y to environmental differences Noble et al.
Besides, SES is strongly related to other environmental aspects such as maternal depression and the amount of time spent by parents in activities with their children Piccolo et al. Our results showed that SES effects on cognition decline after nine years old. Lupien et al. In this case, the neuropsychological performance would be influenced by social interactions with peers and teachers at school.
In this perspective, the school system — that supposedly give the same resources for all students — and living in other spaces with another people, associated to children character as resilience , could equalize the performance of children from different socioeconomic contexts.
This characteristic would be associated with reduced physiological risk in low childhood SES individuals, helping them to deal with risks environments Chen et al. In the present study, both the SES and specifically parental education showed independent effects, on IQ. The greatest effects were observed in younger children up to nine years old. Studies of twins and adopted children provide evidence that genetic and environmental factors impact on general intelligence g factor and that a substantial part of the variation of cognitive ability in adulthood is explained by genetic variations Blair A model proposed by Eaves et al.
The continuity of cognitive performance over time and the increase in heritability with age reflect the cumulative long-term effects of a single set of genes expressed throughout development.
The quality of the shared environment changes from family to family over time appears to exercise a long-term effect on cognitive development Eaves et al. The acquisition of written language continuously improved with new skills, as the individual grows and it is totally dependent of the interactions with the environment Finkbeiner and Coltheart that provides stimuli and experiences that are essential for this development as a primary means of social interaction Kim ; Peeters et al.
Low SES children are more likely to reside in an environment that exhibits sharply lower attainment levels and, in addition, that repeatedly manifests higher rates of crime, divorce, unemployment, and population density than high SES children. On the other hand, parents with high educational level tend to have substantially better educated spouses and higher family income.
Also, they are more likely to invest in their children through books, providing special lessons, or availability of a computer, for example Carneiro et al. That exposure to written material is essential for language development Marturano and there is evidence that children whose parents read to them when they are very young are more prepared for the development of reading when they enter school due to their early contact with books Duursma et al.
Moreover, some aspects of phonological awareness, one of the best predictors of proficient reading Foy and Mann , depend on exposure to reading and home literacy Kim ; Foy and Mann , which also affects word recognition Peeters et al. Mothers with higher educational level seem to be more likely to read frequently to their children than mothers with lower levels of education Kuo et al.
It was showed that SES has an effect on memory. Dynamic models of multiple components, such as the sociocultural theory Nelson and Fivush , explains that memory development occurs through social interaction and cognitive development over the years.
In the present study, children from socioeconomically disadvantaged households had poorer performance than those with high SES, especially until nine years old. According to Gathercole , the basic structure of the working memory is formed at the age of six years, but the capacity of each component increases until adolescence. The main change that occurs during the development of working memory is the increase in the operational efficiency and speed of information processing, as well as greater use of strategies in problem solving, skills that are influenced by the experiences of children i