Cradle of Humankind From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia For other uses see Cradle of Humankind disambiguation Fossil Hominid Sites of South Africa UNESCO World Heritage Site Cradle of Humankind Location South Africa Criteria Cultural iii vi Reference 915 Inscription 1999 23rd Extensions 2015 The Cradle of Humankind is a paleoanthropological site about 50 km 31 mi northwest of Johannesburg South Africa in the Gauteng province Declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1999 the site currently occupies 47000 hectares 180 sq mi and contains a complex of limestone caves The registered name of the site in the list of World Heritage sites is Fossil Hominid Sites of South Africa The Sterkfontein Caves were the site of the discovery of a 23millionyearold fossil Australopithecus africanus nicknamed Mrs Ples found in 1947 by Robert Broom and John T Robinson The find helped corroborate the 1924 discovery of the juvenile Australopithecus africanus skull known as the Taung Child by Raymond Dart at Taung in the North West Province of South Africa where excavations still continue Nearby the site but not in the site the Rising Star Cave system contains the Dinaledi Chamber chamber of stars in which were discovered fifteen fossil skeletons of an extinct species of hominin provisionally named Homo naledi Sterkfontein alone has produced more than a third of early hominid fossils ever found prior to 2010 The Dinaledi Chamber contains over 1500 H naledi fossils the most extensive discovery of a single hominid species ever found in Africa Contents 1 Etymology 2 History of discoveries 21 Sites 3 Geological context 4 Visitor centres 5 See also 6 7 8 External links Etymology The name Cradle of Humankind reflects the fact that the site has produced a large number of as well as some of the oldest hominin fossils ever found some dating back as far as 35 million years ago History of discoveries Hominin timeline discuss 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Hominini Nakalipithecus Ouranopithecus Sahelanthropus Orrorin Ardipithecus Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo erectus H heidelbergensis Homo sapiens Neanderthals Earlier apes Gorilla split Possibly bipedal Chimpanzee split Earliest bipedal Stone tools Exit from Africa Earliest fire use Earliest cooking Earliest clothes Modern humans P l e i s t o c e n e P l i o c e n e M i o c e n e H o m i n i d s Axis scale million years Also see Life timeline and Nature timeline In 1935 Robert Broom found the first apeman fossils at Sterkfontein and began work at this site In 1938 a young schoolboy Gert Terrblanche brought Raymond Dart fragments of a skull from nearby Kromdraai which later were identified as Paranthropus robustus Also in 1938 a single apeman tooth was found at the Coopers site between Kromdraai and Sterkfontein In 1948 the CampPeabody Expedition from the United States worked at Bolts Farm and Gladysvale looking for fossil hominids but failed to find any Later in 1948 Robert Broom identified the first hominid remains from Swartkrans cave In 1954 CK Brain began working at sites in the Cradle including Coopers Cave He then initiated his threedecade work at Swartkrans cave which resulted in the recovery of the secondlargest sample of hominid remains from the Cradle The oldest controlled use of fire by Homo erectus was also discovered at Swartkrans and dated to over 1 million years ago In 1966 Phillip Tobias began his excavations of Sterkfontein which are still continuing and are the longest continuously running fossil excavations in the world In 1991 Lee Berger of the University of the Witwatersrand discovered the first hominid specimens from the Gladysvale site making this the first new early hominid site to be discovered in South Africa in 48 years In 1994 Andre Keyser discovered fossil hominids at the site of Drimolen In 1997 Kevin Kuykendall and Colin Menter of the University of the Witwatersrand found two fossil hominid teeth at the site of Gondolin Also in 1997 the nearcomplete Australopithecus skeleton of Little Foot dating to around 33 million years ago although more recent dating suggest it is closer to 25 million years ago was discovered by Ron Clarke In 2001 Steve Churchill of Duke University and Lee Berger found early modern human remains at Plovers Lake Also in 2001 the first hominid fossils and stone tools were discovered insitu at Coopers In 2008 Lee Berger discovered the partial remains of two hominids Australopithecus sediba in the Malapa Fossil Site that lived between 178 and 195 million years ago Australopithecus africanus reconstruction In October 2013 Berger commissioned geologist Pedro Boshoff to investigate cave systems in the Cradle of Humankind for the express purpose of discovering more fossil hominin sites Cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker discovered hominid fossils in a previously unexplored area of the Rising StarWestminster Cave System assigned site designation UW101 In November 2013 Berger led a joint expedition of the University of the Witwatersrand and National Geographic Society to the Rising Star Cave System near Swartkrans In just three weeks of excavation the sixwoman international team of advance speleological scientists K Lindsay Eaves Marina Elliott Elen Feuerriegel Alia Gurtov Hannah Morris and Becca Peixotto chosen for their paleoanthropological and caving skills as well as their small size recovered over 1200 specimens of a presently unidentified fossil hominin species The site is still in the process of being dated In September 2015 Berger in collaboration with National Geographic announced the discovery of a new species of human relative named Homo naledi from UW101 Most remarkably besides shedding light on the origins and diversity of our genus H naledi also appears to have intentionally deposited bodies of its dead in a remote cave chamber a behaviour previously thought limited to humans In the last days of the Rising Star Expedition cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker discovered additional fossil hominid material in another portion of the cave system Preliminary excavations at this site designated UW102 have begun and yielded complete hominid fossil material of its own It is unknown what the relationship of sites 101 and 102 is Sites Important sites There are more than three dozen fossilbearing caves in the Cradle of Humankind including Bolts Farm Coopers Cave Drimolen Gladysvale Gondolin Haasgat Kromdraai Makapan valley Malapa Fossil Site Minaars Cave Motsetsi Plovers Lake Rising Star Cave Sterkfontein Swartkrans Wonder Cave Geological context Tumulus building at Maropeng visitors centre The hominin remains at the Cradle of Humankind are found in dolomitic caves and are often encased in a mixture of limestone and other sediments called breccia and fossilised over time Hominids may have lived all over Africa but their remains are found only at sites where conditions allowed for the formation and preservation of fossils Visitor centres On 7 December 2005 South African President Thabo Mbeki opened the new Maropeng Visitors Centre at the site See also Cradle of civilisation Dawn of Humanity a 2015 PBS film Muldersdrift Recent African origin of modern humans References Why is the Cradle of Humankind important Maropeng aAfrika and the Cradle of Humankind maropengcoza Smith David 15 January 2010 Visit to the Cradle of Humankind The Guardian London Retrieved 20 May 2010 Wong Kate 10 September 2015 Mysterious New Human Species Emerges from Heap of Fossils Scientific American Retrieved 12 September 2015 Fleminger David 2008 The Cradle of Humankind 30 South Publishers pp 710 0958489130 Brain CK Sillen A 1988 Evidence from the Swartkrans Cave for the earliest use of fire Nature 336 464466 Hilton Barber Brett Berger Lee R December 2004 Field Guide to the Cradle of Human Kind Sterkfontein Swartkrans Kromdraai and Environs World Heritage Site First ed Cape Town Penguin Random House p 75 9781770070653 Retrieved 10 September 2016 New Species of Human Discovered in South Africa IFLScience Photograph Mark Thiessen National Geographic This Face Changes the Human Story But How National Geographic Homo naledi a new species of the genus Homo from the Dinaledi Chamber South Africa eLife Johannesburg The University of the Witwatersrand Homo naledi Wits University wwwwitsacza Geological and taphonomic context for the new hominin species Homo naledi from the Dinaledi Chamber South Africa eLife Rising Star Expedition Scientists bag more than 1 000 fossils at Cradle treasure trove Johannesburg Update Mbeki opens Maropeng centre News24 8 December 2005 Archived from on 30 September 2007 Maropeng which means the place where we come from is expected to receive over 500 000 visitors annually according to the Gauteng provincial government Further reading LR Berger and B HiltonBarber Field Guide to the Cradle of Humankind Struik 2003 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cradle of Humankind Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Cradle of Humankind BBC Richest human fossil site found in South Africa 28 November 2013 National Geographic Rising Star Expedition Sterkfontein and Maropeng visitor attractions website Maropeng The Cradle of Humankind Official Website UNESCO Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein Swartkrans Kromdraai and Environs Cradle of Humankind Map Palaeo Tours Scientistled tours to the Cradle Human Timeline Interactive Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History August 2016 v t e Cradle of Humankind v t e World Heritage Sites in South Africa Categories Geography of Gauteng Paleoanthropological sites World Heritage Sites in South Africa Prehistoric Africa Tourist attractions in Johannesburg Fossil parks Paleontology in South Africa

B I I O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O B O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O B O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O


Cult

From

Wikipedia

the

free

encyclopedia

For

other

uses

see

Cult

disambiguation

Further

information

Cult

religious

practice

and

Sociological

classifications

of

religious

movements

Howard

P

Becker

s

churchsect

typology

based

on

Ernst

Troeltsch

s

original

theory

and

providing

the

basis

for

the

modern

concepts

of

cults

sects

and

new

religious

movements

In

modern

English

the

term

cult

has

come

to

usually

refer

to

a

social

group

defined

by

its

religious

spiritual

or

philosophical

beliefs

or

its

common

interest

in

a

particular

personality

object

or

goal

This

sense

of

the

term

is

controversial

and

it

has

divergent

definitions

in

both

popular

culture

and

academia

and

it

also

has

been

an

ongoing

source

of

contention

among

scholars

across

several

fields

of

study

This

sense

of

the

term

is

usually

pejorative

In

the

sociological

classifications

of

religious

movements

a

cult

is

a

social

group

with

socially

deviant

or

novel

beliefs

and

practices

although

this

is

often

unclear

Other

researchers

present

a

lessorganized

picture

of

cults

saying

that

they

arise

spontaneously

around

novel

beliefs

and

practices

Groups

said

to

be

cults

range

in

size

from

local

groups

with

a

few

members

to

international

organizations

with

millions

An

older

sense

of

the

word

cult

covered

in

a

different

article

is

a

set

of

religious

devotional

practices

that

are

conventional

within

their

culture

and

related

to

a

particular

figure

and

often

associated

with

a

particular

place

References

to

the

cult

of

for

example

a

particular

Catholic

saint

or

the

imperial

cult

of

ancient

Rome

use

this

sense

of

the

word

Beginning

in

the

cults

became

the

object

of

sociological

study

in

the

context

of

the

study

of

religious

behavior

From

the

the

Christian

countercult

movement

has

opposed

some

sects

and

new

religious

movements

and

it

labelled

them

as

cults

for

their

unChristian

unorthodox

beliefs

The

secular

anticult

movement

began

in

the

and

it

opposed

certain

groups

often

charging

them

with

mind

control

and

partly

motivated

in

reaction

to

acts

of

violence

committed

by

some

of

their

members

Some

of

the

claims

and

actions

of

the

anticult

movement

have

been

disputed

by

scholars

and

by

the

news

media

leading

to

further

public

controversy

The

term

new

religious

movement

refers

to

religions

which

have

appeared

since

the

Many

but

not

all

of

them

have

been

considered

to

be

cults

Subcategories

of

cults

include

Doomsday

cults

personality

cults

political

cults

destructive

cults

racist

cults

polygamist

cults

and

terrorist

cults

Various

national

governments

have

reacted

to

cultrelated

issues

in

different

ways

and

this

has

sometimes

led

to

controversy

Englishspeakers

originally

used

the

word

cult

not

to

describe

a

group

of

religionists

but

to

refer

to

the

act

of

worship

or

to

a

religious

ceremony

The

English

term

originated

in

the

early

century

borrowed

via

the

French

culte

from

the

Latin

noun

cultus

worship

The

word

ultimately

derived

from

the

Latin

adjective

cultus

inhabited

cultivated

worshipped

based

on

the

verb

colere

to

care

to

cultivate

While

the

literal

original

sense

of

the

word

in

English

remains

in

use

a

derived

sense

of

excessive

devotion

arose

in

the

century

The

terms

cult

and

cultist

came

into

use

in

medical

literature

in

the

United

States

in

the

for

what

would

now

be

termed

faith

healing

especially

as

practised

in

the

US

Holiness

movement

This

usage

experienced

a

surge

of

popularity

at

the

time

and

extended

to

other

forms

of

alternative

medicine

as

well

In

the

Englishspeaking

world

the

word

cult

often

carries

derogatory

connotations

It

has

always

been

controversial

because

it

is

in

a

pejorative

sense

considered

a

subjective

term

used

as

an

ad

hominem

attack

against

groups

with

differing

doctrines

or

practices

In

the

with

the

rise

of

secular

anticult

movements

scholars

but

not

the

general

public

began

abandoning

the

term

cult

According

to

The

Oxford

Handbook

of

Religious

Movements

by

the

end

of

the

decade

the

term

new

religions

would

virtually

replace

cult

to

describe

all

of

those

leftover

groups

that

did

not

fit

easily

under

the

label

of

church

or

sect

Contents

New

religious

movements

Scholarly

studies

Popular

culture

Anticult

movements

Christian

countercult

movement

Secular

anticult

movement

Reactions

to

the

anticult

movements

Subcategories

Destructive

cults

Doomsday

cults

Political

cults

Polygamist

cults

Racist

cults

Terrorist

cults

Regional

developments

China

Russia

United

States

Western

Europe

See

also

Footnotes

Bibliography

New

religious

movements

Main

article

New

religious

movement

A

new

religious

movement

NRM

is

a

religious

community

or

spiritual

group

of

modern

origins

since

the

which

has

a

peripheral

place

within

its

societys

dominant

religious

culture

NRMs

can

be

novel

in

origin

or

part

of

a

wider

religion

in

which

case

they

are

distinct

from

preexisting

denominations

In

Eileen

Barker

estimated

that

NRMs

of

which

some

but

not

all

have

been

labelled

as

cults

number

in

the

tens

of

thousands

worldwide

most

of

which

originated

in

Asia

or

Africa

and

that

the

great

majority

of

which

have

only

a

few

members

some

have

thousands

and

only

very

few

have

more

than

a

million

In

the

religious

scholar

Elijah

Siegler

commented

that

although

no

NRM

had

become

the

dominant

faith

in

any

country

many

of

the

concepts

which

they

had

first

introduced

often

referred

to

as

New

Age

ideas

have

become

part

of

worldwide

mainstream

culture

Scholarly

studies

Max

Weber

one

of

the

first

scholars

to

study

cults

Sociologist

Max

Weber

found

that

cults

based

on

charismatic

leadership

often

follow

the

routinization

of

charisma

The

concept

of

a

cult

as

a

sociological

classification

was

introduced

in

by

American

sociologist

Howard

P

Becker

as

an

expansion

of

German

theologian

Ernst

Troeltsch

s

churchsect

typology

Troeltschs

aim

was

to

distinguish

between

three

main

types

of

religious

behavior

churchly

sectarian

and

mystical

Becker

created

four

categories

out

of

Troeltschs

first

two

by

splitting

church

into

ecclesia

and

denomination

and

sect

into

sect

and

cult

Like

Troeltschs

mystical

religion

Beckers

cults

were

small

religious

groups

lacking

in

organization

and

emphasizing

the

private

nature

of

personal

beliefs

Later

sociological

formulations

built

on

these

characteristics

placing

an

additional

emphasis

on

cults

as

deviant

religious

groups

deriving

their

inspiration

from

outside

of

the

predominant

religious

culture

This

is

often

thought

to

lead

to

a

high

degree

of

tension

between

the

group

and

the

more

mainstream

culture

surrounding

it

a

characteristic

shared

with

religious

sects

In

this

sociological

terminology

sects

are

products

of

religious

schism

and

therefore

maintain

a

continuity

with

traditional

beliefs

and

practices

while

cults

arise

spontaneously

around

novel

beliefs

and

practices

In

the

early

sociologist

John

Lofland

lived

with

South

Korean

missionary

Young

Oon

Kim

and

some

of

the

first

American

Unification

Church

members

in

California

during

which

he

studied

their

activities

in

trying

to

promote

their

beliefs

and

win

new

members

Lofland

noted

that

most

of

their

efforts

were

ineffective

and

that

most

of

the

people

who

joined

did

so

because

of

personal

relationships

with

other

members

often

family

relationships

Lofland

published

his

findings

in

as

a

doctoral

thesis

entitled

The

World

Savers

A

Field

Study

of

Cult

Processes

and

in

in

book

form

by

PrenticeHall

as

Doomsday

Cult

A

Study

of

Conversion

Proselytization

and

Maintenance

of

Faith

It

is

considered

to

be

one

of

the

most

important

and

widely

cited

studies

of

the

process

of

religious

conversion

Sociologist

Roy

Wallis

argued

that

a

cult

is

characterized

by

epistemological

individualism

meaning

that

the

cult

has

no

clear

locus

of

final

authority

beyond

the

individual

member

Cults

according

to

Wallis

are

generally

described

as

oriented

towards

the

problems

of

individuals

loosely

structured

tolerant

and

nonexclusive

making

few

demands

on

members

without

possessing

a

clear

distinction

between

members

and

nonmembers

having

a

rapid

turnover

of

membership

and

as

being

transient

collectives

with

vague

boundaries

and

fluctuating

belief

systems

Wallis

asserts

that

cults

emerge

from

the

cultic

milieu

In

Bruce

Campbell

noted

that

cults

are

associated

with

beliefs

in

a

divine

element

in

the

individual

It

is

either

Soul

Self

or

True

Self

Cults

are

inherently

ephemeral

and

loosely

organized

There

is

a

major

theme

in

many

of

the

recent

works

that

show

the

relationship

between

cults

and

mysticism

Campbell

brings

two

major

types

of

cults

to

attention

One

is

mystical

and

the

other

is

instrumental

This

can

divide

the

cults

into

being

either

occult

or

metaphysical

assembly

On

the

basis

that

Campbell

proposes

cults

they

are

nontraditional

religious

groups

based

on

belief

in

a

divine

element

in

the

individual

There

is

also

a

third

type

This

is

serviceoriented

Campbell

states

that

the

kinds

of

stable

forms

which

evolve

in

the

development

of

religious

organization

will

bear

a

significant

relationship

to

the

content

of

the

religious

experience

of

the

founder

or

founders

Dick

Anthony

a

forensic

psychologist

known

for

his

criticism

of

brainwashing

theory

of

conversion

has

defended

some

socalled

cults

and

in

argued

that

involvement

in

such

movements

may

often

have

beneficial

rather

than

harmful

effects

saying

Theres

a

large

research

literature

published

in

mainstream

journals

on

the

mental

health

effects

of

new

religions

For

the

most

part

the

effects

seem

to

be

positive

in

any

way

thats

measurable

In

their

book

Theory

of

Religion

American

sociologists

Rodney

Stark

and

William

Sims

Bainbridge

propose

that

the

formation

of

cults

can

be

explained

through

the

rational

choice

theory

In

The

Future

of

Religion

they

comment

in

the

beginning

all

religions

are

obscure

tiny

deviant

cult

movements

According

to

Marc

Galanter

Professor

of

Psychiatry

at

NYU

typical

reasons

why

people

join

cults

include

a

search

for

community

and

a

spiritual

quest

Stark

and

Bainbridge

in

discussing

the

process

by

which

individuals

join

new

religious

groups

have

even

questioned

the

utility

of

the

concept

of

conversion

suggesting

that

affiliation

is

a

more

useful

concept

Popular

culture

Main

articles

New

religious

movements

and

cults

in

popular

culture

Satanic

ritual

abuse

and

Moral

panic

Beginning

in

the

authors

in

the

Englishspeaking

world

began

introducing

members

of

cults

as

antagonists

Satanists

sects

of

the

Latter

Day

Saint

movement

and

Thuggees

were

popular

choices

In

the

Twentieth

century

concern

for

the

rights

and

feelings

of

religious

minorities

led

authors

to

most

often

invent

fictional

cults

for

their

villains

to

be

members

of

Fictional

cults

continue

to

be

popular

in

film

television

and

gaming

in

the

same

way

while

some

popular

works

treat

real

cults

and

new

religious

movements

in

a

serious

manner

Anticult

movements

Christian

countercult

movement

Main

article

Christian

countercult

movement

In

the

the

longheld

opposition

by

some

established

Christian

denominations

to

nonChristian

religions

andor

supposedly

heretical

or

counterfeit

Christian

sects

crystallized

into

a

more

organized

Christian

countercult

movement

in

the

United

States

For

those

belonging

to

the

movement

all

religious

groups

claiming

to

be

Christian

but

deemed

outside

of

Christian

orthodoxy

were

considered

cults

Christian

cults

are

new

religious

movements

which

have

a

Christian

background

but

are

considered

to

be

theologically

deviant

by

members

of

other

Christian

churches

In

his

influential

book

The

Kingdom

of

the

Cults

first

published

in

the

United

States

in

Christian

scholar

Walter

Martin

defines

Christian

cults

as

groups

that

follow

the

personal

interpretation

of

an

individual

rather

than

the

understanding

of

the

Bible

accepted

by

mainstream

Christianity

He

mentions

The

Church

of

Jesus

Christ

of

Latterday

Saints

Christian

Science

Jehovahs

Witnesses

Unitarian

Universalism

and

Unity

as

examples

The

Christian

countercult

movement

asserts

that

Christian

sects

whose

beliefs

are

partially

or

wholly

not

in

accordance

with

the

Bible

are

erroneous

It

also

states

that

a

religious

sect

can

be

considered

a

cult

if

its

beliefs

involve

a

denial

of

what

they

view

as

any

of

the

essential

Christian

teachings

such

as

salvation

the

Trinity

Jesus

himself

as

a

person

the

ministry

of

Jesus

the

miracles

of

Jesus

the

Crucifixion

the

Resurrection

of

Christ

the

Second

Coming

of

Christ

and

the

Rapture

Countercult

literature

usually

expresses

doctrinal

or

theological

concerns

and

a

missionary

or

apologetic

purpose

It

presents

a

rebuttal

by

emphasizing

the

teachings

of

the

Bible

against

the

beliefs

of

nonfundamental

Christian

sects

Christian

countercult

activist

writers

also

emphasize

the

need

for

Christians

to

evangelize

to

followers

of

cults

Secular

anticult

movement

Main

article

Anticult

movement

An

anti

Aum

Shinrikyo

protest

in

Japan

In

the

early

a

secular

opposition

movement

to

groups

considered

cults

had

taken

shape

The

organizations

that

formed

the

secular

anticult

movement

ACM

often

acted

on

behalf

of

relatives

of

cult

converts

who

did

not

believe

their

loved

ones

could

have

altered

their

lives

so

drastically

by

their

own

free

will

A

few

psychologists

and

sociologists

working

in

this

field

suggested

that

brainwashing

techniques

were

used

to

maintain

the

loyalty

of

cult

members

The

belief

that

cults

brainwashed

their

members

became

a

unifying

theme

among

cult

critics

and

in

the

more

extreme

corners

of

the

anticult

movement

techniques

like

the

sometimes

forceful

deprogramming

of

cult

members

was

practiced

Secular

cult

opponents

belonging

to

the

anticult

movement

usually

define

a

cult

as

a

group

that

tends

to

manipulate

exploit

and

control

its

members

Specific

factors

in

cult

behavior

are

said

to

include

manipulative

and

authoritarian

mind

control

over

members

communal

and

totalistic

organization

aggressive

proselytizing

systematic

programs

of

indoctrination

and

perpetuation

in

middleclass

communities

In

the

mass

media

and

among

average

citizens

cult

gained

an

increasingly

negative

connotation

becoming

associated

with

things

like

kidnapping

brainwashing

psychological

abuse

sexual

abuse

and

other

criminal

activity

and

mass

suicide

While

most

of

these

negative

qualities

usually

have

real

documented

precedents

in

the

activities

of

a

very

small

minority

of

new

religious

groups

mass

culture

often

extends

them

to

any

religious

group

viewed

as

culturally

deviant

however

peaceful

or

law

abiding

it

may

be

While

some

psychologists

were

receptive

to

these

theories

sociologists

were

for

the

most

part

sceptical

of

their

ability

to

explain

conversion

to

NRMs

In

the

late

psychologists

and

sociologists

started

to

abandon

theories

like

brainwashing

and

mindcontrol

While

scholars

may

believe

that

various

less

dramatic

coercive

psychological

mechanisms

could

influence

group

members

they

came

to

see

conversion

to

new

religious

movements

principally

as

an

act

of

a

rational

choice

Reactions

to

the

anticult

movements

Because

of

the

increasingly

pejorative

use

of

the

words

cult

and

cult

leader

since

the

cult

debate

of

the

some

academics

in

addition

to

groups

referred

to

as

cults

argue

that

these

are

words

to

be

avoided

Catherine

Wessinger

Loyola

University

New

Orleans

has

stated

that

the

word

cult

represents

just

as

much

prejudice

and

antagonism

as

racial

slurs

or

derogatory

words

for

women

and

homosexuals

She

has

argued

that

it

is

important

for

people

to

become

aware

of

the

bigotry

conveyed

by

the

word

drawing

attention

to

the

way

it

dehumanises

the

groups

members

and

their

children

Labeling

a

group

as

subhuman

she

says

becomes

a

justification

for

violence

against

it

She

also

says

that

labeling

a

group

a

cult

makes

people

feel

safe

because

the

violence

associated

with

religion

is

split

off

from

conventional

religions

projected

onto

others

and

imagined

to

involve

only

aberrant

groups

This

fails

to

take

into

account

that

child

abuse

sexual

abuse

financial

extortion

and

warfare

have

also

been

committed

by

believers

of

mainstream

religions

but

the

pejorative

cult

stereotype

makes

it

easier

to

avoid

confronting

this

uncomfortable

fact

Sociologist

Amy

Ryan

has

argued

for

the

need

to

differentiate

those

groups

that

may

be

dangerous

from

groups

that

are

more

benign

Ryan

notes

the

sharp

differences

between

definition

from

cult

opponents

who

tend

to

focus

on

negative

characteristics

and

those

of

sociologists

who

aim

to

create

definitions

that

are

valuefree

The

movements

themselves

may

have

different

definitions

of

religion

as

well

George

Chryssides

also

cites

a

need

to

develop

better

definitions

to

allow

for

common

ground

in

the

debate

In

Defining

Religion

in

American

Law

Bruce

J

Casino

presents

the

issue

as

crucial

to

international

human

rights

laws

Limiting

the

definition

of

religion

may

interfere

with

freedom

of

religion

while

too

broad

a

definition

may

give

some

dangerous

or

abusive

groups

a

limitless

excuse

for

avoiding

all

unwanted

legal

obligations

Subcategories

Destructive

cults

Jim

Jones

the

leader

of

the

Peoples

Temple

Destructive

cult

generally

refers

to

groups

whose

members

have

through

deliberate

action

physically

injured

or

killed

other

members

of

their

own

group

or

other

people

The

Ontario

Consultants

on

Religious

Tolerance

specifically

limits

the

use

of

the

term

to

religious

groups

that

have

caused

or

are

liable

to

cause

loss

of

life

among

their

membership

or

the

general

public

Psychologist

Michael

Langone

executive

director

of

the

anticult

group

International

Cultic

Studies

Association

defines

a

destructive

cult

as

a

highly

manipulative

group

which

exploits

and

sometimes

physically

andor

psychologically

damages

members

and

recruits

John

Gordon

Clark

cited

totalitarian

systems

of

governance

and

an

emphasis

on

money

making

as

characteristics

of

a

destructive

cult

In

Cults

and

the

Family

the

authors

cite

Shapiro

who

defines

a

destructive

cultism

as

a

sociopathic

syndrome

whose

distinctive

qualities

include

behavioral

and

personality

changes

loss

of

personal

identity

cessation

of

scholastic

activities

estrangement

from

family

disinterest

in

society

and

pronounced

mental

control

and

enslavement

by

cult

leaders

In

the

opinion

of

Benjamin

Zablocki

a

Professor

of

Sociology

at

Rutgers

University

destructive

cults

are

at

high

risk

of

becoming

abusive

to

members

He

states

that

this

is

in

part

due

to

members

adulation

of

charismatic

leaders

contributing

to

the

leaders

becoming

corrupted

by

power

According

to

Barrett

the

most

common

accusation

made

against

destructive

cults

is

sexual

abuse

According

to

Kranenborg

some

groups

are

risky

when

they

advise

their

members

not

to

use

regular

medical

care

This

may

extend

to

physical

and

psychological

harm

Some

researchers

have

criticized

the

usage

of

the

term

destructive

cult

writing

that

it

is

used

to

describe

groups

which

are

not

necessarily

harmful

in

nature

to

themselves

or

others

In

his

book

Understanding

New

Religious

Movements

John

A

Saliba

writes

that

the

term

is

overgeneralized

Saliba

sees

the

Peoples

Temple

as

the

paradigm

of

a

destructive

cult

where

those

that

use

the

term

are

implying

that

other

groups

will

also

commit

mass

suicide

Writing

in

the

book

Misunderstanding

Cults

Searching

for

Objectivity

in

a

Controversial

Field

contributor

Julius

H

Rubin

complains

that

the

term

has

been

used

to

discredit

certain

groups

in

the

court

of

public

opinion

In

his

work

Cults

in

Context

author

Lorne

L

Dawson

writes

that

although

the

Unification

Church

has

not

been

shown

to

be

violent

or

volatile

it

has

been

described

as

a

destructive

cult

by

anticult

crusaders

In

the

German

government

was

held

by

Germanys

Federal

Constitutional

Court

to

have

defamed

the

Osho

movement

by

referring

to

it

among

other

things

as

a

destructive

cult

with

no

factual

basis

Doomsday

cults

Main

article

Doomsday

cult

Doomsday

cult

is

an

expression

which

is

used

to

describe

groups

that

believe

in

Apocalypticism

and

Millenarianism

and

it

can

also

be

used

to

refer

both

to

groups

that

predict

disaster

and

to

groups

that

attempt

to

bring

it

about

In

the

American

social

psychologist

Leon

Festinger

and

his

colleagues

observed

members

of

a

small

UFO

religion

called

the

Seekers

for

several

months

and

recorded

their

conversations

both

prior

to

and

after

a

failed

prophecy

from

their

charismatic

leader

Their

work

was

later

published

in

the

book

When

Prophecy

Fails

A

Social

and

Psychological

Study

of

a

Modern

Group

that

Predicted

the

Destruction

of

the

World

In

the

late

doomsday

cults

were

a

major

topic

of

news

reports

with

some

reporters

and

commentators

considering

them

to

be

a

serious

threat

to

society

A

psychological

study

by

Festinger

Riecken

and

Schachter

found

that

people

turned

to

a

cataclysmic

world

view

after

they

had

repeatedly

failed

to

find

meaning

in

mainstream

movements

Political

cults

See

also

Obscurantism

LaRouche

Movement

members

in

Stockholm

protesting

against

the

Treaty

of

Lisbon

A

political

cult

is

a

cult

with

a

primary

interest

in

political

action

and

ideology

Groups

which

some

writers

have

termed

political

cults

mostly

advocating

farleft

or

farright

agendas

have

received

some

attention

from

journalists

and

scholars

In

their

book

On

the

Edge

Political

Cults

Right

and

Left

Dennis

Tourish

and

Tim

Wohlforth

discuss

about

a

dozen

organizations

in

the

United

States

and

Great

Britain

that

they

characterize

as

cults

In

a

separate

article

Tourish

says

that

in

his

usage

The

word

cult

is

not

a

term

of

abuse

as

this

paper

tries

to

explain

It

is

nothing

more

than

a

shorthand

expression

for

a

particular

set

of

practices

that

have

been

observed

in

a

variety

of

dysfunctional

organisations

The

LaRouche

Movement

and

Gino

Parente

s

National

Labor

Federation

NATLFED

are

examples

of

political

groups

that

have

been

described

as

cults

based

in

the

United

States

another

is

Marlene

Dixons

nowdefunct

Democratic

Workers

Party

a

critical

history

of

the

DWP

is

given

in

Bounded

Choice

by

Janja

A

Lalich

a

sociologist

and

former

DWP

member

The

Iron

Guard

movement

of

interwar

Romania

has

been

referred

to

as

a

macabre

political

cult

a

cargo

cult

and

a

cult

of

martyrdom

and

violence

As

a

cult

the

Guard

found

itself

in

the

very

peculiar

position

of

being

a

cult

running

an

entire

country

for

several

months

between

and

The

followers

of

Ayn

Rand

were

characterized

as

a

cult

by

economist

Murray

N

Rothbard

during

her

lifetime

and

later

by

Michael

Shermer

The

core

group

around

Rand

was

called

the

Collective

and

is

now

defunct

the

chief

group

disseminating

Rands

ideas

today

is

the

Ayn

Rand

Institute

Although

the

Collective

advocated

an

individualist

philosophy

Rothbard

claimed

they

were

organized

in

the

manner

of

a

Leninist

organization

In

Britain

the

Workers

Revolutionary

Party

a

Trotskyist

group

led

by

the

late

Gerry

Healy

and

strongly

supported

by

actress

Vanessa

Redgrave

has

been

described

by

others

who

have

been

involved

in

the

Trotskyist

movement

as

having

been

a

cult

or

as

displaying

cultlike

characteristics

in

the

and

It

is

also

described

as

such

by

Tourish

and

Wohlforth

in

their

writings

In

his

review

of

Tourish

and

Wohlforths

book

Bob

Pitt

a

former

member

of

the

WRP

concedes

that

it

had

a

cultlike

character

but

argues

that

rather

than

being

typical

of

the

far

left

this

feature

actually

made

the

WRP

atypical

and

led

to

its

being

treated

as

a

pariah

within

the

revolutionary

left

itself

Workers

Struggle

LO

Lutte

ouvrière

in

France

publicly

headed

by

Arlette

Laguiller

but

revealed

in

the

to

be

directed

by

Robert

Barcia

has

often

been

criticized

as

a

cult

for

example

by

Daniel

CohnBendit

and

his

older

brother

Gabriel

CohnBendit

as

well

as

LHumanité

and

Libération

In

his

book

Les

Sectes

Politiques

translation

Political

cults

French

writer

Cyril

Le

Tallec

considered

some

religious

groups

as

cults

involved

in

politics

including

the

League

for

Catholic

CounterReformation

the

Cultural

Office

of

Cluny

New

Acropolis

Sōka

Gakkai

the

Divine

Light

Mission

Tradition

Family

Property

TFP

LongoMai

the

Supermen

Club

and

the

Association

for

Promotion

of

the

Industrial

Arts

Solazaref

In

Lucy

Patrick

commented

Although

we

live

in

a

democracy

cult

behavior

manifests

itself

in

our

unwillingness

to

question

the

judgment

of

our

leaders

our

tendency

to

devalue

outsiders

and

to

avoid

dissent

We

can

overcome

cult

behavior

he

says

by

recognizing

that

we

have

dependency

needs

that

are

inappropriate

for

mature

people

by

increasing

antiauthoritarian

education

and

by

encouraging

personal

autonomy

and

the

free

exchange

of

ideas

Polygamist

cults

Cults

that

teach

and

practice

polygamy

marriage

between

more

than

two

people

most

often

polygyny

one

man

having

multiple

wives

have

long

been

noted

although

they

are

a

minority

It

has

been

estimated

that

there

are

around

members

of

polygamist

cults

in

North

America

Often

polygamist

cults

are

viewed

negatively

by

both

legal

authorities

and

society

and

this

view

sometimes

includes

negative

perceptions

of

related

mainstream

denominations

because

of

their

perceived

links

to

possible

domestic

violence

and

child

abuse

In

the

president

of

the

Church

of

Jesus

Christ

of

LatterDay

Saints

Wilford

Woodruff

issued

a

public

declaration

the

Manifesto

announcing

that

the

LDS

Church

had

ceased

performing

new

plural

marriages

AntiMormon

sentiment

waned

as

did

opposition

to

statehood

for

Utah

The

Smoot

Hearings

in

which

documented

that

the

LDS

Church

was

still

practicing

polygamy

spurred

the

church

to

issue

a

Second

Manifesto

again

claiming

that

it

had

ceased

performing

new

plural

marriages

By

the

LDS

Church

excommunicated

those

who

entered

into

or

performed

new

plural

marriages

Enforcement

of

the

Manifesto

caused

various

splinter

groups

to

leave

the

LDS

Church

in

order

to

continue

the

practice

of

plural

marriage

The

Church

of

Jesus

Christ

Restored

is

a

small

sect

within

the

Latter

Day

Saint

movement

based

in

Chatsworth

Ontario

Canada

It

has

been

labeled

a

polygamous

cult

by

the

news

media

and

has

been

the

subject

of

criminal

investigation

by

local

authorities

Racist

cults

Cross

burning

by

Ku

Klux

Klan

members

in

Sociologist

and

historian

Orlando

Patterson

has

described

the

Ku

Klux

Klan

which

arose

in

the

American

South

after

the

Civil

War

as

a

heretical

Christian

cult

and

he

has

described

its

persecution

of

African

Americans

and

others

as

a

form

of

human

sacrifice

Secret

Aryan

cults

in

Germany

and

Austria

in

the

nineteenth

and

early

twentieth

centuries

had

a

strong

influence

on

the

rise

of

Nazism

Modern

Skinhead

groups

in

the

United

States

tend

to

use

the

same

recruitment

techniques

as

destructive

cults

Peter

Staudenmeier

professor

of

modern

German

history

at

Marquette

University

describes

Rudolf

Steiner

s

Anthroposophy

between

occultism

and

fascism

He

analyses

in

detail

the

racist

foundation

of

this

movement

Terrorist

cults

In

the

book

Jihad

and

Sacred

Vengeance

Psychological

Undercurrents

of

History

psychiatrist

Peter

A

Olsson

compares

Osama

bin

Laden

to

certain

cult

leaders

including

Jim

Jones

David

Koresh

Shoko

Asahara

Marshall

Applewhite

Luc

Jouret

and

Joseph

Di

Mambro

and

he

says

that

each

of

these

individuals

fit

at

least

eight

of

the

nine

criteria

for

people

with

narcissistic

personality

disorders

In

the

book

Seeking

the

Compassionate

Life

The

Moral

Crisis

for

Psychotherapy

and

Society

authors

Goldberg

and

Crespo

also

refer

to

Osama

bin

Laden

as

a

destructive

cult

leader

At

a

meeting

of

the

American

Psychological

Association

APA

anticultist

Steven

Hassan

said

that

AlQaida

fulfills

the

characteristics

of

a

destructive

cult

He

added

We

need

to

apply

what

we

know

about

destructive

mindcontrol

cults

and

this

should

be

a

priority

with

the

war

on

terrorism

We

need

to

understand

the

psychological

aspects

of

how

people

are

recruited

and

indoctrinated

so

we

can

slow

down

recruitment

We

need

to

help

counsel

former

cult

members

and

possibly

use

some

of

them

in

the

war

against

terrorism

In

an

article

on

AlQaida

published

in

The

Times

journalist

Mary

Ann

Sieghart

wrote

that

alQaida

resembles

a

classic

cult

commenting

AlQaida

fits

all

the

official

definitions

of

a

cult

It

indoctrinates

its

members

it

forms

a

closed

totalitarian

society

it

has

a

selfappointed

messianic

and

charismatic

leader

and

it

believes

that

the

ends

justify

the

means

The

Shining

Path

guerrilla

movement

active

in

Peru

in

the

and

has

variously

been

described

as

a

cult

and

as

an

intense

cult

of

personality

The

Tamil

Tigers

have

also

been

qualified

as

such

by

French

magazine

LExpress

The

Peoples

Mujahedin

of

Iran

a

leftist

guerrilla

movement

based

in

Iraq

has

controversially

been

described

as

a

political

cult

and

as

a

movement

that

is

abusive

towards

its

own

members

Former

Mujaheddin

member

and

now

author

and

academic

Dr

Masoud

Banisadr

stated

in

a

May

speech

in

Spain

If

you

ask

me

are

all

cults

a

terrorist

organisation

My

answer

is

no

as

there

are

many

peaceful

cults

at

present

around

the

world

and

in

the

history

of

mankind

But

if

you

ask

me

are

all

terrorist

organisations

some

sort

of

cult

my

answer

is

yes

Even

if

they

start

as

an

ordinary

modern

political

party

or

organisation

to

prepare

and

force

their

members

to

act

without

asking

any

moral

questions

and

act

selflessly

for

the

cause

of

the

In

the

group

ordered

some

of

its

members

to

set

themselves

on

fire

two

of

whom

died

Regional

developments

The

application

of

the

labels

cult

or

sect

to

religious

movements

in

government

documents

signifies

the

popular

and

negative

use

of

the

term

cult

in

English

and

a

functionally

similar

use

of

words

translated

as

sect

in

several

European

languages

Sociologists

critical

to

this

negative

politicized

use

of

the

word

cult

argue

that

it

may

adversely

impact

the

religious

freedoms

of

group

members

At

the

height

of

the

countercult

movement

and

ritual

abuse

scare

of

the

some

governments

published

lists

of

cults

While

these

documents

utilize

similar

terminology

they

do

not

necessarily

include

the

same

groups

nor

is

their

assessment

of

these

groups

based

on

agreed

criteria

Other

governments

and

world

bodies

also

report

on

new

religious

movements

but

do

not

use

these

terms

to

describe

the

groups

Since

the

some

governments

have

again

distanced

themselves

from

such

classifications

of

religious

movements

While

the

official

response

to

new

religious

groups

has

been

mixed

across

the

globe

some

governments

aligned

more

with

the

critics

of

these

groups

to

the

extent

of

distinguishing

between

legitimate

religion

and

dangerous

unwanted

cults

in

public

policy

China

Falun

Gong

books

symbolically

destroyed

by

Chinese

government

For

centuries

governments

in

China

have

categorized

certain

religions

as

xiejiao

Chinese

邪教

pinyin

xiéjiào

sometimes

translated

as

evil

cult

or

as

heterodox

teaching

In

imperial

China

the

classification

of

a

religion

as

xiejiao

did

not

necessarily

mean

that

a

religions

teachings

were

believed

to

be

false

or

inauthentic

but

rather

the

label

was

applied

to

religious

groups

that

were

not

authorized

by

the

state

or

that

were

seen

as

challenging

the

legitimacy

of

the

state

In

modern

China

the

term

xiejiao

continues

to

be

used

to

denote

teachings

that

the

government

disapproves

of

and

these

groups

face

suppression

and

punishment

by

authorities

Fourteen

different

groups

in

China

have

been

listed

by

the

ministry

of

public

security

as

xiejiao

In

addition

in

Chinese

authorities

denounced

the

Falun

Gong

spiritual

practice

as

a

heretical

teaching

and

they

launched

a

campaign

to

eliminate

it

According

to

Amnesty

International

the

persecution

of

Falun

Gong

includes

a

multifaceted

propaganda

campaign

a

program

of

enforced

ideological

conversion

and

reeducation

as

well

as

a

variety

of

extralegal

coercive

measures

such

as

arbitrary

arrests

forced

labour

and

physical

torture

sometimes

resulting

in

death

Russia

In

the

Russian

Interior

Ministry

prepared

a

list

of

extremist

groups

At

the

top

of

the

list

were

Islamic

groups

outside

of

traditional

Islam

which

is

supervised

by

the

Russian

government

Next

listed

were

Pagan

cults

In

the

Russian

Ministry

of

Justice

created

a

council

which

it

named

Council

of

Experts

Conducting

State

Religious

Studies

Expert

Analysis

The

new

council

listed

large

sects

which

it

considered

potentially

dangerous

to

Russian

society

and

mentioned

that

there

were

thousands

of

smaller

ones

Large

sects

listed

included

The

Church

of

Jesus

Christ

of

Latterday

Saints

Jehovahs

Witnesses

and

what

were

called

neoPentecostals

United

States

In

the

the

scientific

status

of

the

brainwashing

theory

became

a

central

topic

in

US

court

cases

where

the

theory

was

used

to

try

to

justify

the

use

of

the

forceful

deprogramming

of

cult

members

Meanwhile

sociologists

critical

of

these

theories

assisted

advocates

of

religious

freedom

in

defending

the

legitimacy

of

new

religious

movements

in

court

In

the

United

States

religious

activities

of

cults

are

protected

under

the

First

Amendment

of

the

United

States

Constitution

which

prohibits

governmental

establishment

of

religion

and

protects

freedom

of

religion

freedom

of

speech

freedom

of

the

press

and

freedom

of

assembly

However

no

religious

or

cult

members

are

granted

any

special

immunity

from

criminal

charges

Western

Europe

France

and

Belgium

have

taken

policy

positions

which

accept

brainwashing

theories

uncritically

while

other

European

nations

like

Sweden

and

Italy

are

cautious

about

brainwashing

and

have

adopted

more

neutral

responses

to

new

religions

Scholars

have

suggested

that

outrage

following

the

mass

murdersuicides

perpetuated

by

the

Solar

Temple

as

well

as

the

more

latent

xenophobic

and

antiAmerican

attitudes

have

contributed

significantly

to

European

anticult

positions

In

the

clergymen

and

officials

of

the

French

government

expressed

concern

that

some

orders

and

other

groups

within

the

Roman

Catholic

Church

would

be

adversely

affected

by

anticult

laws

then

being

considered

See

also

Governmental

lists

of

cults

and

sects

GrecoRoman

mysteries

List

of

new

religious

movements

Secret

society

Footnotes

a

b

Zablocki

Benjamin

David

Thomas

Robbins

Misunderstanding

Cults

Searching

for

Objectivity

in

a

Controversial

Field

University

of

Toronto

Press

p

ISBN

a

b

Richardson

James

T

Definitions

of

Cult

From

SociologicalTechnical

to

PopularNegative

Review

of

Religious

Research

Religious

Research

Association

Inc

doi

JSTOR

Stark

Rodney

Bainbridge

William

Sims

A

Theory

of

Religion

Rutgers

University

Press

p

ISBN

OED

citing

American

Journal

of

Sociology

p

Cults

like

other

deviant

social

movements

tend

to

recruit

people

with

a

grievance

people

who

suffer

from

a

some

variety

of

deprivation

Chuck

Shaw

Sects

and

Cults

Greenville

Technical

College

Retrieved

March

Olson

Paul

J

The

Public

Perception

of

Cults

and

New

Religious

Movements

Journal

for

the

Scientific

Study

of

Religion

Stark

Rodney

Bainbridge

William

Sims

The

Future

of

Religion

Secularization

Revival

and

Cult

Formation

Berkeley

CA

University

of

California

Press

ISBN

a

b

Eileen

Barker

New

Religious

Movements

their

incidence

and

significance

New

Religious

Movements

challenge

and

response

Bryan

Wilson

and

Jamie

Cresswell

editors

Routledge

ISBN

Erwin

Fahlbusch

Geoffrey

William

Bromiley

The

Encyclopedia

of

Christianity

PSh

Volume

p

Retrieved

March

Definition

of

CULT

Harper

Douglas

cult

Online

Etymology

Dictionary

cult

n

worship

also

a

particular

form

of

worship

from

French

culte

from

Latin

cultus

care

labor

cultivation

culture

worship

reverence

originally

tended

cultivated

past

participle

of

colere

to

till

Compare

the

Oxford

English

Dictionary

note

for

usage

in

cult

b

A

relatively

small

group

of

people

having

esp

religious

beliefs

or

practices

regarded

by

others

as

strange

or

sinister

or

as

exercising

excessive

control

over

members

Brit

Mail

Jan

Buffaloism

is

it

would

seem

a

cult

a

creed

a

secret

community

the

members

of

which

are

bound

together

by

strange

and

weird

vows

and

listen

in

hidden

conclave

to

mysterious

lore

cult

Oxford

English

Dictionary

ed

Oxford

University

Press

September

Subscription

or

UK

public

library

membership

required

In

W

S

Taylor

Science

and

cult

Psychological

Review

Vol

March

cultist

is

still

used

in

the

sense

that

would

now

be

expressed

by

religionist

ie

anyone

adopting

a

religious

worldview

as

opposed

to

a

scientific

one

In

the

New

York

State

Journal

of

Medicine

of

p

and

other

medical

publications

of

the

eg

Morris

Fishbein

Fads

and

Quackery

in

Healing

An

Analysis

of

the

Foibles

of

the

Healing

Cults

cultist

refers

to

those

adhering

to

what

was

then

called

healing

cults

and

what

would

now

be

referred

to

as

faith

healing

but

also

of

other

forms

of

alternative

medicine

cultist

in

quotes

of

a

chiropractor

in

United

States

naval

medical

bulletin

Volume

p

Compare

TL

Brink

Psychology

A

Student

Friendly

Approach

Unit

Social

Psychology

pp

Cult

is

a

somewhat

derogatory

term

for

a

new

religious

movement

especially

one

with

unusual

theological

doctrine

or

one

that

is

abusive

of

its

membership

Chuck

Shaw

Sects

and

Cults

Greenville

Technical

College

Retrieved

March

Bromley

David

Melton

J

Gordon

Cults

Religion

and

Violence

West

Nyack

NY

USA

Cambridge

University

Press

Lewis

James

R

Lewis

James

R

ed

The

Oxford

Handbook

of

New

Religious

Movements

OUP

USA

ISBN

accessdate

requires

url

help

Clarke

Peter

B

New

Religions

in

Global

Perspective

A

Study

of

Religious

Change

in

the

Modern

World

New

York

Routledge

Elijah

Siegler

New

Religious

Movements

Prentice

Hall

ISBN

Elijah

Siegler

New

Religious

Movements

Prentice

Hall

ISBN

p

Weber

Maximillan

Theory

of

Social

and

Economic

Organization

Chapter

The

Nature

of

Charismatic

Authority

and

its

Routinization

translated

by

A

R

Anderson

and

Talcott

Parsons

Originally

published

in

in

German

under

the

title

Wirtschaft

und

Gesellschaft

chapter

III

available

online

Swatos

William

H

Jr

ChurchSect

Theory

In

William

H

Swatos

Jr

Encyclopedia

of

Religion

and

Society

Walnut

Creek

CA

AltaMira

pp

ISBN

Campbell

Colin

Cult

In

William

H

Swatos

Jr

Encyclopedia

of

Religion

and

Society

Walnut

Creek

CA

AltaMira

pp

ISBN

Richardson

p

Stark

and

Bainbridge

p

Stark

and

Bainbridge

p

The

Early

Unification

Church

History

Archived

February

at

the

Wayback

Machine

Galen

Pumphrey

Conversion

Archived

January

at

the

Wayback

Machine

Unification

Church

Archived

January

at

the

Wayback

Machine

Encyclopedia

of

Religion

and

Society

Hartford

Institute

for

Religion

Research

Hartford

Seminary

Introduction

to

New

and

Alternative

Religions

in

America

African

diaspora

traditions

and

other

American

innovations

Volume

of

Introduction

to

New

and

Alternative

Religions

in

America

W

Michael

Ashcraft

Greenwood

Publishing

Group

ISBN

p

Exploring

New

Religions

Issues

in

contemporary

religion

George

D

Chryssides

Continuum

International

Publishing

Group

ISBN

p

Wallis

Roy

Scientology

Therapeutic

Cult

to

Religious

Sect

abstract

only

Archived

June

at

the

Wayback

Machine

Bruce

Campbell

A

Typology

of

Cults

Sociology

Analysis

Santa

Barbara

Oldenburg

Don

November

Stressed

to

Kill

The

Defense

of

Brainwashing

Sniper

Suspects

Claim

Triggers

More

Debate

Archived

May

at

the

Wayback

Machine

Washington

Post

reproduced

in

Defence

Brief

issue

published

by

Steven

Skurka

Associates

Dawson

Lorne

L

Cults

in

context

readings

in

the

study

of

new

religious

movements

Transaction

Publishers

p

ISBN

Robbins

Thomas

In

Gods

we

trust

new

patterns

of

religious

pluralism

in

America

Transaction

Publishers

p

ISBN

Sipchen

Bob

November

Ten

Years

After

Jonestown

the

Battle

Intensifies

Over

the

Influence

of

Alternative

Religions

Los

Angeles

Times

Stark

Rodney

Bainbridge

William

A

Theory

of

Religion

Peter

Lang

Publishing

pp

ISBN

Eugene

V

Gallagher

The

New

Religious

Movement

Experience

in

America

Greenwood

Press

ISBN

p

xv

Galanter

Marc

Editor

Cults

and

new

religious

movements

a

report

of

the

committee

on

psychiatry

and

religion

of

the

American

Psychiatric

Association

ISBN

Bader

Chris

A

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A

test

of

the

StarkBainbridge

theory

of

affiliation

with

religious

cults

and

sects

Journal

for

the

Scientific

Study

of

Religion

Ed

Brubaker

Fatale

Image

pp

Cowan

J

Gordon

Melton

Encyclopedic

Handbook

of

Cults

in

America

New

YorkLondon

Garland

revised

edition

Garland

p

Walter

Ralston

Martin

The

Kingdom

of

the

Cults

Bethany

House

ISBN

p

Walter

R

Martin

The

Rise

of

the

Cults

reved

Santa

Ana

Vision

House

pp

Richard

Abanes

Defending

the

Faith

A

Beginners

Guide

to

Cults

and

New

Religions

Grand

Rapids

Baker

Book

House

p

H

Wayne

House

Gordon

Carle

Doctrine

Twisting

How

Core

Biblical

Truths

are

Distorted

Downers

Grove

IVP

Garry

W

Trompf

Missiology

Methodology

and

the

Study

of

New

Religious

Movements

Religious

Traditions

Volume

pp

Walter

R

Martin

The

Kingdom

of

the

Cults

reved

Ravi

Zacharias

ed

Bloomington

Bethany

House

pp

Ronald

Enroth

ed

Evangelising

the

Cults

Milton

Keynes

Word

Norman

L

Geisler

Ron

Rhodes

When

Cultists

Ask

A

Popular

Handbook

on

Cultic

Misinterpretations

Grand

Rapids

Baker

Book

House

a

b

c

d

Richardson

and

Introvigne

Shupe

Anson

AntiCult

Movement

In

William

H

Swatos

Jr

Encyclopedia

of

Religion

and

Society

Walnut

Creek

CA

AltaMira

p

ISBN

T

Robbins

and

D

Anthony

quoted

in

Richardson

certain

manipulative

and

authoritarian

groups

which

allegedly

employ

mind

control

and

pose

a

threat

to

mental

health

are

universally

labeled

cults

These

groups

are

usually

authoritarian

in

their

leadership

and

totalistic

in

their

organization

aggressive

in

their

proselytizing

systematic

in

their

programs

of

indoctrination

new

and

unfamiliar

in

the

United

States

class

in

their

clientele

Melton

J

Gordon

December

Brainwashing

and

the

Cults

The

Rise

and

Fall

of

a

Theory

CESNUR

Center

for

Studies

on

New

Religions

Retrieved

June

In

the

United

States

at

the

end

of

the

brainwashing

emerged

as

a

popular

theoretical

construct

around

which

to

understand

what

appeared

to

be

a

sudden

rise

of

new

and

unfamiliar

religious

movements

during

the

previous

decade

especially

those

associated

with

the

hippie

streetpeople

phenomenon

Bromley

David

G

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In

William

H

Swatos

Jr

Ed

Encyclopedia

of

Religion

and

Society

Walnut

Creek

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AltaMira

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Barker

Eileen

New

Religious

Movements

A

Practical

Introduction

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Her

Majestys

Stationery

office

Janja

Lalich

Langone

Michael

Characteristics

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with

Cultic

Groups

Revised

International_Cultic_Studies_Association

International

Cultic

Studies

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May

OReilly

Charles

Chatman

Jennifer

Culture

as

Social

Control

Corporations

Cults

and

Commitment

PDF

University

of

Berkely

Hill

Harvey

John

Hickman

and

Joel

McLendon

Cults

and

Sects

and

Doomsday

Groups

Oh

My

Media

Treatment

of

Religion

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the

Eve

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the

Millennium

Review

of

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Research

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van

Driel

Barend

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Cult

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sect

Categorization

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new

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in

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media

Sociological

Analysis

doi

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Wright

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A

Media

Coverage

of

Unconventional

Religion

Any

Good

News

for

Minority

Faiths

Review

of

Religious

Research

Review

of

Religious

Research

Vol

No

doi

JSTOR

Barker

Eileen

Religious

Movements

Cult

and

AntiCult

Since

Jonestown

Annual

Review

of

Sociology

doi

Ayella

Marybeth

They

Must

Be

Crazy

Some

of

the

Difficulties

in

Researching

Cults

American

Behavioral

Scientist

doi

Cowan

ix

Pilgrims

of

Love

The

Anthropology

of

a

Global

Sufi

Cult

By

Pnina

Werbner

Bloomington

Indiana

University

Press

xvi

pp

the

excessive

use

of

cult

is

also

potentially

misleading

With

its

pejorative

connotations

Definitions

of

Cult

From

SociologicalTechnical

to

PopularNegative

James

T

Richardson

Review

of

Religious

Research

Vol

No

Jun

pp

the

word

cult

is

useless

and

should

be

avoided

because

of

the

confusion

between

the

historic

meaning

of

the

word

and

current

pejorative

use

a

b

c

d

e

Wessinger

Catherine

Lowman

How

the

Millennium

Comes

Violently

New

YorkLondon

Seven

Bridges

Press

p

ISBN

Amy

Ryan

New

Religions

and

the

AntiCult

Movement

Online

Resource

Guide

in

Social

Sciences

Archived

November

at

the

Wayback

Machine

Why

the

Bruderhof

is

not

a

cult

by

Bryan

Wilson

Cult

And

Sect

Religion

And

Belief

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Bryan

Wilson

makes

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same

point

in

his

paper

saying

that

the

Bruderhof

is

not

a

cult

pointing

out

that

the

public

imagination

is

captured

by

five

events

that

have

occurred

in

religious

groups

Jonestown

the

Branch

Davidians

Solar

Temple

Aum

Shinrikyo

and

Heavens

Gate

Casino

Bruce

J

Defining

Religion

in

American

Law

Archived

November

at

the

Wayback

Machine

Robinson

BA

July

Doomsday

destructive

religious

cults

Ontario

Consultants

on

Religious

Tolerance

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November

Turner

Francis

J

Arnold

Shanon

Bloch

Ron

Shor

September

From

Consultation

to

Therapy

in

Group

Work

With

Parents

of

Cultists

Differential

Diagnosis

Treatment

in

Social

Work

ed

Free

Press

p

ISBN

Clark

MD

John

Gordon

November

The

Effects

of

Religious

Cults

on

the

Health

and

Welfare

of

Their

Converts

Congressional

Record

United

States

Congress

Extensions

of

Remarks

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November

Kaslow

Florence

Whiteman

Marvin

B

Sussman

Cults

and

the

Family

Haworth

Press

p

ISBN

Dr

Zablocki

Benjamin

Archived

copy

Archived

from

the

original

on

March

Retrieved

March

Paper

presented

to

a

conference

Cults

Theory

and

Treatment

Issues

May

in

Philadelphia

Pennsylvania

Kranenborg

Reender

Dr

Dutch

language

Sekten

gevaarlijk

of

nietCults

dangerous

or

not

published

in

the

magazine

Religieuze

bewegingen

in

NederlandReligious

movements

in

the

Netherlands

nr

Sekten

II

by

the

Free

university

Amsterdam

ISSN

ISBN

The

impacts

of

cults

on

health

PDF

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A

J

Gordon

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Understanding

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Rowman

Altamira

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ISBN

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Lorne

L

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in

Context

Readings

in

the

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of

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Religious

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Transaction

Publishers

p

Sects

and

Violence

ISBN

Hubert

Seiwert

Freedom

and

Control

in

the

Unified

Germany

Governmental

Approaches

to

Alternative

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Since

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Sociology

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S

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BVerfG

BvR

dd

June

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German

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Mystics

and

Messiahs

Cults

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Religions

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Oxford

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Press

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ISBN

Stangor

Charles

Social

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in

Action

and

Interaction

Psychology

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When

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Newman

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David

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Architecture

of

Everyday

Life

Pine

Forge

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p

ISBN

Petty

Richard

E

John

T

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Persuasion

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Festinger

Leon

Riecken

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Stanley

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Social

and

Psychological

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of

a

Modern

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that

Predicted

the

Destruction

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World

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of

Minnesota

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and

Messiahs

Cults

and

New

Religions

in

American

History

Philip

Jenkins

Oxford

University

Press

April

pp

Pargament

Kenneth

I

The

Psychology

of

Religion

and

Coping

Theory

Research

Practice

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Press

pp

section

Compelling

Coping

in

a

Doomsday

Cult

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Dennis

Tourish

and

Tim

Wohlforth

On

the

Edge

Political

Cults

Right

and

Left

Armonk

NY

ME

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Janja

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the

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Studies

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Archived

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October

Retrieved

February

Tourish

and

Wohlforth

Introduction

to

Ideological

Intransigence

Democratic

Centralism

and

Cultism

John

Mintz

Ideological

Odyssey

From

Old

Left

to

Far

Right

The

Washington

Post

January

Alisa

Solomon

Commie

Fiends

of

Brooklyn

The

Village

Voice

November

Janja

A

Lalich

Bounded

Choice

True

Believers

and

Charismatic

Cults

Berkeley

and

Los

Angeles

University

of

California

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copy

Archived

from

the

original

on

August

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February

International

Business

Publications

Romania

Country

Study

Guide

p

Ivan

Strenski

Macmillan

Four

theories

of

myth

in

twentiethcentury

history

Cassirer

Eliade

LéviStrauss

and

Malinowski

p

Lawrence

Winkler

Bellatrix

Between

the

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p

a

b

Rothbard

Murray

The

Sociology

of

the

Ayn

Rand

Cult

Retrieved

July

Rothbards

essay

was

later

revised

and

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as

a

pamphlet

by

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in

and

by

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for

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Studies

in

Shermer

Michael

The

Unlikeliest

Cult

Why

People

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Weird

Things

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WH

Freeman

and

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This

chapter

is

a

revised

version

of

Shermer

Michael

The

Unlikeliest

Cult

in

History

Skeptic

David

North

Gerry

Healy

and

His

Place

in

the

History

of

the

Fourth

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Mehring

Books

ISBN

Tourish

and

Wohlforth

Gerry

Healy

Guru

to

a

Star

Chapter

pp

in

On

the

Edge

Political

Cults

Right

and

Left

Armonk

NY

ME

Sharpe

Cults

Sects

and

the

Far

Left

reviewed

by

Bob

Pitt

What

Next

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No

online

Arlette

Laguiller

naime

pas

le

débat

in

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April

Archived

from

the

original

on

June

Cyril

Le

Tallec

Les

sectes

politiques

in

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Retrieved

August

Library

Journal

Dec

v

p

MagColl

The

Youngest

Bishop

in

England

Beneath

the

Surface

of

Mormonism

Robert

Bridgstock

See

Sharp

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January

p

Laws

Relating

to

Sex

Pregnancy

and

Infancy

Issues

in

Criminal

Justice

C

Cusack

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May

Embry

Jessie

L

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In

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Allan

Kent

Utah

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Salt

Lake

City

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of

Utah

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The

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Archived

January

at

the

Wayback

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Helping

Victims

of

Domestic

Violence

and

Child

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in

Polygamous

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A

joint

report

from

the

offices

of

the

Attorneys

General

of

Arizona

and

Utah

Dunn

Scott

December

Polygamy

abuse

alleged

to

be

hallmarks

of

cult

Owen

Sound

Sun

Times

Owen

Sound

Ontario

Retrieved

February

Campbell

Jennifer

November

Allegations

of

polygamy

abuse

and

psychological

torture

within

secretive

sect

CTVnewsca

CTV

Television

Network

Retrieved

February

Gowan

Rob

April

Two

brothers

alleged

Ontario

polygamist

cult

ring

leaders

face

sex

and

assault

charges

The

Toronto

Sun

Owen

Sound

Ont

Canoe

Sun

Media

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May

Rituals

of

Blood

Consequences

of

Slavery

in

Two

American

Centuries

Orlando

Patterson

Basic

Civitas

Books

The

Occult

Roots

of

Nazism

Nicholas

GoodrickClarke

NYU

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September

Hate

and

Bias

Crime

A

Reader

Barbara

Perry

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pp

httpsepublicationsmarquetteedumarq_facbook195

Piven

Jerry

S

Jihad

and

Sacred

Vengeance

Psychological

Undercurrents

of

History

iUniverse

pp

ISBN

Goldberg

Carl

Virginia

Crespo

Seeking

the

Compassionate

Life

The

Moral

Crisis

for

Psychotherapy

and

Society

PraegerGreenwood

p

ISBN

Dittmann

Melissa

November

Cults

of

hatred

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at

a

convention

session

on

hatred

asked

APA

to

form

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task

force

to

investigate

mind

control

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destructive

cults

Monitor

on

Psychology

American

Psychological

Association

p

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November

Sieghart

Mary

Ann

October

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cult

figure

we

could

do

without

The

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Steven

J

Stern

ed

Shining

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Other

Paths

War

and

Society

in

Peru

Durham

NC

Duke

University

Press

David

Scott

Palmer

Shining

Path

of

Peru

New

York

St

Martins

Press

second

ed

Gérard

Chaliand

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in

LExpress

in

French

Elizabeth

Rubin

The

Cult

of

Rajavi

The

New

York

Times

Magazine

July

Karl

Vick

Iran

Dissident

Group

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Terrorist

Cult

The

Washington

Post

June

Max

Boot

How

to

Handle

Iran

Los

Angeles

Times

October

No

Exit

Human

Rights

Abuses

Inside

the

Mojahedin

Khalq

Camps

Human

Rights

Watch

Banisadr

Masoud

May

Cult

and

extremism

Terrorism

Combating

Terrorism

and

Protecting

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The

Role

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de

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la

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November

Eileen

Barker

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and

Diversification

in

New

Religious

Movements

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pp

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a

b

c

Richardson

James

T

Introvigne

Massimo

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in

European

Parliamentary

and

Administrative

Reports

on

Cults

and

Sects

Journal

for

the

Scientific

Study

of

Religion

doi

a

b

Davis

Dena

S

Joining

a

Cult

Religious

Choice

or

Psychological

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Journal

of

Law

and

Health

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sects

in

Germanspeaking

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the

German

term

Sekten

lit

sects

having

assumed

the

same

derogatory

meaning

as

English

cult

Austria

Beginning

in

the

United

States

Department

of

States

International

Religious

Freedom

Report

as

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by

the

Bureau

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Democracy

Human

Rights

and

Labor

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longer

distinguishes

sects

in

Austria

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a

separate

group

International

Religious

Freedom

Report

for

Bureau

of

Democracy

Human

Rights

and

Labor

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September

Belgium

The

Justice

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of

the

Belgian

House

of

Representatives

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Appeals

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of

Representatives

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grounds

that

it

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damaged

the

image

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an

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National

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a

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In

the

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less

pertinent

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that

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needed

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its

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Germany

The

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Berlin

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Oberverwaltungsgericht

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September

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Leitstelle

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b

Edelman

Bryan

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Religio

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Benjamin

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of

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February

Thomas

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May

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March

The

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security

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the

enduring

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KGB

Author

Andreĭ

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pp

Persecuted

The

Global

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Paul

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Theories

in

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University

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B O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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DACS From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia DACS may refer to Data Analysis Center for Software United States Department of Defense information analysis center De La Rue Automatic Cash System early ATM Describing Archives A Content Standard standard for describing collections Design and Artists Copyright Society UK copyright collecting society for visual art Digital access and crossconnect system telecommunications equipment in the United States Digital Access Carrier System telecommunications equipment in the United Kingdom Distributed Access Control System single signon and rolebased access control system This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title DACS If an internal link led you here you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article Categories Disambiguation pages

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