Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> Abstract : The Naval Command Control and Ocean Surveillance Center (NCCOSC) has developed an architecture to provide coordinated control of multiple autonomous vehicles from a single host console. The Multiple Robot Host Architecture (MRHA) is a distributed multiprocessing system that can be expanded to accommodate as many as 32 robots. The initial application will employ eight Cybermotion K2A Navmaster robots configured as remote Security platforms in support of the Mobile Detection Assessment and Response System (MDARS) Program. This paper discusses developmental testing of the MRHA in an operational warehouse environment with two actual and four simulated robotic platforms. <s> BIB001 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> ROBART III is an advanced demonstration platform for non- lethal security response measures, incorporating reflexive teleoperated control concepts developed on the earlier ROBART II system. The addition of threat-response capability to the detection and assessment features developed on previous systems has been motivated by increased military interest in Law Enforcement and Operations Other Than War. Like the MDARS robotic security system being developed at NCCOSC RDTE DIV, ROBART III will be capable of autonomously navigating in semi-structured environments such as office buildings and warehouses. Reflexive teleoperation mode employs the vehicle's extensive onboard sensor suite to prevent collisions with obstacles when the human operator assumes control and remotely drives the vehicle to investigate a situation of interest. The non-lethal-response weapon incorporated in the ROBART III system is a pneumatically-powered dart gun capable of firing a variety of 3/16-inch-diameter projectiles, including tranquilizer darts. A Gatling-gun style rotating barrel arrangement allows size shots with minimal mechanical complexity. All six darts can be fired individually or in rapid succession, and a visible-red laser sight is provided to facilitate manual operation under joystick control using video relayed to the operator from the robot's head-mounted camera. This paper presents a general description of the overall ROBART III system, with focus on sensor-assisted reflexive teleoperation of both navigation and weapon firing, and various issues related to non-lethal response capabilities.© (1997) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only. <s> BIB002 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> Abstract : The initial effort during Phase I of the Mobile Detection Assessment and Response System (MDARS) Program was aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of a single robotic security platform operating under the high-level control of a remote host with the direct supervision of a human operator. This document describes the concept of a distributed host architecture geared towards a single guard controlling up to eight robots and explores some of the key issues that were considered in the actual development. The objective is to field a supervised robotic security system that basically runs itself until an exceptional condition is encountered that requires human intervention. A globally shared world model is maintained to provide a real-time collision avoidance capability complementing the Cybermotion virtual path navigation scheme employed on their K2A robotic platform. A centralized database of high-value inventory is routinely compared with observed inventory as monitored by interactive RF tag-reading systems onboard the patrolling robots. Each robot is equipped with microwave and passive infrared motion detection sensors providing full 360-degree coverage, and an intelligent security assessment algorithm is employed to maximize the probability of detection while simultaneously filtering out nuisance alarms. <s> BIB003 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> ROBART III is intended as an advance demonstration platform for non-lethal response measures, extending the concepts of reflexive teleoperation into the realm of coordinated weapons control in law enforcement and urban warfare scenarios. A rich mix of ultrasonic and optical proximity and range sensors facilitates remote operation in unstructured and unexplored buildings with minimal operator supervision. Autonomous navigation and mapping of interior spaces is significantly enhanced by an innovative algorithm which exploits the fact that the majority of man-made structures are characterized by parallel and orthogonal walls. Extremely robust intruder detection and assessment capabilities are achieved through intelligent fusion of a multitude of inputs form various onboard motion sensors. Intruder detection is addressed by a 360-degree staring array of passive-IR motion detectors, augmented by a number of positionable head-mounted sensors. Automatic camera tracking of a moving target is accomplished using a video line digitizer. Non-lethal response systems include a six- barrelled pneumatically-powered Gatling gun, high-powered strobe lights, and three ear-piercing 103-decibel sirens. <s> BIB004 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> ROBART III is intended as an advanced demonstration platform for non-lethal tactical response, extending the concepts of reflexive teleoperation into the realm of coordinated weapons control (i.e., sensor-aided control of mobility, camera, and weapon functions) in law enforcement and urban warfare scenarios. A rich mix of ultrasonic and optical proximity and range sensors facilitates remote operation in unstructured and unexplored buildings with minimal operator oversight. Supervised autonomous navigation and mapping of interior spaces is significantly enhanced by an innovative algorithm which exploits the fact that the majority of man-made structures are characterized by (but not limited to) parallel and orthogonal walls. This paper presents a brief overview of the advanced telereflexive man-machine interface and its associated “human-centered mapping” strategy. <s> BIB005 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> Despite advances in autonomy, there will always be a need for human involvement in vehicle teleoperation. In particular, tasks such as exploration, reconnaissance and surveillance will continue to require human supervision, if not guidance and direct control. Thus, it is critical that the operator interface be as efficient and as capable as possible. In this paper, we provide an overview of vehicle teleoperation and present a summary of interfaces currently in use. <s> BIB006 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> We conducted a web-based survey to establish law enforcement robotics needs for applications that extend beyond explosive ordnance disposal. The survey addressed scenarios and tasks where a robot would be used if available, and the tools, features and parameters deemed most important to carry out those tasks. We present in this paper the results of the survey and summarize current robotics research and development efforts by various segments of the Department of Defense that could potentially help meet those law enforcement needs. We also provide a recommended course of action to the Department of Justice for the development of these robotics capabilities. <s> BIB007 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> The objective of the CyberScout project is to develop an autonomous surveillance and reconnaissance system using a network of all-terrain vehicles. We focus on two facets of this system: 1) vision for surveillance and 2) autonomous navigation and dynamic path planning. In the area of vision-based surveillance, we have developed robust, efficient algorithms to detect, classify, and track moving objects of interest (person, people, or vehicle) with a static camera. Adaptation through feedback from the classifier and tracker allow the detector to use grayscale imagery, but perform as well as prior color-based detectors. We have extended the detector using scene mosaicing to detect and index moving objects when the camera is panning or tilting. The classification algorithm performs well with coarse inputs, has unparalleled rejection capabilities, and can flag novel moving objects. The tracking algorithm achieves highly accurate (96%) frame-to-frame correspondence for multiple moving objects in cluttered scenes by determining the discriminant relevance of object features. We have also developed a novel mission coordination architecture, CPAD (Checkpoint/Priority/Action Database), which performs path planning via checkpoint and dynamic priority assignment, using statistical estimates of the environment's motion structure. The motion structure is used to make both preplanning and reactive behaviors more efficient by applying global context. This approach is more computationally efficient than centralized approaches and exploits robot cooperation in dynamic environments better than decoupled approaches. <s> BIB008 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> This paper reviews “socially interactive robots”: robots for which social human–robot interaction is important. We begin by discussing the context for socially interactive robots, emphasizing the relationship to other research fields and the different forms of “social robots”. We then present a taxonomy of design methods and system components used to build socially interactive robots. Finally, we describe the impact of these robots on humans and discuss open issues. An expanded version of this paper, which contains a survey and taxonomy of current applications, is available as a technical report [T. Fong, I. Nourbakhsh, K. Dautenhahn, A survey of socially interactive robots: concepts, design and applications, Technical Report No. CMU-RI-TR-02-29, Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 2002]. © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. <s> BIB009 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> The iRobot PackBot is a combat-tested, man-portable UGV that has been deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq. The PackBot is also a versatile platform for mobile robotics research and development that supports a wide range of payloads suitable for many different mission types. In this paper, we describe four R&D projects that developed experimental payloads and software using the PackBot platform. CHARS was a rapid development project to develop a chemical/radiation sensor for the PackBot. We developed the CHARS payload in six weeks and deployed it to Iraq to search for chemical and nuclear weapons. Griffon was a research project to develop a flying PackBot that combined the capabilities of a UGV and a UAV. We developed a Griffon prototype equipped with a steerable parafoil and gasoline-powered motor, and we completed successful flight tests including remote-controlled launch, ascent, cruising, descent, and landing. Valkyrie is an ongoing research and development project to develop a PackBot payload that will assist medics in retrieving casualties from the battlefield. Wayfarer is an applied research project to develop autonomous urban navigation capabilities for the PackBot using laser, stereo vision, GPS, and INS sensors. <s> BIB010 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> In this paper we present a vision-based approach to detect, track and identify people on a mobile robot in real time. While most vision systems for tracking people on mobile robots use skin color information, we present an approach using thermal images and a fast contour model together with a particle filter. With this method a person can be detected independently from current light conditions and in situations where no skin color is visible (the person is not close or does not face the robot). Tracking in thermal images is used as an attention system to get an estimate of the position of a person. Based on this estimate we use a pan-tilt camera to zoom to the expected face region and apply a fast face tracker in combination with face recognition to identify the person. <s> BIB011 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> One crucial application of intelligent robotic systems is remote surveillance using a security robot. A fundamental need in security is the ability to automatically verify an intruder into a secure or restricted area, to alert remote security personnel, and then to enable them to track the intruder. In this article, we propose an Internet-based security robot system. The face recognition approach possesses "invariant" recognition characteristics, including face recognition where facial expressions, viewing perspectives, three-dimensional poses, individual appearance, and lighting vary and occluding structures are present. The experiment uses a 33.6-kb/s modem Internet connection to successfully remotely control a mobile robot, proving that the streaming technology-based approach greatly improves the "sensibility" of robot teleoperation. This improvement ensures that security personnel can effectively and at low cost use the Internet to remotely control a mobile robot to track and identify a potential intruder. <s> BIB012 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> The Mobile Detection Assessment Response System (MDARS) provides physical security for Department of Defense bases and depots using autonomous unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) to patrol the site while operating payloads for intruder detection and assessment, barrier assessment, and product assessment. MDARS is in the System Development and Demonstration acquisition phase and is currently undergoing developmental testing including an Early User Appraisal (EUA) at the Hawthorne Army Depot, Nevada-the world's largest army depot. The Multiple Resource Host Architecture (MRHA) allows the human guard force to command and control several MDARS platforms simultaneously. The MRHA graphically displays video, map, and status for each resource using wireless digital communications for integrated data, video, and audio. Events are prioritized and the user is prompted with audio alerts and text instructions for alarms and warnings. The MRHA also interfaces to remote resources to automate legacy physical devices such as fence gate controls, garage doors, and remote power on/off capability for the MDARS patrol units. This paper provides an overview and history of the MDARS program and control station software with details on the installation and operation at Hawthorne Army Depot, including discussions on scenarios for EUA excursions. Special attention is given to the MDARS technical development strategy for spiral evolutions. <s> BIB013 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> Progression of a mobile robot and communication techniques enables intelligent robot to be developed more versatilely. Through the ubiquitous robot control, paradigm of robot which performs specific tasks remotely has changing into intelligent robot to perform public and individual tasks. Especially, in the robot and security industry, security guard robot provides a variety of information to user and achieves its duty through the Web interface. The communication technique for these telepresence robot takes charge of the probability of various service in the robot industry. Last year, the interface for telepresence robot has developed over the Web or RF between robots, but these system has the demerits of limited distance or geographical limit to be established Internet link. In this paper, we propose the SG-robot (security guard robot) that can be operated and conduct surveillance the environment around itself anytime/anywhere using CDMA networking. SG-robot was able to solve those problems, conduct the surveillance task and communicate with between multi SG-robot and users over the cdma2000-1x communication network efficiently. <s> BIB014 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> 1) Comparison Between Intelligent Security Robots and Their Classes: <s> The Technology Transfer project employs a spiral development process to enhance the functionality and autonomy of mobile robot systems in the Joint Robotics Program (JRP) Robotic Systems Pool by converging existing component technologies onto a transition platform for optimization. An example of this approach is the implementation of advanced computer vision algorithms on small mobile robots. We demonstrate the implementation and testing of the following two algorithms useful on mobile robots: 1) object classification using a boosted Cascade of classifiers trained with the Adaboost training algorithm, and 2) human presence detection from a moving platform. Object classification is performed with an Adaboost training system developed at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) Computer Vision Lab. This classification algorithm has been used to successfully detect the license plates of automobiles in motion in real-time. While working towards a solution to increase the robustness of this system to perform generic object recognition, this paper demonstrates an extension to this application by detecting soda cans in a cluttered indoor environment. The human presence detection from a moving platform system uses a data fusion algorithm which combines results from a scanning laser and a thermal imager. The system is able to detect the presence of humans while both the humans and the robot are moving simultaneously. In both systems, the two aforementioned algorithms were implemented on embedded hardware and optimized for use in real-time. Test results are shown for a variety of environments. <s> BIB015
The learning faculty is essential for the identification of biometric physical behaviors, via visual or groundtruth information. It is also regarded as the prime perceptual skill to identify human ballistics, as shown in BIB009 . Intelligent perceptual skills are also essential to model or construct inclusive profiles of a suspect's behavior. Additionally, with such learning qualification, human assistance would be less interfering and instructive, as the ISR could be able to learn and recognize more accurately situations of significant importance. In the following paragraphs, we investigate whether from the taxonomy presented in Section II, there are security robots with intelligent and versatile architectures. In addition, we demonstrate how ISRs coming from a certain class can be more efficient than some other ISRs from a different class, for the accomplishment of critical tasks. Teleoperated: From the teleoperated class (see Section II-A), we would not apparently anticipate to see the deployment of architectures inspired from AI and ML, since the concept of teleoperation prevents the use of such methodologies. This lies to the fact that intelligent architectures are normally associated with autonomy, decision making, and learning faculties. Thus, teleoperated robots could not utilize such methods for the reason that decisions and action are taken by a remote operator. In this survey, we have seen nine teleoperated projects, contained in Table I , along with their architectures and relevant applications. The most indicative and complete example of teleoperated robots has been shown by Fong and Thorpe BIB006 , who presented a survey on teleoperated interfaces. In addition, Yamauchi BIB010 presented the iRobot PackBot for chemical and nuclear weapon detection using advanced sensors and reconnaissance techniques. From those projects, we saw that teleoperated security robots indeed employ versatile reconnaissance architectures for multiple purposes, while the lack of autonomy prevents them to take actions, since this part is undertaken by the operator. The marginal use of advanced perception places this type of robots into high consideration, because in this case, the perception-toaction cycle merges robot perception with "human action." It has been proven by the police, army, and other security services that their preference on the teleoperated robots can be beneficial for the low cost and efficiency. Distributed: Do distributed security robots employ intelligent architectures? This question has been answered partially in Section II-B from which Table II introduced 11 frameworks taken from networked and ubiquitous robots. Generally speaking, distributed security robots would be the ideal solution. By deploying multiple robots with advanced collective and communication faculties, the probability of successfully completing a missionary scenario is higher compared with single robots. Beyond conventional communication protocols that have been implemented for several teleoperated security robots, Saptharishi et al. BIB008 presented the CyberScout vehicles. These vehicles were employed with a collective surveillance, and reconnaissance communication architecture for advanced security. Under those capabilities, the framework satisfies the perception-to-action cycle as the perception comprises advanced vision-based classification methods, combined with autonomous surveillance. Another project for distributed surveillance, which is presented by Ryu et al. BIB014 , meets the conditions of the perception-to-action cycle with a teleobservation and a telepresence code division multiple access network architecture. Comparing the distributed class with the teleoperated one, we, evidently, see the superiority of distributed security robots completing the perception-to-action cycle from many perspectives. Primarily, emphasis must be given on the sensors employed by each robot class. In the distributed category, we saw two types of sensors: 1) local sensors-acquired locally such as visual, proximity, and positioning sensors, and 2) global sensorswith respect to ubiquitous and network sensors that are accessed remotely by the robots. Conceptually, distributed robots comprise more technological advances, compared with teleoperated robots, in terms of perception and action faculties. While distributed robots have been used extensively for surveillance, some of the frameworks presented in Table II employ as well teleoperation faculties, which make them even more versatile security guards. The only comparison between the two classes is the cost difference. The setup of a distributed network, in addition to the several physical robots required to cover the surveillance needs, makes the cost of such a framework extremely high. Surveillance: The popularity of surveillance robots along with their increasing development over the past three decades, highlighted in Fig. 1(a) and (b) (see Section III), statistically shows that there must be a number of projects that fulfill the requirements of the perception-to-action cycle. Indeed, Table III lists 24 frameworks, including many of them that fulfill the cycle  , BIB011 ,  ,  - BIB012 . Chong and Jarvis  presented a simulated surveillance framework for decision planning and intruder detection. The architecture makes use of a dynamic Bayesian network with decision processes, which models the risk of the areas being observed with conditional probabilities. Despite the simulated setup, this ISR framework endorses a versatile architecture, and any further replication of this architecture applied to physical robots is assessed as plausible. Beyond the simulated ISRs, Treptow et al. and Biber et al. BIB011 ,  developed surveillance robot guards based on the Peoplebot robot platform. The perception-to-action cycle is satisfied by a person/intruder identification algorithm using particle filters with simplistic elliptic models. So far, the surveillance class illustrates a tendency to the utilization of quite sophisticated methods for identification and reconnaissance. This comes as no surprise, if we think that surveillance security robots need specialized techniques associated with the analysis of physiological attributes. However, similar person/intruder recognition architectures have been seen in the distributed class BIB014 , but not as peculiar and intricate as in the surveillance class. The richness of the surveillance category, producing ISRs emphasizing on the human factor, has also shown several other projects that tackle the intruder detection and confrontation scenario problems. The reasons that surveillance robots have been preferred the most by institutions and security services vary. It is not only the relatively low cost and the numerous applications, but also the direct association of their architectures to human behaviors. Surveillance ISRs have shown unique capabilities when they interact with people. Some of those regard the extraction of features, with respect to motion and face recognition. Some others are the human-robot communication and guidance, tracking and tagging, and other intruder detection algorithms for guarding purposes (see Table III ). In addition to the advanced perception and confrontation deployment, analogous robots and robot architectures have been seen in the distributed and lawenforcement category. This fact makes the surveillance class unique and attractive to work for/with humans as the taxonomy tables have demonstrated. Law Enforcement: As expected, the law-enforcement category includes ISRs with various capabilities; the 16 frameworks depicted in Table I revealed 12 projects that complete the perception-to-action cycle. These are the crime-fighting robots that have been used for intruder detection and confrontation, by deploying nonlethal law-enforcement faculties (ROBART III BIB004 - BIB005 , BIB015 , MDARS BIB013 , BIB002 , BIB001 - BIB003 ). Moreover, we have seen fire-fighting ISRs with learning and cooperative behaviors (USAF  , UTEternity  ), and the commercial ISRs MOSRO, Mini-MOSRO, OFRO, ASENDRO, and CHRYSOR, for the identification of vandalism and crime. These robots have also been used for the execution of confrontation scenarios in indoor and outdoor environments. There are several differences between law enforcement and surveillance ISRs. Primarily, the main difference is spotted on the utilization of external nonlethal weapons by LERs, while common faculties between the two categories are the surveillance and reconnaissance. Interestingly, we saw that the fundamental difference is that LERs use more advanced confrontation scenarios, including weaponry along with specialized strategies. Despite the impressive autonomous functionalities endorsed by LERs, and the acute conflict of supremacy between the two categories (surveillance versus LERs), the teleoperated category is surprisingly the second most popular class. The comparison lies on the various teleoperation interfaces that have been used in LERs for remote control. The authors in BIB006 and BIB007 presented teleoperated robots with law-enforcement capabilities. Obviously, we can descry the superiority of LERs compared with the teleoperated class, as it fulfills the perception-to-action requirements with many autonomous capabilities.