Chile. The students were asked to solve mainly addition exercises. We established statistically relevant results and observed that the software proved most beneficial for the students with the lowest initial results. This happens because the system adapts to the students' needs, reinforcing the content they most need to work on, thus generating a personalized learning process. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. <s> BIB002 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Hardware Sharing <s> This paper presents the design, deployment and evaluation of a blended learning intervention that used Khan Academy videos to teach Grade IV and Grade V Mathematics to children in a developing country. A unique aspect of this learning intervention was the use of a self-contained, satellite-enabled learning van that visited a school once every two weeks to provide learning access to children and teachers in remote areas. Pedagogy included teacher mentoring and structured feedback to students and teachers based on online formative and summative assessments using Android tablets. Six pairs of control and treatment groups were used to evaluate this intervention. Based on results of standardized test instruments, the treatment groups outperformed the control groups in five out of six cases, observed effects were from 0.86 to 2.5 indicating that the approach worked well. <s> BIB003
Sharing devices is a key technique for reducing barriers due to lack of hardware. From an ITS perspective, sharing a computer is a disruptive paradigm: most tutoring systems assume a 1:1 mapping of users to computers. Recent findings from the Cognitive Tutor project show that computer sharing accounts for over 60 % of use in developing areas, with students leaving their own machines to share a machine instead BIB001 . LISTEN and other groups have had similar experiences: computer sharing, even when enough hardware is available, is characteristic of developing world ICT usage   ). This has serious implications for the user model, which assumes that each machine is measuring the work of one person. BIB001 suggests modeling the classroom as a network of connected user models rather than individual models. Unfortunately, software techniques for disentangling multiple users sharing an input are not mature. Moreover, a software solution would reduce the power of knowledge assessments by adding uncertainty about user identity. User models that account for collaboration are worth exploring, but they may only offer a partial solution. Existing ITS that share hardware have focused on using multiple inputs instead. MultiLearn+ split a laptop display into quadrants, each with their own keypad  . Single Display Groupware went further, with a whole class sharing a single projection and one mouse per student BIB002 ). The latter paradigm was problematic due to the complexity of managing dozens of mouse cords, but might be effective using wireless mice, clickers, or other input devices. Notably, neither of these field studies indicated that students exchanged or shared input devices extensively under these conditions. Using a single machine also facilitates modeling collaboration, since the data for multiple users is already in a single system. As such, embracing computer sharing might also mitigate some of the user modeling issues. Hardware sharing offers strong advantages for classroom and institutional use (e.g., university computer labs). First, as noted, many cultures and students prefer to work in groups. Second, multi-user software can significantly reduce hardware costs. Since inputs are inexpensive compared to processors or displays, a four-user system like MultiLearn+ lowers the cost-per-student by almost three-quarters. Systems like Single Display Groupware that use cheap wireless clicker inputs might also be feasible, possibly reducing costs by an order of magnitude by adding a multiplier-effect to inexpensive hardware initiatives such as OLPC  ). Finally, fewer devices means less setup and maintenance, which can be a significant factor when technical support is limited. Additionally, hardware sharing extends beyond multiple inputs to sharing across time and location. Turn-taking, such as in game environments, is a second established model for sharing a single machine across multiple users. At the school level, scheduling of computer labs (rather than dedicated computers in each classroom) is the most prevalent form of time-sharing practiced. Hardware sharing can also occur across locations and institutions. The "Learning Van" program drives a van-based "computer lab" with laptops and satellite Internet to different rural schools each day BIB003 . Particularly for smaller schools that could not individually maintain computers and Internet access, this model for sharing is attractive. Designs to maximize hardware sharing across users, time, and location can leverage limited hardware to serve more students.