Virtuous leadership insights for the 21st century Article PDF Available in Journal of Management Development 349 September 2015 with 1703 Reads DOI 101108JMD1120140148 Export this citation Cam Caldwell University of Illinois Springfield Zack Hasan Northcentral University Sarah Smith Abstract Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explain the importance of virtuous leadership and identify six characteristics that are necessary for the modern leader to be effective in an increasingly challenging and competitive world market Designmethodologyapproach Theory development Findings The authors suggest that virtuous leaders possess an uncommon level of commitment to those employees whom they serve to their customers to their shareholders and to society at large the authors extend the concept of the moral continuum and identify the importance of a virtuous perspective in honoring the obligation to optimize wealth creation and enriching outcomes and relationships and Discover the worlds 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reference Collins 2001 in the Tabl e II under Leaders model the organization Collins 2001 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 Virtuous leadership insights for the 21st century Cam Caldwell Dixie State University St George Utah USA Zuhair Hasan NorthCentral University Prescott Valley Arizona USA and Sarah Smith Purdue University North Central Westville Indiana USA Abstract Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explain the importance of virtuous leadership and identify six characteristics that are necessary for the modern leader to be effective in an increasingly challenging and competitive world market Designmethodologyapproach Literature review Findings The authors suggest that virtuous leaders possess an uncommon level of commitment to those employees whom they serve to their customers to their shareholders and to society at large the authors extend the concept of the moral continuum and identify the importance of a virtuous perspective in honoring the obligation to optimize wealth creation and enriching outcomes and relationships and the authors suggest ten propositions about virtuous leadership that may be empirically tested by both scholars and practitioners who are interested in studying andor applying virtuous leadership to improve relationships and build organizations Originalityvalue Original article Keywords Trustworthiness Character Commitment Competence Moral continuum Virtuous leadership Paper type Literature review Over the past decade governmental and business leaders have struggled to earn the commitment of followers and the support of society at large Perucci and Perucci 2009 In this same time period business ethics has repeatedly been labeled Q1 an oxymoron Kelly 2002 Seligman 2002 Williams 2003 Miller 2011 Alzola 2011 and trust in leaders has dropped in both public and private sector organizations Maritz Research 2010 Harvard scholar Lynn Paine 2002 ha s suggested that many of today s leaders lack a moral compass and Freeman et al 2006 p 149 have declared that the current maps and mental models about leadership are failing us Princeton s Callahan 2004 titled his recent book The Cheating Culture with a subtitle declaring that the common practice seems to be that an increasing number of individuals and organizatio ns are doing wrong to get ahead It is within the context of a world in which many leaders seem to have lost their way that we present this paper We join with a growing group of scholars who have written about the need for virtuous leadership in today s businesses universities and governmental agencies Cameron 2011 Cameron and Spreitzer 2013 The purposes of this paper are to suggest insights about the importance of virtuous leaders hip to suggest six characteristics that virtuous leaders are inherently likely to possess which add value to stakeholders and to offer measu rable propositions by which scholars and practitioners may test the practical value of vir tuous leadership in the twentyfirst century Journal of Management Development Vol 34 No 9 2015 pp 121 Emerald Group PublishingLimited 02621711 DOI 101108JMD1120140148 Received 11 November 2014 Revised 14 April 2015 Accepted 22 June 2015 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at wwwemeraldinsightcom 02621711htm 1 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 We begin in section one by defining virtuous leadership as a model of ethical stewardship and as a valuecreating set of behaviors on the moral continuum In Section 2 we present six characteristics which distinguish virtuou s leadership from other leaders and offer ten propositions to measure the validity of these insights In Section 3 we suggest contributions of this paper to the academic and practitioner literature about the importance of virtuous leadership and conclude with a brief comment about the challenges of leading organizations in a world with an uncertain future Virtuous leadership as ethical stewardship In the highly competitive twentyfirst century world of busin ess virtuousness is rarely emphasized in most organizations as firms struggle to compete for customers and profits Cameron and Winn 2012 Historically virtuousness has its roots in Aristotelian ethics and encompassed the desire to achieve per sonal and social ideals and instrumental outcomes Solomon 1992 Aristotle suggested that virtu ousness was inherently good and was best viewed as an end to be pursued in itself rather than a means to another end Q2 Dutton and Sonenshein 2007 Aristotle considered virtues as enablers of action which empower the individual who holds them to achieve happiness increase societal welfare or stimulate human flourishing Scholars often have viewed virtuousness in terms of character strengths Peterson and Seligman 2004 Cameron 2011 p 27 emphasized that virtuousness possesses an affirm ative bias and focusses on elevating flourishing and enriching outcomes Virtuous leaders are ethical stewards who seek to optimize the crea tion of wealth and value for all parties by creating organizational relationships and systems that build high trust and that earn the commitment of others cf Caldwell et al 2002 Stewardship involves a sense of being accountable to someone or someth ing higher than self Covey et al 1999 p 129 The ultimate purpose of stewardship is otherdirected in the pursuit of a worthy goal or outcome Hernandez 2008 pp 121123 Senge 2006 pp 345350 Stewardship is frequently des cribed as involving a sacred trust by which a leader honors duties owed to others cf B lock 2013 DePree 2004 and has been defined as a commitment to the welfare growth and wholeness of stakeholders in the pursuit of the longterm creation of organizational wealth or value Caldwell et al 2008 Scholars have increasingly emphasized the need for leaders to adopt a highly ethical or transformative perspective in honoring their stewardship responsibilities Covey 2004 Bennis and Nanus 2007 Paine 2003 Caldwell et al 2005 2008 2012 have written extensively about the relatio nships between leadership excellence and ethical stewardship They emphasized that ethical stewardship was a highly principled virtuebased governance theory that sought to optimize longterm wealth creation while seeking to selfactualize stakeholders and pursue their best interests Caldwell et al 2008 p 155 The goal of ethi cal stewardship is to create a transformative relationship in organizations that enables it to inc rease profitability productivity quality and excellence while building commitment and trust Caldwell et al 2010 2011 2012 Virtuous leadership and the moral continuum Several scholars had noted that leaders view their ethical and mo ral obligations on a continuum This continuum reflects the nature of each leader s moral perspective as that leader relates with others and as he or she translate s that perspective into organizational systems processes policies and practices Carroll and Buchholtz 2012 In their extensive review of the immora l amoral and moral leader 2 Virtuous leadership MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 Carroll and Buchholtz 2012 clearly distinguish the imm oral leader as selfserving and manipulative the amoral leader as willing to pursue selfinterest but lacking a commitment to others interests and the moral leader as acknowledging the need to serve others while honoring duties Similarly Cameron 2003 identified three categories on this continuum immoral amoral and virtuous however Carroll and Buchholtz 2012 proposed the moral leader on this continuum rather than the virtuous leader identified by Cameron Cameron 2003 described the virtuous leader as being committed to the optimization of the interests of others and the pursuing of longterm wealth Integrating the combined insights of scholars about this continuum we propose that the moral continuum ranges from an immoral and selfserving perspective that thrives on opportunism to a virtuous perspective that is committed to winwin solutions which creates value longterm Figure 1 identifies the nature of the continuum that we propose With thanks to these other scholars we believe tha t a fourphase moral continuum properly differentiates the behaviors of leaders and integrates the insights of both Cameron 2003 and Carroll and Buchholtz 2012 We suggest that this new continuum of leadership meshes with the leader s obligation as an ethical steward to contribute to the longterm wealth of stakeholders and to benefit society cf Caldwell and Hansen 2010 Table I clarifies the distinctions between the perspectives of all four leaders in the new continuum that we propose regarding nine important leadership issues Although virtuous leadership has its origins in Aristotelian philosophy Solomon 1992 and the governance approach of the Gree k citystates Manville and Ober 2003 the notion of virtuousness in organizations achieved a resurge nce with the emergence of Positive Organizational Scholarship as a management concept Cameron et al 2003 Cameron and Spreitzer 2013 Luthans and Youssef 2007 The increase in unethical conduct has focussed scholarly and practition er interest in ethics in both management and governance Davis et al 1997 Donaldson 2008 and the governance literature has recognized the importance of the role of the leader as an ethical steward Hernandez 2008 2012 Caldwell et al 2010 Bennis and Nanus 2007 p 3 called for a new transformative leaders hip that reflected a commitment to higher values and greater organizational trust The emergence of transform ative leadership integrated the ethical duties of six highly regarded leadership models and expanded the leader s obligation as an ethical steward Caldwe ll 2012 The virtuous leader views the leader s role as more than just creating value but seeks to optimize that value creation longterm Caldwell and Karri 2008 In communicating with others the virtuous leader treats others as owners and partners in honoring relationships with employees Block 2013 and acknowledges that leaders have a covenantal duty toward employees to achieve their best interests DePree 2004 ch 1 Pava 2003 Virtuous leaders rise above the obligations of moral Diagram One Moral Continuum of Leadership Virtuous Pursues positive outcomes and optimizes wealth creation Honors duties owed to all stakeholders and society to add value Avoids breaking the law in fulfilling duties Pursues outcomes that maximize profit creation including those that may be illegal Moral Amoral Immoral Figure 1 xxx Q6 3 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 Factor Virtuous perspective Moral perspective Amoral perspective Immoral perspective Leader s role Optimize longterm wealth creation Create value shortterm and longterm Create profits without violating the law Create profits by whatever means work Communication with others Ensure that others clearly understand issues in order to constantly seek their welfare and that of the organization Keep others informed and honor commitments Provide information on a Need to Know basis Share information when doing so is perceived as beneficial to the leader s selfinterest and otherwise withhold information when it may weaken the leader s power Moral duty Make the best world possible and treat others as ends not means Treat others with respect and create value while doing no harm Pursue the welfare of the firm and avoid doing that which is illegal Pursue selfinterest with guile and take advantage of opportunities Leadership style Empower others and view them as keys to achieving greatness Make decisions that best serve the organization and its members Serve the organization s interests and control others Control others and protect one s selfinterest Organization s obligations to society Create value leave a legacy and make a better world for future generations Serve as a good corporate citizen and do no harm Avoid violating the law but do that within the law which may actually have a negative longterm impact Cut corners and do that which optimizes results being sought with no regard for obligations to others Driving motivations Service excellence and responsibility Quality fairness and accountability Efficiency profitability and legality Selfinterest avoiding punishment pursuit of personal wealth View of the future Protect the future and make it better for all Be mindful of possible future consequences Avoid future liability Enjoy the future by creating personal wealth Perceptions from organization members Personifies trustworthiness and recognizes the value of creating a hightrust culture Generally viewed as trustworthy and perceived as more profit focussed than peoplefocussed Perceived as concerned with maximizing profits and treating people as means to that end Trusted to do that in hisher own selfinterest and to benefit others only when that selfinterest is achieved Orientation toward Winning Views the leader s obligation as one that optimizes winwin outcomes for all Seeks shortterm and longterm wins Primarily focussed on shortterm wins for the organization and ambivalent about others Seeks personal wins and willing to do so at others expense Table I The moral continuum and the virtuous leader 4 Virtuous leadership MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 intelligence to create value and do no harm Lennick and Kiel 2007 by viewing their role as creating the best possible world and treating others as valued ends rather than as means to a higher personal or organizational selfinterest The virtuous leader contrasts markedly with other leaders on this continuum based upon herhis sen se of responsibility about the leader s place in society within an organizatio n and toward self cf Cameron 2011 The leadership style of virtuous leaders empowers others and recognizes people as the key to creating value in a knowledge wisd om and informationbased economy Covey 2004 The virtuous leader views the organization as not only responsible for creating value but for creating a better world including the obligation to leave a legacy for future generations cf Friedman 2009 Motivated by service by exc ellence and by responsibility Cameron 2011 the virtuous leader is passionately committed to honoring obligations owed to others Highly moral leaders seek to protect and honor the future while creating value and doing no harm Lennick and Kiel 2007 Although trustworthiness is an individually perceived construct Mayer et al 1995 virtuous leaders relate with others at such a high level that they are respected for their trustworthiness and for their ability to create hightrust organizational cultures Cameron 2003 The commitment of the virtuous leader is not only to create winwin relationships but to pursue greatness rather than simply to pursue a suboptimal satisfactory outcome Covey 2004 2012 Virtuous leaders and personal virtues Virtues are strengths of character to achieve both excellen ce and improved quality of life Crossan et al 2013 Virtues are widely acknowledged mindsets character traits and dispositions that are a key foundation of ethical relationships and that implicitly encompass moral duties owed to others Hursthouse 2007 Virtuous leaders earn the trust of others Cameron and Winn 2012 They possess virtues that that reflect not only normative values and behaviors worth emulating on an individual level but also demonstrate the ability to achieve instrumental outcom es that contribute to unusually successful organizations Table II identifies six virtues of outstanding leaders the behaviors which match each of those virtues the connection between those virtu es and the building of trust in relationships with others and comments about the importance of each virtue in the leaderfollower relationship In the following paragraphs we briefly describe the six characteristics of virtuous leadership their impact in creating added value or wealth for stakeholders and identify testable propositions for each virtue These propositions are inferential with regard to the positive impact of the virtues identified and are consistent with the virtu ous focus of Positive Organizational Scholarship research identified by sch olars like Cameron and colleagues Cameron et al 2003 Cameron and Spreitzer 2013 Character Character as a leadership virtue integrates honoring commitments doing the right thing and modeling the espoused values of an organization Covey 1992 Although the right thing is often culturally subjective Lewis 2002 Book 1 ch 1 has suggested that there are universally acknowledged behaviors that crosscultures and that reflect moral duties owed to others Kouzes and Posner s 2011 2012 extensive research about leadership reported that a leader s honesty and integrity in hisher relationships with others was the most important quality that people desired in their leaders Leroy et al 2012 p 256 defined a leader s integrity as being outwardly focussed and aligning 5 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 Personal virtue Behaviors demonstrated Importance to building trust Comment Character Honoring commitments telling the whole truth and modeling espoused values Mayer et al 1995 identified integrity as a critical foundation element of trustworthiness Havard 2014 p 1 declares that leadership is character Character honesty and integrity are universally recognized as the qualities people consider to be most important in their leaders Kouzes and Posner 2011 Competence Technical behavioral and organizational ability internal and external organizational effectiveness and the ability to achieve results Leaders must demonstrate profound knowledge about all aspects of their organization its relationships with customers and knowledge of competitors and their industry Deming 2000 The ability to achieve results to understand what needs to be done and how tasks must be accomplished is absolutely necessary in any successful endeavor Covey 1991 Commitment Passion for excellence willingness to go the extra mile and attention to detail Leaders view their obligation as a personal duty or calling Omaji 2015 p x Leaders model the way Kouzes and Posner 2012 and have a ferocious commitment to the organization Collins 2001 Q7 Leaders create commitment from others by demonstrating that they are personally dedicated to the organization s success Senge 2006 Courage Willingness to challenge established paradigms experiment and take calculated risks to achieve necessary innovations and to recognize when changes are needed Leaders must be willing to challenge the status quo because leadership is fundamentally about change Bennis and Nanus 2007 Competitive advantage means differentiating the organization from its competitors and being willing and able to innovate to redefine excellence Christensen 2011 Clarity Ability to communicate clearly translate values into action and tell the truth with candor Sharing information identifying what is most important and facing reality are covenantal duties of leaders DePree 2004 Leaders who are not able to communicate what they know to their organization are in the same position as leaders who lack that knowledge Simon 1997 Compassion Sensitivity to the needs of others forgiving mistakes and moving on and understanding that others work most effectively when they are valued and treated fairly Leaders understand the people with whom they work and care about their welfare growth and wholeness Caldwell et al 2002 The ability to show compassion for others and to establish personal connection with them is a fundamental element of emotional and social intelligence Boyatzis and McKee 2005 Table II Personal virtues and virtuous leadership 6 Virtuous leadership MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 words and deeds Honoring commitments and promises made has been frequently identified in leadership research as a key variable in determining whether a leader is trusted Joseph and Winston 2005 Cowa rt et al 2014 The importance of integrity as a fundamental condition precedent in determining whether a leader is trustworthy has been well established Mayer et al 1995 Character encompasses a leader s ability to translate his beliefs an d intentions into organizational systems practices and policies that demonstrate the congruence of a leader s actions with his or her espoused values Cameron 2011 Pfeffer 1998 Virtuous leadership requires that those who lead fulfill the spirit of the law and go far beyond that which is technically required to honor duties owed to stakeholders Cameron 2003 Leaders who honor commitments to others build the trust of followers and engender within others a desire to go the extra mile in the pursuit of organizational goals Pfeffer 1998 Cameron 2003 found that organizations with leaders who acted with integrity achieved higher profits better quality and increased customer satisfaction Kouzes and Posner s 2011 2012 extensive research about leadership confirmed that a leader s honesty were considered the most important charac teristic that both subordinates and peers named as the key to building personal credibility and trust In honoring their responsibility to demonstrate character leaders are asked to be exemplars of the espoused values that their organizations proclaim as their guiding principles Our first proposition addresses the imp ortance of character as a leadership virtue P1 Organizations with leaders who possess character and who are perceiv ed as honoring commitments and duties owed are more likel y to be perceived to be trustworthy than organizations without such leaders Competence As a virtue competence includes a multifacete d set of behavioral interpersonal and organizational skills that demonstrate the ability of a leader to be perceived as trustworthy by those whom she leads in the pursuit of desired goals Mayer et al 1995 Kowske and Anthony 2007 reported that leadership competencies varied based upon the leadership style of the individual leader and reflected the cultural context of leadership It is commonly noted however that leaders hip competence includes the ability to achieve both external adaptation to customers competitors and environmental conditions and internal integration necessary to create systems that enable organizations to deliver products services experiences and transformations to customers efficiently and effectively Schein 2010 The virtue of a leader s competence is measured by the success of hisher organization in competing in the global marketplace creating longterm wealth and achieving sustainability by perpetuating the financial health of the organizatio n and contributing to the good of society Covey et al 1999 In addressing the leadership requirements of successful organizations Deming 2000 ch 2 identified fourteen key points that encompassed the principle of profound knowledge required by leaders to be successful and effective Stanford scholar Pfeffer 1998 ch 1 explained that leaders demonstrate their competence by the effective execution and imp lementation of plans rather than by simply developing strategies and ideas Covey 1991 had noted that competence was not only critical to building organizational trust but a fundamental nec essity in creating added value Leaders add value to their organizations and create wealth for their companies and for society when they develop the competence to understand the key elements of both external 7 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 adaptation and internal integration Schein 2010 Christensen and Raynor 2003 Christensen 2011 Leaders who demonstrate the virtue of competence combine a broad set of skills that enable them to understand the complexities of their work context the nature of their industry and the problems that need to be overcome to develop competitive advantage Collins and Hansen 2011 We offer the following pro position about the importance of competence P2 Organizations with leaders who possess greater tech nical interpersonal and organizational competence are more profitable longterm than organizations which lack leaders with those competence skills Commitment Commitment as a leadership virtue includes a passion for excellence a willingness to go the extra mile to ensure that an organization achieves its potential and the attention to detail which is often so critical in the implementation and execution of the organization s activities In his examination of organizations who evolve d from good to truly great Jim Collins 2001a b noted that the leaders of these extraordinary organizations which he labeled Level 5 Leaders were characterized by a passionate commitment and fierce resolve to do whatever was req uired to achieve their organizations success McGuire et al 2008 emphasized the importance of leader commitment to the values and objectives which they articulate for their organizations and defined that commitment as a leader s congruence between words and actions Pfeffer 1998 had previously emphasized the importance of congruent behavior commitment to excellence and attention to detail as the keys to successful executio n a distinguishing leadership quality that enabled organizations to su ccessfully implement organizational strategies This fierce commitment to a chieving unparalleled excellence and understanding the key details essential for accomplishing organizational goals were identified by Collins 2001a b as critical characteristics of great leaders and conditions precedent for creating organizational wealth Senge 2006 noted that creating highemployee commitment was dependent upon leaders first setting an example creating a supportive organizational culture and modeling the commitment and values that they expected from employees cf Kouzes and Posner 2012 ch 3 The virtuous leader s commitment to excellence creates added value an d wealth by holding the organization accountable to a standard of excellence that pays attention to customer needs to pursues constant improvement evolv es with changes in industry standards and initiates innovations which are critica l to competitive advantage Christensen 2011 As a leadership virtue commitment demonstrates that a leader is willing to translate hisher words into actions and tak e personal responsibility for an organization s success Cameron 2011 Our third proposition ad dresses the importance of commitment in creating organizational wealth P3 Organizations with leaders who demonstrate a passionate commitment to an organization s success and attention to detail are more likel y to create longterm organizational wealth than organizations without such leader s Courage Leaders demonstrate courage when they honor correct principles and do that which benefits others even if doing so results in a potential threat to their own welfare Sekerka and Bagozzi 2007 p 135 A willingness to challenge the process by 8 Virtuous leadership MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 constantly searching for opportunities to improve an d by being willing to experiment and take risks has been identified by leadership sch olars as one of the key behaviors of effective leadership Kouzes and Posner 2012 ch 67 Constant improvement is absolutely essential in a world where simply meeting industry best practice is no longer good enough Collins 2001a b p 1 The wellacknowledged failure of many organizations lies in following past practices and conventional wisdom that are neither correct principles nor empirically proven concepts Pfeffer 1998 ch 1 The importance of courage as a leadership virtue is essential in a world of constant change Bennis and Nanus 2007 but courage is far different than risktaking or confronting others Worline 2012 From a virtuous leadership perspective courage consists of the willingness to take action in a potentially risky environment to serve the longterm interests of an organization in order to pro tect its future coupled with a wise and wellinformed assessment of options an d opportunities Christensen 2011 Although courage is often admire d as a cardinal virtue and central to an effective society Yearley 1990 courage also is equated with the confrontation of others and their ideas Rorty 1988 Leaders must create organizatio ns that encourage innovation creativity and risktaking Christensen and Raynor 2003 and virtuous leadership must enable followers to learn from their failures Daft and Leng el 2000 Although constant change is acknowledged as a threat to organizations virtuous leaders recognize that they must tak e calculated risks based upon the best available evidence if they are to create added value in today s competitive world Collins and Hansen 2011 Leaders who demonstrate courage as a virtue recognize that continuous improvement is a fundamental element of successful organizations and esse ntial to wealth creation Deming 2000 Consistent with our descrip tion of courage as a virtue we offer our fourth proposition P4 Organizations with leaders who possess courage and who recogn ize the importance of taking calculated risks to innovate are more likely to be profitable long term than organizations without such leaders Clarity Clarity as a virtue requires the ability to define reality and to then communicate that reality clearly to others West et al 2003 p 393 no ted that leadership clarity required clear team objectives high levels of participation commitment to excellence and support for innovation Nobel laureate Simon 1997 observ ed that the leader who possesses profound knowledge but who is not effective at communicating it to others is no better off than the individual who totally lacks that knowledge Clarity also involves understanding how to translate values into actions that resonate with others and is a fundamental element of emotional and social intelligence Boyatzis and McKee 2005 Block 2013 noted that leaders who choose servi ce over selfinterest recognize that they have the obligation to comm unicate clearly and with candor even when their message may be bad news about the organization and the challenges that it is facing Block 2013 p 31 labeled the failure of leaders to tell the truth as an act of betrayal that violated the stewardship obligat ion of leaders to those whom they served Research has suggested that individuals and team function more effectively have higher levels of participation greater commitment to excellence and more support for innovation when leadership clarity is high West et al 2003 Cla rity about goals 9 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 and processes has been found to improve org anizational performance and extrarole behavior or organizational citizenship Hu and Liden 2011 Clarity about goals expectations and standards creates wealth by ensuring that an organization s efforts are aligned and coordinated effectively Burnes and By 2012 p 240 have argued that leaders can not achieve sustainable and beneficial change for their organisations unless they are clear about their own ethical beliefs and values and communicate them to organization members cf Hosmer 2010 ch 1 In keeping with the importance of clarity as a key element of virtuous leadership we offer our fifth proposition P5 Organizations with leaders who communicate clearly and who are effective in translating their values into action are more likely to be perceived to be trustworthy than organizations without such leaders Compassion Al e a d e r s compassion requires noticing another s need empathizing and acting to enhance their wellbeing Boyatzis et al 2007 p 153 Compassion is a leader s virtue that responds at an emotional level in helping others to deal with failure pain and frustration and to overcome those di sappointments to accomplish worthy goals GoldenBiddle and Mao 2012 pp 764766 Great leaders feel for suffer with and support colleagues and establish connectio n with them at a personal level Boyatzis and McKee 2005 Lilius et al 2012 Leaders who care about the welfare of others recognize that others may make mistak es and that forgiving those errors and moving on not only cements relationship s with those who have erred but also helps create a culture that encour ages appropriate risk taking Bright and Exline 2012 In the twentyfirst century work environment where innovation and creativity are often keys to creating competitive advantage Christensen 2011 it is vital for leaders to recognize that innovation is often a riskfilled endeavor which is not always successful Compassion is a vital component of both emotional and social intelligence that allows leaders to renew others to sustain followers commitment and to thereby enable others to achieve their potential Boyatzis and McKee 2005 It produces freedom inspires the soul and encourages the heart Kouzes and Posner 2003 Wise leaders work to achieve the welfare growth and wholeness of others in seeking their trust and in pursuing organization success and have comp assion for others in recognizing that organizations and individuals work in highly comple x and uncertain contexts Gullett et al 2009 By showing compassion for others and by valuing people as important at the individual as well as the organizational level leaders demonstrate that others are valued Yous rather than simply Its who serve the organization to achieve instrumental goals Buber and Smith 2000 Leaders who exemplify the virtue of co mpassion are able to care deeply about the organization as well as its members and believe in the power of and rather than eitheror Collins and Porras 2004 Covey 2004 Virtuous leaders who demonstrate a compassionate commitment for the welfare growth and wholeness of those with whom they work are able to connect with their colleagues and create the highpersonal commitment which motivates extrarole behavior increased creativity and greater organizational w ealth creation Pfeffer 1998 In dealing with others with compassion leaders honor the Kantian duty to treat people as valued ends in and of themselves rather than simply as means by which the leader 10 Virtuous leadership MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 pursues selfinterest Kant and Paton 2009 We offer the following proposition about compassion as a leadership virtue P6 Organizations with leaders who demonstrate the virtu e of compassion and who recognize the importance of caring about the welfare growth and wholeness of their employees are more likely to be perceived to be trustworthy than organizations without such leaders Each of these virtuous leadership qualities requires translating that specific virtue into a leadership action that demonstrates the leader s commitment to action rather than simply an abstract belief in the value of the ideal Covey et al 1999 ch 7 The scholarly literature about creating high trust and highperforma nce work systems indicates that organizations which implement just one or two human resourc e management practices are less successful in building trust than organizations that implement all of the features of high trust and highperformance systems Pfeffer 1998 Huselid 1995 Similarly Paine 2002 suggested that organizations needed to focus on both social and financial outcomes rather than on just one type of outcome in order to achieve superior performance Covey 1991 2004 2012 has also repeatedly emphasized that leaders were most effective when their actions values and practices mirrored the principles that they espoused in all areas of their lives Consistent with the insights of these scholars we suggest that virtuous leadership is also dependent upon all six of these virtues Virtuous leadership must ultimately be implemented in organizations as systems processes practices and policies that reflect the leader s underlying values Cameron 2011 Pfeffer 1998 Accordingly we suggest three additional propositions about virtuous leadership P7 Organizations with leaders who rate higher in all six of these virtues than leaders in other organizations are perceived as more trustworthy than these other organizations P8 Organizations with leaders who rate higher in all six of these virtues than leaders in other organizations generate greater employee commitm ent than these other organizations P9 Organizations with leaders who rate higher in all six of these virtues than leaders in other organizations generate greater profits than these other organizations Covey 1991 has also emphasized that leaders are not likely to be perceived as trustworthy if they possess a serious gap in any one of these virtues The case of Aaron Feuerstein CEO of Malden Mils is an excellent example of the need for a leader to possess all of the virtuous characteristics to be effective Feuerstein possessed great compassion for his employees in paying their salaries and full benefits for three mont hs after a disastrous fire at his mill but lacked the competence to run the company after major changes occurred in the textile industry after spending more than 300 million to rebuild the plant This famous case demonstrated that compassion and courage were admirable but far from sufficient for a leader to be effective longterm Based upon insight from Covey and from the Malden Mills experience we offer our final proposition P10 Leaders who are perceived as lacking in one of thes e six virtues are not perceived as trustworthy despite their strengths in the other five virtues To be perceived as an authentic and virtuous leader those who wish to lead must demonstrate personal virtues at a level often no t realized as necessary by those who 11 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 serve in positions of responsibility Bennis and Nanus 2007 The standard of personal virtue demanded of leaders by those who work in modern organizations compels those who aspire to lead to carefully reflect on their ability to meet the expectations required Covey 2004 Kouzes and Posner 2012 Virtuous leadership and its ethical placement Although virtuous leadership clearly fits within the Aris totelian virtue ethics area of ethical thin king Cameron 2011 Solomon 19 92 it nonethe less encompa sses similari ties shared by othe r ethical pe rspective s Table III id entifies pa rallels be tween virtuou s leadership an d ten ethical fra meworks that ha ve been identifi ed by Hosmer 199 4 1995 as key element s in the developm ent of trust a cri tical compone nt of effective le adership Covey 1994 Ko uzes and Posner 2 012 As indicated in this table each of the ethical perspectives in Hosmer s 1994 1995 framework for understanding ethics in business provides insights about the leader s role in being perceived as honoring ethical duties that are associated with virtuous leadership Hosmer 2011 ch 1 has noted that in the creation of trust and in becoming ethical leaders those who lead must be prepared to explain to their followers the ethical economic and legal r amifications of their decisions if they seek to obtain the commitment followership a nd creativity of those whom they seek to lead Today s modern leader will do well to recognize that those who follow will expect that their leaders demonstrate the ability to explain defend and justify their decisions and act in a way that adds value to stakeholders and creates wealth for society and the organizations in which leaders work Similarly those who are led expect to be treated with dignity and resp ect as valued organizational partners A sn o t e db yC a l d w e l l et al 2010 leadership trustworthiness integrates the leader s ability to demonstrate technical and orga nizational competence interpersonal effectiveness and uncom promising integrity Contributions of our paper Although other scholars have written about virtuous leaders hip and the important qualities which these leaders possess our paper adds value to the academic an d practitioner literature in six important ways 1 We add to the definition of virtuous leadership as a model of ethical stewardship that optimizes longterm wealth creation in benefiting ind ividuals organizations and society We suggest that virtuou s leaders possess an uncommon level of commitment to those employees whom they serve to their customers to their shareholders and to society at larg e Our definition builds on Cameron s 2011 definition of virtuous leadership an d includes the role of the virtuous leader as an ethical steward cf Caldwell et al 2002 2 We extend the concept of the moral con tinuum and identify th e importance of a virtuous perspective in honorin g the obligation to optimize wealth creation and enriching outcomes and r elationships The excellent work of Carroll and Buchholtz 2012 and Camer on 2003 in describing a threepart moral continuum is expanded by our model and by the table that describes the perspectives of each of the four leaders on the continuum that we propose 12 Virtuous leadership MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 Principle or framework Brief summary Application to virtuous leadership Variance from virtuous leadership Selfinterest Never take any action that is not in the longterm selfinterests of yourself and the organization to which you belong Focusses on creating longterm wealth and value and pursues the longterm common interests of all stakeholders Longterm interests may sharply vary from shortterm or personal interests and virtuous leadership must keep this longterm and broader impact in perspective Personal virtues Never take any action that is not honest open and truthful and which you would not be proud to see reported widely in national newspapers and on network television Recognizes the importance of fair courteous and trustworthy behavior that earns the followership and commitment of others In acquiring virtues about which one seeks to achieve humility must balance pride about one s virtues Humility can be an important balancing virtue for leaders Religious injunctions Never take any action that is not kind and that does not build a sense of community a sense of all of us working together for a commonly accepted goal Pursues that which is good for society in the creation of value and wealth Kindness and beneficence are universal virtues that demonstrate commitment to others Religious tenets and rules may sometimes preclude the pursuit of solutions that optimize value creation for some individuals and groups because those tenets and rules may sometimes be exclusionary Government requirements Never take any action that violates the law for the law represents the minimal moral standards of our society Follows established rules which protect society and the interests of individuals and groups within it in governing organizations and relationships Laws are often imperfect and inadequate to achieve virtuous ends Becoming too rule based or legalistic can also be insufficient when wealth creation is not optimized Utilitarian benefits Never take any action that does not result in greater good than harm for the society of which you are a part Seeks to create a means of assessing the process of optimizing wealth creation in a manner that is just and fair The rules by which wealth creation and harm must be evaluated carefully Benefits and harms can be subjective and potentially devastating harms may occur Universal rules Never take any action that you would not be willing to see others faced with the same or a closely similar situation also be encouraged to take Follows principlecentered rules and values that are intended to benefit society and the individuals within it Measuring benefits and harms of universal rules requires wisdom in recognizing the purposes of rules and the hypernorms that trump lowerlevel priorities or rules that may need to be superseded Individual rights Never take any action that abridges the agreedupon rights of others Recognizes that duties are owed to a broad set of stakeholders and that all individuals have value A legalistic interpretation of the rights of individuals in society may not be virtuous and may need to be expanded continued Table III Ethical frameworks and virtuous leadership 13 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 Principle or framework Brief summary Application to virtuous leadership Variance from virtuous leadership Economic efficiency Always act to maximize profits subject to legal and market constraints and with full recognition of external costs for maximum profits under those conditions are the sign of the most efficient production Acknowledges the obligation to best utilize resources in the pursuit of wealth and value creation Efficiency is ultimately less important than purposes and outcomes that are often value rich and based upon the achievement of more effective outcomes longterm Distributive justice Never take any action in which the least among us are harmed in some way Recognizes the need to care about individuals who may be underrepresented but who still are of great values and are owed duties and obligations Demands profound wisdom and the ability of the leader to assess explain and justify the impacts of decisions on all parties Contributing Never take any action that will interfere with the rights of others for selfdevelopment and selffulfillment Honors the obligation of the leader to pursue interests that promote the welfare growth and wholeness of others Suggests that leadership precludes being focussed entirely on control systems and implies that individuals are more important than organizations Source Hosmer 1995 pp 395397 Table III 14 Virtuous leadership MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 3 We provide insights about the nature of leadership and trustworthiness in explaining the nature of leadership and the moral continuum We distinguish the virtuous perspective from a moral amoral and immoral leadership perspective in ten important ways The literature about leadership and trustworthiness has been described as uncertain and cloudy by other noteworthy scholars Hosmer 1995 Freeman et al 2006 4 We identify six ethically based characteristics of the virtuous leader and describe how each of these characteristics fit the virtuous leadership model In describing these six virtues we tie each of them to our definition of virtuous leadership and build on the research of other highly regard ed scholars Covey 1991 2004 2011 Cameron 2011 Quinn 1996 2005 5 We suggest ten propositions about virtuous leadership that may be empirically tested by both scholars and practitioners who are interested in studying andor applying virtuous leadership to improve relationships and build organizations As Pfeffer 1998 has clearly indicated leaders hip effectiveness is about implementation and execution Our paper offers insights about how to test the propositions we have suggested 6 We place v irtuou s leader ship in c ontext wi th ten eth ical pe rspect ives and no te its commonalities and differences with those respective perspectives As Brady 1999 has noted the ethical framework of decisions must be understood in context with relationships duties and goals Leaders establish trust based upon their ability to explain the rationale for their decisions and to demonstrate that those decisions optimize the creation of value comply with the law and honor ethical principles Hosmer 2010 ch 1 Conclusion A model of virtuous leadership asks those w ho lead to serve others by demonstrating moral virtues that require the best of themselves but that also bring the best out in other people Virtuous leadership embraces the ac hievement of greatness for individuals for organizations and for society benefiting stakeholders in the s hortterm while also leaving a positive legacy for future generations It is this pursuit of greatness that is at the heart of virtuous leadership As Collins 2001a b p 1 noted in organizations good is the enemy of great and being good no longer meets the expect ations of stakeholders and fails to compete long term in today s complex and competitive global economy Collins 2001a b subsequently declared that organiza tions in the twentyfirst century are great by choice requiring their leaders to go far beyond what h as historically been the commonly accepted practices of the past Virtuous leadership enables leaders to achieve moments of greatness on a consistent basis and succeed in establishing relationships that add value create wealth and build trust among stak eholders and within society Quinn 2005 Robert Quinn has written extensively about the moral obligatio ns and duties of those who wish to lead others Quinn observed that being a great leader was not in the least bit easy and was often fraught with vulnerability and danger Quinn 1996 p 158 wrote the following about courageous and virtuous leadership in his book Deep Change Discovering the Leader Within When we do decide to initiate action there are no written guarantees no insurance policies that will save us if we fail The possibility of failure is a constant companion who walks beside every real leader Leaders cope with this presence because they understand that whenever 15 JMD 349 MPS OPS CommentsAuthors40 they sacrifice their principles for pressure both they and the system take another step toward slow death They are willing to accept the necessary risk because it is the right thing to do They care enough to risk dying for the organization which would kill them for caring Quinn s poignant insight applies to all who would have the courage to be virtuous caring leaders We live and work in a world where people are seeking leaders whom they want desperately to trust Q3 Schankman 2013 p 5 Virtuous leaders understand that they have an obligation to create value to solve problems facing the world that have gotte n worse and that demand new paradigms and new solutions Friedman 2009 The message of many scholars and researchers is that leaders who choose to be virtuous and to do the right things are not only personally successful but they build more successful organizations longterm Paine 2003 Cameron 2003 2011 Collins 2001a b Virtuous leadership integrates the abilities required to be excellent with a commitment to the pursuit of the welfare and success of others Those who seek to become virtuous leaders can only do so by understanding how they can best serve their organizations and the 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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