Vostochny

Cosmodrome

From

Wikipedia

the

free

encyclopedia

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

from

Vostochny

Agency

overview

Formed

August

Jurisdiction

Government

of

Russia

Headquarters

Tsiolkovsky

Amur

Oblast

Parent

agency

Roscosmos

Map

Location

in

Amur

Oblast

Launch

of

the

from

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

April

The

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

Russian

Космодром

Восточный

Kosmodrom

Vostochny

Eastern

Spaceport

is

a

Russian

spaceport

under

construction

on

the

parallel

north

in

the

Amur

Oblast

in

the

Russian

Far

East

It

is

intended

to

reduce

Russia

s

dependency

on

the

Baikonur

Cosmodrome

in

Kazakhstan

The

first

launch

took

place

on

April

at

UTC

As

of

December

four

launch

attempts

have

been

made

with

three

successes

Contents

Location

History

Construction

Initial

launches

Purpose

Economic

aspects

Controversies

Launch

pads

Gallery

See

also

External

links

Location

Vostochny

which

means

eastern

in

Russian

is

in

the

Svobodny

and

Shimanovsk

districts

of

Amur

Oblast

in

the

Russian

Far

East

on

the

watershed

of

the

Zeya

and

Bolshaya

Pyora

rivers

approximately

km

mi

from

the

Pacific

Ocean

depending

on

launch

azimuth

The

planned

total

area

is

km

being

a

region

approximately

km

in

diameter

centred

on

Coordinates

The

nearby

train

station

is

Ledyanaya

and

the

nearest

city

is

Tsiolkovsky

The

cosmodromes

latitude

north

means

that

rockets

will

be

able

to

carry

almost

the

same

amount

of

payload

as

they

can

when

launched

from

Baikonur

at

Other

arguments

for

choosing

this

location

include

the

ability

to

use

sparsely

populated

areas

and

bodies

of

water

for

the

rocket

launch

routes

proximity

to

major

transportation

networks

such

as

the

BaikalAmur

Mainline

the

ChitaKhabarovsk

Highway

abundance

of

electricity

production

resources

in

the

area

and

the

infrastructure

supporting

the

former

Svobodny

Cosmodrome

on

which

the

new

spaceport

will

be

based

The

sites

location

in

the

Russian

far

eastern

region

allows

for

easier

transport

of

materials

to

the

site

and

allows

rockets

to

jettison

their

lower

stages

over

the

ocean

It

was

expanded

as

part

of

the

plan

of

modernization

of

the

supporting

infrastructure

Putin

said

that

among

places

offered

was

an

area

on

the

shore

of

the

Pacific

Ocean

near

Vladivostok

but

that

experts

recommended

not

to

locate

it

there

since

the

proximity

to

the

ocean

can

create

problems

and

delays

in

launches

and

as

a

result

the

current

place

was

chosen

History

Russian

president

Vladimir

Putin

made

several

statements

emphasizing

the

importance

of

the

new

cosmodrome

In

August

he

said

The

creation

of

a

new

space

center

is

one

of

modern

Russias

biggest

and

most

ambitious

projects

In

January

he

ordered

the

government

to

complete

the

paperwork

as

soon

as

possible

so

that

construction

can

start

on

schedule

The

general

designer

of

the

cosmodrome

is

Ipromashprom

Mechanical

Engineering

Project

Institute

The

main

contractor

is

the

Federal

Agency

for

Special

Construction

Construction

of

the

cosmodrome

began

in

January

and

as

of

was

expected

to

be

completed

in

During

a

visit

to

the

site

in

July

the

newly

appointed

chief

of

Roscosmos

Vladimir

Popovkin

promised

billion

rubles

for

Vostochny

during

A

month

later

the

head

of

Spetstroy

Grigory

Naginsky

told

the

press

that

the

first

blueprints

for

the

center

went

through

the

project

expertise

and

the

first

contract

worth

billion

rubles

was

signed

with

Roscosmos

covering

the

construction

of

the

railway

line

and

the

road

Naginsky

also

promised

the

completion

of

the

initial

makeshift

housing

for

construction

workers

at

the

site

by

October

Although

the

Angara

pad

at

Vostochny

had

originally

been

planned

for

completion

in

as

part

of

the

second

phase

of

the

construction

of

the

new

launch

center

Dmitry

Rogozin

announced

in

January

that

Angara

would

fly

from

Vostochny

earlier

in

In

the

event

however

Roscosmos

announced

in

November

a

postponement

and

that

the

first

unmanned

test

mission

of

Angara

would

not

launch

until

Over

construction

workers

went

on

strike

to

protest

about

unpaid

wages

in

March

and

April

Following

corruption

allegations

and

findings

by

the

Russian

Prosecutor

Generals

Office

that

a

number

of

labor

laws

have

been

violated

during

the

construction

Vladimir

Putin

said

he

is

taking

personal

control

of

the

cosmodromes

construction

In

June

the

installation

of

the

support

equipment

assembly

of

the

first

floor

of

the

command

post

of

the

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

have

been

handed

over

to

specialists

of

the

Centre

for

Operation

of

Space

GroundBased

Infrastructure

TsENKI

In

October

it

was

announced

that

parts

of

the

assembly

complex

for

the

rocket

were

designed

for

a

different

variant

of

the

rocket

and

are

too

small

so

that

the

planned

launch

date

of

the

first

from

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

in

December

was

under

question

A

spokesperson

for

a

Russian

government

space

infrastructure

agency

reported

that

Work

with

the

rocket

at

the

integration

and

testing

complex

now

can

not

be

conducted

because

the

facility

is

not

ready

and

added

that

there

are

still

imperfections

in

the

construction

However

later

this

information

was

disproved

by

the

cosmodromes

operation

centre

and

the

rocket

was

set

into

the

facility

Construction

Construction

of

residential

buildings

in

Tsiolkovsky

Amur

Oblast

next

to

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

President

of

Russia

Vladimir

Putin

in

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

October

Early

plans

project

seven

launch

pads

will

be

built

at

the

site

including

two

for

crewed

flights

On

September

Medvedev

signed

Presidential

decree

declaring

Spetstroy

is

the

sole

contractor

of

the

construction

of

the

cosmodrome

Construction

began

in

January

and

is

expected

to

be

completed

by

The

first

launch

took

place

on

April

Russian

engineers

are

looking

to

apply

the

knowledge

gained

from

building

the

Soyuz

launch

facilities

in

Kourou

spaceport

and

the

Angara

pad

at

Naro

Space

Center

in

South

Korea

As

a

costsaving

measure

no

defensive

military

structures

like

those

at

Baikonur

cosmodrome

will

be

built

at

Vostochny

More

than

social

engineering

and

transport

infrastructure

facilities

km

mi

of

roads

and

km

mi

of

railroads

are

projected

to

be

built

at

the

cosmodrome

In

December

ARMSTASS

reported

with

reference

to

the

director

of

Federal

Special

Construction

Agency

Grigory

Naginsky

that

the

hotels

and

barracks

were

being

constructed

within

the

infrastructure

of

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

Speaking

of

housing

development

plans

he

noted

that

a

town

for

thousand

people

would

be

constructed

in

the

network

of

Cosmodrome

In

January

a

Russian

Government

Decree

signed

by

Prime

Minister

Medvedev

transferred

hectares

acres

of

forest

lands

in

the

Amur

Oblast

for

the

construction

of

the

spaceport

from

Shimanovsky

and

Svobodensky

districts

On

March

Deputy

Prosecutor

General

Yuri

Gulyagin

said

at

a

meeting

with

the

Presidential

representative

in

the

Far

Eastern

Federal

District

Viktor

Ishayev

that

timely

payment

of

wages

as

well

as

registration

of

vehicles

and

people

involved

in

the

construction

of

the

cosmodrome

will

soon

be

the

focus

of

regulatory

authorities

According

to

him

the

construction

of

launch

site

should

not

be

admitted

to

the

violations

that

were

in

the

construction

of

the

APEC

Summit

objects

As

noted

at

the

meeting

the

number

of

workers

and

organizations

of

every

month

will

only

increase

and

therefore

requires

strict

control

Number

of

employees

at

the

facility

by

the

end

of

will

be

increased

from

to

In

April

Minister

of

the

Far

Eastern

Development

Viktor

Ishayev

said

that

will

be

the

busiest

year

in

the

construction

period

and

the

number

of

workers

will

rise

to

He

also

said

he

is

sorry

for

the

delay

in

the

reconstruction

and

development

of

the

sites

for

the

workers

residences

that

were

handed

from

the

Russian

Ministry

of

Defense

in

Tsiolkovsky

On

April

which

is

Cosmonautics

Day

in

Russia

Putin

suggested

to

name

the

town

that

will

be

built

near

the

cosmodrome

after

the

founder

of

theoretical

astronautics

Konstantin

Tsiolkovsky

saying

that

there

is

not

a

single

locality

in

Russia

that

bears

the

name

of

the

scientist

yet

Later

it

was

decided

to

assign

this

name

to

Uglegorsk

the

nearest

city

In

November

the

ITARTASS

news

agency

reported

that

the

gap

that

existed

in

July

of

three

months

was

reduced

by

November

to

days

By

this

time

the

first

stage

of

the

project

the

construction

of

roads

at

the

cosmodrome

had

been

completed

As

of

November

more

than

personnel

pieces

of

construction

equipment

and

vehicles

were

working

at

the

site

With

personnel

working

on

a

rotational

basis

the

overall

number

of

people

involved

in

the

project

has

reached

In

December

specialists

chose

sites

for

Angara

facilities

at

the

cosmodrome

and

transported

the

carrier

rockets

mockup

from

Moscowbased

Khrunichev

Space

Center

that

made

it

to

the

spaceport

In

March

Russias

federal

network

grid

operator

FGC

UES

completed

the

first

phase

of

power

supply

to

the

cosmodrome

The

first

phase

has

been

comprehensively

modernized

kV

substation

Ledyanaya

thus

the

company

has

provided

the

ability

to

connect

power

receivers

of

the

future

complex

structures

to

the

Unified

National

Power

Grid

On

same

month

Spetstroy

said

it

was

hoping

to

finish

building

the

launch

pad

for

the

carrier

rocket

before

the

end

of

July

In

July

the

reconstruction

of

Ledyanaya

railway

station

was

completed

and

included

a

garage

service

and

domestic

building

and

treatment

facilities

new

turnouts

and

communications

systems

In

the

shortest

possible

time

an

extension

was

built

to

the

post

of

electric

interlocking

and

high

loading

platform

in

addition

to

the

construction

of

the

railway

stations

Russian

Промышленная1

and

They

are

located

directly

on

the

territory

of

the

cosmodrome

On

September

the

first

rocket

destined

for

a

launch

at

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

arrived

by

train

The

rocket

is

planned

to

launch

in

December

Initial

launches

Play

media

Launch

of

the

from

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

April

The

first

launch

at

the

complex

occurred

on

April

at

UTC

when

a

launched

from

pad

Site

carrying

the

gammaray

astronomy

satellite

Mikhailo

Lomonosov

The

second

launch

occurred

on

November

also

from

Site

with

a

Volga

upper

stage

carrying

MeteorM

The

mission

was

declared

a

failure

after

the

telemetry

was

lost

and

the

rocket

reentered

the

atmosphere

due

to

Fregat

upper

stage

being

programmed

for

a

launch

from

Baikonur

rather

than

the

new

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

The

third

launch

occurred

on

February

from

Site

with

a

Soyuz

It

was

successful

On

December

the

fourth

launch

from

Vostochny

using

a

Soyuz

was

conducted

The

primary

payloads

were

two

Russian

government

Earth

observation

satellites

KanopusV

and

Also

aboard

were

small

satellites

which

were

deployed

as

secondary

payloads

The

launch

of

these

small

satellites

was

organized

by

GK

Launch

Services

a

commercial

subsidiary

of

Roscosmos

Purpose

The

new

cosmodrome

is

to

enable

Russia

to

launch

most

missions

from

its

own

land

and

to

reduce

Russias

dependency

on

the

Baikonur

Cosmodrome

which

is

leased

from

the

government

of

Kazakhstan

Currently

Baikonur

is

the

only

launch

site

operated

by

Russia

with

the

capability

to

launch

crewed

missions

to

ISS

or

elsewhere

The

Russian

government

pays

a

yearly

rent

of

million

to

Kazakhstan

for

its

usage

Satellites

bound

for

geostationary

orbit

and

high

inclination

orbits

can

be

currently

launched

from

Plesetsk

Cosmodrome

in

northwestern

Russia

The

new

site

is

intended

mostly

for

civilian

launches

Roscosmos

plans

to

move

of

Russias

space

launches

to

Vostochny

by

while

Baikonurs

share

will

drop

from

to

and

Plesetsk

will

account

for

percent

In

the

share

of

space

launches

from

Russias

territory

stood

at

By

this

figure

is

projected

to

increase

to

A

more

recent

related

opinion

piece

from

Ars

Technica

pointed

out

that

while

Russia

had

roughly

half

of

the

commercial

launch

market

in

SpaceX

launched

more

commercial

payloads

in

than

Russia

The

author

further

speculated

that

the

track

record

of

SpaceX

in

cutting

launch

costs

and

continually

improving

rocket

designs

may

make

future

Russian

rockets

uneconomical

in

spite

of

efforts

at

new

designs

Economic

aspects

Development

of

the

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

is

expected

to

have

a

positive

impact

on

the

economy

of

the

relatively

poorly

developed

Russian

Far

East

The

Russian

government

has

a

strategic

policy

to

bring

hightech

companies

into

the

Far

East

region

and

several

enterprises

involved

in

human

space

flight

are

expected

to

move

their

activities

there

when

the

new

cosmodrome

is

completed

The

development

of

the

new

site

is

also

expected

to

dramatically

increase

employment

in

the

towns

of

Tsiolkovsky

Shimanovsk

Svobodny

and

others

According

to

a

estimate

the

construction

will

cost

billion

rubles

billion

Along

with

the

launch

pads

and

processing

facilities

an

airport

and

a

satellite

city

will

be

constructed

The

city

will

be

designed

to

accommodate

people

as

well

as

tourists

It

will

contain

a

full

supporting

infrastructure

with

schools

kindergartens

and

clinics

Architect

Dmitry

Pshenichnikov

has

stated

that

the

city

is

to

become

a

oneofitskind

scientific

and

tourist

space

town

with

a

unique

design

and

a

beautiful

landscape

When

completed

the

cosmodrome

will

permanently

employ

people

In

November

press

reports

indicated

that

the

Russian

government

is

having

difficulty

in

finding

a

good

use

for

the

new

spaceport

and

that

other

government

ministries

have

been

avoiding

the

project

while

calling

the

project

a

dolgostroy

which

is

Russian

for

an

endlessly

being

updated

construct

Controversies

Corruption

severely

set

back

the

construction

of

the

new

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

According

to

the

Russian

prosecutors

at

least

million

was

embezzled

during

the

construction

process

critics

claim

that

these

numbers

are

severely

downplayed

and

in

workers

painted

giant

messages

on

their

barracks

asking

Vladimir

Putin

to

help

after

long

payment

delays

The

current

price

of

the

spaceport

is

billion

with

costs

rising

every

year

for

example

additional

million

was

requested

in

Launch

pads

Seven

launch

pads

are

planned

to

be

built

at

Vostochny

over

a

period

of

years

Launch

pads

include

Site

S

for

Soyuz

first

launch

on

April

at

UTC

Site

A

for

Angara

Angara

Construction

began

in

September

launches

expected

no

earlier

than

PU

or

ПУ

for

puskavaya

ustanovka

or

пусковая

установка

meaning

launch

pad

prospective

super

heavylift

launch

vehicle

launches

beginning

after

Gallery

See

also

Plesetsk

Cosmodrome

Kapustin

Yar

Baikonur

Cosmodrome

Svobodny

Cosmodrome

References

spaceflight

Soyuz

rocket

fires

into

space

with

satellites

spaceflightnowcom

Spaceflight

Now

Retrieved

February

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Russia

inaugurates

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

with

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SpaceNewscom

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Vostochny

cosmodrome

premiergovru

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Retrieved

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Anatoly

Vostochny

formerly

Svobodny

Cosmodrome

RussianSpaceWebcom

Retrieved

Google

in

Gagarins

footsteps

The

new

face

of

the

space

race

RT

Technology

Update

Rtcom

March

Archived

from

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original

on

February

Retrieved

April

Последние

испытания

перед

первым

запуском

начинаются

на

космодроме

Восточный

TASS

Retrieved

Putin

stresses

importance

of

new

Far

East

space

center

Update

RIA

Novosti

a

b

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New

Space

Port

Will

Boost

Launch

Ability

The

Moscow

Times

Дирекция

космодрома

Восточный

будет

сформирована

до

июля

года

РИА

Новости

wwwrianru

Retrieved

Накидки

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Morotai

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Spaceport

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Kiruna

United

Kingdom

UKSA

Sutherland

USA

Airport

extensions

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Florida

ClintonSherman

Oklahoma

Colorado

Air

and

Space

Port

Ellington

Texas

Midland

Texas

SpaceX

Boca

Chica

Historical

Algeria

France

CIEES

Hammaguir

Reggane

Australia

Carnarvon

Canada

Churchill

Hall

Beach

Resolute

Bay

China

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Nanhui

Nazi

Germany

Greifswalder

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Germany

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Forest

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India

Balasore

Italy

Salto

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Japan

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Kenya

Italy

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North

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Soviet

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Spain

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Sweden

Kronogård

USA

Edwards

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v

t

e

Soviet

and

Russian

space

program

Roscosmos

Launch

sites

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Cosmodrome

in

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Kapustin

Yar

Plesetsk

Cosmodrome

Svobodny

Cosmodrome

defunct

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

Launch

vehicles

Angara

Proton

Soyuz

Human

spaceflight

programs

Previous

Vostok

Voskhod

Salyut

Almaz

incorporated

into

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program

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ApolloSoyuz

Test

Project

joint

Mir

ShuttleMir

joint

Energia

Buran

Cancelled

Zond

Moon

flyby

Soviet

manned

lunar

programs

Moon

landing

Zvezda

moonbase

TMK

MarsVenus

flyby

Spiral

Zvezda

Zarya

MAKS

Kliper

Active

International

Space

Station

joint

Russian

Orbital

Segment

Soyuz

In

development

Federation

Robotic

programs

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DS

Prognoz

Astron

Granat

Gamma

Mars

failed

ResursDK

KoronasFoton

FobosGrunt

failed

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BionM

ElektroL

ExoMars

joint

MeteorM

ResursP

SpektrR

In

development

LunaGlob

Luna

Luna

Luna

Luna

SpektrRG

SpektrUV

Communications

Luch

satellite

Soviet

Deep

Space

Network

Concepts

BaikalAngara

LaplaceP

MarsGrunt

MercuryP

OPSEK

SpektrM

VeneraD

Images

and

artwork

Mission

patches

Related

Cosmonaut

ranks

and

positions

See

also

Space

industry

of

Russia

Russian

Aerospace

Defence

Forces

v

t

e

Vostochny

Cosmodrome

launch

sites

Categories

Spaceports

Soviet

and

Russian

space

program

locations

Rocket

launch

sites

in

Russia

Buildings

and

structures

in

Amur

Oblast

Transport

infrastructure

completed

in

establishments

in

Russia

B I O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

vostochny cosmodrome
russian spaceport
51st parallel north


Walajapet From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed August 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Walajapet Suburban of Vellore City Town Walajapet Coordinates 1300N 79314E Coordinates 1300N 79314E Country India State Tamil Nadu District Vellore District Talukas Walajapet Government Type Second Grade Municipality Body Walajapet Municipality Chairman Vedagiri Elevation 160 m 520 ft Population 2011 Total 32397 Languages Official Tamil Time zone UTC530 IST PIN 632513 Telephone code 91 4172 Vehicle registration TN 23 TN 73 Lok Sabha constituency Arakkonam Vidhan Sabha constituency Ranipet Civic agency Walajapet Municipality Walajapet is a town or municipality and a part of Vellore district in the state of Tamil Nadu The streets in the town form a square shape which is a unique feature of the town It will be easy for you to reach any part of the town with this kind of infrastructure The streets are wide and nicely structured As of 2011 the town had a population of 32397 This town located in the Vellore district and Suburban of Vellore city is considered to be the first municipality and taluk of Tamil Nadu believed to have been formed in 1866 Contents 1 2 Commerce 3 History 4 Municipal administration 5 Transport 6 7 External links Demographics Religious census Religion Percent Hindu 862 Muslim 1226 Christian 121 Sikh 003 Buddhist 002 Jain 011 Other 014 No religion 002 According to 2011 census Walajapet had a population of 32397 with a sexratio of 1031 females for every 1000 males much above the national average of 929 A total of 3249 were under the age of six constituting 1675 males and 1574 females Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 1219 and 16 of the population respectively The average literacy of the town was 7725 compared to the national average of 7299 The town had a total of 7598 households There were a total of 12223 workers comprising 50 cultivators 66 main agricultural labourers 1270 in house hold industries 10204 other workers 633 marginal workers 8 marginal cultivators 18 marginal agricultural labourers 182 marginal workers in household industries and 425 other marginal workers As per the religious census of 2011 Walajapet had 862 Hindus 1226 Muslims 121 Christians 003 Sikhs 002 Buddhists 011 Jains 014 following other religions and 002 following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference Commerce It was used for business purpose and one of the biggest trade centres during the time of British rule Walajapet is one of the oldest town in the North Arcot Region It is famous for silk weaving and has a nickname WalajapetThe Silk City It is situated in the belt of the Ranipet SIPCOT Industrial Complex as a public limited company wholly owned by the Government Walajapet is one of the noted centre for the production of silk weaving and bamboo furniture making centre The commercial activities is concentrated at Thoppai street Annaicut Road Bazaar street Thirumalai Street There is a daily market available in this town History At the beginning of the second half of 18th century while English and the French invaders who challenged themselves each other to conquer Southern India and while in such circumstances the former the English in collaboration with the Nawab of Arcot succeeded in wiping out the suzerzinty of the latter The Nawab of Arcot was in return granted the then great title of honour Walajah meaning the most dignified gentleman The Nawab of Arcot styled this town as Walajah in his memory besides having Arcot as his residential centre and Ranipet as the military headquarters The Nawab of Arcot with a view to vindicate the great name of Walajah as quite suitable to the town in its true and literal sense desired to develop this town economically Walajapets jurisdiction covers an area of 264 squares kilometers The town had a population of 16401 in 1971 and the same was increased to 21200 in 198788 Municipal administration Walajapet Municipality was started in 1866 by the effect of act passed by government It was the first municipality in Tamil Nadu It was one of the oldest municipalities organized in the Madras Presidency along with Adoni and Madurai The Municipal council started function from 12 November 1866 The municipal office is located in its own building at Nawab Devadi street The town has electoral wards In the year 1869 the municipality office was shifted to a house situated at the trunk road for a monthly rent of Rs6At the time it was a third grade municipality The municipal council stated functioning from 1866 after the formation of Walajapet Municipality the meeting was held on 12 November 1866 under the vicepresident 6 commissioners also attended the council meeting In those days the councillors was called commissioners The council passed a resolution to open a municipal office for the transaction of business and in accordance with it a building owned by Madhan Iyyar was taken for a monthly rent Rs5 There were one manager on a pay of Rs40 per month two writers each Rs20 per month two bill collectors each for Rs20 per month two peons each Thiru VLakshmi Naidu was the first vicepresident of this municipality Thiru CA Varadharajan was the 25th vicepresident of this municipality Mrs SRaja Rajeswari was the first woman chairman and 26th chairman of this municipality The year 1966 was a very significant in the development of Walajapet Municipality It was its centenary celebrations At that time CAVaradharajan was chairman in the municipality He published Walajapet Municipality Centenary Souvenir 18661966 Aringar Anna Thanthi Periyar who participated the Centenary celebration And Jakir Hussain CP Aditanar M Karunanithi Dr SRadhakrishnan K Kamaraj Tamil thatha M Varatharajan and many other send greeting to the function Transport Walajah Road Railway Station is one of the oldest and first railway station in South India It is situated in Ammoor and about 5 Kilometers from Walajapet The first contract between the Madras Railway company and the government was held on 22 December 1852 an agent for the Madras railway came to Madras in 1853 The first section of the line from RoyapuramMadras to Walajah road was opened on 1 July 1856 One of the oldest railway stations in Southern Railway First railway track was proposed at 1857 from Walaja Road to Cuddalore via Katpadi It is strategically located on the Palar River on the ChennaiBangalore line By bus this locality can be reached in about 30 minutes from Vellore city and in about 2 hours from Chennai It is well connected both by road and railways Walajah Road railway station is located about 45 km from the town lying between Arakkonam and Vellore Katpadi Junction on the important railway route connecting Chennai to Coimbatore and Bangalore It was the station connecting Arakkonam Junction and Vellore Katpadi Junction the first rail route in Tamil Nadu References a b Census Info 2011 Final population totals Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner Ministry of Home Affairs Government of India 2013 Retrieved 26 January 2014 Census Info 2011 Final population totals Walajapet Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner Ministry of Home Affairs Government of India 2013 Retrieved 26 January 2014 Population By Religious Community Tamil Nadu XLS Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner Ministry of Home Affairs Government of India 2011 Retrieved 13 September 2015 Timeline of Southern Railway zone External links Historical Monuments in Walajapet Walajapet Next station eastbound Marudhalam West Line Chennai Suburban Next station westbound Mukundarayapuram Stop number 37 KM from start 10474 Stations of West Line of Chennai Suburban Railway Moore Market Complex MAS Basin Bridge Vyasarpadi Cabin Vyasarpadi Jeeva Perambur Perambur Carriage Works Perambur Loco Works Villivakkam Korattur Pattaravakkam Ambattur Thirumullaivoyal Annanur Avadi Hindu College Pattabiram Nemilichery Thiruninravur Veppampattu Sevvapet Road Puttlur Tiruvallur Egattur Kadambattur Senjipanambakkam Manavur Thiruvalangadu Mosur Puliyamangalam Arakkonam Melpakkam Chitteri Anavardhikhanpettai Mahendravadi Sholinghur Thalangai Marudhalam Walajah Road Mukundarayapuram Thiruvalam Seevur Katpadi Latteri Virinchipuram Kavanoor Gudiyattam MelAlattur Valathoor Melpadi Pachchakuppam Ambur Ambur Vaniyambadi Block Hut Vinnamangalam Vinnamangalam Vaniyambadi Block Hut Vaniyambadi Vaniyambadi Kettandapatti Block Hut Kettandapatti Jolarpettai Junction Walajapet Next station eastnortheast Marudhalam West South Line Chennai Suburban Next station westwestsouth Mukundarayapuram Stop number 37 KM from start 10474 v t e Stations of West South Line of Chennai Suburban Railway Chennai Beach Royapuram Washermanpet Vyasarpadi Jeeva Perambur Perambur Carriage Works Perambur Loco Works Villivakkam Korattur Pattaravakkam Ambattur Thirumullaivoyal Annanur Avadi Hindu College Pattabiram Nemilichery Thiruninravur Veppampattu Sevvapet Road Puttlur Tiruvallur Egattur Kadambattur Senjipanambakkam Manavur Thiruvalangadu Mosur Puliyamangalam Arakkonam Melpakkam Chitteri Anavardhikhanpettai Mahendravadi Sholinghur Thalangai Marudhalam Walajah Road Mukundarayapuram Thiruvalam Seevur Katpadi Vellore Vellore Cantonment Kaniyambadi Kannamangalam Sedarampattu Arani Polur Agaram Sibbandi Turijapuram Tiruvannamalai Tandarai Andampallam Adhichchanur Tirukkovilur Mugaiyur Ayandur Mambalapattu Teli Venkatesapuram Viluppuram Categories Cities and towns in Vellore district

B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O B O O O O B O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Wheelchair From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia Wheelchair seating in a theater ie giving a dedicated convenient space left free for a user to position their own wheelchair in the cinema A modern midwheelbased batterypowered chair A wheelchair is a chair with wheels used when walking is difficult or impossible due to illness injury or disability Wheelchairs come in a wide variety of formats to meet the specific needs of their users They may include specialized seating adaptions individualized controls and may be specific to particular activities as seen with sports wheelchairs and beach wheelchairs The most widely recognised distinction is between powered wheelchairs powerchairs where propulsion is provided by batteries and electric motors and manually propelled wheelchairs where the propulsive force is provided either by the wheelchair useroccupant pushing the wheelchair by hand selfpropelled or by an attendant pushing from the rear attendant propelled Contents 1 History 2 Types 21 Manual selfpropelled wheelchairs 22 Manual attendantpropelled wheelchairs 23 Powered wheelchairs 24 Mobility scooters 25 Singlearm drive wheelchairs 26 Reclining and tilting wheelchairs 27 Standing wheelchairs 28 Sports wheelchairs 29 Wheelchair stretchers 210 Allterrain wheelchairs 211 Smart wheelchairs 212 Technological developments 213 Other variants 3 Mobility and access 31 Buildings 32 Vehicles 4 Distribution organizations 5 Seating systems 6 See also 61 Notable wheelchair manufacturers 7 8 External links History Depiction of Chinese philosopher Confucius in a wheelchair dating to ca 1680 The artist may have been thinking of methods of transport common in his own day Nicolas Grollier de Servière 15961689 Wheelchair in his Cabinet of curiosities The earliest records of wheeled furniture are an inscription found on a stone slate in China and a childs bed depicted in a frieze on a Greek vase both dating between the 6th and 5th century BCE The first records of wheeled seats being used for transporting disabled people date to three centuries later in China the Chinese used early wheelbarrows to move people as well as heavy objects A distinction between the two functions was not made for another several hundred years until around 525 CE when images of wheeled chairs made specifically to carry people begin to occur in Chinese art Although Europeans eventually developed a similar design this method of transportation did not exist until 1595 when an unknown inventor from Spain built one for King Phillip II Although it was an elaborate chair having both armrests and leg rests the design still had shortcomings since it did not feature an efficient propulsion mechanism and thus requires assistance to propel it This makes the design more of a modernday highchair or portable throne for the wealthy rather than a modernday wheelchair for the disabled In 1655 Stephan Farffler a 22 year old paraplegic watchmaker built the worlds first selfpropelling chair on a threewheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels However the device had an appearance of a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel The invalid carriage or Bath chair brought the technology into more common use from around 1760 In 1887 wheelchairs rolling chairs were introduced to Atlantic City so invalid tourists could rent them to enjoy the Boardwalk Soon many healthy tourists also rented the decorated rolling chairs and servants to push them as a show of decadence and treatment they could never experience at home In 1933 Harry C Jennings Sr and his disabled friend Herbert Everest both mechanical engineers invented the first lightweight steel folding portable wheelchair Everest had previously broken his back in a mining accident Everest and Jennings saw the business potential of the invention and went on to become the first massmarket manufacturers of wheelchairs Their Xbrace design is still in common use albeit with updated materials and other improvements The Xbrace idea came to Harry from the mens folding camp chairs stools rotated 90 degrees that Harry and Herbert used in the outdoors and at the mines Wooden wheelchair dating to the early part of the 20th century 19th century wheelchair Types There are a wide variety of types of wheelchair differing by propulsion method mechanisms of control and technology used Some wheelchairs are designed for general everyday use others for single activities or to address specific access needs Innovation within the wheelchair industry is relatively common but many innovations ultimately fall by the wayside either from overspecialization or from failing to come to market at an accessible pricepoint The iBot is perhaps the best known example of this in recent years Manual selfpropelled wheelchairs Folding chair and stackable rigid chairs for visitors in NÄL hospital Sweden A selfpropelled manual wheelchair incorporates a frame seat one or two footplates footrests and four wheels usually two caster wheels at the front and two large wheels at the back There will generally also be a separate seat cushion The larger rear wheels usually have pushrims of slightly smaller diameter projecting just beyond the tyre these allow the user to manoeuvre the chair by pushing on them without requiring them to grasp the tyres Manual wheelchairs generally have brakes that bear on the tyres of the rear wheels however these are solely a parking brake and inmotion braking is provided Everyday manual wheelchairs come in two major varieties folding or rigid Folding chairs are generally lowend designs whose predominant advantage is being able to fold generally by bringing the two sides together However this is largely an advantage for parttime users who may need to store the wheelchair more often than use it Rigid wheelchairs which are increasingly preferred by fulltime and active users have permanently welded joints and many fewer moving parts This reduces the energy required to push the chair by eliminating many points where the chair would flex and absorb energy as it moves Welded rather than Many rigid models are now made with ultralight materials such as aircraftgrade aluminium and titanium and wheelchairs of composite materials such as carbonfibre have started to appear Ultra lightweight rigid wheelchairs are commonly known as active user chairs as they are ideally suited to independent use Another innovation in rigid chair design is the installation of shock absorbers such as Frog Legs which cushion the bumps over which the chair rolls These shock absorbers may be added to the front wheels to the rear wheels or both Rigid chairs also have the option for their rear wheels to have a camber or tilt which angles the tops of the wheels in toward the chair This Rigidframed chairs are generally made to measure to suit both the specific size of the user and their needs and preferences around areas such as the tippyness of the chair its stability around the rear axle Experienced users with sufficient upperbody strength can generally balance the chair on its rear wheels a wheelie and the tippyness of the chair controls the ease with which this can be initiated The wheelie allows an independent wheelchair user to climb and descend curbs and move more easily over small obstacles and irregular ground such as cobbles The rear wheels of selfpropelled wheelchairs typically range from 2024 inches 5161 cmin diameter and commonly resemble bicycle wheels Wheels are rubbertired and may be solid pneumatic or gelfilled The wheels of folding chairs may be permanently attached but those for rigid chairs are commonly fitted with quickrelease axles activated by depressing a button at the centre of the wheel All major varieties of wheelchair can be highly customized for the users needs Such customization may encompass the seat dimensions height seat angle footplates leg rests front caster outriggers adjustable backrests and controls Various optional accessories are available such as antitip bars or wheels safety belts adjustable backrests tilt andor recline features extra support for limbs or head and neck holders for crutches walkers or oxygen tanks drink holders and mud and wheelguards as clothing protectors Light weight and high cost are related in the manual wheelchair market At the lowcost end heavy folding steel chairs with sling seats and little adaptability dominate Users may be temporarily disabled or using such a chair as a loaner or simply unable to afford better These chairs are common as loaners at large facilities such as airports amusement parks and shopping centers A slightly higher price band sees the same folding design produced in aluminium Price typically then jumps from low to mid hundreds of poundsdollarseuros to a four figure price range with individually custom manufactured lightweight chairs with Manual attendantpropelled wheelchairs Boardwalk wheelchairs early 20th century An attendantpropelled wheelchair is generally similar to a selfpropelled manual wheelchair but with small diameter wheels at both front and rear The chair is maneuvered and controlled by a person standing at the rear and pushing on handles incorporated into the frame Braking is supplied directly by the attendant who will usually also be provided with a foot or handoperated parking brake These chairs are common in institutional settings and as loanerchairs in large public venues They are usually constructed from steel as light weight is less of a concern when the user is not required to selfpropel Specially designed transfer chairs are now required features at airports in much of the developed world in order to allow access down narrow airliner aisles and facilitate the transfer of wheelchairusing passengers to and from their seats on the aircraft Powered wheelchairs Main article Motorized wheelchair An electricpowered wheelchair commonly called a powerchair is a wheelchair which additionally incorporates batteries and electric motors into the frame and that is controlled by either the user or an attendant most commonly via a small joystick mounted on the armrest or on the upper rear of the frame For users who can not manage a manual joystick headswitches chinoperated joysticks sipandpuff controllers or other specialist controls may allow independent operation of the wheelchair Ranges of over 10 miles15 km are commonly available from standard batteries Powerchairs are commonly divided by their access capabilities An indoorchair may only reliably be able to cross completely flat surfaces limiting them to household use An indooroutdoor chair is less limited but may have restricted range or ability to deal with slopes or uneven surfaces An outdoor chair is more capable but will still have a very restricted ability to deal with rough terrain A very few specialist designs offer a true crosscountry capability Powerchairs have access to the full range of wheelchair options including ones which are difficult to provide in an unpowered manual chair but have the disadvantage of significant extra weight Where an ultralightweight manual chair may weigh under 10 kg the largest outdoor powerchairs may weigh 200 kg or more Smaller power chairs often have four wheels with front or rear wheel drive but large outdoor designs commonly have six wheels with small wheels at front and rear and somewhat larger powered wheels in the centre A powerassisted wheelchair is a recent development that uses the frame seating of a typical rigid manual chair while replacing the standard rear wheels with wheels of similar size which incorporate batteries and batterypowered motors in the hubs A floating rim design senses the pressure applied by the users push activates the motors proportionately to provide a power assist This results in the convenience and small size of a manual chair while providing motorised assistance for roughuneven terrain steep slopes that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to navigate especially by those with limited upperbody function As the wheels necessarily Mobility scooters Mobility scooters share some features with powerchairs but primarily address a different market segment people with a limited ability to walk but who might not otherwise consider themselves disabled Smaller mobility scooters are typically three wheeled with a base on which is mounted a basic seat at the rear with a control tiller at the front Larger scooters are frequently fourwheeled with a much more substantial seat Opinions are often polarized as to whether mobility scooters should be considered wheelchairs or not and negative stereotyping of scooter users is worse than for manual or powerchair users Some commercial organisations draw a distinction between powerchairs and scooters when making access provisions due to a lack of clarity in the law as to whether scooters fall under the same equality legislation as wheelchairs Singlearm drive wheelchairs Onearm or single arm drive enables a user to selfpropel a manual wheelchair using only a single arm The large wheel on the same side as the arm to be used is fitted with two concentric handrims one of smaller diameter than the other On most models the outer smaller rim is connected to the wheel on the opposite side by an inner concentric axle When both handrims are grasped together the chair may be propelled forward or backward in a straight line When either handrim is moved independently only a single wheel is used and the chair will turn hemiplegics provide a similar function by linking both wheels rigidly together and using one of the footplates to control steering via a linkage to the front caster Reclining and tilting wheelchairs Reclining or tiltinspace wheelchairs have seating surfaces which can be tilted to various angles The original concept was developed by an orthotist Hugh Barclay who worked with disabled children and observed that postural deformities such as scoliosis could be supported or partially corrected by allowing the wheelchair user to relax in a tilted position The feature is also of value to users who are unable to sit upright for extended periods for pain or other reasons In the case of reclining wheelchairs the seatback tilts back and the leg rests can be raised while the seat base remains in the same position somewhat similar to a common recliner chair Some reclining wheelchairs lean back far enough that the user can lie down completely flat Reclining wheelchairs are preferred in some cases for some medical purposes such as reducing the risk of pressure sores providing passive movement of hip and knee joints and making it easier to perform some nursing procedures such as intermittent catheterization to empty the bladder and transfers to beds and also for personal reasons such as people who like using an attached tray The use of reclining wheelchairs is particularly common among people with spinal cord injuries such as quadriplegia In the case of tilting wheelchairs the seatback seat base and leg rests tilt back as one unit somewhat similar to the way a person might tip a fourlegged chair backwards to balance it on the back legs While fully reclining spreads the persons weight over the entire back side of the body tilting wheelchairs transfer it from only the buttocks and thighs in the seated position to partially on the back and head in the tilted position Tilting wheelchairs are preferred for people who use molded or contoured seats who need to maintain a particular posture who adversely affected by sheer forces reclining causes the body to slide slightly every time or who need to keep a communication device powered wheelchair controls or other attached device in the same relative position throughout the day Tilting wheelchairs are commonly used by people with cerebral palsy people with some muscle diseases and people with limited range of motion in the hip or knee joints Tilting options are more common than reclining options in wheelchairs designed for use by children Standing wheelchairs A standing wheelchair is one that supports the user in a nearly standing position They can be used as both a wheelchair and a standing frame allowing the user to sit or stand in the wheelchair as they wish Some versions are entirely manual others have powered stand on an otherwise manual chair while others have full power tilt recline and variations of powered stand functions available The benefits of such a device include but are not limited to aiding independence and productivity raising selfesteem and psychological wellbeing heightening social status extending access relief of pressure reduction of pressure sores improved functional reach improved respiration reduced occurrence of UTI improved flexibility help in maintaining bone mineral density improved passive range motion reduction in abnormal muscle tone and spasticity and skeletal deformities Other wheelchairs provide some of the same benefits by raising the entire seat to lift the user to standing height Sports wheelchairs A modern racing wheelchair A range of disabled sports have been developed for disabled athletes including basketball rugby tennis racing and dancing The wheelchairs used for each sport have evolved to suit the specific needs of that sport and often no longer resemble their everyday cousins They are usually nonfolding in order to increase rigidity with a pronounced negative camber for the wheels which provides stability and is helpful for making sharp turns and often are made of composite lightweight materials Even seating position may be radically different with racing wheelchairs generally used in a kneeling position Sport wheelchairs are rarely suited for everyday use and are often a second chair specifically for sport use although some users prefer the sport options for everyday use Some disabled people specifically lowerlimb amputees may use a wheelchair for sports but not for everyday activities US vs France FIPFA World Cup Tokyo Japan October 2007 Powerchair football While most wheelchair sports use manual chairs some power chair sports such as powerchair football exist Ehockey is hockey played from electrical wheelchairs Wheelchair stretchers Wheelchair stretchers are a variant of wheeled stretchersgurneys that can accommodate a sitting patient or be adjusted to lie flat to help in the lateral or supine transfer of a patient from a bed to the chair or back Once transferred the stretcher can be adjusted to allow the patient to assume a sitting position Allterrain wheelchairs Allterrain wheelchairs can allow users to access terrain otherwise completely inaccessible to a wheelchair user Two different formats have been developed One hybridises wheelchair and mountain bike technology generally taking the form of a frame within which the user sits and with four mountain bike wheels at the corners In general there are no pushrims and propulsionbraking is by pushing directly on the tyres A beach wheelchair A more common variant is the beach wheelchair BeachGoing Wheelchair which can allow better mobility on beach sand including in the water on uneven terrain and even on snow The common adaptation among the different designs is that they have extrawide balloon wheels or tires to increase stability and decrease ground pressure on uneven or unsteady terrain Different models are available both manual and batterydriven In some countries in Europe where accessible tourism is well established many beaches have wheelchairs of this type available for loanhire Smart wheelchairs A smart wheelchair is any powerchair using a control system to augment or replace user control Its purpose is to reduce or eliminate the users task of driving a powerchair Usually a smart wheelchair is controlled via a computer has a suite of sensors and applies techniques in mobile robotics but this is not necessary The interface may consist of a conventional wheelchair joystick a sipandpuff device or a touchsensitive display This differs from a conventional powerchair in which the user exerts manual control over speed and direction without intervention by the wheelchairs control system Smart wheelchairs are designed for a variety of user types Some are designed for users with cognitive impairments such as dementia these typically apply collisionavoidance techniques to ensure that users do not accidentally select a drive command that results in a collision Othersfocus on users living with severe motor disabilities such as cerebral palsy or with quadriplegia and the role of the smart wheelchair is to interpret small muscular activations as highlevel commands and execute them Such wheelchairs typically employ techniques from artificial intelligence such as pathplanning Technological developments Recent technological advances are slowly improving wheelchair and powerchair technology A variation on the manuallypropelled wheelchair is the Leveraged Freedom Chair LFC designed by the MIT Mobility Lab This wheelchair is designed to be lowcost constructed with local materials for users in developing countries Engineering modifications have added handcontrolled levers to the LFC to enable users to move the chair over uneven ground and minor obstacles such as bumpy dirt roads that are common in developing countries It is under development and has been tested in Kenya and India so far The addition of geared allmechanical wheels for manual wheelchairs is a new development incorporating a hypocycloidal reduction gear into the wheel design The 2gear wheels can be added to a manual wheelchair The geared wheels provide a user with additional assistance by providing leverage through gearing like a bicycle not a motor The twogear wheels offer two speed ratios 11 no help no extra torque and 21 providing 100 more hill climbing force The low gear incorporates an automatic hill hold function which holds the wheelchair in place on a hill between pushes but will allow the user to override the hill hold to roll the wheels backwards if needed The low gear also provides downhill control when descending A recent development related to wheelchairs is the handcycle They come in a variety of forms from road and track racing models to offroad types modelled after mountain bikes While dedicated handcycle designs are manufactured clipon versions are available than can convert a manual wheelchair to a handcycle in seconds The general concept is a clipon frontfork with handpedals usually attaching to a mounting on the footplate A somewhat related concept is the Freewheel a large dolley wheel attaching to the front of a manual wheelchair again generally to the footplate mounting which improves wheelchair performance over rough terrain Unlike a handcycle a wheelchair with Freewheel continues to be propelled via the rear wheels There have been significant efforts over the past 20 years to develop stationary wheelchair trainer platforms that could enable wheelchair users to exercise as one would on a treadmill or bicycle trainer Some devices have been created that could be used in conjunction with virtual travel and interactive gaming similar to an omnidirectional treadmill In 2011 British inventor Andrew Slorance developed Carbon Black the first wheelchair to be made almost entirely out of carbon fibre Recently EPFL s CNBI project has succeeded in making wheelchairs that can be controlled by brain impulses Experiments have also been made with unusual variant wheels like the omniwheel or the mecanum wheel These allow for a broader spectrum of movement but have made no massmarket penetration Wheelchair fitted with Mecanum wheels taken at an exhibition in the early 1980s The electric wheelchair shown on the right is fitted with Mecanum wheels sometimes known as Ilon wheels which give it complete freedom of movement It can be driven forwards backwards sideways and diagonally and also turned round on the spot or turned around while moving all operated from a simple joystick A beach wheelchair at a public beach in the Netherlands A snow wheelchair at an outdoor park A Leveraged Freedom Chair wheelchair user in Kenya The chair has been engineered to be lowcost and usable on the rough roads common in developing countries Other variants Foot propulsion of a manual wheelchair by the occupant is possible for users who have limited hand movement capabilities or simply do not wish to use their hands for propulsion Foot propulsion also allows patients to exercise their legs to increase blood flow and limit further disability Users who do this commonly may elect to have a lower seat height and no footplate to better suit the wheelchair to their needs Wheelbase chairs are powered or manual wheelchairs with specially molded seating systems interfaced with them for users with a more complicated posture A molded seating system involves taking a cast of a persons best achievable seated position and then either carving the shape from memory foam or forming a plastic mesh around it This seat is then covered framed and attached to a wheelbase A bariatric wheelchair is one designed to support larger weights most standard chairs are designed to support no more than 250 lb 113 kg on average Pediatric wheelchairs are another available subset of wheelchairs These can address needs such as being able to play on the floor with other children or cater for children in large hipspica casts due to problems such as hip dysplasia Hemi wheelchairs have lower seats which are designed for easy foot propulsion The decreased seat height also allows them to be used by children and shorter individuals A knee scooter is a related device with some features of a wheelchair and some of walking aids Unlike wheelchairs they are only suitable for below knee injuries to a single leg The user rests the injured leg on the scooter grasps the handlebars and pushes with the uninjured leg Mobility and access Wheelchair ramp and disabled parking space Wheelchair ramp in the Sejm lower chamber of the Polish parliament in Warsaw A gate for wheelchairs in Hiroshima A wheelchairswing on a playground in New Zealand Buildings Adapting the built environment to make it more accessible to wheelchair users is one of the key campaigns of disability rights movements and local equality legislation such the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ADA The Social Model of Disability defines disability as the discrimination experienced by people with impairments as a result of the failure of society to provide the adaptions needed for them to participate in society as equals This includes both physical adaption of the built environment and adaption of organizational and social structures and attitudes A core principle of access is universal design that all people regardless of disability are entitled to equal access to all parts of society like public transportation and buildings A wheelchair user is less disabled in an environment without stairs Access starts outside of the building with the provision of reduced height kerbcuts where wheelchair users may need to cross roads and the provision of adequate wheelchair parking which must provide extra space in order to allow wheelchair users to transfer directly from seat to chair Some tension exists between access provisions for visually impaired pedestrians and wheelchair users and other mobility impaired pedestrians as textured paving vital for visually impaired people to recognise the edge of features such as lightcontrolled crossings is uncomfortable at best and dangerous at worst to those with mobility impairments For access to public buildings it is frequently necessary to adapt older buildings with features such as ramps or elevators in order to allow access by wheelchair users and other people with mobility impairments Other important adaptations can include powered doors lowered fixtures such as sinks and water fountains and accessible toilets with adequate space and grab bars to allow the disabled person to transfer out of their wheelchair onto the fixture Access needs for people with other disabilities for instance visual impairments may also be required such as by provision of high visibility markings on the edges of steps and braille labelling Increasingly new construction for public use is required by local equality laws to have these features incorporated at the design stage The same principles of access that apply to public buildings also apply to private homes and may be required as part of local building regulations Important adaptations include external access providing sufficient space for a wheelchair user to move around the home doorways that are wide enough for convenient use access to upper floors where they exist which can be provided either by dedicated wheelchair lifts or in some cases by using a stairlift to transfer between wheelchairs on different floors and by providing accessible bathrooms with showers andor bathtubs that are designed for accessibility Accessible bathrooms can permit the transfer benches to facilitate bathing for people with disabilities Wet rooms are bathrooms where the shower floor and bathroom floor are one continuous waterproof surface Such floor designs allow a wheelchair user using a dedicated shower chair or transferring onto a shower seat to enter the shower without needing to overcome a barrier or lip The construction of low floor trams and buses is increasingly required by law whereas the use of inaccessible features such as paternosters in public buildings without any alternative methods of wheelchair access is increasingly deprecated Modern architecture is increasingly required by law and recognised good practise to incorporate better accessibility at the design stage In many countries such as the UK the owners of inaccessible buildings who have not provided permanent access measures are still required by local equality legislation to provide reasonable adjustments to ensure that disabled people are able to access their services and are not excluded These may range from keeping a portable ramp on hand to allow a wheelchair user to cross an inaccessible threshold to providing personal service to access goods they are not otherwise able to reach Vehicles Public transit vehicles are increasingly required to be accessible to people who use wheelchairs In the UK all single deck buses are required to be accessible to wheelchair users by 2017 all doubledeck coaches by 2020 Similar requirements exist for trains with most trains already incorporating a number of wheelchairspaces The EU has required airline and airport operators to support the use of airports and airliners by wheelchair users and other Persons with Reduced Mobility since the introduction of EU Directive EC11072006 In Los Angeles there is a program to remove a small amount of seating on some trains to make more room for bicycles and wheelchairs New York City s entire bus system is wheelchairaccessible and a multimilliondollar renovation program is underway to provide elevator access to many of the citys 485 subway stations In Adelaide Australia all public transport has provision for at least two wheelchairs per bus tram or train In addition all trains have space available for bicycles The Washington DC Metro system features complete accessibility on all its subways and buses In Paris France the entire bus network ie 60 lines has been accessible to wheelchair users since 2010 In the United States a wheelchair that has been designed and tested for use as a seat in motor vehicles is often referred to as a WC19 Wheelchair or a transit wheelchair ANSIRESNA WC19 officially SECTION 19 ANSIRESNA WCVOL 1 Wheelchairs for use in Motor Vehicles is a voluntary standard for wheelchairs designed for use when traveling facing forward in a motor vehicle ISO 717619 is an international transit wheelchair standard that specifies similar design and performance requirements as ANSIRESNA WC19 Distribution organizations Several organizations exist that help to give and receive wheelchair equipment Organizations that accept wheelchair equipment donations typically attempt to identify recipients and match them with the donated equipment they have received Organizations that accept donations in the form of money for wheelchairs typically have the wheelchairs manufactured and distributed in large numbers often in developing countries Organizations focusing on wheelchairs include Direct Relief the Free Wheelchair Mission Hope Haven Personal Energy Transportation the Wheelchair Foundation and WheelPower In the United Kingdom wheelchairs are supplied and maintained free of charge for disabled people whose need for such a chair is permanent See Disability in the United Kingdom Seating systems Wheelchair seating systems are designed both to support the user in the sitting position and to redistribute pressure from areas of the body that are at risk of pressure ulcers For someone in the sitting position the parts of the body that are the most at risk for tissue breakdown include the ischial tuberosities coccyx sacrum and greater trochanters Wheelchair cushions are the prime method of delivering this protection and are nearly universally used Wheelchair cushions are also used to provide stability comfort aid posture and absorb shock Wheelchair cushions range from simple blocks of foam costing a few pounds or dollars to specifically engineered multilayer designs with costs running into the hundreds of poundsdollarseuros Prior to 1970 little was known about the effectiveness of wheelchair cushions and there was not a clinical method of evaluating wheelchair seat cushions Most recently pressure imaging or pressure mapping is used to help determine each individuals pressure distribution to properly determine and fit a seating system While almost all wheelchair users will use a wheelchair cushion some users need more extensive postural support This can be provided by adaptions to the back of the wheelchair which can provide increased rigidity headneck rests and lateral support and in some cases by adaptions to the seat such as pommels and kneeblocks Harnesses may also be required See also Mobility scooter Motorized wheelchair Wheelchair ramp Wheelchair DanceSport Wheelmaporg web mapping project collects information worldwide about wheelchair accessibility of places Lift chair Notable wheelchair manufacturers Everest and Jennings Küschall Otto Bock Invacare TiLite Mogo Wheelchairs References Nicolas Grollier de Servière Wheelchair in his Cabinet of curiosities page 96 Chaise très commode pour les boiteux ou pour ceux qui ont la goûte aux jambes et par le moyen duquel on peut se promener dans un appartement de plein pieds ou dans un jardin sans le recours de personne in Grollier de Servières Gaspard 1719 Recueil douvrages curieux de mathématique et de mécanique ou Description du cabinet de M Grollier de Servière avec des figures en tailledouce par M Grollier de Servière D Forey France a b c History of Wheelchairs wheelchairinformationcom Retrieved April 14 2017 a b KoerthBaker Maggie Who Invented the Wheelchair mentalflosscom Retrieved April 14 2017 Joseph Flaherty 24 May 2012 Putting the Whee Back in Wheelchair Wired Retrieved 25 May 2012 a b Maggie KoerthBaker Who Invented the Wheelchair Mental Floss Inc Retrieved 25 May 2012 a b Bellis Mary History of the Wheelchair thoughtcocom Retrieved April 14 2017 A History of the World Object Bath Chair BBC 20120902 Retrieved 20121119 Johnson Nelson 20120201 Boardwalk Empire The Birth High Times and Corruption of Atlantic City Kindle ed Independent Publishers Group p 28 Everest Herbert A Jennings Harry C Sr Folding wheel chair US Patent 2095411 1937 a b c d e f Lange M L June 2000 Tilt in space versus recline New trends in an old debate Technology Special Interest Section Quarterly 10 13 Accessibility Beach Going Wheelchairs Retrieved 14 September 2018 Richard C Simpson 2005 Smart Wheelchairs A Literature Review J Rehabilitation Res Dev 42 4 pp 423438 Langbein W Edwin Fehr Linda 1993 Research Device to Preproduction Prototype A Chronology JRRD 30 4 43642 ISSN 07487711 OConnor Thomas Fitzgerald Shirley G Cooper Rory A Thorman Tricia A Boninger Michael L 2002 Kinetic and physiological analysis of the GameWheels system JRRD 39 6 62734 ISSN 07487711 British made Carbon Black a wheelchair revolution News Medilink Yorkshire and Humber British made Carbon Black a wheelchair revolution Medilinkcouk 20111017 Retrieved 20121119 London launch for Nairn firms Carbon Black wheelchair BBC News 14 October 2011 EPFL CNBI project EPFL CNBI project Newton Damien Metro Making Room for Bikes on Their Trains Streetsblog Los Angeles Lastreetsblogorg Retrieved 20121119 Network of accessible Parisian buses Paris Public transport and accessibility PARISINFOCOM The official website of the Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau Retrieved 20130527 160 Disability Rights handbook Check url value help 37 ed London Disability Rights UK 2012 9781903335567 Retrieved 20 July 2017 Garber SL 1985 Wheelchair Cushions A Historical Review The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 397 pp45359 FergusonPell M 1992 Choosing a Wheelchair System Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development p49 Eakin PA PorterArmstrong AP Stinson MD 2003 Pressure mapping systems reliability of pressure map interpretation Clinical Rehabilitation 17 pp504511 FergusonPell M Cardi M D Prototype Development and Comparative Evaluation of Wheelchair Pressure Mapping System Assistive Technology Vol 5 No 2 pp7891 Hanson D Langemo D Anderson J Thompson P Hunter S 2009 Can pressure mapping prevent ulcers Nursing Vol 39 Issue 6 pp5051 External links The dictionary definition of wheelchair at Wiktionary Media related to Wheelchairs at Wikimedia Commons v t e Health care v t e Humanpowered transport v t e Disability Authority control GND 40327760 NARA 10676516 NDL 00567051 Disability portal Categories Wheelchairs Chairs Chinese inventions Humanpowered vehicles

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B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O