Cataracts What is Cataracts Statistics Risk Factors Progression Symptoms Clinical Examination How is it Diagnosed Prognosis Treatment What is Cataracts Cataracts are the process by which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy or opaque They are the leading cause of blindness and visual loss globally Cataracts can be classified according to the appearance and location of the opacity within the lens level of maturity or progression of the clouding or cause of the cataract Appearance and location of the opacity Image courtesy of Blausen Medical Communications Contact Andrew Walbank The appearance and location of the opacity within the lens is one method used to categorise cataracts There are several different types of cataracts within this classification including Nuclear Nuclear cataracts are the most common type in the aging lens and involve the central part of the lens Cortical Cortical cataracts involve the outer layer of the lens and are often associated with childhood cataracts Capsular Capsular cataracts result in clouding of the lens capsule which is the bag that surrounds the lens of the eye Posterior subcapsular Posterior subcapsular cataracts result in clouding of the back part of the lens Level of maturityprogression The level of maturity or progression is also used to classify cataracts Within this classification are the following types Immature In an immature cataract the lens has developed some opacities but these are still separated by areas of normal clear lens Mature Mature cataracts have progressed from immature so that the entire lens is completely opaque and cloudy Intumescent In an intumescent cataract the lens has become swollen and enlarged due to water being taken into the lens Hypermature Hypermature cataracts result when the lens and capsule become smaller and wrinkled due to the leakage of fluid out of the lens Morgagnian Morgagnian cataracts are hypermature cataracts in which the lens central portion sinks and becomes liquefied Cause The cause of the cataract is also frequently used to classify them Most commonly cataracts are related to increasing age but also occur in childhood Cataracts may also be related to metabolic and nutritional abnormalities drugs trauma radiation exposure and inflammation Statistics Cataracts account for a major proportion of vision loss around the world Within Australia cataract surgery is the most commonly performed eye procedure The overall prevalence of cortical cataracts in the urban Australian population is 113However the number of people affected increases from about 4 of the population aged 5059 years to more than 6070 of those aged 90 years and above The overall prevalence of nuclear cataracts in Australia is similar at approximately 11 although there is an even greater increase in the frequency of nuclear cataracts compared to cortical cataracts as age increases with 80100 of those 90 years old being affected The risk of developing cataracts over a 10year period in those over 49 years old is 36 for nuclear cataracts and 28 for cortical cataracts respectively Of those people that develop cataracts the average age for cataract surgery in Australia has been found to be 758 years and surgery in the second eye frequently follows soon after the first cataract operation The frequency of cataracts occurring in younger people within Australia is much less compared to agerelated cataracts occurring in 1 in 4500 infants or children Risk Factors A broad range of predisposing factors has been linked to the development of cataracts Demographic Demographic factors including age gender and ethnicity may predispose a person to developing cataracts Age the risk of developing cataracts strongly increases with age Sex women have been demonstrated to be at higher risk of developing cortical and nuclear cataracts then men Ethnicity AfricanAmerican and Caribbean people experience higher rates of cortical cataracts than Caucasian people Within Australia Aboriginal Australians are three times more likely to experience vision loss due to cataracts than nonAboriginal AustraliansThere is also evidence that the risk of developing cataracts is lower among those with higher education Diabetes Diabetes is a wellestablished risk factor for cataracts Diabetes has been shown to accelerate the formation and progression of agerelated cataracts and also result in the development of cataracts in younger people This occurs because the lens in a person with diabetes takes up glucose which is converted to a sugar substance sorbitol This substance is unable to diffuse through the lens and therefore results in an increased pressure within the lens As a result water moves into the lens and may cause lens swelling and cloudingThose who have had diabetes for more than 5 years are more likely to develop cataracts Other systemic conditions In addition to diabetes other diseases are also associated with cataracts People with gout for greater than 10 years are at greater risk of developing cortical cataracts Individuals affected by Wilsons disease are predisposed to developing cataracts because copper deposition on the cornea KayserFleisher rings clouds the lens and a characteristic green sunflower type of cataract may be seen Low calcium may predispose a person to developing cataracts Galactosaemia is a condition where the body is unable to process the sugar galactose It may result in development of cataracts soon after birth Chronic ultraviolet light exposure Chronic ultraviolet UV light exposure is a predisposing factor for the development of cataracts There is an increased risk seen in areas close to the equator where UV exposure particularly UVB radiation is highestIn Australia UV light exposure is greatest in the more northern states like Queensland and the Northern Territory compared to the southerly states such as Victoria and New South Wales Medications Several medications are linked to the development of cataracts In particular steroids predispose a person to developing posterior cataracts and children are particularly sensitive to the effect of steroids There is also evidence that inhaled steroids for respiratory disease may contribute to a person developing cataractsTopical betablockers used in other eye disease have been shown to be a risk factor for cataracts Genetics There is evidence to suggest that there is a genetic predisposition towards the development of nuclear and cortical cataracts However whether this inheritance is due to a single gene or contributions from multiple genes is yet to be established Future studies are necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the genetic predisposition to developing cataracts Trauma Trauma is a relatively common predisposing factor for cataract development in younger people The type of trauma that may result in opacification of the lens includes both penetrating injuries and blunt eye trauma and the cataract may be associated with lens dislocation bleeding and other eye injuries Other eye disease Another established risk factor in the development of cataracts is a history of eye disease Uveitis may result in the development of posterior cataracts Other eye diseases that may predispose an individual to develop cataracts include retinitis pigmentosa severe shortsightedness and glaucoma of the closed angle type Ionising radiation The effect of ionising radiation on the lens is recognised as a factor for the development of cataracts Radiation such as that from standard medical xrays can cause direct changes in the lens cells resulting in clouding of the lens several years after the exposure Electric shocks from high voltage wires and infrared radiation in the glassblowing occupation are also associated with cataract development Congenital Cataracts occurring in infants and children may be due to familial predisposition infection when in the womb eye disease or systemic disease Several of the more common disorders associated with sporadic cataracts in the Australian childhood population includes Downs syndrome Rubella embryopathy aniridia chronic juvenile arthritis with uveitis diabetes and galactosaemia Alcohol and smoking There is consistent evidence in the literature that smoking is associated with cataracts The evidence suggests that smoking increases both the risk of developing opacities and the progression of cataracts once they have occurred This association is related to the number of cigarettes smoked as studies have demonstrated that the risk of developing cataracts is lowered when the individual stops smoking High levels of alcohol consumption also contribute to the development of cataracts Progression In adults Cataracts are the leading cause of blindness in adults worldwideIf left untreated the lens undergoes change from an immature cataract to an intumescent cataract until the entire lens is involved and it becomes a mature cataractThese changes are associated with progressive visual loss and an increasing impact on the individual and their life In children The natural history of childhood and infant cataracts is very dependent on the type of cataract present Some childhood cataracts do not progress some progress slowly and some progress more rapidly and have visually significant effects on the patient If childhood cataracts are progressive and are left untreated the visual outcomes are very poor as this is a stage when important visual development is occurring Symptoms The symptoms an individual may experience depend on whether the cataracts involve one eye or both the degree of the cataract and the position of the opacity within the lens If the cataract involves one eye only then the individual may not notice the effects until the cataract has progressed The person affected may describe difficulty reading recognising faces driving or watching television They may describe worsening in vision in bright light particularly if the central part of the lens is clouded Some individuals may experience double vision and see haloes if the cataract is interfering with the passage of light rays to the back of the eye Occasionally improved nearvision may be reported in the history due to the cataract increasing the ability of the lens to bend the light and create a focused image An individual presenting with suspected cataracts should be questioned to assess whether any risk factors for cataracts are present including diabetes eye disease medications and smoking The impact of the cataract on the individuals quality of life should also be determined Clinical Examination A thorough examination by an ophthalmologist should be undertaken with the aim of confirming that the cataract is present and that there are no other eye diseases or general conditions that require attention or which may impact on the treatment The examination will include the following External examination and eye movements An external examination of the eye eyelids and eye lashes should look for features that may alter the outcome postsurgery Visual acuity and refraction This is measured with the Snellen eye chart and if there is a reduction in visual acuity a pinhole card is used to exclude shortsightedness as the cause of the vision loss Testing for a relative afferent pupillary defect RAPD This is done by the swinging torch test where a light is moved from one eye to another If a RAPD is present the pupil of the affected eye will dilate rather then constricting when the light is shone into it A cataract should not cause a RAPD and if one is present this may indicate an optic nerve problem Ophthalmoscopy This allows the ophthalmologist to visualise the retina which is the area at the back of the eye Pupil dilatation Dilatation of the pupil is undertaken in order to visualise the redeye reflex more easily and undertake a more thorough eye examination Slit lamp examination Examination with a slitlamp allows the pattern and location of the cataract to be seen The ophthalmologist looks in particular at the surface of the eye for any conditions that may complicate cataract surgery How is it Diagnosed Agerelated cataracts are diagnosed following a thorough history and physical examination as described above Therefore laboratory investigations are required as a routine part of the preoperative workup Investigations for diabetes hypertension and heart conditions may be performed and this may involve blood tests an ECG and chest Xray Imaging studies such as an ultrasound CT or MRI may be required if a very dense cataract obscures an adequate view of the back of the eye Specific measurements are undertaken prior to the cataract operation in order to evaluate the eye and plan for an artificial lens implantation This involves measuring the curvature and the length of the eye in order to calculate how strong the lens needs to be Prognosis The outcome in adults who have no other eye disease is very good due to the development of successful surgical techniques A poorer outcome results in those who have other eye conditions such as coexisting macular degeneration optic nerve atrophy or diabetic eye disease In those who undergo successful uncomplicated surgery most will experience improved vision Despite the high rates of success and promising outcome following uncomplicated surgery complications of cataract surgery still occur and these are mentioned below Treatment The only real treatment for cataracts is surgical intervention Currently there are no known effective medications or optical devices such as spectacles that provide longterm improvement in vision Whether cataract surgery is appropriate depends on the individual and the effect of the cataract on their vision and quality of life Younger people with cataracts may chose to undergo surgery earlier on Surgery Phacoemulsification surgery is now the standard method This involves a small cut made in the front part of the eye Through this hole a fine instrument is used to dissolve the hard lens and the dissolved lens is suctioned out This whole process is called phacoemulsfication A folded artificial lens implant is then placed within the empty lens bag and allowed to unfold Careful washing of the lens is undertaken in order to remove any left over lens matter Often stitches are not required as the cut is so small and is therefore selfhealing Extracapsular surgery used to be the most widely practiced method of surgery prior to the phacoemulsification technique It involves a larger cut and the entire cloudy lens is removed from the eye A nonfolding artificial lens is inserted and the cut is closed with stitches This procedure is sometimes associated with problems in the wound closure Intracapsular surgery is now only used in special situations It involves removal of the entire lens as well as the surrounding lens capsule For most individuals who undergo cataract surgery the procedure occurs under local anaesthetic unless there are specific conditions for which general anaesthetic may be more appropriate The artificial lens implanted within the lens capsule determines the final state of vision for the individual Inserting an artificial lens allows any shortsightedness or longsightedness to be corrected during the cataract surgery Once the operation is complete the new lens should last for the individuals lifetime and no replacement or maintenance therapy is normally required Complications of surgery Although modern techniques make cataract surgery very safe complications can still occur While not common there are certain risks including Infection Bleeding Eye perforation Retinal detachment Decreased vision postoperatively Rupture of the posterior capsule Cystoid macular oedema Glaucoma Posterior capsular opacification where the posterior part of the capsule becomes cloudy This is a common reason for vision decline postcataract surgery and may require a further laser procedure to correct this In order to avoid the complications associated with cataract surgery and to promote recovery it is recommended that 12 days rest occurs and heavy lifting is avoided for 23 weeks Prevention Although many advances have been made in the surgical treatment of cataracts there are currently no known effective preventative strategies However there is evidence in the literature that smoking whether current or in the past increases the risk of developing cataracts Alcohol consumption is also associated with a modest increase in cataract development therefore this should be minimised Several vitamins dietary supplements and antioxidants have been studied over the years but the results have not provided definitive conclusions as to the effect of these on the development of cataracts References Cotran RS Kumar V Collins T Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease 7 th ed Philadelphia WB Saunders Company 2004 Versace F Cataract Part 1 Causes diagnosis and preoperative testing Modern Medicine 1998 96106 McCarty CA Mukesh BN Fu CL Taylor HR The epidemiology of cataract in Australia Am J Ophthalmol1999 Oct 1284 44665 Kanthan GL Wang JJ Rochtchina E et al Tenyear incidence of agerelated cataract and cataract surgery in an older Australian population The Blue Mountains Eye Study Ophthalmology 2008 May 115 5 80814 Wirth MG RussellEggitt IM Craig JE Elder JE Mackey DA Aetiology of congenital and paediatric cataract in an Australian population Br J Ophthalmol 2002 July 867 7826 West S Epidemiology of cataract accomplishments over 25 years and future directions Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2007 JulAug 144 1738 Wearne S Remote Indigenous Australians with cataracts they are blind and still cant see MJA 2007 1876 3536 West SK Valmadrid CTEpidemiology of risk factors for agerelated cataract Surv Ophthalmol 1995 394 32334 National Cancer Control Initiative The 2002 national nonmelanoma skin cancer survey a report by the NCCI Nonmelanoma skin cancer working group online Ed MP Staples 2003 Available from URL Link Klein R Klein BE Jensen SC Moss SE Cruikshanks KJ The relation of socioeconomic factors to agerelated cataract maculopathy and impaired vision The Beaver Dam Eye Study Ophthalmology 1994 10112 196979 Amaya L Taylor D RusselEggitt I Nischal KK Lengyel D The morphology and natural history of childhood cataracts Surv Ophthalmol 2003 482 12544 Khaw PT Shah P Elkington R ABC of Eyes 4 th ed London BMJ Publishing Group Ltd 2004 Versace F Cataract Part 2 Surgical Treatment Modern Medicine 1998 309 Tan JS Wang JJ Younan C Cumming RG Rochtchina E Mitchell P Smoking and the longterm incidence of cataract the Blue Mountains Eye Study Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2008 153 15561 Lindblad BE Hakansson N Philipson B Wolk A Alcohol consumption and risk of cataract extraction a prospective cohort study of women Ophthalmology 2007 1144 6805 The Cancer Council Queensland Schools Sun Smart Policy Guidelines 2007 Available from PDF File Dates Posted On 4 January 2010 Modified On 11 April 2010 Tags Gynaecology Ophthalmology Urology Created by myVMC

B O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O B O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B B O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


2017 Boat Trailer Values Specs and Prices Select a 2017 Trailers Model Trailer Note Note Add Sailboat Trailer Package for all Sailboat Trailers For Pontoon Boat Trailers deduct 10 percent from listed values For Galvanized Trailers add 10 percent to listed values For NonGalvanized Steel Trailers used exclusively in salt waterdeduct 25 percent from listed value For custom Tournament Ski Boat Trailers add 30 percent and do not add for any of the options below For Aluminum Trailers add 15 percent to listed values Hide Specs Model years 2018 1975 BOAT TRAILERS Length Brakes Std Axles Single 15 Feet 15 No Single 16 Feet 16 No Single 17 Feet 17 No Single 18 Feet 18 No Single 19 Feet 19 No Single 20 Feet 20 No Single 21 Feet 21 No Single 22 Feet 22 No Single Tandem 17 Feet 17 No Tandem 18 Feet 18 No Tandem 19 Feet 19 No Tandem 20 Feet 20 No Tandem 21 Feet 21 Yes Tandem 22 Feet 22 Yes Tandem 23 Feet 23 Yes Tandem 24 Feet 24 Yes Tandem 25 Feet 25 Yes Tandem 26 Feet 26 Yes Tandem 27 Feet 27 Yes Tandem 28 Feet 28 Yes Tandem 29 Feet 29 Yes Tandem 30 Feet 30 Yes Tandem 31 Feet 31 Yes Tandem 32 Feet 32 Yes Tandem 33 Feet 33 Yes Tandem 34 Feet 34 Yes Tandem 35 Feet 35 Yes Tandem 36 Feet 36 Yes Tandem TriAxle 26 Feet 26 Yes TriAxle 27 Feet 27 Yes TriAxle 28 Feet 28 Yes TriAxle 29 Feet 29 Yes TriAxle 30 Feet 30 Yes TriAxle 31 Feet 31 Yes TriAxle 32 Feet 32 Yes TriAxle 33 Feet 33 Yes TriAxle 34 Feet 34 Yes TriAxle 35 Feet 35 Yes TriAxle 36 Feet 36 Yes TriAxle 37 Feet 37 Yes TriAxle 38 Feet 38 Yes TriAxle 39 Feet 39 Yes TriAxle 40 Feet 40 Yes TriAxle

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


2006 Ford Explorer Values Select a 2006 Ford Explorer trim level For 2006 the Explorer gets a complete makeover This is a sevenpassenger midsize SUV available in three different trim levels the XLT the Eddie Bauer or the Limited and all are offered in either two or fourwheeldrive configuration linked to a fourspeed automatic transmission The base engine is the 40Liter V6 that produces 210HP or the 46Liter V8 that produces 292HP Explorer12 TonV6 Utility 4D Eddie Bauer 2WD Utility 4D Eddie Bauer 4WD Utility 4D Limited 2WD Utility 4D Limited 4WD Utility 4D XLS 2WD Utility 4D XLS 4WD Utility 4D XLT 2WD Utility 4D XLT 4WD

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Page 271 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save CHAPTER NINE Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity T errestrial and marine ecosystems supply the foundation for human wellbeing and livelihood through the food water timber and other goods and services they provide Advances over past decades have also revealed the importance of less visible but equally important services that ecosystems provide for society such as water filtration carbon storage maintenance of biodiversity protection from storm disturbance and stabilization of local climates Climate change has already led to a number of changes in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems and future climate change will strongly influence biodiversity ecosystem processes and ecosystem services adding to other stresses on ecosystems from human Some questions decision makers are asking or will be asking about ecosystems management in the context of climate change include the following How is climate changeincluding changes in temperature precipitation and the chemistry of the atmosphere and oceansaltering the distribution of species Will these changes have major economic and social consequences such as the loss of pollination services or valuable fisheries How does climate change relate to other ecosystem stresses such as pollution and habitat loss Can ecosystems be managed to improve their ability to adapt to anticipated changes Is it possible to manage forests and other ecosystems in ways that can help limit the magnitude of future climate change Decades of focused research on terrestrial and marine ecosystems and their biodiversity have improved our understanding of their importance for society and their interactions with other components of the Earth system The findings have been the subject of many authoritative syntheses and assessments including those by the Pew Oceans Commission 2003 the Pew Center on Global Climate Change Parmesan and Galbraith 2004 the US Commission on Ocean Policy 2004 the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment MEA 2005 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC Fischlin et al 2007 the Heinz Center 2008a the National Research Council NRC Page 272 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save BOX 91 Glacier National Park Glacier National Park is rapidly losing its namesake as summer temperatures rise and its glaciers disappear see figure on facing page The park which straddles both the Continental Divide and the USCanada border in Montana has lost about twothirds of its glaciers since 1850 Hall and Fagre 2003 Plant and animal species are struggling to keep pace as suitable habitats retreat uphill as the climate warms For example pine trees are invading open grassland as the tree line migrates to higher elevation in turn reducing fodder available for grazing mountain goats bighorn sheep and other ungulates Glacier National Park exemplifies some of the key questions that land and natural resource managers face with climate change Pederson et al 2006 As glaciers recede will loss of scenic value reduce the millions of dollars that tourists spend there each year How will populations of the grizzly bear and other species fare under climate change Will dwindling glacial melt reduce populations of trout a staple of the grizzlys diet and the fishingtourism industry Will droughts cause grizzlies and other large mammals to alter their seasonal movements in search of food potentially exacerbating conflicts with human populations in and around the park Will landslides increase threatening animal and plant habitats and humanbuilt infrastructure in the park How will changes in water flowing out of the park into three major river systemsthe MissouriMississippi the Columbia and the SaskatchewanNelsonalter availability downstream for irrigation and hydropower Will fire become more frequent and should more resources be allocated to firefighting or preemptive forest management All of these questions highlight the need for improved understanding of how plant and animal species will respond to climate change and other stresses Projections of climate change on finer spatial scales would provide input for land managers to begin to assess the implications in their local context Studies and models of the complex interactions among climate biodiversity ecosystem processes and 2008b and the US Global Change Research Program CCSP 2009b among others This chapter outlines some of the key impacts of climate change on terrestrial and marine ecosystems see Box 91 including the effects of ocean acidification and also briefly summarizes current scientific knowledge about the potential role of ecosystems in limiting the magnitude of climate change and possible strategies for helping ecosystems adapt to climate change and other environmental stresses The last section of the chapter outlines key research needs in all of these areas Page 273 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save human decisions would provide a scientific basis for management decisions such as land use zoning fire and forest management animal population control infrastructure maintenance and habitat restoration appropriate for maintaining national treasures such as Glacier National Park Repeat photography showing the retreat of the Grinnell glacier in Glacier National Park The top photos were taken around 1940 and the bottom photos show the glacier six decades later SOURCE USGS 2008 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS Impacts of Climate Change on LandBased Ecosystems and Biodiversity A series of placebased observations metaanalyses and models indicate that climate shifts have already begun to change the geographical range of plants and animal species on land IPRC 2007c In the extreme some plants and animals have experienced Page 274 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save maximum range shifts over the past 30 years that approach the magnitude of those witnessed in the transition from last glacial maximum to the present NRC 2008b Parmesan and Yohe 2003 In the Northern Hemisphere range shifts are almost wholly northward and up in elevation as species search for cooler temperatures NRC 2008b Special stress is being placed on coldadapted species located on mountain tops and at high latitudes where boreal forests are invading tundra lands and where Arctic and Antarctic sea ice is rapidly diminishing eg polar bears and various species of seals and penguins NRC 2008b Warming of The phenology of species seasonal periodicity and timing of lifecycle events is also changing with warming Biological indicators of spring eg timing of flowering budding and breeding arrive in the Northern Hemisphere as much as 3 days earlier each decade and the growing season is longer Walther et al 2002 Such changes can disrupt the synchronicity between species and their food and water sources pollinators and other vital interactions It also affects the timing and severity of insect and disease outbreaks wildfire and other disturbances challenging the capacity of ecosystems and those charged with managing them to deal with new Climate change including the higher levels of CO 2 in the atmosphere that help to Page 275 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save drive it also affects the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems and their living communities Loreau et al 2001 Tilman et al 1997 this in turn changes how ecosystems influence the atmosphere and climate system Steffen et al 2004 Experimental and modeling studies eg Field et al 2007b Reich et al 2006 reveal that in general exposure to elevated CO 2 and temperatures leads to increases in photosynthesis and growth rates in many plants up to a point thereafter the trend may reverse owing to processes not yet fully understood Woodward 2002 Decomposition and associated release of CO 2 back to the atmosphere also increase as temperatures warm However ecosystem processes such as plant growth and decomposition are also determined by interactions with other factors such as nitrogen and carbon supplies soil moisture length of growing season land use and disturbance Eviner and Chapin 2003 Despite this complexity projections suggest that forest productivity especially in young forests on fertile soils where water is adequate will increase with elevated CO 2 and climate warming Where water is scarce and drought is expected to increase however forest productivity is projected to decrease Janetos et al 2008 Climate warming alone is projected to drive significant changes in the range and species composition of forests and other ecosystems Generally tree species are expected to shift their ranges northward or upslope with some current forest types such as oakhickory expanding others such as maplebeech contracting and still others such as sprucefir disappearing from the United States altogether Figure 91 Importantly however whole forest communities or ecosystems will not shift their ranges intact Plant and animal species will respond independently according to their physiology and sensitivity to climate resulting in the breakup of existing communities and ecosystem types and the emergence of new ones The consequences of such reshuffling are not clear either for the plants and animals that now exist together or for the services those systems provide to humanity In addition to climate change ecosystems and biodiversity are already being impacted by human activities For example human infrastructure such as farms settlements and road networks have directly or indirectly affected more than 50 percent of the icefree terrestrial surface of the Earth Ellis and Ramankutty 2008 Foley et al 2005 Vitousek et al 1997 As much as 41 percent of the vast expanse of the oceans has been affected by human activities for example through eutrophication or fish stock depletion Halpern et al 2008 Considering indirect impacts such as ocean acidification groundlevel air pollution and climate change virtually all Page 276 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save FIGURE 91 Potential changes in the geographic ranges of the dominant forest types in the eastern United States under projections of future climate change based on the Hadley and Canadian climate models and a foresttype distribution model Many forest types shift their ranges northward Some types of forests such as the loblollyshortleaf pine in the Southeast dark blue or the maplebeechbirch forest type red shrink in area significantly or migrate to areas to the north and west Oakhickory dark green and oakpine light green forest types expand their ranges SOURCE USGCRP 2001 Page 277 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save Managing the impacts of climate change on ecosystems and individual species already poses difficult challenges to land resource and conservation managers and these challenges will undoubtedly increase Past ecosystem conservation relied heavily on the assumption of a stable climate and focused on protecting individual species in place as well as preserving the habitat of entire species assemblages within protected areas As climate change forces species to migrate to more suitable climates ecosystems will be disassembled and reassembled in new locations often outside the bounds of protection and with new casts of characters Some species will be lost while other species Significant research is needed to better understand how climate change affects both individual species and entire ecosystems and whether transitional or newly assembling ecosystems can continue to provide the ecosystem goods and services on which society depends eg CCSP 2008d Fischlin et al 2007 Moreover social science research is needed to help land resource and conservation practitioners guide adaptive risk management in the face of altered species composition and a continually changing climatic and environmental baseline In addition very little is known yet about the social acceptability of new and evolving approaches to species conservation and land protection including the Role of LandBased Ecosystems in Driving Climate Change Modeling studies suggest that ecosystem responses to elevated CO 2 result in a net carbon sink that is some of the elevated carbon generated by human activities is taken up and stored in plant tissues and soils and the amount stored exceeds the carbon released through plant respiration and decomposition and that this sink will persist through the twentyfirst century Schimel et al 2000 2001 When the models include temperature change as well as elevated CO 2 however they project that these carbon sinks could decrease thereby increasing concentrations of CO 2 in the atmosphere and reinforcing climate warming eg Field et al 2007a Indeed recent analyses suggest that the reduction in efficiency of land ecosystem sinks may already be Page 278 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save in decline Canadell et al 2007 Several major carbon sinks in terrestrial ecosystems face a high degree of risk from projected climate and land use changes Fischlin et al 2007 One of these is permafrostfrozen soil that covers vast areas of the northern latitudes and has locked away vast quantities of carbon Permafrost temperatures are already rising due to highlatitude warming creating a potential feedback that could drive further warming Permafrost could also switch from a carbon sink to a source with thawing releasing more carbon than in takes up Dutta et al 2006 Field et al 2007a McGuire et Chapter 6 Many other factors will ultimately determine whether terrestrial ecosystems provide a net feedback that enhances or slows the pace of climate change Species redistributions changes in major growth forms eg from grass to woody plants or from coniferous to deciduous trees drought length of growing seasons air pollution fire insects and pathogens deforestation and reforestation Canadell and Raupach 2008 and land use Tilman et al 2001 will influence uptake or release of CO 2 and other greenhouse gases GHGs such as N 2 O and CH 4 Canadell and Raupach 2008 Swann et al 2010 Tilman et al 2001 Globally as much as 35 percent of humaninduced CO 2 emitted over time to the atmosphere has had its origins in changes in land systems both use and vegetative cover principally deforestation Foley et al 2005 Biomass burning is also a major source of atmospheric aerosols Andreae and Merlet 2001 As discussed in Chapter 6 aerosols have direct effects on climate through scattering and absorbing solar radiation and indirect changes in the properties and propensity for formation of clouds and hence precipitation all of which can affect ecosystems Lohmann and Feichter 2005 Menon et al 2002 Biomass burning is one of the largest sources of black carbon soot aerosols a particularly potent warming agent that has been implicated in changing precipitation patterns and rapid ice melting in the Arctic Flanner et al 2007 McConnell et al 2007 Wang 2007 Finally the emission of various trace gases by plants and from biomass burning leads to the Land use change also influences climate by changing the reflective characteristics of the land surface and the exchange of water between the surface and the atmosphere Deforestation arid land degradation and the transformation of ecosystems into builtup areas for example tend to increase reflectivity of the land surface and decrease evapotranspiration leading to both local climate changes and in combination with other land use changes influencing largescale climate forcing feedbacks and atmo Page 279 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save spheric circulation patterns Chapin et al 2002 Pielke et al 1998 Zhao et al 2001 Deforestation tends to lead to warmer and drier climate conditions in the humid tropics apparently due to reductions in evapotranspiration Bounoua et al 2002 DeFries and Bounoua 2004 Reductions in vegetation at high latitudes on the other hand tend to exert a cooling effect because more snow cover is exposed increasing the reflection of solar radiation back to space see Chapter 6 and Bonan 1999 Afforestation planting trees where they do not naturally occur replanting forests in previously deforested areas or shifts in evergreen species into previously shrub or forb areas could lead to increased absorption of solar radiation and thus increases in temperature Bala et al 2007 All these factors are important to the critical question of whether changes in terrestrial ecosystems accelerate or decelerate climate change yet their combined role has not been evaluated Importantly these and other facets of ecosystem change not only influence the global climate system but also generate large local to regional climate implications as well Science to Support Managing Terrestrial Ecosystems to Limit the Magnitude of Climate Change Managing land ecosystems provides opportunities to both limit the magnitude of climate change and ameliorate its negative consequences for society Tropical deforestation and degradation for example contributed approximately 17 percent of anthropogenic carbon emissions in 2004 Barker et al 2007a The opportunity to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation REDD has been recognized within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as a relatively lowcost option to limit climate change Gullison et al 2007 Stern 2007 Research is needed to support and improve such policies While it is now a feasible goal to monitor changes in forest area by Understanding the socioeconomic and ecological drivers of deforestation and degradation is also critically important for developing effective policies to reduce deforestation Globalscale drivers from international trade in agricultural products to subsistence needs by smallscale farmers are complex and vary in different locations Page 280 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save Nepstad et al 2006 Rudel 2005 Research focused on ecosystems needs to include intertwined climatic ecological and socioeconomic factors For example more clearing and more fires occur during relatively dry years in the tropical forests of southeast Asia creating a positive feedback between emissions and climate change van der Werf et al 2008 The synergies and tradeoffs between REDD and biodiversity conservation watershed protection and livelihood needs for local people require more rigorous analysis Research needs are discussed at the end of this chapter Ecosystems also provide the opportunity to limit climate change through the enhancement of carbon storage or surface reflectivity In forest ecosystems protection from fire insect damage and forest thinning through logging and other human use can enhance carbon storage as can secondary regrowth of forests in abandoned croplands tree plantations and agroforestry Rhemtulla et al 2009 Gough et al 2008 The extent to which these strategies might be able to offset GHG emissions on a global scale is poorly known As noted above land use and land cover changes also alter the reflectivity of the land surface and this fact Ecosystems management is also a potential strategy to ameliorate some of the societal impacts of climate change Restoration of wetlands in the Gulf of Mexico for example can reduce damage from hurricanes by damping wave action and diminishing wind penetration Day et al 2007 Mangroves protected people from a 1999 Asian cyclone Das and Vincent 2009 and will potentially provide some protection against storm surges that will move further inland with sea level rise Quantitative and rigorous analysis of these ecosystem management opportunities including their effectiveness and costs is needed to assess their potential in different locations MARINE ECOSYSTEMS Marine ecosystems are fundamental to the large role the oceans play in regulating the climate system For example the oceans contain many times more carbon than the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems combined and are thus critical in regulating the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere Climate change will have broad effects on marine ecosystems their capacity to take up CO 2 from the atmosphere and the diverse ecosystem services they provide to society These ecosystem effects will be driven by projected changes in ocean temperature circulation Bryden et al 2005 storms and Page 281 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save chemistry Doney et al 2009 Unlike on land the majority of food that humans derive from the sea is still harvested from wild populations FAO 2008 Therefore the oceans capacity to provide seafood a major protein source for more than a billion people will be directly affected by climate impacts on marine ecosystems see Chapter 10 Climate Change Impacts on Ocean Ecosystems Over recent decades marine scientists have detected widespread poleward shifts in species distributions that are consistent with patterns of a warming ocean Alheit and Hagen 1997 Holbrook et al 1997 Mueter and Litzow 2008 Sagarin et al 1999 Southward et al 1995 Marine species can be highly mobile both as adults and as microscopic young drifting in the plankton Kinlan and Gaines 2003 This mobility can lead to larger and faster geographic shifts than in terrestrial ecosystems For example twothirds of the 36 most common bottomdwelling fish in the North Sea have shifted the geographical center of their range north Figure 92 Such shifts if they continue could move the fish beyond the range of national fisheries More broadly because species move at different rates depending on their unique life histories such shifts could lead to rapid rearrangements of the species composition of some ocean ecosystems Cheung et al 2009 The unpredictability of responses by different species is a key barrier to anticipating and adapting to the resulting ecosystem rearrangements Given the prominent role of oceans in storing carbon climate impacts on ocean productivity could also alter their role in the carbon cycle Overall oceans contribute roughly half of the globes net primary productivity NPP Field et al 1998 defined as the net carbon gain by ecosystems over a specific time period typically annually Some ocean habitats polar seas coastal upwelling systems may see increased productivity under projected climate change Arrigo et al 2008 Bakun 1990 Behrenfeld et al 2006 Pabi et al 2008 Polovina et al 1995 Snyder et al 2003 Most of the ocean however is permanently stratified Figure 93 Given the prominence of these stratified seas a substantially warmer ocean would inevitably alter the magnitude and distribution of global ocean net airsea carbon exchange fishery yields and dominant biological regimes Behrenfeld et al 2006 Just as on land highlatitude marine ecosystems may experience more stress than lowerlatitude marine ecosystems since rates of warming are higher Gille 2002 Hansen et al 2006 and the opportunity for poleward range shifts is limited Sea ice Page 282 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save FIGURE 92 Observed northward shift of marine species in the Bering Sea between the years 1982 and 2006 Length of the yellow bars indicates the distance that the center of a species range has shifted The average shift among the species examined was approximately 19 miles north of its 1982 location red line The northward shift is primarily linked to warming of the Bering Sea during this period SOURCES Mueter and Litzow 2008 and USGCRP 2009a creates critical habitat for a diverse array of marine species including many mammals and birds Hunt and Stabeno 2002 Major declines in sea ice thickness and extent have been observed in the Arctic see Chapter 6 and are projected for the next few decades Overland and Stabeno 2004 USGCRP 2009a Ice dynamics which are highly sensitive to climate drive dynamics of ocean primary productivity which in turn has impacts throughout the marine food web in ways that are not clearly understood Moore and Huntington 2008 Smetacek and Nicol 2005 Declines in sea ice can lead to large blooms in phytoplankton eg Arrigo et al 2008 Pabi et al 2008 and declines in production from benthic seafloor habitats These changes alter both the food webs of animals that ultimately depend on these different sources of productivity including Some of the most productive ocean ecosystems are coastal regions where winds push Page 283 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save FIGURE 93 Relationship between changes in sea surface temperature and net primary productivity NPP from 1999 to 2004 based on satellite observations Warmer ocean temperatures typically lead to reduction in the productivity of phytoplankton which means that they remove less carbon from the atmosphere SOURCE Updated from Behrenfeld et al 2006 surface waters offshore and draw deep cold nutrientrich waters to the surface eg the west coast of North America The nutrients fuel plankton blooms that support diverse and abundant food webs and fisheries These upwelling regions may become even more productive under climate change if forecasts of increasing upwelling and favorable winds hold true Bakun 1990 Substantial increases in upwelling however can also have catastrophic consequences if the system crosses key thresholds Chan et al 2008 Helly and Levin 2004 Deep ocean waters are typically extremely low in oxygen hypoxic Strong upwelling of deep cold waters can pull such hypoxic Figure 94 In the tropics warm temperatures pose a bleaching threat to corals Coral reef ecosystems have been compromised by a diverse set of activities including overfishing damaging fishing practices eutrophication and sedimentation among others USGCRP 2009a On top of these humancaused stresses recent decades have brought an Page 284 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save FIGURE 94 Hypoxia and anoxia in shallow waters Values below 05 mll left of black vertical line represent severe hypoxia Over the latter of half of the 20th century hypoxia was only found in deep waters In recent years red and green hypoxia has extended into waters close to the surface SOURCE Modified from Chan et al 2008 increase in widespread bleaching events where corals eject their symbiotic algae in the face of extreme temperatures Figure 95 In some cases the bleached corals recover with new symbionts Lewis and Coffroth 2004 In other cases the coral is killed Periods of mass bleaching have occurred globally since the late 1970s Glynn 1991 HoeghGuldberg 1999 with the most severe event in 1998 an El Niño year in which an estimated 16 percent of the worlds reef corals died Wilkinson 2000 The extent of bleaching varies greatly among species and locations Some of the variability is tied to the level of other human stresses which argues for managing reefs for greater resilience to climate change by reducing other stressors Hughes Page 285 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save FIGURE 95 Photos of corals under normal top and acidified bottom conditions The bottom coral lack a protective skeleton appearing as light yellow in the top panel and are sometimes called naked coral SOURCE Doney et al 2009 Ocean Acidification In addition to its climate impacts CO 2 released by human activities can influence ecosystem dynamics in aquatic systems by altering water chemistryin particular the reaction of CO 2 with water to form carbonic acid H 2 CO 3 which lowers acidifies ocean pH Roughly onethird of all CO 2 released by human activities since preindustrial times has been absorbed by the sea Doney et al 2009 Sabine and Feely 2005 Sabine et al 2004 Takahashi et al 2006 consequently ocean pH has decreased by approximately 01 units since preindustrial times While this might not seem like a large change it actually represents a 25 percent increase in acidity because pH is measured on a logarithmic scale By the end of this century the oceans are projected to acidify by an Page 286 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save FIGURE 96 Estimates of ocean pH over the past 23 million years white diamonds and for contemporary times gray diamonds Projections are made for the future using IPCC projections of atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 The projected changes in pH are extremely large and rapid considering the relative stability of oceanic pH in the past SOURCE Blackford and Gilbert 2007 additional 03 to 04 units Orr et al 2005 under the highest IPCC emissions scenario Figure 96 Because pH interacts with temperature to determine saturation levels for various related chemical species coldwater ocean areas are projected to become undersaturated with calcium carbonate CaCO 3 a key building block for the shells of many marine organismsas early as 2050 Orr et al 2005 A broad array of marine species produce CaCO 3 skeletons during at least part of their life cycle so ocean acidification threatens nearly all ocean ecosystems by altering calcification rates while simultaneously increasing the rate of CaCO 3 dissolution Yates and Halley 2006 Physiological studies suggest wide variations in the ability of organisms to cope with such changes Doney et al 2009 Acidification is especially challenging for coral reefs which are defined by the CaCO 3 skeletons of corals Acidification in tandem with elevated temperatures and other human stresses decreased calcification rates on the Great Barrier Reef by 21 percent between 1988 and 2003 Cooper et al 2008 Numerous controlled experiments under elevated pH now complement these field observations eg Doney et al 2009 Projections of future ocean chemistry and climate change indicate that by the time atmospheric CO 2 content doubles over its preindustrial value there will be virtually no place left in the ocean that can sustain coral reef growth Cao and Caldeira 2008 Silverman et al 2009 Ocean acidification could also have dramatic consequences for polar food webs since several prominent species at the base of the food web may be unable to form shellsincluding species that salmon and other iconic species depend on for survival Overall ocean acidification has the potential to alter marine ecosystems catastrophically but the details and consequences of these impacts are only beginning to be understood see also NRC 2010f Page 287 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save The Role of Ocean Ecosystems in Managing Carbon and Climate Change The ocean contains far more carbon than the atmosphere or land ecosystems Storage of carbon in the ocean occurs by several mechanisms whose rates can be altered by human activities In the ocean CO 2 dissolves directly in sea water CO 2 is sequestered when marine plants photosynthesize and organic carbon ultimately sinks to great depths and CO 2 is also sequestered by conversion to CaCO 3 by plankton invertebrates and fish Wilson et al 2009 CaCO 3 that either forms sediments or sinks to deep water after the organism dies None of these forms of storage is permanent but sequestration rates can be modified greatly by a variety of factors eg water temperature pH and the abundance of fish and plankton ultimately affecting how much CO 2 remains locked away or returns to the sea Because the oceans provide such an enormous reservoir for carbon storage it may be possible to manipulate ie geoengineersee Chapter 15 ocean ecosystems to cause a transfer of CO 2 from the atmosphere to the oceans Several different approaches have been proposed to achieve this end most of them involving the introduction of some kind of fertilizer to the upper ocean The basic hypothesis is that fertilization may stimulate the incorporation of dissolved CO 2 into organic matter through phytoplankton blooms which could then sink to the deeper ocean Some of the carbon that sinks out of the upper ocean should be replaced by CO 2 from the atmosphere thus reducing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations Most of the attention given to the ocean fertilization hypothesis has focused on iron Martin and Fitzwater 1988 see also Limiting the Magnitude of Future Climate Change NRC 2010c In some parts of the ocean especially the Southern Ocean and parts of the equatorial Pacific Ocean marine biological productivity is limited by the availability of iron The ratios of carbon to iron in marine phytoplankton typically exceed 10000 to 1 so there is the potential that small amounts of iron could lead to substantial carbon uptake in the form of phytoplankton blooms While there is still considerable uncertainty the prevailing view is that this approach could store some carbon but maximum achievable sustainable rates might be only a small fraction of the total carbon emitted due to 2 or their broader environmental impacts In general significant uncertainties remain about the effectiveness of ocean fertilization at removing CO 2 from the atmosphere as well as the length of time this CO 2 Page 288 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save would stay isolated from the atmosphere Furthermore there is considerable uncertainty about the impact of these manipulations on marine ecosystems and the services they provide to society particularly since CO 2 causes ocean acidification which is expected to harm marine ecosystems Much effort has been focused on trying to protect marine ecosystems by keeping CO 2 out of the ocean whereas ocean fertilization proposals seek to do the opposite Because large parts of the oceans are a global commons regulation of such activities represents a significant issue that has yet to be addressed Furthermore verification of amounts of carbon stored by ocean fertilization activities would be challenging at best In summary it is feasible that human manipulation of marine ecosystems could store at least some extra CO 2 in the oceans While maximum storage rates are projected to be at most a few percent of total humangenerated GHG emissions significant questions remain regarding exactly how much carbon could be stored and for how long using these approaches Furthermore considerations such as ocean acidification and the difficulty of predicting responses of marine ecosystems make it doubtful whether such manipulations could contribute to overall environmental risk reduction RESEARCH NEEDS Improve understanding of the effects of climate change and impacts of en hanced CO 2 on ecosystems ecosystem services and biodiversity Given the complexity of the impacts of different scenarios of climate change and elevated CO 2 levels on ecosystem function services and biodiversity further research is needed to evaluate the consequences of multiple interacting changes For example movement of species changes in phenology and synchronicity changes in productivity and carbon cycling processes and changes in disturbance regimes in response to temperature moisture and CO 2 have not been well assessed especially at regional scales Enhanced capacity for linking models of physical change in the climate system to species response models would help meet these challenges Research is also needed to identify those ecosystems ecosystem services species complexes and people reliant on them that are most resilient or most vulnerable see Box 92 Evaluate the climate feedbacks from changes in ecosystems and biodiversity Changes in ecosystem biogeochemical processes including GHG emissions and biodiversity including changes in reflectance characteristics have the potential to exacerbate or offset certain aspects of climate change ie act as feedbacks Models and experiments that integrate knowledge about ecosystem processes plant physiol Page 289 Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save BOX 92 National Marine Sanctuary Ocean ecosystems face growing threats globally from overfishing habitat damage pollution and especially acidification Halpern et al 2008 As a result the persistence of several marine species is at risk and ecosystem services provided by intact coastal ecosystems could be compromised Compared to the land a minute fraction of the sea is set aside for protection In response to growing threats a number of nations including the United States are establishing networks of new marine protected areas MPAs with special protections Airame et al 2003 Fernandes et al 2005 In the United States the largest network of MPAs is being Although MPAs can be dramatically successful at restoring depleted ocean ecosystems Lester et al 2009 many questions remain Will the effectiveness of MPAs be compromised by climate change ocean acidification andor the migration of marine species outside the boundaries of protected areas MPA network design is based on where species occur today not where they will be driven by future climate shiftswill the expected conservation gains from MPA networks go unrealized as the seascape shifts Alternatively could large networks of MPAs along entire coastlines provide protected havens to aid species driven poleward by shifting climate Does uncertainty about future climate change increase the need for MPAs as a hedging strategy ogy vegetation dynamics and disturbances such as fire need to be further developed and included in advanced Earth systems models Assess the potential of land and ocean ecosystems to limit or buffer impacts of climate change How can specific land uses including managed and unmanaged forests and grasslands agricultural systems fisheries urban systems and aquatic systems be managed for provisioning services as well as for their effects on GHG emissions carbon storage reflectivity and evapotranspiration What ecosystem management strategies can provide cobenefits that meet multiple goals including carbon storage biodiversity conservation and watershed protection To address these questions new tools and approaches need to be developed for evaluating different land and ocean uses for their potential in helping to limit the magnitude of climate change Such research needs to address the tradeoffs between alternative land management Suggested Citation 9 Ecosystems Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity National Research Council 2010 Advancing the Science of Climate Change Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 101722612782 Save to quantify in economic terms The efficiency and efficacy of overlapping systems of governance and management structures to address tradeoffs and determine management strategies is also a critical area of research Assess vulnerabilities of ecosystems and the benefits society derives from them to climate change Ecosystems on land and in the ocean and the services they provide are key components of the maintenance of environmental functions and human wellbeing Climate change affects this maintenance with potentially significant societal consequences Identifying critical linkages and feedbacks among changing ecosystems their services and human outcomes eg crop yields water supply is essential To do this requires analytical frameworks and methods for assessing vulnerability of coupled humanenvironment systems and the ability of the social and environmental components of such systems to adapt to change Complicating these assessments is the need to address climate change in the context of other Improve observations and modeling There is a great need for globalscale longterm and continuous observations of land and ocean ecosystems and ongoing changes within them Such observations will enable measures of ecological processes at relatively fine spatial and temporal scales which are needed both to provide critical inputs to Earth system models and to track gradual and abrupt change in Earth system processes The development of indicators of ecosystem health and ecosystem vulnerability is also needed as part of an early warning system see NRC 2009i As mentioned earlier new Earth system models that address multiple drivers and feedbacks from climateecosystem interactions are needed

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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Home Electrical Systems Batteries Battery HoldDowns Car Batteries Motorcycle Batteries Marine Batteries Your Vehicle Select a Vehicle No Vehicle Added Filter Results By Part Type Battery Automotive Battery Box Cover Battery Cooling Fan Battery Hold Down Hardware Battery Terminal Protective Cover Product Line NAPA Batteries NAPA HD Solutions NAPA Hybrid Batteries NAPA Power Sport Batteries NAPA Premium Hybrid Batteries 410 results Your Search Filters Electrical Systems Batteries Battery HoldDowns 410 Items per Page 12 24 30 Go to 1 2 3 4 5 Sort By Battery NAPA Legend Premium Part BAT 843478 Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Premium Part BAT 8424F Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Premium Part BAT 8475 Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Professional OE Exact Fit Part BAT 7594R Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA POWER OE Exact Fit Part BAT 6535 Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Premium Part BAT 8424 Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Premium Part BAT 8425 Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Professional OE Exact Fit Part BAT 7524F Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Premium Part BAT 8434R Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA POWER OE Exact Fit Part BAT 6578 Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA Legend Professional OE Exact Fit Part BAT 7527F Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Battery NAPA POWER OE Exact Fit Part BAT 6524 Product Line NAPA Batteries Pricing is temporarily unavailable online for the part Please call store at 425 8232251 Reserve Online Pickup in Store Online purchase not available Why Some parts can be recycled or remanufactured for future sale These parts have a core price that is used as a form of deposit on the portion of the part that can be remanufactured Prices may vary from store to store and online NAPA is not responsible for the errors or omissions in pricing and quantity Suppliers of the products listed in this catalog are subject to change at any time While the individuals and entities responsible for this catalog attempt to provide accurate supplier information for these reasons and others the suppliers noted in this catalog may not be the supplier of the product ultimately sold by NAPA Auto Parts stores or distributors of NAPA products Items per Page 12 24 30 Go to 1 2 3 4 5 Sort By

O O O O O O B I B I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

car batteries
motorcycle batteries
marine batteries


Home Market Activity Earnings Calendar LGND Earnings Date LGND Earnings Date Earnings announcement for LGND Feb 20 2019 Ligand Pharmaceuticals Incorporated is estimated to report earnings on 02202019 The upcoming earnings date is derived from an algorithm based on a companys historical reporting datesOur vendor Zacks Investment Research might revise this date in the future once the company announces the actual earnings date According to Zacks Investment Research based on 1 analysts forecasts the consensus EPS forecast for the quarter is 099 The reported EPS for the same quarter last year was 103 New to earnings Heres a quick guide for how to read an earnings report Consensus Recommendation Read the latest Press Release for LGND LGND Quote LGND Stock Chart LGND Analyst Summary Quarterly Earnings Surprise History Fiscal Quarter End Date Reported Earnings Per Share Consensus EPS Forecast Surprise Sep2018 11082018 135 084 6071 Jun2018 08062018 239 078 20641 Mar2018 05082018 138 111 2432 Dec2017 02212018 103 092 1196 The upcoming earnings date is derived from an algorithm based on a companys historical reporting dates It is possible that this date will be updated in the future once the company announces the actual date Data Provider Zacks Investment Research Upcoming Earnings Company Expected Report Date GIS Dec 19 2018 PAYX Dec 19 2018 TWST Dec 19 2018 NKE Dec 20 2018 ACN Dec 20 2018 CAG Dec 20 2018 NEOG Dec 20 2018 KMX Dec 21 2018 Earnings Calendar

O O O O O B I I B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


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