A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> The authors describe the operation of a tendon-driven manipulator, the CT ARM-I, which has a tendon traction force transmission mechanism in which the pair of tendons that drive a joint are pulled from base actuators via pulleys mounted on the base-side joints. The mechanism makes the most of the coupled drive function of the tendon traction forces and thus enables the lightweight manipulator to exhibit enormous payload capability. The manipulator has a solid structure and is inexpensive to manufacture because of its mechanical simplicity. Experiments demonstrate that the CT ARM-I has an active compliance arm and offers payload capability superior to that of conventional manipulators. > <s> BIB001 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> This paper presents an experimental study of high efficiency energy conversion and drives for flywheel energy storage system using the high temperature superconductive magnetic bearings and permanent magnet synchronous motor. This described flywheel energy storage system is designed to replace of the conventional EMB (electromechanical battery) system. To realize the high efficiency and to minimize the torque ripple, the waveform of the converter output current is controlled to be sinusoidal and in phase or inverse phase with the electro-motive voltage in motoring mode and regeneration mode, respectively. The actual performance of the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the proposed HTS magnet flywheel energy storage system is well described in this paper and its validity is verified through the simulation and experimental results. <s> BIB002 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> The energy efficiency of a robotic manipulator is important, particularly when that manipulator is used in conjunction with a mobile robot with limited battery life. In the paper the energy efficiency (in terms of the electrical energy usage) of a spatial three DOF parallel manipulator is compared to a serial manipulator with the same drive motors and a similar workspace. The effects of end-effector position, velocity and acceleration, and static loading due to gravity are examined. Over a range of conditions, the average energy usage of the parallel manipulator was determined to be 26% of the serial manipulator's. This benefit is not due simply to the reduction in moving mass achieved by the parallel design since its moving mass is 70% of the serial manipulator's. Static loading due to gravity was found to roughly double the power usage of both manipulators without significantly affecting their relative energy efficiency. <s> BIB003 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> A third generation of torque-controlled light weight robots has been developed in DLR's robotics and mechatronics lab which is based on all the experiences that have been had with the first two generations. It aims at reaching the limits of what seems achievable with present day technologies not only with respect to light-weight, but also with respect to minimal power consumption and losses. One of the main gaps we tried to close in version III was the development of a new, robot-dedicated high energy motor designed with the best available techniques of concurrent engineering, and the renewed efforts to save weight in the links by using ultralight carbon fibres. <s> BIB004 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Purpose – The paper seeks to present a new generation of torque‐controlled light‐weight robots (LWR) developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics of the German Aerospace Center.Design/methodology/approach – An integrated mechatronic design approach for LWR is presented. Owing to the partially unknown properties of the environment, robustness of planning and control with respect to environmental variations is crucial. Robustness is achieved in this context through sensor redundancy and passivity‐based control. In the DLR root concept, joint torque sensing plays a central role.Findings – In order to act in unstructured environments and interact with humans, the robots have design features and control/software functionalities which distinguish them from classical robots, such as: load‐to‐weight ratio of 1:1, torque sensing in the joints, active vibration damping, sensitive collision detection, compliant control on joint and Cartesian level.Practical implications – The DLR robots are excellent rese... <s> BIB005 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Powering a robot is one of the biggest challenges in robot design, which is one of new technologies that will positively impact robotics. Flywheel is a kind of device for energy conversion and storage, which is known as electro-mechanical battery. In this paper, a kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) for rubber-tyred gantry (RTG) crane robot is explored, which is based on a surface-mounted permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) with an integrated flywheel spinning at high speed. At first, the basic background of situation RTG crane robot is introduced, afterwards the KERS is discussed to show that it can be perfectly used to meet the peak energy requirements of crane during both acceleration and regenerative braking. Then, a typical structure of KERS is designed step by step. A saturated inductance is designed to reduce the total harmonic distortion (THD) and allow the withdrawal of a large amount of currents. Direct paralleling of two insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) modules is developed with consideration of the power demand. Next, the operation of the integrated system including power electronics, sensors and digital signal processor (DSP) is explained. The algorithm regulates the operation of the pulse width modulation (PWM) converter is realized by proportional plus integral (PI) controllers for charging the flywheel with constant current and discharging under constant power. Finally, the feasibility of the proposed system is verified by simulation. <s> BIB006 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Pneumatic actuators are widely used in industry and many other applications, whereas low energy efficiency has been recognized as a critical drawback compared with corresponding hydraulic and electrical actuators. The paper presents a new hybrid pneumatic-electrical system aiming at energy efficiency improvement by recovering exhaust air energy from pneumatic actuator outlets to generate electricity. A closed-loop control strategy is proved to be essential to ensure the exhaust energy recovery work properly and to maintain existed actuator operations simultaneously. The whole system mathematical model and the simulation results are presented in the paper. The laboratory test results are also given. The simulation and experimental study demonstrate that the designed system with the proposed control strategy can operate at the relative higher energy efficiency state for the specified working conditions. <s> BIB007 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> For the problems of complex control and harmonic interference when elevator’s regenerative braking energy feed back to the grid, The paper presents an energy saving program. Renewable energy is stored with super capacitors and used locally. The paper analyzes the basic operating principle of the super-capacitor energy storage device and power operation curves in different conditions. The elevator energy consumption experiments are completed in five typical working conditions. Experimental results show that super capacitor energy storage device of the elevator is stable and has a good energy saving effect. <s> BIB008 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> This paper presents the experimental and simulation results of industrial robot's recuperated energy saving approaches. Two complementary alternatives- a capacitive energy buffer on the robot's DC-bus is evaluated and a novel approach, the robot EnergyTeam has been proposed. The principle of robot EnergyTeam is the DC-bus merging among various number of industrial robot power controllers thus enabling a controlled energy flow among the robots that decelerate and, therefore, recuperate the energy and those that simultaneously require a peak power supply for the acceleration. Cost efficiency is estimated considering the characteristics in robotics of real production in the automobile industry. <s> BIB009 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Research on joint torque reduction in robot manipulators has received considerable attention in recent years. Minimizing the computational complexity of torque optimization and the ability to calculate the magnitude of the joint torque accurately will result in a safe operation without overloading the joint actuators. This paper presents a mechanical design for a three dimensional planar redundant manipulator with the advantage of the reduction in the number of motors needed to control the joint angle, leading to a decrease in the weight of the manipulator. Many efforts have been focused on decreasing the weight of manipulators, such as using lightweight joints design or setting the actuators at the base of the manipulator and using tendons for the transmission of power to these joints. By using the design of this paper, only three motors are needed to control any n degrees of freedom in a three dimensional planar redundant manipulator instead of n motors. Therefore this design is very effective to decrease the weight of the manipulator as well as the number of motors needed to control the manipulator. In this paper, the torque of all the joints are calculated for the proposed manipulator (with three motors) and the conventional three dimensional planar manipulator (with one motor for each degree of freedom) to show the effectiveness of the proposed manipulator for decreasing the weight of the manipulator and minimizing driving joint torques. <s> BIB010 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Abstract In this study, a novel hydraulic energy-regenerative system was presented from its proposal through modeling to its control. The system was based on a closed-loop hydrostatic transmission and used a hydraulic accumulator as the energy storage system fabricated in a novel configuration to recover the kinetic energy without any reversion of the fluid flow. The displacement variation in the secondary unit was reduced, increasing the uses of several types of hydraulic pump/motors. The proposed system was modeled based on its physical attributes. A hierarchal control system was implemented and focused on the design of an adaptive fuzzy sliding mode control for speed control of the secondary unit. The energy utilization and the influences on the energy-recovery potential of the system were analyzed. Simulation and experiments were performed to evaluate the validity of the employed mathematical model and the effectiveness of the control system. The experimental results indicated that the designed system was effective and that the round trip recovery efficiency varied from 22% to 59% for the test bench. <s> BIB011 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> This paper proposes a new type of power converter for drive systems to enable the exchange of recuperated energy within an independent DC subgrid having one centralized energy storage element. Many industrial applications that require rapid cyclic starts and stops are subject to significant energy waste at the brake chopper of the DC bus due to over voltage during motor deceleration. The proposed solution allows the brake chopper to be eliminated and the otherwise wasted energy to be stored externally. The solution does not require identical hardware or exact synchronization between the drive rectifiers. Experimental results in industrial robotics show savings of up to 20%. <s> BIB012 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> It is state of the art for many drive systems like those used in industrial robotics, conveyor systems or diverse numerical control machinery to have a common DC bus power system architecture. Due to regenerative braking, the DC bus voltage increases until a certain limit, which is limited means of a balancing resistor (brake chopper). Systems that require rapid cyclic starts and stops are subject to significant energy waste due to extensive use of the brake chopper. In this article, a novel power converter for drive systems is proposed that allows the brake chopper to be omitted and enables the exchange of regenerative energy among multiple drive systems within an independent DC subgrid with one centralized energy storage element. The solution does not require identical hardware or exact synchronization between the drive rectifiers, therefore it is applicable to both existing and new production equipment alike. Experimental results in industrial robot drives show savings of up to 20%. <s> BIB013 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Abstract An underactuated serial kinematics industrial handling robot using high torque direct drive motors combined with slip rings is presented. Pick and place tasks are performed through combining the underactuated motion with a null-space motion enabling the kinetic energy to be conserved within the system. This system is benchmarked against linear axis systems with belt and ball screw drives respectively and also against a conventional robot system regarding energy efficiency proving performance improvements. <s> BIB014 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Mobile hydraulic systems are developed toward better control performance and higher energy efficiency. Pressure compensators, which govern the pressure drops over the control orifices, are widely used in multiactuator systems to improve their operability. However, additional energy is also dissipated in the compensators especially under the overrunning load conditions. This paper presents a novel energy-saving system, where the compensator is designed as a regeneration device consisting of a hydraulic motor and an electric generator. Then, hydraulic energy can be regenerated and pressure compensation function is realized by adapting the electromagnetic torque of the generator to the load as well. The close-loop control of the generator is designed by effective pressure drop estimation. The proposed energy-saving system and controller are implemented on an experimental platform of hybrid excavators which is equipped with an electric energy storage device. The experimental results show both good control performance and significant energy-saving effect. <s> BIB015 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> This paper presents a novel energy-saving method of a robotic system utilizing parallel mechanism by redundant actuation. The redundantly actuated system can distribute arbitrary actuating torques in a certain combination. By using this feature, the regenerative power dissipation and electric power loss are reduced. Moreover, the redundant actuation can reduce the peak torque of actuating joints. This feature reduces the friction loss because we can use a smaller gear reducer. A parallel manipulator with two degrees of freedom is simulated as a case study. The energy consumption of the robotic system is modeled by analyzing the type of energy consumption in actuation systems. An optimization process is proposed to maximize the energy-saving effect. The results show that 26.1% of electric energy can be saved by redundant actuation. <s> BIB016 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Parallel manipulators present advantages compared to serial ones, such as higher load-carrying capacity, improved accuracy and increased stiffness. However, parallel manipulators possess limitations due to the presence of singularities. It has been proved that kinematic and actuation redundancy promote a significant reduction in the singularities and homogenization on the actuation forces. This paper evaluates the effect of the addition of kinematic redundancy in the energy efficiency of parallel manipulators. In order to do so, the required mechanical energy consumed by a 3RRR non-redundant planar parallel manipulator and their kinematically redundant versions, to perform several predefined trajectories is minimized using a genetic algorithm. The result of the comparison shows that the required mechanical energy to perform a given trajectory can be reduced with the addition of kinematic redundancy.Copyright © 2015 by ASME <s> BIB017 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> This paper investigates feasibility of using a flywheel based energy recovery and storage system for a robotic manipulator. The incentive is supported by ever growing necessity for efficient systems and optimisation of power consumption of industrial processes. Previous work has shown that robotic manipulators can benefit from incorporation of energy recovery and temporary energy storage system which resulted in significant reduction in power consumption. The ABB IRB 140 manipulator is used as a test bed for simulation and data collection. The manipulator internal parameters are identified and model is constructed using MATLAB/Simulink. The manipulator is programmed to executed a number of trajectories representing typical industrial tasks during which joints data is recorded and applied to the model. Simulation results show that flywheel based energy storage system is fully compatible with the manipulator controller hardware and is able to achieve reduction in power consumption. <s> BIB018 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Minimizing the computational complexity of torque optimization and the ability to calculate the magnitude of the joint torque accurately will result in a safe operation without overloading the joint actuators. Reduced torque will lead to lighter robotic arm and easier control. The main objective of this work is to design a robotic arm with all the motors located at the base so that the arm becomes lighter than the conventional arms. The main advantage from this development is to decrease the torque required to control the arm. The motion of motors is transferred to links via aluminum pulleys, bearings, and timing belts which yields to the need of lighter motors and hence a lighter manipulator. The maximum torque of each joint has been calculated then compared with the torque needed using conventional design to show the effectiveness of the proposed design for decreasing the weight of the manipulator and minimizing driving joint torques. <s> BIB019 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> Power-efficient fluidic driven system is beneficial to extending the working time of autonomous and wearable soft robots supplied by independent power sources such as batteries. In this paper, an energy recovery scheme is proposed to reutilize the pressurized air released by retracting pneumatic soft actuators instead of venting to atmosphere. The scheme's novelty lies in an air accumulator employed to store the recovered energy and boost the inlet pressure of air pumps when there is requirement. Then the energy-saving principle is described based on the comparison of energy flow between the systems with and without energy recovery. Residual pressure, recoverable energy and parametric effect are also presented analytically according to the ideal gas law. Finally, simulation models are developed to evaluate the system performance and the results show that about 20% reduction of power consumption and acceptable residual pressure can be achieved simultaneously when the accumulator volume is three times of the actuator volume, which provides reference to further prototype development. <s> BIB020 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot type: <s> The paper formulates and solves the problem of finding a set of physical (design) parameters that maximize stored energy in electromechanical robots with regenerative drive systems. The robot is assumed to include semi-active and fully-active joints. Semi-active joints exchange power only with the robot, and are assumed to use (ultra)capacitors for storage. Fully-active joints are conventional in the sense that external power is used for actuation. The semi-active joints are controlled for trajectory tracking by a previously-published virtual control strategy whereby a control law is first designed and then implemented via a virtual matching law. A set of reference trajectories and a virtual controller capable of achieving asymptotic tracking are assumed as given. Equations are derived for the energy stored in the ultracapacitors of the semi-active joints in terms of manipulator parameters. The paper obtains closed-form solutions for the maximizing parameters. It is shown that a unique solution always exists and that it corresponds to a unique global maximum for the stored energy between any two times. A numerical example with a double inverted pendulum and cart system with semi-active and fully-active joints demonstrates the results. <s> BIB021
The selection of more energy-efficient mechatronic and robotic systems available for a given application BIB003 BIB014 BIB016 BIB017 . 2. Hardware replacement: The re-design or substitution of components with more efficient components (i.e., more-efficient or lighter components, or both) BIB005 BIB019  BIB004  BIB001 BIB010  . 3. Hardware addition: The addition of components for storing and recovering energy BIB018 BIB006 BIB011 BIB015 BIB007 BIB020  BIB008  BIB009 BIB012 BIB013   BIB002 BIB021  . These are introduced below.