gender gap develops, and once it gets established in primary school it continues, often widening, through other levels of education. An early disadvantage for girls is often a lifetime disadvantage.
One reason for the gender gap is the cost of education. Many countries, particularly in Africa, have been hard hit by the consequences of bad political and economic choices, global recession and the rigours of structural adjustment. States which once offered free primary education are now introducing school fees, which results in a decrease in enrolment. In Nigeria, for example, when fees were introduced, primary enrolment decreased from 92 to 75 per cent of school-aged children. Even where school remains free, there are usually associated costs for uniforms, books, examinations and transportation which must be borne by each family. Sometimes these associated items can exceed the costs of fees, and are beyond the reach of many poor families. When parents have to choose which children to send to school, they usually choose their sons. The discrimination which women face in the labour market means that boys are more likely than girls to have access to employment after school, and at higher wages than their sisters6. Girls are more likely to be married and move away from home than boys (at least in patrilocal societies), and investments in their education would be lost to their parents, who rely on their sons to support them in their old age. Therefore it is girls who get pulled out first.
The indirect or 'opportunity' costs of sending girls to school can also deter poor families. Time-use studies in Tanzania, Bangladesh and Nepal have revealed that young girls do as much as six hours work each day in and around the home, which poor families may find particularly hard to do without. Girls may be needed to care for younger children while their mother works in the market or fields, or to walk several miles each day to obtain the daily requirements for water and firewood where these are scarce. A Nepalese study found that when labour-saving domestic technology and measures to conserve forest resources were introduced in one region, the enrolment of girls in school increased markedly.7 Girls may also be involved in income-earning activities outside the home from a fairly young age, often as domestic servants. Child labour, whether in the home or beyond, may be essential to the survival strategies of poor families. The labour of girls may ensure that one or more boys can be given a chance at education in the hopes that their future jobs will raise the family out of poverty.
The distance between home and school is another factor which affects girls' education more than that of their brothers. A distant school places girls' safety at risk, keeps them away from household chores for longer periods, and may entail high transportation costs. A study in Algeria showed that while both male and female enrolment was high when schools were less than one kilometre from home (96 per cent for boys and 84 per cent for girls), it dropped sharply to 58 per cent for girls when the distance was extended to between one and five kilometres, while 90 per cent of boys still attended. And if the school was more than five kilometres, only 25 per cent of girls compared to 66 per cent of boys attended.8 This may have a particular effect on girls' opportunities to attend secondary school, since these tend to be larger, fewer and further apart than primary schools.
School-related factors also play important roles in enabling girls to have an education. In certain cultures, a girls' presence at school may be dependent on the availability of female teachers. Studies have shown that female enrolment rates increase and drop-out rates decrease significantly with the presence of female teachers. In the developing world, only the Latin America/Caribbean region has a high proportion of female teachers - more than 70 per cent at the primary level and nearly 50 per cent at the secondary level in 1988. This region also has the smallest gender gap in education, with girls a