Why dont scientists believe in God In 1997 the science journal Nature reported that 40 percent of scientists in the US believed in a personal Godthe same amount as had believed eighty years prior However when those results were filtered to include only members of the National Academy of Sciences the number dropped to 10 percent A Pew survey taken in 2009 records that 33 percent of scientists believe in God and another 18 percent in a higher power compared to 94 percent of the general public On the list of longago scientists who believed in God are Galileo Descartes Pascal and Newton more modern names have been added such as Lord So to say that scientists dont believe in God is a gross generalization However it is true that there are fewer believers in God among professionals in the scientific community than among the general public Why For some scientists atheism is a matter of faith not of evidence Hungarian biologist George Klein wrote to a Christian colleague I am indeed an atheist My attitude is not based on science but rather on faith just as you have your faith The absence of a creator the nonexistence of God is my childhood faith my adult belief unshakable and holy Other scientists deny Gods existence because of a commitment to materialism Francis Crick a molecular biologist biophysicist and neuroscientist was a materialist to the core Materialism teaches that there is nothing in the cosmos besides matter and energy The supernatural does not exist and there is no such thing as thought consciousness or the soul Crick even went so far as to predict that science would one day find that the act of prayer changes a neurotransmitter in the brain and induces a positive effect on the person praying Some scientists reject faith because of personal experiences Marie Curie the only scientist to win two Nobel Prizes in two different science categories became an atheist or agnostic after the deaths of her mother and sister Its possible that this loss influenced her theological beliefs Alan Turing a mathematician and groundbreaking computer scientist lost faith in God after the death of his first love Refusing to believe a loving God would allow her death Turing embraced materialism Some scientists simply see no use for God Paul Dirac was a forefather of quantum mechanics He believed science was well on its way to describing the universe in detail and he saw religion as a political tool Stringtheorist Brian Greene says Most scientists like to operate in the context of economy If you dont need an explanatory principle dont invoke it Some atheistic scientists come from a religious background and purposefully reject it Richard Leakey a paleontologist and conservationist from Kenya is the grandson of missionaries but was disillusioned with any kind of faith in God Some scientists see faith and science as mutually exclusive James Watson who with Francis Crick discovered the doublehelix structure of DNA thought belief in God would preclude his love of science He loved science more than God There are scientists who simply dont bother thinking about God Steven Weinberg a Nobel Prize laureate for his work in particle physics said The experience of being a scientist makes religion seem fairly irrelevant Most scientists I know simply dont think about it very much They dont think about religion enough to qualify as practicing atheists Some scientists are religious but deny any reality beyond tradition and ritual Oliver Sacks the neurologist portrayed by Robin Williams in the movie Awakenings loves religion and feels comfortable in both Orthodox Jewish and Catholic settings He explains that nature itself seems so wonderful that I dont feel a hunger for any concept beyond it In short scientists reject faith in God for the same reasons anyone else does Their atheism is built on some foundational choices 1 They choose to worship created things rather than the Creator Romans 125 NIV 2 They choose to embrace opposing ideas of what is falsely called knowledge 1 Timothy 620 NIV 3 They choose to retain their sin instead of repenting John 319 4 They choose to limit their definition of truth to what can be empirically discovered Unfortunately the truth of God can not be discovered via the scientific method The world through its wisdom did not know him 1 Corinthians 121 NIV 5 They choose pride over humility James 46 One other reason for their rejection of God has to do with the enemy of their souls The god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers 2 Corinthians 44 We must never forget that we are involved in a spiritual battle The human intellect no matter how lofty must be redeemed by Christ God gives grace to the humble For consider your calling brothers not many of you were wise according to worldly standards But God chose what is foolish in the world to shame the wise 1 Corinthians 12627 Of course not all scientists reject God Dr Francis S Collins is the former head of the National Human Genome Research Institute As a young man Collins was well on his way to atheism when a woman dying of heart disease confronted him about his beliefs He realized that none of his scientific work answered the bigger questions in life Later a minister gave him C S Lewiss Mere Christianity Something about the irrefutability of natural moral law resonated with him and he became a Christian The moment Dr Collins was saved there was rejoicing in the presence of the angels of God Luke 1510 NIV Return to Truth about Worldview and Apologetics

O O B I O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O


Advance Auto Parts warranty fraud Clearwater FL United States Review updated Jun 29 2018 10 comments I purchased a Autocraft Titanium battery from them a year ago This comes with a 3yr free replacement warranty I took it to them today because it was dead They happily came out and tested it and told me the computer said it had a bad cell They said before they can replace it they need me to leave it with them for 2hrs so they can charge it and retest it They gave me a loner battery for the time being I came back and they tested my battery again The computer said it had a bad cell Then Br Brian W

B I I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


The Top 50 Architectural Achievements of the Modern World By Nick Schonberger Former deputy editor Arsenal supporter Follow Nick on Feb 01 2011 The Modern World has brought us awesome stuff from hot water to Internet in the air to fake body parts on ladies of the night It has also enabled architects to build structures that have defined our existence allowing us to live close to each other get to places faster and to look up in awe at impossibleseeming buildings Today we look at the greatest things human beings have built since we figured out how to put wood steel and a bunch of other stuff together and call it a house Take the time to check this feature out by 50 United States Capitol Location Architect Year Neoclassical in form the United States Capitol achieves in articulating through architecture the principals of Americas founding fathers Think thats a load of mumbo jumbo Then consider this at time of completion the Capitol boasted the largest cast iron dome ever constructed designed by an often forgotten fourth architect on the project Mr Thomas U Walter 49 Wainwright Building Location Architect Year At this point in time it is hard to imagine a 10story building would have ever been classified as a skyscraper However the Wainwright Building was just that and perhaps the first in the world Most importantly the building provided the blue print for the modern office building and tall steel structures soon began to dot the landscape of urban America Sullivan often called the father of skyscrapers had changed the rules of height and also found true articulation of his form follows function mantra 48 Bergisel Ski Jump Location Architect Year Zaha Hadid is responsible for a fair share of innovative buildings but the Bergisel Ski Jump in Austria deserves attention for essentially redefing the form In one fell swoop Hadid provided a landmark for Innsbruck and transformed the usually one dimensional ski jump into a multiuse structure that balances a highly specialized sporting facility with public viewing areas and of course a cafe 47 Monticello Location Architect Year It is easy to forget that Thomas Jefferson chief architect of the United States Constitution is also responsible for the pinnacle of Neoclassical architecture in America His own home Monticello was built on the principals of Italian renaissance architect Andrea Palladio and named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987 46 The Queens House Location Architect Year Inigo Jones the first significant English architect of the modern era is not surprisingly responsible for the first consciously classical building in Britain That building is as youd guess the Queens House and it came early in Jones career and for a rather important client Anne of Denmark the Queen of King James I To his credit Jones used the building to introduce Palladianism to the English his building appearing in their eyes radical Since completion in 1632 the building has housed a series of important people and objects it stands now as part of the Royal Maritime Museum If 45 Petronas Towers Location Architect Year Completed in 1998 the Petronas Towers swiftly entered public consciousness with an important role in the 1999 crime caper Entrapment At the time of building the Towers were the tallest buildings in the world Other buildings have eclipsed their height but they remain the tallest twin skyscrapers to this day 44 Villa Farnese Location Architect Year This Villa is the pinnacle of harmony and proportion a shinning example of Mannerism a style based on restraint and perhaps the most superb piece of Renaissance architecture ever built That said it is an exercise in architectural principals and an achievement in theory Find that boring Fine Sometimes achievement is hard to swallow 43 Marshall Fields Warehouse Store Location Architect Year In a warehouse Richardson managed what few had before a building that garnered praise from foreign critics as being of distinctly American character Without reaching for historic reference familiar to us all now know HH created an orderly facade of uninterrupted arcades This provided the building with grace and an authoritative stance It opened the door for a new generation of architects to visualize a national identity through building 42 Symphony Hall Location Architect Year McKim Mead and White are responsible for two of Bostons most famous buildings the Boston Public Library and Symphony Hall as well as other important structures including portions of the White House With Symphony Hall look is less important than function the trio enlisted Harvard physicist Wallace Clement Sabine as an acoustic specialist his expertise playing no small role in a finished building that still boasts some of the best sound of any venue in the world 41 Burj Khalifa Location Architect Year This is the tallest man made structure in the world clocking in at 160 floors It is also the tallest building to ever include residential space Literally awesome 40 Brooklyn Bridge Location Architect Year Roeblings Brooklyn Bridge is important for a number of architectural firsts most famously as the first steelwire suspension bridge When built it was also the longest suspension bridge in the world Fun fact Roeblings design became a family affair his wife Emily the first to cross the bridge and son Washington saw through the completion of the project after the old man died 39 Golden Gate Bridge Location Architect Year While were on the subject of bridges lets note the Golden Gate Bridge A symbol of San Francisco and a marvel of the modern world the Golden Gate remains the secondlongest suspension bridge in the United States The other takes you to Staten Island proving that sometimes but just sometimes second place is the better place 38 Akashi Kaikyô Bridge Location Architect Year Worlds longest bridge The Akashi Kaikyô Bridge also known as the Pearl Bridge boasts the longest central span of any bridge and connects Kobe to the island of Awaji 37 Michigan Stadium Location Architect Year The big house was big when first completed in 1927 and in 2010 added seats brought capacity up to 113000yeah crazy The opening game of the season against the University of Connecticut realized an attendance of 113090 the largest crowd ever assembled at a football game 36 Gateway Arch Location Architect Year 630 feet from the ground the Gateway Arch is Americas tallest manmade monument Saarinens Midwestern masterpiece is a celebration of the pioneer spirit and THE landmark of St Louis Almost makes you forget about the Wainwright Building we discussed earlier 35 The Milwaukee Art Museum Location Architect Year The link to Saarinen here is that Eero is responsible for the building next to Calatravas monumental winged Milwaukee Museum of Art Like the Gate Way Tower the building gives a Midwestern town a worldrenowned architectural gem Different however is that the wings of the Milwaukee Art Museum move over Windhover Hall 34 Tower of Pisa Location Architect Year No matter how you shake it getting a building to lean back more than 600 years before the birth of Fat Joe is an awesome achievement 33 Flatiron Building Location Architect Year Daniel Burnham who worked out of Chicago Illinois rivals Louis Sullivan in the father of American high rise building stakes The Flatiron Building originally known as the Fuller Building brought significant height to Manhattans skyline Its built on a steel skeleton which allowed the structure to reach 22 floors Art historians recognize the Flatiron Building for appearance in Edward Steichens photographs solidifying its place as an early icon of American modern life 32 Villa Rotunda Location Architect Year Palladio has been mentioned twice already so of course one of his own buildings has to be listed The Villa Rotunda is the crowing achievement of the architects theories of proportion and is the single most important building in establishing his architectural legacy 31 Channel Tunnel Location Architect Year Not only does the Channel Tunnel provide fast service between London and Paris it is also the single longest undersea tunnel in the world A healthy portion of its 313 miles sits under its namesake body of water The total length also makes the Channel Tunnel the second longest rail tunnel ever completed 30 Olympic Stadium The Birds Nest Location Architect Year This stadium might be the only thing we remember from the 2008 Beijing Olympics Swiss firm Herzong de Meuron looked to traditional Chinese ceramics for inspiration and employed iconic contemporary artist Ai Weiwei as artistic consultant One of the few sporting venues that truly stands as symbol of a city 29 PSFS Building Location Architect Year The PSFS Building was the first internationalstyle skyscraper in the United States And no mater what Comcast does the neon letters atop the structure will always dominate the Philly skyline 28 Hotel Remota Location Architect Year Heres a challenge How do you design a building that at once blends into some of the worlds most stunning scenery and stand alone as an architectural gem We dont know either but Germán del Sol managed to pull off the seemingly impossible in Patagonia with the Hotel Remota 27 AEG Turbine Factory Location Architect Year Behrens great legacy in design is his effort to bring dignity to the workplace The AEG Turbine Factory is the crowing achievement in that quest a building of glass and steel with a monumental facade Within Behrens clean moderate rooms greatly impressed the famous Swiss architect Le Corbusier 26 Glas Pavilion Location Architect Year The Glass Pavilion was an experiment in testing the potential of glass in architectural practice Achieved as a monument rather than a functional structure at the Cologne Deutscher Werkbund Exhibition of 1914 Tauts most famous building allowed the architect to express his belief that glass could be the material on which to build a spiritual utopia That might sound as insane as building with glass and Taut achieved nothing else if not driving the notion in the minds of architectural historians 25 Glass House Location Architect Year Philip Johnson managed to use glass more fluidly than Taut His house has been called the raddest country house ever paraphrasing here from another magazine but is notable as the Johnsons most famous building and the grandest achievement of modernism by an American architect 24 Lake Shore Drive Apts Location Architect Year Meis and Johnson have a strong connection They worked at the same time and Johnson curated an exhibtion of the German exhiles work at MOMA in 1947 Word is that Mies thought the Glass House was shit and Johnsons view of the Lake Shore Drive Apartments is less publicized What is known however is that the twin towers employ a pioneering use of glass curtain walls 23 Centre Pompidou Location Architect Year The great achievement here Turning the architectural world upside down 22 Vanna Venturi House Location Architect Year With the Vanna Venturi House Robert Venturi marked Philadelphia with one of the most iconic postmodernist buildings The house is also recognized as the first example of postmodernist architecture period Another example of turning the architectural world upside down 21 Getty Center Location Architect Year Pritzker winning architect Richard Meier 1984 pulled off a remarkable feat with the Getty Center in Los Angeles Despite enormous success prior to the commission the Getty is what catapulted Meier into mainstream popularity Combining architecture and gardens and of course a range of more defined facilities the Center is renowned for its views of Los Angeles 20 Guggenheim Bilbao Location Architect Year Unquestionably Gehrys most famous building and the most spectacular expression of the Canadians trademark titanium cladding Philip Johnson calls it the most important building of our time 19 Cathedral Brasilia Location Architect Year One one level you want to get fancy and talk about the hyperboloid structure of Oscar Neimeyers masterpiece On another you just want to stare open mouthed Craze 18 Takatori Catholic Church Location Architect Year Shigeru Ban is famous for figuring out how to build real structures not the ones you might have produced in your backyard from recycled paper cardboard tubes The Takatori Catholic Church was initially erected in Kobe after the Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995 Later the church was moved to Taiwan Bans work is known as Paper Architecture 17 Sydney Opera House Location Architect Year Easily one of the most recognizable buildings in the world the Sydney Opera House dominates the Australian citys harbor Architect Jørn Utzon a Dane is only the second person to have a building designated a World Heritage Site during their lifetime this also means the building is recognized as a masterpiece of human creative genius 16 Astrodome Location Architect Year The worlds first domed sports stadium and the location of some of the most amazing jerseys in baseball history The place the Bad News Bears played an exhibition game The eighth wonder of the world 15 St Pauls Cathedral Location Architect Year Wren was responsible for designing 51 churches after the great fire of 1651 torched London The most famous is St Pauls which has one of the tallest domes in the world and was Londons single tallest building until 1962 14 30 St Mary Ave Location Architect Year Fosters Gherkin battles St Pauls for eyes in Londons skyline The complex facade allows for air to enter for passive cooling the achievement that ranks it so high on the list 13 Eiffel Tower Location Architect Year Originally the entrance to the Paris Worlds Fair of 1889 the Eiffel Tower has become a global icon and one of the few buildings people associate with romance Fun fact the observation deck allows for great views of a nearby football pitch 12 Bibliotheque Nationale Location Architect Year Hidden inside a heavy exterior the reading room of the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris is a monument to Henri Labroustes inventive use of cast iron Using slender columns Labrouste offered a heaven for library patrons his modern approach both daring and instantly recongnizable 11 The Palm Jumeirah Location Architect Year Is this architecture Is it mere fancy Who in their right mind would build a livable palmshaped series of islands There is a good chance you can see it from space And there is a good chance that is enough for us to pronounce The Palm Jumerirah a totally awesome achievement of the modern world 10 Residence Antilla Location Architect Year The Residence Antilla costing over 1 billion USD is the most expensive home ever built The 27story tower is also the greenest building in Mumbai A remarkable achievement in excess with a surprise conscious 9 Bank of America Tower Location Architect Year Speaking of green the new Bank of America Tower is the most energy efficient office tower ever constructed That is a top 10 achievement Suck it hippies 8 Duomo Location Architect Year Pretty much the dome by which all other domes must be judged Brunellschis Duomo caps the Florence Cathedral Its construction was a radical decision marking a break with the Gothic style and rejecting the notion that a flying buttress was required to support a massive dome We will spare you the engineering details and state simply that this dome is an achievement of epic proportions 7 Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban Location Architect Year The National Assembly Building of Bangladesh the Jaityo Sagnsad Bhaban is Louis Kahns greatest achievement Light and water balanced Its just amazing And it lends to the best portions of the terrific documentary My Architect 6 Falling Water Location Architect Year Radical for its cantilevered design and stunning for its integration with setting Falling Water is Frank Lloyd Wrights most significant achievement It is also one of the places you must visit before death 5 Villa Savoye Location Architect Year Weve mentioned a few Renaissance villas thus far and the thing about the Villa Savoye that might surprise is that it too articulates the principals founded in those homes though articulated with a modernist vocabulary Like the Villa Rotunda living space is on the Piano Noblie which takes the second story except here a series of open columns replace the bulky traditional rusticated base and lifts the home almost completely off the ground The Villa Savoye is an example of Le Corbusiers machine for living employing a number of machines to complete menial daily tasks and one of the finest 4 Guthrie Theater Location Architect Year Jean Nouvel famed French architect gave the Twin Cities the gift of the Best Cultural Space in the USA and one of the 10 most important buildings of the 21stcentury Bare in mind the century still has roughly 90 years left but you can still get a sense of the legacy the Guthrie Theater has already built for itself in just 5 short years 3 Pentagon Location Architect Year The Pentagon boasts more floor area than any other office in the world It also boasts a security system that we cant even begin to imagine Its an achievement in scale 2 Chrysler Building Location Architect Year The Chrysler Building is so universally liked we can sometimes forget its architectural importance Lets go through it 1 it is the jewel of American art deco 2 The building used an exposed stainless steel surface in large scale for the first time ever 3 The skyscraper is depicted on the cover of Meatloafs Bat Out of Hell II 1 Sagrada Família Location Architect Year The most famous building in Barcelona and the most tremendous articulation of Gaudis desires the Sagrada Família is still a living breathing developing building Impossible to believe really Lists Architecture Officership Tech City Guide Art Design Like Follow Stream Hide Comments Now Trending

O O O B I O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Multiphysics Cyclopedia General FEA Software Mesh Refinement HighPerformance Computing HPC Finite Element Method Electrical Mechanical Fluid Chemical Finite Element Analysis FEA Software General FEA Software What Does Finite Element Analysis Software Bring The purpose of finite element analysis FEA software is to reduce the number of prototypes and experiments that have to be run when designing optimizing or controlling a device or process This does not necessarily mean that companies and research institutes save money by adopting FEA They do however get more development for their dollar which may result in gaining a competitive edge against the competition For this reason it may be reasonable to increase research and development resources for FEA Once an FEA model is established and has been found useful in predicting reallife properties it may generate the understanding and intuition to significantly improve a design and operation of a device or process At this stage optimization methods and automatic control may provide the last degree of improvements that can be difficult to obtain with intuition only Most modern FEA software features methods for describing automatic control and incorporating such descriptions in mathematical and numerical models Optimization methods are usually included in the solution process which is further described in detail below The introduction of highfidelity models have also contributed to an accelerated understanding This has sparked new ideas and completely new designs and operation schemes that would have been hidden or otherwise impossible without modeling Therefore FEA is an integral tool for research and development departments in companies and institutions that operate in highly competitive markets Over time the use of FEA software has expanded from larger companies and institutions that support educating engineers to smaller companies in many different industries and institutions with a wide variety of disciplines Inside FEA Software The foundation of FEA software is formed by the laws of physics expressed in mathematical models In the case of FEA these laws consist of different conservation laws laws of classical mechanics and laws of electromagnetism The mathematical models are discretized by the Finite Element Method FEM resulting in corresponding numerical models The discretized equations are solved and the results are analyzed hence the term finite element analysis The language of mathematics is required to describe the laws of physics which for space and timedependent descriptions result in partial differential equations PDEs The solution to the PDEs is represented by dependent variables such as structural displacements velocity fields temperature fields and electric potential fields The solution is described in space and time along the independent variables x y z and t The purpose of these descriptions is found in the study of the solution to the PDEs for a given system which results in understanding a studied system and the ability to make predictions about it FEA is used to understand predict optimize and control the design or operation of a device or process Cooling fan blade vibration which was predicted by structural mechanics mode shape analysis For structural mechanics the physical descriptions are based on the laws for the balance of forces and the constitutive relations that relate the stresses to strains An example of such a constitutive relation is Hookes law Traditional FEA often refers to structural analysis only A CFD simulation example In fluid flow heat transfer and mass transfer the descriptions are based on the laws for conservation of momentum mass and energy The fluxes in these conservation laws are typically composed of advection and dissipation or diffusion The precise form of the dissipation and diffusion is given by a constitutive relation such as the viscous stress for Newtonian fluids Fouriers law of thermal conduction and Ficks law of diffusion Radiation diagram around the GPS frequency range of a probefed cornertruncated microstrip patch antenna The arrows show the righthand circular polarization with almost radial components The near spherical surface indicates the magnitude of gain A static electric field is related to the amount of electric charge through the Gauss law and the magnetic field to electrical currents by Amperes law Maxwells equations bring dynamics such as the induction of an electric field from a timevarying magnetic field by Faradays law Maxwells own decisive contribution was the addition of the displacement current from a timevarying electric field which completed the description of the wave nature of electromagnetic fields A MEMS actuator uses the joule heating effect to create thermal expansion of the two hot arms white and yellow colors that carry an electric current The thermal expansion creates a structural displacement that moves the actuator This is a typical case of multiphysics in FEA You can follow this model being built from scratch in the following video How to Set Up and Run a Simulation with COMSOL Multiphysics The laws used in structural mechanics fluid flow heat transfer mass transfer and electromagnetism can be combined to describe systems where several phenomena interact which is usually referred to as multiphysics systems For example the description of microelectromechanical systems MEMS usually requires combining the laws of structural mechanics and electromagnetism The description of fluidstructure interaction FSI requires the combination of the laws of structural mechanics and fluid flow Mathematical Model and Numerical Model A mathematical model of a system can consist of one or several PDEs that describe the relevant laws together with boundary and initial conditions The boundary conditions impose extra conditions on the solution and on a part of the modeled domain eg surfaces edges or points Several different boundary conditions can be used for the same model The initial conditions define the state of the system in the beginning of a timevarying event A mathematical model of a heat sink is based on the conservation of energy yielding the heat equation for the temperature field T which is the first equation in the figure above The constitutive relation is Fouriers law for heat conduction where k denotes the thermal conductivity The equation above is valid inside the heat sink domain Ω where ρ denotes the density of the material and Cp the heat capacity At the base of the heat sink Ω 1 the temperature denoted as T is constrained to Thot in the second equation above which represents the first boundary condition At all other boundaries Ω 2 except for the base the heat flux at every point on this boundary is proportional to the temperature jump to the ambient temperature just outside the boundary layer h denotes the heat transfer coefficient and n the outwards pointing normal vector of length unity to the boundary surface If the ambient temperature is lower than the local heat sink temperature then heat leaves the heat sink From a physical point of view the boundary conditions and the initial data are often a natural part of the model eg loads and constraints for structural mechanics pressure levels at inlets and outlets for fluid flow and the electric potential for terminals in electrostatics From a mathematical point of view the boundary conditions and the initial data are what singles out a unique solution among the infinitely many alternatives WellPosed Mathematical Models If a mathematical model is properly defined it may also be well posed A mathematical model is well posed if it has a unique solution that continuously depends on the problem data ie source terms fluxes constraint values and initial values If the model is not well posed this will be reflected in the numerical model and will cause problems in the solution process Being well posed can be seen as the models minimal requirement to be used for numerical simulations such as in FEA From a theoretical point of view it is usually very difficult to determine if a realistic nonlinear 3D model is well posed or not and for this reason greatly simplified models are instead used in fundamental analysis The conclusions drawn from these simplified models are used to estimate how more realistic models behave Even a wellposed model can be very sensitive to changes in the model data Such models are inherently illconditioned or sensitive Modern numerical methods for solving PDEs have revolutionized applied mathematics The reason is that analytical solutions to mathematical models can only be found in very special cases such as in certain combinations of equations and simple geometries While these cases are important from a theoretical point of view they are often of little use to the engineer Numerical methods do not have this limitation so they can handle nonlinear problems as well as complicated geometries Other computational challenges exist for numerical methods see the Solution section below but the applicability to new models and geometries is not one of them Numerical methods are able to give an approximation of the solution to a wellposed mathematical model Most numerical methods are based on a discretization of the modeled domain and the described dependent variables The finite difference volume and element methods are the most commonly used methods for this discretization As the name reveals the finite element method FEM is used in finite element analysis The heat sink model discretized by finite elements The tetrahedral finite element volume mesh in the base gives triangular surface elements The prism elements in the fins give rectangular elements on the fin surfaces The discretization of a mathematical model results in a numerical model for the described system where the numerical model is a discrete approximation of the mathematical model The error introduced by using the numerical model instead of the mathematical model is referred to as the truncation error The truncation error is defined as the difference between the solution to the numerical and mathematical model If the numerical model is stable and consistent then the truncation error approaches zero as the element sizes approach zero ie the numerical solutions converge to the solution to the mathematical model The truncation error then converges at a certain rate measured by the order of accuracy Consistency is equivalent to a positive order of accuracy The starting point of the finite element method is the weak formulation of the mathematical model This form can be obtained from the pointwise PDEs also called the strong form by introducing test functions multiplying the PDEs with these test functions and then integrating them over the modeled domain This procedure can be optionally combined with integration by parts For each test function the integral relation must hold To be consistent with the PDEs there must be infinitely many test functions that must be general enough Therefore infinitely many integral relations must hold whereas the pointwise PDEs must hold for each point in the modeled domain The finite element method introduces test functions that are defined through a computational mesh For each computational cell or mesh element a number of test functions are locally defined Additionally as part of the finite element method shape functions are defined These are used to represent the candidate solution For timedependent problems the finite element method is often only used for the spatial discretization In this case the system of equations obtained after the finite element discretization is a system of ordinary differential equations ODEs This system may in turn be discretized with a finite difference method or other similar methods In the example here the approximation for the temperature is written as 1 where denotes the shape functions and denotes the unknown weights Here the shape functions vary only in space while the unknowns vary only in time The weights are also called the degrees of freedom in a finite element method In the Galerkin finite element method the shape functions are of the same sort as the test functions The weak form together with the boundary conditions is then used to formulate a finite algebraic system of equations for the unknowns Each node in the mesh denoted j has a basis or test function and gives an equation according to the following 2 For every node j there are only a few shape functions i that overlap with the test function j so the integrals above have to be evaluated only over elements that share the same node j Note that the boundary contribution is nonzero if node j is a boundary node This is a linear ordinary differential equation for the unknowns at least if the material properties do not depend on the temperature This is a general rule of thumb If the system of PDEs is nonlinear then the problem for the unknowns is also nonlinear Also note that only the flux boundary condition is included in this system of equations The condition of prescribed temperature is not included and has to be added as extra constraints The finite element method gives considerable freedom in selecting test and shape functions for different mesh element types and equations The finite element formulation on unstructured meshes where the size and aspect of the participating elements can differ greatly makes the method applicable for very complex geometries at a relatively low cost Unstructured meshes are also relatively easy to automatically produce In most cases the shape and test functions are loworder polynomials that are easy to define and integrate Furthermore the close relationship with the weak form gives the method a thorough mathematical ground where the mathematical theory is very Once the mathematical model has been discretized the equations in the resulting numerical model have to be solved The temperature in the heat sink varies only to a small degree compared to the temperature in the surrounding air that flows from left to right The small variation is expected since the heat sink material aluminum has a much higher thermal conductivity than air which is also poorly mixed In this simulation the heat sink model is expanded with the equations for conservation of energy in the air around the heat sink and the fluid flow equations which express conservation of mass and momentum The whole system of equations is discretized and solved with the finite element method The Processes Involved in Finite Element Analysis For historical reasons traditional finite element analysis refers to models based around structural mechanics and to a lesser extent heat transfer Since the popularity of modeling multiphysics applications has increased and due to the fact that the finite element method is widely used for fluid flow and electromagnetics simulations the term finite element analysis has also become more accepted in other engineering and science fields No matter what the application field is the processes involved in finite element analysis are the same Below is a summary of the main workflow from geometry to model documentation Geometry Finite element analysis requires that the model geometry is water tight Computer aided design CAD geometries are not always used for analysis This implies that for example something that is a volume in the real world can be described by a set of loosely connected 3D surfaces in a CAD drawing In finite element analysis these surfaces have to actually form a real volume Even if a set of 3D surfaces in a CAD drawing do form a volume some surfaces may be slender and some edges may be unnecessarily short in relation to the size of the geometry This results in an undesirable concentration of elements at the offending geometrical features In order to prepare a CAD geometry for finite element analysis repairing and defeaturing of the geometry is often required Repairing patches the parts of the geometry that are not water tight while defeaturing may remove slender surfaces or merge unnecessary small edges The process of creating repairing and defeaturing CAD geometry for analysis is usually part of a larger process traditionally denoted as preprocessing in FEA Materials The constitutive laws in a mathematical model involve physical properties of the materials The properties may depend on the modeled variables the dependent variables For example in an analysis of thermal expansion mechanical and thermal properties often depend on the temperature Thermal conductivity of air as a function of temperature In practice this involves estimating the correct validity intervals for the material properties and the correct reference point In addition different materials have to be attributed to the different parts of the geometry In traditional FEA the process of defining and attributing material properties and functions of the material properties is usually also regarded as being a part of preprocessing Domain Settings Boundary Conditions Loads and Constraints In structural mechanics the mathematical model may be defined by the selected materials loads and constraints on the system In general the materials domain equations boundary conditions and initial conditions define the mathematical model Heat Transfer in Solids interface The temperaturedependent properties are included in the description The equations are displayed for transparency The domain equations in the heat sink are automatically defined by selecting the Heat Transfer in Solids interface The temperaturedependent properties are included in the description The equations are displayed for transparency This part of the analysis involves selecting geometrical domains boundaries edges and points and attributing equations loads or constraints to these geometrical entities The process of defining these settings is usually regarded as part of preprocessing in traditional FEA as well Mesh The definition of geometry materials domain settings boundary conditions initial conditions loads and constraints can be carried out without discretization However in many older FEA software this is still done for the discretized model The numerical model becomes complete once the mesh is created Different phenomena and analyses require varied mesh settings For example in wave propagation problems such as modeling elastic waves in structural mechanics or electromagnetic waves in radio frequency analysis the size of the largest element has to be substantially smaller than the wavelength in order to resolve the problem In fluid flow boundary layer meshes may be required in order to resolve boundary layers while the cell Reynolds number may determine the element size in the bulk of the fluid The mesh at the solid surfaces is refined by using boundary layer meshing for fluid flow modeling In many cases different parts of a CAD geometry have to be meshed separately The model variables have to be matched by the FEA software at the interfaces between the different parts The matching can be done through continuity constraints ie boundary conditions that relate the finite element discretizations of the different parts to each other Due to the possible nonlocal character of these conditions they are often called multipoint constraints Meshing is considered to be one of the most difficult tasks of preprocessing in traditional FEA In modern FEA packages an initial mesh may be automatically altered during the solution process in order to minimize or reduce the error in the numerical solution This is referred to as adaptive meshing Solution If creating the mesh is considered a difficult task then selecting and setting the solvers and obtaining a solution to the equations which constitute the numerical model in a reasonable computational time is an even more difficult task The difficulty is associated with a variety of challenges First of all the discretized model can be very large in terms of algebraic equations A 3D model can easily have several million degrees of freedom A central part of the solution process for numerical models originating from the finite element method is to solve a large linear system of algebraic equations Nonlinear parametric eigenvalue and timedependent problems are treated with iterative methods where a sequence of large linear systems are solved Large linear systems are in general difficult to solve efficiently Black box methods exist but they are often too expensive for realistic models Examples are direct solvers based on LU factorization methods or generalpurpose iterative methods To find a successful and nearoptimal alternative some sort of structure of the underlying system has to be exploited For multiphysics problems such a structure might not exist or may be difficult to identify In such cases it can be useful to split the problem into its physics constituents for which it is known how to exploit the structure To accelerate the iterative solution process for linear systems modern FEA packages use geometric or algebraic multigrid methods The nonlinearity of models is another source of problems for FEA solvers Newton methods use local derivative information to search for better solution candidates which is only reliable if the current estimate of the solution is close enough to the true numerical solution In practice the initial guess for the solution is not always close enough and the Newton method is usually not sufficient to use in such cases Different simplifications or relaxations of the problem may be useful Instead of the original problem a simpler nearby problem may be solved to provide a solution candidate For example one may neglect certain nonlinearities to obtain a linear problem that can be solved easily Segregated and continuation solvers are developed for these purposes A third class of difficulties encountered by FEA solvers involves the fact that the numerical model might not be stable or for other reasons does not give a good approximation to the mathematical model In these situations the solution process might be much more difficult than for a more benign and wellbehaved numerical model It may be difficult to detect and understand the reason for this problem In many cases the remedy can be to modify the model in some way other than through the solver settings A better adapted mesh is often an important ingredient in model behavior improvement All in all the options to set up the solvers need to be very flexible and at the same time give access to powerful methods Often a compromise has to be struck between robustness and performance It is always good practice to perturb the numerical model to investigate how sensitive it is This serves two related purposes to check if the model is numerically stable and quantify the truncation errors for some significant quantity of interest in the FEA at hand Usually but not always the truncation errors from the finite element discretization dominate the errors in a simulation For this purpose a critical derived value in the model can be compared against a typical mesh element size The computation is then repeated with different meshes ideally two other meshes that differ significantly from the current If things are in order with the numerical model the order of accuracy can be estimated from the comparison If the order of accuracy is positive then the difference of the studied quantity between the two finest meshes can serve as an estimate of the truncation error for this quantity It is not always possible to create several meshes that satisfy all requirements a comparison between two radically different meshes will then have to serve as a substitute A small difference indicates that the numerical model is wellbehaved and that the truncation error is small for this quantity However if the difference is large it is more difficult to draw any conclusions Such differences may be caused by an instability or poor accuracy in both meshes However it is possible that the fine mesh solution is accurate while the coarse mesh solution is poor Even if the truncation error estimate is uncertain it can be useful to at least rule out the risk that the model is unstable eg by using yet another mesh that is comparable but Results Analyzing the results from a numerical solver involves investigating 3D plots of the modeled fields crosssection plots such as xy plots and also evaluating derived values such as integrals over volumes surfaces or edges or values of expressions along edges or in a point In older FEA packages the plots and derived values to be analyzed had to be defined before the solution was ran Omission of some key definitions means that the solution has to be carried out once again from the beginning The definition of the expressions and derived values to be analyzed in postprocessing is therefore considered a part of preprocessing Modern FEA packages allow for the definition of expressions and derived values on the fly after the solution has been computed In these packages the definition of expressions and derived values is part and parcel of postprocessing to drill down on model predictions The generation and analysis of 3D plots surface plots xy plots and tabulated values from expressions and derived values is proper postprocessing Pressure loss along the direction of the flow at the line at the top of the fin blue and at the bottom green The pressure loss is slightly larger at the bottom since the flow has to travel around the relatively large cross section of the heat sink base An important task in postprocessing is to estimate the error in the numerical solution As mentioned above this can be achieved by solving the numerical model equations for different mesh sizes in order to estimate the convergence of the numerical solution Another important part of postprocessing is to estimate the sensitivity of the model to the different data such as material properties initial conditions boundary conditions loads constraints and other input parameters required in the mathematical and numerical models Automatic Model Documentation Once a simulation has been ran it is important that the input data and the simulation results are summarized in a report that documents the specific session Modern FEA software can define a report structure where the user can select which inputs and outputs should be documented Such reports can then be automatically generated and saved as documentation to be used as a future reference for each simulation First page of a report from a simulation of the heat sink Once the structure is created the report is automatically updated for every simulation and can be saved under different names to document simulations The report contains a problem definition section with domain settings boundary settings initial condition mesh and number of degrees of freedom The results contain the derived values and plots that are included in the model file FEA Development Trends The FEA process incorporates many steps as seen in the overview above Many details such as the choice of numerous parameters which control the solution process have been successfully automated and do not need much user attention FEA is much more streamlined today than the software of the last generation and its available to engineers and smaller enterprises at affordable prices However a lot remains to be done so that FEA potential can provide better engineering designs that can be fully realized Both algorithms and user interfaces are continuously being improved An important current trend is to lighten the burden of computational method details on the engineers designers and researchers who use FEA for their specific applications New software interfaces are being developed to help an FEA expert build applicationspecific tools together with an application expert which allows the engineer to concentrate on design tasks instead of babysitting sensitive computations The availability of cheap cloud computing resources when combined with secure means of data transport will enable intensified computational campaigns in design projects The past and present of mathematical modeling and FEA software is a success story The nextgeneration software will be a significant step Not only will the numbers be crunched with less engineering effort the analyses will be more accurate thus supporting the whole product chain from conception to production The future for mathematical modeling with FEA software sure does look bright The future looks bright for FEA Published January 13 2015 Last modified February 21 2017

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


PSA Do Not Take Your Concealed Carry Guns to Canada By Craig Martin on August 31 2016 in Law National Pinterest Photo courtesy of the New Yorker In recent weeks there have been some issues at our Northern border involving tourists heading into Canada with concealed firearms This has caused the Canadian border patrol to put out reminders for US citizens traveling to the country as to just how Canada handles guns Its obvious that a different country will have different laws but a lot of Americans see Canada as an extension of itself sometimes when it comes to guns The idea of hunting in the Canadian frontier is a romantic view that many Americans have and while it is true that Americans can bring guns to Canada for hunting trips it is not the case for concealed carry Nonrestricted firearms can be used for hunting purposes and protection against wildlife in remote areas according to the Canadian Border Services Agency But the use of firearms for personal protection or protection of property is not deemed a valid purpose to import firearms into Canada This reminder is due to two separate incidents in recent weeks in which Texans entered the country with handguns a shotgun and loose ammunition in their cars In each situation the tourists were also handed 775 USD fines had their firearms confiscated and were barred entrance to the country Now while these situations were the ones mentioned in the report and as the reason for the Canadian governments reminder they were hardly the only incidents From January to June of this year 413 guns were seized at the border both from smugglers as well as concealed carriers The figure is up from 386 guns seized during the same period in 2015 according to government figures The Canadian government is also worried about its recent rise in violent crime and is attributing some of the statistics to gun smuggling from the United States So if you are a concealed carrier and take a look at a reciprocity map to know whether or not you can take your gun to a specific state just view our neighbors to the north as one big no carry zone Pinterest About Craig Martin Craig Martin grew up in the unincorporated town of Lewis Wisconsin From a young age Craig was introduced to guns as he was tasked with defending his backwood homes wiring from a scourge of red squirrelsEver the animal lover though Craig couldnt let these creatures die needlessly So he would take his kills and leave them for the foxes coyotes and bears to eat at a deer feeder his grandfather built around their homeHis lifestyle made Craig understand that guns are a tool and ever since has spread the word about how firearms are not a menace like the red View all posts by Craig Martin Border Crossing Canada Canadian Gun Law concealed carry gun law guns International Concealed Carry traveling Episode 48 SelfDefense Situations In Which You Should NOT Use Your Gun How to Download your States Concealed Carry Reciprocity Map 6 Responses to PSA Do Not Take Your Concealed Carry Guns to Canada Logan November 30 2016 at 1037 am Canadians are a bunch of pussies I want a gun A Canadian Reply Arthur Harleman April 30 2018 at 855 am How would one transport a handgun to Alaska if they planned to drive Reply Jacob Paulsen April 30 2018 at 1244 pm There is no way to do that legally that Im aware of Potentially there is some way to petition via some amount of paperwork in advance of reaching to border but if that is an option Ive never been able to find it Randy A August 19 2018 at 839 am Im told you have to ship it from an FFL to an Alaska FFL Nolan Raborn August 16 2018 at 622 pm I will not travel to any destination where I can not take my means of protection I am 81 years old can not fight hand to hand and can not run I refuse to be helpless and if I can not protect myself I will not go Reply John August 17 2018 at 426 am First of all wont be traveling to Canada anytime soon for vacation or hunting or fishing until they lower their tariffs on US goods Fair playing field is the answer JP Reply Find A Course Near You We currently have instructors in the RED states above Click on your state to see our upcoming class schedule Click Here For A Bigger Map Our Core Content Gun Control Gun Safety Statistics and Research The Laws

O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Concession Equipment Benchmark 8oz Street Vendor Popcorn Machine 11080 Benchmark 11080 Street Vendor Popcorn Machine 120V 1430W 12A 8 oz 55999 Gold Medal Kettle Corn Popcorn Machine 1214oz 2552kc Gold medal Popcorn machine Pop Maxx Kettle Corn Popcorn Popper wi 107999 Gold Medal Breeze Cotton Candy Machine 3030 The Breeze Cotton Candy Machine from Gold Medal is an excellent m 77900 Concession Supplies Free Shipping in USA Customers located outside of the contiguous USA and other international buyers please email us for a shipping quote Call us 4252962888

B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

concession equipment
concession supplies


Mileage Calculator using Google Maps SAP Concur Team September 1 2017 Concur mobile app users can use Google Maps to provide trip distances making car mileage expenses easier than ever The Mileage Calculator can be used for both personal and company car mileage The example below shows personal mileage For company car mileage you simply create an expense as usual and select the Company Car Mileage expense type If you need a mileage calculator look no further than the Concur mobile app and Google maps

B I O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O B I


Usher Duties What Does An Usher Do Exactly 9th April 2018 By Leanne Smith 14 Comments 34 No matter how excited or cool calm and collected the groom may say he is hell undoubtedly be a little nervous and will need the moral support of his nearest and dearest friends Whether youre family or lifelong friends if youre chosen to be one of your mates groomsmen youve been honoured with a big responsibility Were here to help you suss your usher duties If youve been chosen as the best man read up on your best man duties General Usher Duties As an usher youll generally be asked to ensure everyone is getting along both in the run up to the big day and on the wedding day itself You may find that your skills are especially needed if your fellow ushers dont know each other Both the best man and the groom will appreciate any help they can get in getting the group together and ensuring that everyone is comfortable around one another Its a good idea to set aside some time to discuss this with the best man and the groom its also a nice idea to plan a Usher Duties Before the Wedding Featured above Kristina and Maxs Seriously Stylish Wedding at Westminster Abbey Unlike the best man you wont have a laundry list of tasks to complete ahead of the big day but you should be available in any situations where assistance is required Although its traditionally the best man wholl sort the stag do you might want to be on hand to help out with securing bookings putting a deposit down on whatever activity you decide to do and generally making sure the lads have a great time Usher Duties During the Wedding Ceremony Featured above Personalised Burlap Aisle Runner With Equestrian Monogram The perfect usher is ready to leap into action at a moments notice putting his friends happiness above his own on their wedding day The perfect usher is a calm and polite helper who enhances the smooth running of the day On the big day your duties will include anything from directing guests to their seats at the ceremony to helping wheelchair bound guests find their place in the venue to acting as a back up for storing important phone numbers of suppliers and key wedding party members On the morning of the wedding ushers will most likely have their transport already arranged by the groom or travel to the ceremony together with the groom and best man As an usher you should ensure you arrive no less than half an hour before the ceremony ideally well before any early guests You may at this time collect your buttonhole order of service sheets seating plans etc and discuss any issues Youll probably be asked to Escort guests from their cars to the venue knowing what British weather is like we suggest you have a brolly to hand Assist with getting guests cars parkedyou wont be a valet but you should have a general knowledge of where guests can and cant park their cars You should know the parking arrangements around the venue the location of the toilets any alternative exits and any other practical and useful information Help direct guests to which side of the venue they should sit although this is a more traditional role and more modern ceremonies encourage all of the guests to sit together Assist with directing guests to their seats perhaps seating mothers with babies in the aisle seats and being aware of any elderly guests who may need additional assistance Inform the arriving guests not to use flash photography or that confetti is not allowed in particular areas of the venue Escorting both the motherofthebride and the motherofthegroom to their seats Stand at the entrance of the venue handing out Order of Service sheets if these cant be found on everyones seats At least one usher may remain at the back of the venue greeting latecomers and helping them find a seat without too much disruption Traditionally the ushers then join the bridal party to escort the bridesmaids after the bride makes her entrancethis may not be the case if the bride prefers the bridesmaids to walk behind her alone Ushers with the help of the bridesmaids may also help to look after any other attendants especially the young flower girls and page boys Its a good idea to make sure the parents of the youngest bridal party members are seated near the front of the ceremony venue just in case At the end of the ceremony the ushers may traditionally escort the bridesmaids at the recessional following the newlyweds Usher Duties After the Wedding Ceremony Featured above Ana and Kevins Romantic Italian Castle Wedding in Tuscany The ushers may be expected to help the photographer arrange the guests for the confetti shot and then for the formal pictures Informs guests where to gather for photos after the ceremony They may also help with directing the guests to the wedding breakfast or reception venue Be available to the best man and the groom in case they need to lend a hand with anything else Usher Duties During the Wedding Reception Featured above Browse our beautiful vintage wedding theme If getting to the reception room requires any directions for example at a large hotel the ushers may direct the guests to the appropriate room upon arrival Ushers may be required to make a wedding speech If they are paired up with bridesmaids they may be expected to join the newlyweds together on the floor at some point during the first dance The ushers may also give instructions to other guests about where to leave the wedding gifts and cards direct guests to cloakrooms and toilets and remind them to take their belongings with them at the end of the evening Tactfully handle intoxicated guests at the reception so they do not cause unnecessary upset Ensure that no guests attempt to drive who are under the influence have a list of cab companies ready to taxi guests home if need be What the Groom Should Know about Ushers When choosing your ushers its important to be selective Remember your ushers will be there to support and assist you so choose friends or family who you know are reliable and willing to get the job done Finally its customary to give ushers a gift when asking them to be a member of your wedding party Here are four of our favourite gifts that are perfect for your groomsmen 1 A For My Groomsman Gift Box Featured above For My Groomsman Premium Gift Box featuring Metallic Gold Sunglasses Gold Nautical Anchor Bottle Opener Flask Mixed Metallics Jumbo Party Tissue Confetti in White Gold Silver and Black and a bottle of beer with a Personalised Metallic Gold Foil Label 2 3 Personalised Pocket Watch and Vintage Hip Flask Featured above Gunmetal Mechanical Pocket Watch Personalised Clear Glass Flask 4 Personalised Sports Bag Featured above Sports Bag Grey shown with an Insulated Water Bottle For more on ushers check out our article What Do Ushers Wear Written by Leanne Smith Leanne enjoys being a highly creative person with a lifelong passion for art music books and writing 14 Replies to Usher Duties What Does An Usher Do Exactly Confused Are Ushers and Groomsmen the same Ushers are not part of the wedding partyare they I always thought their part in the wedding was to attend to the guest Please explain Jul 14 2013 835pm Agnes Los Hello and thank you for your comment Groomsmen is a name given to the male attendants including the best man just as bridesmaids is given to the female attendants including the chief bridesmaid Then they are called by their tasks best man is the best man while the rest of the groomsmen have the role of the ushers that is support at the wedding and taking care of the guests Hope this helps please let us know if you have any other questions Jul 15 2013 827am glynis I have been asked to be an usher at my nieces wedding As a female are there any particular duties Aug 21 2013 133pm Agnes Los Hello Glynis congratulations on being chosen an usherette how lovely The duties arent much different than those for a male usher but its a good idea to ask the bride and groom to see if they have anything else theyd like to do especially Aug 21 2013 157pm Vane What Is The appropriate Dress to wear to an ushering interview Apr 22 2017 918pm Kate Thompson Are you being interviewed by the bride and groom or their parents Either way I would say that smart or smart casual should be fine A suit may be more appropriate if you are going to meet the brides parents for a very formal wedding Apr 24 2017 1232pm Clara Is it professional for an usher to give thier contact to guest on post or after the event May 2 2017 914am Kate Thompson Hi Clara Its fine for an usher to give their contact details to a guest at or after the wedding Its up to the guest whether or not they choose to follow them up Kind regards Kate May 10 2017 1137am Sulaiman Hello Kate What exactly do I need to begin an ushering business I really want to start this business Please advise Jul 16 2017 712am Kate Thompson Hi there Im not really sure what you mean by an ushering business exactly so Im guessing youre planning to sellhire out suits and accessories for ushers and perhaps also offer gifts for ushers as we do here in the Confetti shop If this is what youre thinking of offering then Id advise including the groom best man and fathers of the bride and groom too as most couples looking for suits information and accessories for ushers will also be looking for the rest of the men in the bridal party at the same time You could also offer page Jul 17 2017 119pm Tolulope Ajayi Hi Kate I love this article Im from Nigeria and I think the job description for an event usher here in Nigeria is a bit different Oct 30 2017 1146pm Alexis Iregbulem Yea it is Am also from Nigeria Mar 26 2018 447pm Ibrahim sabdat How do one start up an ushering agency Pls guideline pls Feb 17 2018 1131am Kate Thompson Agencies of this type in the UK tend to provide help for large corporate events rather than weddings Brides and groomstobe tend to simply ask friends and family to act as ushers at their wedding and their main job tends to be showing guests where to sit I recommend you look for advice on this from a small business advisory service Best of luck with your new venture Feb 19 2018 1026am

B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O