A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> Nanotechnologies promise new solutions for several applications in biomedical, industrial and military fields. At nano-scale, a nano-machine can be considered as the most basic functional unit. Nano-machines are tiny components consisting of an arranged set of molecules, which are able to perform very simple tasks. Nanonetworks. i.e., the interconnection of nano-machines are expected to expand the capabilities of single nano-machines by allowing them to cooperate and share information. Traditional communication technologies are not suitable for nanonetworks mainly due to the size and power consumption of transceivers, receivers and other components. The use of molecules, instead of electromagnetic or acoustic waves, to encode and transmit the information represents a new communication paradigm that demands novel solutions such as molecular transceivers, channel models or protocols for nanonetworks. In this paper, first the state-of-the-art in nano-machines, including architectural aspects, expected features of future nano-machines, and current developments are presented for a better understanding of nanonetwork scenarios. Moreover, nanonetworks features and components are explained and compared with traditional communication networks. Also some interesting and important applications for nanonetworks are highlighted to motivate the communication needs between the nano-machines. Furthermore, nanonetworks for short-range communication based on calcium signaling and molecular motors as well as for long-range communication based on pheromones are explained in detail. Finally, open research challenges, such as the development of network components, molecular communication theory, and the development of new architectures and protocols, are presented which need to be solved in order to pave the way for the development and deployment of nanonetworks within the next couple of decades. <s> BIB001 </s> A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> Nanotechnology is an emerging field of science devoted to provide new opportunities in a vast range of areas. In this paper, different techniques are proposed to enable the long range interconnection of nano-machines, deployed over distances from a few centimeters up to several meters. Long range nano-communications will enable the development of applications that could not be implemented using other techniques. The usage of both short-range nano techniques and long range micro techniques are not practical or are unfeasible for a huge application scope. Biologically inspired research provides promising features to long range communication, such as very low power consumption and biocompatibility. In this paper, several bio-inspired techniques are discussed following a twofold taxonomy divided according to whether a fixed physical link is required for signal propagation or not, i.e., either wired or wireless communication. In the first group, pheromones, spores, pollen and light transduction are discussed. In the second group, neuron-based communication techniques and capillaries flow circuit are explored. All proposed techniques offer a good framework for long-range molecular communication, and their components and test-beds can benefit from different research expertise, e.g., entomology for pheromones, mycology for spores, neuroscience for axons, and biochemistry for capillaries. <s> BIB002 </s> A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> Abstract Molecular communication uses molecules (i.e., biochemical signals) as an information medium and allows biologically and artificially created nano- or microscale entities to communicate over a short distance. It is a new communication paradigm; it is different from the traditional communication paradigm, which uses electromagnetic waves (i.e., electronic and optical signals) as an information medium. Key research challenges in molecular communication include design of system components (i.e., a sender, a molecular propagation system, a receiver, and a molecular communication interface) and mathematical modeling of each system component as well as entire systems. We review all research activities in molecular communication to date, from its origin to recent experimental studies and theoretical approaches for each system component. As a model molecular communication system, we describe an integrated system that combines a molecular communication interface (using a lipid vesicle embedded with channel-forming proteins), a molecular propagation system (using microtubule motility on kinesin molecular motors and DNA hybridization), and a sender/receiver (using giant lipid vesicles embedded with gemini-peptide lipids). We also present potential applications and the future outlook of molecular communication. <s> BIB003 </s> A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> The ability of engineered biological nanomachines to communicate with biological systems at the molecular level is anticipated to enable future applications such as monitoring the condition of a human body, regenerating biological tissues and organs, and interfacing artificial devices with neural systems. From the viewpoint of communication theory and engineering, molecular communication is proposed as a new paradigm for engineered biological nanomachines to communicate with the natural biological nanomachines which form a biological system. Distinct from the current telecommunication paradigm, molecular communication uses molecules as the carriers of information; sender biological nanomachines encode information on molecules and release the molecules in the environment, the molecules then propagate in the environment to receiver biological nanomachines, and the receiver biological nanomachines biochemically react with the molecules to decode information. Current molecular communication research is limited to small-scale networks of several biological nanomachines. Key challenges to bridge the gap between current research and practical applications include developing robust and scalable techniques to create a functional network from a large number of biological nanomachines. Developing networking mechanisms and communication protocols is anticipated to introduce new avenues into integrating engineered and natural biological nanomachines into a single networked system. In this paper, we present the state-of-the-art in the area of molecular communication by discussing its architecture, features, applications, design, engineering, and physical modeling. We then discuss challenges and opportunities in developing networking mechanisms and communication protocols to create a network from a large number of bio-nanomachines for future applications. <s> BIB004 </s> A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> In this work, we describe the first modular, and programmable platform capable of transmitting a text message using chemical signalling - a method also known as molecular communication. This form of communication is attractive for applications where conventional wireless systems perform poorly, from nanotechnology to urban health monitoring. Using examples, we demonstrate the use of our platform as a testbed for molecular communication, and illustrate the features of these communication systems using experiments. By providing a simple and inexpensive means of performing experiments, our system fills an important gap in the molecular communication literature, where much current work is done in simulation with simplified system models. A key finding in this paper is that these systems are often nonlinear in practice, whereas current simulations and analysis often assume that the system is linear. However, as we show in this work, despite the nonlinearity, reliable communication is still possible. Furthermore, this work motivates future studies on more realistic modelling, analysis, and design of theoretical models and algorithms for these systems. <s> BIB005 </s> A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> Abstract Advancements in nanotechnology have promised the building of nanomachines capable of carrying out simple tasks. Final goals of using these nanomachines in applications such as monitoring body tissues, drug delivery or other complicated applications need them to do complex tasks. A feasible way to have them cooperate and do complex tasks is to interconnect them by building a nanonetwork. As nanomachines can only carry out simple tasks, nanonetworks bring up new issues in networking and communication. There have been many papers addressing solutions for communication challenges in nanonetworks and analysing their characteristics. At this stage, going towards higher goals needs a comprehensive look at the literature and state of the art in the field. In this paper, we present an inclusive look at issues introduced and analysed in nanonetworks. We focus on two methods which provide properties needed in nanonetworks efficiently, namely communication via microtubules and physical contact. <s> BIB006 </s> A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> Recent advancement in physics and nanotechnology have paved the way for manufacturing of processor, memory, batteries, transceiver, antenna and sensing units at nano-scale. A nanomachine is an integrated device with dimensions in nano-scale, and able to do simple tasks. By networking of nano-machines, they are able to perform the more complicated tasks by the cooperative manner and can play an important role in applications such as biomedical, environmental monitoring, industrial and military. Many novel nano-scale communication options have been currently proposed. However, there are four main nano-scale communication techniques: nanomechanical, acoustic, chemical or molecular and electromagnetic communications. However, this paper focuses on the molecular and electromagnetic communications as the promising nanoscale communication approaches, and then will be reviewed the novel nano-scale communication paradigms that are currently presented. <s> BIB007 </s> A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Advancements in Molecular Communication <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> The growth of nanotechnology has led to miniature devices that are able to perform limited functionalities in hard to access areas. Example nanodevice applications in the healthcare domain include early detection of harmful diseases. The current field of molecular communication is aiming to increase the functionalities of nanodevices, by enabling communication to be performed. Since its first introduction, communication researchers have been proposing various solutions that could possibly realize molecular communications (e.g., molecular diffusion and bacteria nanonetworks). These solutions have largely been limited to theoretical simulation modeling. However, to fully realize a future for real deployments and developments of molecular communication, a strong synergy will be required with molecular biologists. The aim of this paper is to create this link, and at the same time provide guidance for current molecular communication researchers of possible real developments of molecular communication based on the current state-of-the-art experimental work. In particular, we present a review on bacteria communication and membrane nanotubes, as well as neuronal networks. We also discuss possible applications in the future focusing in particular on Body Area NanoNetworks (BAN2). © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. <s> BIB008
The problem of conveying information over a distance has always been an important part of human society. Today, modern telecommunication systems solve this problem with electrical or electromagnetic signals. There are, however, still many applications were these technologies are not convenient or appropriate. For example, the use of electromagnetic wireless communication inside networks of tunnels, pipelines, or salt water environments, can be very inefficient. As another example, at extremely small dimensions, such as between micro-or nano-scaled robots  ,  , electromagnetic communication is challenging because of constraints such as the ratio of the antenna size to the wavelength of the electromagnetic signal BIB001 . Inspired by nature, one possible solution to these problems is to use chemical signals as carriers of information, which is called molecular communication  . In molecular communication, a transmitter releases small particles such as molecules or lipid vesicles into an aqueous or gaseous medium, where the particles propagate until they arrive at a receiver. The receiver then detects and decodes the information encoded in these particles. In nature, chemical signals are used for inter-cellular and intra-cellular communication at micro-and nano-scales [5] , while pheromones are used for long range communication between members of the same species such as social insects  . Therefore, chemical signals can be used for communication at both macroscopic and microscopic scales. Moreover, molecular communication signals are biocompatible, and require very little energy to generate and propagate. These properties makes chemical signals ideal for many applications, where the use of electromagnetic signals are not possible or not desirable. Although molecular communication is present in nature and is used by micro-organisms such as microbes to communicate and detect other micro-organisms, it was only recently that engineering a molecular communication system has been proposed as means of communication at the microscale  . Macroscale molecular communication was not even considered until BIB005 . In this paper we present a comprehensive survey of recent advancements of molecular communication in a tutorial fashion. Some of the previous survey paper on molecular communication are as follows. The first survey work on general microscale molecular communication was presented by Hiyama and Moritani in BIB003 . A more recent general microscale survey was presented by Nakano et al. in BIB004 . In BIB006 a survey of molecular communication based on microtubules and physical contact was presented, and in BIB007 a very brief survey of microscale molecular communication was presented. Some other works which provide an overview of a specific area of molecular communication include: proposing longrange molecular communication propagation schemes BIB002 , an overview of communication through gap junction channels  , and BIB008 provides a guide post for some of the experimental problems within molecular communication. There are also a number of books on molecular communication at microscales  ,  ,  . This paper is different from all these work in the following ways. First, we provide a more general description of molecular communication, one which considers molecular communication at both macroscales and microscales simultaneously. Second, we provide a comprehensive survey of molecular communication at both scales. Third, we present the survey in tutorial fashion, such that the researchers new to the field could use this paper to familiarize themselves quickly with some of the fundamental underlying physical and chemical processes and mathematical models. In this paper, we elaborate on various aspects of molecular communication with focusing recent advancements and Figure 1 summarizes the content of this paper. In Section II, an overview of molecular communication is provided. Section III describes the underlying biological components, as well as chemical and physical processes that are employed in engineering molecular communication systems at microscales, while Section IV considers macroscale molecular communication systems. In Section V, recent advancements in communication engineering aspect of molecular communication is presented. Section VI highlights some of the practical and experimental setups that demonstrate the feasibility of engineering molecular communication systems. Finally, concluding remarks are presented in Section VII.