, Peripheral Component Interconnect, had its beginnings as an Intel-developed bus for connecting internal cards within systems. The version 1.0 spec came out in 1992. Given the ubiquity of PCI these days, it's easy to forget that it only replaced a plethora of other busses both standardized and proprietary in x86 and, later, large Unix servers based on other processors over the course of nearly a decade.
Nor was the process steady. Although PCI was initially introduced in part to replace the VESA Local Bus for graphics cards--which it eventually did--PCI was itself replaced by AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) for a time prior to the PCI Express generation.
PCI Express makes for an interesting case study in the marketing of standards. With technology bumping up against the limits of parallel I/O busses like conventional PCI, the Arapahoe Working Group--spearheaded by Intel--started pushing a new serial interconnect standard in about 2001. Arapahoe's success was by no means pre-ordained. AMD's HyperTransport was one alternative among several.
Arapahoe required hardware that was largely different from PCI but it was compatible with PCI's software model in a number of respects. And this was enough to get Arapahoe adopted by the keeper of the PCI standard, the PCI-SIG, and get the SIG's imprimatur on what would now be called PCI Express. And that helped make it the obvious heir to PCI. Names matter. (Here's a more detailed accounting of PCI Express and its history.)
It's easy to forget just how painful it could be, in the years before USB (Universal Serial Bus), to connect external peripherals to a computer system. RS-232, a long-used and successful standard in its own right, was the most common way. It was also a way that could easily devolve into examinations of cable pin-outs, interrupt channels, and memory addresses.
USB was a cooperative effort by a group of large technology vendors who founded a non-profit corporation to manage the specification. Version 1.0 was introduced in 1996. Now up to version 3.0, USB has become the standard way to connect external peripherals to PCs; it's also commonly used on servers for devices such as printers.
There's a spec for wireless USB but, like other standards intended to connect peripherals to computers wirelessly, it's never taken off. The current such "personal area network" getting the most buzz is My WiFi from Intel.
USB's primary competition has been FireWire, Apple's name for IEEE 1394. Unlike USB, it does not need a host computer and is faster than the USB 2.0 generation. However, it didn't catch on widely in the computer industry outside of Apple (which is phasing it out in favor of USB) and video equipment.
TCP/IP refers to the combination of two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. Together, they are among the most important pieces of software underpinning the Internet which transitioned to using TCP/IP in 1983. Work on TCP began under the auspices of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) a decade earlier but, along the way, the software stack was re-architected to add IP as the early Internet grew.
Like many of the Internet's building blocks, TCP/IP was firmly entrenched before commercial interests got involved to any significant degree and, indeed, before most of the world at large had any real notion of the Internet's existence. The general public came to know the Internet through the World Wide Web, an outgrowth of Tim Berners-Lee's development of HTML at CERN, in the 1990s. Thus HTML, as well, is a key standard.
At the time that TCP/IP was gaining momentum, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) spearheaded a large project to standardize networking. The "OSI model" remains the standard way to think about layers of the networking stack. If you talk about a switch being "Layer 4," you're using OSI terminology. But the specific protocols developed to go with the model were never widely used. (TCP/IP largely maps to the layers defined in the OSI model.)
The x86 architecture is perhaps the canonical example of a de