A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> The authors describe the operation of a tendon-driven manipulator, the CT ARM-I, which has a tendon traction force transmission mechanism in which the pair of tendons that drive a joint are pulled from base actuators via pulleys mounted on the base-side joints. The mechanism makes the most of the coupled drive function of the tendon traction forces and thus enables the lightweight manipulator to exhibit enormous payload capability. The manipulator has a solid structure and is inexpensive to manufacture because of its mechanical simplicity. Experiments demonstrate that the CT ARM-I has an active compliance arm and offers payload capability superior to that of conventional manipulators. > <s> BIB001 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> The energy efficiency of a robotic manipulator is important, particularly when that manipulator is used in conjunction with a mobile robot with limited battery life. In the paper the energy efficiency (in terms of the electrical energy usage) of a spatial three DOF parallel manipulator is compared to a serial manipulator with the same drive motors and a similar workspace. The effects of end-effector position, velocity and acceleration, and static loading due to gravity are examined. Over a range of conditions, the average energy usage of the parallel manipulator was determined to be 26% of the serial manipulator's. This benefit is not due simply to the reduction in moving mass achieved by the parallel design since its moving mass is 70% of the serial manipulator's. Static loading due to gravity was found to roughly double the power usage of both manipulators without significantly affecting their relative energy efficiency. <s> BIB002 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> A third generation of torque-controlled light weight robots has been developed in DLR's robotics and mechatronics lab which is based on all the experiences that have been had with the first two generations. It aims at reaching the limits of what seems achievable with present day technologies not only with respect to light-weight, but also with respect to minimal power consumption and losses. One of the main gaps we tried to close in version III was the development of a new, robot-dedicated high energy motor designed with the best available techniques of concurrent engineering, and the renewed efforts to save weight in the links by using ultralight carbon fibres. <s> BIB003 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Purpose – The paper seeks to present a new generation of torque‐controlled light‐weight robots (LWR) developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics of the German Aerospace Center.Design/methodology/approach – An integrated mechatronic design approach for LWR is presented. Owing to the partially unknown properties of the environment, robustness of planning and control with respect to environmental variations is crucial. Robustness is achieved in this context through sensor redundancy and passivity‐based control. In the DLR root concept, joint torque sensing plays a central role.Findings – In order to act in unstructured environments and interact with humans, the robots have design features and control/software functionalities which distinguish them from classical robots, such as: load‐to‐weight ratio of 1:1, torque sensing in the joints, active vibration damping, sensitive collision detection, compliant control on joint and Cartesian level.Practical implications – The DLR robots are excellent rese... <s> BIB004 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> In order to improve the performance and energy efficiency of the pneumatic drive, the by-pass valve control scheme is designed and studied. For pneumatic positioning application, in the constant speed phase, the inlet and outlet chambers will be connected via by-pass valve to reduce the overshoot and allow some exhaust compressed air to be reused. Therefore, compared with the traditional control of the motion of the asymmetric cylinder, a 12–28% saving in energy use can be acquired and meanwhile the position accuracy is maintained. Preliminary results from the simulation and experiment studies will be reported. <s> BIB005 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> The industrial sector is the largest users of energy around the world. Industrial motor uses a major fraction of total industrial energy uses. This paper describes a comprehensive literature review about electric motor energy analysis. This paper compiles latest literatures in terms of thesis (MS and PhD), journal articles, conference proceedings, web materials, reports, books, handbooks on electrical motor energy use, losses, efficiency, energy savings strategies. Different types of losses that occur in a motor have been identified and ways to overcome these losses explained. An energy audit that helps to identify motor energy wastages have been discussed extensively. As motors are the major energy users, different energy savings strategies such as use of high-efficient motor, variable speed drive (VSD), and capacitor bank to improve the power factor to reduce their energy uses have reviewed. Different policy measures (i.e. regulatory, voluntary and incentives based) to save motor energy use have been reviewed and presented in this paper. In this review, computer tools that can be used to analyze electric motors energy used has been discussed. Cost parameters to carry out economic analysis have been shown as well. Moreover, payback period for different energy savings strategies have been identified. <s> BIB006 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Powering a robot is one of the biggest challenges in robot design, which is one of new technologies that will positively impact robotics. Flywheel is a kind of device for energy conversion and storage, which is known as electro-mechanical battery. In this paper, a kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) for rubber-tyred gantry (RTG) crane robot is explored, which is based on a surface-mounted permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) with an integrated flywheel spinning at high speed. At first, the basic background of situation RTG crane robot is introduced, afterwards the KERS is discussed to show that it can be perfectly used to meet the peak energy requirements of crane during both acceleration and regenerative braking. Then, a typical structure of KERS is designed step by step. A saturated inductance is designed to reduce the total harmonic distortion (THD) and allow the withdrawal of a large amount of currents. Direct paralleling of two insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) modules is developed with consideration of the power demand. Next, the operation of the integrated system including power electronics, sensors and digital signal processor (DSP) is explained. The algorithm regulates the operation of the pulse width modulation (PWM) converter is realized by proportional plus integral (PI) controllers for charging the flywheel with constant current and discharging under constant power. Finally, the feasibility of the proposed system is verified by simulation. <s> BIB007 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Pneumatic actuators are widely used in industry and many other applications, whereas low energy efficiency has been recognized as a critical drawback compared with corresponding hydraulic and electrical actuators. The paper presents a new hybrid pneumatic-electrical system aiming at energy efficiency improvement by recovering exhaust air energy from pneumatic actuator outlets to generate electricity. A closed-loop control strategy is proved to be essential to ensure the exhaust energy recovery work properly and to maintain existed actuator operations simultaneously. The whole system mathematical model and the simulation results are presented in the paper. The laboratory test results are also given. The simulation and experimental study demonstrate that the designed system with the proposed control strategy can operate at the relative higher energy efficiency state for the specified working conditions. <s> BIB008 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> For the problems of complex control and harmonic interference when elevator’s regenerative braking energy feed back to the grid, The paper presents an energy saving program. Renewable energy is stored with super capacitors and used locally. The paper analyzes the basic operating principle of the super-capacitor energy storage device and power operation curves in different conditions. The elevator energy consumption experiments are completed in five typical working conditions. Experimental results show that super capacitor energy storage device of the elevator is stable and has a good energy saving effect. <s> BIB009 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> This paper presents the experimental and simulation results of industrial robot's recuperated energy saving approaches. Two complementary alternatives- a capacitive energy buffer on the robot's DC-bus is evaluated and a novel approach, the robot EnergyTeam has been proposed. The principle of robot EnergyTeam is the DC-bus merging among various number of industrial robot power controllers thus enabling a controlled energy flow among the robots that decelerate and, therefore, recuperate the energy and those that simultaneously require a peak power supply for the acceleration. Cost efficiency is estimated considering the characteristics in robotics of real production in the automobile industry. <s> BIB010 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Research on joint torque reduction in robot manipulators has received considerable attention in recent years. Minimizing the computational complexity of torque optimization and the ability to calculate the magnitude of the joint torque accurately will result in a safe operation without overloading the joint actuators. This paper presents a mechanical design for a three dimensional planar redundant manipulator with the advantage of the reduction in the number of motors needed to control the joint angle, leading to a decrease in the weight of the manipulator. Many efforts have been focused on decreasing the weight of manipulators, such as using lightweight joints design or setting the actuators at the base of the manipulator and using tendons for the transmission of power to these joints. By using the design of this paper, only three motors are needed to control any n degrees of freedom in a three dimensional planar redundant manipulator instead of n motors. Therefore this design is very effective to decrease the weight of the manipulator as well as the number of motors needed to control the manipulator. In this paper, the torque of all the joints are calculated for the proposed manipulator (with three motors) and the conventional three dimensional planar manipulator (with one motor for each degree of freedom) to show the effectiveness of the proposed manipulator for decreasing the weight of the manipulator and minimizing driving joint torques. <s> BIB011 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Abstract In this study, a novel hydraulic energy-regenerative system was presented from its proposal through modeling to its control. The system was based on a closed-loop hydrostatic transmission and used a hydraulic accumulator as the energy storage system fabricated in a novel configuration to recover the kinetic energy without any reversion of the fluid flow. The displacement variation in the secondary unit was reduced, increasing the uses of several types of hydraulic pump/motors. The proposed system was modeled based on its physical attributes. A hierarchal control system was implemented and focused on the design of an adaptive fuzzy sliding mode control for speed control of the secondary unit. The energy utilization and the influences on the energy-recovery potential of the system were analyzed. Simulation and experiments were performed to evaluate the validity of the employed mathematical model and the effectiveness of the control system. The experimental results indicated that the designed system was effective and that the round trip recovery efficiency varied from 22% to 59% for the test bench. <s> BIB012 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> This paper proposes a new type of power converter for drive systems to enable the exchange of recuperated energy within an independent DC subgrid having one centralized energy storage element. Many industrial applications that require rapid cyclic starts and stops are subject to significant energy waste at the brake chopper of the DC bus due to over voltage during motor deceleration. The proposed solution allows the brake chopper to be eliminated and the otherwise wasted energy to be stored externally. The solution does not require identical hardware or exact synchronization between the drive rectifiers. Experimental results in industrial robotics show savings of up to 20%. <s> BIB013 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> It is state of the art for many drive systems like those used in industrial robotics, conveyor systems or diverse numerical control machinery to have a common DC bus power system architecture. Due to regenerative braking, the DC bus voltage increases until a certain limit, which is limited means of a balancing resistor (brake chopper). Systems that require rapid cyclic starts and stops are subject to significant energy waste due to extensive use of the brake chopper. In this article, a novel power converter for drive systems is proposed that allows the brake chopper to be omitted and enables the exchange of regenerative energy among multiple drive systems within an independent DC subgrid with one centralized energy storage element. The solution does not require identical hardware or exact synchronization between the drive rectifiers, therefore it is applicable to both existing and new production equipment alike. Experimental results in industrial robot drives show savings of up to 20%. <s> BIB014 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Abstract An underactuated serial kinematics industrial handling robot using high torque direct drive motors combined with slip rings is presented. Pick and place tasks are performed through combining the underactuated motion with a null-space motion enabling the kinetic energy to be conserved within the system. This system is benchmarked against linear axis systems with belt and ball screw drives respectively and also against a conventional robot system regarding energy efficiency proving performance improvements. <s> BIB015 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Mobile hydraulic systems are developed toward better control performance and higher energy efficiency. Pressure compensators, which govern the pressure drops over the control orifices, are widely used in multiactuator systems to improve their operability. However, additional energy is also dissipated in the compensators especially under the overrunning load conditions. This paper presents a novel energy-saving system, where the compensator is designed as a regeneration device consisting of a hydraulic motor and an electric generator. Then, hydraulic energy can be regenerated and pressure compensation function is realized by adapting the electromagnetic torque of the generator to the load as well. The close-loop control of the generator is designed by effective pressure drop estimation. The proposed energy-saving system and controller are implemented on an experimental platform of hybrid excavators which is equipped with an electric energy storage device. The experimental results show both good control performance and significant energy-saving effect. <s> BIB016 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> This paper presents a novel energy-saving method of a robotic system utilizing parallel mechanism by redundant actuation. The redundantly actuated system can distribute arbitrary actuating torques in a certain combination. By using this feature, the regenerative power dissipation and electric power loss are reduced. Moreover, the redundant actuation can reduce the peak torque of actuating joints. This feature reduces the friction loss because we can use a smaller gear reducer. A parallel manipulator with two degrees of freedom is simulated as a case study. The energy consumption of the robotic system is modeled by analyzing the type of energy consumption in actuation systems. An optimization process is proposed to maximize the energy-saving effect. The results show that 26.1% of electric energy can be saved by redundant actuation. <s> BIB017 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Parallel manipulators present advantages compared to serial ones, such as higher load-carrying capacity, improved accuracy and increased stiffness. However, parallel manipulators possess limitations due to the presence of singularities. It has been proved that kinematic and actuation redundancy promote a significant reduction in the singularities and homogenization on the actuation forces. This paper evaluates the effect of the addition of kinematic redundancy in the energy efficiency of parallel manipulators. In order to do so, the required mechanical energy consumed by a 3RRR non-redundant planar parallel manipulator and their kinematically redundant versions, to perform several predefined trajectories is minimized using a genetic algorithm. The result of the comparison shows that the required mechanical energy to perform a given trajectory can be reduced with the addition of kinematic redundancy.Copyright © 2015 by ASME <s> BIB018 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> This paper investigates feasibility of using a flywheel based energy recovery and storage system for a robotic manipulator. The incentive is supported by ever growing necessity for efficient systems and optimisation of power consumption of industrial processes. Previous work has shown that robotic manipulators can benefit from incorporation of energy recovery and temporary energy storage system which resulted in significant reduction in power consumption. The ABB IRB 140 manipulator is used as a test bed for simulation and data collection. The manipulator internal parameters are identified and model is constructed using MATLAB/Simulink. The manipulator is programmed to executed a number of trajectories representing typical industrial tasks during which joints data is recorded and applied to the model. Simulation results show that flywheel based energy storage system is fully compatible with the manipulator controller hardware and is able to achieve reduction in power consumption. <s> BIB019 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Minimizing the computational complexity of torque optimization and the ability to calculate the magnitude of the joint torque accurately will result in a safe operation without overloading the joint actuators. Reduced torque will lead to lighter robotic arm and easier control. The main objective of this work is to design a robotic arm with all the motors located at the base so that the arm becomes lighter than the conventional arms. The main advantage from this development is to decrease the torque required to control the arm. The motion of motors is transferred to links via aluminum pulleys, bearings, and timing belts which yields to the need of lighter motors and hence a lighter manipulator. The maximum torque of each joint has been calculated then compared with the torque needed using conventional design to show the effectiveness of the proposed design for decreasing the weight of the manipulator and minimizing driving joint torques. <s> BIB020 </s> A Review on Energy-Saving Optimization Methods for Robotic and Automatic Systems <s> Robot Type <s> Power-efficient fluidic driven system is beneficial to extending the working time of autonomous and wearable soft robots supplied by independent power sources such as batteries. In this paper, an energy recovery scheme is proposed to reutilize the pressurized air released by retracting pneumatic soft actuators instead of venting to atmosphere. The scheme's novelty lies in an air accumulator employed to store the recovered energy and boost the inlet pressure of air pumps when there is requirement. Then the energy-saving principle is described based on the comparison of energy flow between the systems with and without energy recovery. Residual pressure, recoverable energy and parametric effect are also presented analytically according to the ideal gas law. Finally, simulation models are developed to evaluate the system performance and the results show that about 20% reduction of power consumption and acceptable residual pressure can be achieved simultaneously when the accumulator volume is three times of the actuator volume, which provides reference to further prototype development. <s> BIB021
Through the proper choice of available automation system for a given application, an energy enhancement can be achieved, meanwhile keeping the productivity BIB002 BIB015 BIB017 BIB018 . In BIB002 , a comparison between parallel and serial manipulator configurations of a similar workspace and payload is carried out. The parallel configuration is shown on average to be more energy efficient in horizontal motion. However, it is less energy efficient in vertical movement. In BIB015 , an under-actuated serial robot with three degrees of freedom (DOFs) is presented and compared with respect to industrial conventional robots (e.g., linear-axis system, or industrial robotic system) to operate a pick-and-place operation. Further, the adoption of redundant manipulators is considered as a possible solution if an energy consumption reduction is needed. In BIB017 BIB018 , the effect of the kinematic redundancy insertion on the energy demand of parallel manipulators is considered. In this case, the redundantly actuated system can distribute arbitrary actuating torques in a certain combination; thus that which is more efficient can be chosen. Similarly, in BIB018 , a comparison between a 3 Revolute joints (3RRR), non-redundant, planar, parallel manipulator and its kinematically redundant versions is performed, demonstrating that an energy-consumption reduction can be obtained in the second case. In BIB017 , a robotic system based on a parallel mechanism with redundant actuation is evaluated, showing possibilities to reduce electric power loss, peak torque of actuating joints and friction loss. BIB002 2001 Conference paper Robot type --3-DoFs parallel manipulator and serial manipulator BIB015 2014 Conference paper Robot type --Underactuated serial kinematics BIB017 2015 Journal paper Robot type --Parallel manipulator with redundant actuation BIB018 2015 Conference paper Robot type --Parallel manipulator with redundant actuation (3RRR) BIB006 2010 Review Replacement Electric actuator -Generic mechatronic system BIB005 2009 Journal paper Replacement Pneumatic -Generic pneumatic system BIB003 2002 Conference paper Replacement Reduction of components weight Lighter arms Redundant serial robot (7 DoFs)  2016 Conference paper Replacement Reduction of components weight Lighter arms Serial robot (5 DoFs) BIB004 2007 Journal paper Replacement Reduction of components weight Lighter joints Redundant serial robot (7 DoFs)  2008 Journal paper Replacement Reduction of components weight Lighter joints Redundant serial robot (7 DoFs) BIB020 2016 Conference paper Replacement Moving the actuators at the base -Serial robot (3 DoFs)  2015 Conference paper Replacement Moving the actuators at the base -Elbow joint (1 DoF) wrist joint (3 DoFs) BIB001 1993 Journal paper Replacement Moving the actuators at the base -Redundant serial robot (7 DoFs) BIB011 2012 Journal paper Replacement Moving the actuators at the base -Underactuated serial kinematics BIB019 2015 Conference paper Addition Energy-storing devices Flywheel Serial robot (6 DoFs)-ABB IRB 140 BIB007 2011 Conference paper Addition Energy-storing devices Flywheel Serial robot (3 DoFs)-crane BIB012 2012 Conference paper Addition Energy-storing devices Hydraulic Generic hydraulic system BIB016 2014 Journal paper Addition Energy-storing devices Hydraulic Generic hydraulic system BIB008 2011 Conference paper Addition Energy-storing devices Pneumatic Hybrid pneumatic/electric system BIB021 2016 Conference paper Addition Energy-storing devices Pneumatic Generic pneumatic system  2013 Conference paper Addition Energy-storing devices Several Generic mechatronic system BIB009 2011 Conference paper Addition Energy-storing devices Supercapacitor Mechatronic system (1 DoF)-elevator  1997 Conference paper Addition DC-bus sharing -Mechatronic system-drives BIB010 2011 Conference paper Addition DC-bus sharing EnergyTeam Generic mechatronic system-robot BIB013 2012 Conference paper Addition DC-bus sharing Single capacitor Generic mechatronic system-robot BIB014 2013 Conference paper Addition DC-bus sharing Single capacitor Generic mechatronic system-robot  2013 Journal paper Addition DC-bus sharing Single capacitor Generic mechatronic system-robot