l as towards all of Epirus. Up to now we have fought for victory and the honor of the kingdom. Now you all must fight for salvation, for freedom, for the walls of the fatherland. Now you should strive beyond the praises that you have earned with success in many many wars carried out under my leadership, lest you return in great shame from lethargy; and in the larger part, the fate of this depends on you all because, through you all, Murad will begin it as far as the entrance into Epirus is concerned.
Like several other Indo-European languages, in particular Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Greek, Albanian has different negators depending on whether or not the verb is in the indicative mood. When the verb is in the indicative mood, either nuk or s' is used in negating the verb. Nuk and s' are synonymous, e.g. nuk ha = s'ha 'I do not eat'. The negator mos is used with subjunctives, imperatives, optatives, and any participial formation, e.g., mos ha! 'don't eat!', për të mos ngrënë 'in order not to eat', etc.
The most common subordinators in indicative clauses are se or që, which have the same meaning and function (both translate to 'that'). Camaj (1984) claims that se originally held this function, but që (originally used with subjunctives and as a relative pronoun) has become used under these conditions as well.
Consider the following examples from Lesson 2's text. The first, "...it was written that in Albania autumn is...," uses the subordinator se, while the second, "The general knew that in Albania autumn is...," uses the subordinator që.
As discussed in Lesson 1, the subjunctive always occurs preceded by the subordinator të. Clearly, të is the subordinator for subjunctive clauses. Recall that Tosk Albanian, like many of the other languages of the Balkan Sprachbund, does not have an infinitival form that can be the complement of a verb. For example, in a sentence like 'I want to learn Albanian," an infinitival form of "to learn" would be used in English, Russian, French and most other European languages (even Geg Albanian, see below). However, in Tosk/Standard Albanian, a structure would have to be used that would roughly translate to "I want that I learn Albanian," with the second verb in the subjunctive.
In saying something like "It is not difficult to learn Albanian," a similar construction is used. Instead of an infinitive, a finite verb is used.
|nuk||është||e veshtirë||TË mesojë||gjuhën||shqipe|
In some cases, a construction që + SUBJECT + të + VERB is used. This would be roughly equivalent to a construction like "for SUBJECT INFINITIVE" in English. For example, "It is not difficult for John to learn Albanian" would be expressed as the following:
|Nuk||është||e veshtirë||QË||Gjoni||TË mesojë||gjuhën||shqipe|
Note that the constructions above, while representative of Tosk and Standard Albanian, are rare in Geg. In these situations, an infinitival form would be used in Geg. For example, the Geg equivalent of Standard Albanian Dua të flas gjuhën shqipe. 'I want to speak Albanian' would be Due me folë gjuhën shqipe, where me folë is the infinitive of flas 'speak'. More information about the Geg infinitive (along with other participial constructions) is given in Lesson 4.
In Standard Albanian, the relative pronoun is declined. The following are the forms of the relative pronoun; the genitive forms must take an additional nyje particle.
|nominative||i cili||të cilët||e cila||të cilat|
|accusative||të cilin||të cilët||të cilën||të cilat|
|gen/dat.||të cilit||të cilëve||së cilës||të cilave|
|ablative||të cilit||të cilëve||së cilës||të cilave|
The relative pronoun appears in first position in the relative clause, and has the case that is appropriate to its use in the relative clause, but with the gender and number determined by the head noun (the noun that is modified by the relative clause). For example, from the text in Lesson 1, "The flag, the seal, and the anthem are... symbols... that reflect..."
In this example the form of the relative pronoun is të cilat, and is feminine nominative plural. It modifies the noun simbolet, 