itation and restructuring phases of the constructivist teaching sequence to go on concurrently or consecutively without the need for teacher intervention. Bentley and Watts (1991) recognise that the linearity of the sequence form elicitation to restructuring is problematic. The use of the concept cartoons provides one means by which the time interval between these two phases may be reduced, enabling the elicitation and restructuring phases to be part of a more continuous process. From the learner's perspective this is probably a more valuable approach than one in which elicitation is separated temporally and procedurally from restructuring.
The concept cartoons enabled learners to become more aware of their own ideas and of possible alternative viewpoints so that the need for further investigation became evident to them. Deciding what kind of investigation would be most appropriate therefore became a matter of judgement for the learner rather than for the teacher. In this way the concept cartoons helped to minimise the problem of teachers having to respond to learners individually in the light of their ideas. The purpose of elicitation was to help map out the context for an investigation rather than simply to provide teachers with information about the learner's current level of understanding. Elicitation therefore became a more purposeful part of the procedure for the learners. The concept cartoons were viewed by many of the teacher-researchers as providing a more realistic perspective on how the constructivist teaching and learning framework might be applied in the classroom.
It is significant that development and restructuring of ideas did not always require practical activity as a stimulus. Although it is recognised that activity on its own does not guarantee learning (Driver, 1983; Hodson, 1990; Keogh and Naylor, 1993), the belief persists in many teachers that practical activity is necessary for learning in science to take place. The use of the concept cartoons illustrates an approach to learning in science in which practical activity may not always be necessary, providing a useful example of a context for learning which "engages the intellect . . and fires the imagination" (Millar and Driver, 1987, p56).
The use of concept cartoons is consistent with the model of generative science teaching put forward by Wittrock (1994), in which he notes the significance of the learner's attention in promoting learning. They appear to provide a powerful stimulus to learners to focus their attention on constructing meaningful explanations for the situations described in the drawings. In this way they promote the active engagement of the learner, which is a vital part of the learning process (Millar and Driver, 1987; Somekh and Davies, 1991). The element of cognitive conflict built into the concept cartoons provides an important parallel with the more typical use of cartoons for humour (Larson 1989) and appears to have an impact on motivation. The effect of the use of the concept cartoons on the motivation of learners must be one of the most important factors in evaluating their use in the classroom. Woolnough (1994) notes that
if students are motivated and if they are given the freedom and the opportunity, they will find ways of learning. If they are not, they will not bother (page 111).
The focus of this research has been on the value of concept cartoons as a teaching and learning approach in science. We have been conscious in the research of the need to ensure that teachers have been fully involved, not only in the evaluation of the cartoons but also in constructing the evaluation criteria. Much of the evaluation has been unrestricted, with teachers making their own decisions about how they chose to evaluate the use of the concept cartoons. In every case the extent to which the concept cartoons have had a positive impact in the classroom has been a central feature of the evaluation process.
One unanticipated outcome of the research has been the impact on our own practice. The use of the concept cartoons with our own teaching gr