 hazards across the whole of the SES, as the evidence base for its effectiveness matures.
This perspective includes scaling of systems biology aspects from the molecular and cellular level up to human and animal populations, which helps us understand health explicitly as a consequence of processes in complex human-environment systems. This also includes unpredictable, emergent phenomena (emerging diseases) in the sense of Alfred North Whitehead’s process philosophy. For example determining the origin of the current COVID-19 pandemic to be able to prevent such outbreaks in the future (see Box below).
Why transdisciplinary approaches are needed – the example of COVID-19
The importance of transdisciplinary approaches can be shown well using the example of the COVID-19 outbreak. Epidemiologists and virologists claim the scientific authority to interpret the current pandemic, but not to recommend how society should deal with it. Governments and scientists cannot solve this dilemma on their own. All actors have interests they are pursuing, so a social consensus can best be achieved through a participatory (transdisciplinary) process including representatives of all interest groups.
Most of the Corona viruses have been found in wildlife and livestock. Only few Corona viruses have adapted to humans. Some of the animal viruses in cattle, dogs and humans are genetically close to SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing COVID-19. It is possible that the exposure to animals carrying Corona viruses may elicit a cross-protection against COVID-19 infection and the severity of the clinical course. More research is needed to elucidate possible cross-protection between human and animal Corona viruses.
From a One Health perspective, human, domestic animal and wildlife disease surveillance should be integrated and closely communicated. Integrated surveillance-response systems show that the earlier a zoonotic agent is detected in the environment, in wild animals or domestic animals, and the better the monitoring data for humans, animals and the environment are communicated with each other to prevent an outbreak, the lower the cumulative cost will be. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is a striking example in which early detection was missed in wild or domestic animals. There is an urgent need to get to know better the interfaces of the transmission of pathogens between the environment, wild animals, domestic animals and humans as part of a complex human-environmental system (or social-ecological system [SES]).
In order to prevent further pandemic risks through the use of integrated human – animal surveillance-response systems on a global level, we also urgently need to investigate the biosecurity of live animal markets, intensively bred chickens or pigs and other farm animals as well as the risks of transmission between wild and farm animals. To improve biosecurity in live animal markets and on farms, animal welfare needs to be fundamentally changed. Animals are often kept, transported and slaughtered under unacceptable hygienic conditions. At the same time, we must not forget that animal husbandry contributes to the livelihood of hundreds of millions of smallholders. Drastic control measures can lead to loss of income and lead to poverty and hunger. For this reason, all stakeholders (e.g. farmers, traders, butchers, consumers, administrators and scientists) should be involved in developing locally adapted biosecurity and animal welfare measures while maintaining economic activity.
The inescapable relationship between humans and their environment
The “One Health” concept considers the health of people, animals and their environment together and thus transcends people’s traditional anthropocentric perspective. It keeps an eye on the wellbeing of both people and wild and domestic animals in their environment. So it is really about the inescapable relationship between humans and their environment, which includes animals. Such a broader approach is also reflected in the remarkable current initiative to bring animal health and animal welfare to the United Natio