te change (Paz 2015). Drier weather, especially drought, leads to higher rates of West Nile virus infection in people (Wang et al. 2010; Paull et al. 2016).
In the last several years, the northwest region of the US has seen an increase in some infectious diseases, including West Nile virus. The Washington Department of Health’s vector surveillance program observed earlier arrival of West Nile virus-carrying mosquitoes than some other states (likely associated with higher temperatures), and an increasing number of human infections, including some resulting in fatalities (WSDOH 2018).
Montana had no cases of West Nile virus until 2002. By 2018, the Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services (MTDPHHS) reported 51 cases across 18 counties. Nine counties reported mosquito pools that tested positive for West Nile virus out of 30 counties tested (Figure 3-9). Three people have died from West Nile virus in Montana since it was first detected (MTDPHHSc undated). MCA projects longer droughts, warmer temperatures, and minimal change in average annual precipitation, likely concentrated in fewer precipitation events (Whitlock et al. 2017; also see Section 2), factors that favor both the virus and the primary vector, the Culex spp. mosquito (Epstein 2001; Harrigan et al. 2014; Paull et al. 2017). Thus, concern exists for climate change resulting in increased numbers of West Nile virus infections in Montana.
Climate Change and Mental Well-being—Perspectives from Montana Farmers and Ranchers
Meredith Howard, Selena Ahmed, Paul Lachapelle, and Mark B. Schure
While the physical and economic implications of climate change have been studied widely, including effects on agricultural systems, the mental health implications have been largely overlooked. Farmers and ranchers—who contribute to local, national, and global food security—represent an especially vulnerable and critical population for consideration. Montana State University researchers surveyed farmers and ranchers (n=125) in Montana using a mixed-method approach to investigate the relationship between climate change perceptions and mental well-being (Howard et al. 2020). Survey results revealed the following:
- The majority of respondents (72%) agreed that climate change is having an adverse effect on their farm or ranch.
- Nearly three quarters of respondents reported feeling moderate to high levels of anxiety when thinking about climate effects on their agricultural business.
- The greater the reported perceived risk regarding climate change, the greater the level of reported anxiety.
- The impact of climate change on farm/ranch profitability was perceived as a main cause of distress.
One Montana producer commented, “[I am] worried about crop losses of current and future years, and about where funds will come for dealing with climate change on the farm. As with most, my worries generally stem from financial stress.”
Another respondent shared, “Climate change contributes to my distress because it makes planning for long-term crops more difficult and predicting weather patterns less predictable.”
Public-health preparedness efforts are warranted to provide mental health support for the agricultural sector. Research and outreach efforts are further called for to promote the adoption of practices that mitigate climate risk and enhance personal and food-system resilience. Linkages between climate-induced anxiety and an increasingly aging and female farm and ranch population should also be studied. Policy discussions at various scales should be considered to address financial risk to agricultural enterprises in the face of increased climate variability.
The mental health impacts of climate change are profound and varied. Elevated temperatures have been related to worsening a) mental health status (Obradovich et al. 2018); b) diminished cognitive function (Laurent et al. 2018); c) increased violence (Clayton et al. 2017); d) increased interpersonal aggression in the form of domestic violence, abuse, and rapes (Hsiang et al. 2013); and e) suicide (Page et al. 2007). Even small 