Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> Despite advances in autonomy, there will always be a need for human involvement in vehicle teleoperation. In particular, tasks such as exploration, reconnaissance and surveillance will continue to require human supervision, if not guidance and direct control. Thus, it is critical that the operator interface be as efficient and as capable as possible. In this paper, we provide an overview of vehicle teleoperation and present a summary of interfaces currently in use. <s> BIB001 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> We conducted a web-based survey to establish law enforcement robotics needs for applications that extend beyond explosive ordnance disposal. The survey addressed scenarios and tasks where a robot would be used if available, and the tools, features and parameters deemed most important to carry out those tasks. We present in this paper the results of the survey and summarize current robotics research and development efforts by various segments of the Department of Defense that could potentially help meet those law enforcement needs. We also provide a recommended course of action to the Department of Justice for the development of these robotics capabilities. <s> BIB002 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> The objective of the CyberScout project is to develop an autonomous surveillance and reconnaissance system using a network of all-terrain vehicles. We focus on two facets of this system: 1) vision for surveillance and 2) autonomous navigation and dynamic path planning. In the area of vision-based surveillance, we have developed robust, efficient algorithms to detect, classify, and track moving objects of interest (person, people, or vehicle) with a static camera. Adaptation through feedback from the classifier and tracker allow the detector to use grayscale imagery, but perform as well as prior color-based detectors. We have extended the detector using scene mosaicing to detect and index moving objects when the camera is panning or tilting. The classification algorithm performs well with coarse inputs, has unparalleled rejection capabilities, and can flag novel moving objects. The tracking algorithm achieves highly accurate (96%) frame-to-frame correspondence for multiple moving objects in cluttered scenes by determining the discriminant relevance of object features. We have also developed a novel mission coordination architecture, CPAD (Checkpoint/Priority/Action Database), which performs path planning via checkpoint and dynamic priority assignment, using statistical estimates of the environment's motion structure. The motion structure is used to make both preplanning and reactive behaviors more efficient by applying global context. This approach is more computationally efficient than centralized approaches and exploits robot cooperation in dynamic environments better than decoupled approaches. <s> BIB003 </s> Toward Intelligent Security Robots: A Survey <s> I. INTRODUCTION <s> The Mobile Detection Assessment Response System (MDARS) provides physical security for Department of Defense bases and depots using autonomous unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) to patrol the site while operating payloads for intruder detection and assessment, barrier assessment, and product assessment. MDARS is in the System Development and Demonstration acquisition phase and is currently undergoing developmental testing including an Early User Appraisal (EUA) at the Hawthorne Army Depot, Nevada-the world's largest army depot. The Multiple Resource Host Architecture (MRHA) allows the human guard force to command and control several MDARS platforms simultaneously. The MRHA graphically displays video, map, and status for each resource using wireless digital communications for integrated data, video, and audio. Events are prioritized and the user is prompted with audio alerts and text instructions for alarms and warnings. The MRHA also interfaces to remote resources to automate legacy physical devices such as fence gate controls, garage doors, and remote power on/off capability for the MDARS patrol units. This paper provides an overview and history of the MDARS program and control station software with details on the installation and operation at Hawthorne Army Depot, including discussions on scenarios for EUA excursions. Special attention is given to the MDARS technical development strategy for spiral evolutions. <s> BIB004
T HE investigation of security robots embodied with intelligent architectures to fight crime has gained a lot of interest by various educational institutes and organizations BIB004 -  . Research in this area has been addressed with the implementation of surveillance systems and mobile robots, used as guards in exhibition areas, as military weapons in war fields, as well as to rescue survivors in disaster areas. Our survey, as previously shown in  , focuses on the study of mobile robots embodied with autonomous capabilities to recognize or fight crime, by both assessing criminal patterns and confronting emergent situations. Such patterns consider the recognition of anomalies (intruder detection), as well as the disposal of explosives or fires. In order to elicit the functional characteristics from such surveillance and crime-fighting robots, the analysis accounts a number of security-related robot categories mentioned in Section II. Furthermore, we mine the architectural traits throughout several relevant projects. For decades, autonomous mobile robots have been utilized as surveillance and crime-fighting agents for barrier assessments, intruder detection, building virtual terrains or maps, neutralizing explosives, and recognizing abnormal human behaviors. Such robots have been designed with the ability to counter threats, limit risks to personnel, and reduce manpower requirements in hazardous environments BIB003 . In this fashion, security robots work as security mobile agents dedicated to protecting properties, valuable objects, and human beings. However, apart from the fact that such robots can provide significant cost savings, if we consider the immense personnel costs, they can never replace a human security professional. Besides that, they are becoming a staple of the security industry as markets started utilizing manpower toward state-of-the-art technology  ,  . The prime objective that we address in this survey lies on what defines an intelligent security robot (ISR) , and what are the subsequent characteristics that make a security robot intelligent. To address those issues, we stipulate the parameters needed so that to characterize a security robot as "intelligent." Thence, a fundamental and prerequisite element for such robots is to pursue the perception-to-action cycle, which is composed of two parameters. The perception parameter incorporates the robot's realization of its environment, dynamically occurring events, and the acquisition of features via a ground-truth fashion. The action parameter, on the other hand, involves decision making and actions taken by the robot in an autonomous fashion. The methodologies that are employed to construct the perception-toaction cycle must be inspired from artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), or probability theory and reasoning. Thus, any security robot that fulfills the requirements of the perception-to-action cycle can be characterized as an ISR. On this basis, our motivation focuses on the discovery of ISRs that come from several different categories, accounting robots with teleoperated interfaces, as well as robots with autonomous behaviors for crime prevention and confrontation. In addition, we mine the architectural characteristics, associated applications, and faculties employed by ISRs to carry out securityrelated missionary scenarios. What essentially motivated our interests to investigate ISRs was that neither of the previous surveys covered various security robot categories altogether, nor made a comparison on intelligent security architectures. To be more specific, previous surveys in the field we investigate have been done by Fong and Thorpe BIB001 , surveying vehicle teleoperated interfaces, and Lichiardopol  , who showed teleoperated surveillance and patrol robots. A more complete research was carried out by Nguyen and Bott BIB002 , demonstrating remotecontrolled robots for military operations and law-enforcement surveillance. From those surveys, what is missing is a comparison on the whole, and a rigorous analysis on whether ISRs exist, which security robot categories endorse them, and what kind of crime-fighting confrontation scenarios can deal with. In our analysis, we pursue a multiclass comparison over 60 frameworks, by keeping statistics of the functional attributes of security robots belonging to different categories. Primarily, we elicit the architectural characteristics and the applications of each framework, and, then, we categorize them into four classes. Thereafter, the frameworks with similar characteristics included to a certain class can be compared with the frameworks of other classes so that to mine the differences, and reveal which security robots fulfill the perception-to-action cycle that qualifies them as ISRs. This paper is organized as follows. Section II presents analytically a four-class taxonomy, with respect to teleoperated, distributed, surveillance, and law-enforcement security robots. In addition, some of the core security robot applications are further discussed. Section III demonstrates the statistics derived from the taxonomy such as the most significant frameworks, the chronological developments, and the faculties and sensors utilized for over 60 security robot projects. A thorough discussion is being made in Section IV on the evaluation of ISRs, as well as several open issues and questions are pointed out. Finally, Section V summarizes the survey's work as seen in this paper.