) refers to a
variety of related topics such as philosophical
traditions and concepts that have
influenced East Asia
for over two
millennia and the West for over two centuries. The word 道,
, depending on the
scheme), means "path" or
"way", although in Chinese folk
has taken on more abstract meanings. Taoist propriety and ethics
emphasize the Three Jewels of
, and humility
Taoist thought generally focuses on nature
men-cosmos correspondence (天人相应), health
, wu wei
(action through inaction), liberty
Reverence for ancestor spirits and immortals
are also common in popular Taoism.
Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the
folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi
view as debased. Chinese alchemy
, several Chinese martial arts
, Chinese traditional medicine
, and many styles of qigong
breath training disciplines have been
intertwined with Taoism throughout history.
Spelling and pronunciation
In English, the words Daoism
are the subject of an ongoing
controversy over the preferred romanization
. The root Chinese
"way, path" is romanized tao
in the older Wade–Giles
system and dào
in the modern Pinyin
system. In linguistic
is a calque
formed from the Chinese loanword
route; principle" and the native suffix
. The sometimes heated arguments over Taoism
and politics – not to mention whether Taoism
should be or
is consistently , but English speakers disagree
should be or . In theory, both Wade-Giles
and Pinyin dao
are articulated identically,
as are Taoism
. An investment book
titled The Tao Jones Averages
pronunciation's widespread familiarity. In speech, Tao
are mistakenly pronounced and , reading the Chinese
("weak") as the English
voiceless stop consonant
shows American and British
in pronouncing Taoism
. A study of
major English dictionaries published in Great Britain and the
United States found the most common Taoism
glosses were in
British sources and in American ones.
There is debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be subdivided.
Livia Kohn divided it into the following three categories:
- "Philosophical Taoism" (Daojia 道家) - A philosophical school based on the texts
Dao De Jing (道德經) and
- "Religious Taoism" (Daojiao 道敎) - A family of
organized Chinese religious
movements originating from the Celestial Masters movement during
the late Han Dynasty and later including the "Orthodox"
(Zhengyi 正一) and "Complete
Reality" (Quanzhen 全眞) sects,
which claim lineages going back to Lao Zi
(老子) or Zhang Daoling in the late
- "Folk Taoism" - The Chinese
This distinction is complicated by hermeneutic
(interpretive) difficulties in the
categorization of Taoist schools, sects and movements. Some
scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and
Daojiao. According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have seriously
studied Taoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally abandoned
the simplistic dichotomy of Tao-chia
, "philosophical Taoism" and "religious
Hansen states that the identification of "Taoism" as such first
occurred in the early Han Dynasty
was identified as a single school. The writings of
were linked together under this single tradition during the Han
Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was
familiar with the text of the Daodejing
Additionally, Graham states that Zhuangzi would not have identified
himself as a Taoist, a classification that did not arise until well
after his death.
Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of
a distinct organized religion
like the Abrahamic traditions
nor can it purely be studied as the originator or a variant of
Chinese folk religion
, as much
of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core
teachings of Taoism. Robinet asserts that Taoism is better
understood as a way of life
than as a religion, and that
its adherents do not approach or view Taoism the way non-Taoist
historians have done. Henri Maspero
noted that many scholarly works frame Taoism as a school of thought
focused on the quest for immortality
Taoism has never been a unified religion, but has rather consisted
of numerous teachings based on various revelations. Therefore,
different branches of Taoism often have very distinct beliefs.
Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the
Taoist theology emphasizes various themes found in the
, such as naturalness,
"non-interference/non-resistance" (wu wei), emptiness (refinement),
, flexibility, receptiveness,
spontaneity, the relativism
of human ways
of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior
"Tao" is usually translated as road, channel, path, way, doctrine,
or line. Wing-tsit Chan stated that Tao meant system of
the natural, eternal, spontaneous, indescribable way things began
and pursued their course to Taoists. Hansen disagrees that these
were separate meanings and attributes. Cane asserts Tao can be
roughly stated to be the flow of the universe
, or the
force behind the natural order, equating it with the influence that
keeps the universe balanced and ordered. Martinson says that Tao is
associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates
the Tao. The flow of qi
, as the essential energy
of action and existence, is often compared to the universal order
of Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not
, which according
to Keller is similar to the negative
of Western scholars. It is often considered to be the
source of both existence and non-existence. LaFargue asserts that
Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the
concepts of atman
Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De
) "power; virtue; integrity", that
is, the active expression of Tao. De
is the active living,
or cultivation, of that "way".One must drop all sense of ego in
order to fulfill their ultimate destiny. By doing this one's inner
and outer strength greatens beyond humanly foreseeable
Wu wei ( ) is a central concept in Taoism. The literal meaning of
is "without action". It is often expressed by the
paradox wei wu wei
, meaning "action without action" or
"effortless doing".. The practice and efficacy of wu wei are
fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasized in
Taoism. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the
soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by
Taoists that masters of wu wei can observe and follow this
invisible potential, the innate in-action of the Way.
In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through
its yielding nature. Water is soft and weak, but it can move earth
and carve stone. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works
harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts his
will against the world, he disrupts that harmony. Taoism does not
identify man's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that
man must place his will in harmony with the natural universe.
( ; lit. "uncut wood") is translated "uncarved block",
"unhewn log", or "simplicity". It is a metaphor for the state of
(無爲) and the principle of jian
). It represents a passive state of
is a symbol for a state of pure
potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists
believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or
is usually seen as keeping oneself in the primordial
state of tao
. It is believed to be the true nature of the
mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. In the state of
, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There
is only pure experience, or awareness
free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being
that is the goal of following wu wei
Taoists believe that man is a microcosm
for the universe
. The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements
. The five organs correlate
with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons. Akin
to the Hermetic maxim of "as above, so below
posits that man may gain knowledge of the universe by understanding
In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religion, various rituals,
exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one's
physical and mental health
. They are also
intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable
ecstatic spiritual journeys. These concepts seem basic to Taoism in
its elite forms. Internal alchemy
and various spiritual practices are used by some Taoists to improve
health and extend life, theoretically even to the point of physical
The traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic
. Its many deities are part of a
heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of Imperial China
. According to
their beliefs, Chinese deities may be promoted or demoted for their
actions. Some deities are also simply exalted humans, such as
, the god of honor and piety. The
particular deities worshipped vary according to geographical
regions and historical periods in China, though the general pattern
of worship is more constant.
There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this
pantheon. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor
as the official head deity
. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the
usually present Laozi
Lao") and the Three Pure Ones
top of the pantheon of deities.
While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in
, and to a lesser
extent in the Tao Te Ching
these have generally not become the objects of worship. Traditional
conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts
. Being one with the Tao does not
indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but
rather living in accordance with nature.
The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures, (Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo;
Wade-Giles: san-pao) are basic virtues in Taoism. The Three Jewels
are compassion, moderation and humility. They are also translated
as kindness, simplicity (or the absence of excess), and modesty.
Arthur Waley describes them as "[t]he three rules that formed the
practical, political side of the author's teaching". He correlated
the Three Treasures with "abstention from aggressive war and
capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal
to assert active authority".
Compared to a traditional Western perspective, the Taoist view of
sexuality is considerably more at ease. The body is not viewed as a
dangerous source of evil temptation, but rather as a positive
asset. Taoism rejects Western mind-body dualism
; mind and
body are not set in contrast or opposition with each other. Sex is
treated as a vital component to romantic love; however, Taoism
emphasizes the need for self-control and moderation. Complete
is frequently treated as
equally dangerous as excessive sexual indulgence. The sexual
vitality of men is portrayed as limited, while the sexual energy of
women is viewed as boundless. Men are encouraged to control
to preserve this vital
energy. Male Taoist sexual
focus on cultivating the ability to reach orgasm
without ejaculating, enabling a man to have multiple orgasms
without loss of sexual vitality. Women are encouraged to reach
orgasm without restriction. Taoists believe that a man may increase
and nourish his own vitality by bringing a woman to orgasm, thereby
"activating" her energy and attuning it with himself. This is
considered to be of benefit to both partners.
Chinese government prefers the celibate model of Buddhism for Taoist clergy; Quanzhen clergy take vows of celibacy, but Zhengyi clergy are often married, and often reside
They are called sanju Taoshi, or "Taoist priests
who live at home." Numbering in the tens of thousands, the sanju
Taoshi perform rituals for their local communities.
The Tao Te Jing says: 'Humanity follows the Earth, the Earth
follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Tao, and the Tao follows what is
natural.' Taoists therefore obey the Earth. The Earth respects
Heaven, Heaven abides by the Tao, and the Tao follows the natural
course of everything. Humans should help everything grow according
to its own way. Therefore human beings should cultivate the way of
no-action and let nature be itself.
Biodiversity: Taoism has a unique sense of value in that it judges
affluence by the number of different species. If all things in the
universe grow well, then a society is a community of affluence. If
not, this kingdom is on the decline. This view encourages both
government and people to take good care of nature.
Tao Te Ching
The Tao Te Ching
, or Daodejing
, is widely
considered to be the most influential Taoist text. It is a
foundational scripture of central importance in Taoism purportedly
written by Lao Tzu
sometime in the 3rd or
4th centuries BCE
. However, the precise date
that it was written is still the subject of debate: there are those
who put it anywhere from the 6th century BCE
the 3rd century BCE. It has been used as a ritual text throughout
the history of religious Taoism.
Taoist commentators have deeply considered the opening lines of the
Tao Te Ching
. They are widely discussed in both academic
and mainstream literature. A common interpretation is similar to
's observation that "the map is not the territory
opening lines, with literal and common translation, are:
道可道，非常道。 (Tao (way or path) can be said, not usual
"The Way that can be described is not the true Way."
名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names)
"The Name that can be named is not the constant Name."
literally means "path" or "way" and can figuratively
mean "essential nature", "destiny", "principle", or "true path".
The philosophical and religious "Tao" is infinite, without
limitation. One view states that the paradoxical opening is
intended to prepare the reader for teachings about the unteachable
Tao. Tao is believed to be transcendent
, indistinct and without form.
Hence, it cannot be named or categorized. Even the word "Tao" can
be considered a dangerous temptation to make Tao
The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main
themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant
formulations, often with only a slight difference. The leading
themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao
is said to be unnameable and accomplishing great things through
small means. There is significant debate regarding which English
translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferred, and which particular
translation methodology is best. Discussions and disputes about
various translations of the Tao Te Ching can become acrimonious,
involving deeply entrenched views.
Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in
their own right. The Heshang Gong
commentary was most
likely written in the second century AD, and as perhaps the oldest
commentary, contains the edition of the Tao Te Ching that was
transmitted to the present day. Other important commentaries
include the Xiang'er
, one of the most
important texts from the Way of the Celestial Masters
and Wang Bi's
(莊子) was named after
, who also appears as a character
in the book's narrative. It is more in the form of a collection of
stories than the short aphorisms and maxims of the Tao Te Ching.
Also among the cast of characters in the Zhuangzi's stories is
Laozi of the Tao Te Ching, as well as Confucius
(道藏, Treasury of Tao
is sometimes referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally
compiled during the Jin
, and Song
dynasties. The version surviving today was published
during the Ming
The Ming Daozang
includes almost 1500
. Following the example of the
, it is divided into
(洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged
from "highest" to "lowest":
- The Zhen ("real" or "truth"眞)
grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
- The Xuan ("mystery"玄) grotto.
Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
- The Shen ("divine"神) grotto.
Includes texts predating the Maoshan （茅山）revelations.
Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang,
but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang.
These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to
The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through
scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts
often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.
While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other
important texts in traditional Taoism. Taishang Ganying
("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and
Retribution") discusses sin and ethics
has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries. It
asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful
lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have
shortened lives. Both the Tai Ping Jing
Great Peace") and the Bao Pu Zi
("Book of the Master Who
Keeps to Simplicity") contain early alchemical formulas that early
Taoists believed could lead to immortality.
Additionally, the Huainanzi
compilation of the writing of eight scholars from Han dynasty
that blends Daoist
Legalist concepts, including theories such as Yin-Yang
and the Five Phases. Patron Liu An (c. 180
- 122 BCE) was ruler of the state of Huainan and the grandson of
the founder of the Han dynasty whose discourse at his court favored
Taoist thought and who brought philosophers, poets and masters of
esoteric practices to his court. This resulted in the
White Cloud Monastery, Beijing
Some forms of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in
China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition. Laozi
is traditionally regarded as the founder of
Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original",
or "primordial", Taoism. Laozi
imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid second century AD.
Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty,
whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative. Several Song
emperors, most notably Huizong
, were active in
promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions
of the Daozang.
Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and
Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian
school, which eventually became
for state bureaucratic
purposes. The Qing Dynasty, however, much favored Confucian
classics and rejected Taoist works.
During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was
constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books. By the
beginning of the twentieth century, Taoism had fallen so much from
favor, that only one complete copy of the Daozang
remained, at the White Cloud
in Beijing. Taoism is one of five religions
recognised by the PRC, and regulates its activities through a state
bureaucracy (the China Taoist Association).
The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of
factors including defining Taoism. The number of people practicing
Chinese folk religion
estimated to be just under four hundred million. Most Chinese
people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist
tradition. Estimates for the number of Taoists worldwide range from
twenty to over fifty million.
Taoism as with other religions in China have been oppressed and
discouraged during the Cultural
, thus the number of Taoists today greatly declined
from the pre-Communist China.
Recently, there have been some efforts to revive the practice of
Taoist religion. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was
formed, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded
during the Cultural Revolution under Mao, but reestablished in
1980. The headquarters of the Association are at Baiyun guan, or
White Cloud Temple, of the Longmen branch of Quanzhen.
Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in
regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and various Chinese
diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced
the cultures of Korea, Japan, and
Organized Taoism seems not to have
attracted a large non-Chinese following, except in Korea (e.g. see
Kouk Sun Do
) and Vietnam, until modern
Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify
themselves as Taoists. In Singapore, 8.5% of the population identify themselves as
There are also small numbers of Taoists in the
At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice
to the spirits of the deceased and/or
the gods, such as during the Qingming
. This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs
and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning
of Joss paper
, or Hell Bank Notes
, on the assumption that
images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image,
but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available
for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. At other points, a
diet or full fast may be observed.
Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are
lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and
flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also
variously include lion dances
; human-occupied puppets
(often of the "Seventh Lord
shaman") who cut their skin with knives; Bajiajiang
, which are Kungfu
-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and
carrying god-images. The
various participants are not considered performers, but rather
possessed by the gods and spirits in question.
, I Ching
other forms of divination
—has long been
considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship
is also widely encountered in some
sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial
forms of mediumship (such as tongji
) and the
spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing
Many Taoists also participate in the study, analysis and writing of
books. Taoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly
retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. While there is
considerable overlap with religious Taoism, there are often
important divergences in interpretation. For example, Wang Bi, one
of the most influential philosophical commentators on the Laozi
), was a Confucian.
A number of martial arts traditions, particularly T'ai Chi Ch'uan
, Bagua Zhang
, Wing Chun
Won Yuen Yat Hey Jueng, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Fou Pai, Yaw Gong Moon and
Xing Yi Quan
, embody Taoist principles to
a greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their
art to be a means of practicing Taoism.
Taoist symbols and images
("yin and yang
as the Bagua
八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are
associated with Taoist symbolism. While almost all Taoist
organizations make use of the yin and yang symbol, one could also
call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. The yin and yang
make a backwards "S" shape, with yin (black or red) on bottom. One
is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization
flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes.
According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th
century. Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and
Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically
feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill
various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of
the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc. Other
flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals
A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the
(or the "Bushel", the Chinese
equivalent). In the Shang dynasty
Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han dynasty
, it was considered a qi
path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi
Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified
by their roofs, which feature Chinese
multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin
and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the
flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons,
as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master. In general though,
Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that
distinguish it from other structures.
Relations with other religions and philosophies
The terms Tao and De are religious and philosophical terms shared
between Taoism and Confucianism. The authorship of the Tao Te Ching
is assigned to Laozi
, who is traditionally held to have been a
teacher of Confucius. However, some scholars believe the Tao Te
Ching arose as a reaction to Confucianism. Zhuangzi
, reacting to the Confucian-Mohist
ethical disputes in his "history of thought",
casts Laozi as a prior step to the Mohists by name and the
Confucians by implication.
Early Taoist texts reject the basic assumptions of Confucianism
which relied on rituals and order, in favour of the examples of
"wild" nature and individualism. Historical Taoists challenged
conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased
and in need of strong ethical guidance.
The entry of Buddhism
into China was marked
by interaction and syncretism
Taoism in particular. Originally seen as a kind of "foreign
Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using
the Taoist vocabulary. Chan Buddhism was particularly modified by
Taoism, integrating distrust of scripture, text and even language,
as well as the Taoist views of embracing "this life", dedicated
practice and the "every-moment". Taoism incorporated Buddhist
elements during the Tang period
, such as
monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of
emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organisation.
During the same time, Chan Buddhism
grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. Christine
Mollier concluded that a number of Buddhist sutras
found in medieval East Asia
adopted many materials from earlier Taoist
Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism,
Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. They also
share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist
philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and
human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some
extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became
institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were
synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school.
- Miller (2003), p. ix.
- Goodspeed (1983).
- Carr (1990, pp. 63-65). Converting the various pronunciation respelling
systems into IPA, British
dictionaries (1933-1989, Table 3) give 9 , 2 , and 1 ; American
dictionaries (1948-1987, Table 4) give 6 , 2 , 2 , and 1 .
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(includes Taiwan only)
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of Taoism (Scarecrow Press, 1998). ISBN 0810833697.
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Anthology of World Scriptures (Thomson Wadsworth, 2005).
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Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought (Grove Press, 1958).
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Sources (Oxford University Press, 1995) ISBN
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Thoughts, Change Your Life: Living the Wisdom of the Tao (Hay
House, 2007). ISBN 978-1401917500
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33 Steps to Reclaiming Your Inner Power (Hay House, 1995).