A Breadth-First Survey of Eye Tracking Applications <s> Driving <s> This paper describes the results of four experiments in a series aimed at understanding and improving visual inspection in general and of small integrated circuits (i.e. 'chips') in particular. Stimuli consisted of chips that, although electrically sound, contained visual anomalies. The first experiment found that the modal duration of eye fixations of trained inspectors was about 200 msec. The most accurate inspectors made the fewest eye fixations and were the fastest. The second experiment evaluated the performance of inspectors at one of the many sequential stages of chip inspection and found that 23% of the chips containing anomalies were accepted, whereas only 2% of the chips without anomalies were rejected. When the same chip was judged more than once by an individual inspector the consistency of her judgment was very high whereas the consistency between inspectors was somewhat less. The third experiment showed that variation by a factor of six in inspection speed led to variation of less than a factor of two in inspection accuracy. The fourth experiment showed that inspection via a ground glass screen is only a little worse than the usual method of looking through a binocular microscope. This was true even though the inspectors had no previous experience with the screen. <s> BIB001 </s> A Breadth-First Survey of Eye Tracking Applications <s> Driving <s> Publisher Summary ::: This chapter discusses the effects of cognitive and visual demand upon visual search strategies during driving. It also describes whether these can be used to differentiate between novices who have recently passed their test and more experienced drivers. Visual demands are closely related with task demands, for as the dominant sensory modality in driving is vision, an increase in task difficulty will usually coincide with an increase in the complexity of the visual scene. An increment in visual demand is an increase in visual clutter or complexity, as opposed to increases in cognitive demand, such as an increase in the processing demands of a particular stimulus perhaps due to an increase in its relevance to a current context. It is observed that as stimuli becomes more realistic; the two become harder to separate. The two types of demand —visual/task demands and cognitive demands—are rarely fully separated; the majority of driving research has focused on task demands rather than cognitive demands. The chapter highlights the consistent results that an increase in the complexity of the driving task tends to increase one's active search of the scene, producing a wider spread of search. <s> BIB002 </s> A Breadth-First Survey of Eye Tracking Applications <s> Driving <s> The consequences of performing verbal and spatial-imagery tasks on visual search when driving were studied. Twelve participants drove 84 km on 2 highways and 2 roads. On each route, they performed 2 verbal tasks and 2 spatial-imagery tasks while their eye movements were recorded. The same results were repeated on all routes. Pupillary dilation indicated similar effort for each task. Visual functional-field size decreased horizontally and vertically, particularly for spatial-imagery tasks. Compared with ordinary driving, fixations were longer during the spatial-imagery task. With regard to driving performance, glance frequency at mirrors and speedometer decreased during the spatial-imagery task. Results are interpreted in terms of multiple attention-resource theories; implications of internal distractions on road safety are discussed in terms of possible impairment in relevant information processing. Keywords: Driver distraction Language: en <s> BIB003 </s> A Breadth-First Survey of Eye Tracking Applications <s> Driving <s> Latency and eye movement measures were used to examine the effects of aging, clutter, and luminance on visual search for traffic signs embedded in digitized images of driving scenes. Initially 14 older and 14 younger observers classified daytime and nighttime traffic scenes as containing low or high amounts of clutter. Next, an independent sample of 14 younger and 14 older participants searched for traffic signs contained within these scenes. Errors were more common among the elderly. Search efficiency declined with increased clutter and with aging. However, relative to the young, older adults did not suffer disproportionately as a result of increased clutter. The methods developed might be profitably employed to assess sign conspicuity and sign acquisition during driving. <s> BIB004
It is widely accepted that deficiencies in visual attention are responsible for a large proportion of road traffic accidents . Eye movement recording and analysis provide important techniques for understanding the nature of the driving task and are important for developing driver training strategies and accident countermeasures.  indicate that at their simplest, drivers' fixation patterns on straight roads can be described as concentrating on a point near to the focus of expansion (the point in the visual field in front of the driver where objects appear stationary) with occasional excursions to items of road furniture and road edge markers. It is clear that dangerous events generally evoke long fixation durations. Dishart and Land (1998) discuss previous work showing that experienced drivers obtain visual information from two sections of their view of the road ahead, in order to maintain a correct position in lane whilst steering their vehicle around a curve. The more distant of these two sections is used to predict the road's future curvature. This section is optimally 0.75-1.00 s ahead of the driver and is used by a feedforward (anticipatory) mechanism which allows the driver to match the curvature of the road ahead. The other, nearer, section is about 0.5 s ahead of the driver and is used by a feedback (reactive) mechanism to 'fine tune' the driver's position in lane. Eye tracking experiments have shown that the feedback mechanism is present in most people regardless of their driving experience (although its accuracy is higher in those with experience), but that the feedforward mechanism is learned through experience of steering tasks (that can include riding a bicycle, computer driving games, etc.). A fundamental problem in visual search in driving research is defining and controlling demand on the driver as an independent variable BIB002 . Possible confounding factors are increases in visual demand, such as an increase in visual clutter or complexity, and increases in cognitive demand, such as an increase in the processing demands of a particular stimulus perhaps due to an increase in its relevance to a current context. Despite the lack of consistency in the manipulations of visual demand, it seems fairly well documented that general increases in task demands and visual complexity tend to reduce mean fixation duration and increase the sampling rate. In a driving study examining the effects of clutter, lu-minance, and aging, BIB004 recorded subjects' visual search for traffic signs embedded in digitized images of driving scenes. On average, older adults were less accurate than younger ones. Accuracy for daytime scenes was independent of target presence, but errors for nighttime scenes were more common on target-present trials than on target-absent trials. In daytime scenes errors were generally more common in high clutter than in low clutter, while in nighttime scenes no consistent clutter effect was detected. Fixation number data, a measure that is strongly correlated with reaction time, indicated that older adults made more fixations than did younger adults, and more fixations were needed for high-clutter and target-absent scenes than for low-clutter and target-present scenes. Experiments where gaze is monitored in a simulated driving environment demonstrate that visibility of task relevant information depends critically on active search initiated by the observer according to an internally generated schedule, which depends on learnt regularities in the environment  . Hayhoe et al.'s findings suggest fixation patterns and attentional control in normal vision is learnt. Research on the effects of mental activity during driving suggests the convenience of raising drivers' awareness about the possible consequences of driving while their attention is focused on their own thoughts, unrelated to driving BIB003 . Recarte and Nunes studied the consequences of performing verbal and spatial-imagery tasks on visual search when driving. Visual functional-field size decreased horizontally and vertically, particularly for spatial-imagery tasks. Compared with ordinary driving, fixations were longer during the spatial-imagery task. With regard to driving performance, glance frequency at mirrors and speedometer decreased during the spatial-imagery tasks. Performing mental tasks while driving caused an increased attentional workload on ordinary thought, as shown by pupillary dilation. With regard to the implications for driving, Recarte and Nunes suggest that the spatial reduction of the visual inspection window, including the reduction of the inspection of mirrors, could be interpreted as a predictor of decreased probability of detecting traffic events, particularly when performing mental spatial-imagery tasks. BIB001 state that "visual inspection pervades the lives of all people today. From poultry, meat, and fish inspection, to drug inspection, to medical X-ray inspection, to production line inspection, to photo interpretation, the consequences of inspection directly affect people's lives through their effects on the quality and performance of goods and services." Tracking eye movements during visual inspection may lead to predictive analyses, if certain re-curring patterns or statistics can be found in collected scanpaths. For example, an expert inspector's eye movements may clearly exhibit a systematic pattern. If so, then this pattern may be one that can be used to train novice inspectors. In their study of visual inspection of integrated circuit chips, BIB001 found that good inspectors are characterized by relatively high accuracy and relatively high speed, and make many brief eye fixations (as opposed to fewer longer ones) during the time they have to inspect.