Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> 1) Home and family life: <s> This study examines gender differences in computer attitudes and experiences of adolescents. A sample of students from five Bay Area high schools was surveyed for their uses of computers before and during their high school years, in both formal instruction and informal settings. Adolescent males had greater total exposure to computers, based primarily on higher enrollments in computer programming classes and participation in voluntary experiences, such as home computer use. Fewer gender differences were found in enrollment in classes using computers for purposes other than programming. Overall, males held more positive attitudes of interest in and confidence with computers than did females. Controlling for amount of computer experience, however, males and females responded with similar levels of interest. Social influences, especially those among peer groups, are explored as important factors for differential rates of participation in computer activities. <s> BIB001 </s> Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> 1) Home and family life: <s> The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which gender and prior computer exposure (has a computer at home; participated in a computer course; knows how to work with computers) affect students' attitudes toward computers prior to computer instruction in school. An attitude questionnaire including cognitive and affective attitude scales was administered to 222 Israeli pupils in grades 8 through 10 who study in schools where computers have not yet been introduced. The results showed that prior computer exposure (in particular, having a computer at home), had a stronger effect on attitudes toward computers than sex. Pupils owning computers were more motivated to become familiar with computers; felt a stronger need for computers in their lives and had more positive affective attitudes toward computers than pupils who don't have computers at home. Sex differences in affective and cognitive attitudes were also observed where boys had significantly more positive affective attitudes toward computer... <s> BIB002 </s> Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> 1) Home and family life: <s> Abstract This study surveys attitudes about computers among 375 Iranian undergraduate students (155 males and 220 females). We found significant gender differences with respect to confidence about computers and stereotypic views of computer users. Women showed stronger beliefs in equal gender ability and competence in use of computers, but expressed low confidence in their own ability to work with computers. There were no significant gender differences in respondents' liking for computers or their perceptions of the usefulness of computers. Male and female students believed equally in the positive effects of computers on individuals and society. Results also are discussed in terms of parents' perceived beliefs and behaviors, as well as their socioeconomic status (SES.) <s> BIB003 </s> Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> 1) Home and family life: <s> Seventy-four female and 76 male Romanian university students, from a wide mixture of courses, completed a Computer Self Efficacy Scale, a Computer Anxiety Scale, an attitude to the Internet Scale and gave information about their use of the Internet. Significant zero order correlations were obtained with the relationships being between higher computer self efficacy, lower computer anxiety, more positive attitudes towards the Internet and longer reported use of the Internet. Significant gender effects were found throughout, with males tending to report greater computer self efficacy, lower computer anxiety, more positive attitudes towards the Internet and longer use of the Internet than females. However, regression analysis indicted that reported Internet experience (use) was the only variable independently linked to gender. It is argued that the results tend to support the contention that the literature on attitudes and anxiety towards computers is liable to extrapolate to the Internet. In particular this may apply to the gender dimension of this literature. It is also argued that the countries of Eastern Europe may now be manifesting the gender variations in relation to technology that are found in Western Europe. <s> BIB004 </s> Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions <s> 1) Home and family life: <s> Gender differences in the pursuit of technology careers are a current issue of concern. We report on two studies that use surveys, drawings and interviews to examine sixth- and eighth-grade students' perceptions of knowledgeable computer users and their self-perception as a computer-type person. In Study 1, participants were asked to generate representations of computer users in pictures or words. The results indicate that the majority of representations were of male users and they frequently wore glasses. Students of both genders were more likely to draw males. Eighth-grade students' representations included more stereotypical features than those of sixth-grade students. In Study 2, students were asked whether they believed that there was such a thing as a computer-type person and whether they perceived themselves to be one. Eighty per cent of students rejected this characterization. They differed from students who accepted it in their levels of past experience, their confidence, and the probability that they shared their knowledge with others. The results of both studies suggest that while there is a male image of computer science in general, it is not overly negative and students' self-perception is not governed by their own gender as much as by other variables. <s> BIB005
In academia and industry, men and women face challenges in pursuing demanding careers like computing while meeting family responsibilities. However, research indicates that women and men are affected differently by the -family penalty‖  . Women tend to forego marriage or children and may delay having children in order to pursue demanding careers such as computing  . Although marriage does not appear to impact on a career in computing, having children in the home may affect work related productivity due to the fact that traditionally women are the primary care givers in the home setting [63] . 2) The learning environment (classroom and virtual): The computer science learning environment has been referred to as being -Hostile‖  and -Nerdy‖ BIB005 . Research literature on the computer science learning environment has also indicated that there is a cultural difference in the values of men and women. It has been argued that women are motivated by tasks and careers that encourage social interactions which directly contribute to society. Males have been shown to be less motivated by these values  . On this basis, a learning environment that does not encourage social interaction, or where the skills being learnt do not clearly contribute to society, will appeal less to females. 3) Attitudes towards computers and computer anxiety: Chen BIB001 and Durndell and Haag BIB004 reported that men held more positive attitudes towards computers and had lower computer anxiety than women. In a study on computerpobia (computer anxiety, computer attitudes and computer cognitions/ feelings) with a focus on male and female learners in 1987, Rosen, Sears and Weil [60] indicated that there is no difference in gender with regards to computer anxiety. However, there was a significant gender issue with regard to attitudes towards computers, with females having more negative attitudes. This was supported by Levin and Gordon BIB002 and Shashaani and Khalili BIB003 , suggesting that boys have significantly more positive attitudes towards computers than girls. According to Busch [12] , the process of socialization provides an explanation for the gender differences in attitudes towards computers. Busch argued that sex-role identity is formed initially within the family where norms are internalized, attitudes learned and self-image acquired. These behaviors are later reinforced or shaped in school and work settings where society's basic culture is transmitted on to its inhabitants. Consequently, according to  , gender differences in attitudes towards computers may be a reflection of social experiences.