Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Data Costs <s> Technology has the promise to transform educational prac-tices worldwide. In particular, cognitive tutoring systems are an example of educational technology that has been ex-tremely effective at improving mathematics learning over traditional classroom instruction. However, studies on the effectiveness of tutor software have been conducted mainly in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, and little is known about how these systems might be used in other contexts with differing classroom practices and values. To understand this question, we studied the usage of mathematics tutoring software for middle school at sites in three Latin American countries: Brazil, Mexico, and Costa Rica. While cognitive tutors were designed for individual use, we found that students in these classrooms worked collaboratively, engaging in interdependently paced work and conducting work away from their own computer. In this paper we present design recommendations for how cognitive tutors might be incorporated into different classroom practices, and better adapted for student needs in these environments. <s> BIB001 </s> Intelligent Tutoring Systems by and for the Developing World: A Review of Trends and Approaches for Educational Technology in a Global Context <s> Data Costs <s> Teaching electrical and computer software engineers how to configure network services normally requires the detailed presentation of many configuration commands and their numerous parameters. Students tend to find it difficult to maintain acceptable levels of motivation. In many cases, this results in their not attending classes and not dedicating enough time to acquire the required competencies. This paper describes a successful experiment that was able to improve student class attendance, performance, and motivational patterns by using mobile devices in class to provide students with contextualized learning pills. A learning pill is a simple exercise that summarizes some of the key concepts explained in class and promotes reflection and self-study. Each student attending a particular lecture or laboratory session automatically receives a learning pill on his or her mobile phone just after the related concept has been presented. This paper details the scenario used in the experiment and analyzes the performance and motivational patterns of 170 students at the Higher Polytechnic School, Carlos III University of Madrid, Leganes, Spain. <s> BIB002
Data costs primarily impact mobile learning. Literature shows three main solutions: don't rely on data, use data in batches, and use data locally. Cognitive Tutor, EDUCA, and Learning Pills embody these concepts, respectively MunozOrganero et al. 2012; BIB001 . Cognitive Tutor avoided these barriers because it can be installed and run as a standalone application on a PC BIB001 . One-time installs offer the appeal of a single transfer, such as through a CD installer, Internet download, or USB stick. This approach also works for mobile devices, such as by downloading a mobile application over WiFi or over a USB cable. This one-shot model is most useful for a synchronized institutional setting, such as a computer lab, where the ITS can be loaded onto all devices at once. EDUCA allows users to receive ITS units as modules, allowing users to download them using cheap or free WiFi access rather than communicating wirelessly at runtime ). This approach allows a "well model" for data transmission. In many areas, running water is not available to every house, but people can go to a common well to obtain buckets of water. An analogous approach can be used for mobile devices, ranging from phones to laptops. Fixed-price broadband connections (e.g., cable, satellite dishes) can provide WiFi Internet and act as "wells" for mobile data. Systems like EDUCA can support downloading a tutoring module for later use, allowing learners to perform downloads when data is free or cheap. Finally, Learning Pills relies on Bluetooth OBEX (OBject EXchange) protocols to allow an instructor's machine to directly transmit data to students' phones in the classroom BIB002 . While the Learning Pills sent fairly small study materials and messages to learners, the general concept could extend to more significant data packages (e.g., multiple megabytes). Bluetooth and similar protocols allow instructors and students to transmit tutoring modules to each other. An obvious approach to harness this capability would be to combine it with the capabilities of a system such as EDUCA, as they have complementary scope. This approach eliminates the need for significant remote downloading at all, through the use of direct mobile-to-mobile data transfer.