he learners' ideas explicit through this discussion. The data consistently indicated that the concept cartoons were very effective in this elicitation process. Many teachers commented on how the concept cartoons readily gave them access to the learners' ideas and revealed the learners' conceptual development - "the ideas are so explicit they do not require further probing" was one teacher's comment. One instance of this was an eight-year old child's description of why snow is bright - "Sun pings onto snow, then pings off again into your eyes". A teacher working with children with behavioural difficulties noted that "the children were less inhibited than when asked questions verbally" and other teachers commented on how the concept cartoons were particularly useful for encouraging discussion amongst pupils who are reluctant to reveal their own thinking.
Many of the teachers involved observed examples of restructuring in a range of teaching situations. Teachers commented on how the concept cartoons promoted cognitive development in the learners. Learners mentioned sometimes changing their minds when they discussed the concept cartoons - how they "had thought one thing but now believed something else". The concept cartoons appeared to provide a stimulus which frequently led to the learner's ideas being modified and developed.
Linking together elicitation and restructuring
There is evidence that the concept cartoons have drawn together the elicitation and restructuring phases of the constructivist teaching sequence. Several clear examples were observed where ideas were being expressed and then modified during the discussions and investigations which emerged from the use of the concept cartoons. In each instance the concept cartoon was the starting point for the discussion and in many no further input to stimulate change in ideas was made by the teacher.
One group of 7-8 year olds quickly agreed that there would be no light if clouds covered the sun (see Figure 3) and then modified their ideas through discussion within the group - "the sun goes behind the clouds so it goes duller not dark" and "the sun is powerful so the light goes through the clouds". Learners were frequently able to make explicit the process which they had gone through in developing their ideas. One student wrote about how the concept cartoons "really made me change my mind" after discussing some concept cartoons with fellow students.
Several examples were quoted of the concept cartoons acting as a stimulus for investigation. One situation was described where "within 10 minutes the whole group were engaged in active investigations". Another teacher remarked on how the concept cartoons led to pupils testing out their ideas with "no further prompting". Pupils noted that "you can see what the problem is" and talked about being "unable to wait" to investigate their ideas. Although there were rare instances where the individual or group involved seemed reluctant to engage in investigation, a ready progression from discussion to investigation was the usual response.
Motivation and involvement
Without exception teachers using the concept cartoons commented on the high levels of involvement of the learners. This was evident across the whole range of teaching situations observed. It was particularly notable that the concept cartoons encouraged involvement amongst pupils who are normally reluctant to get involved in discussion, enabling pupils who do not normally converse much about science to articulate their ideas more readily.
The level of motivation in each situation evaluated was described as high. Teachers remarked on the speed and ease with which discussions started. The success of the concept cartoons in enthusing pupils with low levels of motivation was noted by both pupils and teachers - "There are lots of naughty children in our class but we are busy and better behaved . . . even Dennis, the naughtiest boy in our class, wanted to stay in at the end of the lesson to carry on with the cartoons" was the comment from some 12 year old pupils in an inner city sc