Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> After reading or listening to short passages, Ss attempted to recognize semantically changed sentences and paraphrases (syntactically and lexically changed sentences). The intervals between the original presentation and test ranged from 1 to 23 sec. In general, paraphrases were poorly detected after a brief time, supporting earlier findings that the exact wording of sentences is not stored in long-term memory. An exception was the high recognition of active-passive changes with the visual presentation. Recognition at the first test interval was significantly better after listening than after reading, although the eventual level of recognition memory was not different in the two modes. This result, consistent with other studies of modality effects in short-term memory, suggests that acoustic-phonetic memory played a role in the storage of the auditorally presented material. <s> BIB001 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> This article explores how viewers respond to and remember extra information shown on television. Its purpose is to investigate the effects of typical print content on TV viewers' visual attention, message processing ability, and cognitive workload when print content appears simultaneously with video. Test subjects looked at various video clips simultaneously with print, while variable text and graphics changed the structural complexity of the message. Data of psychophysiological measurements such as eye-tracking and skin-conductivity were obtained during the test; memory and cognitive workload measurements were self-reported afterwards. The results show that visual attention was equally balanced between video and print content for lengthy texts, whereas short texts with an increasing number of images caused subjects to look longer and more often at the video. Both video and text recognition were better on lengthy texts. Subjective cognitive workload data shows that lengthy texts resulted in higher ratings for psychological stress than short ones did. We conclude that variable text influences visual attention, memory, and cognitive workload more than pictorial information does; this conclusion supports the limited capacity model. <s> BIB002 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> Abstract Instant messaging (IM) has become one of the most popular forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and is especially prevalent on college campuses. Previous research suggests that IM users often multitask while conversing online. To date, no one has yet examined the cognitive effect of concurrent IM use. Participants in the present study (N = 69) completed a reading comprehension task uninterrupted or while concurrently holding an IM conversation. Participants who IMed while performing the reading task took significantly longer to complete the task, indicating that concurrent IM use negatively affects efficiency. Concurrent IM use did not affect reading comprehension scores. Additional analyses revealed that the more time participants reported spending on IM, the lower their reading comprehension scores. Finally, we found that the more time participants reported spending on IM, the lower their self-reported GPA. Implications and future directions are discussed. <s> BIB003 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> The introduction and wide adoption of small and powerful mobile computers, such as smart phones and tablets, has raised the opportunity of employing them into multi-device scenarios and blending the distinction between input and output devices. In particular, the partnership between a personal device and a shared one provides two possible output screens. Then, one significant research issue is to balance the visual interface between two devices with advanced output abilities. Do the devices compete or cooperate for the attention and the benefit of the user? Most notably, how multi-device interaction is appreciated in multi-user scenarios? Previous research has raised and considered the above research issues and questions for dual screen set-ups in the work environment. In our research, we are exploring multi-device user interface configurations in the context of a leisure environment and for entertainment applications. Our objective is to provide interaction possibilities that are more than the sum of the parts. <s> BIB004 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> Abstract Changes in the media landscape have made simultaneous usage of the computer and television increasingly commonplace, but little research has explored how individuals navigate this media multitasking environment. Prior work suggests that self-insight may be limited in media consumption and multitasking environments, reinforcing a rising need for direct observational research. A laboratory experiment recorded both younger and older individuals as they used a computer and television concurrently, multitasking across television and Internet content. Results show that individuals are attending primarily to the computer during media multitasking. Although gazes last longer on the computer when compared to the television, the overall distribution of gazes is strongly skewed toward very short gazes only a few seconds in duration. People switched between media at an extreme rate, averaging more than 4 switches per min and 120 switches over the 27.5-minute study exposure. Participants had little insight in... <s> BIB005 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> This study examined participants' visual attention via eye-movement patterns as they watched two television shows---one a drama, the other a documentary---while interacting with synchronized second-screen applications introduced in spring 2011. The second screen garnered considerable visual attention, about 30% of the total viewing session. Visual attention went to the tablet screen even without a recent "push" of interactive content and without advertising content on the TV screen. However, interactive content and TV advertising did trigger more attention to the tablet app. The presence of the second screen also dramatically decreased the average gaze length on TV as described in previous research. <s> BIB006 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> Mobile devices are playing an increasingly important role in leisure activities, including TV viewing. Broadcasters see this as an opportunity to enhance a TV programme through the provision of additional information to the 'second screen', but determining how to optimise this experience is one of the grand challenges currently facing content providers. Addressing this issue requires a detailed understanding of interaction with both the TV and the secondary device, but this new form of HCI, as much about passive consumption as active interaction, is not well represented by typical task-based paradigms. This paper describes experiments that use eye tracking to understand one of the key components of this new area of study - determining which device is currently receiving the user's attention - and discusses the considerable challenge of accurately monitoring attention while maintaining ecological validity. <s> BIB007 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> Understanding the factors that determine human attention in videos is important for many applications, such as user interface design in interactive television (iTV), continuity editing, or data compression techniques. In this article, we identify the demands that cinematic cuts impose on human attention. We hypothesize, test, and confirm that after cuts the viewers' attention is quickly attracted by repeated visual content. We conclude with a recommendation for future models of visual attention in videos and make suggestions how the present results could inspire designers of second screen iTV applications to optimise their interfaces with regard to a maximally smooth viewing experience. <s> BIB008 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> Many people can now bring the office home in the evening and work on a laptop computer while watching television. We conducted a lab-study to investigate the impact that this media multitasking habit has on stress and our ability to stay engaged with the content of a television show. Participants were required to complete a stressful mental arithmetic task, designed to simulate a demanding work-related activity, while watching a segment of a television documentary. To reflect the different ways that people can media multitask, participants were asked either to perform the work task continuously (concurrent multitasking), or during bursts (sequential multitasking). Results show that working on the stressful task was stressful ' it did not matter whether the television was on or not, nor did it matter how the tasks were interleaved. There was some evidence that sequentially interleaving tasks allowed participants to maintain their engagement with the television show. Overall though the results of this preliminary study suggest that if people want to relax and become engrossed in a television show they should avoid working on a secondary device at the same time. <s> BIB009 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> There is increasing interest in providing content to users on secondary devices while they watch TV. This material, termed companion content, can be anything from textual information, to interactive quiz games. It can be delivered throughout a broadcast and often directly relates to specific scenes in a show. This new scenario has exposed a challenging design space for creators of both the content and the enabling technology. A key question when introducing content on a secondary device is how much it detracts from, or enhances, the show the user is currently engaged with. To examine this, we investigated methods for mediating attention from the TV and onto a secondary device. By examining a typical use case we have been able to gain new insights into how best to design additional stimuli to alert users to companion content from both a broadcasting, and an HCI perspective. <s> BIB010 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> Increasing access to media in the 21st century has led to a rapid rise in the prevalence of media multitasking (simultaneous use of multiple media streams). Such behavior is associated with various cognitive differences, such as difficulty filtering distracting information and increased trait impulsivity. Given the rise in media multitasking by children, adolescents, and adults, a full understanding of the cognitive profile of media multitaskers is imperative. Here we investigated the relationship between chronic media multitasking and working memory (WM) and long-term memory (LTM) performance. Four key findings are reported (1) heavy media multitaskers (HMMs) exhibited lower WM performance, regardless of whether external distraction was present or absent; (2) lower performance on multiple WM tasks predicted lower LTM performance; (3) media multitasking-related differences in memory reflected differences in discriminability rather than decision bias; and (4) attentional impulsivity correlated with media multitasking behavior and reduced WM performance. These findings suggest that chronic media multitasking is associated with a wider attentional scope/higher attentional impulsivity, which may allow goal-irrelevant information to compete with goal-relevant information. As a consequence, heavy media multitaskers are able to hold fewer or less precise goal-relevant representations in WM. HMMs’ wider attentional scope, combined with their diminished WM performance, propagates forward to yield lower LTM performance. As such, chronic media multitasking is associated with a reduced ability to draw on the past—be it very recent or more remote—to inform present behavior. <s> BIB011 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> Results of a survey and interviews point to certain trends in second screening--the use of a mobile device while watching television--that can inform content design. Of particular concern is how to help users manage their attention across multiple screens so that they are not overloaded and remain engaged. <s> BIB012 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> So many people are now using handheld second screens whilst watching TV that application developers and broadcasters are designing companion applications Second screen content that accompanies a TV programme. The nature of such dual-screen use cases inherently causes attention to be split, somewhat unpredictably. Dual-screen complexity, a clear factor in this attention split, is largely unexplored by the literature and will have an unknown (and likely negative) impact on user experience (UX). Therefore, we use empirical techniques to investigate the objective and subjective effect of dual-screen visual complexity on attention distribution in a companion content scenario. Our sequence of studies culminates in the deployment of a companion application prototype that supports adjustment of complexity (by either content curator or viewer) to allow convergence on optimum experience. Our findings assist the effective design of dual-screen content, informing content providers how to manage dual second screen complexity for enhanced UX through a more blended, complementary dual-screen experience. <s> BIB013 </s> Cross-device media: a review of second screening and multi-device television <s> Attention considerations for cross-device scenarios <s> The present study investigated the use of multiple digital media technologies, including social networking platforms, by students while preparing for an examination (media multitasking) and the subsequent effects on exam performance. The level of media multitasking (number of simultaneous media technologies) and duration of study were used as predictors of exam performance in a sample of 441 college students. Analysis of the data indicated that students with low level of media multitasking (0–2 digital technologies) scored significantly better on the exam than students with a high level of media multitasking (7 or more digital technologies). There were no significant difference in the duration of study time between low-level media multitaskers and high-level media multitaskers. <s> BIB014
We now turn to consider attention considerations for those who watch television and engage with second screens simultaneously. Clearly, the consumption of multiple visual and auditory streams is likely to be tasking, and therefore, much research has focused on understanding and remedying this. Media multi-tasking (the simultaneous use of multiple media streams) BIB011 , has become the norm for many people, especially for television. Much research has investigated the effect that engaging with multiple information streams has on our retention of information. Patterson, for example, studied media multitaskers when revising for examinations BIB014 , finding that those who studied for examinations while media multi-tasking were far more likely to score poorly in examinations. Generally, concurrent streams of information add extra mental effort to engage and generally result in poorer performance in comprehension tasks BIB003 . Moreover, the way we engage visually is changed. For instance, in 2011 Brasel and Gips BIB005 looked at how we divide our attention between a computer and a television concurrently and found that people switch between media at an extreme rate, averaging more than 4 switches per minute, with little knowledge of their own switching behaviour. In modern cross-device scenarios, these effects are likely exacerbated-we sit with the device in our laps, therefore meaning the television is in the peripheral of our vision as we watch television (and vice versa). This visual congruence between the visual foci leads to a great cognitive and visual disjunct-discussed more by Neate et al.  BIB012 . In addition, it is evident that users will have to engage with textual/ visual content on the secondary device while monitoring the auditory feed of the television to engage with both screensa task which is physiologically challenging BIB001 . The BBC note from their experience developing second screen applications that there is a continuum we must be Fig. 2 a, aware of in terms of attention. While companion applications are designed to entertain, there is a limit to which they should distract from the initial programme for the dualscreen experience. In addition to the visual and auditory demands of the user, interactivity is also a vital factor to consider the users' requirements to engage with the application. As shown in Fig. 3 , it is clear that certain interactions, such as short text and images, are likely to require little concentration to engage with, but are likely also not stimulating in terms of interactivity. Interactions such as play-along games are likely to require great concentration to take in, both in terms of interaction cost and concentration. There is a trade-off here-second screen content which falls into the upper right quarter of Fig. 3 is likely to detract from the programme, whereas materials in the bottom left may not be enough stimulation. In addition to the rich ethnographic and deploymentbased research, there have been a variety of empirical studies around second screening towards understanding the fundamental attention constraints of the scenario. These have predominantly taken the form of lab studies. In 1996, before second screens were ubiquitous in the living room Robertson et al.  explored the effect of a second screen in conjunction with a television. This early research showed that the distribution of information across the devices was essential-that the superior visual properties of the television should be used over the handheld device, such that the focus can remain on the mobile device's stronger interaction capabilities. In the recent growth of the dual-screen scenario, these findings have been extended by more empirical studies. For example, in 2012 Holmes et al. BIB006 looked at visual attention across screens via eye tracking. They found that when users interact with a synchronised second screen device they view the second screen content somewhere in the region of 30% of the time. Moreover, they found that this viewing was sustained even when the content was not being refreshed and that for each push of new content there were spikes in attention. Work by Brown et al. BIB007 further investigated this phenomenon. They looked at methods for eye tracking across the screens and note the significant difficulties in doing so. In general, they provide insight into the attention switching and percentage of gaze such dualscreen scenarios attract. They detail a variety of complex and nuanced behaviours that such scenarios imply with regard to attention and interaction. Further to the increased visual disparity between the two screens, Brown et al.  also reported that the users' attention often switches between the two devices due to a number of factors. The obvious of these being the content appearing on the tablet computer dragging attention towards it, or the user simply finishing attending to the companion content. However, it is evident that even when the content is not updating that certain events, on both devices, command attention. For example: • Scene switches-for example, an indoor scene changing to outdoor may catch the users attention and take it from the tablet to the TV. This phenomenon is discussed in more detail by Valuch et al. BIB008 . • Inactivity-in both displays, inactivity, such as indoor scenes with talking heads and not much happening, tends to cause shifts in attention • Contextual cues-Dialogue in the show (unintentionally) brining their attention towards the television, for example, the presenter saying 'Woah! Look at that!'. In addition to Brown et al. and Holmes et al.'s work on multi-screen eye tracking, Vatavu and Mancaş propose a Fig. 3 The BBC were interested experimented with various presentation formats of second screen interactions including diagrams, image galleries, etc. This figure, adapted from  , describes their general conclusions-a map of interactivity and concentration in the second screen. Green indicates the most common trends in second screen apps (colour figure online) visual attention tool kit  . In this toolkit, they introduce a set of nine measures to characterise viewers' visual attention patterns for multi-screen TV. They propose quantitative and qualitative metrics by which to consider visual attention across screens. The work evidencing multiscreen interaction is a clear indicator that the dual-screen use case is thwart with issues relating to attention-complex auditory and video streams competing for attention are clearly going to have a major impact on users. Therefore, Neate et al. BIB013 have looked the direct effect of dualscreen complexity-the combined effect of the TV and the tablet content, and how they interact. They propose methods to alleviate attention overload, either by adapting the complexity of the tablet content around a set of heuristics dependent on the primary screen, or by allowing users to adapt the content themselves. Further, work such as that by Chorianopoulos et al. BIB004 has noted the importance of proper UI distribution for multi-screen contexts. To better understand the effect of such multi-screen scenarios, lab studies such as that by Kallenbach et al. BIB002 are clear evidence of the great impact of extra information to a programme creates with regard to cognitive load. This is echoed in the work of Brumby et al. BIB009 who look at the effect of working with the television on. They found that when working with the television, we reduce our involvement with the television programme (and therefore lose the chance to relax). The work on dual-screen attention studies has generally implied that attention is sporadic and unpredictable. Moreover, in the second screen use case, not knowing when new content is going to be introduced is a clear issue-users have to constantly check their secondary device, and 'keep their ear' on the TV (see  for a discussion of this area). Therefore, work by Neate et al. BIB010 looked at methods using additional notification-like stimuli to mediate attention between the foci. In general, they found that users wanted their attention to be mediated. Further, they looked at response times, finding that peripheral stimuli yielded faster attendance and that participants would defer their attention switch if they saw on-TV notifications.