nsition from rural elementary schools to professional and secondary schools was difficult. In Galicia the Ukrainian community gradually developed private professional schools—four secondary and eight lower schools. In the Lviv school district, out of 154 secondary and lower vocational schools only 13 were Ukrainian-language institutions; out of 97 schools offering supplementary vocational instruction 5 gave instruction in Ukrainian, and all were private institutions. Various community organizations, such as the Ridna Shkola society and the Prosvita societies, offered short-term vocational courses. During the Second World War, under the Generalgouvernement, professional and vocational education expanded owing to Ukrainian community efforts. There were 330 professional schools, with 81,885 students. In 1941–2, higher education programs were organized in the fields of medicine, veterinary science, pharmacy, technology, agronomy, and forestry.
In Bukovyna, under Romanian rule, there were few opportunities for professional and vocational education. In 1927 all Ukrainian-language schools were closed. Transcarpathia, under Czechoslovak rule, was in a better situation. In 1938 there were 5 teachers' seminaries (4 with Ukrainian as the language of instruction) and 3 secondary vocational schools (all Ukrainian, including the Trade Academy in Mukachevo), 9 lower vocational schools (of which 8 were Ukrainian), and 151 supplementary vocational schools (113 Ukrainian).
In contemporary Ukraine lower-grade vocational education is provided in vocational-technical schools, which, beginning in 1969, have gradually been transformed into institutions of secondary education offering general education as well as instruction in a specific trade. Full-time and part-time programs are offered that vary from one to three years. In 1986 there were 1,100 such schools, with 742,000 students. Institutions of secondary special education provide middle-grade vocational or semiprofessional education (for the training of technicians, paramedics, and the like). In 1987–8 there were 734 specialized secondary schools, with 800,600 students (of whom 524,300 were in full-time day programs). Schools specializing in commerce and business had 106,800 students in 1987–8; machine-building and -equipment secondary special schools had 102,200 students.
Various institutions of higher education train specialists with advanced qualifications. In 1987–8 there were 146 such establishments in Ukraine, with 852,300 students, of whom 454,500 were in full-time day programs. The largest number of students, 321,300, were in industrial and construction institutes, and 248,800 were enrolled in pedagogical institutes.
Institutions of professional and vocational education were under the jurisdiction of various all-Union ministries in Moscow or of ministries in Kyiv. The number of students admitted to these institutions in any given year was determined according to a plan. Graduates were given employment by the appropriate ministry and normally had to work at the designated position for three years. In some years up to 18 percent of Ukraine’s graduates were given jobs in the USSR outside Ukraine. In the late 1980s there was much discussion of the quality of vocational and professional education, its failure to keep pace with technological and scientific progress, and its emphasis on narrow specialization. The extreme Russification of this sector of education and the lack of opportunity to study in the West were also criticized. In 1987 only 25 percent of the courses in institutions of professional and technical education were taught in Ukrainian, and there were virtually no textbooks written in the Ukrainian language. Starting in 1988, however, the use of Ukrainian slowly expanded.
Institutions of professional and vocational education were also organized by Ukrainian émigrés in Czechoslovakia—notably, the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy, the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute, and the Ukrainian Studio of Plastic Arts. After the Second World War professional and vocational programs we