Pedestrian Protection Systems: Issues, Survey, and Challenges <s>  <s> Pedestrian accidents represent the second-largest source of traffic-related injuries and fatalities, after accidents involving car passengers. Children are especially at risk. A complementary approach to accident prevention is to focus on sensor-based solutions, which let vehicles "look ahead" and detect pedestrians in their surroundings. The article investigates the state of the art in this domain, reviewing passive, video based approaches and approaches involving active sensors (radar and laser range finders). <s> BIB001 </s> Pedestrian Protection Systems: Issues, Survey, and Challenges <s>  <s> Collisions between pedestrians and road vehicles present a major challenge for public health, trauma medicine, and traffic safety professionals. More than a third of the 1.2 million people killed and the 10 million injured annually in road traffic crashes worldwide are pedestrians.1 Compared with injured vehicle occupants, pedestrians sustain more multisystem injuries, with concomitantly higher injury severity scores and mortality.2 Although a disproportionately large number of these crashes occur in developing and transitional countries, pedestrian casualties also represent a huge societal cost in industrialised nations. In Britain pedestrian injuries are more than twice as likely to be fatal as injuries to vehicle occupants3 and result in an average cost to society of £57 400, nearly twice that of injuries to vehicle occupants.4 ::: ::: #### Summary points ::: ::: Pedestrian-vehicle crashes are responsible for more than a third of all traffic related fatalities and injuries worldwide ::: ::: Lower limb trauma is the commonest pedestrian injury, while head injury is responsible for most pedestrian fatalities ::: ::: Standardised tests that simulate the most common pedestrian-vehicle crashes are being used to evaluate vehicle countermeasures to reduce pedestrian injury ::: ::: Energy absorbing components such as compliant bumpers, dynamically raised bonnets, and windscreen airbags are being developed for improved pedestrian protection ::: ::: Despite the size of the pedestrian injury problem, research to reduce traffic related injuries has concentrated almost exclusively on increasing the survival rates for vehicle occupants. Most attempts made to reduce pedestrian injuries have focused solely on isolation techniques such as pedestrian bridges, public education, and traffic regulations and have not included changes to vehicle design. The lack of effort devoted to vehicle modifications for pedestrian safety has stemmed primarily from a societal view that the injury caused by a large, rigid vehicle hitting a small, fragile pedestrian cannot be significantly reduced by alterations to the vehicle structure. Crash engineers, … <s> BIB002 </s> Pedestrian Protection Systems: Issues, Survey, and Challenges <s>  <s> A large number of commuters use bicycles to got to work in India. However, there are no special facilities for them on Indian roads and they are involved in a disproportionate share of road crashes. Though many countries around the world have put in place policies for integrating bicycle traffic on all arterial roads, there is no such move in India yet. The enactment of such policies is necessary as cycling and walking, separately or in conjunction with public transport, offer significant positive health gains and reduction in pollution and accidents. For such policies to be successful Indian professionals have to develop designs of road crosssections and infrastructure that suit our special needs. <s> BIB003 </s> Pedestrian Protection Systems: Issues, Survey, and Challenges <s>  <s> The last few decades have witnessed the birth and growth of a new sensibility to transportation efficiency. In particular the need for efficient and improved people and goods mobility has pushed researchers to address the problem of intelligent transportation systems. This paper surveys the most advanced approaches to (partial) customization of the road following task, using on-board systems based on artificial vision. The functionalities of lane detection, obstacle detection and pedestrian detection are described and classified, and their possible application in future road vehicles is discussed. <s> BIB004 </s> Pedestrian Protection Systems: Issues, Survey, and Challenges <s>  <s> Summary The global burden of injuries is enormous, but has often been overlooked in attempts to improve health. We review measures that would strengthen existing efforts to prevent and treat injuries worldwide. Scientifically-based efforts to understand risk factors for the occurrence of injury are needed and they must be translated into prevention programmes that are well designed and assessed. Areas for potential intervention include environmental modification, improved engineering features of motor vehicle and other products, and promotion of safe behaviours through social marketing, legislation, and law enforcement. Treatment efforts need to better define the most high-yield services and to promote these in the form of essential health services. To achieve these changes, there is a need to strengthen the capacity of national institutions to do research on injury control; to design and implement countermeasures that address injury risk factors and deficiencies in injury treatment; and to assess the effectiveness of such countermeasures. Although much work remains to be done in high-income countries, even greater attention is needed in less-developed countries, where injury rates are higher, few injury control activities have been undertaken, and where most of the world's population lives. In almost all areas, injury rates are especially high in the most vulnerable sections of the community, including those of low socioeconomic status. Injury control activities should, therefore, be undertaken in a context of attention to human rights and other broad social issues. <s> BIB005 </s> Pedestrian Protection Systems: Issues, Survey, and Challenges <s>  <s> Cities play a vital role in promoting economic growth and prosperity. The development of cities largely depends upon their physical, social, and institutional infrastructure. In this context, the importance of interurban transportation is paramount. This article provides an overview of urban transport issues in India. Rather than covering every aspect of urban transportation, it primarily focuses on those areas that are important from a policy point of view. The article first reviews the trends of vehicular growth and availability of transport infrastructure in Indian cities. This is followed by a discussion on the nature and magnitude of urban transport problems such as congestion, pollution, and road accidents. Building on this background, the article proposes policy measures to improve urban transportation in India. <s> BIB006 </s> Pedestrian Protection Systems: Issues, Survey, and Challenges <s>  <s> This paper gives a survey of recent research on pedestrian collision avoidance systems. Collision avoidance not only requires detection of pedestrians, but also collision prediction using pedestrian dynamics and behavior analysis. The paper reviews various approaches based on cues such as shape, motion, and stereo used for detecting pedestrians from visible as well as non-visible light sensors. This is followed by the study of research dealing with probabilistic modeling of pedestrian behavior for predicting collisions between pedestrian and vehicle. The literature review is also condensed in tabular form for quick reference <s> BIB007
way Traffic Safety Administration report  , there were 4641 pedestrian fatalities during 2004, which accounted for 10.9% of the total 42 636 traffic-related fatalities. In Britain, pedestrians are twice as likely to be killed in accidents as vehicle occupants BIB002 . In developing countries such as India and China, the problem is much worse. During 2001, there were 80 000 fatalities on Indian roads, which grew in last decade at 5% per year BIB006 . In fact, 60%-80% of the road fatalities are the VRUs  , many of them from low-income groups. In China, pedestrians and bicyclists accounted for 27% and 23% of the fatalities, respectively, in 1994, compared to 13% and 2% in the United States  . With the rapid increase in the number of vehicles in these countries, the number of accidents and fatalities is likely to increase before they can be reduced. Furthermore, the problems faced by developing countries are often different from those faced by developed countries. In developing countries, there are a large number of two wheelers, three wheelers, bicyclists, and pedestrians sharing the same road space with cars, buses, and trucks BIB005 , BIB003 . Hence, the solutions for developed countries may not all be directly applicable for developing countries. In fact, the first steps for these countries lie in improving infrastructure design and developing appropriate infrastructure-based solutions, as described in Sections II-A and C, particularly for new constructions. Enhancing comfort and safety of the driver and the occupants of an automobile has been a major motivator in the innovations associated with Intelligent Vehicles (IVs) and Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSs). In the United States, the Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, which is affiliated with the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), conducts research on various topics related to transportation. In particular, the Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Research Program [45] seeks to enhance the safety and mobility of pedestrians and bicyclists. The Pedsmart program [46] has the objective of applying the ITS technology to improve pedestrian safety. They have developed various devices that provide feedback to the waiting and crossing pedestrians as well as the motorists. They have also developed a software called the Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool to analyze the interactions between pedestrians, bicyclists, and motor vehicles. This tool has an application for developing and testing countermeasures for enhancing pedestrian safety. The California Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways (PATH) [43] conducts research on transportation safety issues, including pedestrian protection, driver behavior modeling, and intersection collision prevention. In particular, they have performed research on analyzing the collision behavior at marked and unmarked crosswalks, automatic pedestrian detection systems at intersections, and LED signals to alert drivers to the presence of pedestrians. The European Union (EU) has been conducting several projects in collaboration with industry and research institutes for IV systems in general and pedestrian safety in particular. The project PReVENT [44] deals with the development of safety technologies which help drivers prevent or mitigate the effects of an accident using sensor-based analysis of surroundings as well as the state of the driver. In particular, the subproject COMPOSE focuses on detection of pedestrians, cyclists, and other vehicles using data fusion from sensors and protection using autonomous or semiautonomous braking. The PROTECTOR project and its successor SAVE-U were particularly focused on reducing accidents involving VRUs [41] . The European project PUVAME proposes an infrastructure-based solution to prevent collisions between VRUs and transit buses. They use off-board cameras that observe intersections and bus stops to track the movement of buses as well as VRUs. In Japan, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport has promoted the Advanced Safety Vehicle (ASV) project, which has spanned over three 5-year phases between 1991 and 2005  . The final phase of ASV emphasized car-tocar communications in order to improve safety. Pedestrian detection was an important component of this research. Systems that warned the driver about the presence of pedestrians while making turns were demonstrated at the Tokyo Motor Show [108] . Recent conferences such as in [48] and [49] exhibit a state of the art in IV research. However, there are a very few surveys in the intelligent transportation literature specifically for pedestrian analysis. Gavrila BIB001 has given a comprehensive survey of approaches used for pedestrian detection. Bertozzi et al. have surveyed pedestrian detection in their article on artificial vision in road vehicles BIB004 . We refer to these valuable surveys for earlier work on this topic. However, considerable research has been performed since then. The survey paper BIB007 covers not only the recent research on pedestrian detection but also describes the research on collision prediction using pedestrian dynamics and behavior analysis. Here, we expand on the survey to incorporate the most recent research in the field. We also discuss solutions for pedestrian protection, including the use of infrastructure and vehicle enhancements in addition to vehicleand infrastructure-based sensor systems. This paper attempts to organize ideas, issues, and approaches developed by the research community to allow better understanding of the problems and proposed solutions in the hope of providing some insights, as well as to promote accelerated growth of novel concepts to emerge out of the community. It presents important issues dealing with pedestrian safety and collision avoidance, including motivation for such research, what are the research challenges, what has been tried, a comparative discussion of different approaches, and finally, what remains to be done. This paper is organized as follows. Section II gives an overview of various ways in which pedestrian safety can be addressed, such as by improving infrastructure, passive safety systems involving vehicle design, and by active systems based on pedestrian detection and collision prediction. Section III specifically focuses on pedestrian detection approaches that are based on sensors in vehicles and infrastructure. It categorizes the methods by the types of sensors and computer-vision-based methods that are employed. Section IV describes the research on infrastructure-based traffic monitoring and surveillance, which is applicable to pedestrian detection. Detection of pedestrian is the first step in improving the pedestrian protection. For a complete system, it is necessary to predict the possibility of collision and to generate appropriate warnings for the driver or signals for the autonomous braking or maneuvering systems. Section V describes the research on predicting the possibility of collision. Section VI concludes this paper, showing directions for future work.