is one of the set stages of the national
curriculum in the United Kingdom.
Mean Z Scores and Standard Deviations for Language and Literacy
Measures at Ages 14 and 16
Competency Assessed Age Mean SD
Nonverbal ability (BAS z 14 -0.81 .6
Receptive vocabulary (BPVS z 16 -1.23 1.12
Formulated sentences (CELF z 14 -2.4 .35
Listening comprehension (CELF 16 -1.14 .66
Single word reading (BAS z 16 -1.79 .99
Reading comprehension (WORD z 16 -1.59 .73
Spelling (BAS z score) 16 -1.69 1.07
Competency Assessed Nonverbal Ability
Nonverbal ability (BAS z
Receptive vocabulary (BPVS z F(1, 56) = 9.03, p = .004,
score) [eta][p.sup.2] = .14;
Formulated sentences (CELF z F(1, 56) = 174.48, p < .0005,
score) [eta][p.sup.2] = .76
Listening comprehension (CELF F(1, 56) = 5.90, p = .018,
z score) [eta][p.sup.2] = .10;
Single word reading (BAS z F(1, 55) = 60.49, p < .0005,
score) [eta][p.sup.2] = .53;
Reading comprehension (WORD z F(1, 56) = 60.85,p < .0005,
score) [eta][p.sup.2] = .71
Spelling (BAS z score) F(1, 53) = 43.70, p < .0001,
[eta][p.sup.2] = .45
Note. BAS = British Ability Scales II (Elliott, Murray, & Pearson,
1997). BPVS = British Picture Vocabulary Scale (Dunn, Dunn, Whetton,
& Burley, 1997). CELF = Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals
(Peers, Lloyd, & Foster, 1999). WORD = Wechsler Objective Reading
Dimensions (Wechsler, 1993).
Correlations Between WOLD Change Score, Language, Literacy, Cognitive
Measures, and Writing at Time 4 and Time 5
Variable 1 2 3
WOLD change score
WOLD z score (TS) .81 *
Nonverbal z score (T4) .23 .42 *
Formulated sentences z score (T4) .23 .37 * .31 *
BPVS z score (T5) .25 .55 * .52 *
Listening to paragraphs z score (TS) .36 .47 * .25
TROG z score (T5) .20 .31 .26
BAS word reading z score (T5) .34 .59 * .51 *
TOWRE--word reading efficiency z score .35 .57 * .44 *
Word comprehension z score (TS) .23 .45 * .63 *
Spelling z score (T5) .38 * .65 * .46 *
Writing fluency z score .54 * .54 * .47 *
Variable 4 5 6
WOLD change score
WOLD z score (TS)
Nonverbal z score (T4)
Formulated sentences z score (T4)
BPVS z score (T5) .54 *
Listening to paragraphs z score (TS) .40 * .47 *
TROG z score (T5) .31 .41 * .14
BAS word reading z score (T5) .38 * .51 * .19
TOWRE--word reading efficiency z score .41 * .50 * .28
Word comprehension z score (TS) .43 * .56 * .27
Spelling z score (T5) .18 .30 .08
Writing fluency z score .40 * .43 * .23
Variable 7 8 9
WOLD change score
WOLD z score (TS)
Nonverbal z score (T4)
Formulated sentences z score (T4)
BPVS z score (T5)
Listening to paragraphs z score (TS)
TROG z score (T5)
BAS word reading z score (T5) .34
TOWRE--word reading efficiency z score .29 .55 *
Word comprehension z score (TS) .29 .54 * .62 *
Spelling z score (T5) .32 .75 * .58 *
Writing fluency z score .32 .41 * .57 *
Variable 10 11
WOLD change score
WOLD z score (TS)
Nonverbal z score (T4)
Formulated sentences z score (T4)
BPVS z score (T5)
Listening to paragraphs z score (TS)
TROG z score (T5)
BAS word reading z score (T5)
TOWRE--word reading efficiency z score
Word comprehension z score (TS)
Spelling z score (T5) .41
Writing fluency z score .51 * .41
Note. WOLD = Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions (Wechsler, 1996).
BPVS = British Pictute Vocabulary Scale (Dunn, Dunn, Whetton,
& Burley, 1997). TROG = Test of Reception of Grammar (Bishop, 1983).
BAS = British Ability Scales II (Elliott, Murray, & Pearson, 1997).
TOWRE = Test of Word Reading Efficiency (Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte,
* p = .004 with Bonferonni correction.
Predicting WOLD Writing at Age 16: The Role of Word Reading Accuracy
Predictor Change [beta] P
WOLD z score at age 14 .326 .353 .001
Vocabulary z score at age 16 .134 .266 .018
Single word reading z score at age 16 .074 .322 .005
Note. WOLD = Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions (Wechsler, 1996).
Predicting WOLD Writing at Age 16: The Role of Word Reading Efficiency
Predictor Change [beta] P
WOLD z score at age 14 .326 .381 .001
Vocabulary z score at age 16 .134 .243 .031
Word reading efficiency z score at age 16 .081 .333 .003
Note. WOLD = Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions (Wechsler, 19