microseconds (millionths of a second). Carrying currents on the order of hundreds to thousands of amperes, the stepped leader propagates toward the ground at an average velocity of 1.5 × 105 metres per second, or about one two-thousandth the speed of light. It is called a stepped leader because of its downward-moving “stepped” pulses of luminosity. Diameter estimates for the stepped leader range from a few centimetres to a few metres. The current-carrying core has a diameter on the order of 1 or 2 cm (0.4 or 0.8 inch), and photographic measurements indicate that a corona sheath of electric charge with a diameter of 1 to 10 metres (3 to 33 feet) surrounds the core.
As the stepped leader nears the ground, approximately five coulombs of charge have been deposited along the channel, inducing an opposite charge on the ground and increasing the electric field between the leader and the point to be struck. An upward discharge starts at the ground, church steeple, house, or other object, and rises to meet the stepped leader about 15 to 50 metres (50 to 160 feet) above the surface. At this moment of junction the cloud is short-circuited to the ground and a highly luminous return stroke of high current occurs. It is this return stroke, rather than the stepped leader, that is perceived as lightning because it is so much brighter and follows so quickly after the stepped leader. Portions of the stepped leader that have not reached the ground become the branches of the return stroke, and charge on the branches flows into the main channel. The five coulombs of charge typically deposited along the stepped leader flow to ground in a few hundred microseconds and produce peak currents that are usually on the order of 30,000 amperes but may range from a few thousand to over 200,000 amperes. Peak temperatures in the channel are on the order of 30,000 °C (50,000 °F), about five times hotter than the surface of the Sun. Because the junction process occurs near the ground, the time to peak current measured at the ground is typically only a few microseconds. As the leader charge avalanches toward the ground, the return stroke luminosity propagates toward the cloud base at an average speed of 5 × 107 to 2 × 108 metres per second, or approximately one-third the speed of light, and the high-current-carrying core expands to a diameter of a few centimetres. Laboratory experiments suggest that when pressure equilibrium is attained between the return stroke and the surrounding air, the channel approximates a high-current arc characterized by a current density of 1,000 amperes per square centimetre.
Subsequent return strokes
In the rapid passage from ground to cloud, the luminous return stroke is observed to pause at points where large branches join the main channel, and the channel is observed to brighten as charge from the branch flows into the channel. The stroke then continues its upward propagation, reaching the level of the atmosphere where the temperature is 0 °C (typically at an altitude of 5 km [3 miles] above sea level) in approximately 100 microseconds; the downward-propagating stepped leader traverses the same distance in about 30 milliseconds (thousandths of a second). There is then a pause for tens of milliseconds, and the channel cools to a few thousand degrees Celsius. If a second stroke occurs, it begins with the appearance of a dart of light, perhaps 30 to 50 metres (100 to 160 feet) in length, propagating down the channel of the previous return stroke. The dart leader moves downward at a speed of 2 × 106 metres per second (about one one-hundredth the speed of light) and carries a current of the order of 1,000 amperes toward the ground. Once again, when the leader effectively short-circuits a charge centre in the cloud to the ground, another return stroke occurs. After the first stroke, the dart leader may follow the lightning channel only partway before taking a new path to the ground. This gives rise to the common forked appearance of lightning as it strikes the ground.
This sequence of dart leader-return stroke typically occurs thre