Vous

consultez

AustriaHungary

and

the

First

World

War

par

Alan

Sked

Alan

Sked

is

Professor

of

International

History

at

the

London

School

of

Economics

and

Political

Science

He

is

the

author

of

numerous

books

on

British

and

Austrian

history

including

The

Survival

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

Radetzky

the

Imperial

Army

and

the

Class

War

London

and

New

York

Longman

The

Decline

and

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

London

and

New

York

Longman

Metternich

and

Austria

An

Evaluation

New

York

Palgrave

Macmillan

and

most

recently

Radetzky

Imperial

Victor

and

Military

Genius

London

I

B

Tauris

Voir

aussi

Sur

un

sujet

proche

HistoirePolitique

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imprimable

In

a

lecture

to

the

Royal

Historical

Society

some

years

ago

Alan

Sked

Historians

the

Nationality

Question

and

I

I

would

like

to

thank

my

friends

and

colleagues

David

distinguished

between

two

schools

of

thought

regarding

the

role

of

the

Habsburg

Monarchy

in

the

origins

of

the

First

World

War

The

first

regarded

the

failure

of

the

dynasty

to

implement

domestic

reforms

particularly

some

timely

welldesigned

scheme

for

federal

reorganization

as

having

forced

it

in

to

go

to

war

to

prevent

the

nationality

question

from

destabilizing

indeed

destroying

it

from

within

This

school

of

thought

was

particularly

associated

with

American

historians

The

second

school

associated

mainly

with

British

historians

argued

that

the

nationality

question

was

irrelevant

in

war

came

about

instead

on

account

of

questions

of

foreign

Decline

and

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

Alan

Sked

Decline

and

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

In

it

I

argue

that

the

decision

to

declare

war

on

Serbia

was

explicable

though

hardly

rational

given

the

Monarchys

military

unpreparedness

and

the

likelihood

of

a

world

war

ensuing

and

given

that

Franz

Joseph

in

the

past

had

managed

to

coexist

with

a

united

Germany

and

Italy

after

successful

military

challenges

to

Austrias

leadership

in

both

these

countries

There

is

now

of

course

a

huge

literature

on

the

origins

of

the

First

World

War

and

a

large

one

on

a

variety

of

aspects

of

the

nationality

question

inside

the

Monarchy

in

the

period

leading

up

to

Before

dealing

with

the

latter

I

shall

look

at

some

recent

writing

on

AustriaHungarys

role

in

There

is

no

need

or

indeed

space

to

survey

all

recent

works

on

Readers

are

referred

instead

to

an

excellent

article

which

does

exactly

that

namely

Samuel

Williamson

Jr

and

Ernest

R

May

An

identity

of

Opinion

Historians

and

July

Samuel

Williamson

Jr

and

Ernest

R

May

An

identity

Williamson

is

the

leading

expert

on

AustriaHungary

and

its

role

in

and

clearly

believes

that

it

was

Viennas

determination

to

exploit

the

assassination

of

the

Archduke

Franz

Ferdinand

and

his

wife

at

Sarajevo

in

order

to

subjugate

Serbia

and

dominate

the

Balkans

that

caused

the

First

World

War

In

other

words

AustriaHungary

was

to

blame

He

has

most

recently

reinforced

this

view

in

an

article

entitled

Leopold

Count

Berchtold

The

Man

Who

Could

Have

Prevented

the

Great

War

Samuel

Williamson

Jr

Leopold

Count

Berchtold

The

While

Williamson

maintains

that

it

was

the

Austrian

foreign

minister

who

was

to

blame

another

key

article

places

the

blame

on

Berchtolds

circle

of

junior

advisers

in

the

Austrian

foreign

ministry

This

is

by

the

Austrian

historian

Fritz

Fellner

although

his

key

passages

as

he

freely

admits

are

based

on

the

work

of

the

British

historian

John

Leslie

In

the

article

Fellner

quotes

Leopold

Baron

von

AndrianWerburg

as

saying

We

started

the

war

not

the

Germans

and

even

less

the

Entente

that

I

know

Fritz

Fellner

AustriaHungary

in

Keith

Wilson

ed

He

later

adds

I

have

the

distinct

impression

that

the

war

was

decided

on

by

that

circle

of

younger

talented

diplomats

who

formed

Berchtolds

political

council

who

influenced

him

strongly

and

who

if

they

were

as

they

were

in

this

case

in

agreement

decided

things

Musulin

the

impetuous

chatterbox

who

when

the

prospects

were

good

in

the

war

used

to

call

himself

the

man

who

caused

the

war

Alek

Hoyos

Fritz

Szápáry

they

made

the

war

I

myself

was

in

lively

agreement

with

the

basic

idea

that

only

a

war

could

save

Austria

As

the

world

situation

was

then

I

am

also

quite

See

Robert

A

Kann

Franz

Joseph

und

der

Ausbruch

The

recent

history

of

the

Balkans

has

shed

a

more

critical

light

on

Serbian

nationalism

so

that

previous

willingness

to

look

benignly

at

Serbia

as

an

innocent

victim

of

events

in

has

now

disappeared

This

is

evident

from

the

most

widely

noted

recent

reinterpretation

of

namely

Christopher

Clarks

The

Sleepwalkers

How

Europe

Went

to

War

in

Christopher

Clark

The

Sleepwalkers

How

Europe

Went

Clark

dismisses

the

older

Fischer

thesis

on

the

origins

of

the

war

which

put

the

blame

on

Germany

and

its

blank

cheque

of

military

support

to

AustriaHungary

without

which

AustriaHungary

would

never

have

declared

war

on

Serbia

According

to

Clark

however

p

a

diluted

version

of

the

Fischer

thesis

still

dominates

in

studies

of

Germanys

road

to

war

And

he

himself

defines

the

Fischer

thesis

as

meaning

the

Germans

did

not

stumble

or

slither

into

war

They

chose

it

worse

they

planned

it

in

advance

in

the

hope

of

breaking

out

of

their

European

isolation

and

making

a

bid

for

world

power

Faithful

to

a

long

tradition

in

British

historiography

Clark

makes

it

the

main

point

of

his

interpretation

of

however

not

to

blame

anyone

There

was

no

smoking

gun

The

war

was

a

tragedy

not

a

crime

p

However

he

has

considerable

sympathy

for

Vienna

p

Most

important

of

all

was

the

widely

trafficked

narrative

of

AustriaHungarys

historically

necessary

decline

which

having

gradually

replaced

an

older

set

of

assumptions

about

Austrias

role

as

a

Another

recent

analysis

of

however

says

that

all

this

is

beside

the

point

Sean

McMeekin

the

author

of

a

study

of

The

Russian

Origins

of

the

First

World

War

Sean

McMeekin

The

Russian

Origins

of

the

First

World

has

now

clarified

his

views

in

a

work

entitled

July

The

Countdown

to

War

Sean

McMeekin

The

Countdown

to

War

London

Basic

Here

in

an

epilogue

entitled

The

Question

of

Responsibility

he

takes

the

opposite

approach

from

Clark

and

firmly

states

that

moral

responsibility

or

blame

for

the

war

must

be

assigned

He

is

hard

on

Berchtold

but

argues

that

it

was

not

him

who

began

the

countdown

to

war

That

responsibility

lay

with

the

Russian

foreign

minister

Sazonov

who

on

July

decided

on

a

military

response

before

the

Serbs

had

even

replied

to

Viennas

ultimatum

and

some

time

before

Vienna

had

declared

war

By

then

Russias

war

preparations

were

already

under

way

Since

the

French

had

also

given

their

support

The

War

That

Ended

Peace

The

Road

to

Margaret

MacMillan

The

War

That

Ended

Peace

The

Road

also

argues

that

no

one

was

to

blame

for

the

outbreak

of

the

war

although

its

tone

is

implicitly

Fischerian

Stefan

Schmidts

Frankreichs

Außenpolitik

in

der

Julikrise

Ein

Beitrag

zur

Geschichte

des

Ausbruchs

der

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Stefan

Schmidt

Frankreichs

Außenpolitik

in

der

Julikrise

reinforces

McMeekins

explanation

The

situation

regarding

the

nationality

question

as

a

factor

influencing

AustriaHungarys

outlook

in

has

also

continued

to

produce

a

large

literature

Among

key

works

are

Gary

B

Cohen

Nationalist

Politics

The

outcome

of

all

these

works

is

a

new

stress

on

the

loyalty

of

the

nationalities

and

the

relative

lack

of

crisis

connected

with

the

nationality

question

All

sorts

of

factors

are

now

highlighted

ranging

from

political

apathy

and

compromise

through

ethnic

crossvoting

imperial

symbolism

military

service

primary

education

and

bilingualism

to

traditional

loyalty

to

Franz

Joseph

For

the

social

background

to

the

AustroHungarian

army

specifically

see

Alan

Sked

Social

Life

and

Legal

Constraints

the

Habsburg

Army

Alan

Sked

Social

Life

and

Legal

Constraints

the

and

Christa

Hämmerle

ed

Des

Kaisers

Knechte

Errinerungen

an

die

Rekrutenzeit

im

kuk

Heer

Christa

Hämmerle

ed

Des

Kaisers

Knechte

Errinerungen

Wartime

Diplomacy

The

standard

account

of

AustriaHungarys

wartime

diplomacy

is

to

be

found

in

chapters

seven

eight

and

nine

of

Roy

F

Bridges

The

Habsburg

Monarchy

Among

The

Great

Powers

Roy

F

Bridge

The

Habsburg

Monarchy

Among

The

Great

pp

In

the

concluding

chapter

Bridge

dismisses

the

nationality

question

as

an

issue

of

diplomacy

it

was

purely

a

matter

for

domestic

policy

but

sees

the

German

alliance

as

the

key

to

the

Monarchys

defeat

and

disappearance

The

Germans

refused

to

listen

to

Austrian

pleas

for

a

compromise

peace

and

overrode

Austrian

interests

in

the

Balkans

and

Poland

Austria

indeed

was

reduced

almost

to

satellite

status

after

the

Spa

agreements

of

May

but

in

any

case

still

backed

Germanys

desire

to

win

the

war

Technically

her

army

had

been

placed

under

German

command

on

all

fronts

in

separate

peace

That

would

have

invited

a

German

invasion

backed

by

German

Austrians

Austrias

real

problem

was

that

Germany

refused

to

give

back

AlsaceLorraine

wanted

vast

swathes

of

the

Baltic

not

to

mention

control

of

the

Balkans

Poland

and

Mitteleuropa

and

staked

all

on

outright

victory

even

risking

American

entry

into

the

war

through

unrestricted

Uboat

warfare

Clearly

therefore

the

German

alliance

was

allimportant

Yet

as

Gordon

A

Craig

pointed

out

in

a

brilliant

article

on

The

Military

Cohesion

of

the

AustroGerman

Alliance

Bridge

also

wrote

the

relevant

article

in

Adam

Wandruschka

there

was

no

military

or

diplomatic

coordination

between

the

two

powers

at

all

Given

that

their

million

fighting

men

would

face

at

least

million

from

France

Russia

and

Serbia

not

to

mention

the

British

Empire

and

later

Italy

and

America

this

was

disastrous

In

Conrad

could

even

ask

Well

what

are

our

secret

enemies

the

Germans

up

to

and

what

is

that

comedian

the

German

Emperor

doing

Gerard

E

Silberstein

The

Troubled

Alliance

GermanAustria

Relations

Gordon

A

Craig

The

Military

Cohesion

of

the

AustroGerman

and

Gary

W

Shanafelts

The

Secret

Enemy

AustriaHungary

and

the

German

Alliance

East

European

Monographs

Gerard

E

Silberstein

The

Troubled

Alliance

GermanAustria

show

not

merely

how

extensive

the

differences

between

the

two

powers

were

but

how

AustriaHungary

despite

continuous

defeats

and

the

need

for

German

military

aid

not

to

say

rescue

stoutly

refused

to

buckle

under

German

diplomatic

pressure

continuously

coming

up

instead

with

plans

for

Austrian

domination

of

various

parts

of

Europe

and

consistently

refusing

to

commit

herself

definitively

to

the

German

scheme

for

Mitteleuropa

even

after

signing

up

to

it

at

Spa

Silberstein

has

also

written

an

important

article

Gary

W

Shanafelt

The

Secret

Enemy

AustriaHungary

demonstrating

how

Conrad

as

AustriaHungarys

military

chiefofstaff

failed

to

dominate

Austrian

diplomacy

namely

The

High

Command

and

Diplomacy

in

AustriaHungary

Gerard

E

Silberstein

The

High

Command

and

Diplomacy

The

most

recent

and

significant

foray

into

AustroHungarian

wartime

diplomacy

is

Marvin

Benjamin

Frieds

LSE

doctoral

thesis

War

Aims

and

Peace

Conditions

AustroHungarian

Foreign

Policy

in

the

Balkans

July

This

will

be

published

in

by

Palgrave

Macmillan

London

with

the

title

The

Final

Stab

at

Glory

AustroHungarian

War

Aims

in

the

Balkans

Frieds

views

are

summarized

in

his

forthcoming

article

A

Life

and

Death

Question

AustroHungarian

War

Aims

in

the

First

World

War

For

Austrian

civilmilitary

relations

before

Meanwhile

he

has

published

an

article

The

Cornerstone

of

Balkan

Power

Projection

AustroHungarian

Foreign

Policy

and

the

Problem

of

Albanian

Neutrality

Marvin

Benjamin

A

Life

and

Death

Question

AustroHungarian

Background

to

his

research

is

provided

by

John

Paul

Newmans

review

article

War

in

the

Balkans

Marvin

Benjamin

The

Cornerstone

of

Balkan

Power

Projection

while

another

perspective

is

offered

by

Alexander

Will

Kein

Griff

nach

der

Weltmacht

Geheime

Dienste

und

Propaganda

im

deutschösterreichischtürkischen

Bündnis

John

Paul

Newman

War

in

the

Balkans

War

in

History

Alexander

Will

Kein

Griff

nach

der

Weltmacht

Geheime

tended

only

to

discuss

foreign

policy

with

his

foreign

minister

Besides

Tisza

had

no

intention

of

absorbing

more

Slavs

into

the

Monarchy

an

issue

that

Conrad

simply

dismissed

or

overlooked

The

problem

of

what

to

do

with

Poland

would

also

become

a

difficult

one

to

resolve

Certainly

it

had

to

be

detached

from

Russia

but

what

then

Tisza

rejected

any

trialist

solution

meaning

that

if

the

Germans

indeed

allowed

Poland

to

go

to

AustriaHungary

it

would

have

to

be

part

of

Cisleithania

in

some

sort

of

subdualist

structure

Clearly

there

were

huge

potential

gains

from

acquiring

a

territory

as

large

as

Poland

but

these

were

never

apparent

to

Hungarians

One

of

these

Burián

on

becoming

foreign

minister

in

displayed

astonishing

obduracy

in

face

of

military

and

civilian

panic

He

With

the

need

for

German

support

against

the

Brusilov

Offensive

in

and

against

Romania

which

now

entered

the

war

AustriaHungarys

diplomatic

room

for

manoeuvre

became

limited

She

gained

little

from

Romanias

defeat

while

Bulgaria

pressured

her

for

concessions

in

occupied

Serbia

and

the

Germans

set

their

sights

on

the

Albanian

port

of

Valona

Meanwhile

Congress

Poland

was

given

constitutional

independence

at

the

end

of

but

with

no

agreement

over

who

would

control

it

Burián

kept

pressing

for

Austrian

parity

with

Germany

in

Poland

indeed

control

of

Poland

if

possible

remained

an

Austrian

war

aim

Despite

hunger

becoming

the

most

pressing

issue

for

the

Monarchy

by

and

despite

the

accession

of

a

new

Emperor

Karl

I

who

soon

sacked

Conrad

Burián

and

even

Tisza

it

proved

impossible

to

change

Habsburg

foreign

policy

in

any

way

In

March

a

minimum

programme

was

agreed

with

Germany

according

to

which

the

armies

of

the

Central

Powers

would

only

retreat

from

Russia

and

the

Balkans

if

the

statu

quo

before

was

restored

in

east

and

west

A

maximum

programme

gave

Romania

to

AustriaHungary

and

expanded

territory

for

Germany

in

the

East

territory

whose

extent

would

be

defined

according

to

later

circumstances

Although

the

new

foreign

minister

and

emperor

became

identified

with

a

desire

for

peace

for

various

reasons

they

never

abandoned

the

established

new

order

in

the

Balkans

assuming

that

minor

territorial

adjustments

in

Serbia

and

Montenegro

would

be

overlooked

or

allowed

by

the

Allies

at

any

peace

conference

The

Germans

on

the

other

hand

not

merely

went

on

to

plan

huge

annexations

in

the

East

but

came

Mitteleuropa

Mitteleuropa

conditional

on

a

Polish

settlement

However

by

the

autumn

of

with

everything

everywhere

collapsing

the

allies

no

longer

cared

to

guarantee

the

Monarchys

own

survival

and

far

less

that

of

its

military

conquests

in

the

Balkans

when

the

war

eventually

ended

Fried

makes

an

excellent

case

for

the

primacy

of

Balkan

war

aims

in

the

wartime

diplomacy

of

AustriaHungary

It

may

be

true

that

Conrad

saw

the

eastern

front

and

the

struggle

against

Russia

as

being

more

important

for

military

survival

something

which

objectively

was

true

a

Russian

army

pouring

through

the

Carpathians

on

to

the

Hungarian

Great

Plain

represented

a

lethal

threat

to

the

Monarchy

in

a

way

that

Serbian

military

strategy

certainly

never

did

nor

could

it

may

be

true

also

that

AustriaHungary

saw

the

campaign

against

Italy

as

one

against

a

traditional

enemy

and

one

therefore

which

united

The

War

Itself

History

has

not

been

kind

to

the

Habsburg

army

and

its

record

in

the

First

World

War

The

successor

states

of

the

Monarchy

suppressed

its

memory

and

in

any

case

the

concept

of

a

multinational

army

imbued

with

a

dynastic

antinational

ethos

became

an

anomaly

if

not

an

embarrassment

after

The

Soviet

army

was

also

multinational

of

course

but

remained

Greater

Russian

in

ethos

See

the

article

by

Christoph

Schmetterer

Der

Kaiser

Nor

did

other

developments

help

In

Austria

the

old

AustroHungarian

general

staff

took

control

of

the

War

Archive

and

defended

its

own

record

when

writing

up

the

sevenvolume

official

history

of

the

war

ÖsterreichUngarns

letzter

Krieg

so

that

defeat

was

placed

on

ethnic

disloyalty

rather

than

bad

leadership

In

particular

reputations

such

as

that

of

the

former

chief

of

staff

Franz

Conrad

von

Hötzendorf

had

to

be

protected

See

Ludwig

Jedlicka

Die

Traditionen

der

Wehrmacht

The

shifting

of

blame

on

to

unreliable

nationalities

coincided

of

course

with

the

efforts

of

radical

nationalists

to

prove

that

battlefield

desertions

were

the

result

of

the

fact

that

AustriaHungary

had

been

the

prison

of

the

peoples

The

Czechs

Thomas

Masaryk

and

Eduard

Beneš

were

particularly

adept

in

this

regard

although

Jaroslav

Hašeks

Good

Soldier

Švejk

helped

enormously

despite

the

fact

that

Hašek

in

his

novel

described

Czech

loyalty

to

the

Habsburgs

See

Kurt

Peball

Osterreichische

Militärhistorische

Meanwhile

German

memoirists

sought

to

blame

the

Habsburg

army

for

their

own

defeat

including

the

German

liaison

officer

to

the

Austrian

high

command

General

August

Erdmann

von

Cramon

Jarosla

Hašek

Good

Soldier

Švejk

A

Synek

Publishers

On

the

other

hand

if

most

Slav

and

Romanian

accounts

after

gave

unsympathetic

accounts

of

the

Habsburg

army

and

stressed

desertions

by

ethnic

minority

troops

Hungarian

ones

tended

to

exaggerate

the

sacrifices

to

the

Monarchy

made

by

the

heroic

Magyar

race

See

his

Unser

österreichischungarischer

Bundesgenossen

Finally

as

Austria

became

more

fascist

after

those

of

a

deutschnational

inclination

also

began

to

blame

ethnic

minorities

for

defeat

in

thus

strengthening

Austrias

own

Dolchstoß

legende

which

had

grown

up

even

before

the

war

ended

For

interwar

Hungarian

historiographical

trends

see

Western

especially

Englishlanguage

accounts

of

the

First

World

War

tend

to

overlook

AustriaHungary

its

provinces

and

the

lesser

countries

of

East

and

SouthEast

Europe

See

for

example

Wilhelm

Czermak

In

deinem

Lager

This

tendency

is

equally

evident

in

the

purely

military

history

of

the

First

World

War

The

Balkan

Italian

and

Eastern

Fronts

are

usually

ignored

or

else

the

Habsburg

forces

are

treated

as

a

minor

satellite

army

of

Germany

The

Cambridge

Companion

to

the

Literature

of

the

Indeed

there

is

no

good

book

in

English

on

the

Habsburg

army

in

the

First

World

War

although

Graydon

A

Tunstall

is

expected

to

publish

one

next

year

with

Cambridge

University

Press

Meanwhile

there

is

Holger

A

Herwig

The

First

World

War

Germany

and

AustriaHungary

Allen

R

Millet

and

Williamson

Murray

for

example

which

peculiarly

is

better

on

the

Austrian

home

front

than

on

her

military

record

Probably

the

best

coverage

of

her

war

record

is

to

be

found

in

the

works

of

Gunther

E

Rothenberg

namely

The

Army

of

Francis

Joseph

Holger

A

Herwig

The

First

World

War

Germany

and

and

his

articles

The

Habsburg

Army

in

the

First

World

War

E

Rothenberg

The

Army

of

Francis

Joseph

West

Lafayette

and

The

AustroHungarian

Campaign

against

Serbia

in

E

Rothenberg

The

Habsburg

Army

in

the

First

World

More

recently

the

literature

has

been

enriched

by

the

works

of

Graydon

A

Tunstall

whose

books

on

Planning

for

War

against

Russia

and

Serbia

AustroHungarian

and

German

Military

Strategies

E

Rothenberg

The

AustroHungarian

Campaign

against

and

Blood

on

the

Snow

The

Carpathian

Winter

War

of

Graydon

A

Tunstall

Planning

for

War

against

Russia

and

articles

Graydon

A

Tunstall

Blood

on

the

Snow

The

Carpathian

namely

The

Carpathian

Winter

Campaign

of

and

The

Collapse

of

the

AustroHungarian

Army

in

give

some

indication

of

the

quality

to

be

expected

from

his

forthcoming

book

on

the

AustroHungarian

army

Graydon

A

Tunstall

The

Carpathian

Winter

Campaign

The

standard

German

account

by

Manfried

Rauchensteiner

Der

Tod

der

Doppeladlers

ŐsterreichUngarn

und

der

Erste

Weltkrieg

Recently

available

however

are

Mark

Thompson

The

has

now

been

replaced

or

supplemented

by

his

Der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

das

Ende

der

Habsburgermonarchie

Manfried

Rauchensteiner

Der

Tod

der

Doppeladlers

Students

should

consult

its

bibliography

as

well

as

that

in

Herwigs

book

for

the

older

and

more

detailed

literature

Rauchensteiner

should

also

be

supplemented

by

József

Galántai

Hungary

in

the

First

World

War

Manfried

Rauchensteiner

Der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

das

There

can

be

no

doubt

from

all

accounts

of

the

war

that

Conrads

military

record

was

deplorable

and

that

the

armys

strategic

leadership

was

appalling

József

Galántai

Hungary

in

the

First

World

War

Budapest

Much

much

more

than

Britains

forces

those

of

AustriaHungary

were

indeed

lions

led

by

donkeys

although

the

British

record

is

now

defended

What

then

of

the

argument

about

the

nationalities

subverting

the

AustroHungarian

war

effort

There

is

an

extremely

peculiar

article

by

Geoffrey

Wawro

entitled

Morale

in

the

AustroHungarian

Army

the

Evidence

of

Habsburg

Army

Campaign

Reports

and

Allied

Intelligence

Officers

See

Lawrence

Sondhaus

Franz

Conrad

on

Hötzendorf

etc

which

has

to

be

confronted

in

this

context

Basing

himself

on

the

clearly

undeniable

and

rather

obvious

fact

that

the

Habsburg

army

had

to

be

rescued

by

the

Germans

on

all

fronts

as

well

as

on

the

accounts

of

a

handful

of

prisoners

who

surrendered

to

allied

mainly

French

captors

Wawro

repeats

all

the

charges

made

against

the

Habsburg

army

by

its

detractors

the

First

World

War

it

is

argued

here

revealed

as

never

before

AustriaHungarys

social

political

and

military

weaknesses

I

take

issue

not

only

with

historians

who

suggest

that

the

monarchys

survival

through

four

years

of

total

In

short

the

evidence

both

of

Habsburg

army

campaign

reports

and

of

Allied

intelligence

officers

strongly

suggests

that

the

AustroHungarian

army

was

indeed

a

prison

of

the

nations

Each

major

army

campaign

of

the

Great

War

revealed

major

nationality

problems

which

called

into

question

the

Monarchys

very

reason

for

being

Did

the

Habsburg

Monarchy

in

fact

unite

and

protect

the

small

nations

of

East

Central

Europe

against

foreign

domination

or

was

the

Monarchy

itself

a

foreign

oppressor

and

in

the

end

a

mere

front

for

Reich

German

domination

AustriaHungarys

record

in

the

Great

War

from

its

early

defeats

to

its

final

acceptance

of

Ludendorffs

supreme

command

suggests

that

the

latter

can

Wawro

argues

that

the

Habsburg

army

would

have

disintegrated

much

sooner

had

the

Germans

not

propped

it

up

or

had

it

been

subject

to

more

allied

offensives

in

the

West

On

the

Italian

front

he

argues

the

men

were

divided

into

reliable

GermanAustrian

and

Hungarian

troops

and

unreliable

others

who

were

controlled

by

field

gendarmes

and

prevented

from

deserting

Meanwhile

the

Germans

had

all

sorts

of

nasty

nick

names

for

Slavs

and

Rumanian

troops

and

generally

called

them

cus

akin

to

nigger

or

wog

Perhaps

as

an

academic

Wawro

is

unacquainted

with

barrackroom

language

and

behaviour

In

any

case

there

are

a

host

of

objections

to

his

arguments

First

the

army

was

in

contact

with

the

Russians

and

did

not

go

over

to

the

enemy

In

fact

see

below

there

is

a

great

deal

of

mythology

about

the

Czechs

who

supposedly

did

desert

Secondly

nothing

at

all

took

place

in

Habsburg

ranks

to

compare

with

the

French

mutinies

of

or

the

Russian

armys

revolt

against

its

officers

in

the

same

year

Instead

despite

the

many

hundreds

of

thousands

lost

in

and

again

A

Hopeless

Struggle

The

AustroHungarian

Army

and

Total

War

which

concludes

p

The

overwhelming

majority

of

Habsburg

soldiers

fought

with

determination

and

bravery

Certainly

they

had

persevered

far

longer

than

anyone

in

including

the

generals

had

considered

they

might

The

multinational

army

the

least

prepared

for

war

of

all

Europes

major

armies

offered

unprecedented

sacrifices

against

a

host

of

well

armed

enemies

Its

experience

of

total

war

was

among

the

worst

in

Europe

its

casualties

were

comparable

to

Frances

terrible

losses

The

armys

high

level

leadership

was

often

poor

the

Dual

Monarchy

failed

to

supply

its

troops

properly

and

there

was

little

hope

of

ultimate

victory

Yet

the

common

soldiers

According

to

Schindler

these

soldiers

in

AustriaHungarys

greatest

war

lived

up

to

the

reputations

of

Eugene

of

Savoy

the

Archduke

Charles

and

Vater

Radetzky

They

fought

and

died

all

over

Central

and

Eastern

Europe

from

the

Adriatic

to

the

Carpathians

p

Their

nowforgotten

sacrifices

in

a

lost

cause

triumphs

at

Valjevo

Gorlice

Doberdo

the

Strypa

Caporetto

and

on

the

Tagliamento

as

well

as

the

defeats

at

Čer

Sztropkó

the

Dukla

Pass

Łuck

and

on

the

Piave

were

enormous

By

their

great

sacrifices

the

soldiers

of

the

wartime

army

proved

themselves

to

be

the

last

true

Austrians

the

last

remaining

defenders

of

the

ancient

Habsburg

monarchy

Wawro

however

is

probably

reacting

against

the

views

expressed

in

the

penultimate

chapter

of

my

Decline

and

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

There

I

relied

on

a

famous

article

by

István

Deák

to

demonstrate

how

the

army

had

fought

on

till

the

end

For

when

the

Italians

took

the

final

surrender

of

Habsburg

troops

on

November

between

and

men

only

about

one

third

were

Austrian

Germans

The

rest

included

Czechs

and

Slovaks

South

Slavs

Poles

Ruthenes

Romanians

and

even

Italians

In

Deáks

words

this

was

the

final

irony

the

last

fighting

forces

of

the

Habsburg

monarchy

were

to

a

great

extent

Slavs

Romanians

and

Italians

all

theoretically

the

allies

of

the

Entente

Geoffrey

Wawro

Morale

in

the

AustroHungarian

Army

Most

of

the

debate

over

national

disloyalty

among

the

troops

has

concerned

the

Czechs

in

and

Fortunately

a

recent

work

of

meticulous

research

should

put

an

end

to

the

dispute

by

demonstrating

that

Austrian

officers

accused

the

Czechs

of

dishonourable

conduct

to

save

their

own

reputations

Richard

Leins

Pflichterfüllung

oder

Hochverrat

Die

tschechischen

Soldaten

ŐsterreichUngarns

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

p

István

Deák

The

Habsburg

Army

in

the

First

and

Last

concludes

in

the

light

of

the

available

documentary

material

it

can

be

stated

absolutely

in

both

cases

that

neither

treason

nor

desertion

by

Czech

troops

occurred

in

the

fighting

at

Esztebnekhuta

or

in

the

battle

of

Zborów

According

to

one

recent

estimate

Czech

ambivalence

towards

Austria

was

strong

before

but

until

the

very

end

never

became

outright

hostility

and

rejection

of

Habsburg

rule

Had

the

war

ended

in

a

stalemate

or

a

victory

for

the

Central

Powers

outright

Czech

independence

would

never

have

been

proclaimed

yet

few

Czech

soldiers

ever

switched

sides

or

mutinied

before

the

very

end

of

the

Richard

Lein

Pflichterfüllung

oder

Hochverrat

Die

Indeed

the

American

consul

reported

from

Prague

in

January

The

Bohemian

national

spirit

which

was

so

rampant

before

the

war

has

absolutely

evaporatedwhatever

the

cause

may

be

there

is

no

questioning

the

fact

that

on

the

surface

at

least

there

is

loyalty

to

the

Government

It

is

not

safe

to

say

whether

this

attitude

of

the

Czechs

is

due

to

official

pressure

but

the

Czechs

are

certainly

showing

no

spirit

in

defending

what

I

had

been

led

by

the

Germans

to

believe

was

the

political

creed

of

all

of

them

that

is

the

separation

of

Bohemia

from

Austria

Kees

Bloterbloem

Hašek

Švejk

and

the

Czechoslovak

The

Habsburg

Empire

crumbled

because

by

its

soldiers

and

civilians

were

starving

and

its

bet

on

German

military

victory

had

failed

It

was

defeated

neither

by

the

subversion

of

the

nationalities

who

fought

bravely

and

loyally

to

the

end

nor

on

account

of

international

diplomacy

Its

own

inability

to

reform

or

to

make

a

compromise

peace

allowed

the

Allies

to

accept

the

new

national

governments

already

in

place

as

the

imperial

government

and

family

simply

disappeared

Quoted

in

Claire

Nolte

Ambivalent

Patriots

Czech

Occupation

Policy

The

initial

campaigns

against

Serbia

by

Oskar

Potioreks

army

were

accompanied

by

massacres

of

civilians

and

the

taking

of

hostages

partly

in

retaliation

for

the

murders

of

Austrian

troops

by

Serbian

partisans

The

evidence

is

assembled

briefly

in

chapter

twenty

of

Rudolf

Jeřábeks

biography

Potiorek

General

im

Schatten

von

Sarajevo

For

some

new

literature

on

the

attitude

of

the

nationalities

The

main

book

so

far

on

the

Austrian

occupation

of

Serbia

between

and

which

also

covers

the

events

of

is

Jonathan

E

Gumz

The

Resurrection

and

Collapse

of

Empire

in

Habsburg

Serbia

Rudolf

Jeřábek

Potiorek

General

im

Schatten

on

Sarajevo

which

is

exceptionally

wellresearched

and

wellbalanced

and

is

based

on

thorough

archival

research

in

Vienna

and

Belgrade

Gumz

places

the

AustroHungarian

army

at

the

centre

of

his

picture

and

shows

that

its

behaviour

can

not

be

compared

with

that

of

the

Nazis

in

the

Second

World

War

Its

outlook

was

backwardlooking

determined

to

keep

wars

typical

of

the

nineteenth

century

by

giving

Serbia

the

type

of

denationalised

apolitical

bureaucraticabsolutist

regime

it

would

have

liked

to

see

in

AustriaHungary

itself

Despite

atrocities

and

war

crimes

there

was

no

intention

of

annihilating

or

exterminating

a

racial

enemy

The

army

in

fact

operated

Dynamic

of

Destruction

Culture

and

Mass

Killing

in

the

First

World

War

E

Gumz

The

Resurrection

and

Collapse

of

Empire

in

which

deals

with

the

Balkan

Wars

and

the

Armenian

genocide

and

argues

that

the

ethnic

hatreds

caused

by

national

mobilizations

of

civilians

in

the

First

World

war

laid

the

roots

of

the

mass

killings

of

the

Second

Alan

Kramer

Dynamic

of

Destruction

Culture

and

Mass

The

other

part

of

the

Empire

that

experienced

occupation

in

the

First

World

War

was

Galicia

which

twice

passed

from

Austrian

to

Russian

occupation

Slav

inhabitants

later

deemed

to

have

collaborated

with

the

enemy

were

treated

harshly

many

were

hanged

by

the

Austrians

while

thousands

of

locals

were

forcibly

transferred

to

other

areas

The

Jews

of

Galicia

and

Russian

Poland

however

treated

Austrian

and

German

troops

as

liberators

which

led

to

the

Russians

mistreating

them

when

they

retreated

It

was

very

different

from

the

Second

World

War

As

Austria

and

Europe

began

to

mobilize

for

war

in

the

summer

of

Galician

Zionists

prepared

as

well

Most

Galician

Zionists

shared

the

loyalty

and

patriotism

of

the

overwhelming

majority

of

Galician

Jews

indeed

of

all

Habsburg

Jews

towards

the

empire

generally

and

toward

Franz

Joseph

in

particular

Most

Jews

in

the

Habsburg

Empire

focused

their

attention

squarely

on

Tsarist

Russia

and

saw

themselves

and

AustriaHungary

as

liberators

of

Russian

Jewry

thus

uniting

their

Jewish

and

Habsburg

loyalties

See

also

Jovana

Lazic

Knezevic

The

AustroHungarian

Prisoners

of

War

AustroHungarian

prisoners

in

the

First

World

War

found

themselves

overwhelmingly

in

Russian

hands

Russia

in

fact

took

officers

captive

and

of

other

ranks

In

respect

of

nationality

per

cent

were

Hungarians

per

cent

German

Austrians

per

cent

Romanians

per

cent

Poles

per

cent

Czechoslovaks

per

cent

South

Slavs

per

cent

Jewish

and

per

cent

Italian

Officers

were

treated

reasonably

well

They

were

not

forced

to

work

and

actually

received

a

monthly

stipend

as

laid

down

by

the

Hague

Conventions

They

were

allowed

to

pursue

hobbies

and

put

on

theatrical

works

Joshua

Shanes

Diaspora

Nationalism

and

Jewish

Identity

Naval

War

The

role

of

the

imperial

and

royal

navy

in

the

First

World

War

is

covered

by

several

works

Volume

Five

of

the

Austrian

Academys

distinguished

and

indeed

invaluable

series

Die

Habsurgermonarchie

edited

by

Adam

Wandruschka

and

Peter

Urbanitsch

entitled

Die

Bewaffnete

Macht

On

the

developing

research

into

POWs

see

Ernst

Gusenbauer

as

previously

noted

has

nothing

to

say

on

the

war

itself

but

it

does

include

a

useful

article

by

Lothar

Höbelt

on

Die

Marine

pp

which

gives

the

nineteenthcentury

background

Another

work

which

covers

the

immediate

background

is

Milan

N

Vegos

AustroHungarian

Naval

Policy

Adam

Wandruschka

and

Peter

Urbanitsch

eds

Die

Habsurgermonarchie

which

stresses

that

AustriaHungarys

naval

policy

was

not

the

result

of

German

pressure

but

was

based

on

p

the

interplay

of

her

needs

to

acquire

the

status

of

a

great

sea

power

in

both

the

Adriatic

and

the

Mediterranean

Curiously

however

he

questions

her

need

to

build

dreadnoughts

p

Surely

it

would

have

been

more

sensible

and

valuable

for

AustriaHungary

to

spend

her

limited

funds

on

building

smaller

surface

combatants

and

submarines

than

on

dreadnoughts

and

semidreadnoughts

Maybe

as

shall

be

seen

this

is

due

to

his

reading

of

the

war

at

sea

after

backwards

but

even

N

Vego

AustroHungarian

Naval

Policy

Sondhaus

is

the

author

of

several

fine

books

on

Habsburg

military

history

and

The

Naval

Policy

of

AustriaHungary

Navalism

Industrial

Development

and

the

Politics

of

Dualism

his

second

book

on

Austrian

naval

policy

in

the

nineteenth

century

will

surely

become

the

standard

one

for

AustriaHungarys

naval

record

during

the

First

World

War

The

story

itself

is

following

Sondhaus

quite

straightforward

By

Admiral

Montecuccoli

backed

by

the

Archduke

Franz

Ferdinand

had

built

up

the

AustroHungarian

navy

to

be

a

force

to

be

reckoned

with

in

the

Mediterranean

even

by

Great

Britain

which

fearing

for

the

safety

of

its

fleet

in

Malta

not

to

mention

the

looming

danger

of

Tirpitzs

Risikoflotte

in

the

North

Sea

withdrew

its

ships

to

home

waters

and

left

the

French

to

deal

with

the

Austrians

and

Italians

By

the

fleet

had

some

officers

active

seamen

and

a

reserve

During

the

Balkan

Wars

men

had

been

on

active

duty

In

the

fleet

also

got

a

new

Inspector

Rear

Admiral

Haus

who

spoke

seven

languages

had

circumnavigated

the

globe

had

written

a

textbook

on

oceanography

and

was

an

expert

on

torpedoes

By

now

the

fleet

also

had

two

dreadnoughts

In

October

the

government

approved

a

programme

for

four

new

dreadnoughts

three

The

strategy

planned

by

the

fleet

had

been

laid

out

by

the

Triple

Alliance

Naval

Convention

of

October

which

foresaw

the

Italians

cooperating

with

AustriaHungary

something

that

already

looked

unlikely

given

the

secrecy

of

Italian

naval

exercises

and

the

clashes

taking

place

between

Italians

and

Slovenes

in

Trieste

When

war

did

break

out

of

course

the

Italians

were

at

first

neutral

and

then

hostile

leaving

the

Austrians

to

face

first

a

superior

French

fleet

and

then

a

very

superior

combination

of

France

and

Italy

Hauss

ambitions

to

win

a

second

Trafalgar

or

Lissa

had

to

be

put

aside

Even

Hans

Hugo

Sokol

ŐsterreichUngarns

Seekrieg

After

the

failure

of

the

Dardanelles

there

was

pressure

on

Haus

to

come

out

of

port

to

attack

the

allies

but

such

a

move

he

emphasised

made

absolutely

not

the

least

strategic

sense

p

When

Italy

entered

the

war

she

brought

fifteen

battleships

including

four

dreadnoughts

with

a

fifth

almost

ready

for

service

Haus

was

absolutely

correct

The

allies

however

were

very

wary

of

moving

their

own

ships

within

range

of

the

Austrians

so

that

the

war

at

sea

in

the

Mediterranean

just

as

in

the

North

Sea

became

a

standoff

Jutland

in

would

only

confirm

this

strategy

The

Entente

drew

a

line

at

the

mouth

of

the

Adriatic

and

left

the

sea

itself

to

AustriaHungary

Only

on

two

occasions

did

Haus

break

out

When

Italy

entered

the

war

the

Austrians

immediately

attacked

several

points

on

the

Italian

coast

destroying

a

few

bridges

and

railway

tracks

and

killing

a

few

military

personnel

and

civilians

No

ships

The

role

of

AustroHungarian

submarines

and

the

fleet

air

arm

should

not

therefore

be

neglected

In

this

respect

the

reader

should

refer

to

the

article

by

John

Harbon

Franz

Josefs

Forgotten

UBoat

Captains

See

Alison

Frank

Oil

Empire

Visions

of

Prosperity

and

to

Peter

Schupita

Die

kuk

Seeflieger

Chronik

und

Dokumentation

der

ósterreichischungarischen

Marineluftwaffe

John

Harbon

Franz

Josefs

Forgotten

UBoat

Captains

Before

leaving

the

subject

however

one

should

stress

that

in

Haus

was

an

enthusiast

for

Germanys

policy

of

unrestricted

submarine

warfare

with

which

he

agreed

unreservedly

although

he

died

just

days

after

it

started

When

warned

that

it

might

provoke

US

entry

into

the

war

he

declared

that

no

great

anxiety

need

be

felt

Ministers

therefore

reluctantly

gave

their

consent

to

AustriaHungary

taking

part

although

the

Empress

was

opposed

and

Emperor

Karl

only

agreed

under

angry

protest

p

Haus

justified

his

position

by

citing

the

Ententes

sinking

of

unarmed

AustroHungarian

vessels

including

the

torpedoing

of

the

ton

Electra

in

March

by

a

French

submarine

Finally

Sondhaus

covers

both

the

strike

at

Pola

of

January

and

the

mutiny

at

Cattaro

of

February

Both

were

easily

dealt

with

and

the

causes

attributed

to

them

are

less

political

ones

including

the

nationality

question

than

social

including

poor

leadership

different

standards

of

living

of

and

lack

of

contact

between

officers

and

men

and

of

course

the

lack

of

food

available

by

this

stage

of

the

war

Peter

Schupita

Die

kuk

Seeflieger

Chronik

und

The

War

Economy

The

only

real

sources

for

Austrias

war

economy

until

recently

were

the

volumes

produced

in

the

by

the

Carnegie

Endowment

for

International

Peace

See

also

Richard

Georg

Plaschkas

works

namely

CattaroPrag

Fortunately

there

are

now

a

number

of

more

general

surveys

of

the

AustroHungarian

war

economy

These

included

E

L

Bogart

Direct

and

Indirect

Costs

The

most

recent

and

most

accessible

account

however

is

that

of

MaxStephan

Schulze

AustriaHungarys

economy

in

World

War

I

These

include

Zedenek

Jindra

Der

wirtschaftliche

The

concluding

paragraph

p

of

Schulzes

article

deserves

to

be

quoted

The

main

conclusions

from

the

preceding

discussion

of

AustriaHungarys

war

economy

can

be

summarised

as

follows

First

the

war

effort

was

sustained

into

on

the

basis

of

a

rapidly

decreasing

resource

base

Constrained

by

scarcity

of

input

materials

and

cumulative

labour

shortages

aggregate

output

fell

continuously

over

the

course

of

the

war

Moreover

the

share

of

war

expenditure

in

real

GDP

fell

from

an

initial

peak

of

per

cent

to

about

per

cent

in

Hence

the

scale

of

mobilization

both

in

absolute

terms

and

relative

to

the

size

of

the

economy

was

small

to

that

Schulze

perhaps

does

not

sufficiently

stress

the

significance

of

transportation

which

is

clearly

set

out

in

Wegs

Transportation

etc

p

The

failure

of

the

railways

was

very

instrumental

in

the

final

economic

and

military

collapse

since

there

was

often

large

amounts

of

fuel

raw

material

and

finished

products

that

could

not

be

delivered

The

ammunition

shortages

experienced

in

the

last

major

AustroHungarian

offensive

against

Italy

in

June

was

second

only

to

the

failure

in

military

tactics

in

contributing

to

the

defeat

of

the

Imperial

Army

These

shortages

reduced

the

number

of

active

artillery

batteries

in

Conrads

forces

by

fiftythe

Army

High

Command

calculated

that

the

army

needed

an

additional

railway

cars

to

supply

all

the

food

needed

on

Nonetheless

he

is

certainly

right

in

pointing

to

food

shortages

as

a

key

factor

in

the

defeat

of

the

Empire

a

factor

exacerbated

as

he

rightly

points

out

by

the

actions

of

the

Hungarian

government

Apart

from

the

relevant

volumes

of

the

Carnegie

Endowment

mentioned

above

the

classical

work

on

the

topic

is

Ottokar

Landwehrs

Hunger

Die

Erschöpfungsjahre

der

Mittelmächte

MaxStephan

Schulze

AustriaHungarys

Economy

in

Major

General

Landwehr

was

head

of

the

Joint

Food

Committee

set

up

in

February

The

effects

of

hunger

on

the

Habsburg

army

and

civilian

populations

are

explored

in

Richard

George

Plaschka

Horst

Haselsteiner

and

Arnold

Suppan

Innere

Front

Miliärassisten

Widerstand

und

Umsturz

in

der

Donaumonarchie

Ottokar

Landwehr

Hunger

Die

Erschöpfungsjahre

der

The

key

article

is

Horst

Haselsteiner

The

Habsburg

Empire

in

World

War

I

Mobilization

of

Food

Supplies

George

Plaschka

Horst

Haselsteiner

and

Arnold

Suppan

Horst

Haselsteiner

The

Habsburg

Empire

in

World

War

Haselsteiner

rightly

states

Almost

independent

of

the

events

of

the

war

and

the

international

situation

the

feeding

of

the

army

and

of

the

civilian

population

became

a

question

of

survival

for

AustriaHungary

p

He

points

out

that

before

AustriaHungary

was

selfsufficient

in

grain

but

on

military

advice

that

the

war

would

be

a

short

one

no

plans

had

been

made

for

the

stockpiling

of

foodstuffs

This

was

a

fatal

error

As

the

war

went

on

key

grain

growing

areas

of

the

Empire

were

lost

Galicia

refugees

had

to

be

fed

harvests

failed

Hungary

refused

Austrian

requests

for

aid

th

Army

in

March

describing

how

four

men

were

sharing

one

loaf

and

some

water

He

added

I

think

we

will

all

die

of

hunger

before

a

bullet

gets

usAh

dear

mother

our

dog

is

better

fed

than

I

am

here

In

the

cabbage

there

are

worms

we

have

to

live

and

fight

like

this

In

another

essay

Cornwall

recounts

how

in

Istria

in

people

were

dropping

dead

of

hunger

or

trying

to

live

off

grass

and

nettles

By

this

time

per

cent

of

letters

handled

in

Vienna

and

Feldkirch

by

the

censors

were

complaining

of

food

supply

problems

See

Mark

Cornwall

Morale

and

Patriotism

in

the

AustroHungarian

Almost

all

studies

of

the

Empire

during

the

war

suggest

that

hunger

and

warweariness

rather

than

political

ideologies

or

nationalisms

were

the

true

causes

of

Habsburg

defeat

Peter

Pastor

in

an

essay

Peter

Pastor

The

Home

Front

in

Hungary

on

The

Home

Front

in

Hungary

records

that

in

the

Hungarian

minister

for

food

admitted

that

the

government

could

no

longer

feed

its

troops

or

its

civilian

population

Amazingly

the

army

still

fought

on

till

the

bitter

end

Maureen

Healy

in

her

book

see

the

section

on

the

home

front

points

out

that

it

was

basically

lack

of

food

that

undermined

the

Monarchy

in

Vienna

Finally

there

is

an

article

that

specifically

addresses

the

link

between

starvation

and

political

radicalism

in

the

Bohemian

Lands

namely

Peter

Heumos

Kartoffeln

her

oder

es

gibt

eine

Revolution

Hungerkrawalle

Streiks

un

Massenproteste

Peter

Heumos

Kartoffeln

her

oder

es

gibt

eine

Revolution

Holger

Herwig

The

First

World

War

Germany

and

AustriaHungary

Holger

Herwig

The

First

World

War

Germany

and

AustriaHungary

remarks

ironically

on

the

aftermath

of

victory

at

Caporetto

in

from

the

perspective

of

food

supplies

p

Before

leaving

the

war

economy

one

article

on

who

ultimately

repaid

Austrias

war

loans

which

is

worth

mentioning

is

Thomas

Winkelbauer

Wer

bezahlte

den

Untergang

der

Habsburgermonarchie

Zur

nationalen

Streuung

der

österreichischen

Kriegsanleihen

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Thomas

Winkelbauer

Wer

bezahlte

den

Untergang

der

Finally

on

the

topic

of

the

free

trades

unions

during

the

war

and

their

cooperation

with

the

government

see

Margarete

Grandner

Kooperative

Gewerkschaften

in

der

Kriegswirtschaft

Die

freien

Gewerkschaften

Ősterreichs

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Margarete

Grandner

Kooperative

Gewerkschaften

in

der

Government

in

Wartime

The

basic

study

of

the

government

of

AustriaHungary

during

wartime

is

Joseph

Redlichs

volume

written

under

the

auspices

of

the

Carnegie

Endowment

namely

Ősterreichische

Regierung

und

Verwaltung

im

Weltkrieg

Joseph

Redlich

Ősterreichische

Regierung

und

Verwaltung

Also

invaluable

is

Christoph

Führ

Die

kuk

Armeeoberkommando

und

die

Innenpolitik

in

Ősterreich

Christoph

Führ

Die

kuk

Armeeoberkommando

und

die

More

recently

there

is

Tamara

Scheers

Zwischen

Front

und

Heimat

ŐsterreichUngarns

Militärverwaltungen

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Tamara

Scheer

Zwischen

Front

und

Heimat

ŐsterreichUngarns

All

volumes

cover

the

armys

role

in

wartime

administration

Did

this

amount

to

what

Mark

Cornwall

has

called

bureaucraticmilitary

dictatorship

the

term

he

used

in

Disintegration

and

Defeat

The

AustroHungarian

Revolution

Mark

Cornwall

Disintegration

and

Defeat

The

AustroHungarian

Perhaps

not

Recent

research

suggests

that

the

armys

relationship

with

local

bureaucracies

may

have

been

more

hostile

than

cooperative

See

for

example

Gerd

Pircher

Militär

Verwaltung

On

the

highest

political

level

the

fact

was

of

course

that

since

the

Austrian

Parliament

had

been

closed

before

the

outbreak

of

war

the

Monarchy

was

run

by

the

Emperor

and

his

military

and

civilian

advisers

as

usual

although

in

Hungary

parliament

remained

in

session

and

political

affairs

there

were

dominated

by

the

Prime

minister

István

Tisza

Hungary

stayed

loyal

to

the

end

The

key

question

about

Habsburg

government

at

the

highest

level

during

the

First

World

War

concerns

not

the

role

of

Franz

Joseph

or

even

the

role

of

the

army

in

occupied

or

militarily

sensitive

territories

but

why

Untergang

oder

Rettung

der

Donaumonarchie

Die

österreichische

Frage

Kaiser

und

König

Karl

I

IV

und

die

Neuordnung

Mitteleuropas

Vol

I

and

Untergang

oder

Rettung

der

Donaumonarchie

Politische

Dokumente

zu

Kaiser

und

König

Karl

I

IV

aus

Internationalen

Archiven

Vol

II

Elizabeth

Kovács

Untergang

oder

Rettung

der

Donaumonarchie

The

first

volume

is

hagiographical

conspiratorial

and

Vaticanfunded

the

second

is

more

useful

in

that

it

prints

documents

from

the

secret

Habsburg

family

archive

submitted

to

the

Vatican

for

Karls

beatification

Some

other

works

from

the

same

perspective

are

Peter

Broucek

Karl

I

IV

Der

politische

Weg

des

letzten

Herrschers

der

Donaumonarchie

Peter

Broucek

Karl

I

IV

Der

politische

Weg

des

Eva

Demmerele

Kaiser

Karl

I

Selig

die

Frieden

stiften

Eva

Demmerele

Kaiser

Karl

I

Selig

die

Frieden

stiften

and

Jean

Sévillia

Le

dernier

empereur

Charles

dAutriche

Jean

Sévillia

Le

dernier

empereur

Charles

dAutriche

More

useful

is

a

collection

of

essays

of

Andreas

Gottsman

ed

Karl

I

IV

der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

das

Ende

der

Donaumonarchie

Andreas

Gottsman

ed

Karl

I

IV

der

Erste

Weltkrieg

and

a

biography

by

Jan

Galandauer

Karel

I

posledni

český

král

Karl

I

the

last

Bohemian

King

Jan

Galandauer

Karel

I

posledni

český

král

Karl

I

The

latter

work

despite

its

authors

excellent

knowledge

of

the

archives

suffers

from

a

lack

of

footnotes

The

fact

remains

that

most

of

what

has

been

written

about

Karl

has

been

partisan

misleading

or

superficial

However

a

doctoral

thesis

completed

in

at

the

London

School

of

Economics

sets

the

record

straight

and

with

any

luck

will

shortly

be

published

or

turned

into

a

biography

It

has

examined

everything

to

be

discovered

about

the

Emperor

in

the

Viennese

and

other

archives

and

covers

his

key

decisions

in

power

in

in

words

It

is

by

Christopher

Brennan

and

is

Reforming

AustriaHungary

beyond

his

control

or

beyond

his

capacity

The

domestic

policies

of

Emperor

Karl

I

November

In

Brennans

words

pp

Quite

unwittinglyKarls

road

to

holiness

has

provided

the

most

significant

boost

to

historical

research

Indeed

numerous

documents

were

submitted

to

the

Vatican

and

subsequently

verified

and

published

extensively

in

from

the

otherwise

closed

Habsburg

archive

Previously

only

a

handful

of

historians

had

been

granted

very

limited

access

to

some

of

the

private

papers

of

the

imperial

family

thanks

to

their

close

relationship

with

its

members

Unfortunately

this

association

particularly

with

the

Empress

Zita

proved

fatal

to

their

impartiality

As

a

result

though

useful

articles

have

appeared

no

works

of

academic

quality

exist

on

Karls

life

and

reign

as

a

So

what

does

this

latest

research

reveal

Though

Karl

has

often

been

credited

with

a

desire

to

reform

the

Empire

along

federal

lines

and

indeed

to

salvage

it

thereby

there

is

scant

evidence

that

he

took

any

action

in

this

direction

at

least

not

until

it

was

far

too

late

His

early

political

appointments

certainly

fail

to

corroborate

this

avowed

desire

In

December

in

the

month

after

coming

to

power

he

dismissed

the

experienced

Koerber

as

Prime

Minister

and

subsequently

let

the

moderate

Spitzmüller

slip

away

even

though

both

men

supported

the

return

of

parliamentary

rule

and

opposed

the

Reichsrat

Influenced

by

his

foreign

minister

Czernin

and

his

lord

chamberlain

Hohenlohe

and

cowed

by

cocksure

clamorous

German

nationalists

Karl

effectively

acquiesced

in

the

pursuit

of

a

German

course

the

socalled

octroi

despite

his

undoubted

personal

reservations

on

the

subject

The

principal

measures

of

the

octroi

policy

were

the

introduction

of

German

as

the

official

internal

language

of

state

ie

within

the

bureaucracy

the

partition

of

Bohemia

along

national

lines

to

reinforce

German

autonomy

in

the

area

the

granting

of

subdualistic

autonomy

to

Galicia

to

exclude

Polish

deputies

from

the

Reichsrat

and

ensure

a

German

majority

and

the

associated

amendments

of

the

parliamentary

standing

orders

This

policy

was

pursued

aggressively

by

the

German

nationalists

with

tactical

endorsements

from

the

Christian

Socials

and

the

support

of

the

Poles

It

was

however

opposed

by

all

other

nationalities

Karl

may

have

longed

for

the

reconciliation

of

his

peoples

but

he

accepted

the

execution

of

an

iniquitous

and

unilateral

policy

which

could

only

entrench

division

and

intensify

the

nationality

conflict

Fortunately

for

him

the

inefficiency

of

his

government

under

the

leadership

of

the

listless

tormented

Clam

and

the

insolubility

of

the

Polish

question

delayed

the

implementation

of

the

octroi

until

events

ultimately

made

it

impossible

In

March

the

Russian

Revolution

put

the

first

nail

in

the

coffin

of

the

policy

by

radicalizing

the

masses

particularly

the

Czechs

in

Bohemia

the

political

opponents

of

the

policy

and

the

Poles

The

Social

Democrats

and

the

Czechs

denounced

it

with

increased

vehemence

while

many

Poles

now

filled

with

dreams

of

an

independent

Poland

considered

it

wholly

insufficient

Moreover

worried

by

popular

unrest

and

convinced

of

the

need

for

an

immediate

recall

of

parliament

the

Christian

Socials

effectively

withdrew

their

support

Only

the

German

nationalists

and

then

really

only

the

diehards

continued

octroi

Czernin

hitherto

a

staunch

supporter

of

the

plan

realised

that

this

antiSlav

and

undemocratic

measure

would

endanger

potential

peace

negotiations

with

the

revolutionaries

in

Russia

and

began

to

question

its

wisdom

He

also

hoped

to

enlist

the

Social

Democrats

in

his

quest

to

obtain

peace

with

Russia

and

they

had

already

demanded

its

abandonment

as

a

prerequisite

He

also

worried

about

the

impact

of

the

octroi

on

the

volatile

masses

in

the

Czech

Lands

Karl

shocked

by

events

in

St

Petersburg

and

deeply

concerned

about

the

spread

of

revolution

to

AustriaHungary

shared

this

apprehension

Moreover

he

was

in

secret

negotiations

with

the

Entente

through

his

brotherinlaw

Sixtus

and

understood

the

threat

to

any

possible

agreement

posed

by

this

repressive

proGerman

policy

The

octroi

had

therefore

become

a

menace

to

peace

prospects

in

the

East

and

in

the

West

and

to

domestic

harmony

Czernin

with

Karls

blessing

the

most

powerful

political

figure

in

both

foreign

and

domestic

matters

waited

to

see

if

Germany

could

be

brought

to

reason

over

AlsaceLorraine

if

the

peace

party

gained

ground

in

Russia

and

if

his

own

peace

feelers

in

Switzerland

came

to

anything

Indeed

should

peace

be

achieved

the

octroi

need

not

be

cancelled

By

early

April

however

peace

was

no

nearer

on

either

front

while

the

domestic

situation

plagued

by

lack

of

food

unrest

and

strikes

had

continued

to

worsen

The

American

declaration

of

war

on

April

finally

convinced

Czernin

that

the

octroi

had

to

be

cancelled

The

foreign

minister

believed

that

the

US

had

now

decisively

tipped

the

scales

in

favour

of

the

enemy

and

understood

that

the

octroi

stood

in

complete

contradiction

to

the

calls

for

selfdetermination

trumpeted

by

Wilson

Should

AustriaHungary

stand

any

chance

of

surviving

she

would

have

to

show

tolerance

and

equality

in

the

treatment

of

her

nationalities

On

April

Czernin

irrupted

in

a

domestic

ministerial

council

and

put

the

octroi

to

the

sword

Thereafter

the

government

sought

desperately

to

appease

the

incensed

nationalists

with

moderate

success

but

did

not

attempt

to

reach

out

to

other

factions

Thus

when

the

Slavdominated

Reichsrat

reopened

on

May

the

government

was

almost

without

allies

The

German

nationalists

still

insisted

on

the

fulfilment

of

their

demands

but

Clam

was

in

no

position

to

put

these

through

parliament

Furthermore

the

Slavs

now

had

a

platform

to

denounce

imperial

excesses

and

to

stake

their

claims

for

greater

rights

and

autonomy

Within

a

month

the

cabinet

had

resigned

But

instead

of

inaugurating

a

new

direction

through

a

bold

prime

ministerial

appointment

Karl

temporarily

nominated

Seidler

a

dour

Lower

Austrian

bureaucrat

who

pursued

a

noncommittal

middle

way

which

satisfied

no

one

In

Hungary

Karl

finally

did

away

with

the

In

a

desperate

bid

to

win

back

the

increasingly

alienated

Czechs

and

undoubtedly

out

of

a

genuine

sense

of

justice

Karl

decreed

an

amnesty

for

political

prisoners

on

July

This

measure

which

concerned

principally

but

not

exclusively

Czech

detainees

was

greeted

with

dismay

and

anger

by

the

Germans

who

for

the

first

time

began

to

lose

their

trust

and

confidence

in

the

emperor

However

the

botched

execution

of

the

measure

also

removed

much

of

the

goodwill

it

had

generated

amongst

the

Czechs

And

the

amnesty

backfired

completely

when

many

of

the

released

men

returned

to

their

homelands

to

resume

statu

quo

The

Czechs

the

South

Slavs

and

the

Social

Democrats

never

had

a

stake

in

government

and

waited

in

vain

for

conciliatory

proposals

On

the

other

hand

the

Germans

could

not

push

through

their

own

demands

as

they

remained

a

minority

in

parliament

And

by

then

the

Poles

were

already

lost

By

the

autumn

any

serious

prospect

of

internal

reform

and

pacification

had

disappeared

the

game

was

up

Karl

was

a

fair

wellintentioned

ruler

whose

understanding

of

AustriaHungarys

predicament

was

often

accurate

However

he

was

naïve

and

lacking

in

moral

courage

As

a

result

he

frequently

submitted

to

stronger

men

such

Two

other

works

on

high

government

policy

might

be

mentioned

namely

Fritz

Fellner

and

Doris

A

Corradini

eds

Schicksalsjahre

Österreichs

Die

Erinnerungen

und

Tagebücher

Josef

Redlichs

Vols

Fritz

Fellner

and

Doris

A

Corradini

eds

Schicksalsjahre

A

similar

new

edition

of

the

Baernreither

diaries

is

also

planned

to

come

out

this

year

or

very

soon

The

Home

Front

Much

like

the

military

role

of

Austria

in

the

war

the

home

front

in

AustriaHungary

also

fails

to

receive

proper

coverage

For

example

of

the

essays

published

in

the

first

four

volumes

resulting

from

the

conferences

held

by

the

International

Society

for

First

World

War

Studies

only

two

are

largely

devoted

to

Habsburg

studies

The

books

in

question

are

Jenny

Macleod

and

Pierre

Recently

however

there

has

been

some

positive

interest

in

the

home

front

in

Austria

The

most

notable

work

in

English

has

been

Maureen

Healys

Vienna

and

the

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

Total

War

and

Everyday

Life

in

World

War

I

Maureen

Healy

Vienna

and

the

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

She

writes

in

the

concluding

chapter

p

This

study

adds

a

new

dimension

to

the

longstanding

historical

thesis

that

the

Habsburg

state

collapsed

for

internal

rather

than

external

reasons

the

collapse

was

even

more

deeply

internal

than

previously

imagined

The

state

was

discredited

not

only

in

the

eyes

of

national

minorities

in

other

parts

of

Austria

or

in

the

minds

of

weary

troops

at

the

front

as

other

histories

have

shown

but

also

in

the

markets

apartment

houses

schoolyards

streets

and

the

pubs

of

its

own

imperial

capital

However

her

emphasis

is

on

the

increasingly

harsh

conditions

of

life

during

the

war

rather

than

the

nationalities

question

Healys

first

chapter

describes

the

effect

of

the

food

crisis

on

Vienna

and

shows

that

the

Viennese

blamed

it

less

on

the

allied

blockade

or

the

loss

of

Galicia

than

on

the

Hungarians

local

Austrian

farmers

Viennese

merchants

and

fellow

citizens

The

army

was

also

to

blame

for

demanding

priority

of

supply

for

its

troops

Moreover

despite

the

poverty

of

Jewish

or

Slav

refugees

they

too

like

established

Jewish

or

Slav

citizens

got

the

blame

and

were

accused

of

being

foreign

parasites

The

state

of

course

tried

to

counter

such

disaffection

though

censorship

and

propaganda

which

included

the

Vienna

Opferwilligket

and

endurance

Durchhalten

while

the

state

invested

more

hope

in

censorship

or

negative

information

management

Alas

this

only

stimulated

rumours

which

the

state

found

difficult

to

control

It

clearly

lacked

the

propaganda

techniques

of

later

totalitarian

regimes

Meanwhile

its

reliance

on

the

family

as

the

prime

unit

of

social

control

did

not

work

either

Womens

voluntary

service

Frauenhilfsaktion

could

not

discipline

the

unruly

crowds

of

females

fighting

one

another

in

bread

queues

or

aid

a

generation

of

children

no

longer

subject

to

male

authority

at

home

or

school

from

slipping

into

delinquency

The

women

in

the

food

queues

also

shouted

their

disgust

at

the

local

and

later

imperial

political

class

while

brawling

in

the

streets

Even

the

Emperors

came

under

attack

They

might

receive

polite

and

loyal

petitions

but

since

they

could

not

provide

food

their

imperial

aura

soon

lacked

lustre

The

unravelling

of

Habsburg

rule

can

be

understood

in

part

as

the

slow

realization

among

the

people

Several

themes

covered

by

Healys

account

of

the

home

front

have

been

researched

in

different

ways

by

other

scholars

For

a

start

there

is

Edgar

Haider

Wien

Alltag

am

Rande

des

Abgrunds

Edgar

Haider

Wien

Alltag

am

Rande

des

Abgrunds

A

number

of

publications

have

also

appeared

on

the

role

of

the

Catholic

Church

See

for

example

Wilhelm

Achleitner

Gott

im

Krieg

the

role

of

women

Christa

Hämmerle

HeimatFront

Geschlechtergeschichten

on

Jewish

women

On

Jewish

women

see

Dieter

Hecht

Bürgerlichjüdische

on

children

See

Werner

Auer

Kriegskinder

Schule

und

Bildung

im

and

on

medicine

See

HansGeorg

Hofer

Nervensschwäche

und

Krieg

Modernitätskritik

Apart

from

the

issues

raised

by

Healys

book

a

great

deal

of

research

is

now

underway

on

social

care

in

Austria

during

the

First

World

War

One

older

work

that

gives

the

background

is

L

Brügel

Soziale

Gesetzgebung

in

Ősterreich

bis

Eine

geschichtliche

Darstellung

L

Brügel

Soziale

Gesetzgebung

in

Ősterreich

More

recently

several

works

have

appeared

For

example

J

Weidenholzer

Der

Sorgende

Staat

Zur

Good

coverage

of

all

the

wartime

legislation

affecting

war

victims

including

missing

and

injured

soldiers

and

their

dependents

albeit

from

the

viewpoint

of

the

state

is

provided

in

Verena

Pawlowsky

and

Harald

Wendeln

Die

normative

Konstruction

des

Opfers

Die

Versorgung

der

Invaliden

des

Ersten

Weltkrieges

Verena

Pawlowsky

and

Harald

Wendeln

Die

normative

A

work

that

looks

at

the

provision

of

social

care

from

the

viewpoint

of

the

war

victims

themselves

on

the

other

hand

is

the

as

yet

unpublished

doctoral

dissertation

of

KeChin

Hsia

University

of

Chicago

entitled

The

Politics

of

War

Victim

Welfare

in

Austria

The

first

chapter

covers

the

period

from

Once

published

this

will

be

an

important

work

Hsia

has

also

recently

published

an

article

on

A

Partnership

of

the

Weak

War

Victims

and

the

State

in

the

Early

First

Austrian

Republic

KeChin

Hsia

A

Partnership

of

the

Weak

War

Victims

A

central

point

of

Hsias

work

is

that

there

was

a

partnership

of

the

weak

between

the

war

victims

per

cent

of

the

Austrian

population

in

and

the

state

The

latter

had

pace

Healy

recognised

its

wartime

delegitimization

by

setting

up

new

Ministries

of

Social

Welfare

and

Public

Health

at

the

end

of

But

pressure

from

war

victims

was

partly

responsible

They

saw

and

continued

to

see

their

problems

as

directly

resulting

from

the

states

declarations

of

war

in

and

its

subsequent

failure

to

protect

its

citizens

It

was

necessary

therefore

to

force

the

state

to

live

up

to

its

responsibilities

In

the

words

of

one

provincial

widow

it

is

the

same

everywhere

We

are

defenceless

and

are

the

dregs

of

society

Auswurf

der

Menschheit

And

the

father

State

sic

is

not

conscious

of

its

duty

It

forgets

us

poor

creatures

who

were

ruined

by

it

But

now

our

patience

runs

out

even

widows

have

a

right

to

live

We

want

to

remind

the

state

of

its

duties

because

things

can

not

go

on

like

this

anymore

A

Partnership

of

the

Weak

etc

p

Other

research

into

related

themes

include

Daniela

Also

relevant

in

this

section

of

course

is

the

role

of

the

workers

in

Austria

during

the

war

In

particular

they

were

affected

by

the

Kriegsdienstleistungsgesetzt

or

War

Service

Act

of

December

which

subordinated

factories

in

wartime

to

state

indeed

military

supervision

and

made

workers

liable

to

military

penalties

for

infringing

regulations

Factory

owners

were

freed

from

the

normal

terms

of

labour

contracts

while

workers

were

expected

to

increase

output

by

working

longer

under

worse

conditions

for

no

more

pay

The

Ermächtigungsgesetz

or

Enabling

Law

subordinated

practically

the

whole

of

private

enterprise

to

state

control

There

seems

to

be

room

for

more

research

here

but

the

key

works

are

Ferdinand

Haunisch

and

Emmanuel

Adler

eds

Die

Regelung

der

Arbeitsverhältnisse

im

Kriege

WirtschaftsundSozialgeschichte

des

Weltkrieges

Ferdinand

Haunisch

and

Emmanuel

Adler

eds

Die

Regelung

Max

Breitenstein

and

Demeter

Koropatnicki

Die

Kriegsgesetzte

Ősterreichs

Vols

Max

Breitenstein

and

Demeter

Koropatnicki

Die

Kriegsgesetze

Rudolph

Neck

Arbeiterschaft

und

Staat

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vols

Rudolph

Neck

Arbeiterschaft

und

Staat

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

and

Berthold

Unfried

Arbeiterprotest

und

Arbeiterbewegung

in

Ősterreich

während

des

Ersten

Weltkrieges

unpublished

dissertation

Vienna

There

is

a

brief

but

useful

chapter

on

the

First

World

War

in

Hans

Hautmann

and

Rudolf

Kropf

Die

österreichische

Arbeiterbewegung

vom

Vormärz

bis

Sozialökonomische

Ursprünge

ihrer

Ideologie

und

Politik

Schriftenreihe

des

Ludwig

BoltzmannInstituts

für

Geschichte

der

Arbeiterbewegung

Hans

Hautmann

and

Rudolf

Kropf

Die

österreichische

Vol

p

which

stresses

that

whatever

their

wartime

difficulties

Austrias

Social

Democrats

remained

united

during

the

war

and

eschewed

revolution

in

For

reasons

of

length

this

essay

does

not

intend

to

cover

party

politics

in

wartime

although

honourable

mention

might

be

given

to

John

Boyers

Culture

and

Political

Crisis

in

Vienna

Christian

Socialism

in

Power

John

Boyer

Culture

and

Political

Crisis

in

Vienna

Finally

one

recent

work

on

the

otherwise

neglected

topic

of

public

opinion

during

the

war

is

P

Eherenpreis

Kriegsund

Friedensziele

im

Diskurs

Regierung

und

deutschsprachige

Őffentlichkeit

ŐsterreichUngarns

während

des

Ersten

Weltkriegs

P

Eherenpreis

Kriegsund

Friedensziele

im

Diskurs

In

a

related

context

see

also

Stephen

Beller

The

tragic

carnival

Austrian

culture

in

the

Great

War

Stephen

Beller

The

Tragic

Carnival

Austrian

Culture

The

War

in

Memory

The

recent

interest

in

commemorating

war

has

been

led

by

Jay

Winter

whose

work

and

influence

can

perhaps

be

best

evaluated

by

reading

his

own

essay

on

Commemorating

War

Jay

Winter

Commemorating

War

in

Roger

The

key

book

on

Austria

seems

to

be

Joachim

Giller

Hubert

Mader

and

Christina

Seidls

Wo

sind

sie

geblieben

Kriegerdenkmäler

und

Gefallenkult

in

Ősterreich

Joachim

Giller

Hubert

Mader

and

Christina

Seidl

Wo

So

far

as

the

First

World

War

is

concerned

however

one

excellent

recent

essay

has

addressed

the

topic

namely

Oswald

Übereggers

Erinnerungsorte

oder

nichtssagende

Artefakte

Ősterreichische

Kriegerdenkmäler

und

locale

Kriegserinnerung

in

der

Zwischenkriegszeit

Oswald

Überegger

Erinnerungsorte

oder

nichtssagende

Das

Kriegsgräberwesen

ŐsterreichUngarns

im

Weltkrieg

und

die

Obsorge

in

der

Republik

Ősterreich

Das

Wirken

des

Ősterreichischen

Schwarzen

Kreuzes

in

der

Zwischenkriegszeit

unpublished

dissertation

Graz

Conclusion

While

much

has

been

written

on

the

Habsburg

Monarchy

and

the

First

World

War

clearly

there

remain

many

gaps

and

many

opportunities

for

more

research

We

need

to

know

more

for

example

about

relations

between

officers

and

men

in

the

army

and

about

other

parts

of

the

home

front

rather

than

just

Vienna

Fortunately

young

scholars

have

emerged

from

all

over

the

world

many

of

them

brilliant

linguists

who

if

they

can

all

find

jobs

can

be

relied

upon

to

complete

the

picture

of

what

actually

happened

to

the

Monarchy

between

and

For

example

one

can

see

all

Notes

Alan

Sked

Historians

the

Nationality

Question

and

the

Downfall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

Transactions

of

the

Royal

Historical

Society

th

Series

Vol

p

I

would

like

to

thank

my

friends

and

colleagues

David

Stevenson

Heather

Jones

Christopher

Brennan

Martin

Fried

KeChin

Hsia

and

Robert

Boyce

for

their

help

and

advice

while

preparing

this

article

Alan

Sked

Decline

and

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

London

and

New

York

Longman

Samuel

Williamson

Jr

and

Ernest

R

May

An

identity

of

Opinion

Historians

and

July

Journal

of

Modern

History

Vol

p

Samuel

Williamson

Jr

Leopold

Count

Berchtold

The

Man

Who

Could

Have

Prevented

the

Great

War

in

Günther

Bischof

Fritz

Plasser

and

Peter

Berger

eds

From

Empire

to

Republic

PostWorld

War

I

Austria

Contemporary

Austrian

Studies

Vol

p

Fritz

Fellner

AustriaHungary

in

Keith

Wilson

ed

Decisions

for

War

London

Cambridge

University

Press

p

on

p

See

Robert

A

Kann

Franz

Joseph

und

der

Ausbruch

des

Weltkrieges

in

Mitteilungen

des

Österreichischen

Staatsarchivs

Vol

XXVI

p

and

Stephen

Beller

Franz

Joseph

London

and

New

York

Longmans

Christopher

Clark

The

Sleepwalkers

How

Europe

Went

to

War

in

London

Penguin

Sean

McMeekin

The

Russian

Origins

of

the

First

World

War

Cambridge

MA

The

Belknap

Press

of

Harvard

University

Press

Sean

McMeekin

The

Countdown

to

War

London

Basic

Books

Margaret

MacMillan

The

War

That

Ended

Peace

The

Road

to

London

Random

House

Stefan

Schmidt

Frankreichs

Außenpolitik

in

der

Julikrise

Ein

Beitrag

zur

Geschichte

des

Ausbruchs

der

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Munich

Oldenbourg

Among

key

works

are

Gary

B

Cohen

Nationalist

Politics

and

the

Dynamics

of

State

and

Civil

Society

in

the

Habsburg

Monarchy

in

Central

European

History

Vol

p

Jonathan

Kwan

Review

Article

Nationalism

and

all

that

Reassessing

the

Habsburg

Monarchy

and

its

Legacy

in

European

History

Quarterly

Vol

No

p

Lawrence

Cole

and

Daniel

Unowsky

eds

The

Limits

of

Loyalty

Imperial

Symbolism

Popular

Allegiance

and

State

Patriotism

in

the

Late

Habsburg

Monarchy

New

York

and

Oxford

Berghahn

Books

Pieter

M

Judson

and

Marsha

L

Rozenblit

eds

Constructing

Nationalities

in

East

Central

Europe

New

York

and

Oxford

Berghahn

Books

Tara

Zahra

Kidnapping

Souls

National

Indifference

and

the

Battle

for

Children

in

the

Bohemian

Lands

Ithaca

NY

and

London

Cornell

University

Press

Pieter

M

Judson

Exclusive

Revolutionaries

Liberal

Politics

Social

Experience

and

National

Identity

in

the

Austrian

Empire

Ann

Arbor

MI

University

of

Michigan

Press

ibid

Guardians

of

the

Nation

Activists

on

the

Language

Frontiers

of

Imperial

Austria

Cambridge

MA

Harvard

University

Press

Jeremy

King

Budweisers

into

Czechs

and

Germans

A

Local

History

of

Bohemian

Politics

Princeton

NJ

Princeton

University

Press

Maria

Bucur

and

Nancy

Wingfield

eds

Staging

the

Past

The

Politics

of

Commemoration

in

Habsburg

Central

Europe

to

the

Present

West

Lafayette

IN

Purdue

University

Press

Daniel

L

Unowsky

The

Pomp

and

Politics

of

Patriotism

Imperial

Celebrations

in

Habsburg

Austria

West

Lafayette

IN

Purdue

University

Press

Lothar

Höbelt

Parliamentary

Politics

in

a

Multinational

Setting

Late

Imperial

Austria

Center

for

Austrian

Studies

Working

Paper

Minneapolis

MN

Center

for

Austrian

Studies

and

Eagle

Glassheim

Noble

Nationalists

The

Transformation

of

the

Bohemian

Aristocracy

Cambridge

MALondon

Harvard

University

Press

Alan

Sked

Social

Life

and

Legal

Constraints

the

Habsburg

Army

The

European

Journal

on

Law

and

History

Vol

December

p

Christa

Hämmerle

ed

Des

Kaisers

Knechte

Errinerungen

an

die

Rekrutenzeit

im

kuk

Heer

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

Roy

F

Bridge

The

Habsburg

Monarchy

Among

The

Great

Powers

New

York

Oxford

and

Munich

Berg

St

Martins

Bridge

also

wrote

the

relevant

article

in

Adam

Wandruschka

and

Peter

Urbanitsch

eds

Die

Habsburgermonarchie

Vol

VI

Die

Habsburgermonarchie

im

System

der

internationaler

Beziehungen

Vienna

Verlag

der

Osterreichischen

Akademie

der

Wissenschaften

p

Gordon

A

Craig

The

Military

Cohesion

of

the

AustroGerman

Alliance

Journal

of

Modern

History

XXXVII

No

September

p

Gerard

E

Silberstein

The

Troubled

Alliance

GermanAustria

Relations

Lexington

KY

University

of

Kentucky

Press

Gary

W

Shanafelt

The

Secret

Enemy

AustriaHungary

and

the

German

Alliance

East

European

Monographs

CLXXXVII

New

York

Columbia

University

Press

Gerard

E

Silberstein

The

High

Command

and

Diplomacy

in

AustriaHungary

Journal

of

Modern

History

Vol

p

For

Austrian

civilmilitary

relations

before

see

G

Kronenbitter

Krieg

im

Frieden

die

Führung

der

kuk

Armee

und

die

Grossmachtpolitik

ŐsterreichUngarns

Munich

Oldenbourg

Lawrence

Sondhaus

Franz

Conrad

on

Hötzendorf

Architect

of

the

Apocalypse

Boston

MA

Brill

Academic

Publishers

JeanPaul

Bled

Franz

Ferdinand

Der

eigensinnige

Thronfolger

Aus

dem

Französischen

on

MarieTherese

Pitner

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

Verlag

and

Graydon

A

Tunstall

The

Habsburg

Command

Conspiracy

The

Falsification

of

Historiography

on

the

Outbreak

of

World

War

I

Austrian

History

Yearbook

Vol

p

Marvin

Benjamin

A

Life

and

Death

Question

AustroHungarian

War

Aims

in

the

First

World

War

in

H

Afflerbach

ed

The

Purpose

of

WarWar

Aims

and

Strategy

during

the

Great

War

Munich

Oldenburg

Marvin

Benjamin

The

Cornerstone

of

Balkan

Power

Projection

AustroHungarian

Foreign

Policy

and

the

Problem

of

Albanian

Neutrality

Diplomacy

and

Statecraft

Vol

p

John

Paul

Newman

War

in

the

Balkans

War

in

History

vol

no

Alexander

Will

Kein

Griff

nach

der

Weltmacht

Geheime

Dienste

und

Propaganda

im

deutschösterreichischtürkischen

Bündnis

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

BöhlauVerlag

See

the

article

by

Christoph

Schmetterer

Der

Kaiser

on

Ősterreich

als

Oberster

Kriegsherr

Journal

on

European

History

of

Law

Vol

no

p

See

Ludwig

Jedlicka

Die

Traditionen

der

Wehrmacht

ŐsterreichUngarns

und

die

Nachfolgestaaten

Österreichische

Militärische

Zeitschrift

and

István

Deák

Comparing

Apples

and

Pears

Centralization

Decentralization

and

Ethnic

Policy

in

the

Habsburg

and

Soviet

Armies

in

Richard

Rudolf

and

David

Good

eds

Nationalism

and

Empire

The

Habsburg

Empire

and

the

Soviet

Union

New

York

St

Martins

Press

p

See

Kurt

Peball

Osterreichische

Militärhistorische

Forschung

zum

Ersten

Weltkrieg

in

Gersdorff

Ursula

on

Hg

Geschichte

und

Militärgeschichte

Wege

der

Forschung

Frankfurt

am

Main

Bernard

Graefe

Verlag

für

Wehrwesen

Jarosla

Hašek

Good

Soldier

Švejk

A

Synek

Publishers

See

his

Unser

österreichischungarischer

Bundesgenossen

im

Weltkriege

Errinerungen

aus

meiner

ierjährigen

Tätigkeit

als

bevollmächtiger

deutschen

General

beim

kuk

Armeeoberkommando

Berlin

Mittler

For

interwar

Hungarian

historiographical

trends

see

Miklos

Farkas

Doberdo

The

Habsburg

Army

on

the

Italian

Front

in

Béla

Király

and

Nándor

Dreisziger

and

Albert

A

Nofi

eds

East

Central

European

Society

in

World

War

I

War

and

Society

in

East

Central

Europe

Vol

IX

New

York

Columbia

University

Press

p

See

for

example

Wilhelm

Czermak

In

deinem

Lager

war

Ősterreich

Die

österreichischungarische

Armee

wie

man

sie

nicht

kennt

Breslau

Alfred

Krauß

Die

Ursachen

unserer

Niederlage

Munich

Korn

and

Carl

Freiherr

on

Bardolff

Soldat

im

alten

Ősterreich

Erinnerungen

aus

meinem

Leben

Jena

Eugen

Diederichs

Verlag

The

Cambridge

Companion

to

the

Literature

of

the

First

World

War

edited

by

Vincent

Sherry

even

manages

to

omit

Švejk

although

the

forthcoming

threevolume

Cambridge

History

of

the

First

World

War

edited

by

Jay

Winter

which

treats

the

war

thematically

will

indeed

cover

AustriaHungary

Allen

R

Millet

and

Williamson

Murray

for

example

edited

a

threevolume

study

of

Military

Effectiveness

Boston

Allen

and

Unwin

the

first

olume

of

which

was

on

The

First

World

War

and

excluded

AustriaHungary

entirely

although

it

did

deal

with

Italy

and

Japan

Holger

A

Herwig

The

First

World

War

Germany

and

AustriaHungary

Bloomsbury

Publishing

PLC

E

Rothenberg

The

Army

of

Francis

Joseph

West

Lafayette

IN

Purdue

University

Press

E

Rothenberg

The

Habsburg

Army

in

the

First

World

War

in

Király

Dreisziger

and

Nofi

eds

op

cit

p

also

published

in

Robert

A

Kann

et

al

eds

The

Habsburg

Empire

in

World

War

I

New

York

Cambridge

University

Press

p

E

Rothenberg

The

AustroHungarian

Campaign

against

Serbia

in

Journal

of

Military

History

Vol

April

Graydon

A

Tunstall

Planning

for

War

against

Russia

and

Serbia

AustroHungarian

and

German

Military

Strategies

New

York

Boulder

East

European

Monographs

Graydon

A

Tunstall

Blood

on

the

Snow

The

Carpathian

Winter

War

of

Lawrence

KA

University

Press

of

Kansas

Graydon

A

Tunstall

The

Carpathian

Winter

Campaign

of

The

Collapse

of

the

AustroHungarian

Army

in

in

Peter

Pastor

and

Graydon

A

Tunstall

eds

Essays

on

World

War

I

New

York

Columbia

University

Press

p

and

p

respectively

Recently

available

however

are

Mark

Thompson

The

White

War

Life

and

Death

on

the

Italian

Front

New

York

Basic

Books

Nicola

Labanca

and

Oswald

Überegger

eds

Krieg

in

den

Alpen

ÖsterreichUngarn

und

Italien

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

BöhlauVerlag

Bernhard

Bachinger

and

Wolfram

Dornik

eds

Jenseits

des

Schützengrabens

Der

Erste

Weltkrieg

im

Osten

ErfahrungWahrnehmungKontext

Innsbruck

Vienna

and

Bozen

StudienVerlag

Wolfram

Dornik

Julia

WalleczekFritz

and

Stefan

Wedrac

eds

Frontwechsel

ÖsterreichUngarns

Großer

Krieg

im

Vergleich

Unter

Mitarbeit

on

Markus

Wurzer

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

as

well

as

Richard

L

DiNardo

Breakthough

The

GorliceTarnow

Campaign

Westport

CT

Praeger

and

Richard

Bassett

is

due

to

publish

a

book

entitled

For

God

and

Kaiser

A

History

of

the

Imperial

Austrian

Army

from

to

with

Yale

in

Manfried

Rauchensteiner

Der

Tod

der

Doppeladlers

ŐsterreichUngarn

und

der

Erste

Weltkrieg

Graz

Wien

Köln

Styria

Manfried

Rauchensteiner

Der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

das

Ende

der

Habsburgermonarchie

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

József

Galántai

Hungary

in

the

First

World

War

Budapest

Akadémiai

Kiadó

See

Lawrence

Sondhaus

Franz

Conrad

on

Hötzendorf

etc

and

Wolfram

Dornik

Hannes

Leidinger

and

Verena

Moritz

eds

Des

Kaisers

Falke

Wirken

und

NachWirken

on

Franz

Conrad

on

Hötzendorf

Innsbruck

Vienna

and

Bozen

Studienverlag

Geoffrey

Wawro

Morale

in

the

AustroHungarian

Army

the

Evidence

of

Habsburg

Army

Campaign

reports

and

Allied

Intelligence

Officers

in

Hugh

Cecil

and

Peter

H

Liddle

eds

Facing

Armageddon

The

First

World

War

Experienced

London

Leo

Cooper

Ltd

p

István

Deák

The

Habsburg

Army

in

the

First

and

Last

Days

of

World

War

I

a

Comparative

Analysis

in

Király

Dreisziger

and

Nofi

op

cit

p

p

Richard

Lein

Pflichterfüllung

oder

Hochverrat

Die

tschechischen

Soldaten

ŐsterreichUngarns

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vienna

and

Berlin

LIT

Kees

Bloterbloem

Hašek

Švejk

and

the

Czechoslovak

Legion

in

Pastor

and

Tunstall

op

cit

p

p

Quoted

in

Claire

Nolte

Ambivalent

Patriots

Czech

Culture

in

the

Great

War

in

Aviel

Roshwald

and

Richard

Stites

eds

European

Culture

in

the

Great

War

The

Arts

Entertainment

and

Propaganda

Cambridge

C

ambridge

University

Press

p

p

For

some

new

literature

on

the

attitude

of

the

nationalities

during

the

war

see

Hans

Mommsen

et

al

eds

Der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

die

Beziehungen

zwischen

Tschechen

Slowaken

und

Deutschen

Essen

Klartex

Jan

Křen

Die

Konfliktgemeinschaft

Tschechen

und

Deutsche

Munich

Oldenbourg

Otto

Urban

Die

tschechische

Gesellschaft

bis

Vols

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

Ivan

Šedivý

České

loajalní

projevy

Czech

declarations

of

loyalty

Český

časosis

historický

Vol

no

p

ibid

Češi

české

země

a

elká

valka

The

Czechs

the

Bohemian

Lands

and

the

Great

War

Prague

Nakladatelství

Lidové

noviny

Zdeněk

Tobolka

Můj

deník

z

první

světové

války

My

Diary

from

the

First

World

War

Prague

Karolinum

and

Karl

Bahm

The

Inconveniences

of

Nationality

German

Bohemians

the

Disintegration

of

the

Habsburg

Monarchy

and

the

Attempt

to

Create

a

Sudeten

German

Identity

Nationalities

Papers

Vol

no

p

Also

relevant

are

H

Louis

Rees

The

Czechs

during

World

War

I

the

Path

to

Independence

Boulder

CO

and

New

York

East

European

Monographs

Aviel

Roshwald

Ethnic

Nationalism

and

the

Fall

of

Empires

Central

Europe

Russia

and

the

Middle

East

London

and

New

York

Routledge

Ivo

Banac

Emperor

Karl

has

become

a

Komitadji

the

Croatian

Disturbances

of

Autumn

Slavonic

and

East

European

Review

Vol

no

p

C

E

Wargelin

A

High

Price

for

Bread

the

Treaty

of

BrestLitovsk

and

the

BreakUp

of

AustriaHungary

International

History

Review

Vol

no

p

Mark

Cornwall

The

Undermining

of

AustriaHungary

The

Battle

for

Hearts

and

Minds

Basingstoke

Macmillan

and

John

Paul

Newman

Serbian

Integral

Nationalism

and

Mass

Violence

in

the

Balkans

Tijdschrift

oor

Geschiedenis

vol

Newman

is

about

to

publish

a

monograph

entitled

Warriors

Caste

The

South

Sla

Wartime

Generation

in

Yugoslavia

Rudolf

Jeřábek

Potiorek

General

im

Schatten

on

Sarajevo

Graz

Vienna

and

Cologne

Böhlau

E

Gumz

The

Resurrection

and

Collapse

of

Empire

in

Habsburg

Serbia

Cambridge

Cambridge

University

Press

Alan

Kramer

Dynamic

of

Destruction

Culture

and

Mass

Killing

in

the

First

World

War

Oxford

Oxford

University

Press

See

also

Jovana

Lazic

Knezevic

The

AustroHungarian

Occupation

of

Belgrade

during

the

First

World

War

Battles

at

the

Home

Front

unpublished

dissertation

New

Haven

CT

and

Tamara

Scheer

Besatzungsregime

im

Vergleich

Serbiens

Wirtschaft

unter

österreichischungarischer

und

bulgarischer

Herrschaft

in

Carola

Sachse

ed

Mitteleuropa

und

Südosteuropa

als

Plannungsraum

Wirtschafts

und

kulturpolitische

Expertisen

im

Zeitalter

der

Weltkriege

Göttingen

Wallstein

Verlag

p

Joshua

Shanes

Diaspora

Nationalism

and

Jewish

Identity

in

Habsburg

Galicia

New

York

Cambridge

University

Press

p

On

occupied

Galicia

see

Mark

on

Hagen

War

in

a

European

Borderland

Occupations

and

Occupation

Plans

in

Galicia

and

Ukraine

Seattle

WA

University

of

Washington

Press

Alexander

on

Prusin

Nationalizing

a

Borderland

War

Ethnicity

and

antiJewish

Violence

in

East

Galicia

Tuscaloosa

AL

University

of

Alabama

Press

Peter

Holquist

The

Role

of

Personality

in

the

First

Russian

Occupation

of

Galicia

and

Bukovina

in

John

Klier

ed

AntiJewish

Violence

Rethinking

the

Pogrom

in

European

History

Bloomington

IN

Indiana

University

Press

Peter

Holquist

Making

War

Forging

Revolution

Russias

Continuum

of

Crisis

Cambridge

MA

Harvard

University

Press

and

last

but

not

least

Hannes

Leidinger

Der

Einzug

des

Galgens

und

des

Mordes

Die

parlamentarischen

Stellungsnahmen

polnischer

und

rutheniischer

Reichsratsabgeordneter

zu

den

Massenhinrichtungen

in

Galizien

in

Zeitgeschichte

Vol

p

For

the

spillover

of

attitudes

from

the

Bosnian

campaign

into

Slovenia

see

Martin

Moll

Kein

Burgfrieden

Der

deutschslovenische

Nationalitätenkonflikt

in

der

Steiermark

Innsbruck

StudienVerlag

for

those

areas

of

northern

Italy

affected

by

occupation

and

nationality

conflict

see

Hermann

J

W

Kuprian

Flüchtlinge

und

Vertriebene

aus

den

österreichischitalienischen

Grenzgebieten

während

des

Ersten

Weltkrieges

in

Brigitte

MazohlWallnig

and

Marco

Meriggi

eds

Ősterreichisches

Italienitalienisches

Ősterreich

Interkulturellegemeinsamkeiten

und

nationale

Differenzen

om

Jahrhundert

bis

zum

Ende

des

Ersten

Weltkrieges

Vienna

Verlag

der

Österreichischen

Akademie

der

Wissenschaften

p

Finally

for

Montenegro

under

Austrian

rule

Heiko

Brendel

is

about

to

complete

his

Mainz

doctoral

thesis

which

is

entitled

Die

österreichischungarische

Besatzungspolitik

in

Montenegro

On

the

developing

research

into

POWs

see

Ernst

Gusenbauer

Auf

den

Spuren

einer

ergessener

Zeit

Das

Kriegsgefangenlager

Mauthausen

bis

in

Oberösterreichische

Heimatblätter

Vol

p

Peter

Hansak

Das

Kriegsgefangenenwesen

während

des

Weltkrieges

im

Gebiet

der

heutigen

Steiermark

unpublished

dissertation

Graz

Rudolf

Koch

Im

Hinterhof

des

Krieges

Das

Kriegsgefangenenlager

Sigmundsherberg

Klosterneuburg

R

Koch

Reinhard

Nachtigal

Russland

und

seine

österreichischungarischen

Kriegsgefangenen

Remshalden

Verlag

Bernhard

Albert

Greiner

and

Alon

Rachamimo

now

Iris

Rachanimov

POWs

and

the

Great

War

Captivity

on

the

Eastern

Front

New

York

Berg

See

also

Peter

Pastor

Hungarian

Prisoners

of

War

in

Siberia

in

Petermimov

Female

generals

and

Siberian

Angels

Aristocratic

Nurses

and

the

AustroHungarian

POW

Relief

in

Nancy

M

Wingfield

and

Maria

Bucur

eds

Gender

and

War

in

Twentieth

Century

Eastern

Europe

Bloomington

IL

Indiana

University

Press

p

the

same

authors

Das

Theaterleben

der

kuk

Kriegsgefangenenoffiziere

in

Russland

in

Lawrence

Cole

Christa

Hämmerle

and

Martin

Scheutz

eds

GlanzGewaltGehorsam

Militär

und

Gesellschaft

in

der

Habsburgermonarchie

Frieden

und

Krieg

Beiträge

zur

Historischen

Friedensforschung

Vol

Essen

KlartextVerlag

p

Benedek

Baja

and

others

Hadifolgy

magyarok

története

History

of

Hungarian

Prisoners

of

War

Budapest

Athenaeum

and

Antal

Józsa

Háború

hadfifogság

forradalom

Magyar

internacionalista

hadifoglyok

az

oroszorsági

forradalmakban

War

Military

Captivity

Revolution

Hungarian

Internationalist

Prisoners

of

War

in

the

Russian

Revolutions

of

Budapest

Akadémiai

Kiadó

Adam

Wandruschka

and

Peter

Urbanitsch

eds

Die

Habsurgermonarchie

Vienna

N

Vego

AustroHungarian

Naval

Policy

London

and

Portland

Frank

Cass

Hans

Hugo

Sokol

ŐsterreichUngarns

Seekrieg

Vols

reprint

Graz

Akademische

Druck

und

Verlagsanstalt

Anthony

F

Sokol

The

Imperial

and

Royal

AustroHungarian

Navy

Annapolis

MD

US

Naval

Institute

Lawrence

Sondhaus

The

AustroHungarian

Naval

Officer

Corps

Austrian

History

Yearbook

and

idem

The

Naval

Policy

of

AustriaHungary

Navalism

Industrial

Development

and

the

Politics

of

Dualism

West

Lafayette

IN

Purdue

University

Press

See

Alison

Frank

Oil

Empire

Visions

of

Prosperity

in

Austrian

Galicia

Cambridge

MA

Harvard

University

Press

John

Harbon

Franz

Josefs

Forgotten

UBoat

Captains

History

Today

Vol

June

p

Peter

Schupita

Die

kuk

Seeflieger

Chronik

und

Dokumentation

der

ósterreichischungarischen

Marineluftwaffe

Koblenz

Bernard

Graefe

See

also

Richard

Georg

Plaschkas

works

namely

CattaroPrag

Revolte

und

Revolution

Kriegsmarine

und

Heer

ŐsterreichUngarns

im

Feuer

der

Aufstandsbewegungen

om

Februar

und

Oktober

Vienna

Hermann

Böhlau

Nachf

and

Matrosen

Offiziere

Rebellen

Krisenkonfrontationen

zur

See

Vols

Vienna

Cologne

and

Graz

Böhlau

These

included

E

L

Bogart

Direct

and

Indirect

Costs

of

the

Great

War

nd

ed

Oxford

Oxford

University

Press

Gustáv

Graz

and

R

Schüller

The

Economic

Policy

of

AustriaHungary

During

the

War

New

Haven

CT

Yale

University

Press

Gusztáv

Gratz

and

Richard

Schüller

Der

wirtschaftliche

Zusammenbruch

ŐsterreichUngarns

Die

Tragödie

der

Erschöpfung

Vienna

HölderPichlerTempskyCarnegie

Leo

Grebler

and

Wilhelm

Winlkler

The

Cost

of

the

World

War

to

Germany

and

AustriaHungary

New

Haven

CT

Yale

University

Press

Hans

LöwenfeldRuss

Die

Regelung

der

Volksnährung

im

Kriege

Vienna

HölderPichlerTempsky

Alexander

Popovics

Das

Geldwesen

im

Kriege

Vienna

HolderPichlerTempsky

Richard

Riedl

Die

Industrie

Ősterreichs

während

des

Krieges

Vienna

Carnegie

Endowment

for

International

Peace

János

Teleszky

A

Magyar

Penzügyei

A

Háború

Alatt

Budapest

Carnegie

Endowment

for

International

Peace

and

Wilhelm

Winkler

Die

Einkommensverschiebungen

in

Ősterreich

während

des

Weltkrieges

Vienna

HolderPichlerTempsky

Carnegie

Endowment

A

more

recent

study

is

Heinrich

Mezlik

Die

Eisenbewirtschaftung

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Die

Planwirtschaft

der

kuk

Kriegsministeriums

Vienna

Verlag

A

Schendl

These

include

Zedenek

Jindra

Der

wirtschaftliche

Zerfall

ŐsterreichUngarns

in

Alice

Teichova

and

Herbert

Matis

eds

Ősterreich

und

die

Tchechoslowakei

Vienna

Bohlau

Robert

J

Wegs

Transportation

The

Achilles

Heel

of

the

Habsburg

War

Effort

in

Robert

A

Kann

Béla

Király

and

Paula

S

Fichtner

eds

The

Habsburg

Empire

in

World

War

I

New

York

Columbia

University

Press

p

and

Robert

J

Wegs

Die

österreichische

Kriegswirtschaft

Vienna

A

Schendl

MaxStephan

Schulze

AustriaHungarys

Economy

in

World

War

I

in

Stephen

Broadberry

and

Mark

Harrison

eds

The

Economics

of

World

War

I

Cambridge

Cambridge

University

Press

also

an

ebook

p

Ottokar

Landwehr

Hunger

Die

Erschöpfungsjahre

der

Mittelmächte

Zurich

Leipzig

and

Vienna

Amalthea

George

Plaschka

Horst

Haselsteiner

and

Arnold

Suppan

Innere

Front

Miliärassisten

Widerstand

und

Umsturz

in

der

Donaumonarchie

Vienna

Verlag

für

Geschichte

und

Politik

Horst

Haselsteiner

The

Habsburg

Empire

in

World

War

I

Mobilization

of

Food

Supplies

in

Király

Dreisziger

and

Nofi

eds

op

cit

p

See

Mark

Cornwall

Morale

and

Patriotism

in

the

AustroHungarian

Army

in

John

Horne

ed

State

Society

and

Mobilization

in

the

First

World

War

Cambridge

Cambridge

University

Press

p

p

and

The

Experience

of

Yugosla

Agitation

in

AustriaHungary

in

Hugh

Cecil

and

Peter

H

Liddle

eds

Facing

Armageddon

The

First

World

War

Experience

London

Leo

Cooper

p

p

Peter

Pastor

The

Home

Front

in

Hungary

in

Király

and

Dreisziger

op

cit

p

Peter

Heumos

Kartoffeln

her

oder

es

gibt

eine

Revolution

Hungerkrawalle

Streiks

un

Massenproteste

in

den

bömischen

Ländern

in

Hans

Mommsen

Dušan

Kovač

and

Jiří

Malíř

and

others

eds

Der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

die

Beziehungen

zwischen

Tschechen

Slowaken

und

Deutschen

Essen

Klartext

Verlag

Holger

Herwig

The

First

World

War

Germany

and

AustriaHungary

London

Edward

Arnold

Thomas

Winkelbauer

Wer

bezahlte

den

Untergang

der

Habsburgermonarchie

Zur

nationalen

Streuung

der

österreichischen

Kriegsanleihen

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Mitteilungen

des

Instituts

für

Geschichtsforschung

Vol

p

Margarete

Grandner

Kooperative

Gewerkschaften

in

der

Kriegswirtschaft

Die

freien

Gewerkschaften

Ősterreichs

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vienna

Böhlau

Joseph

Redlich

Ősterreichische

Regierung

und

Verwaltung

im

Weltkrieg

Vienna

HölderPichlerTempsky

Christoph

Führ

Die

kuk

Armeeoberkommando

und

die

Innenpolitik

in

Ősterreich

Wien

Graz

and

Cologne

Hermann

Böhlaus

Nachfolger

Tamara

Scheer

Zwischen

Front

und

Heimat

ŐsterreichUngarns

Militärverwaltungen

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Frankfurt

Lang

Mark

Cornwall

Disintegration

and

Defeat

The

AustroHungarian

Revolution

in

M

Cornwall

ed

The

Last

Years

of

AustriaHungary

A

MultiNational

Experiment

in

Early

TwentiethCentury

Europe

Exeter

University

of

Exeter

Press

See

for

example

Gerd

Pircher

Militär

Verwaltung

und

Politik

in

Tyrol

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Innsbruck

Universitätsverlag

Wagner

Oswald

Überegger

Der

andere

Krieg

Die

Tiroler

Militärgerichtbarkeit

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Innsbruck

Universitätsverlag

Wagner

and

Anton

Holzer

Das

Lächeln

der

Henker

Der

unbekannten

Krieg

gegen

die

Zivilbevölkerung

Darmstadt

Primus

Verlag

Related

research

includes

Hans

Hautmann

Zurm

Sozialprofil

der

Militärrichter

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

in

Erika

Weinzierl

ed

Richter

und

Gesellschaftspolitik

InnsbruckWien

Studien

Verlag

p

Ted

Peter

Konakowitsch

Im

Namen

Seiner

Majestät

des

Kaisers

Die

Tätigkeit

der

Grazer

Militärgerichte

unpublished

dissertation

Graz

Michael

Pesendorfer

Die

Militärjustiz

ŐsterreichUngarns

im

I

Weltkrieg

unpublished

dissertation

Salzburg

Karl

Platzer

Standrechtliche

Todesurteile

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Stuttgart

WiKuVerlag

Matthias

Preuschl

Ősterreichische

Militärstrafgerichtsbarkeit

unpublished

dissertation

Salzburg

and

most

recently

Irina

Marin

World

War

I

and

Internal

Repression

The

Case

of

Major

General

Nikolaus

Cena

in

Austrian

History

Yearbook

Vol

XLIV

Not

to

be

ignored

is

an

older

key

article

namely

Richard

Georg

Plaschka

The

Army

and

Internal

Conflict

in

the

AustroHungarian

Empire

in

Király

Dreisziger

and

Nofi

eds

op

cit

p

On

a

related

topic

see

Alon

Rachamimov

Arbiters

of

Allegiance

AustroHungarian

censors

during

World

War

I

in

Judson

and

Rozenblit

eds

op

cit

p

and

Mark

Cornwall

News

Rumour

and

Control

of

Information

in

AustriaHungary

History

Vol

no

p

Elizabeth

Kovács

Untergang

oder

Rettung

der

Donaumonarchie

Die

österreichische

Frage

Kaiser

und

König

Karl

I

IV

und

die

Neuordnung

Mitteleuropas

Vol

I

Vienna

Cologne

Weimar

Böhlau

Vol

II

Untergang

oder

Rettung

der

Donaumonarchie

Politische

Dokumente

zu

Kaiser

und

König

Karl

I

IV

aus

Internationalen

Archiven

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

Peter

Broucek

Karl

I

IV

Der

politische

Weg

des

letzten

Herrschers

der

Donaumonarchie

Vienna

Böhlau

Eva

Demmerele

Kaiser

Karl

I

Selig

die

Frieden

stiften

Vienna

Amalthea

Jean

Sévillia

Le

dernier

empereur

Charles

dAutriche

Paris

Perrin

Andreas

Gottsman

ed

Karl

I

IV

der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

das

Ende

der

Donaumonarchie

Vienna

VÖAW

Jan

Galandauer

Karel

I

posledni

český

král

Karl

I

the

last

Bohemian

King

PragueLitomyšl

Paseka

Fritz

Fellner

and

Doris

A

Corradini

eds

Schicksalsjahre

Österreichs

Die

Erinnerungen

und

Tagebücher

Josef

Redlichs

Vols

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

The

books

in

question

are

Jenny

Macleod

and

Pierre

Purseigle

eds

Uncovered

Fields

Perspectives

in

First

World

War

Studies

History

of

Warfare

Vol

Leiden

Brill

Academic

Publishers

Pierre

Purseigle

ed

Warfare

and

Belligerence

Perspectives

in

First

World

War

Studies

History

of

Warfare

Vol

Leiden

Brill

Academic

Publishers

Heather

Jones

Jennifer

OBrien

and

Christopher

SchmidtSupprian

eds

Untold

War

New

Perspectives

in

First

World

War

Studies

History

of

Warfare

Vol

Leiden

Brill

Academic

Publishers

Jennifer

D

Keane

and

Michael

S

Neiberg

eds

Finding

Common

Ground

New

Directions

in

First

World

War

Studies

History

of

Warfare

Vol

Leiden

Brill

Academic

Publishers

This

information

comes

from

footnote

of

KeChin

Hsias

doctoral

thesis

see

below

It

was

originally

pointed

out

to

him

by

John

Deak

It

must

be

noted

however

that

the

International

Society

for

First

World

War

Studies

has

since

sought

to

address

this

gap

Its

next

olume

of

essays

edited

by

Joachim

Bürgschwentner

Matthias

Egger

and

Gunda

BarthScalmani

and

forthcoming

later

in

the

year

represents

a

conscious

effort

to

bring

the

AustroHungarian

experience

of

the

war

back

to

the

centre

of

its

collective

scholarly

enterprise

Maureen

Healy

Vienna

and

the

Fall

of

the

Habsburg

Empire

Total

War

and

Everyday

Life

in

World

War

I

Cambridge

Cambridge

University

Press

This

incorporates

her

article

Becoming

Austrian

Women

the

State

and

Citizenship

in

World

War

I

Central

European

History

Vol

p

Edgar

Haider

Wien

Alltag

am

Rande

des

Abgrunds

Vienna

Cologne

and

Weimar

Böhlau

See

for

example

Wilhelm

Achleitner

Gott

im

Krieg

Die

Theologie

der

österreichischen

Bischöfe

in

den

Hirtenbriefen

zum

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vienna

Böhlau

Gunda

BarthScalmani

Kriegsbriefe

oder

Wie

warum

und

zu

welchem

Ende

wandete

sich

die

katholische

Kirche

mit

Briefen

zu

Kriegsbeginn

an

das

Volk

in

Christina

Antenhofer

and

Mario

Múller

eds

Briefe

in

politischer

Kommunikation

on

Alten

Orient

bis

ins

Jahrhundert

Göttingen

VR

unipress

p

and

Matthias

Rettenwander

Der

Krieg

als

Seelsorge

Katholische

Kirche

und

Volksfrömmigkeit

in

Tirol

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Innsbruck

Universitätsverlag

Wagner

In

a

related

context

see

Patrick

Joseph

Houlihan

Clergy

in

the

Trenches

Catholic

military

chaplains

of

Germany

and

AustriaHungary

during

the

First

World

War

Chicago

IL

The

University

of

Chicago

Christa

Hämmerle

HeimatFront

Geschlechtergeschichten

des

Ersten

Weltkrieges

Vienna

Cologne

Weimar

Böhlau

Verlag

Ingrid

Bauer

Frauen

im

Krieg

Patriotismus

Hunger

ProtestWeibliche

Lebenszusammenhänge

zwischen

und

in

Brigitte

MazohlWahlnig

and

others

eds

Die

Andere

Geschichte

Eine

Salzburger

Frauengeschichte

on

den

ersten

Mädchenschule

bis

zum

Frauenwahlrecht

Salzburg

Anton

Pustet

p

the

same

authors

Im

Dienste

der

Vaterlandes

Frauenarbeit

im

und

für

den

Krieg

in

Julia

Neissl

ed

Geschlecht

und

Arbeitswelten

Beiträge

der

FrauenRingvorlesungen

an

der

Universität

Salzburg

Vienna

Bundesministerium

für

Arbeit

Gesundheit

und

Soziales

p

Marion

Breiter

Hinter

der

Front

Zum

Leben

der

Zivilbevölkerung

im

Wien

des

Ersten

Weltkrieg

unpublished

dissertation

Vienna

David

F

Good

and

others

eds

Austrian

Women

in

the

Nineteenth

and

Twentieth

Centuries

Providence

Berghahn

Books

Christa

Hämmerle

You

let

a

weeping

woman

call

you

home

Private

Correspondence

during

the

First

World

War

in

Austria

and

Germany

in

Rebecca

Earle

ed

Epistolary

Selves

Letters

and

LetterWriters

Aldershot

Ashgate

p

and

Irene

Nierhaus

Die

nationalisierte

Heimat

Wehrmann

und

städtische

Őffentlichkeit

in

Gisela

Ecker

ed

Kein

Land

in

Sicht

Heimatweiblich

Munich

Fink

p

In

a

different

context

though

see

Angelique

LeszczawskiSchwerk

Amazonen

emanzipierte

Frauen

Töchter

des

Volkes

Polnische

und

ukrainische

Legionärinnen

in

der

österreichischungarischen

Armee

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

in

Lawrence

Cole

Christa

Hämmerle

and

Martin

Scheutz

eds

GlanzGewaltGehorsam

Militär

und

Gesellschaft

in

der

Habsburgermonarchie

Frieden

und

Krieg

Beiträge

zur

Historischen

Friedensforschung

Vol

Essen

Klartext

p

On

Jewish

women

see

Dieter

Hecht

Bürgerlichjüdische

Frauen

in

Wien

während

des

Ersten

Weltkrieges

in

Andreas

Lauritsch

ed

Zions

Töchter

Jüdische

Frauen

in

Literatur

Kunst

und

Politik

Berlin

Münster

p

Beatrix

HoffmanHolter

Ostjüdische

Kriegsflüchtlinge

in

Wien

unpublished

dissertation

Salzburg

and

by

the

same

author

Jüdische

Flüchtlinge

in

Wien

in

Gernot

Heiss

and

Oliver

Rathkolb

eds

Asylland

wider

Willen

Flüchtlinge

in

Ősterreich

im

europäischen

Kontext

seit

Vienna

Jugend

Volk

EditionDachs

Verlag

p

See

too

the

article

in

the

same

book

by

Walzer

Menzel

Weltkriegsflüchtlinge

in

Cisleithanien

p

David

Rechter

The

Jews

in

Vienna

in

the

First

World

War

London

Littman

Marsha

L

Rosenblit

For

the

Fatherland

and

Jewish

people

Jewish

Women

in

Austria

during

World

War

I

in

Franz

Coetzee

and

Marilyn

Coetzee

eds

Authority

Identity

and

the

Social

History

of

the

Great

War

Providence

RI

Berghahn

p

and

the

same

authors

Reconstructing

a

National

Identity

The

Jews

of

Habsburg

Austria

during

the

First

World

War

Oxford

Oxford

University

Press

See

Werner

Auer

Kriegskinder

Schule

und

Bildung

im

Tyrol

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Innsbruck

Universitätsverlag

Wagner

Christa

Hämmerle

Diese

Schatten

über

unserer

Kindheit

gelegen

Historische

Anmerkungen

zu

einem

unerforschten

Thema

in

Christa

Hämmerle

ed

Kindheit

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vienna

Bohlau

p

Hans

Ostler

Soldatenspielerei

Vormilitärische

Ausbildung

bei

Jugendlichen

in

der

österreichischen

Reichshäfte

der

Donaumonarchie

Vienna

BMLVMilitärhistorischer

Diens

and

Robert

J

Wegs

Growing

Up

Working

Class

Continuity

and

Change

Among

Viennese

Youth

University

Park

PA

Pennsylvania

State

University

See

HansGeorg

Hofer

Nervensschwäche

und

Krieg

Modernitätskritik

und

Krisenbewältigung

in

der

österreichischen

Psychiatrie

Vienna

Bohlau

Barbara

Hoffman

Kriegsblinde

in

Ősterreich

Graz

Verein

zur

Förderung

der

Forschung

on

Folgen

nach

Konflikten

und

Kriegen

Helmut

Konrad

ed

Krieg

Medizin

und

Politik

Der

Erste

Weltkrieg

und

die

Ősterreichische

Moderne

Vienna

Passagen

and

Elizabeth

Malleier

Die

Kriegsneurose

in

der

Wiener

Psychiatrie

und

Psychoanalyse

in

Wiener

Geschichtsblätter

Vol

p

See

also

George

L

Mosse

Shellshock

as

a

Social

Disease

Journal

of

Contemporary

History

Vol

p

and

Thomas

N

Dikel

Brian

Engdahl

and

Raina

Eberly

PTSD

in

Former

Prisoners

of

War

Prewar

Wartime

and

Postwar

Factors

in

Journal

of

Traumatic

Stress

Vol

No

February

p

L

Brügel

Soziale

Gesetzgebung

in

Ősterreich

bis

Eine

geschichtliche

Darstellung

Vienna

Deuticke

For

example

J

Weidenholzer

Der

Sorgende

Staat

Zur

Entwicklung

der

Sozialpolitik

on

Joseph

II

bis

Ferdinand

Hanusch

Vienna

Europa

Verlag

G

Stourzh

and

M

Grandner

eds

Historische

Wurzeln

der

Sozialpartnerschaft

Vienna

Verlag

fur

Geschichte

und

Politik

I

Ackerl

W

Hummelberger

and

H

Mommsen

eds

Politik

und

Gesellschaft

im

alten

und

neuen

Ősterreich

Festschrift

für

Rudolph

Neck

zum

Geburtstag

Vienna

Verlag

für

Geschichte

und

Politik

and

Margarete

Gradner

Staatliche

Sozialpolitik

in

Cisleithanien

in

Helmut

Rumpler

ed

Innere

Staatsbildung

und

gesellschaftliche

Modernisierung

in

Ősterreich

und

Deutschland

Munich

Oldenbourg

Verena

Pawlowsky

and

Harald

Wendeln

Die

normative

Konstruction

des

Opfers

Die

Versorgung

der

Invaliden

des

Ersten

Weltkrieges

in

Cole

Hämmerle

and

Scheutz

eds

op

cit

p

KeChin

Hsia

A

Partnership

of

the

Weak

War

Victims

and

the

State

in

the

Early

First

Austrian

Republic

in

Günther

Bischof

and

Fritz

Plassner

eds

with

Peter

Berger

guest

editor

From

Empire

to

Republic

PostWorld

War

I

Austria

Contemporary

Austrian

Studies

Vol

p

Other

research

into

related

themes

include

Daniela

Claudia

Angetter

Den

Tod

geweit

und

doch

gerettet

Die

Sanitätsversorgung

an

Isonzo

und

in

den

Dolomiten

Frankfurt

am

Main

Lang

Brigitte

Briwald

Von

Helden

und

Krüppeln

Das

österreichischungarische

MilitärSanitätswesen

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vols

Vienna

Öb

Hpt

Elizabeth

Dietrich

Die

Bilanz

des

Krieges

Der

erlorener

Krieg

und

die

Familien

der

gefallenen

verwunderten

und

arbeitslos

gewordenen

Soldaten

in

Tirol

in

Innsbrucker

Historischen

Studien

Vol

p

and

Verena

Pawlosky

and

Herald

Wendelin

Die

Verwaltung

des

Leides

Kriegsbeschädigtenversorgung

in

Niederösterreich

in

Peter

Melichar

Stefan

Eminger

and

Ernst

Langthaler

eds

Niederösterreich

im

Jahrhundert

Vol

Wirtschaft

p

Ferdinand

Haunisch

and

Emmanuel

Adler

eds

Die

Regelung

der

Arbeiterverhältnisse

im

Kriege

WirtschaftsundSozialgeschichte

des

Weltkrieges

Vienna

HölderPichlerTempskyCarnegie

Max

Breitenstein

and

Demeter

Koropatnicki

Die

Kriegsgesetze

Ősterreichs

Vols

Vienna

Verlag

der

Gerichtshalle

und

der

Evidenzblätter

Rudolph

Neck

Arbeiterschaft

und

Staat

im

Ersten

Weltkrieg

Vols

Vienna

Europa

Verlag

Hans

Hautmann

and

Rudolf

Kropf

Die

österreichische

Arbeiterbewegung

om

Vormärz

bis

Sozialökonomische

Ursprünge

ihrer

Ideologie

und

Politik

Schriftenreihe

des

Ludwig

BoltzmannInstituts

für

Geschichte

der

Arbeiterbewegung

Vol

Vienna

Europa

Verlag

p

John

Boyer

Culture

and

Political

Crisis

in

Vienna

Christian

Socialism

in

Power

Chicago

Chicago

University

Press

P

Eherenpreis

Kriegsund

Friedensziele

im

Diskurs

Regierung

und

deutschsprachige

Őffentlichkeit

ŐsterreichUngarns

während

des

Ersten

Weltkriegs

Innsbruck

StudienVerlag

Stephen

Beller

The

Tragic

Carnival

Austrian

Culture

in

the

Great

War

in

Aviel

Roshwald

and

Richard

Stites

eds

European

Culture

in

the

Great

War

Cambridge

Cambridge

University

Press

p

Jay

Winter

Commemorating

War

in

Roger

Chickering

Dennis

Showalter

and

Hans

Van

De

Ven

eds

War

in

the

Modern

World

The

Cambridge

History

of

War

Vol

IV

Cambridge

Cambridge

University

Press

p

Joachim

Giller

Hubert

Mader

and

Christina

Seidl

Wo

sind

sie

geblieben

Kriegerdenkmäler

und

Gefallenenehrung

in

Österreich

Wien

Österreichischer

Bundesverlag

Oswald

Überegger

Erinnerungsorte

oder

nichtssagende

Artefakte

Ősterreichische

Kriegerdenkmäler

und

locale

Kriegserinnerung

in

der

Zwischenkriegszeit

in

Cole

Hämmerle

and

Scheutz

eds

op

cit

p

Résumé

English

The

historiography

of

AustriaHungarys

involvement

in

the

First

World

War

has

grown

rapidly

in

recent

decades

The

debate

on

the

Habsburg

monarchys

decision

to

enter

the

war

while

continuing

lends

steadily

more

support

to

the

iew

that

there

was

no

crisis

of

nationalities

driving

its

statesmen

into

war

and

that

its

leaders

must

share

responsibility

for

the

war

for

backing

German

war

aims

as

well

as

pursuing

inflated

war

aims

of

their

own

and

miscalculating

the

risks

of

conflict

Important

contributions

have

also

appeared

on

AustroHungarian

and

AustroGerman

relations

wartime

statesmanship

the

command

and

performance

of

the

imperial

armies

generally

keyword

Habsburg

monarchy

Nationalities

AustroHungarian

relations

Balkans

Berchtold

Leopold

Count

Français

Depuis

quelques

décennies

lhistoriographie

sur

lAutricheHongrie

dans

la

Première

Guerre

mondiale

sest

enrichie

Les

raisons

du

déclenchement

de

la

guerre

par

la

monarchie

des

Habsbourg

continuent

de

faire

débat

mais

avec

quelques

révisions

ce

nest

pas

tant

la

crise

des

nationalités

qui

a

conduit

les

responsables

politiques

à

choisir

la

guerre

que

leur

agenda

propre

soutenant

les

buts

de

guerre

allemands

et

poursuivant

euxmêmes

des

buts

de

guerre

propres

tout

en

sousestimant

les

risques

de

conflit

Dimportantes

contributions

se

sont

penchées

sur

les

relations

austrohongroises

et

austroallemandes

sur

la

conduite

de

lÉtat

en

temps

de

guerre

sur

le

commandement

et

Motsclefs

monarchie

des

Habsbourg

nationalités

relations

austrohongroises

relations

austroallemandes

Balkans

Berchtold

Leopold

Count

Plan

de

larticle

Wartime

Diplomacy

The

War

Itself

Occupation

Policy

Prisoners

of

War

Naval

War

The

War

Economy

Government

in

Wartime

The

Home

Front

The

War

in

Memory

Conclusion

Article

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