Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> III. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF FEMALE UNDER-REPRESENTATION IN COMPUTING <s> Purpose – To develop a testable model for girls' career choices in technology fields based on past research and hypotheses about the future of the information technology (IT) workforce.Design/methodology/approach – Review and assimilation of literature from education, psychology, sociology, computer science, IT, and business in a model that identifies factors that can potentially influence a girl's choice towards or against IT careers. The factors are categorized into social factors (family, peers, and media), structural factors (computer use, teacher/counselor influence, same sex versus coeducational schools), and individual differences. The impact of culture on these various factors is also explored.Findings – The model indicates that parents, particularly fathers, are the key influencers of girls' choice of IT careers. Teachers and counselors provide little or no career direction. Hypotheses propose that early access to computers may reduce intimidation with technology and that same‐sex education may s... <s> BIB001 </s> Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> III. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF FEMALE UNDER-REPRESENTATION IN COMPUTING <s> The current paper details results from the Girls and ICT survey phase of a three year study investigating factors associated with low participation rates by females in education pathways leading to professional level information and communications technology (ICT) professions. The study is funded through the Australian Research Council's (ARC) Linkage Grants Scheme. It involves a research partnership between Education Queensland (EQ), industry partner Technology One and academic researchers at (affiliation removed for review purposes). Respondents to the survey were 1453 senior high school girls. Comparisons were drawn between Takers (n=131) and Non Takers (n=1322) of advanced level computing subjects. Significant differences between the groups were found on four questions: ''The subjects are interesting''; ''I am very interested in computers''; ''The subject will be helpful to me in my chosen career path after school''; and ''It suited my timetable''. The research has demonstrated that senior high school girls tend to perceive advanced computing subjects as boring and they express a strong aversion to computers. <s> BIB002 </s> Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> III. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF FEMALE UNDER-REPRESENTATION IN COMPUTING <s> Gender distinctions as dichotomous categories are perpetuated and maintained by social mechanisms and are socially constructed. Part of this social construction is reproduced by many social scientists who adopt mainstream cultural categories of gender and, through theoretical or methodological biases, fail to question them, or who, by their own practices, reinforce them. This analysis is an overview of the epistemological and methodolical practices that reinforce gender distinctions and neglect reporting of similarities. Rejecting several models used to explain cultural differences, an alternative mode of analysis—multiplicity and proteanism—is proposed as a more productive perspective in the analysis of gender. <s> BIB003 </s> Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> III. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF FEMALE UNDER-REPRESENTATION IN COMPUTING <s> In this article I flesh out support for observations that scientific accounts of social groups can influence the very groups and mental phenomena under investigation. The controversial hypothesis that there are hardwired differences between the brains of males and females that contribute to sex differences in gender-typed behaviour is common in both the scientific and popular media. Here I present evidence that such claims, quite independently of their scientific validity, have scope to sustain the very sex differences they seek to explain. I argue that, while further research is required, such claims can have self-fulfilling effects via their influence on social perception, behaviour and attitudes. The real effects of the products of scientists’ research on our minds and society, together with the fact that all scientific hypotheses are subject to dispute and disconfirmation, point to a need for scientists to consider the ethical implications of their work. <s> BIB004
A number of theories have been proposed to explain female under-representation in computing education and industry. The theories can fundamentally be divided into causes which are based on inherent or biological differences (essentialist theory) BIB004 , social-cultural BIB003 ;  and structural factors  . The essentialist theories in relation to imbalance of gender representation in computer science are founded on the view that the disparity is caused by inherent differences between males and females such as mathematical competence and computational thinking ability. According to Strevens [65] this assumption based on differences in natural ability means that males will dominate computing education and industry as they are naturally more suited to it than females. This would further suggest that intervention strategies will not lead to an improvement in female representation in computing due to inherent factors which favour males and disadvantage females. In contrast, the socio-cultural viewpoint holds that the differences are caused by external (e.g. stereotyping) and internal (e.g. self-expectation) factors which influence the development of males and females BIB003 ;  . These factors originate from societal and cultural perceptions. They translate into accepted -norms‖ and -beliefs‖ in our society leading to low confidence levels and poor motivation of females to engage with the subject and consequently the industry. Closely linked to socio-cultural factors are the structural factors which translate into the nature of institutions (home, education and industry) such that they limit opportunities for certain groups to increase in representation without structured intervention  . In the educational environment, the uninspiring nature of the Information Technology and Communications (ICT) curriculum has often been identified as a structural constraint decreasing the interest in computers and computer science especially amongst females BIB002 ,  . Furthermore, it is suggested that a lack of inspirational and skilled teachers to deliver the computer science curriculum is another factor that has a negative impact on engagement with computer science in primary and secondary education levels  . Structural constraints can be found in: home and family life, the learning environment, computer attitudes and anxiety, lack of role models, perception of computer science and educational computer software BIB001 . Combinations of both socio-cultural and structural factors have been shown to consequently affect career choice, career persistence and advancement in computing  . An exposition of these key factors will be explored further in order to grasp the complexity of the nature of these viewpoints.