udes mitogen-activated protein kinases and binding of the MEF2 transcription factor within the promoter region of the myostatin gene. Increases in myostatin levels during chronic heart failure have been shown to cause cardiac cachexia. Systemic inhibition of cardiac myostatin with the JA-16 antibody maintains overall muscle weight in experimental models with pre-existing heart failure.
Myostatin also alters excitation-contraction (EC) coupling within the heart. A reduction in cardiac myostatin induces eccentric hypertrophy of the heart, and increases its sensitivity to beta-adrenergic stimuli by enhancing Ca2+ release from the SR during EC coupling. Also, phospholamban phosphorylation is increased in myostatin-knockout mice, leading to an increase in Ca2+ release into the cytosol during systole. Therefore, minimizing cardiac myostatin may improve cardiac output.
- Gonzalez-Cadavid NF, Taylor WE, Yarasheski K, Sinha-Hikim I, Ma K, Ezzat S et al. (December 1998). "Organization of the human myostatin gene and expression in healthy men and HIV-infected men with muscle wasting". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95 (25): 14938–43. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9514938G. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.25.14938. PMC 24554. PMID 9843994.
- Carnac G, Ricaud S, Vernus B, Bonnieu A (July 2006). "Myostatin: biology and clinical relevance". Mini Rev Med Chem 6 (7): 765–70. doi:10.2174/138955706777698642. PMID 16842126.
- Joulia-Ekaza D, Cabello G (June 2007). "The myostatin gene: physiology and pharmacological relevance". Curr Opin Pharmacol 7 (3): 310–5. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2006.11.011. PMID 17374508.
- McPherron AC, Lawler AM, Lee SJ (May 1997). "Regulation of skeletal muscle mass in mice by a new TGF-beta superfamily member". Nature 387 (6628): 83–90. Bibcode:1997Natur.387...83M. doi:10.1038/387083a0. PMID 9139826.
- Kambadur R, Sharma M, Smith TP, Bass JJ (September 1997). "Mutations in myostatin (GDF8) in double-muscled Belgian Blue and Piedmontese cattle". Genome Res. 7 (9): 910–6. doi:10.1101/gr.7.9.910. PMID 9314496.
- Clop A, Marcq F, Takeda H, Pirottin D, Tordoir X, Bibé B et al. (July 2006). "A mutation creating a potential illegitimate microRNA target site in the myostatin gene affects muscularity in sheep". Nat. Genet. 38 (7): 813–8. doi:10.1038/ng1810. PMID 16751773.
- Sartori, Roberta; Gregorevic, Paul; Sandri, Marco (2014). "TGFb and BMP signaling in skeletal muscle: potential significance for muscle-related disease". Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 25 (9): 464–471. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2014.06.002.
- Grobet L, Martin LJ, Poncelet D, Pirottin D, Brouwers B, Riquet J et al. (September 1997). "A deletion in the bovine myostatin gene causes the double-muscled phenotype in cattle". Nat. Genet. 17 (1): 71–4. doi:10.1038/ng0997-71. PMID 9288100.
- Photos of double muscled Myostatin, inhibited Belgian Blue Bulls
- McPherron AC, Lee SJ (1997). "Double muscling in cattle due to mutations in the myostatin gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94 (23): 12457–61. Bibcode:1997PNAS...9412457M. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.23.12457. PMC 24998. PMID 9356471.
- "Myostatin – The Genetic Factor In Muscle Building". Myostatin Info. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
- Kota J, Handy CR, Haidet AM, Montgomery CL, Eagle A, Rodino-Klapac LR et al. (November 2009). "Follistatin gene delivery enhances muscle growth and strength in nonhuman primates". Sci Transl Med 1 (6): 6ra15. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3000112. PMC 2852878. PMID 20368179. Lay summary – National Public Radio.
- De Smet S (2004). Jensen WK, ed. "Double- Muscled Animals". Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Oxford: Elsevier): 396–402. doi:10.1016/B0-12-464970-X/00260-9.
- Mosher DS, Quignon P, Bustamante CD, Sutter NB, Mellersh CS, Parker HG et al. (May 2007). "A Mutation in the Myostatin Gene Increases Muscle Mass and Enhances Racing Performance in Heterozygote Dogs". PLoS Genet. 3 (5): e79. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030079. PMC 1877876. PMID 17530926.
- cevgenetica: Gene Mutation Makes German Boy Extra Strong Muscle Baby
- Gina Kolota: A Very Muscular Baby Offers Hope Against Diseases, The New York Times, June 24, 2004. (Requires