A Survey and Classification of Controlled Natural Languages <s> Coral's Controlled English <s> In this paper, we describe the design and deployment of KANT Controlled English (KCE) for knowledge-based machine translation in the KANT system. KCE combines three kinds of constraints: constraints on the lexicon; constraints on the complexity of sentences; and the use of generalized markup language. We describe how each of these types of language control are utilized in the implementation of a typical KANT application. The principles described are not specific to knowledge-based MT, and can be applied in the design of controlled languages for any kind of MT application. <s> BIB001 </s> A Survey and Classification of Controlled Natural Languages <s> Coral's Controlled English <s> We describe the authoring tool, EasyEnglish, which is part of IBM's internal SGML editing environment, Information Development Workbench. EasyEnglish helps writers produce clearer and simpler English by pointing out ambiguity and complexity as well as performing some standard grammar checking. Where appropriate, EasyEnglish makes suggestions for rephrasings that may be substituted directly into the text by using the editor interface.EasyEnglish is based on a full parse by English Slot Grammar; this makes it possible to produce a higher degree of accuracy in error messages as well as handle a large variety of texts. <s> BIB002 </s> A Survey and Classification of Controlled Natural Languages <s> Coral's Controlled English <s> In the pharmaceutical industry, products have to be described by a range of document types with overlapping content. Moreover, much of this documentation has to be produced in many languages. This situation is commonplace in many commercial domains, and leads to well-known problems in maintaining a set of related documents and their translations. We describe a potential solution explored in the PILLS project. All relevant knowledge about a product is entered only once, through a natural-language interface to a knowledge base. From this ‘master model’, specialised models for a range of document types are derived automatically; from each specialised model, documents are generated automatically in all supported languages. As an illustration of this approach, the PILLS demonstrator generates three medical document types in English, German and French. <s> BIB003
Find all passages where a noun phrase contains a verb phrase; the verb phrase precedes a prepositional phrase; the prepositional phrase contains a verb "see"; Such queries are deterministically mapped to AQL, an existing formal query language. The language is defined by 51 simple grammar rules. BIB002 , not to be confused with Wycliffe Associates' EasyEnglish, is a language developed at IBM, which might have been influenced by an earlier controlled English at the same company (Adriaens and Schreors 1992). The main goal of EasyEnglish was to improve machine translation. The approach is based on a sophisticated grammar checker that returns suggestions and warnings. Apart from detecting common grammar errors, the system can enforce the use of a certain controlled vocabulary and can spot ambiguities. For such ambiguities, the system can propose alternatives, but it is ultimately up to the user whether to follow the system's suggestions or not. The problems encountered in a given document are quantified in the form of a clarity index, which must be above a certain threshold value. The fact that the restrictions of the language are not enforced but just suggested does not make the language more precise or simpler than full natural English. EasyEnglish has been extended later to check not only on the sentence level but also on the document level, and this has been implemented in a tool called EasyEnglishAnalyzer  BIB003 , not to be confused with IBM's EasyEnglish, is a controlled language used for transcribing biblical texts. The original goal was to improve the translation process into other languages, but EasyEnglish is also directly used by readers with limited knowledge of English. The language is restricted with respect to lexicon, syntax, and semantics. There are two levels: Level A makes use of about 1,200 words, whereas level B has a larger lexicon of about 2,800 words. In either case, the meaning of these words is restricted. For example, fair can only mean unbiased, and to see cannot be used in the sense to meet. It is possible to use words that are not on the list, if they are explained in separate EasyEnglish sentences. The following is an excerpt of a text in EasyEnglish (moor is not in the lexicon and has to be explained): The Highlands of Scotland consist of lakes, mountains and moors. The moors are flat empty lands where no trees grow. This land is wonderful and magnificent because it is so empty. There is a strict sentence length limit of 20 words, and paragraphs may not contain more than 150 words. Sentence structure is kept simple by allowing not more than two finite clauses and not more than two prepositional phrases per sentence. Furthermore, deep nesting and passives are restricted. In addition, texts should adhere to logical simplicity: "EasyEnglish writers are encouraged to identify the basic idea units in a complex sentence or paragraph and arrange them in logical order." -P General Motors Global English (Means, Chapman, and Liu 2000) or just Global English is a controlled language developed at General Motors. The goal was to improve comprehension for non-native speakers and translatability. It is defined by 15 rules based on four principles: "be brief," "be clear," "be direct," and "be culturally alert." These rules include a limit on the sentence length and grammatical restrictions such as the exclusion of passive voice. The language evolved from a reduced set of twelve of the 62 rules of the CASL language, which was developed at General Motors several years earlier. In contrast to CASL, Global English does not come with a software tool for checking the compliance with the restrictions. -P Gherkin  ) is a language for writing executable scenarios for software specifications. This is an excerpt of a scenario description: Scenario: Unsuccessful registration due to full course Given I am a student And a lecture "PA042" with limited capacity of 20 students But the capacity of this course is full [...] The structuring words such as Given, And, and But are fixed. The restrictions on the remaining text such as "I am a student" are implemented in ordinary programming languages using regular expressions, and are stored in small modules called "step definitions." The concrete step definitions are not part of Gherkin, but have to be implemented for the particular task at hand. Gherkin is therefore highly customizable and extensible, and the classification given here is meant to apply to a typical concrete language that is based on Gherkin. -P ) is a language used in GINO, a system to query and edit ontologies. The language was influenced by Ginseng and supports the same kinds of queries. In addition, GINO has some limited support for procedural statements to introduce new entities, for instance: There is a subclass of class water area named lake. Query statements are mapped to SPARQL and procedural statements map to OWL axioms to be added or modified. Queries can exhibit structural ambiguity, in which case the system evaluates all possible interpretations and shows to the user the union of their answers. The grammar that describes the language consists of 120 grammar rules. What are the capitals of states that border Nevada? Is there a city that is the highest point of a state? The grammar consists of 120 static grammar rules plus additional dynamic rules generated from the ontologies. "ICONOCLAST Language"  ) is a CNL to write patient information leaflets. It is similar to the Drafter language. A conceptual authoring approach is employed and a formal logic representation is used in the background. This is a simple example: If you develop a rash, you should consult your doctor. -P iLastic Controlled English (iLastic 2012) is a language to allow non-developers to write intuitive and natural scripts that automatically retrieve, transform, and combine data from the web, databases, files, and other resources. This is an exemplary statement: delete all files under the tmp folder if the space of the disk is lower than 1024.  ) is an influential language similar to Caterpillar Fundamental English, from which it was derived in the 1970s. "the plan has failed" because "there was a misunderstanding". The first example shows a "logical rule"; the second example is a "rationale" statement. Parentheses and variables are used to disambiguate. Around 90 grammar rules define the language. -P BIB001 ) is a controlled natural language for machine translation used within the KANT translation system. The language was first presented under this name in 1995, but it had at that point already been studied and used for several years. The focus is on technical documents, and KCE was the basis for the development of Caterpillar Technical English. Lexicon, grammar, and semantics are restricted. In addition, ambiguities are resolved interactively by augmenting the input sentences with SGML tags. In the following sentence, for example, the attachment of the preposition "with twelve rivets" is ambiguous: