Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Literature on the structure of two-person conversations has consistently found that partners become more similar in mean duration of pauses and switching pauses over the course of interaction. Evidence on influence in vocalization duration is primarily negative. No direct evidence of interspeaker influence on a moment-to-moment basis is available. In this study 12 dyadic conversations are analyzed for interspeaker influence, with the use of time series regression procedures. Two versions of the data are presented: a probability summary including the probability of breaking mutual silences, continuing simultaneous talk, and continuing talking alone and a turn summary including vocalization, pause, and switching pause duration. Results show that (1) moment-to-moment influences are present in both versions of the data, (2) these influences differ from dyad to dyad, (3) the influences are both positive (matching) and negative (compensating), and (4) the magnitude of interspeaker influence on a temporal basis is small but detectable. In addition, there are overall tendencies to match in switching pause, probability of continued simultaneous speech, and probability of breaking mutual silences. Dyads show both compensation and matching on vocalization duration and pause-related variables. Implications of these data for past and future explanation of social interaction are explored. <s> BIB001 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Abstract This paper explores how conversants co-ordinate their use and interpretation of language in a restricted context. It revolves around the analysis of the spatial descriptions which emerge during the course of 56 dialogues, elicited in the laboratory using a specially designed computer maze game. Two types of analysis are reported. The first is a semantic analysis of the various types of description, which indicates how pairs of speakers develop different language schemes associated with different mental models of the maze configuration. The second analysis concerns how the communicants co-ordinate in developing their description schemes. The results from this study would suggest that language processing in dialogue may be governed by local principles of interaction which have received little attention in the psychological and linguistic literature to date. <s> BIB002 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Among the first writers to posit a relationship between the language women use and their social condition was the linguist Robin Lakoff (1975; see also Key, 1973, who defined a ‘female register’ that serves as a marker for women’s subordinate social status and reinforces the attributions of dependency, incompetence and timidity that are part of the female stereotype. From this perspective, differences in male and female speech are a reflection of the general dominance of males in society, a view that has been termed the ma/e dominance ~y~~~~~~~~ (Thorne and Henley, 1975). Although Lakoff’s observations were not based on systematic examination of actual speech corpora, there is evidence to indicate that some of the characteristics of the hypothesized female register are differentials distributed in male and female speech, at least in some situations (Crosby and Nyquist, 1977; Smith, 1985; Ruke-Dravina, 1952; but see also Brouwer et at., 1979). <s> BIB003 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Introduction When academic theorizing addresses everyday communication phenomena, there are losses as well as gains. Research may, selectively or otherwise, partially represent the full subtlety of contextualized interaction. Methodological constraints may impose their own selectivity, so that we tend to access the accessible and learn what is most readily learnable. The real-time nature of programmatic research will reflect epistemological shifts and disciplinary development. It is altogether likely that academic and lay versions of the phenomena themselves and their boundaries will not perfectly mirror each other at any one point. On the other hand, research can discover regularities within communicative interchanges and identify, and perhaps even predict, contextual configurations that relate systematically to them. If it is amenable to methodological triangulation upon data and research questions, and if it incorporates within its own activities a mechanism for building cumulatively on empirical insights, communication research can begin to impose order on the uncertainty that interaction presents to us. More particularly, research that addresses the contexts as much as the behaviors of talk can tease out the ordering – motivational, strategic, behavioral, attributional, and evaluative – that interactants themselves impose upon their own communication experiences, and the ways in which the social practices of talk both are constrained by and themselves constrain goals, identities, and social structures. In the case of “accommodation theory,” the focus of the present collection, we have a research program that has developed over more than a dozen years, undergoing many extensions and elaborations, as an account of contextual processes impinging on sociolinguistic code, style, and strategy selections. <s> BIB004 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Abstract This paper explores certain ways in which dialogue co-ordination skills develop in schoolchildren between 7 and 12 years of age. The analysis is based on a large corpus (from 80 pairs of speakers) of task-oriented dialogues elicited using Garrod and Anderson's (1987) cooperative maze game procedure. As in previous work with adult conversants, our analysis concentrates on how the speakers establish local description “languages” or schemes to describe their locations on the maze. The results indicate that there is strong pressure for speakers of all ages to co-ordinate on common description schemes. However, more detailed analysis of the dialogues suggests that there are two underlying principles of co-ordination operating. While the youngest conversants (7 to 8-year-olds) show evidence of superficial co-ordination processes establishing a limited common dialogue lexicon and particular common description scheme only the older speakers show evidence of deep co-ordination processes aimed at directly ... <s> BIB005 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> The purpose of this study is to explore whether subjects exposed to stimuli of facial expressions respond with facial electromyographic (EMG) reactions consistent with the hypothesis that facial ex ... <s> BIB006 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> When people in conversation refer repeatedly to the same object, they come to use the same terms. This phenomenon, called lexical entrainment, has several possible explanations. Ahistorical accounts appeal only to the informativeness and availability of terms and to the current salience of the object's features. Historical accounts appeal in addition to the recency and frequency of past references and to partner-specific conceptualizations of the object that people achieve interactively. Evidence from 3 experiments favors a historical account and suggests that when speakers refer to an object, they are proposing a conceptualization of it, a proposal their addressees may or may not agree to. Once they do establish a shared conceptualization, a conceptual pact, they appeal to it in later references even when they could use simpler references. Over time, speakers simplify conceptual pacts and, when necessary, abandon them for new conceptualizations. <s> BIB007 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Abstract In area F5 of the monkey premotor cortex there are neurons that discharge both when the monkey performs an action and when he observes a similar action made by another monkey or by the experimenter. We report here some of the properties of these ‘mirror’ neurons and we propose that their activity ‘represents’ the observed action. We posit, then, that this motor representation is at the basis of the understanding of motor events. Finally, on the basis of some recent data showing that, in man, the observation of motor actions activate the posterior part of inferior frontal gyrus, we suggest that the development of the lateral verbal communication system in man derives from a more ancient communication system based on recognition of hand and face gestures. <s> BIB008 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> The chameleon effect refers to nonconscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one's interaction partners, such that one's behavior passively and unintentionally changes to match that of others in one's current social environment. The authors suggest that the mechanism involved is Has. perception-behavior link, the recently documented finding (e.g., J. A. Bargh, M. Chen, & L. Burrows, 1996) that the mere perception of another's behavior automatically increases the likelihood of engaging in that behavior oneself. Experiment 1 showed that the motor behavior of participants unintentionally matched that of strangers with whom they worked on a task. Experiment 2 had confederates mimic the posture and movements of participants and showed that mimicry facilitates the smoothness of interactions and increases liking between interaction partners. Experiment 3 showed that dispositionally empathic individuals exhibit the chameleon effect to a greater extent than do other people. <s> BIB009 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Nonconscious behavioral mimicry occurs when a person unwittingly imitates the behaviors of another person. This mimicry has been attributed to a direct link between perceiving a behavior and performing that same behavior. The current experiments explored whether having a goal to affiliate augments the tendency to mimic the behaviors of interaction partners. Experiment 1 demonstrated that having an affiliation goal increases nonconscious mimicry, and Experiment 2 further supported this proposition by demonstrating that people who have unsuccessfully attempted to affiliate in an interaction subsequently exhibit more mimicry than those who have not experienced such a failure. Results suggest that behavioral mimicry may be part of a person's repertoire of behaviors, used nonconsciously, when there is a desire to create rapport. <s> BIB010 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Traditional mechanistic accounts of language processing derive almost entirely from the study of monologue. Yet, the most natural and basic form of language use is dialogue. As a result, these accounts may only offer limited theories of the mechanisms that un- derlie language processing in general. We propose a mechanistic account of dialogue, the interactive alignment account, and use it to de- rive a number of predictions about basic language processes. The account assumes that, in dialogue, the linguistic representations em- ployed by the interlocutors become aligned at many levels, as a result of a largely automatic process. This process greatly simplifies production and comprehension in dialogue. After considering the evidence for the interactive alignment model, we concentrate on three aspects of processing that follow from it. It makes use of a simple interactive inference mechanism, enables the development of local di- alogue routines that greatly simplify language processing, and explains the origins of self-monitoring in production. We consider the need for a grammatical framework that is designed to deal with language in dialogue rather than monologue, and discuss a range of implica- tions of the account. <s> BIB011 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Traditional accounts of language processing suggest that monologue – presenting and listening to speeches – should be more straightforward than dialogue – holding a conversation. This is clearly not the case. We argue that conversation is easy because of an interactive processing mechanism that leads to the alignment of linguistic representations between partners. Interactive alignment occurs via automatic alignment channels that are functionally similar to the automatic links between perception and behaviour (the so-called perception–behaviour expressway) proposed in recent accounts of social interaction. We conclude that humans are ‘designed’ for dialogue rather than monologue. Whereas many people find it difficult to present a speech or even listen to one, we are all very good at talking to each other. This might seem a rather obvious and banal observation, but from a cognitive point of view the apparent ease of conversation is paradoxical. The range and complexity of the information that is required in monologue (preparing and listening to speeches) is much less than is required in dialogue (holding a conversation). In this article we suggest that dialogue processing is easy because it takes advantage of a processing mechanism that we call ‘interactive alignment’. We argue that interactive alignment is automatic and reflects the fact that humans are designed for dialogue rather than monologue. We show how research in social cognition points to other similar automatic alignment mechanisms. Problems posed by dialogue <s> BIB012 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> Nonverbal behavior plays an important role in human-human interaction. One particular kind of nonverbal behavior is mimicry. Behavioral mimicry supports harmonious relationships in social interaction through creating affiliation, rapport, and liking between partners. Affective computing that employs mimicry knowledge and that is able to predict how mimicry affects social situations and relations can find immediate application in human-computer interaction to improve interaction. In this short paper we survey and discuss mimicry issues that are important from that point of view: application in human-computer interaction. We designed experiments to collect mimicry data. Some preliminary analysis of the data is presented. <s> BIB013 </s> Interpersonal Synchrony: A Survey of Evaluation Methods across Disciplines <s> Content Coordination <s> 0. 0. Labov (1966) recorded formal interviews of about o,,:. and a h,.od lf1 hour' s duration in the homes of 81 informants from the Lowe r E ast Side of New York. The interviews were conducted to deterrnine whetllher ch..nges ij c:li.te.4t would affect pronunciation patterns of the interviewees. He ypo .h!lesi zed that. formal contexts of social interaction would require a greater reli ance on prestigious variants of pronunciati on by the speal ke r, than 1e: ss for n Ia.l .0. ntexts of the discourse. A substantial portion of the intervi ews was c.orns.ide redt as-; (4lictiting <s> BIB014
At the content level, conversational partners must coordinate what is being said and reach a common understanding. This common understanding is achieved by aligning the partners' situation models, "which are multidimensional representations containing information about space, time, causality, intentionality, and currently relevant individuals" BIB011 , BIB012 . According to Pickering and Garrod, this alignment is achieved via a nonconscious mechanism called "interactive alignment," by which partners align their representations at different linguistics levels at the same time. In a cooperative maze game, Garrod and Anderson observed that conversational partners trying to verbalize their position in the maze to a partner tended to use the pragmatical and lexical features of the utterances that they had just encountered BIB002 . This alignment serves communication efficiency: Conversational partners tend to formulate their utterances to minimize the time and effort required for mutual understanding, minimizing their collaborative effort. Interactive alignment has been observed in dialog at the lexical level (with different speakers repeating the same word to refer to particular objects BIB002 , BIB005 , BIB007 ), at the syntactic level (using the same syntactic structure  ), and in accent or speech rate BIB004 . The alignment of these last articulatory dimensions is related to Giles' Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT), evolved from the Speech Accommodation Theory (SAT), which addresses the tendency to unconsciously minimize or emphasize differences in speech, vocal patterns, or gestures when interacting with a conversational partner BIB004 . CAT encompasses a variety of features, including accent BIB014 ,  , speech rate  , utterance length BIB003 , response latency BIB001 , pausing frequency and length BIB003 , BIB001 , laughter BIB003 , and postures  . CAT also focuses on the intercultural, interpersonal, psychological, social, and contextual factors that modify communicative behaviors. CAT concerns both convergence and divergence, depending on whether the strategy is to minimize or maximize the speech pattern differences between the speaker and the conversational partner. Conversational partners often do not converge at all levels at any given time; they converge at some levels and diverge at others. Behavior matching  , mirroring, mimicry BIB010 ,  , BIB013 , congruence, and the chameleon effect BIB009 are related to convergence. These concepts concern nonverbal communicative behaviors, such as postures, mannerisms, or facial displays, and indicate similar, simultaneous behaviors by both social partners; the analyzed features are static and qualitative. The automatic triggering of many social behaviors by the perception of action in others has also been studied in the neurophysiological literature: Motor imitation arises from the firing of mirror neurons in macaque monkeys BIB008 and the premotor cortices, originally considered to be exclusively concerned with motor control, activate during the observation of actions, in the absence of any action execution, in humans  . The mirror neurons are an example of a more general mechanism: The neuronal structures involved when a mental state (action, sensation) is experienced are also used perceiving others experiencing the same mental state. This mechanism also applies to emotion contagion: Lundqvist found that participants produced different Electromyography (EMG) patterns depending on the facial expressions that they observed in emotionally colored photographs BIB006 . For instance, participants showed increased muscular activity over the zygomaticus major (cheek) muscle region when facing happy facial expressions. Moreover, the motor mimicry was too subtle to be perceived visually.