A Review on the Extraction of Quantitative Retinal Microvascular Image Feature <s> Generic Feature Extraction Process of Retinal Vasculature <s> Image processing is a broad field posing a wide range of problems. The Work presented in this dissertation is mainly concerned with filter design subjectto different criteria and constraints.The first part describes the development of a new radiographic reconstruction method designated Ectomography. The method is novel in that it allows reconstruction of an arbitrarily thick layer of an object using limited viewing angle.The subject of the second partis estimation and filtering of local image information. Quadrature filters are designed enabling accurate orientation and frequency estimates. The extracted information is shown to provide a good basis fo r efficient image enhancement and coding procedures. <s> BIB001 </s> A Review on the Extraction of Quantitative Retinal Microvascular Image Feature <s> Generic Feature Extraction Process of Retinal Vasculature <s> A clamp or grip for heavy duty work with twisted wire cables and the like, such as in marine and industrial uses and especially where reasonably easy application of the cable grip to the cable is important and undue bending moments on the heavy cables are to be avoided. The feature of a removable jaw is coupled with dual link bar structure for the jaws without sacrificing strength and with a considerable reduction in overall weight of the clamp as compared to presently available equipment, this being accomplished in part by elimination of a frame as such and providing the principal jaw with a slotted stabilizing arm having a sliding connection with a unique hanger bar, which latter is designed to be connected to the lift hook of a crane or the like. <s> BIB002 </s> A Review on the Extraction of Quantitative Retinal Microvascular Image Feature <s> Generic Feature Extraction Process of Retinal Vasculature <s> Radiological images are increasingly being used in healthcare and medical research. There is, consequently, widespread interest in accurately relating information in the different images for diagnosis, treatment and basic science. This article reviews registration techniques used to solve this problem, and describes the wide variety of applications to which these techniques are applied. Applications of image registration include combining images of the same subject from different modalities, aligning temporal sequences of images to compensate for motion of the subject between scans, image guidance during interventions and aligning images from multiple subjects in cohort studies. Current registration algorithms can, in many cases, automatically register images that are related by a rigid body transformation (i.e. where tissue deformation can be ignored). There has also been substantial progress in non-rigid registration algorithms that can compensate for tissue deformation, or align images from different subjects. Nevertheless many registration problems remain unsolved, and this is likely to continue to be an active field of research in the future. <s> BIB003 </s> A Review on the Extraction of Quantitative Retinal Microvascular Image Feature <s> Generic Feature Extraction Process of Retinal Vasculature <s> As digital imaging and computing power increasingly develop, so too does the potential to use these technologies in ophthalmology. Image processing, analysis and computer vision techniques are increasing in prominence in all fields of medical science, and are especially pertinent to modern ophthalmology, as it is heavily dependent on visually oriented signs. The retinal microvasculature is unique in that it is the only part of the human circulation that can be directly visualised non-invasively in vivo, readily photographed and subject to digital image analysis. Exciting developments in image processing relevant to ophthalmology over the past 15 years includes the progress being made towards developing automated diagnostic systems for conditions, such as diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration and retinopathy of prematurity. These diagnostic systems offer the potential to be used in large-scale screening programs, with the potential for significant resource savings, as well as being free from observer bias and fatigue. In addition, quantitative measurements of retinal vascular topography using digital image analysis from retinal photography have been used as research tools to better understand the relationship between the retinal microvasculature and cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, advances in electronic media transmission increase the relevance of using image processing in 'teleophthalmology' as an aid in clinical decision-making, with particular relevance to large rural-based communities. In this review, we outline the principles upon which retinal digital image analysis is based. We discuss current techniques used to automatically detect landmark features of the fundus, such as the optic disc, fovea and blood vessels. We review the use of image analysis in the automated diagnosis of pathology (with particular reference to diabetic retinopathy). We also review its role in defining and performing quantitative measurements of vascular topography, how these entities are based on 'optimisation' principles and how they have helped to describe the relationship between systemic cardiovascular disease and retinal vascular changes. We also review the potential future use of fundal image analysis in telemedicine. <s> BIB004
Image processing is the method of applying mathematical operations in signal processing systems where image or video is fed as input and the output also is either image or a group of features or parameters that are related to the image  . Digital imaging accomplishes functions on a digital image. It is being used in image enhancement, data compression, and machine vision and deals with difficulties from edge detection to pattern recognition and reconstruction  BIB001 . In biomedical engineering, digital image processing is being applied in many researches and diagnosing the diseases, planning and supervising treatment for that disease, and monitoring the state of diseases simultaneously BIB003 . Digital image processing is playing an important role in medical sector to reduce the involvement of observers in avoiding unexpected errors and getting a more precise result BIB002 . Many life-threatening cardiovascular diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and stroke are related to the early change of the caliber of retinal microvasculature. It is the boon of modern acquisition technology that high-resolution retinal images can be captured easily for analyzing the risk of stroke among the individuals that are at risk of cardiovascular diseases and stroke. It is also responsible for enlarging the database of retinal images. The development of automated and computer-aided quantitative measurement techniques based on image processing for monitoring the changes of this microvascular caliber of the human retina has become the situation demand to ensure the maximum accuracy in detecting these destructive diseases and avoid the bulkiness of current diagnostic systems  . There are three major operations performed in image processing to process an image for extracting special features of the image. The first one is the enhancement of input image like contrast improvement, the second one is image restoration which means deblurring image, and the third one is the segmentation of the image, which means separating the certain portion of the image that is considered as the area of interest BIB004 . The related image processing techniques for extracting different features of fundus retinal image are described in Figure 8 .