n wooden pillars and roof beams. Wood carving and terra-cotta, particularly in western and southern Tibet, were common. papier-mâché, elaborately painted, was also used for masks of divinities. This use presumably originated in Kashmir.Temple interiors (interior design) are usually covered with frescoes and often hung with painted banners, or tanka ( thang-ka). For the preparation of the latter, a taut cotton cloth is impregnated with a mixture of chalk and glue, rubbed smooth by some suitable object; for example, a flat polished stone. A religious painter trained in the tradition draws in the outline, often using printed designs for the main figures. There is no scope for originality so far as the iconographic details of divinities are concerned, and, thus, such painting is a highly skilled craft. For decorative details—for example, flowers, cloud effects, rocks, and groups of devotees—there is wider scope. The tradition of fresco painting and temple banners certainly goes back to that of the great Buddhist monasteries of northwest India and the Ganges Valley, but these Indian origins of the 9th to 12th centuries are now entirely lost. The Indian Buddhist paintings of Ajanta are of a much earlier period (up to the 6th century AD), thus predating the great increase in the Buddhist pantheon and in occult symbolism typical of the later Indian Buddhism received by the Tibetans (Tibetan Buddhism). Central Asian styles certainly reached central Tibet well before the 9th century, but, after that date, it was India and Nepal that were to have lasting influences on the development of Tibetan art. In more recent times, especially from the 18th century onward, Chinese influence became noticeable in the details of paintings, particularly in the freer but still balanced arrangement of the main figures and the use of Chinese-style landscapes as subsidiary decoration. With the disappearance of Buddhism from Central Asia and India from the 12th century onward, Tibetan art developed as a style exclusive to the Tibetans, the Newari Buddhists of the Nepal Valley, and the Tibetan converts of Mongolia.Decorative architectural (architecture) motifsFor temples, monasteries, and official residences such as the Potala Palace of the Dalai Lama in Lhasa, the Tibetans (Tibet) used their own solid indigenous styles but embellished these with Indian, Nepalese, and (very much later) Chinese motifs. Tiered, ornamented temple roofs are of Indian origin, as received through Nepal and later through China. The magnificent interior carving is of Indian and Nepalese inspiration.David Llewelyn SnellgroveAdditional ReadingTurkish literaturePhilologiae Turcicae Fundamenta, vol. 2 (1965), a collection of monographs on literatures of Turkish-speaking peoples—see Alessio Bombaci, “The Turkic Literatures: Notes on the History and Style”; also his Letteratura turca (1969), an important survey with several chapters on Central Asian Turkish literature; Janos Eckmann, Chagatay Manual (1966), mainly a grammar containing selections of Central Asian literary texts and a vocabulary; Talat Tekin, A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic (1968), an excellent introduction to the language and literature of the Central Asian Turks before Islām; Sir Gerard Clauson, An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-13th Century Turkish (1972), and Turkish and Monogolian Studies (1962); and the Handbuch der Orientalistik, vol. 5, pt. 1 (1963), three important studies of the arts of the Central Asian peoples; E. Denison Ross, “The Tonyukuk Inscription,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies (London University), vol. 6 (1930), English translation of one of the oldest Turkish inscriptions. (Tibetan literature): J. Bacot, F.W. Thomas, and G.C. Toussaint, Documents de Touen-houang relatifs à l'histoire du Tibet, (1940); J. Bacot, Trois mystères tibétains (1921); W.Y. Evans Wentz (ed.), Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines (1935), The Tibetan Book of the Dead, 3rd ed. (1957), The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation (1954), Tibet's Great Yogi Milarepa, 2nd ed. (1951); H.V. Guenther, The Jewel Ornament of Liberati