Novak (2004) adds that prolonged misalignment adversely affects nerve tissue and function and that the adaptive changes in muscle tissue (whether lengthening or shortening) result in muscle imbalances, which can have a number of health consequences. The particular health issues caused by posture dysfunction tend to vary by population.
Posture Health for All Ages: Forward-Head PostureForward-head posture (FHP) is the most common form of poor posture in all age groups. People with FHP tend to develop a habitual head misalignment while sitting at a computer workstation, working on hobbies, playing video games or driving transport vehicles.
FHP is associated with neck and shoulder pain and temporomandibular joint dysfunction (incorrect alignment of the lower jaw to the skull) (Harman, Hubley-Kozey & Butler 2005). With FHP there is excessive anterior positioning of the head with increased curvature at the cervical spine and a rounding of the shoulders (see Figure 3). In addition to the musculoskeletal imbalance caused by FHP, this condition has also been linked to fatigue, restricted motion of the neck and chronic neck pain. Harman and colleagues demonstrated that an exercise program with strengthening exercises for the cervical flexors and shoulder retractors combined with stretching of the cervical extensor and pectoral muscles was most effective in helping to correct this posture problem.
Posture Concerns: Adolescents
Normally, as a child advances into adolescence (11–12 years) compressive forces on spinal intervertebral disks and facet joints are adequately balanced through ligamentous tension, allowing modest energy expenditure from postural muscles. However, structural or functional body stressors (e.g., tension, trauma, etc.) may prevent achievement of optimum posture.
Environmental factors that contribute to faulty posture include prolonged slouched sitting, ill-fitting school desks and overloaded bags and backpacks (Britnell et al. 2005). Growth spurts and discomfort with a changing body image may also predispose youth to body alignment disorders. According to Britnell, the most widespread posture deformity of adolescence is an idiopathic structural scoliosis (this is the most common type of scoliosis in adolescence, and it is much more common in females than males). Idiopathic structural scoliosis occurs in the thoracic region of the spine with convexity (or curvature) to the right side (when the body is viewed from behind). Given the complexity of the postural problems that can develop in adolescents, exercise professionals working to resolve these issues are well advised to collaborate with a physical therapist and/or primary health professional.
Posture Concerns: Adults (25–45 years)
Britnell et al. (2005) note that postural changes between ages 25 and 45 are no longer impacted by structural growth. However, sports activities and occupational behaviors (e.g., prolonged sitting, standing or stooping at work, heavy manual labor or repetitive movements) may contribute to posture adaptations, some of which may promote deviations from optimal posture. In addition, Britnell and colleagues note that high-risk social behaviors such as drug use and excessive drinking, as well as some fashion trends (e.g., high heels and restrictive clothing), may compromise muscle balance, movement patterns and joint positions. The authors state that these adult years are an ideal time to develop total-body and core-strengthening programs (as well as healthy lifestyle behaviors) that promote and maintain optimal posture.
Posture Concerns: Pregnancy and Postpartum
Britnell et al. (2005) state that numerous posture adaptations take place during pregnancy and postpartum. The changes are caused by retention of body fluid, an increase in body mass, and laxity in supporting joint structures (stemming from increased production of the hormone relaxin). Careful consideration must be taken in loading the spine. The authors add that pelvic pain and back pain are common problems during pregnancy. Some primary posture goals with this special populatio