h few exceptions, a successful public involvement program incorporates several
techniques" (Cogan, et al. 1986 p. 292). These techniques can be graphically
presented as a continuum that ranges from passive involvement to active involvement
(Figure A-3). Cogan provides the following description of each of the forms of public
involvement follows (Cogan, et al. 1986 p. 292-294). Not all techniques fit exclusively into one category. For example, a
public meeting may provide opportunities for education and interaction. A key point Cogan makes is that the number of citizens who can be
involved is inversely related to the level of active involvement. For example, public
relations efforts can reach a larger number of citizens, while public partnership limits
participation to a few (Cogan, et al. 1986, p. 293). One of the stated goals of the Delta Showcase Project is to develop
partnerships will individuals and groups. While this is clearly an achievable goal, the
previous discussion indicates that the number of partnerships developed during the project
will probably be small. Figure A-3. Public Participation
Not all techniques fit exclusively into one category. For example, a public meeting may provide opportunities for education and interaction.
A key point Cogan makes is that the number of citizens who can be involved is inversely related to the level of active involvement. For example, public relations efforts can reach a larger number of citizens, while public partnership limits participation to a few (Cogan, et al. 1986, p. 293).
One of the stated goals of the Delta Showcase Project is to develop partnerships will individuals and groups. While this is clearly an achievable goal, the previous discussion indicates that the number of partnerships developed during the project will probably be small.
Figure A-3. Public Participation Continuum
Building public support
Securing advice and consent
<----------------- PASSIVE ACTIVE------------------>
Criteria for an Effective Citizen Participation Program
Understanding that a variety of citizen participation techniques exist, planners must develop public participation programs that meet the specific goals, objectives, and circumstances of each individual project. Cogan states that:
A successful citizen participation program must be: integral to the planning process and focused on its unique needs; designed to function within available resources of time, personnel, and money; and responsive to the citizen participants (Cogan, et al. 1986 p. 298).
Because of the reasons stated above, each specific project will demand a different approach to public involvement. However, Cogan indicates that most successful citizen participation programs contain some common elements. To be effective, Cogan suggests that citizen participation programs must:
A program that incorporates these elements will generally be effective in meeting the expectations of both the planner and the participants.
Public Involvement In Natural Resource Management
Planning has always been used by the Forest Service as a means to guide the allocation and management of forest resources. Planning is an essential component of sound natural resource management because of the variety of resources present and the time frames for managing timber resources.
A number of legislative mandates exist that formalize Forest Service long-range planning efforts. These include the Multiple-Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960, the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, and the National Forest Management Act of 1976. These acts also give the public a role in the planning and decision-making process of the National Forests (Sample, 1992).
The demand for use of National Forest resources have increased to the point where the Forest Service can no longer accommodate all uses at optimal levels without conflict (Krutilla and Haigh, 1978). Increasingly, conflicts arise between various interest groupstimber, recreation, environmental conservation and preservation. Over time, these conflicts have grown in significance and severity res