ing. Historically, since the mid 1970s, HBE studies have applied optimal foraging models to study the subsistence practices of indigenous peoples (e.g., Hawkes et al. 1991; Hawkes and O’Connell 1982, 1985, 1992; Hames and Vickers 1982; Hill 1988; Sih and Milton 1985; Smith 1991; Winterhalder 1977, 1983). Optimal foraging models assume that foragers attempt to maximize their immediate energy gains over time (Stephens and Krebs 1986). These are mathematical models where ecological parameters are entered in formulated equations to make testable predictions of foraging behaviour such as diet composition, group size and patch selection among different groups in different habitats. As robust as the optimal foraging approach is in its predictions, it has received criticism for its lack of descriptive utility and its inability to incorporate the rich qualitative data found in ethnographic studies (e.g., Smith 1983).
We address such criticisms by departing from an optimal foraging approach as applied in HBE studies; instead, we focus on the role of foraging mode (see Holling 1959; Kramer 2001). Whereas optimal foraging models attempt to condense and generalize foraging behaviour in order to address universal questions such as what individuals eat, where they look for food, and how long they search for their food, our proposed focus on foraging mode offers a more descriptive and qualitative analysis of specific search behaviour of prey. We hope this alternative theoretical perspective will place Inuit hunting behaviour in a richer and more realistic context. Our application of foraging mode to a human population is the result of our extensive observations which suggest a strong correspondence between the foraging mode of Inuit and other animals. The application of foraging mode is useful because it describes the actual hunting behaviour Inuit display in their habitats. It also elucidates some of the observable ecological factors that influence this behaviour.
In the ethological literature on animal foraging mode, it was observed that some predators attack their prey from ambush, whereas others usually hunt while on the move. Pianka (1966) termed these modes of foraging respectively "sit-and-wait" and "widely-foraging." In the sit-and-wait foraging mode, a forager remains stationary for long periods of time, waiting for a prey item to come within short pursuit or striking distance. In the widely-foraging mode, a forager spends much of its time actively searching for prey (Huey and Pianka 1981). Although this dichotomy can be somewhat artificial, numerous animal and human groups (see Binford 1980) seem to fall into one or the other category.
The primary data presented here were collected from 1996 through 1998, utilizing a participant-observation methodology supplemented by directed interviews. In total, almost 11 months were spent accompanying and observing Mittimatalingmiut narwhal activities in the floe-edge and open water environments. The floe-edge hunting component of the research comprised 14 trips. The accompanied hunters were varied with respect to age and individual experience in narwhal hunting (Table 2).
This participatory approach was ideal for recording hunter movements, stops and campsites, while also allowing the observation of contiguous or passing narwhal hunters. Additionally, all search, pursuit, and handling activities were timed and amounts of fuel, ammunition and other expendables used were all recorded. Finally, travel routes, encountered hazards, camping/resting sites, and narwhal sightings/firing events were recorded.
Floe-edge mode of foraging
Active foraging mode
At 11:30, we reach the floe-edge almost directly across from Sannirut […] D. is scanning the area as we continue to travel south.Lee, Field Notes, 14/06/96
During the course of the research, an active or widely foraging mode was characterized as a relatively continuous movement where hunters travelled parallel to the floe-edge in one direction while simultaneously scanning the open water for narwhal. Movements between camps were also considered a