Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> B. Open Issues and Questions <s> For part 1 see ibid., Dec 1993, p53-61. Isaac Asimov's Laws of Robotics, first formulated in 1940. were primarily a literary device intended to support a series of stories about robot behavior. Over time, he found that the three Laws included enough apparent inconsistencies, ambiguity. and uncertainty to provide the conflicts required for a great many stories. In examining the ramifications of these laws. Asimov revealed problems that might later confront real roboticists and information technologists attempting to establish rules for the behavior of intelligent machines. As information technology evolves and machines begin to design and build other machines, the issue of human control gains greater significance. In time, human values tend to change; the rules reflecting these values, and embedded in existing robotic devices, may need to be modified. But if they are implicit rather than explicit, with their effects scattered widely across a system, they may not be easily replaceable. Asimov himself discovered many contradictions and eventually revised the Laws of Robotics. > <s> BIB001 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> B. Open Issues and Questions <s> We conducted a web-based survey to establish law enforcement robotics needs for applications that extend beyond explosive ordnance disposal. The survey addressed scenarios and tasks where a robot would be used if available, and the tools, features and parameters deemed most important to carry out those tasks. We present in this paper the results of the survey and summarize current robotics research and development efforts by various segments of the Department of Defense that could potentially help meet those law enforcement needs. We also provide a recommended course of action to the Department of Justice for the development of these robotics capabilities. <s> BIB002 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> B. Open Issues and Questions <s> It has been argued that ethically correct robots should be able to reason about right and wrong. In order to do so, they must have a set of do's and don'ts at their disposal. However, such a list may be inconsistent, incomplete or otherwise unsatisfactory, depending on the reasoning principles that one employs. For this reason, it might be desirable if robots were to some extent able to reason about their own reasoning--in other words, if they had some meta-ethical capacities. In this paper, we sketch how one might go about designing robots that have such capacities. We show that the field of computational meta-ethics can profit from the same tools as have been used in computational metaphysics. <s> BIB003 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> B. Open Issues and Questions <s> As with other emerging technologies, advanced robotics brings with it new ethical and policy challenges. This paper will describe the flourishing role of robots in society-from security to sex-and survey the numerous ethical and social issues, which we locate in three broad categories: safety & errors, law & ethics, and social impact. We discuss many of these issues in greater detail in our forthcoming edited volume on robot ethics from MIT Press. <s> BIB004
There are several questions that arise, regarding the level of safety that ISRs can sustain, and if they can be trusted to replace humans for critical situations. Primarily, we need to address and justify the following question:Will people trust an "intelligent" security robot to keep them secure from criminals, and, how safe can they be under the protection of an ISR? Apparently, this question addresses two contradictive factors, which stipulate the necessity of issues where an ISR must be able to deal. One key factor is the design of a perceptual and cognitive architecture. This includes answers to questions such as: "how the system is designed to develop strategies and confront situations, how the system is built from its constituent parts, and how the cognitive components can be reorganized to fulfill the objectives of a mission, which may also be dynamically changing?"  . Ethically correct robots are arguably the ones that posses ethical standards, and can reason between right and wrong BIB003 . A controversial issue arises on whether humans would trust ISRs judgment on life-and-death matters. On a reference to the Asimov's laws of robotics where "A robot may not injure humanity, or through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm" (zeroth law) BIB001 , there have been several scientific reports that take into serious consideration such laws occurred from science fiction. BIB004 . Eventually, the morality behind human actions and intentions exercised through robotics is the primary concern for unethical or unlawful robots  . 1) Effects of Intelligent Security Robots: Recent advances in ISRs are both illuminating and horrifying. Illuminating because they show state-of-the-art technological achievements on the creation of extremely sophisticated technologies, in their effort to mimic and replace humans in some extent. Horrifying, as they possess peculiar threats to mankind, considering that an artificially intelligent robot may turn to develop reluctant and unwanted behaviors. History shows that even the most sophisticated technologies may crash or malfunction. In the case of crime-fighting robots, such malfunction can cause communication and control problems, as well as superior logic and behavior discrepancies which may lead to unpredictable or uncontrollable responses. Nguyen and Bott BIB002 , from an extensive web-based survey on LERs, have reported several drawbacks and malfunctions that experienced personnel come across when operating LERs. Some of the main problems were indicated on both hard-line control links and unreliable RF links from which remote control was hard for the operator due to communication failures. Some of the common problems mentioned are the following: 1) hard-line cable control link (an RF link is desired); 2) unreliable RF link; 3) limited range, speed, and battery life; 4) complicated controls; 5) robot arm lacking adequate degrees of freedom; 6) mobility over rough terrain (for smaller models); 7) lack of agility, difficult to control (for larger models). Analogous problems may have had negative influence on manufacturers of commercial security robots to export ISRs in the market, considering that those failures could be vitally risky for hazardous situations. On the other hand, beyond the reported drawbacks, the effects of providing intelligent crimefighting robots in the global market to work for man can be beneficial to fight crime. Police and military security robots have been considered as life-saver partners for the past three decades, especially, for missions of critical importance such as the bomb disposal, fire fighting, and hostage retrieval. Moreover, crucial role in intelligent security has played in the surveillance robots category, which has shown the importance of autonomous guards to craft highly sensitive situations, involving the detection and confrontation of criminal episodes. Thereby, leaving intelligent robots to elaborate such delicate situations would be quite trustworthy for the capabilities they possess, the effectiveness to accomplish tasks, even reducing human casualties.