A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> A Wireless Sensor Network For Structural Monitoring ∗ Ning Xu Sumit Rangwala Alan Broad Krishna Kant Chintalapudi Deepak Ganesan Ramesh Govindan Deborah Estrin ABSTRACT Structural monitoring—the collection and analysis of structural re- sponse to ambient or forced excitation–is an important application of networked embedded sensing with signiﬁcant commercial po- tential. The ﬁrst generation of sensor networks for structural mon- itoring are likely to be data acquisition systems that collect data at a single node for centralized processing. In this paper, we dis- cuss the design and evaluation of a wireless sensor network sys- tem (called Wisden) for structural data acquisition. Wisden in- corporates two novel mechanisms, reliable data transport using a hybrid of end-to-end and hop-by-hop recovery, and low-overhead data time-stamping that does not require global clock synchroniza- tion. We also study the applicability of wavelet-based compression techniques to overcome the bandwidth limitations imposed by low- power wireless radios. We describe our implementation of these mechanisms on the Mica-2 motes and evaluate the performance of our implementation. We also report experiences from deploying Wisden on a large structure. General Terms Reliability, Design Keywords Sensor Network, Structural Health Monitoring, Wisden INTRODUCTION Categories and Subject Descriptors C.2.1 [Computer Communication Networks]: Wireless commu- nication; C.3 [Special-Purpose and Application-Based Systems]: Embedded Systems ∗ This material is based upon work supported by the National Sci- ence Foundation under Grants No. 0121778 (Center for Embedded Networked Systems) and 0325875 (ITR: Structural Health Moni- toring Using Local Excitations and Dense Sensing). Any opinions, ﬁndings and conclusions or recomendations expressed in this ma- terial are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reﬂect the views of the National Science Foundation (NSF). † Computer Science Department, University of Southern California, {nxu, srangwal, chintala, ramesh}@usc.edu ‡ Current Afﬁliation - Center for Embedded Networked Sensing, Los Angeles § Computer Science Department, University of California, Los An- geles {deepak, destrin}@cs.ucla.edu ¶ Crossbow Technology Inc. abroad@xbow.com Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for proﬁt or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the ﬁrst page. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior speciﬁc permission and/or a fee. SenSys’04, November 3–5, 2004, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Copyright 2004 ACM 1-58113-879-2/04/0011 ... $ 5.00. Structural health monitoring systems seek to detect and local- ize damage in buildings, bridges, ships, and aircraft. The design of such systems is an active and well-established area of research. When built, such systems would infer the existence and location of damage by measuring structural response to ambient or forced excitation. Wireless sensor networks are a natural candidate for structural health monitoring systems, since they enable dense in- situ sensing and simplify deployment of instrumentation. However, techniques for damage assessment are quite complex, and practical wireless networked structural health monitoring systems are sev- eral years away. Wireless sensor networks do have a more immediate role to play in structural monitoring. Advances in structural engineering de- pend upon the availability of many detailed data sets that record the response of different structures to ambient vibration (caused, for example, by earthquakes, wind, or passing vehicles) or forced excitation (delivered by large special-purpose shakers). Currently, structural engineers use wired or single-hop wireless data acqui- sition systems to acquire such data sets. These systems consist of a device that collects and stores vibration measurements from a small number of sensors. However, power and wiring constraints imposed by these systems can increase the cost of acquiring these data sets, impose signiﬁcant setup delays, and limit the number and location of sensors. Wireless sensor networks can help address these issues. In this paper, we describe the design of Wisden, a wireless sen- sor network system for structural-response data acquisition. Wis- den continuously collects structural response data from a multi-hop network of sensor nodes, and displays and stores the data at a base station. Wisden can be thought of as a ﬁrst-generation wireless structural monitoring system; it incorporates some in-network pro- cessing, but later systems will move more processing into the net- work once the precise structural monitoring applications are better understood. In being essentially a data collection system, Wisden resembles other early sensor networks such as those being deployed for habitat monitoring [10]. While the architecture of Wisden is simple—a base station cen- trally collecting data—its design is a bit more challenging than that of other sensor networks built till date. Structural response data is generated at higher data rates than most sensing applications <s> BIB001 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> Wireless sensor networks consist of small nodes with sensing, computation, and wireless communications capabilities. Many routing, power management, and data dissemination protocols have been specifically designed for WSNs where energy awareness is an essential design issue. Routing protocols in WSNs might differ depending on the application and network architecture. In this article we present a survey of state-of-the-art routing techniques in WSNs. We first outline the design challenges for routing protocols in WSNs followed by a comprehensive survey of routing techniques. Overall, the routing techniques are classified into three categories based on the underlying network structure: flit, hierarchical, and location-based routing. Furthermore, these protocols can be classified into multipath-based, query-based, negotiation-based, QoS-based, and coherent-based depending on the protocol operation. We study the design trade-offs between energy and communication overhead savings in every routing paradigm. We also highlight the advantages and performance issues of each routing technique. The article concludes with possible future research areas. <s> BIB002 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> Sensory data gathered from sensor nodes in physical proximity tend to exhibit strong correlation. To minimize such redundancy and hence curtail the load in wireless sensor networks with a goal to conserve energy, effective in-network fusion schemes have been extensively proposed in the literature. To this end, routing schemes supporting data fusion are extremely important as they dictate where and when sensory data streams shall intersect with each other and thus fusion will be performed. In this article we briefly articulate this problem and classify recently proposed routing schemes supporting data fusion in wireless sensor networks into three categories: routing-driven, coding-driven, and fusion-driven. We also give an overview of various algorithms in each category by summarizing their design approaches, benefits, and drawbacks. <s> BIB003 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) use small nodes with constrained capabilities to sense, collect, and disseminate information in many types of applications. As sensor networks become wide-spread, security issues become a central concern, especially in mission-critical tasks. In this paper, we identify the threats and vulnerabilities to WSNs and summarize the defense methods based on the networking protocol layer analysis first. Then we give a holistic overview of security issues. These issues are divided into seven categories: cryptography, key management, attack detections and preventions, secure routing, secure location security, secure data fusion, and other security issues. Along the way we analyze the advantages and disadvantages of current secure schemes in each category. In addition, we also summarize the techniques and methods used in these categories, and point out the open research issues and directions in each area. <s> BIB004 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> The ability of newer generations of commercially available radios used on the sensor nodes to tune their operating frequency over different channels provides an opportunity to alleviate the effects of interference and consequently improve the network performance. In this paper we investigate the use of multi-channel communication to improve the capacity of wireless sensor networks. We provide an extensive survey in the field together with discussing the research challenges. Initially, we focus on the capacity issues in wireless sensor networks and identify the limiting factors on the capacity improvements. Then, we provide a brief survey on multi-channel communication in wireless ad hoc networks, which share similar characteristics with wireless sensor networks, and next focus on the multi-channel communication in wireless sensor networks. According to this survey, we observe that many of the protocols do not properly address the challenges of multi-channel communication, such as the channel overlaps. Related to these issues, we point out the possible future research directions in the field and list the properties of a well-designed multi-channel protocol for wireless sensor networks. <s> BIB005 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> The recent technological advances in micro electro-mechanical systems have promoted the development of a powerful class of sensor-based distributed intelligent systems capable of ubiquitously retrieving multimedia information, namely Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs). WMSNs are gaining more popularity day by day as they are envisioned to support a large number of both non-real time and real-time multimedia applications. However, satisfying the stringent quality of service (QoS) requirements of multimedia transmission in a resource-constrained sensor network environment places new challenges to routing. As an outcome, optimal energy and application-specific QoS aware routing for WMSNs has gained considerable research attention recently. In this paper, current state-of-the-art in energy-efficient routing techniques for WMSNs is surveyed together with the highlights of the performance issues of each strategy. We outline the design challenges of routing protocols for WMSNs followed by the limitations of current techniques designed for non-multimedia data transmission. Further, a classification of recent routing protocols for WMSNs and a discussion of possible future research trends are presented. <s> BIB006 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> Recently, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have been deployed into a variety of applications including homeland security, military systems, and health care. Sensor nodes deployed in such networks are subject to several attacks such as sinkhole and select forwarding, wormhole, Hello flood, and replication attacks. Therefore, developing secure and energy-efficient routing protocols to protect WSNs against these attacks while efficiently utilizing the energy of the deployed nodes has become imperative. Several routing protocols have been proposed in the literature for WSNs. Most of these protocols assume static nodes and sinks to collect data from network fields. However, they may be highly movable, and recent advances show that mobile sensors in WSNs have a promising performance. Therefore, this paper surveys the state of the art on routing protocols related to WSNs and presents the security issues or problems associated with the current protocols as well as discusses the future trends and open research issues on secure routing protocols of WSNs. <s> BIB007 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> The concentration of data traffic towards the sink in a wireless sensor network causes the nearby nodes to deplete their batteries quicker than other nodes, which leaves the sink stranded and disrupts the sensor data reporting. To mitigate this problem the usage of mobile sinks is proposed. Mobile sinks implicitly provide load-balancing and help achieving uniform energy-consumption across the network. However, the mechanisms to support the sink mobility (e.g., advertising the location of the mobile sink to the network) introduce an overhead in terms of energy consumption and packet delays. With these properties mobile sink routing constitutes an interesting research field with unique requirements. In this paper, we present a survey of the existing distributed mobile sink routing protocols. In order to provide an insight to the rationale and the concerns of a mobile sink routing protocol, design requirements and challenges associated with the problem of mobile sink routing are determined and explained. A definitive and detailed categorization is made and the protocols' advantages and drawbacks are determined with respect to their target applications. <s> BIB008 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> Sensing of the application environment is the main purpose of a wireless sensor network. Most existing energy management strategies and compression techniques assume that the sensing operation consumes significantly less energy than radio transmission and reception. This assumption does not hold in a number of practical applications. Sensing energy consumption in these applications may be comparable to, or even greater than, that of the radio. In this work, we support this claim by a quantitative analysis of the main operational energy costs of popular sensors, radios and sensor motes. In light of the importance of sensing level energy costs, especially for power hungry sensors, we consider compressed sensing and distributed compressed sensing as potential approaches to provide energy efficient sensing in wireless sensor networks. Numerical experiments investigating the effectiveness of compressed sensing and distributed compressed sensing using real datasets show their potential for efficient utilization of sensing and overall energy costs in wireless sensor networks. It is shown that, for some applications, compressed sensing and distributed compressed sensing can provide greater energy efficiency than transform coding and model-based adaptive sensing in wireless sensor networks. <s> BIB009 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are a collection of several small and inexpensive battery-powered nodes, commonly used to monitor regions of interests and to collect data from the environment. Several issues exist in routing data packets through WSN, but the most crucial problem is energy. There are a number of routing approaches in WSNs that address the issue of energy by the use of different energy-efficient methods. This paper, presents a brief summary of routing and related issues in WSNs. The most recent energy-efficient data routing approaches are reviewed and categorized based on their aims and methodologies. The traditional battery based energy sources for sensor nodes and the conventional energy harvesting mechanisms that are widely used to in energy replenishment in WSN are reviewed. Then a new emerging energy harvesting technology that uses piezoelectric nanogenerators to supply power to nanosensor; the type of sensors that cannot be charged by conventional energy harvesters are explained. The energy consumption reduction routing strategies in WSN are also discussed. Furthermore, comparisons of the variety of energy harvesting mechanisms and battery power routing protocols that have been discussed are presented, eliciting their advantages, disadvantages and their specific feature. Finally, a highlight of the challenges and future works in this research domain is presented. <s> BIB010 </s> A Critical Review of Surveys Emphasizing on Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks—An Anatomization under General Survey Design Framework <s> Guidelines for Energy, QoS, Security and Related Areas of Routing in WSNs <s> Introducing mobility to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) puts new challenges particularly in designing of routing protocols. Mobility can be applied to the sensor nodes and/or the sink node in the network. Many routing protocols have been developed to support the mobility of WSNs. These protocols are divided depending on the routing structure into hierarchical-based, flat-based, and location-based routing protocols. However, the hierarchical-based routing protocols outperform the other routing types in saving energy, scalability, and extending lifetime of Mobile WSNs (MWSNs). Selecting an appropriate hierarchical routing protocol for specific applications is an important and difficult task. Therefore, this paper focuses on reviewing some of the recently hierarchical-based routing protocols that are developed in the last five years for MWSNs. This survey divides the hierarchical-based routing protocols into two broad groups, namely, classical-based and optimized-based routing protocols. Also, we present a detailed classification of the reviewed protocols according to the routing approach, control manner, mobile element, mobility pattern, network architecture, clustering attributes, protocol operation, path establishment, communication paradigm, energy model, protocol objectives, and applications. Moreover, a comparison between the reviewed protocols is investigated in this survey depending on delay, network size, energy-efficiency, and scalability while mentioning the advantages and drawbacks of each protocol. Finally, we summarize and conclude the paper with future directions. <s> BIB011
Due to crucial role of WSNs in our lives, their popularity is increasing day-by-day. The WSNs may either be static or dynamic in nature. The static WSNs are immovable and perform sensing/monitoring activities by permanently occupying the assigned spaces. The example is structural health monitoring BIB001 or underground train tunnels investigation  . The dynamic WSNs consist of moving nodes such as surface-robots or air-drones that may perform surveillance and reconnaissance of critical installations. The example includes fire investigation  , borders, bridges and dams monitoring. Both static and dynamic WSNs are affected by a variety issues as discussed below: • Energy conservation is the key goal in the design of routing protocols for both static and dynamic WSNs. In case of static WSNs, the immediate neighbors to sink suffer more readily from hot-spot issues due to network traffic. On the other hand, dynamic WSNs may suffer from additional energy consumption due to mobility and frequent connection/data loss. Although mobile sink and multipath-routing approach are promising solutions for achieving energy conservation BIB008 in WSNs. Another promising direction may be dynamic multi-sink multipath approach for achieving energy efficiency in WSNs which requires in-depth review and analysis in future. • A variety of energy conservation approaches are devised for WSNs. However, a sensor network with no indigenous source of energy harvesting is destined to die down due to energy depletion of sensor nodes. A solution is to employ such energy harvesting mechanisms that may provide a constant source of energy assistance to WSNs and may help in averting the danger of dying out of sensor network due to energy exhaustion. However, the prevailing energy harvesting machinery is bigger than the small-sized sensor nodes BIB010 and is expensive to generate usable power for sensor nodes BIB010 . Therefore for handling the constant nuisance of power exhaustion in sensor networks, there is a tremendous need of doing further research for devising such miniature nano-scale energy harvesting equipments that may easily generate the required energy for recharging sensor nodes and help sensor network for functioning continuously. • Hierarchical routing helps to achieve energy efficiency in WSNs BIB011 . However it may suffer from various issues such as optimum cluster size, cluster head selection/communication and cluster topology/scalability, etc. These issues become more challenging in case of mobility-oriented clustering where network topology frequently changes which may seriously impact network connectivity. Eventually, clustering would be severely affected. In case of high speed node mobility, then majority of network resources would be consumed in cluster formation and upgradation rather than desired data transmission. Therefore there is a need to survey the issues and challenges of mobility-oriented clustering in WSNs. • Both energy and QoS are closely associated e.g., increasing the packet transmission energy may increase the transmission range of a packet. Eventually, less hops are required to send data to destination which may decrease end-to-end delay BIB006 /jitter and improve system reliability. However, such mechanism may more readily drain the energy of sensor nodes and eventually cause early death of sensor network BIB006 . One solution to handle such energy drainage may be to use energy harvesting nodes for this purpose. However when more nodes may send packets with high energy simultaneously, then they may disrupt each other communication. A solution may be to use adaptive power control, but it may soon induce power competition among sensor nodes. Since energy-aware QoS routing assures required bandwidth, latency and energy-efficient routes  , therefore it should be more thoroughly surveyed along with underlying issues and challenges for bringing efficient and more realistic solutions in this regard. • Employing security along with routing requires additional energy, storage and processing capability. Security mechanisms may induce processing delays and bandwidth loss in WSNs which may seriously impact QoS-routing in WSNs. Therefore it is desirable to write such routing surveys that may highlight the issues, applications and comparisons of security and QoS BIB004 oriented routing in WSNs. Such surveys may discuss state-of-the-art secure-QoS routing approaches and highlight future research directions in this regards. • Secure routing improves reliability of both static and dynamic WSNs. Since traditional cryptography and network security techniques are infeasible for secure routing in WSNs, therefore there is a need to analyze and survey novel featherweight multi-factor authentication and authorization approaches and security mechanism in WSNs. • Although it is more energy efficient to-process than to-transmit the same amount of data BIB009 , however it is also a fact that data fusion complicates secure-routing design BIB002 , introduces delay BIB003 and compromises reliability BIB003 . Therefore, there is a need to extensive survey the issues, challenges and comparisons of data fusion and secure-QoS oriented routing in WSNs. • Since, single-sink oriented routing techniques under-perform than multi-sink based routing approaches BIB007 , therefore there is a need to in-depth survey those routing techniques that implement multi-sink approach in WSNs. The advantages of multi-sink oriented routing may be further highlighted under energy, security, QoS and scalability constraints for achieving high performance in WSNs. • The computational intelligence based routing approaches such as biologically inspired (e.g., ant based, bee based, particle swarm, termite colony and spider monkey based optimization), machine learning, genetic algorithm, fuzzy logic, evolutionary computing, reinforcement learning and artificial neural networks should be reviewed in more depth. From the recent past, the researchers have started applying these techniques for routing in WSNs and they have exhibited promising results. However, there is a need to survey various aspects of these techniques more deeply for achieving further technological advancements in WSNs. • The multichannel routing approach may allow sensor nodes to use a variety of orthogonal channels for sending data to destination. It may ensure parallel communications  , decreases delay  BIB005 and increases throughput  BIB005 in WSNs. However, it requires additional resources in the form channel scanning, channel decision and channel switching, etc. which may require additional energy for providing the desired QoS in WSNs. Only one multichannel routing survey [114] is published so far for WSNs that may put forth a novel taxonomy for classifying and analyzing the single/multi-path and single/multi-radio multichannel routing protocols in WSNs into JOINT and DISJOINT categories. Although the survey brings forth the applications, prevailing issues and future research challenges of multichannel routing in WSNs in a detailed manner, however still there many dimensions in which novel multichannel routing surveys can be written e.g., one of such dimension is the mobile multi-radio multichannel routing in WSNs where to the best of our knowledge no multichannel survey is written so far. Additionally, the pros and cons of multichannel routing protocols may be critically surveyed in-terms of energy-efficiency and QoS using various analytical and simulating mechanisms for unveiling further hidden aspects of this area of research.