Energy Harvesting Technologies for Achieving Self-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks in Machine Condition Monitoring: A Review <s> Hybrid Energy Harvesting <s> Abstract Energy harvesting from moving objects and machines in our daily life, such as automobile and train, is quite important for powering portable electronics, sensor systems and high fuel efficiency. Here, we present a disc-based design that simulates the braking system in an automobile for harvesting energy when the braking pads are both in contact and in non-contact modes. The mechanisms for the design are based on a conjunction use of triboelectrification and electrostatic-induction processes. The static non-mobile charges for driving the free electrons are created by triboelectrification when the two discs of opposite tribo-polarities are in direct contact during the braking action. The process for generating electricity in non-contact mode is due to the electrostatic induction of the existing tribo-charges on the insulating pad. Our approach demonstrates an effective means for harvesting energy from a rotating disc structure during both braking and non-braking processes, with potential application in motor cycles, automobiles, and even moving trains. <s> BIB001 </s> Energy Harvesting Technologies for Achieving Self-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks in Machine Condition Monitoring: A Review <s> Hybrid Energy Harvesting <s> Packaging is a critical aspect of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) toward practical applications, since the performance of TENG is greatly affected by environmental conditions such as humidity. A waterproof triboelectric–electromagnetic hybrid generator (WPHG) for harvesting mechanical energy in harsh environments is reported. Since the mechanical transmission from the external mechanical source to the TENG is through a noncontact force between the paired magnets, a fully isolated packaging of TENG part can be easily achieved. At the same time, combining with metal coils, these magnets can be fabricated to be electromagnetic generators (EMG). The characteristics and advantages of outputs from both TENG and EMG are systematically studied and compared to each other. By using transformers and full-wave rectifiers, 2.3 mA for total short-circuit current and 5 V for open-circuit voltage are obtained for WPHG under a rotation speed of 1600 rpm, and it can charge a supercapacitor (20 mF) to 1 V in 22s. Finally, the WPHG is demonstrated to harvest wind energy in the rainy condition and water-flow energy under water. The reported WPHG renders an effective and sustainable technology for ambient mechanical energy harvesting in harsh environments. Solid progress in both the packaging of TENG and the practical applications of the hybrid generator toward practical power source and self-powered systems is presented. <s> BIB002 </s> Energy Harvesting Technologies for Achieving Self-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks in Machine Condition Monitoring: A Review <s> Hybrid Energy Harvesting <s> This paper discusses the design of a novel dual (solar + electromagnetic) energy harvesting powered communication system, which operates at 2.4 GHz ISM band, enabling the autonomous operation of a low power consumption power management circuit for a wireless sensor, while featuring a very good “cold start” capability. The proposed harvester consists of a dual port rectangular slot antenna, a 3-D printed package, a solar cell, an RF-dc converter, a power management unit (PMU), a microcontroller unit, and an RF transceiver. Each designed component was characterized through simulation and measurements. As a result, the antenna exhibited a performance satisfying the design goals in the frequency range of 2.4–2.5 GHz. Similarly, the designed miniaturized RF-dc conversion circuit generated a sufficient voltage and power to support the autonomous operation of the bq25504 PMU for RF input power levels as low as −12.6 and −15.6 dBm at the “cold start” and “hot start” condition, respectively. The experimental testing of the PMU utilizing the proposed hybrid energy harvester confirmed the reduction of the capacitor charging time by 40% and the reduction of the minimum required RF input power level by 50% compared with the one required for the individual RF and solar harvester under the room light irradiation condition of 334 lx. <s> BIB003 </s> Energy Harvesting Technologies for Achieving Self-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks in Machine Condition Monitoring: A Review <s> Hybrid Energy Harvesting <s> We present a hybrid electromagnetic generator (EMG) and triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) using a multi-impact approach for broad-bandwidth-frequency (10–45 Hz) energy harvesting. The TENG and the EMG were located at the middle and the free end of the cantilever beam, respectively. When the system was subjected to an external vibration, the cantilever beam would be in a nonlinear response with multiple impacts from a low frequency oscillator. The mathematical model included a TENG oscillator which can have multiple impacts on the cantilever, and the nonlinear Lorenz force which comes from the motion of the coil in the electromagnetic field. Due to the strong nonlinearity of the impacts from the TENG oscillator and the limited space for the free tip of the cantilever, the dynamic response of the cantilever presented a much broader bandwidth, with a frequency range from 10–45 Hz. We also found that the average generated power from TENG and EMG can reach up to 30 μW/m2 and 53 μW, respectively. Moreover, the dynamic responses of the hybrid EMG and TENG were carefully analyzed, and we found that the measured experimental results and the numerical simulations results were in good agreement. <s> BIB004 </s> Energy Harvesting Technologies for Achieving Self-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks in Machine Condition Monitoring: A Review <s> Hybrid Energy Harvesting <s> Abstract The impact of design and external parameters on the intrinsic output properties and load characteristics of hybrid energy harvesting generator is significant in both designing the generator and power management circuit and achieving high energy conversion efficiency. In this work, the intrinsic output characteristics of a hybrid triboelectric and piezoelectric generator is investigated, where the impacts of design parameters on the output properties and load characteristics under resistive and capacitive load conditions are demonstrated using a wide-ranging setting of the design parameters and compared with the theoretical calculations using a parallel hybrid model. The regularities concluded from the experimental results reflect the actual output behavior of a typical hybrid generator and provide evidence that the parameters have significant impacts on the intrinsic output properties, resistive load behavior and charging behavior. The outcomes of this study can be used as guidance toward designing effective structures and power management as well as in future simulation of a wide range of hybrid generators. <s> BIB005 </s> Energy Harvesting Technologies for Achieving Self-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks in Machine Condition Monitoring: A Review <s> Hybrid Energy Harvesting <s> Abstract In this paper a novel multimodal hybrid bridge energy harvester (HBEH) using combined piezoelectric and electromagnetic conversion is reported. The architecture, fabrication, and characterization of the harvester is discussed. The devised HBEH consists of a permanent magnet, a wound coil, a piezoelectric plate, an airfoil, and two cantilever beams attached to a base support frame. The upper cantilever is holding a permanent magnet and an airfoil as tip mass. A piezoelectric plate is bonded on this beam near its fixed end. On the other hand, the lower beam holds a wound coil. The coil is adjusted in such a way that it is in-line and close to the permanent magnet. The harvester is capable of converting bridge vibrations and ambient wind energy into useful electrical energy to operate wireless sensor nodes (WSNs) for the health monitoring of bridges. Experimentally, the HBEH operated at three, low frequency resonant modes, ranging from 11 to 45 Hz, concentrated around 11, 38 and 43 Hz. Moreover, under sinusoidal base acceleration of 0.6 g, the harvester produced a maximum power of 2214.32 µW across a matching impedance of 28 Ω from its electromagnetic portion at 1st resonance (11.1 Hz). However, a peak power of 155.7 µW was generated by the harvester from its piezoelectric part under 0.4 g base excitation across 130 kΩ load resistance. Furthermore, at 6 m/s pulsating wind speed, the harvester generated load voltages of 25 mV and 114 mV from its electromagnetic and piezoelectric portions when connected to optimum load impedance of 28 Ω and 130 kΩ respectively. <s> BIB006
EH technologies are classified based on different energy sources. Their working principles and generator prototypes investigated by researchers have been detailed above. The pros and cons of the aforementioned generators are thoroughly summarized and compared in Tables 6 and 7 . To obtain sufficient power to implement self-powered or maintenance-free devices, multiple types of energy harvested by hybrid technologies have become the recent trend with the advancement of nanotechnology and fabrication technologies. The combination of different technologies can enhance their merits and overcome shortfalls. A common improvement is the combination of two technologies. For instance, Bito et al. BIB003 packages a hybrid and efficient generator to convert room light irradiation and electromagnetic waves into electricity to power internet of things (IoT) wireless sensors with the assistance of a solar cell and RF energy harvesting techniques. Additionally, Guo et al. BIB002 designed a waterproof generator based on triboelectric and electromagnetic mechanisms which can be applied in harsh environments. A hybrid triboelectric and electromagnetic generator fabricated by Zhu et al. BIB004 can generate microlevel power density when it operates within a broad bandwidth . Similarly, for harvesting automobile rotational energy from the brake, Han et al. BIB001 has explored a generator with a six blade structure which uses triboelectric and electrostatic induction under the disc contact during the braking action and non-contact modes, respectively. A triboelectric generator can also be combined with a piezoelectric one. Yang et al. BIB005 has simulated a hybrid triboelectric-piezoelectric harvester model and analyzed the effect of parameter setting on maximum power output. This study can support the guidance of effective and efficient harvester design in future. Moreover, combining piezoelectric and electromagnetic mechanisms, the authors in BIB006 have invented and fabricated a hybrid generator by calculating the model parameters in advance. The generator can scavenge adequate power (up to 2.214 mW) from bridge vibrations and the surrounding wind flow to support the operation of WSN for bridge health monitoring. 