PPS Pulse per Second simple as that Published on February 17 2017 Scholarship hypothetically makes men wiser many times though it gets one stubborn Dont get perplexed With all the intricacy involved the rudiments are straightforward The concept of PPS originated with the mans quest in space The atomic clocks orbiting around the earth in GPS satellites are utilised to obtain accurate timing Today PPS is found in applications requiring synchronisation such as cellular networks telecommunications timing digital TV and radio transmission calibration laboratory systems internet stock market computer games and precision stuff like surveys where various data have to correspond in respect to time The atomic clocks in the GPS satellites are monitored and compared to master clocks by the GPS Operational Control Segment this GPS time is steered to within one microsecond of Universal Time GPS receivers provide 1PPS output signal This pulse normally has a rising edge aligned with the GPS second and is used to discipline local clocks to maintain synchronisation with Universal Time UT Time is crucial in hydrographic multi beam survey because each piece of data received from a device is immediately stored in the raw data files in order to correlate it with data coming from other devices ie motion sensors heading position and sound velocity we need to stamp the time when the measurement was taken This note is in particular relevance with offshore hydrographic surveybut in general it will be good in all relevant contexts A computer systems clock speed is measured as a frequency usually expressed as a number of cycles per second A crystal oscillator controls clock speeds and its oscillator circuitry is in the motherboard chipset As voltage is applied to the quartz it begins to vibrate oscillate at a harmonic rate dictated by the shape and size of the crystal sliver The oscillations emanate from the crystal in the form of a current that alternates at the harmonic rate of the crystal This alternating current is the clock signal that forms the time base on which the computer operates The computer While totally rigorous testing of timing pulses requires an atomic clock reference useful information can be gathered using a surveygrade dualfrequency GPS receiver as the timing reference This sounds relatively straight forward however various positioning system manufacturers provide this Time Synchronization timing data in various forms Time stamps are sent before or after the pulse and the time reference can be the rising or falling flank of the pulse Some receivers have time offsets between time message and pulse Note While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time UTC the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time GPST The difference in UTC from GPS time is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC However GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific time zone values GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds However most receivers lose accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 nanoseconds if not more In case of a TTL Time Synchronization Connector t he electronic pulse from GPS system is fed in a computer through the TTL device that converts the electronic pulse to a dedicated message that can be read via the computer IO port The actual time message which contains the absolute UTC time value can be read from another computer IO port just like any other data read from the GPS receiver Combining the electronic pulse and the corresponding time value in the survey software an absolute GPSbased UTC clock is generated This clock is based on a high resolution timer which gives a much better resolution than the standard internal Windows timer that is limited to a 10 to 15 millisecond resolution This high resolution timer is the common time reference frame for the data string from all interfaced sensors The accuracy of this internal 1 Time Synchronization UTC clock is expected to be better than 05 milliseconds Time Synchronization signal must be through the computer serial communications port preferably Com 1 having a dedicated hardware IRQ interrupt request line and not a channel of a multicomms board or worse a serial to USB converter There is a time difference offset in different GPS receivers The standard deviation of this offset provides a measure of the pulse stability or jitter There are two factors to be considered in judging performance as an indicator of jitter One Average offset time Two Standard deviation of the offset However once the average offset is known it can be compensated for Timing compensation can be made in some receivers The 1 pps output doesnt come directly from a satellite It comes from the receivers own internal clock That clock is synchronised with the satellites The 1 pps output doesnt go away if the receiver looses reception it just gets less accurate Time Tag accuracy falling beyond 400 ms error Time tag Pulse matching In this case there is system latency as Time tag arrival and time tag accuracy are just the same however beyond a certain point of time the accuracy gets beyond the time synchronisation software acceptance limit Through the options you can guide the synchronisation software on time tagging The great majority of devices does not give or use computer or the processor time of the measurement as part of the data string so we are forced to assume that the arrival time of the message is the actual time of the measurement To compensate for the difference between the arrival time of the data that we use as our timetag and the real time of the measurement we can subtract a latency time which is exactly that the time interval between the measurement and the arrival of the data string with that measurement Lets take an simple example of a GPS receiver On the integer second the receiver measures the signal propagation time from each of the satellites and starts calculating its position After solving the many equations involved and feeding the results through some filters Kalman and other filters it finally generates a position value that is sent out through a NMEA GGA message By the time we receive the GGA string the boat has moved from where it was at the integer second and the depth values coming from the echo sounder are also quite different The timeline would be Computer time GPS time Observation 12305040 GPGGA123040012131415N7020567W In this case the GPS has a latency of 40 ms compared to the computer time Thereby if the computer took 10 ms to compute and send the data to QINSy 12305001 103m 12305011 105m 12305021 107m 12305031 108m 12305040 GPGGA1230500 12305041 109m 12305051 111m If you didnt notice keep reading In this case the GPS has a latency of 40 ms compared to the computer time The echo sounder depth at system time 12304041 is 103m while the GPS time tag for the same time will have a depth 109m Thereby the computer takes 10 ms to compute and send the data to QINSy By the time the GPS sent the data to QINSy The echo sounder depth at system time 12304041 is 103m while the GPS time tag for the same time will have a depth 111m hypothetically considering no latency in echo sounder data This is a simplification as QINSy does not assign depth values to positions instead it assigns positions to depth values but the effect is the same for our purposes The GPS position string contains the time of validity of the position 1230400 but we can not use it because the computer clock is not synchronised to the GPS clock Data coming from the echo sounder does not contain any timing information so we must continue to use the computer clock for it and we can only hope that we get little latency If we knew that the GPS latency is 04 seconds we could just subtract this latency from the arrival time of the GGA message GPS latency would be fixed and likewise we could fix System latency of 01 seconds if we knew it Sensor Output latency is the latency between physical sensor measurement and availability of these measurements on the computer IO port resulting in timing error effects Moreover latencies may vary with the chosen output rate message type and selected interface protocol Sensor data through LAN interfaces instead of the common RS232 interface that has time stamping ofthe data upon receipt in the computer is far too inaccurate to provide survey grade quality Network delays are unpredictable and variable influenced by any activity on the network Multibeam echo sounders provide their data through LAN also provide the interface to the 1 pulse per second Time Synchronization and UTC time message so data is internally time stamped to the UTC time frame The data from a sensor can be received 5 seconds late in the data acquisition system As long as the data is accompanied by the proper UTC time stamp it can be placed in its correct perspective The UTC driven sensor ring buffer principle in the survey software takes care of the correct placement and interpolation of sensor data for the moment of the actual ping fix etc in UTC time frame To conclude there are internal sensor latencies and issues with proper handling of data on data acquisition system System latency is the time from when a piece of equipment computes a value until it is actually transmitted to your computer It isnt difficult to roughly estimate the increase of internal sensor latency when it switched from position calculation with 5 satellites to 10 satellites or from standalone GPS to RTK positioning This was most evident in older GPS receivers but as technology improves we see smaller latency values Improvements in the offset standard deviation are observed when operating the GPS receivers in timeonly solution mode The simplest method to determine the latency is to run the latency calibration test Run the same line over a sloping bottom in opposite directions and process the two data files to the calibration software The software if set to auto mode goes through the data files adds a latency value recalculates sounding positions with that latency value then calculates the depth differences at each point between the two files It then changes the latency value and repeats the whole process With a bit of luck we may end up with a Ushaped curve of average depth differences and the bottom of the curve indicates the best fit between the two profiles That is the latency value indicated by the calibration LATENCY software The resulting latency is not only the latency of the GPS but more of a global system latency involving the GPS computer and echo sounder All gets combined in the calculated latency value but we choose to call it GPS latency because traditionally the GPS is responsible for most of it Once a latency value is determined it can be entered into the Multi beam hardware configuration as GPS latency and that value will be subtracted from all time tags for that device Offshore Argentina Multi beam processed survey data with latency issues As opposed to all other corrections the latency value is subtracted from the time tags This is one of the rare cases where we write corrected values in raw data files Offshore Argentina Multi beam processed survey data with resolved latency issues Even after correcting data for latency we need time synchronization as there are errors affecting the calculated latency value Not running the two lines exactly one on top of the other Changes in depth correction factors tide draft sound velocity Jumps in position due to poor GPS positioning or reflections bridges piers vessels etc GPS position quality offsets survey conditions offline distance and even computer ports can influence the latency preferably use Com 1 do not use USB to serial adaptors Dont base your latency value on one test Run as many lines as possible and take an average Run your lines as close to the planned line as you can and scrutinize those graphs and profiles Also the latency value can change depending on factors such as the number of satellites Therefore we try to synchronise the computer clock with the GPS clock and take advantage of the time of applicability contained in the GPS messages If we can synchronize the two clocks we can use the time tags provided by the GPS receiver for data coming from it and the synchronized computer clock for data coming from other devices like the echo sounder For this purpose as mentioned earlier NMEA ZDA message that seems almost perfect for this purpose as it contains just the GPS time and date The PPS pulse and the ZDA string are paired and go togetherThe ZDA string says what the time of the previous PPS pulse was So the exact time when the ZDA sting turns up isnt relevant as long as it isnt more than a second old In practice you read in a ZDA add one second to it store the result and apply it when the next PPS comes in So you shouldnt need to timestamp the ZDA string at all until the time tag accuracy requirements are less than 5 milliseconds In a construction job we just input a ZDA string to a PPS driver in the Navigation software For multibeam surveys however we feed a PPS along with a ZDA The IHO specifications for hydrographic survey accuracies How it all evolved Years ago we used a fairly naive approach to synchronization where we would take the ZDA message and set the computer clock to the time indicated in that message The problem with this approach is that the two clocks can and will drift in time and unfortunately you can not redo the synchronization in the middle of logging a data file because it would wreak havoc with all the time tags This is a software loop In electronics terms call it a PLL Phase Lock Loop that constantly monitors the difference between the GPS clock and the computer clock and slowly changes the computer clock to match the GPS clock This basically was a time management model If you turn on synchronization and you run the latency test you should obtain latency very close to 0 The latency is not always Zero when using synchronization Sometimes the resulting latency is still quite appreciable and this has to do with how the ZDA message is sent In the NMEA standard there is no specification that the ZDA message should be exactly on the integer second or about the accuracy of the time indicated in the message If we look at a typical ZDA message GPZDA16344801409032011000057 We see that the GPS unit bothered to output the time to milliseconds resolution so we can hope that it started to send the ZDA message at that exact moment This is however not the norm for all GPS receivers Other receivers could send the same message as GPZDA163448090320110000 Without any milliseconds and send it somewhere during that second but without paying much attention to its timing If the GPS sends ZDA messages more often than once per second there is a complete mayhem Every time it will jump off its rails and very soon you will see the dreaded SYNC FAIL error in the Pulse synchronisation program For fans of electronics each PLL loop has a certain bandwidth and sending ZDA messages more often than once per second falls outside the time bandwidth In case the ZDA messages are sent less than one per second once every 2 or 5 seconds It will workwithout doing any good because the time management model will adjust the clock model only when it receives a ZDA message we are allowing the two clocks to drift apart for a longer interval The pulse per second output from the GPS receiver This is an electrical pulse that we bring through a small level converter to a RS232 pin the CTS signal and use it as reference to our PLL loop instead of the ZDA message To use the PPS pulse we need a PPS box that does the electrical adaptation of the GPS signal to the RS232 levels The ZDA message is still needed because we need to know the clock reading when the PPS pulse occurred This is the most accurate method one can currently use to synchronise the GPS and computer clock As a rule of thumb the latency errors we can expect are Latency test software 50 to 100ms but can change unexpectedly ZDA message for time sync 2030 ms good enough for single beam PPS signal for time sync 15 ms good for multi beam To check synchronization or compare the PPS pulse to the ZDA message the ZDA time plot program that shows a graph of the synchronization error between the GPS clock and the computer clock In case the synchronization doesnt work on the computer take heart in knowing that you arent the only one its the possibly the hardware Usually latency issues manifest in old systems that are irregularly or improperly maintained Basically its the electronics wear and tear due to moisture or heat causing eddy current and dielectric leakage Simply switch off the systemwait for 30 seconds not only to send across a silent prayer but also to reset the time induced mismatch of data speed in the micro processor and IO devices the drivers and to clear the data buffer and restart You may also consider upgrading the computer itself or its hardware reinstalling the software and upgrading it if available Uninstall unnecessary programs and check the Task manager for unnecessary startup programs CPU and Memory performance Quite often the computer is at lack of space What I intent to suggest is that technical common sense is many times the solution Delete the temp files Suggested workarounds In Computer management Device Manger Ports COM LPT Right Click the PPS com port and check Advanced box in Port Settings FIFO First In First Out buffer select the Receive buffer to Low Disable the Rx FIFO settings or specify the minimal value possible for the sensors eg an MRU with timing sensitive data Also use the highest possible baud rate for input data strings The CPU load increase due to the lowering of the Rx FIFO buffer is marginal and there is negligible increase in CPU load if only the ports receiving timing sensitive data have lowered or disabled Rx FIFO buffers Usually it takes some time for the operating system to respond to the serial character reception event This is caused by the time slice which is 10 milliseconds on a single CPU computer and it introduces a potential latency between 0 and 10 milliseconds caused by the time difference between the actual event and the handling of the event the next time slice FIFO firstin firstout buffers allows the survey software to pick all received data for a particular time slice The accuracy of time tagging serial data depends highly on the hardware and accompanied operating system drivers and how they use the internal PC IRQ lines Windows XP systems Open the System properties dialog box Control Panel System and select the Advanced tab and under Start up and Recovery click Settings Add the string useptimer at the end of the line with the operating system Save the file and reboot your system Windows 7 Disable Intel SpeedSetp Technology in your BIOS settings Go ahead investigating and do keep me posted In Multibeam systems where these echo sounders are also fed the PPS pulse from the GPS it sends UTC timetagged data output QINSy time tags the other system inputs Similar options for time tagging are available in the POSMV We are coming to a phase where all systems will be time tagging their data and be getting synchronised thereby latency concerns will be reduced if not removed Disclaimer This note is a compilation of extracts from my scribble books I expect the readers to employ prudence as variance ambiguity and errors typo included can be expected though Ive exercised reasonable care in preparation of these notes during my training onthejob experiences and as an Instructor Since Ive no control over the use to which the information in my notes are put so I assume no liability and of course its your responsibility to determine its appropriateness and proper use It is my endeavor if time network bandwidth permits to provide personal responses to requests for additional information technical or troubleshooting advice etc For queries suggestions ambiguity or errors feel welcome to comment share and you may also post me at dpsksurveytechoutlookcom So we are good Gracious amigos Deepak Kaira Freelancing Sr Survey engineer Survey Party Chief Scanfish pilot Follow 1 comment to leave your comment Show more comments

O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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Salomon v Salomon Relevance to modern Company Law Published on December 8 2016 ABSTRACT The rigid construct of company law Salomon v A Salomon established a centuryold principle that is the separate juristic personality of a corporation out of which the legal structure of modern business was born and the so called corporate veil remains unchallenged This unyielding rock protects shareholders private assets and provides a method of limitation of liability which is acceptable by company law in order to facilitate business development and international trade A rigid application of the principle however may sometimes cause damage to the rights of parties who deal with the corporate because its controllers may be using the Thus the court therefore provided various exceptions to the rule which allows for the lifting of the veil of the rigid construct as provided for in Salomon v Salomon These exceptions have been a basis for continuous debate amongst legal scholars as to whether they render the centuryold principle out of place and relevance in modern company law This paper critically addresses this debate clearly stating that the principle as enunciated in Salomon v Salomon is still relevant in modern company law as it examines the case in discussion both the Court of Appeal decision and House of Lords decision examines the principle of Corporate Personality examines the advantages and disadvantages of Corporate personality and limited liability and examines the concept of lifting the veil of incorporation Keywords Company law Corporate Personality Limited Liability lifting the veil Salomon v Salomon Co Ltd INTRODUCTION The general rule in relation to companies is that a company is an artificial person separate and distinct from its directors and shareholders and neither the directors nor shareholders are personally liable for the defaults of the company save in special narrowly defined circumstances which form specific exceptions to the general rule The general rule dates back more than a century and was clearly set out in the celebrated English case of Salomon v Salomon Co 1 FACTS OF THE CASE Mr Salomon carried on a business as a leather merchant In 1892 he formed the company Salomon and company Ltd Mr Salomon his wife and five of his children held one share each in the company The members of the family held the shares for Mr Salomon because the Companies Act required at that time that there be seven shareholders Mr Salomon was also managing director of the company The newly incorporated company purchased the sole trading leather business The leather business was valued by Mr Salomon at 39000 This was not an attempt at a fair valuation rather it represented Mr Salomons confidence in the continued success of the business This price was paid in 10000 worth of debentures giving a chance over all the companys assets 20000 shares of 1 each the balance of 9000 was paid to Salomon in cash Mr Salomon also at this point paid off all the sole trading business creditors in full Mr Salomon thus held 20001 shares in the company and his family held the 6 remaining shares He was also because of the debenture a second creditor Therefore Mr Salomons personal liability for the debt of the business had changed completely from unlimited liability to limited liability Not only was Mr Salomon no longer liable personally for the debt of the company but he had also as managing director of the company granted himself a secured charge over all the companys assets Thus if the company failed not only would Mr Salomon have no personal liability for the debts of the company but whatsoever assets were left would be claimed by him to pay off the companys debt to him Things however did not go well for the leather business and within a year Mr Salomon had to sell his debenture to save the business This did not have the desired effect and the company was placed in insolvent liquidation The liquidator on behalf of the unsecured creditors alleged that the company was a mere alias or agent for Mr Salomon and that Mr Salomon was therefore personally liable for the debt of the company JUDGMENT OF THE COURT OF APPEAL In the circumstances of the case Vaughan Williams J and a strong Court of Appeal held that the whole transaction was contrary to the true intent of the Companies Act and the company was a mere sham and an alias simulacrum agent trustee of the nominee Salomon who remained the real proprietor of the business As such Salomon was liable to indemnify the company against its trading debts JUDGMENT OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS Famously and quite seminally the House of Lords by a slim majority of 32 disagreed with the judgment of the Court of Appeal It found that the fact that some of the shareholders only held shares as a technicality was irrelevant the machinery of the Companies Act could be used by an individual to carry out what is in economic reality for his or her business It also emphasized that a company formed in compliance with the regulation of the Companies Act is a separate person and not per se the agent of its controller The decision also affirmed that the use of debentures instead of shares can further protect investors The House of Lords unanimously overturned this decision rejecting the arguments from agency and fraud Salomon followed the required procedures to set the company shares and debentures were issued The House of Lords held that the company has been validly formed since the Act merely required 7 members holding at least one share each There was no fraud as the company was a genuine creature of the Companies Act as there was compliance and it was in line with the requirements of the Registrar of Companies In the words of Lord MacNagthen The company is at law a different person altogether from the subscribers and though it may be that after incorporation the business is precisely the same as it was before and the same persons are managers and the same hands receive the profits the company is not at law the agent of the subscribers or trustee for them Nor are the subscribers as members liable in any shape or form except to the extent and in the manner provided by the Act THE PRINCIPLE ENUNCIATED IN THE CASE From the decision of the House of Lords in the case of Salomon v Salomon the doctrines of corporate personality and limited liability have emerged These two doctrines are recognized as the twin pillars on which modern company law rests and the courts have largely been keen to maintain and sustain it despite an overwhelming number of attacks on it The fundamental attribute of corporate personality from which all the consequences flow is that the corporation is a legal entity distinct from its members Hence it is capable of enjoying rights and of being subject to duties which are not the same as those enjoyed or borne by its members In other words it has legal personality and is often described as an artificial person in contrast with a human being or natural person 2 Therefore a corporation or company registered under the Companies Act is an entity distinct from the persons who compose it or the corporators 3 Thus once the formalities of the Act have been complied with the registered company exists as a legal entity distinct in law from those persons who from time to time are its members It also means that once incorporated a company becomes a body corporate by virtue of Section 41 Companies Act which is Section 37 of the Companies and Allied Matters Act This section alludes to some key features of incorporation namely corporate personality perpetual succession and in some cases Limited Liability The effect of the provision is to make it clear that the members who form a company may cease from the moment of incorporation to be a mere collection or aggregation of individuals as in the case with partnership The decision in Salomon v Salomon Co Ltd according to Gower opened up new vitas to company lawyers and the world of commerce Not only did it finally establish the legality of the oneman company and showed that incorporation was as readily available to the small private partnership and sole trader as to the large public company but it also revealed that it was possible for a trader not merely to limit his liability to the money which he put into the enterprise but even to avoid serious risk to the major part of that by subscribing for debentures rather than shares In Lee v Lees Air Farming Ltd 4 Lee held all but one of the shares in the company and was appointed the governing director and chief pilot of the company on a salary Lee was killed in an air crash while working for the company His widow claimed compensation it was argued that no compensation was payable because Lee and Lees Air Farming Ltd were the same person The Privy Council in applying Salomons case held that Lee was a separate person from the company he formed and compensation was payable Thus the separate personality of a company was established and given judicial recognition DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CORPORATE PERSONALITY AND LIMITED LIABILITY In light of having established corporate personality and limited liability as the twin pillars upon which modern company law rests it is trite to distinguish between the two concepts as they are not one and the same thing Limited liability is the logical consequence of the existence of a separate personality It is a corollary of corporate personality It is important to appreciate the fact that as human beings can have restrictions imposed on their legal personality so also can a company have legal personality without limited liability if that is how it is conferred by the statute That is a company may be registered as an unlimited company without having the benefit of limited liability This is however rare The logic of corporate personality and limited liability was not tested to its full extent until the late 19th century as some notable cases demonstrate and exemplify As a result of this limited liability is available both to small scale and large scale businesses LEGAL CONSEQUENCES OF INCORPORATION As has been established once a company has complied with the provisions of the Companies Act it will be incorporated The incorporation of the company leads to the company becoming an artificial person in law a legal person distinct from the shareholders The following attendant legal consequences will follow 1 Perpetual Succession and Existence Since a company is an artificial person it is not susceptible to the vicissitudes of the flesh It can not become incapacitated by illness mental or physical and does not have an allotted span of life It has perpetual succession or existence regardless of any changes that may take place in the membership as a result of death retirement or any other reason whatsoever Therefore while the death of any individual businessman may put an end to his business and the death of a partner may automatically dissolve the partnership incorporation ensures continuity of the business of the company Even 2 Limited Liability Since the company is a separate person from the members that owns it its members are as such not liable for its debts Hence in the absence of express provision to the contrary the company is wholly liable for all its debts and obligations up to the full extent of its liability and assets Such a company can either be registered as unlimited in which case the members are in effect guarantors of its obligations without any restriction on the amount In the case of a company limited by shares the liability of the members is limited to any amount 3 Property One of the obvious advantages of corporate personality is that it enables the property of the association to be clearly distinguished from that of its members In an unincorporated society the property of the association is the joint property of its members Since a company can act as an ordinary person it can enter into contracts through its authorized persons Therefore it can be a beneficial owner of its property It in no way holds trust for its members and they have no interest in it except such interest that goes with the membership of the company in Macaura v Northern Assurance Co 5 it was held that property of the company belongs to it and not to the individual members so that even if its largest shareholder has no insurable interest in the property of the company 4 Right to Sue and be Sued Another important character which flows from the legal entity concept is the right of the company to sue and its liability to be sued The company as a legal person can take action to enforce its own name That is all legal proceedings must be commenced and prosecuted in the name by which a company is registered This avoids the resorts to the rather circuitous course of representative actions which most unincorporated bodies adopt The rule which follows from this is that the company alone can maintain an action in respect of an injury or wrong done to it as Foss v Harbottle 6 5 Transferable Shares A share in a company constitutes a personal proprietary interest which is transferable with the effect that the transferor drops out and the transferee drops in and assumes his rights and obligations in respect of the shares transferred A registered company under the Companies and Allied Matters Act is free to transfer is shares freely as any other personal estate but it must be done in a manner provided for in the articles of association Where however there is duty to offer the shares to the members then the transferor must offer the shares to the already existing shareholders first Section 222 of the Companies and Allied Matters Act restrict the transfer of shares to the public Such restriction in any event is desirable if such a company is to retain its characters of an incorporated private partnership These attributes when added to the access to credit by the issue of floating charges make the corporate form of enterprise a very advantageous and attractive organization for economic activity at least from the point of view of members ADVANTAGES OF LIMITED LIABILITY Limited Liability which has been established above as being different from Corporate Personality yet a corollary of same has certain advantages They are Risk is minimized for the Investors Management are freed up to take greater risk It allows the public price of shares to be easily determined It allows shareholders to put their personal assets beyond the reach of their personal creditors LIFTING THE CORPORATE VEIL In view of above discussion the chief advantage of incorporation from which all others follow is of course the separate legal entity In reality however the business of the artificial person is always carried on by and for the benefit of some individuals In the ultimate analysis some human beings are the real beneficiaries of the corporate advantages It may therefore happen that the corporate personality of the company is used to commit frauds or improper illegal acts Since an artificial person is not capable of doing anything illegal or fraudulent the facade of corporate personality might have to be removed to identify the persons who are really guilty This is known as lifting the corporate veil Although in general the courts do not interfere and essentially go by the principle of separate entity as laid down in the Solomons case as discussed above However with the passage of time the courts come to realize that there can be fraudulent and mischievous schemes drawn by the promoters and members of the companies and the principle of Solomons case can not be extended to each and every company It may be in the interest of members in general or in public interest to identify and punish the persons who misuse the medium of corporate personality The circumstances under which the courts may lift the corporate veil may broadly be grouped under the following two heads LIFTING OF THE CORPORATE VEIL BY STATUTE The veil of corporate personality may be lifted in certain cases or pierced as per express provisions of the company law In other words the advantage of distinct entity and limited liability may not be allowed to be enjoyed in certain circumstances Such cases may be a Reduction of membership If at any time the number of members is reduced below the statutory minimum and the companies carries on business beyond that minimum while the number is so reduced the law can pierce the corporate veil under the relevant law and makes persons behind the company personally liable in spite of their limited liability otherwise b Misrepresentation in prospectus In case of misrepresentation in a prospectus every director promoter and every other person who authorizes such issue of prospectus incurs liability toward those who subscribed for shares on the faith of untrue statement c Misdescription of name Where officer of a company signs on behalf of the company any contract bill of exchange or any kind of order of money such person shall be personally liable if the name of the company is either not mentioned or is not properly mentioned d Fraudulent conduct Where in case of winding up of the company by members of the company it appears that any business of the company has been carried on with intent to defraud creditors of the company or any other person or for any fraudulent purpose the court may hold such persons liable personally for any liability of the company e Liability for ultra vires acts Directors and other officers of a company will be personally liable for all those acts which they have done on behalf of a company if the same are ultra vires of the company LIFTING THE CORPORATE VEIL BY COURTS Judicial veil lifting situations often present the judiciary with difficult choices as to where the loss should lie As we observed with the Salomon Lee and Macaura cases the consequences of treating the company as a separate legal entity or not can be extreme Over time the judiciary have swung from strictly applying the Salomon principle in these difficult situations to taking a more interventionist approach to try to achieve justice in a particular situation In Jones v Lipman 7 Mr Lipman had entered into a contract with Mr Jones for the sale of land Mr Lipman then changed his mind and did not want to complete the sale He formed a company in order to avoid the transaction and conveyed the land to it instead He then claimed he no longer owned the land and could not comply with the contract The judge found the company was but a façade or front for Mr Lipman and granted an order for specific performance By the 1960s the increasingly sophisticated use of group structures was beginning to cause the courts some In Adams v Cape Industries Plc 1990 Cape an English company mined and marketed asbestos Its worldwide marketing subsidiary was another English company named Capasco It also had a US marketing subsidiary incorporated in Illinois named NAAC In 1974 some 462 people sued Cape Capasco NAAC and others in Texas for personal injuries arising from the installation of asbestos in a factory Cape protested at the time that the Texas court had no jurisdiction over it but in the end it settled the action In 1978 NAAC was closed down by Cape and other subsidiaries were formed with the express purpose of reorganising the business in According to the Court of Appeal that could only be the case if it lifted the veil of incorporation either treating the Cape group as one single entity or finding the subsidiaries were a mere façade or that they were agents for Cape The court found that in cases where the courts had in the past treated a group as a single economic unit thus disregarding the legal separateness of each company in the group the court was involved in interpreting a statute or document This exception to maintaining corporate personality is qualified by the fact that there has to first be some lack of clarity about a statute or document which would allow the court to treat a group as a single entity The court concluded that save in cases which turn on the wording of particular statutes or contracts the court is not free to disregard the principle of Salomon v A Salomon Co Ltd merely because it considers that justice so requires LIFTING THE VEIL IN TORT CASES The problem raised by the application of the Salomon principle to corporate groups is particularly acute where the creditors concerned are tort creditors as important public policy issues then arise concerning who should bear the losses resulting from negligent or risky behavior This becomes a critical factor where the subsidiary that turns out to be the runt of the litter due to a deliberate strategy of the holding company has been utilised so as to carry on a particularly hazardous activity or to assume liabilities arising from such activities In carrying out this strategy the holding company anticipates that should The application of the Salomon principle to corporate groups is especially problematic because holding companies have the freedom to establish subsidiaries and decide upon the size and ﬁnancing of the various legal entities in the group and to draw the boundaries between them Where a company in a group becomes insolvent its creditors are unable to recover from other companies in the group as a direct result of the manipulation of capital boundaries The parent may go even further by funding the subsidiary in the form of secured debt rather than equity thereby achieving priority over unsecured creditors in the In CSR Ltd v Wren 8 The Court of Appeal of England and Wales in Chandler v Cape PLC also considered the circumstances where a parent company owed a duty of care towards an employee of a subsidiary It found in this case that the parent company exercised a high degree of control over its subsidiary Relevant factors in determining control included the parent companys practice of issuing instructions about the subsidiarys products the requirement that the subsidiary would seek parent company approval for signiﬁcant capital expenditures a centralized product development process and common company policies which were subject to parent company direction In deciding whether there has been an assumption of responsibility by a parent company for the 1 the businesses of the parent and subsidiary are in a relevant respect the same 2 the parent has or ought to have superior knowledge on some relevant aspect of health and safety in the particular industry 3 the subsidiarys system of work is unsafe as the parent company knew or ought to have known and 4 the parent company knew or ought to have foreseen that the subsidiary or its employees would rely on its using that superior knowledge for the employees protection The requirement of proximity to found a duty of care arises from the control exercised by a holding company over its subsidiarys trading operations The relevant degree of control does not necessarily have to be absolute control nor does it require the parent company to have a comprehensive policy of protecting employees This liberal construction of what constitutes control sufﬁcient to establish proximity for the purposes of a duty of care will usually be met in a parentsubsidiary relationship especially where the subsidiary is wholly owned THE CURRENT POSITION The current position is given by the case Adams v Cape Industries Plc 9 Where the Court of Appeal could find no legal objection in respect of a holding companysubsidiary relationship where the corporate structure of a group of companies had been used to ensure that any future legal liability so attached to the group enterprise would fall on a subsidiary of the holding company rather than on the holding company itself The courts there refused to lift the veil and on this strict application of the Salomon principle SLADE LJ held we do not accept as a matter of law that the court is entitled to lift the corporate veil as against a defendant company which is the member of a corporate group merely because the corporate structure has been used so as to ensure that the legal liability if any in respect of particular future activities of the group and correspondingly the risk of enforcement of that liability will fall on another member of the group rather than the defendant company Whether or not this is desirable the right to use a corporate structure in this way is inherent in This solution has been followed in cases such as Connelly v RTZ Corp Plc 10 Ord v Belhaven Pubs Ltd 11 or Lubbe v Cape Industries Plc 12 This Adams v Cape Industries plc case modified the attitude of the courts on the question of lifting the veil to establish a controlling interest or an economic entity Prior to Adams v Cape Industries the method for establishing that a group of companies was in reality one economic entity was somewhat vague but a number of cases such as Holdsworth Co v Caddies 13 or DHN Food Distributors Ltd v Tower Hamlets LBC 14 suggested that an economic entity could be established where the holding company exerted a substantial degree of control over the affairs of the subsidiary company to the extent that the holding company controlled and dictated the corporate policy of its subsidiary Since the case Adams v Cape Industries a companys ability to control the overall policy structure of another company is unlikely of itself to be sufficient to justify the lifting of the corporate veil To dislodge the corporate veil of the subsidiary the courts have demanded something more namely in addition to a holding companys control over the policy structure of its subsidiary the finding of a façade is required in relation to the incorporation of the subsidiary company The courts changed their attitude and strengthened the Salomon principle with the case Adams v Cape Industries Since this case it seems that the only circumstances in which the courts are likely to lift the veil are firstly when the court is construing a statute contract or other document which requires the veil to be lifted secondly when the court is satisfied that the company is a mere façade so that there is an abuse of the corporate form and thirdly when it can be established that the company is an authorised agent of its controllers or its members corporate or human CONCLUSION In more than a century since Salomon v Salomon Co Ltd was decided various exceptional circumstances have been identified both by legislatures and the judiciary as to when courts can legitimately disregard a companys distinct legal personality and pierce the corporate veil such as where a fraud has been committed But the basic premise of the judgment in Salomon v Salomon Co Ltd remains unaltered today a limited liability company is a legal person separate and distinct from the members or directors and it Furthermore the principle enunciated in Salomon v Salomon is NOT outdated and still has relevance in modern company law In summary it could be said that the courts will never lift the veil to impose liability on a shareholder for the companys debts Nor they will lift the veil to benefit shareholders who would discover that trading as a company would be a disadvantage In some rare instances the courts will have a look at the substance rather than at the form to deny benefits of corporate status which they think should not be enjoyed According to Professor Sealy the courts have refused to violate the sacred canon of limited liability which means that till today the courts do not lift the veil to impose personal liability on the shareholders for the debts of the company The Principle of limited liability is not threatened and remains as solid as a construct REFERENCES Alan Digham John Lowry Company law First Edition The External Programme University of London Stewart House 32 Russell Square Lodon WC1B 5DN Hon Dr J Olakunle Orojo Company Law and Practice in Nigeria 5th Edition LexisNexis North Ridge road Morningside 4001 Durban J T AgbaduFishim Principles of Nigerian Company Law First Edition 1998 IPS EDUTIONAL PRESS POBOX 173 ILARO OGUN STATE 1 1897 AC 22 2 Gower LCB Principles of Modern Company Law 4th Ed At p 97 3 Asomugha EM Op cil At p35 4 1963 3 All ELR 420 5 1925 AC 626 6 1864 1867 7 1962 1 WLR 832 8 1997 44 NSWLR 463 9 1990 10 1998 11 1998 12 2001 13 1955 14 1976 Oladotun Gbolagunte Associate Banwo Ighodalo Follow 2 comments to leave your comment Show more comments

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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O 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relevance to modern
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Loan Officer Allied First Bank Insights about Loan Officer Allied First Bank members on LinkedIn Median salary 51000 year 33500 97500 See more salary insights Top companies Allied First Bank 72 Accelerate Mortgage 13 GSF Mortgage Corp 4 Bank of America 3 Citizens Bank 3 Show next Breakdown of top 10 Top universities Towson University 12 University of Phoenix 6 Wilmington University 4 University of Delaware 3 Loyola University Chicago 3 Show next Breakdown of top 10 Top industries Financial Services 84 Banking 83 Real Estate 24 Insurance 5 Staffing Recruiting 3 Show next Breakdown of top 10 Top locations United States 231 Greater Chicago Area 42 Baltimore Maryland Area 29 Greater Philadelphia Area 17 Greater New York City Area 11 Show next Breakdown of top 10 Top Skills Mortgage Lending Loans Loan Origination Refinance US Federal Housing Authority FHA Credit Residential Mortgages US VA Loans US FHA Financing US Department of Agriculture USDA Banking Credit Analysis Working with FirstTime Home Buyers Investment Properties Real Estate Government Loans Commercial Lending Consumer Lending Construction Loans Reverse Mortgages Finance Certified Mortgage Planning Underwriting Real Estate Financing Small Business Lending Loan Officer profiles on LinkedIn Find and connect to the top Loan Officer members on LinkedIn See all professionals Looking to hire Get unbeatable access to Loan Officer candidates with LinkedIn Jobs Post a job Mike Cozzi Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Past experience Loan Officer at Compass Mortgage Loan Officer at Allied First Bank CSA at Twin City Federal Inventory Finance TCFIF Education Illinois State University show above show below Brian Sinfield Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Past experience Loan Officer at Fairway Independent Mortgage Corporation Loan Officer at Academy Mortgage Corporation Education Grand Canyon University ChandlerGilbert Community College Summary I help people with one of the biggest financial decisions of their life purchasing a home From helping them qualify for financing to show above show below Drew McVay Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Loan Officer at Peoples Bank and Trust Past experience Loan Officer at Bayshore Mortgage Funding Loan Officer at Peoples Bank and Trust Loan Officer at Emery Federal Credit Union Intern at MTB Investment Advisors show above show below Cassandra Rosales Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Past experience Residential and Consumer Loan Associate at The National Bank Finance Departments at Kimball Hill Homes Mortgage Auditor at HSBC Mortgage Services Education Waubonsee Community College show above show below Tori Wallitsch Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Loan Officer at Allied First Bank Branch Manager Loan Officer at American Financial Network Inc Operations and Production Manager at America Choice Mortgage show above show below Are you a Loan Officer Create a free profile to get recognized for what you do Create your profile Show more

B I B I I O O B I B I I O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O B O O O O O O B I O O B O O O O O O O O O O B I O O B O O O O O O B I O B I I B I O B I I O O B I O O O B I O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O B I I B I O B I I O O B I O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O B I I B I O B I I B I O O O O O O O B I O O O O B I O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O B I I B I O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O B I I B I O B I I O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


American Landmarks Checklist Stats Leaders How many have you visited 1 2 3 4 1 Statue of Liberty 2 The White House 3 Mount Rushmore 4 Grand Canyon 5 Washington Monument 6 Empire State Building 7 Lincoln Memorial 8 Gettysburg National Military Park 9 Times Square 10 Golden Gate Bridge 11 Yellowstone National Park 12 St Louis Arch 13 United States Capitol Building 14 Hollywood Sign 15 Disneyland 16 Brooklyn Bridge 17 Yankee Stadium 18 Disney World 19 Pearl Harbor and USS Arizona Memorial 20 Seattle Space Needle 21 Thomas Jefferson Memorial 22 Willis Sears Tower 23 Iwo Jima Statue 24 The Alamo 25 Liberty Bell and Independence Hall 26 Tomb of the Unknown Soldier 27 Wrigley Field Chicago Cubs 28 Mesa Verde National Park 29 Madison Square Garden 30 Central Park 31 Welcome to Las Vegas Sign 32 Grand Central 33 Pentagon 34 Kennedy Space Center 35 Niagara Falls 36 Appalachian National Scenic Trail 37 Arlington National Cemetery 38 Daytona International Speedway 39 Rockefeller Center 40 Vietnam Veterans Memorial Page 1 of 4 0 of 150 Click places youve visited The Most Amazing Places on Earth 40298 104 Countries of the World 385703 200 National Geographics 100 Places of a Lifetime 84451 100 How Many Countries Have You Visited 3502 202 40 Most Beautiful Cities in the World 171604 40 Top 250 Global Attractions 3316284 250 Ultimate Travel List 6387 430 The Travel List Challenges 100 Places to Visit Before You Die 2112133 100 The 50 US States 277523 50 30 Beautiful Countries to Visit 1936 30 200 Most Iconic Landmarks of the World 1268 200 150 Most Famous Landmarks in the World 393013 150 Load More Travel Lists Food Lists Book Lists Movie Lists Other Lists

O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Introduction Plot Summary Summary Analysis Characters Symbols Theme Wheel Previous Race and Racism Theme Analysis Identity Themes and Colors LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Americanah which you can use to track the themes throughout the work While Americanah is a tale of individual characters it is also a sweeping analysis and critique of race and racism in America England and Nigeria and the novel is peppered with Adichies biting observations on the subject In Nigeria Ifemelu doesnt really think of herself as black There is still a racial hierarchy in Nigerian culture however as lightskinned or mixedrace people are considered more attractive and people use products to make their skin lighter But when Ifemelu and Obinze go to America and England respectively they find that racism is a much more pervasive part of life Ifemelu first truly discovers raceand starts to consider herself blackonly when she is forced to adapt to Americas complex racial politics Adichie gives many examples of racist incidents like Obinze being mocked for scraping his knee because hes a kneegrow people assuming the white Curt couldnt be dating Ifemelu or patients refusing to have Aunty Uju as their doctor Ifemelu then starts a blog about race and Adichie scatters blog posts throughout the novel Through these posts Adichie is able to be most outwardly critical of racism in America Ifemelu describes many microaggressions incidents and assumptions she has experienced that many whites wouldnt always notice or understand and she is able to do so bluntly and humorously Many of these posts as well as Ifemelus relationship with Blaine involve navigating the differing experiences of AfricanAmericans and AmericanAfricans or Africans who come to live in America and experience racial prejudice for the first time Most of the novels discussion of race involves pointing out racism and humanizing it both the victims and the perpetrators but Adichie also gives some examples of people overcoming racism through close friendship and romantic love Characters like Curt Kimberly and Nigel achieve this to varying degrees of success in their relationships with Ifemelu and Obinze As Shan complains about in describing her own book most editors dont want a novel that focuses on racethe issue must somehow be made more complex or described so beautifully that the reader doesnt even notice it With this Adichie comments on her own work declaring that race and racism are big and complicated enough issues on their own and they deserve a novel as sprawling and complex as Americanah Race and Racism ThemeTracker The ThemeTracker below shows where and to what degree the theme of Race and Racism appears in each chapter of Americanah Click or tap on any chapter to read its Summary Analysis How often theme appears Chapter length Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Chapter 31 Chapter 32 Chapter 33 Chapter 34 Chapter 35 Chapter 36 Chapter 37 Chapter 38 Chapter 39 Chapter 40 Chapter 41 Chapter 42 Chapter 43 Chapter 44 Chapter 45 Chapter 46 Chapter 47 Chapter 48 Chapter 49 Chapter 50 Chapter 51 Chapter 52 Chapter 53 Chapter 54 Chapter 55 Get the entire Americanah LitChart as a printable PDF Race and Racism Quotes in Americanah Below you will find the important quotes in Americanah related to the theme of Race and Racism Chapter 2 Quotes And after you register your own company you must find a white man Find one of your white friends in England Tell everybody he is your General Manager You will see how doors will open for you because you have an oyinbo General Manager Even Chief has some white men that he brings in for show when he needs them That is how Nigeria works Im telling you Related Characters Nneoma speaker Obinze Maduewesi Chief Related Themes Page Number and Citation 33 Cite this Quote Explanation and Analysis Unlock explanations and citation info for this and every other Americanah quote Plus so much more Already a LitCharts A member Chapter 9 Quotes Dike put it back Aunty Uju said with the nasal sliding accent she put on when she spoke to white Americans in the presence of white Americans in the hearing of white Americans Poohreetback And with the accent emerged a new persona apologetic and selfabasing Chapter 11 Quotes Later she said I have to take my braids out for my interviews and relax my hair If you have braids they will think you are unprofessional So there are no doctors with braided hair in America Ifemelu asked I have told you what they told me You are in a country that is not your own You do what you have to do if you want to succeed There it was again the strange naivete with which Aunty Uju had covered herself like a blanket Sometimes while having a conversation it would occur to Ifemelu that Aunty Uju had deliberately left behind something of herself something essential in a distant and forgotten place Obinze said it was the exaggerated gratitude that came with immigrant insecurity Chapter 14 Quotes They mimicked what Americans told them You speak such good English How bad is AIDS in your country Its so sad that people live on less than a dollar a day in Africa And they themselves mocked Africa trading stories of absurdity of stupidity and they felt safe to mock because it was a mockery born of longing and of the heartbroken desire to see a place made whole again Here Ifemelu felt a gentle swaying sense of renewal Here she did not have to explain herself Chapter 15 Quotes Isnt she just stunning No she isnt Ifemelu paused You know you can just say black Not every black person is beautiful Kimberly was taken aback something wordless spread on her face and then she smiled and Ifemelu would think of it as the moment they became truly friends Chapter 16 Quotes It was like a conjurers trick the swift disappearance of his hostility His face sank into a grin She too was the help The universe was once again arranged as it should be How are you doing Know where she wants me to start he asked Upstairs she said letting him in wondering how all that cheeriness could have existed earlier in his body She would never forget him and she would begin the blog post Sometimes in America Race is Class with the story of his dramatic change and end with It didnt matter to him how much money I had As far as he was concerned I did not fit as the owner of that stately house because of the way I looked In Americas public discourse Blacks as a whole are often lumped with Poor Whites Not Poor Blacks and Poor Whites But Blacks and Poor Whites A curious thing indeed Chapter 19 Quotes Just a little burn the hairdresser said But look how pretty it is Wow girl youve got the whitegirl swing Her hair was hanging down rather than standing up straight and sleek parted at the side and curving to a slight bob at her chin The verve was gone She did not recognize herself She left the salon almost mournfully while the hairdresser had flatironed the ends the smell of burning of something organic dying which should not have died had made her feel a sense of loss Chapter 27 Quotes The wind blowing across the British Isles was odorous with fear of asylum seekers infecting everybody with the panic of impending doom and so articles were written and read simply and stridently as though the writers lived in a world in which the present was unconnected to the past and they had never considered this to be the normal course of history the influx into Britain of black and brown people from countries created by Britain Yet he understood It had to be comforting this denial of history Chapter 29 Quotes He was making fun of his wife but Obinze knew from the muted awe in his tone that it was mockery colored by respect mockery of what he believed despite himself to be inherently superior Obinze had remembered how Kayode had often said about Emenike in secondary school He can read all the books he wants but the bush is still in his blood Chapter 31 Quotes The only reason you say that race was not an issue is because you wish it was not We all wish it was not But its a lie I came from a country where race was not an issue I did not think of myself as black and I only became black when I came to America When you are black in America and you fall in love with a white person race doesnt matter when youre alone together because its just you and your love But the minute you step outside race matters But we dont talk about it The simplest solution to the problem of race in America Romantic love Not friendship Not the kind of safe shallow love where the objective is that both people remain comfortable But real deep romantic love the kind that twists you and wrings you out and makes you breathe through the nostrils of your beloved And because that real deep romantic love is so rare and because American society is set up to make it even rarer between American Black and American White the problem of race in America will never be solved Chapter 37 Quotes So if youre going to write about race you have to make sure its so lyrical and subtle that the reader who doesnt read between the lines wont even know its about race You know a Proustian meditation all watery and fuzzy that at the end just leaves you feeling watery and fuzzy Related Characters Shan speaker Related Themes Page Number and Citation 417 Cite this Quote Explanation and Analysis Unlock with LitCharts A You know why Ifemelu can write that blog by the way Shan said Because shes African Shes writing from the outside She doesnt really feel all the stuff shes writing about Its all quaint and curious to her So she can write it and get all these accolades and get invited to give talks If she were African American shed just be labeled angry and shunned Chapter 40 Quotes Her phone beeped with a text from Dike I cant believe it My president is black like me She read the text a few times her eyes filling with tears Previous Themes Identity Cite This Page Download this Chart PDF Would not have made it through AP Literature without the printable PDFs Theyre like having inclass notes for every discussion Get the Teacher Edition This is absolutely THE best teacher resource I have ever purchased My students love how organized the handouts are and enjoy tracking the themes as a class Which guides should we add Request one How can we improve LitCharts is hiring

O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Introduction Plot Summary Summary Analysis Characters Symbols Theme Wheel Previous Chapter 6 Into the Wild Chapter 7 Summary Analysis Chapter 8 Themes and Colors Key Summary Analysis On a cold March day McCandless arrives at Westerbergs grain elevator in Carthage ready to work He plans to raise enough money and supplies for his departure to Alaska on April 15 For four weeks McCandless eagerly works at dirty and tedious jobs around the warehouse Though considered arrogant and incompetent by his critics Chris shows humility and a tenacious work ethic by taking on undesirable and menial tasks to achieve his goal of traveling to Alaska Active Themes In an interview with Krakauer Westerberg comments on Chris absentminded behavior recounting an instance when the usually tidy McCandless failed to notice an odorous mess of rancid chicken grease leftover in the microwave While extremely intelligent Chris is more booksmart than streetsmart His lack of common sense and forgetfulness is a foreboding indicator that Chris may not be fully prepared for Alaska Active Themes During his stay in Carthage McCandless engages in deep conversations with Westerbergs girlfriend Gail Borah a mother of two who becomes Chris confidant Westerberg doesnt press Chris about his family but suspects that McCandless has fallen out with his father Though alienated by his own parents Chris becomes easily attached to strangers like Gail and Wayne who take on a parental role in his life They seem to know more about Chris than his own parents painfully pointing out Chris severe disconnect from his biological family Active Themes Krakauer describes Chris sexual innocence noting that Chris showed interest in girls but likely lived a chaste and celibate life much like his hero Thoreau who remained a lifelong virgin Chris innocence about intimacy mirrors his naïveté about the world but also highlights his disconnection from it Like Thoreau Chris chastity embodies his dedication to a pure and simple life but also removes him from some of lifes pleasures and connections Active Themes Get the entire Into the Wild LitChart as a printable PDF Meanwhile in Carthage McCandless takes every opportunity to talk about his Alaskan voyage by seeking out the advice of experienced hunters Westerberg tries to persuade McCandless to stay for a few more weeks to work He even offers to fly McCandless out to Alaska but Chris refuses determined to hitchhike all the way north without cheating Even to achieve his dream Chris is unwilling to take a more convenient mode of transportation to Alaska His steadfast dedication to hitchhiking makes his journey quite noble like a quest or pilgrimage but also highlights Chris penchant for taking the hard road instead of the easy one The hard road is the road Chris wants Active Themes Upon leaving Chris gives Wayne his journal photo album and leather belt for safekeeping and tearfully says goodbye to Gail Borah who senses that she will never see him again From Alaska McCandless sends postcards to Wayne Jan Burres and Bob bidding them a final farewell before walking into the wild In giving his belongings to Wayne Chris entrusts his legacy to Westerberg much like a father passes on his inheritance to his son Gails premonition casts an ominous shadow over Chris pitting fate against the serendipitous circumstances that have unfolded in Chris life Active Themes Related Quotes with Explanations Previous Chapter 6 Chapter 8 Download this Chart PDF Would not have made it through AP Literature without the printable PDFs Theyre like having inclass notes for every discussion Get the Teacher Edition This is absolutely THE best teacher resource I have ever purchased My students love how organized the handouts are and enjoy tracking the themes as a class Which guides should we add Request one How can we improve LitCharts is hiring

O O B B B O O O O O O O B I I O O B B O O O O O O B B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O