Electroporation was used to insert purified bacterial virulence effector proteins directly into living eukaryotic cells. Protein localization was monitored by confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. This method allows for studies on trafficking, function, and protein-protein interactions using active exogenous proteins, avoiding the need for heterologous expression in eukaryotic cells.
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Sontag, R. L., Mihai, C., Orr, G., Savchenko, A., Skarina, T., Cui, H., Cort, J. R., Adkins, J. N., Brown, R. N. Electroporation of Functional Bacterial Effectors into Mammalian Cells. J. Vis. Exp. (95), e52296, doi:10.3791/52296 (2015).
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The study of protein interactions in the context of living cells can generate critical information about localization, dynamics, and interacting partners. This information is particularly valuable in the context of host-pathogen interactions. Many pathogen proteins function within host cells in a variety of way such as, enabling evasion of the host immune system and survival within the intracellular environment. To study these pathogen-protein host-cell interactions, several approaches are commonly used, including: in vivo infection with a strain expressing a tagged or mutant protein, or introduction of pathogen genes via transfection or transduction. Each of these approaches has advantages and disadvantages. We sought a means to directly introduce exogenous proteins into cells. Electroporation is commonly used to introduce nucleic acids into cells, but has been more rarely applied to proteins although the biophysical basis is exactly the same. A standard electroporator was used to introduce affinity-tagged bacterial effectors into mammalian cells. Human epithelial and mouse macrophage cells were cultured by traditional methods, detached, and placed in 0.4 cm gap electroporation cuvettes with an exogenous bacterial pathogen protein of interest (e.g. Salmonella Typhimurium GtgE). After electroporation (0.3 kV) and a short (4 hr) recovery period, intracellular protein was verified by fluorescently labeling the protein via its affinity tag and examining spatial and temporal distribution by confocal microscopy. The electroporated protein was also shown to be functional inside the cell and capable of correct subcellular trafficking and protein-protein interaction. While the exogenous proteins tended to accumulate on the surface of the cells, the electroporated samples had large increases in intracellular effector concentration relative to incubation alone. The protocol is simple and fast enough to be done in a parallel fashion, allowing for high-throughput characterization of pathogen proteins in host cells including subcellular targeting and function of virulence proteins.
Many Gram-negative bacteria employ specialized secretion systems to inject virulence-related proteins (referred to as effectors) directly into host cells 1-5. These effectors have a wide range of biological functions including: suppression of host immunity, cytoskeletal changes, modification of intracellular trafficking and signaling, transcriptional changes, and host proteasome alterations 6-9. The functions of some effectors are known, however the host targets and biochemical action(s) of many others remains to be determined. While comparing wild-type and recombinant bacterial infections is a valid approach to study intracellular effector virulence mechanisms, it is often advantageous to introduce an individual effector into the host cell. Thus, simple methods for introducing and characterizing bacterial effector proteins in the context of host cells is highly desirable.
Simplifying the experimental analysis with a single effector is critical as other effectors may have opposing or redundant functions. To accomplish this simplification, researchers have previously introduced macromolecules into cells by many different methods, including viral transduction 10, microinjection 11, scrape loading 12,13, cell fusion with chemically induced microinjection 14, proprietary prot