tion of decapitating their enemies was closely related to the wedding ceremony, with the heads of the enemies being given to brides as dowry. The tradition was called ngayau, but Sarosa believes it has long been abandoned.
Sarosa claims the Dayaks are basically a peaceful people, saying they avoid conflict and choose to avoid the increasing economic competition in Kalimantan. "They (Dayaks) are friendly, extroverted and like to avoid conflict. Some social problems are settled through ancient traditional institutions, in which the elderly are regarded as the wisest people in solving any problem," Sarosa said.
The Dayaks, who number about two million in Kalimantan, are largely Christians, but some still hold ancient animistic beliefs, knows as Kaharingan. Traditionally they live in groups along rivers in longhouse communities with no more than a few hundred members. Their livelihood has traditionally depended on the cultivation of rice, along with fishing, hunting and the logging of rain forests.
Some groups, however, live as nomads, opening up forests for their simple plantations and then moving on to other areas. In recent years, many Dayaks have taken jobs in the island's gold, tin and copper mines, industries which are mostly run by settlers or foreign companies.
The 5,300-square-kilometer Madura island is located in the province of East Java, just a few kilometers from Surabaya, the provincial capital. The island is a major supplier of salt to many parts of Java, and also to other areas of Indonesia. The Madurese are staunch Muslims. Many Islamic boarding schools have been established on the island, which has contributed to the teaching of Islam in East Java and other areas of Java.
Due to overcrowding on the island and soil that is unfit for cultivation, many Madurese travel to other parts of the country to earn a living. The Madurese began arriving in Kalimantan in large numbers in 1960s as part of the government-sponsored transmigration program. As migrant settlers, the Madurese are well known for their toughness and solidarity among themselves.
In Kalimantan, their numbers reach up to 100,000. They mostly compete with locals in the lowest levels of the economy. A Madurese sociologist, Abdul Latief Wiyata, stressed that there were prevailing stereotypes of Madurese that were mostly incorrect, but were still believed by many people. "The Madurese often are associated with the clurit (a traditional sharp weapon), the karapan sapi (traditional cow racing) and violence," he said.
According to Latief, the Madurese are hard workers and have a strong grip on old traditions that are rich with Islamic teachings - a picture that explains why the Madurese cannot accept the Dayak habit of keeping dogs and eating pork, dogs and pigs being two animals forbidden by Islam.