Technical Feasibility of Hermetia illucens in Integrated Waste Management, Renovated with Sewage Water, an Overview <s> Waste Derived Products and Utilization <s> Traits of composts at various stages - 21 days of active composting, and both 60 and 250 days of curing - can be indicators of negative impact on plants. <s> BIB001 </s> Technical Feasibility of Hermetia illucens in Integrated Waste Management, Renovated with Sewage Water, an Overview <s> Waste Derived Products and Utilization <s> Biodiesel is a renewable and environmentally friendly liquid fuel. However, the feedstock, predominantly crop oil, is a limited and expensive food resource which prevents large scale application of biodiesel. Development of non-food feedstocks are therefore, needed to fully utilize biodiesel's potential. In this study, the larvae of a high fat containing insect, black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) (BSFL), was evaluated for biodiesel production. Specifically, the BSFL was grown on organic wastes for 10 days and used for crude fat extraction by petroleum ether. The extracted crude fat was then converted into biodiesel by acid-catalyzed (1% H2SO4) esterification and alkaline-catalyzed (0.8% NaOH) transesterification, resulting in 35.5 g, 57.8 g and 91.4 g of biodiesel being produced from 1000 BSFL growing on 1 kg of cattle manure, pig manure and chicken manure, respectively. The major ester components of the resulting biodiesel were lauric acid methyl ester (35.5%), oleinic acid methyl ester (23.6%) and palmitic acid methyl ester (14.8%). Fuel properties of the BSFL fat-based biodiesel, such as density (885 kg/m 3 ), viscosity <s> BIB002 </s> Technical Feasibility of Hermetia illucens in Integrated Waste Management, Renovated with Sewage Water, an Overview <s> Waste Derived Products and Utilization <s> Inadequate and lacking sanitation and wastewater treatment systems can lead to the spreading of diarrhoeal diseases. One contributing factor in the lack of such treatment systems is the lack of economic incentives for stakeholders throughout the service chain. However, the organic fraction of the waste is high in valuable plant nutrients and could be reused in agriculture and as animal feed. For example, grown larvae of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), make an excellent protein source in animal feed, while the feeding activity of the larvae substantially reduces the dry mass of the treated material. This study examined the effect of black soldier fly larvae on the concentration of pathogenic microorganisms in human faeces and found a 6 log10 reduction in Salmonella spp. in human faeces in eight days, compared with a <2 log10 reduction in the control. No increased reduction was observed for Enterococcus spp., bacteriophage ΦX174 or Ascaris suum ova. <s> BIB003 </s> Technical Feasibility of Hermetia illucens in Integrated Waste Management, Renovated with Sewage Water, an Overview <s> Waste Derived Products and Utilization <s> More than 1 billion people already suffer from chronic hunger, and the world population is expected to grow from 6.8 billion people to about 9 billion by 2050 [1]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) anticipates that food requirements will have to increase by between 70 and 100% to both alleviate existing hunger and malnutrition and feed the additional 2 billion people. If even more land and more natural resources are dedicated to food production, this will have devastating consequences for the Earth's remaining biodiversity. Achieving higher yields from the same land area without severely impacting the environment requires a new way of approaching food production, that is a sustainable intensification, which implies a major improvement in recycling available resources and waste. Indeed, there is huge scope for improving recycling: in the European Union alone, about 90 million tons of foods is discarded each year by private households, retailers and the food industry—the fisheries and agriculture sectors are not included in these figures. ::: ::: > … in the European Union alone, about 90 million tons of foods are discarded each year by private households, retailers and the food industry… ::: ::: At present, the increasing use of arable land for the production of bioenergy plants, rather than crop plants, is leading to a serious reduction in available land for food production worldwide. Similarly, livestock production in the western hemisphere is consuming 85% of global soya production to make concentrated animal feeds (including aquaculture diets), precluding the use of that soya for human consumption. The land used for soya production by just the three major global producers (Brazil, the USA and Argentina) is about 90 million hectares. These areas exhibit the well‐known effects of monocultured crops including destroyed biodiversity, decreased soil fertility and depleted water resources. ::: ::: > … livestock production in the western hemisphere is consuming 85% … <s> BIB004 </s> Technical Feasibility of Hermetia illucens in Integrated Waste Management, Renovated with Sewage Water, an Overview <s> Waste Derived Products and Utilization <s> A novel and efficient organic waste management strategy currently gaining great attention is fly larvae composting. High resource recovery efficiency can be achieved in this closed-looped system, but pharmaceuticals and pesticides in waste could potentially accumulate in every loop of the treatment system and spread to the environment. This study evaluated the fate of three pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, roxithromycin, trimethoprim) and two pesticides (azoxystrobin, propiconazole) in a fly larvae composting system and in a control treatment with no larvae. It was found that the half-life of all five substances was shorter in the fly larvae compost (<10% of control) and no bioaccumulation was detected in the larvae. Fly larvae composting could thus impede the spread of pharmaceuticals and pesticides into the environment. <s> BIB005
The elementary end-products originated from BSFL composting are the live biomass population and the mature compost or humus. The larvae can be further utilized as the protein supplement for poultry livestock and aquatic fishes instead of ordinary diet after performing the de-fatting operation which potentially amplifies amino acid content in larvae. Several studies have been conducted by different researchers on this aspect and the BSF larvae were found to be admissible as an alternative to inferior traditional diet for poultry and swine farms [81] BIB004 . Other distinct application includes synthesis of value-added co-products such as Biodiesel, grease, and sugar BIB002 . Ultimately the residue which contains stabilized nutrients such as nitrogen; phosphorus etc. can be uti- Open Access Library Journal lized as a soil conditioner. Nevertheless, because of the shorter stabilization period, the compost needs to be processed through a maturation treatment to inhibit the anaerobic growth and successive oxygen deficiency; otherwise, it may suppress the germination of seeds and abolish photosynthesis BIB001 . Despite its entire expedience, the process may encompass few minor drawbacks such as pathogens contamination in the food chain and infiltration of persistent pollutants into livestock etc. Tests had been carried out by several researchers to understand the interaction between the BSF larvae and different pathogens and it was reported, though BSF larvae can potentially reduce the activities of Salmonella spp. but quite ineffective against other spore-forming pathogens namely, Bacteriophage, Enterococcus spp. and also eggs of helminth BIB003 . Moreover, a bioaccumulation problem could be encountered when contaminated waste directly supplied to the composting yard without any sort of pre-treatment or precautionary screening  . Fascinatingly, BSFL composting degrades hazardous substances from pesticide and pharmaceutical industries at a much faster rate. Different substances had been investigated by Lalander et al. BIB005 