Recent Applications of Multispectral Imaging in Seed Phenotyping and Quality Monitoring—An Overview <s> Introduction <s> This paper overviews the biophysical methods developed to gain access to meat structure information. The meat industry needs reliable meat quality information throughout the production process in order to guarantee high-quality meat products for consumers. Fast and non-invasive sensors will shortly be deployed, based on the development of biophysical methods for assessing meat structure. Reliable meat quality information (tenderness, flavour, juiciness, colour) can be provided by a number of different meat structure assessment either by means of mechanical (i.e., Warner-Bratzler shear force), optical (colour measurements, fluorescence) electrical probing or using ultrasonic measurements, electromagnetic waves, NMR, NIR, and so on. These measurements are often used to construct meat structure images that are fusioned and then processed via multi-image analysis, which needs appropriate processing methods. Quality traits related to mechanical properties are often better assessed by methods that take into account the natural anisotropy of meat due to its relatively linear myofibrillar structure. Biophysical methods of assessment can either measure meat component properties directly, or calculate them indirectly by using obvious correlations between one or several biophysical measurements and meat component properties. Taking these calculations and modelling the main relevant biophysical properties involved can help to improve our understanding of meat properties and thus of eating quality. <s> BIB001 </s> Recent Applications of Multispectral Imaging in Seed Phenotyping and Quality Monitoring—An Overview <s> Introduction <s> Given the rapid development of plant genomic technologies, a lack of access to plant phenotyping capabilities limits our ability to dissect the genetics of quantitative traits. Effective, high-throughput phenotyping platforms have recently been developed to solve this problem. In high-throughput phenotyping platforms, a variety of imaging methodologies are being used to collect data for quantitative studies of complex traits related to the growth, yield and adaptation to biotic or abiotic stress (disease, insects, drought and salinity). These imaging techniques include visible imaging (machine vision), imaging spectroscopy (multispectral and hyperspectral remote sensing), thermal infrared imaging, fluorescence imaging, 3D imaging and tomographic imaging (MRT, PET and CT). This paper presents a brief review on these imaging techniques and their applications in plant phenotyping. The features used to apply these imaging techniques to plant phenotyping are described and discussed in this review. <s> BIB002 </s> Recent Applications of Multispectral Imaging in Seed Phenotyping and Quality Monitoring—An Overview <s> Introduction <s> Seed quality is of great importance in optimizing the cost of crop establishment. Rapid and non-destructive seed quality detection methods must therefore be developed for agriculture and the seed production industry. This review focuses primarily on non-destructive techniques, namely machine vision, spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging, soft X-ray imaging, thermal imaging and electronic nose techniques, for assessing the quality of agricultural seeds. The fundamentals of these techniques are introduced. Seed quality, including chemical composition, variety identification and classification, insect damage and disease assessment as well as seed viability and germinability of various seeds are discussed. We conclude that non-destructive techniques are accurate detection methods with great potential for seed quality assessment. <s> BIB003 </s> Recent Applications of Multispectral Imaging in Seed Phenotyping and Quality Monitoring—An Overview <s> Introduction <s> Seed imbibition is a very important process in plant biology by which, thanks to a simple water income, a dry seed may turn into a developing organism. In natural conditions, this process occurs in the soil, e.g., with difficult access for a direct observation. Monitoring the seed imbibition with non-invasive imaging techniques is therefore an important and possibly challenging task if one tries to perform it in natural conditions. In this report, we describe a set of four different imaging techniques that enable to addressing this task either in 3D or in 2D. For each technique, the following items are proposed. A detailed experimental protocol is provided to acquire images of the imbibition process. With the illustration of real data, the significance of the physical quantities measured in terms of their relation to the income of water in the seed is presented. Complete image analysis pipelines are then proposed to extract dynamic information on the imbibition process from such monitoring experiments. A final discussion compares the advantages and current limitations of each technique in addition to elements concerning the associated throughput and cost. These are criteria especially relevant in the field of plant phenotyping where large populations of plants are imaged to produce quantitatively significative traits after image processing. <s> BIB004
The last couple of decades have witnessed growing concerns from governmental agencies to enhance seed quality parameters because without good seeds investments in fertilization programs, integrated pest management programs, water and other inputs won't be worthwhile. Providing high quality seeds is very important for agriculture and seedling progression because seed quality offer reliable alternatives to the traditional destructive methods BIB002 BIB004 . The X-ray imaging and magnetic resonance imaging are able to provide anatomical details and the spectral imaging, thermal imaging and fluorescence imaging are usually utilized to deliver the functional and nutritional information about the seeds being examined BIB004 . In general, the digital imaging approaches along with computer simulation are very useful for integrating complex data about seed quality parameters in an automated and objective manner. While colour imaging provides information about the morphological features (e.g., colour, size, shape and surface structure) of seeds being imaged using RGB (red, green and blue) cameras, seed radiography with X-ray imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques have proved great potential in evaluating seed quality as well as efficient seed phenotyping in a non-destructive way by providing internal and anatomical features of the examined seeds. These techniques offer seed analysts and researchers detailed information about the seed maturity, internal structure, germination capacity, dormancy, viability, vigor, insect infestation and internal damages in embryo and endosperm  . However, some of these techniques are very infeasible in the case of large scales and may be harmful if wrongly implemented. Hence, these techniques will not be explained in this paper as more sophisticated details were discussed in some other sources (e.g., BIB004  ). On the other hand, spectrometric technologies have been employed in determining various seed quality traits due to their practicality and ability to explore internal properties of biological materials. Depending on the frequency or the wavelengths used, the electromagnetic waves may be reflected, absorbed or transmitted through such materials, offering potential quantifications of many quality traits simultaneously BIB001 . This kind of non-destructive analysis depends basically on the resolution of the sensors and the mathematical chemometric model utilized. Classical spectroscopic techniques (fluorescence, visible, and infrared) are known to be generally quick and inexpensive to implement. They can be used in line as they do not require direct contact with the product to make a measurement. These methods can therefore be a remarkably effective alternative to traditional analyses that are generally expensive and technically long to implement. By the way, applying these spectral methods requires precise calibration not only for the tested seed cultivar but also for the trait(s) to be determined. Once calibration step is performed, a subsequent fast, nondestructive analysis of the seed as well as the simultaneous determination of multiple components can be easily achieved. Rahman and Cho BIB003 have reviewed some techniques including traditional color imaging, NIR spectroscopy and spectral imaging for the nondestructive assessment of seed quality traits.