A Review of Protocol Implementations and Energy Efficient Cross-Layer Design for Wireless Body Area Networks <s> Energy Efficiency <s> In this paper, we investigate the impact of radio irregularity on the communication performance in wireless sensor networks. Radio irregularity is a common phenomenon which arises from multiple factors, such as variance in RF sending power and different path losses depending on the direction of propagation. From our experiments, we discover that the variance in received signal strength is largely random; however, it exhibits a continuous change with incremental changes in direction. With empirical data obtained from the MICA2 platform, we establish a radio model for simulation, called the Radio Irregularity Model (RIM). This model is the first to bridge the discrepancy between spherical radio models used by simulators and the physical reality of radio signals. With this model, we are able to analyze the impact of radio irregularity on some of the well-known MAC and routing protocols. Our results show that radio irregularity has a significant impact on routing protocols, but a relatively small impact on MAC protocols. Finally, we propose six solutions to deal with radio irregularity. We evaluate two of them in detail. The results obtained from both the simulation and a running testbed demonstrate that our solutions greatly improve communication performance in the presence of radio irregularity. <s> BIB001 </s> A Review of Protocol Implementations and Energy Efficient Cross-Layer Design for Wireless Body Area Networks <s> Energy Efficiency <s> This article presents a novel transmission power assignment mechanism for on-body wireless links formed between severely energy-constrained wearable and implanted sensors. The key idea is to develop a measurement-based framework in which the postural position as it pertains to a given wireless link is first inferred based on the measured RF signal strength and packet drops. Then optimal power assignment is done by fitting those measurement results into a model describing the relationship between the assigned power and the resulting signal strength. A closed loop power control mechanism is then added for iterative convergence to the optimal power level as a response to both intra-and-inter posture body movements. This provides a practical paradigm for on-body power assignment, which cannot leverage the existing mechanisms in the literature that rely on localization, which is not realistic for on-body sensors. Extensive experimental results are provided to demonstrate the model building and algorithm performance on a prototype body area network. The proposed mechanism has also been compared with a number of other closed loop mechanisms and an experimental benchmark. <s> BIB002 </s> A Review of Protocol Implementations and Energy Efficient Cross-Layer Design for Wireless Body Area Networks <s> Energy Efficiency <s> The increasing use of wireless networks and the constant miniaturization of electrical devices has empowered the development of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs). In these networks various sensors are attached on clothing or on the body or even implanted under the skin. The wireless nature of the network and the wide variety of sensors offer numerous new, practical and innovative applications to improve health care and the Quality of Life. The sensors of a WBAN measure for example the heartbeat, the body temperature or record a prolonged electrocardiogram. Using a WBAN, the patient experiences a greater physical mobility and is no longer compelled to stay in the hospital. This paper offers a survey of the concept of Wireless Body Area Networks. First, we focus on some applications with special interest in patient monitoring. Then the communication in a WBAN and its positioning between the different technologies is discussed. An overview of the current research on the physical layer, existing MAC and network protocols is given. Further, cross layer and quality of service is discussed. As WBANs are placed on the human body and often transport private data, security is also considered. An overview of current and past projects is given. Finally, the open research issues and challenges are pointed out. <s> BIB003
Energy efficiency within a WBAN environment is a key requirement where batteries are likely to be operational for months or years rather than days. This is especially important in the case of embedded sensors where patients may have to undergo a minor operation to change the battery. A pacemaker or glucose monitor could require a battery life of five years or more BIB003 . Characteristics such as low duty cycle, high levels of node sleep duration, use of efficient protocols and link adaptation/power management techniques can all contribute to extended battery life. A node may spend large amounts of time in sleep mode but can wake up frequently to communicate key physiological data. The energy consumed during the node wakeup process can be significant and degrade battery life. Propagation and signal absorption issues can be a significant problem for WBANs requiring specific energy efficient solutions. The optimal transmission power for on-body transmission for a wireless link depends on the physical distance of the link and its instantaneous channel condition BIB001 . Patient mobility and posture can have a significant effect on efficient packet delivery. The inherent characteristics of RF attenuation in and around the human body can have a direct impact on channel conditions BIB002 . There is a potential scope for some forms of energy harvesting especially with a mobile patient, but is only likely to deliver small amounts of energy  . However, mechanisms that use body heat or vibration seem well suited to energy harvesting and could form part of an overall energy efficient solution BIB003 .