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Using

Small

Populations

of

Wolves

for

Ecosystem

Restoration

and

Stewardship

Daniel

S

Licht

Joshua

J

Millspaugh

Kyran

E

Kunkel

Christopher

O

Kochanny

Rolf

O

Peterson

BioScience

Volume

Issue

February

Pages

Published

February

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Abstract

The

absence

of

toplevel

predators

in

many

natural

areas

in

North

America

has

resulted

in

overabundant

ungulate

populations

cascading

negative

impacts

on

plant

communities

and

the

loss

of

biodiversity

and

ecosystem

processes

Meanwhile

distinct

population

segments

of

the

gray

wolf

Canis

lupus

have

been

removed

from

the

list

of

endangered

and

threatened

species

implying

an

end

to

wolf

recovery

and

reintroductions

We

propose

another

paradigm

for

wolf

conservation

one

that

emphasizes

ecosystem

recovery

instead

of

wolf

recovery

Improvements

in

technology

an

enhanced

understanding

of

the

ecological

role

of

wolves

lessons

from

other

countries

and

changing

public

attitudes

provide

a

new

Issue

Section

The

gray

wolf

Canis

lupus

historically

occupied

most

of

North

America

see

Paquet

and

Carbyn

and

played

an

important

and

perhaps

keystone

role

in

most

ecosystems

As

an

apex

predator

the

wolf

catalyzed

many

components

of

natural

systems

eg

wolves

affected

ungulate

populations

which

in

turn

affected

plant

communities

and

those

components

adapted

to

and

evolved

with

the

presence

of

wolves

However

as

a

result

of

European

settlement

the

wolf

was

extirpated

from

most

of

the

contiguous

US

states

and

was

subsequently

listed

as

endangered

under

the

Endangered

Species

Act

ESA

of

Protection

under

the

ESA

and

the

accompanying

change

in

societal

values

was

a

turning

point

in

wolf

conservation

Wolf

numbers

have

increased

in

the

Great

Lakes

and

Northern

Rocky

Mountain

regions

to

the

point

where

these

population

segments

have

been

delisted

under

the

ESA

implying

the

existence

of

viable

populations

and

an

end

to

wolf

recovery

USFWS

However

some

conservationists

do

not

believe

the

species

is

recovered

Bergstrom

et

al

and

have

proposed

additional

wolf

reintroduction

sites

based

on

the

conventional

ESA

recovery

model

Fascione

Yet

even

if

wolves

are

reintroduced

to

these

other

sites

the

species

will

continue

to

be

absent

from

many

natural

areas

in

part

because

most

natural

areas

are

viewed

as

too

small

for

conventional

wolf

recovery

natural

areas

are

defined

as

public

or

private

lands

where

the

conservation

of

biodiversity

and

natural

processes

are

a

principal

goal

and

where

hunting

is

not

allowed

or

is

ineffective

in

controlling

ungulates

eg

national

parks

Consequently

many

natural

area

ecosystems

will

remain

degraded

as

a

result

of

overabundant

ungulates

and

the

absence

of

toplevel

predators

We

propose

a

new

and

complementary

paradigm

for

The

current

paradigm

Since

the

passage

of

the

ESA

wolf

conservation

in

the

contiguous

United

States

has

focused

on

the

recovery

of

viable

wolf

populations

This

recovery

paradigm

focuses

on

the

reintroduction

and

restoration

of

only

large

populations

of

wolves

necessitating

vast

tracts

of

land

preferably

with

sparse

human

populations

few

roads

and

minimal

livestock

For

example

the

Great

Lakes

Federal

Wolf

Recovery

Plan

states

that

square

kilometers

km

of

contiguous

habitat

are

needed

for

a

viable

wolf

population

Under

the

recovery

paradigm

small

wolf

populations

on

comparatively

small

tracts

of

land

have

been

viewed

as

inconsequential

unnecessary

or

secondtier

populations

For

example

the

small

isolated

population

on

Isle

Royale

in

Lake

Superior

did

not

count

toward

recovery

goals

for

the

western

Great

Lakes

wolf

population

because

it

did

not

meet

sustainability

criteria

Yet

this

population

has

had

enormous

scientific

ecological

aesthetic

recreational

and

ecotourism

values

McLaren

and

Peterson

Vucetich

and

Peterson

Similarly

the

Rocky

Mountain

recovery

plan

does

not

view

small

isolated

populations

as

important

because

they

do

not

contribute

to

species

recovery

It

is

clear

that

the

ecological

and

societal

values

of

small

populations

of

wolves

mostly

have

been

ignored

under

the

ESA

recovery

paradigm

Soulé

et

al

Carroll

et

al

Wolves

strongly

influence

ecosystem

components

structure

and

processes

see

Mech

and

Boitani

Paquet

and

Carbyn

Smith

et

al

Berger

and

Smith

Fascione

Most

notably

wolves

influence

the

abundance

of

ungulates

which

in

turn

affects

the

structure

and

composition

of

plant

communities

More

wolves

typically

result

in

fewer

ungulates

which

leads

to

greater

plant

biomass

and

diversity

conversely

fewer

wolves

result

in

more

ungulates

which

in

turn

reduces

plant

biomass

and

diversity

figure

In

part

due

to

the

absence

of

wolves

overabundant

ungulates

threaten

vegetation

health

across

large

portions

of

the

United

States

McShea

et

al

Furthermore

wolves

influence

the

distribution

behavior

and

foraging

of

surviving

ungulates

which

also

has

an

effect

on

plant

resources

Consider

that

in

Yellowstone

National

Park

reintroduced

wolves

have

created

an

ecology

of

fear

whereby

elk

Cervus

elaphus

reduce

the

amount

of

time

they

spend

browsing

on

woody

vegetation

allowing

for

recruitment

of

that

same

vegetation

Ripple

and

Beschta

Yet

wolf

effects

go

far

beyond

predatorpreyplant

interactions

For

example

wolf

predation

on

ungulates

influences

the

abundance

and

behavior

of

scavengers

by

providing

them

a

source

of

carrion

Smith

and

Bangs

And

wolves

can

reduce

the

abundance

of

coyotes

Canis

latrans

and

alter

their

behavior

too

Smith

and

Bangs

which

directly

influences

other

animal

populations

Soulé

and

colleagues

concluded

that

the

absence

of

wolves

may

result

in

the

simplification

of

ecosystems

p

Figure

With

carnivores

reduced

or

absent

left

the

overriding

trophic

interaction

involves

herbivores

and

vegetation

With

intact

carnivore

fauna

right

however

the

primary

trophic

interaction

is

between

carnivores

and

herbivores

A

trophic

cascade

involves

correlated

changes

in

alternating

trophic

layers

for

example

carnivores

and

vegetation

Left

and

right

diagrams

indicate

changes

in

biomass

of

each

trophic

layer

as

carnivores

increase

Figure

With

carnivores

reduced

or

absent

left

the

overriding

trophic

interaction

involves

herbivores

and

vegetation

With

intact

carnivore

fauna

right

however

the

primary

trophic

interaction

is

between

carnivores

and

herbivores

A

trophic

cascade

involves

correlated

changes

in

alternating

trophic

layers

for

example

carnivores

and

vegetation

Left

and

right

diagrams

indicate

changes

in

biomass

of

each

trophic

layer

as

carnivores

increase

In

addition

to

the

ecological

effects

of

wolves

their

presence

can

have

beneficial

economic

and

recreational

impacts

Wolves

in

Yellowstone

National

Park

increased

visitation

and

ecotourism

spending

by

million

in

Duffield

et

al

Duffield

and

colleagues

also

estimated

that

park

visitors

saw

wolves

in

that

same

year

The

economic

value

of

wolf

populations

is

often

as

high

as

millions

of

dollars

see

Fritts

et

al

Fascione

Wolves

provide

a

variety

of

ecosystem

and

human

services

see

Mech

and

Boitani

Paquet

and

Carbyn

Smith

et

al

Ripple

and

Beschta

Berger

and

Smith

they

limit

and

possibly

regulate

the

growth

and

abundance

of

prey

populations

remove

weak

injured

or

otherwise

lessfit

prey

and

alter

sex

and

age

ratios

influence

prey

behavior

movement

patterns

distribution

and

habitat

use

create

a

trophic

cascade

affecting

the

composition

structure

and

functioning

of

plant

communities

which

in

turn

affects

habitat

availability

for

animals

create

a

trophic

cascade

affecting

other

biotic

and

abiotic

resources

including

water

soil

and

geomorphology

which

in

turn

affects

habitat

availability

for

other

species

create

carrion

that

provides

food

for

other

species

and

cycles

nutrients

affect

the

abundance

distribution

and

behavior

of

other

animals

eg

coyotes

through

interspecific

interactions

increase

ecotourism

and

benefit

local

economies

enhance

visitor

experiences

and

provide

opportunities

for

scientific

research

We

propose

that

these

benefits

be

evaluated

and

given

more

consideration

in

the

management

of

natural

areas

that

are

deemed

too

small

for

wolves

under

the

current

wolf

recovery

model

A

new

paradigm

We

propose

a

new

paradigm

in

wolf

conservation

one

where

small

and

nonselfsustaining

populations

of

wolves

are

reintroduced

for

purposes

of

ecosystem

restoration

and

stewardship

Such

an

approach

would

have

ecological

educational

recreational

scientific

and

economic

benefits

The

sum

of

these

benefits

could

in

some

cases

outweigh

the

cost

of

managing

small

wolf

populations

on

comparatively

small

sites

We

are

not

naive

about

the

biological

political

cultural

administrative

aesthetic

and

ethical

challenges

of

managing

small

populations

of

wolves

for

purposes

of

ecosystem

restoration

and

stewardship

We

acknowledge

that

wolves

are

a

symbol

of

wilderness

to

many

people

Wilson

Montag

et

al

and

that

intensively

managed

populations

may

be

viewed

as

inconsistent

with

that

symbolism

Yet

our

proposed

paradigm

still

allows

for

conventional

wolf

recovery

and

the

comparatively

lessintensive

management

of

those

populations

Furthermore

we

believe

that

our

paradigm

may

actually

enhance

public

understanding

and

appreciation

of

wolves

Our

paradigm

may

also

elevate

the

prestige

of

the

natural

areas

where

wolves

are

restored

National

parks

are

especially

well

suited

to

the

new

paradigm

because

of

their

protected

status

agency

policies

to

conserve

all

native

species

and

natural

processes

prohibitions

against

hunting

potential

for

overabundant

ungulates

and

public

expectations

for

the

sites

Other

Hayward

et

al

Licht

et

al

As

with

conventional

wolf

recovery

efforts

a

unique

set

of

conditions

would

be

necessary

to

restore

and

manage

wolves

under

the

new

paradigm

most

important

adequate

prey

and

manageable

wolfhuman

conflicts

However

in

contrast

to

current

management

programs

which

are

designed

to

recover

large

selfsustaining

wolf

populations

and

which

therefore

require

immense

landscapes

the

new

paradigm

is

not

driven

by

wolf

viability

or

ESA

recovery

goals

but

rather

by

ecosystem

restoration

and

stewardship

Therefore

sites

under

the

new

paradigm

need

not

be

vast

We

do

not

advocate

a

minimum

site

size

under

the

new

paradigm

we

simply

assert

that

any

Vucetich

and

Peterson

and

b

on

preserves

in

South

Africa

that

have

successfully

conserved

single

prides

of

lions

Panthera

leo

or

packs

of

African

wild

dogs

Lycaon

pictus

Hayward

et

al

Funston

Gusset

et

al

Lehmann

et

al

Assuming

adequate

prey

are

available

the

other

primary

consideration

is

minimizing

wolfhuman

conflicts

Opposition

to

wolf

reintroductions

is

generally

on

the

basis

of

a

wolf

depredation

of

livestock

b

attacks

on

pets

c

concerns

about

human

safety

d

reduction

in

game

populations

and

e

fear

of

government

regulations

and

restrictions

see

Williams

et

al

If

these

concerns

can

be

eliminated

or

mitigated

then

most

of

the

ostensible

resistance

to

wolf

reintroductions

will

be

nullified

We

believe

the

following

tools

and

approaches

reduce

or

eliminate

the

stated

concerns

of

wolf

opponents

thereby

allowing

the

restoration

of

small

populations

of

wolves

for

purposes

of

ecosystem

stewardship

We

do

not

suggest

that

these

managementintensive

tools

or

approaches

are

applicable

for

conventional

wolf

recovery

programs

Realtime

animal

tracking

The

development

and

implementation

of

realtime

satellite

tracking

technology

has

existed

since

the

Rodgers

This

technology

typically

consists

of

a

collar

that

transmits

a

signal

to

satellites

that

then

relay

the

information

to

a

base

station

which

transmits

the

computed

location

data

to

an

end

user

Recent

advances

integrate

moreprecise

location

to

within

approximately

meters

GPS

global

positioning

system

technology

to

determine

the

animals

location

Rodgers

Fuller

et

al

The

equipment

and

subscription

costs

are

high

starting

around

per

collar

per

month

however

when

used

to

collect

a

large

number

of

relatively

accurate

realtime

locations

the

technology

becomes

costefficient

when

compared

with

conventional

veryhighfrequency

VHF

telemetry

In

some

locations

cellphone

technology

can

be

used

in

lieu

of

satellites

to

transmit

the

location

data

The

location

data

can

be

integrated

with

mapping

software

to

create

a

geofence

so

once

an

animal

approaches

or

crosses

a

predetermined

boundary

an

alert

message

is

sent

to

a

manager

see

also

the

discussion

below

on

virtual

barriers

These

realtime

systems

allow

managers

to

efficiently

relatively

reliably

and

accurately

track

an

animals

whereabouts

and

to

quickly

respond

to

problem

animals

Such

an

approach

is

being

tested

in

Kenya

with

elephants

when

a

collared

elephant

leaves

the

natural

area

the

collar

sends

a

message

to

park

employees

who

then

attempt

to

scare

the

animal

back

to

the

park

httpwwwsavetheelephantsorgresearchreaderitemselephantgeofencinghtml

This

information

can

also

help

assuage

the

concerns

of

neighbors

For

example

in

South

Africa

the

locations

of

certain

animals

are

sometimes

shared

with

local

people

to

lessen

concerns

about

lions

in

nearby

protected

areas

Hunter

et

al

and

a

lion

project

in

Kenya

is

testing

realtime

collars

and

Google

maps

to

share

location

data

online

httpwwwabycatscommapscatmaphtml

Realtime

satellite

collars

have

been

used

successfully

on

wolves

for

research

purposes

Walton

et

al

but

we

are

not

aware

of

any

uses

primarily

for

realtime

management

Reproductive

control

Wildlife

reproductive

control

remains

contentious

for

several

reasons

including

a

uncertainties

about

the

efficacy

of

nonsurgical

methods

for

abundant

freeranging

populations

b

the

loss

of

potential

recreational

opportunities

for

hunters

c

concerns

about

human

consumption

of

treated

animals

d

potential

changes

in

animal

behavior

and

e

ethical

concerns

However

under

certain

circumstances

such

as

for

small

isolated

populations

of

wildlife

that

are

not

hunted

or

consumed

reproductive

control

is

an

effective

management

tool

Immunocontraceptives

pharmaceuticals

and

surgery

could

all

be

used

to

prevent

or

suppress

growth

of

a

small

popu

ation

of

wolves

that

is

reintroduced

for

purposes

Kettles

and

Slotow

to

suppress

growth

and

in

some

cases

vasectomies

are

performed

as

well

Lehmann

et

al

Such

tools

would

likely

be

necessary

for

managing

small

populations

of

wolves

reintroduced

for

ecosystem

stewardship

purposes

Barriers

The

use

of

barriers

to

conserve

predators

is

an

anathema

in

the

United

States

however

barriers

are

widely

used

in

other

parts

of

the

world

Hayward

and

Kerley

For

example

the

dingo

fence

Canis

lupus

dingo

is

famously

used

to

keep

dingoes

separated

from

livestock

in

Australia

in

South

Africa

lions

and

African

wild

dogs

would

likely

be

extirpated

from

most

of

the

country

if

not

for

fenced

nature

preserves

Hunter

et

al

Funston

Gusset

et

al

These

fenced

reservessome

as

small

as

km

conserve

small

populations

and

even

single

social

units

of

large

predators

such

as

lions

Hayward

et

al

Funston

Lehmann

et

al

Although

there

are

significant

costs

in

constructing

and

maintaining

these

fences

and

in

the

management

of

the

small

populations

therein

eg

assuring

desired

predatorprey

ratios

genetic

augmentation

see

Hayward

et

al

Funston

Hayward

and

Kerley

the

ecological

and

ecotourism

values

of

having

large

predators

on

a

site

often

outweigh

the

costs

Lindsey

et

al

Some

of

the

strongest

objections

to

fences

have

to

do

with

aesthetics

and

the

publics

desire

that

wildlife

be

free

ranging

However

this

objection

is

partly

mitigated

by

scale

There

are

relatively

few

concerns

in

South

Africa

about

the

fence

around

the

Kruger

National

Park

Yet

even

fenced

reserves

as

small

as

km

are

viewed

as

acceptable

and

supportive

of

freeranging

populations

of

lions

and

other

wildlife

see

Bauer

and

Van

Der

Merwe

Visitors

flock

to

these

sites

from

around

the

world

and

report

positive

wildlifeviewing

experiences

Likewise

at

the

appropriate

scale

wolf

observation

and

visitor

experience

within

fenced

protected

areas

can

become

authentic

Montag

et

al

Fences

are

used

in

the

United

States

to

conserve

herbivores

such

as

bison

Bison

bison

with

no

strong

objections

from

the

public

In

fact

were

it

not

for

fenced

parks

refuges

and

other

properties

bison

would

be

absent

from

the

Great

Plains

Such

fences

could

be

modified

to

conserve

wolves

while

still

allowing

egress

and

ingress

by

other

species

The

use

of

fences

may

have

the

most

merit

in

agrarian

landscapes

where

there

is

a

hard

boundary

between

natural

and

developed

lands

Licht

and

colleagues

stated

that

the

consideration

of

fences

as

a

wildlife

management

tool

such

as

is

practiced

in

South

Africa

may

come

down

to

a

choice

between

managing

for

a

handsoff

naturalness

ie

no

fences

but

also

no

large

predators

or

managing

for

biological

diversity

ie

with

fences

but

also

with

large

predators

fulfilling

their

ecological

role

Although

fences

are

not

used

to

manage

predators

in

natural

areas

in

the

United

States

the

country

does

have

a

population

of

wolves

that

functions

as

if

it

were

in

a

large

fenced

reserve

the

small

population

of

wolves

on

Isle

Royale

in

Lake

Superior

The

island

has

supported

a

mean

of

wolves

since

Were

it

not

for

the

natural

recolonization

of

the

island

by

wolves

there

would

likely

be

severe

ecological

degradation

as

a

result

of

overabundant

ungulates

McLaren

and

Peterson

and

the

site

would

not

be

an

International

Biosphere

Reserve

Wolves

exist

on

the

site

with

no

public

opposition

indeed

the

public

strongly

supports

the

population

there

Vucetich

and

Peterson

demonstrating

that

the

conservation

of

small

populations

of

wolves

is

tenable

under

the

right

conditions

Virtual

barriers

Virtual

barriers

are

widely

used

to

confine

the

spatial

movements

of

domestic

dogs

When

a

collared

animal

approaches

a

buried

wire

ie

the

boundary

the

collar

gives

the

animal

negative

stimuli

typically

in

the

form

of

a

mild

electric

shock

Many

studies

have

shown

that

animals

learn

to

avoid

boundaries

after

just

a

few

stimulations

see

Anderson

Gehring

and

colleagues

used

shock

collars

on

wild

wolves

in

Michigan

in

an

attempt

to

condition

the

collared

animals

and

their

packs

to

avoid

bait

piles

The

shock

collars

were

effective

in

reducing

pack

visits

to

the

baits

and

the

packs

continued

to

avoid

the

baits

for

more

than

days

after

the

shock

period

These

results

suggest

that

a

shock

collar

on

a

single

wolf

could

help

confine

a

wolf

pack

within

a

natural

area

Collar

systems

are

now

being

developed

that

integrate

GPS

technology

with

onboard

algorithms

ie

maps

thereby

eliminating

the

need

for

transmitting

wires

in

the

aversion

zone

Anderson

Such

systems

are

better

suited

for

wideranging

animals

for

which

construction

of

groundbased

systems

would

be

impractical

Perhaps

the

biggest

remaining

challenge

with

wolves

is

to

develop

a

collar

that

maintains

contact

between

electrodes

and

skin

however

such

contact

may

be

necessary

only

during

the

learning

phase

Anderson

The

use

of

visual

cues

such

as

fladry

may

further

enhance

the

effectiveness

of

negative

stimuli

Gehring

et

al

In

Botswana

researchers

are

testing

another

form

of

virtual

barrier

by

using

a

chemical

bioboundary

to

keep

African

wild

dogs

out

of

undesirable

areas

The

method

consists

of

depositing

African

wild

dog

scent

marks

at

the

edge

of

the

undesired

area

thereby

creating

a

virtual

neighboring

pack

Like

wolves

African

wild

dogs

are

very

territorial

and

have

a

high

level

of

respect

for

neighboring

packs

territories

Initial

experimental

results

show

that

the

concept

has

enormous

potential

for

African

wild

dog

management

J

Weldon

McNutt

PhD

director

Botswana

Predator

Conservation

Trust

personal

communication

January

However

it

is

uncertain

if

Case

studies

In

practice

of

the

tools

described

above

are

likely

to

be

infallible

therefore

we

envision

the

use

of

a

combination

of

tools

to

manage

small

populations

of

wolves

and

to

allay

the

concerns

of

wolf

opponents

For

example

a

perimeter

barrier

could

be

used

in

combination

with

realtime

telemetry

Furthermore

these

technologies

should

be

implemented

in

concert

with

community

involvement

and

mitigation

such

as

is

practiced

in

South

Africa

Hunter

et

al

We

provide

three

case

studies

one

from

five

decades

ago

in

which

wolves

were

introduced

for

purposes

of

ecosystem

restoration

but

not

intensively

managed

and

two

cases

in

which

there

is

a

current

need

for

ecosystem

stewardship

by

wolves

but

recent

proposals

were

thwarted

in

part

by

the

recovery

paradigm

ie

the

areas

were

not

large

enough

for

viable

wolf

populations

In

the

latter

two

cases

we

do

not

claim

that

wolves

are

the

best

alternative

to

reduce

overabundant

ungulates

and

conserve

these

ecosystems

only

that

the

use

of

wolves

is

feasible

and

should

be

given

full

consideration

as

one

Case

study

Coronation

Island

Alaska

We

know

of

only

one

case

where

wolves

were

reintroduced

primarily

for

purposes

of

ecosystem

restoration

and

not

for

species

recovery

In

four

wolves

were

introduced

to

the

Coronation

Island

in

southeast

Alaska

for

the

purpose

of

reducing

the

overabundant

blacktailed

deer

Odocoileus

hemionus

sitkensis

population

Klein

The

wolves

were

extremely

successful

in

reducing

the

islands

deer

population

However

the

introduced

wolves

were

not

managed

and

they

soon

increased

to

animals

and

depleted

the

deer

population

Eventually

the

wolf

population

crashed

and

deer

numbers

rebounded

Klein

speculated

that

the

low

fecundity

of

the

deer

a

consequence

of

the

poor

quality

of

the

habitat

resulting

from

the

long

period

of

overbrowsing

may

have

contributed

to

the

dramatic

deer

decline

immediately

following

wolf

introduction

More

intensive

management

and

monitoring

of

the

predator

and

prey

populationsas

is

practiced

in

South

Africamay

have

attenuated

the

boombust

cycle

and

resulted

in

longterm

success

Case

study

Rocky

Mountain

National

Park

In

Rocky

Mountain

National

Park

NP

completed

an

environmental

impact

statement

that

evaluated

several

alternatives

to

reduce

the

elk

population

in

the

unfenced

park

including

an

alternative

that

called

for

the

experimental

reintroduction

of

or

fewer

intensively

managed

wolves

NPS

Growth

of

the

wolf

population

would

have

been

limited

by

fertility

control

or

by

removing

individuals

The

wolves

would

have

been

intensively

tracked

with

VHF

telemetry

Animals

that

approached

the

park

boundary

would

have

been

captured

and

relocated

to

a

softrelease

pen

in

the

park

interior

or

removed

from

the

population

Coughenour

developed

an

ecosystem

model

that

predicted

that

wolves

would

greatly

reduce

the

parks

elk

population

thereby

meeting

park

goals

Hobbs

developed

a

model

that

suggested

that

the

presence

of

wolves

would

eradicate

chronic

wasting

disease

a

transmissible

neurological

disease

in

deer

and

elk

that

produces

lesions

in

infected

animals

brains

from

elk

in

the

park

in

two

to

three

decades

Although

public

attitudes

toward

wolf

reintroduction

in

Colorado

are

generally

positive

Pate

et

al

the

wolf

alternative

was

not

selected

One

of

the

justifications

for

not

selecting

the

alternative

is

that

at

the

time

wolves

were

an

endangered

species

and

the

use

of

a

small

number

of

them

for

ecosystem

stewardship

may

have

been

incompatible

with

the

ESA

NPS

Case

study

Wind

Cave

National

Park

The

Wind

Cave

NP

is

fenced

to

contain

bison

The

park

also

supports

abundant

elk

mule

deer

Odocoileus

hemionus

whitetailed

deer

Odocoileus

virginianus

and

pronghorn

antelope

Antilocapra

americana

The

ungulate

biomass

at

the

park

is

about

kilograms

per

hectare

a

total

biomass

comparable

to

the

muchlarger

Isle

Royale

NP

On

the

basis

of

known

relationships

between

wolf

abundance

and

prey

biomass

Fuller

et

al

the

park

could

support

nine

wolves

Wolves

are

currently

absent

from

the

park

The

park

historically

culled

surplus

elk

through

translocations

to

other

sites

but

that

option

is

now

prohibited

as

a

result

of

chronic

wasting

disease

Consequently

the

park

is

developing

an

environmental

impact

statement

to

evaluate

alternatives

to

control

the

elk

population

Early

in

the

planning

process

the

park

considered

developing

an

alternative

that

used

intensively

managed

wolves

as

a

stewardship

tool

However

the

alternative

was

not

fully

evaluated

in

part

because

of

the

US

Fish

and

Wildlife

Services

position

that

the

park

was

not

large

enough

to

sustain

a

viable

wolf

population

and

Conclusion

The

desire

to

restore

naturally

functioning

ecosystems

within

natural

areas

along

with

the

delisting

of

the

gray

wolf

from

the

ESA

an

increased

understanding

of

the

species

ecological

role

advances

in

technology

and

changing

public

attitudes

provides

an

opportunity

to

reevaluate

wolf

conservation

and

natural

areas

management

We

recommend

serious

consideration

and

full

evaluation

of

the

use

of

wolves

as

an

ecosystem

stewardship

tool

in

planning

efforts

There

are

and

will

continue

to

be

sites

in

the

United

States

that

would

benefit

from

the

presence

of

small

populations

of

wolves

as

well

as

in

other

places

such

as

Great

Britain

Macdonald

et

al

As

far

back

as

The

Wildlife

Society

supported

the

restoration

of

small

populations

of

wolves

when

it

stated

If

national

parks

and

other

protected

areas

can

not

provide

large

enough

areas

for

selfperpetuating

populations

of

wolves

systematic

and

periodic

reintroduction

of

wolves

from

outside

may

ensure

population

survival

p

We

fully

appreciate

and

respect

the

ethical

and

aesthetic

concerns

with

reintroducing

small

populations

of

large

mammals

to

natural

areas

and

the

intensive

management

necessary

to

make

it

work

However

active

management

is

a

prerequisite

for

all

wolf

populations

in

the

lower

states

regardless

of

their

size

Arguably

handson

management

and

tools

such

as

radiotelemetry

collars

are

part

of

the

reason

wolves

have

recovered

Furthermore

intensive

management

of

a

small

population

of

wolves

for

ecosystem

stewardship

may

foster

more

public

tolerance

and

appreciation

of

the

species

and

may

lead

to

additional

restoration

efforts

We

are

not

disregarding

the

cost

of

managing

a

small

population

of

wolves

for

ecosystem

stewardship

However

we

are

advocating

the

use

of

small

populations

and

perhaps

even

single

packs

thereby

making

intensive

management

feasible

in

contrast

to

managing

the

hundreds

or

thousands

of

wolves

under

the

current

recovery

paradigm

Furthermore

the

cost

of

using

wolves

as

an

ecosystem

stewardship

tool

should

be

objectively

compared

with

other

alternatives

to

reduce

ungulates

and

conserve

ecosystems

such

as

sharp

shooting

roundups

fertility

control

and

building

fences

to

exclude

herbivores

from

vegetation

We

believe

that

one

of

the

best

arguments

for

using

wolves

The

new

paradigm

is

best

suited

to

a

unique

set

of

conditions

First

and

foremost

is

that

wolves

are

needed

to

restore

ecosystem

health

Second

sites

are

unlikely

to

be

colonized

by

wolves

from

existing

wolf

recovery

areas

Other

considerations

include

agency

missions

and

policies

the

capability

to

minimize

or

eliminate

conflicts

public

expectations

for

a

site

and

ecotourism

National

Park

Service

units

are

especially

suitable

for

this

new

paradigm

Another

example

is

the

American

Prairie

Foundation

effort

to

restore

a

large

naturally

functioning

grassland

ecosystem

in

the

Northern

Great

Plains

Islands

in

the

Great

Lakes

and

elsewhere

may

also

From

a

biological

technological

and

logistical

perspective

the

new

paradigm

appears

workable

in

fact

variations

of

it

are

regularly

and

successfully

used

throughout

the

world

ith

large

predators

such

as

lions

and

African

wild

dogs

Hayward

et

al

Hunter

et

al

Gusset

et

al

Licht

et

al

However

wolf

management

in

North

America

transcends

simple

precedents

technology

and

science

Nie

Fritts

et

al

The

wolf

is

a

passioninspiring

symbol

to

many

people

but

the

symbolism

varies

and

is

polarizing

Restoring

and

managing

the

animal

under

our

proposed

paradigm

appears

doable

managing

the

symbolism

remains

the

challenge

Acknowledgments

We

thank

Robert

Gitzen

and

Valerius

Geist

for

their

thoughtful

and

constructive

reviews

of

an

early

draft

of

the

manuscript

We

also

acknowledge

the

many

others

too

numerous

to

name

who

encouraged

us

in

this

effort

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O O O B I O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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ROB Also found in Dictionary Thesaurus Legal Financial Idioms Encyclopedia Wikipedia Category filter Acronym Definition ROB Report on Business ROB Roll Over Beethoven song ROB Royal Observatory of Belgium ROB Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek ROB Right on Brother ROB Review of Business ROB Road Over Bridge ROB RetardOBot band ROB Remains on Board sludge or liquid oil in tanks ROB Robotic Operating Buddy ROB ReOrder Buffer ROB Rhythm of Business ROB Rhine Ordnance Barracks VogelwehKaiserslautern Germany ROB RunOfBook ROB Restriction on Bail UK ROB Rest of Board electronics less important PCB components ROB Regionale Omroep Brabant ROB Reserve On Board ROB Radar Order of Battle ROB Rusthuis Voor Bejaarden Dutch Rest Home for the Elderly Belgium ROB Reach of Budget ROB Round of Beam ROB Région Ornithologique de Bretagne French amateur bird breeders association ROB Radar Coded Observation ROB Renewal of Bridges ROB Random Omnipotent Being ROB Right Out Board location of aircraft underwing pylons ROB Robertsfield International Airport Harbel Liberia ROB Railway Operations Battalion US Army Copyright 19882018 AcronymFindercom All rights reserved Suggest new definition Want to thank TFD for its existence Tell a friend about us add a link to this page or visit the webmasters page for free fun content Link to this page Flashcards Bookmarks Please log in or register to use Flashcards and Bookmarks You can also log in with TheFreeDictionary presents Write what you mean clearly and correctly References in classic literature So Rob fell to planning how he could disguise himself to go to Nottingham town for he knew that the Foresters had even then set a price on his head in the marketplace If Rob had been grimly resolved to win the arrow before the sight of her sweet face multiplied his determination an hundredfold Rob looked to his string while the crowd smiled and whispered at the odd figure he cut with his varicolored legs and little cape Rob shot sixth in the line and landed fairly being rewarded by an approving grunt from the man with the green blinder who shot seventh and with apparent carelessness yet true to the bullseye Rob fitted his arrow quietly and with some confidence sped it unerringly toward the shining circle Nay said Rob but you are a good fellow by this token and if I win not I hope you may keep the prize from yon strutters A loud uproar broke forth when it alighted just without the center and grazing the shaft sent by Rob And turning suddenly he was lost in the crowd before Rob could utter what it was upon his lips to say that he would shoot again with him And now the herald summoned Rob to the Sheriffs box to receive the prize I am called Rob the Stroller my Lord Sheriff said the archer Well Rob the Stroller with a little attention to your skin and clothes you would not be so bad a man said the Sheriff At this point the herald nudged Rob and half inclined his head toward the Sheriffs daughter who sat with a thin smile upon her lips View in context More results Acronyms browser ROAM ROAMA ROAME ROAMEF ROAMOPS ROAMS ROAN ROANEO ROANW ROAO ROAOAA ROAOW ROAP ROAPE ROAR ROARMAP ROARMD ROARS ROAS ROASIS ROAST ROASWO ROAT rOat2 ROAW ROB ROBA ROBAB ROBAS ROBAT ROBC ROBCO ROBD ROBDA ROBDAP ROBDD ROBE ROBEPS Roberto ROBEX ROBI ROBIN ROBINSON ROBIO ROBK1 ROBK2 ROBL ROBLINKS ROBO ROBOCUP ROBOFISH Full browser roasting Roasting ear Roasting jack roasting regeneration roasting snow in a furnace roastly roastly roastly Roastnear Roastnear Roastnear Roastnear roasts roasts roasts roasts roasts snow in a furnace ROASWO ROAT ROAT rOat2 Roatan Roatán Roatan Island Roatan Volunteer Pediatric Clinic Roatan Honduras Roatan ROAW Roayal Audiency Roayal Audiency Roazhon Celtic Kop ROB Rob Big Rob Big rob one blind rob someone or something of something rob someone blind rob someone blind rob someone blind Rob Baur rob blind Rob Bourdon Rob Chandler Photography Rob Eberhard Young rob her blind rob her of Rob Kling Center for Social Informatics rob me blind rob me of Rob Merantes Academy of Dance rob of rob of freedom rob one of Rob Peter to pay Paul Rob Peter to pay Paul Rob Roy Rob Roy Rob Roys Rob Roys Rob Russell and the Sore Losers rob somebody blind rob someone blind

B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O B O O O B O O O B O O O B O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O B O O O B O O O O O B O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B B O B O B O O B O O O O O B O O B O O B O O B O B O B O B O O B O O B O O B O O B O O O O O B O O B O O B O O O O B O B O O B O O B O O O O B O O O O B O B O B O B O B O O O O O B O O B O O


Message Redelivery and Undelivered Messages Messages can be delivered unsuccessfully eg if the transacted session used to consume them is rolled back Such a message goes back to its queue ready to be redelivered However this means it is possible for a message to be delivered again and again without success thus remaining in the queue indefinitely clogging the system There are 2 ways to deal with these undelivered messages Delayed redelivery It is possible to delay messages redelivery This gives the client some time to recover from any transient failures and to prevent overloading its network or CPU resources Dead Letter Address It is also possible to configure a dead letter address so that after a specified number of unsuccessful deliveries messages are removed from their queue and sent to the dead letter address These messages will not be delivered again from this queue Both options can be combined for maximum flexibility Delayed Redelivery Delaying redelivery can often be useful in cases where clients regularly fail or rollback Without a delayed redelivery the system can get into a thrashing state with delivery being attempted the client rolling back and delivery being reattempted ad infinitum in quick succession consuming valuable CPU and network resources Configuring Delayed Redelivery Delayed redelivery is defined in the addresssetting configuration delay redelivery of messages for 5s addresssetting match exampleQueue default is 10 redeliverydelaymultiplier 15 redeliverydelaymultiplier default is 0 no delay redeliverydelay 5000 redeliverydelay default is redeliverydelay 10 maxredeliverydelay 50000 maxredeliverydelay addresssetting If a redeliverydelay is specified Apache ActiveMQ Artemis will wait this delay before redelivering the messages By default there is no redelivery delay redeliverydelay is set to 0 Other subsequent messages will be delivery regularly only the cancelled message will be sent asynchronously back to the queue after the delay You can specify a multiplier the redeliverydelaymultiplier that will take effect on top of the redeliverydelay Each time a message is redelivered the delay period will be equal to the previous delay redeliverydelaymultiplier A maxredeliverydelay can be set to prevent the delay from becoming too large The maxredeliverydelay is defaulted to redeliverydelay 10 Example redeliverydelay5000 redeliverydelaymultiplier2 maxredeliverydelay15000 1 Delivery Attempt 1 Unsuccessful 2 Wait Delay Period 5000 3 Delivery Attempt 2 Unsuccessful 4 Wait Delay Period 10000 5000 2 maxdelayperiod Use 10000 5 Delivery Attempt 3 Unsuccessful 6 Wait Delay Period 15000 10000 2 maxdelayperiod Use maxdelaydelivery Address wildcards can be used to configure redelivery delay for a set of addresses see Understanding the Wildcard Syntax so you dont have to specify redelivery delay individually for each address Example See the examples chapter for an example which shows how delayed redelivery is configured and used with JMS Dead Letter Addresses To prevent a client infinitely receiving the same undelivered message regardless of what is causing the unsuccessful deliveries messaging systems define dead letter addresses after a specified unsuccessful delivery attempts the message is removed from its queue and sent to a dead letter address Any such messages can then be diverted to queues where they can later be perused by the system administrator for action to be taken Apache ActiveMQ Artemiss addresses can be assigned a dead letter address Once the messages have been unsuccessfully delivered for a given number of attempts they are removed from their queue and sent to the relevant dead letter address These dead letter messages can later be consumed from the dead letter address for further inspection Configuring Dead Letter Addresses Dead letter address is defined in the addresssetting configuration undelivered messages in exampleQueue will be sent to the dead letter address deadLetterQueue after 3 unsuccessful delivery attempts addresssetting match exampleQueue deadletteraddress deadLetterQueue deadletteraddress maxdeliveryattempts 3 maxdeliveryattempts addresssetting If a deadletteraddress is not specified messages will removed after maxdeliveryattempts unsuccessful attempts By default messages are redelivered 10 times at the maximum Set maxdeliveryattempts to 1 for infinite redeliveries A dead letter address can be set globally for a set of matching addresses and you can set maxdeliveryattempts to 1 for a specific address setting to allow infinite redeliveries only for this address Address wildcards can be used to configure dead letter settings for a set of addresses see Understanding the Wildcard Syntax Dead Letter Properties Dead letter messages which are consumed from a dead letter address have the following properties _AMQ_ORIG_ADDRESS a String property containing the original address of the dead letter message _AMQ_ORIG_QUEUE a String property containing the original queue of the dead letter message Example See Dead Letter section of the Examples for an example that shows how dead letter is configured and used with JMS Delivery Count Persistence In normal use Apache ActiveMQ Artemis does not update delivery count persistently until a message is rolled back ie the delivery count is not updated before the message is delivered to the consumer In most messaging use cases the messages are consumed acknowledged and forgotten as soon as they are consumed In these cases updating the delivery count persistently before delivering the message would add an extra persistent step for each message delivered implying a significant performance penalty However if the delivery count is not updated persistently before the message delivery happens in the event of a server crash messages might have been delivered but that will not have been reflected in the delivery count During the recovery phase the server will not have knowledge of that and will deliver the message with redelivered set to false while it should be true As this behavior breaks strict JMS semantics Apache ActiveMQ Artemis allows to persist delivery count before message delivery but this feature is disabled by default due to performance implications To enable it set persistdeliverycountbeforedelivery to true in brokerxml persistdeliverycountbeforedelivery true persistdeliverycountbeforedelivery

B I O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Abilene Christian University Athletics 2018 Football Coaching Staff Choose Season Staff Directory Members By CategoryDepartment Adam Dorrel Head Football Coach footballacuedu 3256742323 AdamDorrel Josh Lamberson Assistant Head Coach Offensive Coordinator joshlambersonacuedu 3256742320 JoshLamberson Tremaine Jackson Defensive Coordinator tremainejacksonacuedu 3256742736 coachjack212 Blake Andersen Assistant Coach Defensive Line blakeandersenacuedu 3256742888 Coach_Andersen Jordan JB Brown Assistant Coach Linebackers jordanbrownacuedu 3256742110 CoachJB_Brown Ray Brown Assistant Coach Defensive Backs raybrownacuedu 3256746089 CoachBrown_ACU Ryan Gent Assistant Coach Wide Receivers Recruiting Coordinator ryangentacuedu 3256742322 CoachRyanGent Jacori Greer Assistant Coach Defensive Line jacorigreeracuedu 3256742324 GreerJacori Derron Montgomery Assistant Coach Fullbacks Tight Ends derronmontgomeryacuedu 3256744885 Mr_D_Montgomery JW Walsh Assistant Coach Running Backs jwwalshacuedu john_walsh4

O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Ada Signs of Herpes Signs of Herpes What are signs of herpes The signs of herpes are the observable manifestations of the herpes simplex virus 1 Herpes also referred to as herpes simplex and HSV is a viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus HSV and generally transmitted through interpersonal contact There are two types of herpes virus HSV1 and HSV2 both of which can cause oral andor genital herpes Herpes is a common condition and highly contagious Although there is currently no way to completely cure the condition it is possible to effectively manage the signs and symptoms In oral herpes most signs and symptoms present in and around the mouth In genital herpes most signs and symptoms present around the genital region of both sexes Herpes should generally be thought of as a nonserious condition in which complications are rare 2 Signs of oral herpes The majority of people infected with oral herpes or herpes labialis will present no signs or symptoms and may thus be unaware of the condition When oral herpes does present itself the most common sign is the presence of ulcers in and around the mouth and lips sometimes referred to as cold sores These ulcers will typically be red in color and sometimes bleed or weep puss they may also be highly itchy and cause pain or discomfort Although the mouth and lips are the most typical locations for ulcers to appear they may also present themselves on the tongue face or any other area of skin on the body 3 The Ada app can help you check your symptoms Download the free app or find out more about how it works After the initial outbreak the herpes infection may become dormant and lead to recurrent outbreaks later in life Signs of genital herpes Like oral herpes the majority of people infected with genital herpes will be unaware of the condition When signs and symptoms do appear this can be weeks months or years after the initial infection though it is most common for them to appear after four to seven days 4 The Ada app can help you check symptoms you may be concerned about Download the free app or find out more about how it works Primary infection When signs of genital herpes appear for the first time they may include Blisters around the genitals rectum thighs and buttocks Commonly these blisters will burst becoming red and sometimes painful In women blisters and ulcers may appear on the cervix Symptoms which may also be present include Pain when urinating General illness including aches pains and flulike symptoms Blisters and ulcers will typically last for up to 20 days Recurrent infection After the initial outbreak the herpes simplex virus will remain dormant in the body In some cases no further outbreaks will occur while in others recurrent outbreaks are possible Recurrent infections are generally less severe and last for a shorter period than the initial outbreak Signs of genital herpes in recurrent outbreaks include Small blisters around the genitals rectum thighs and buttocks In women blisters may also appear on the cervix People may also experience a sensation of burning or itching around the genital area or legs often before blisters appear In rare cases herpes labialis can also cause blisters or ulcers to appear in and around the mouth and face Signs of herpes esophagitis herpes in the throat The herpes simplex virus HSV1 or HSV2 can also affect the throat leading to a condition known as herpes esophagitis In these cases the condition will typically cause no outward signs but will lead to symptoms such as a sore throat chest pain and irritation when swallowing 5 The Ada app can help you check your symptoms Download the free app or find out more about how it works Herpes esophagitis can sometimes indicate that an individual has a weakened immune system which may be caused by a serious condition such as diabetes cancer or HIV For this reason it is important to consult a doctor if there is any suspicion of herpes in the throat Signs of herpes simplex eye infection The herpes simplex virus usually HSV1 can in some cases spread to the eye causing an eye infection This will often occur when the virus reactivates itself after an initial infection which may happen randomly or as a result of an illness eye injury or stress among other factors 6 Signs that the herpes simplex virus has spread to the eye include A red eye Swelling around the eye Watering of the eye Pain in the eye Sensitivity to light Blurred vision The infection will usually affect only one eye though it is possible for it to occur in both If any signs of herpes in the eye occur it is important to seek the advice of a medical professional urgently If left untreated the following complications are possible Scarring of the cornea Glaucoma damage to the optic nerve which may result in blindness Loss of vision though this is rare Signs of maternal and neonatal herpes If a woman is infected with the HSV during pregnancy it is possible for the virus to be passed on to the newborn baby normally during delivery Although this is rare the resulting neonatal herpes can pose serious risks to newborns Signs that a pregnant woman is infected with the herpes simplex virus are the same as those in nonpregnant people The risk of neonatal herpes is highest in cases where the pregnant woman develops herpes for the first time in the late stages of pregnancy as the body is unlikely to have the necessary antibodies for combatting the virus Women with HSV in a latent form ie who have had the virus previously without recurrence have a very low risk of passing the virus onto the newborn baby 7 Signs that a newborn baby has neonatal herpes include 8 Lack of energy Tiredness Floppiness limp limbs High temperature Highpitched cry Breathing difficulties or grunting Rapid breathing Blue skin and tongue Skin rash If there is a suspicion of neonatal herpes a doctor or midwife should be contacted as a matter of urgency Treatment will typically involve the use of antiviral drugs administered intravenously over several weeks Causes of herpes Herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus which typically enters the body through the skin around the mouth genitals and anus It is also possible for the virus to be passed on through other areas of skin on the body as well as the eyes though this is less common 9 Oral herpes is commonly passed on through activities such as kissing and sharing eating utensils while genital herpes is typically transmitted through activities such as Vaginal or anal sex even with a condom HSV can still be transmitted via skintoskin contact between a person with an active infection and others Sharing sex toys Close genital contact Diagnosing herpes Herpes will typically be diagnosed through a physical examination where a doctor will check for the signs and symptoms of the condition This will generally be enough to diagnose herpes to confirm the presence of the condition however laboratory tests including blood tests can also be ordered Herpes treatment Treatment for herpes is aimed at managing the symptoms and controlling recurrent outbreaks The most common treatment method is the use of antiviral creams and ointments which will usually be applied at home Antiviral drugs are also available to help manage herpes though these are generally reserved for people experiencing recurrent outbreaks 10 Herpes prevention To prevent spreading herpes to other people care should be taken to avoid skin to skin contact during an outbreak of the condition Activities such as kissing sharing utensils and sexual activity should be particularly avoided Good to know A condom does not offer effective protection against the transmission of HSV Avoiding all sexual activity is recommended during an outbreak of herpes because HSV can spread via any form of genital contact between a person with an active infection and others American Academy of Dermatology Herpes Simplex Accessed October 16 2017 Herpes Viruses Association About Herpes Accessed October 16 2017 World Health Organization Herpes simplex virus January 2017 Accessed October 16 2017 NHS Choices Genital herpes Symptoms August 22 2014 Accessed October 16 2017 STDAware Herpes in the Throat Accessed October 16 2017 NHS Choices Herpes simplex eye infections October 13 2017 Accessed October 20 2017 The New Zealand Herpes Foundation Reassurances about Genital Herpes during pregnancy and birth Accessed October 20 2017 NHS Choices Neonatal herpes herpes in a baby August 14 2015 Accessed October 20 2017 Medical News Today Herpes Causes Symptoms and Treatments December 16 2016 Accessed October 20 2017 MSD Manual Consumer Version Herpes Simplex Virus Infections Accessed October 20 2017 Feeling unwell Start symptom assessment

O B I I B I I O O B I I O B I I O O B I O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O

signs of herpes
observable manifestations
herpes simplex virus


PreMedicine Program In our premed program youll pursue your undergraduate degree while completing coursework you will need to apply and succeed in medical school Our students come from a wide variety of bachelors programs such as biomedical engineering biochemistry biology psychology and behavioral health and wellness Youll work with an advisor who will help you prepare for the Medical College Admission Test MCAT and help you gather information about volunteer and research opportunities In addition Illinois Techs PreMedical Advisory Committee helps monitor your academic progress PreMedicine Website Dual Admission Program Osteopathic Medicine BSDO Receive admission into Illinois Tech as well as Midwestern Universitys Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine With the increasingly important role of technology in the diagnosis and treatment of disease a rigorous Undergraduate education in a technological field is ideal preparation for students interested in pursuing a career in osteopathic medicine The osteopathic philosophy is to treat the whole person not just the symptoms It emphasizes the interrelationships of structure and function and the appreciation of the bodys ability to heal itself Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine DO practice this distinct field Other than MDs DOs are the only type of physician in the United States who are fully trained and licensed to perform surgery and prescribe medicine Contact Us Request Info List of Majors PreHealth Programs PreMedicine Program PrePharmacy Program PreOptometry Program Dual Admission Special Programs City Colleges of Chicago IIT Illinois Community Colleges IIT Academic Calendar Undergraduate Bulletin Course Catalog IPRO Idea Shop Brochures Find Information For Transfer Students Counselors Families Admitted Students

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Cheap Apartments In Gatlinburg Sevier County Tennessee There are 0 low income housing apartment complexes which contain 0 affordable apartments for rent in Gatlinburg Tennessee Many of these rental apartments are income based housing with about 0 apartments that set rent based on your income Often referred to as HUD apartments there are 0 ProjectBased Section 8 subsidized apartments in Gatlinburg There are 0 other low income apartments that dont have rental assistance but are still considered to be affordable housing for low income families Housing Authorities that serve Gatlinburg Tennessee Housing Development Agency Central Office The Tennessee Housing Development Agency Central Office is a Section 8 public housing agency in Nashville Tennessee Tennessee Housing Development Agency East Tennessee Office The Tennessee Housing Development Agency East Tennessee Office is a Section 8 public housing agency in Cookeville Tennessee Housing Choice Voucher Waiting List is Closed Understanding Affordable Housing in Gatlinburg Tennessee Population And Household Demographics Income and Rent Overburden Fair Market Rents Area Median Income Low Income Housing Tax Credit Rental Assistance Gatlinburg TN Affordable Housing Snapshot Total Affordable Apartment Properties 0 Total Low Income Apartments 0 Total Rent Assisted Apartments 0 Percentage of Housing Units Occupied By Renters 3684 Average Renter Household Size 228 Total Population 4099 Housing Units 1919 Average Household Size 210 Median Household Income 36175 3511 Median Rent 813 66 Percentage Of Renters Overburdened 4257 159pp Population and Household Demographics Gatlinburg is a City in Sevier County Tennessee with a population of 4099 There are 1919 households in the city with an average household size of 210 persons 3684 of households in Gatlinburg are renters Income and Rent Overburden in Gatlinburg The median gross income for households in Gatlinburg is 36175 a year or 3015 a month The median rent for the city is 813 a month Households who pay more than thirty percent of their gross income are considered to be Rent Overburdened In Gatlinburg a household making less than 2710 a month would be considered overburdened when renting an apartment at or above the median rent 4257 of households who rent are overburdened in Gatlinburg 1 Data derived from 2010 Census and 2015 5Year American Community Survey 1 Margin of Error 159 percentage points Area Median Income In Gatlinburg Affordable housing program eligibility is always determined by ones income Each households income is compared to the incomes of all other households in the area This is accomplished through a statistic established by the government called the Area Median Income most often referred to as AMI The AMI is calculated and published each year by HUD HUD often uses an area larger than a city to determine the AMI because HUD anticipates those searching for housing will look beyond individual cities during their housing search For Gatlinburg the AMI is calculated from all households within Sevier County In Gatlinburg HUD calculates the Area Median Income for a family of four as 58500 Most affordable housing programs determine eligibility based on the percent of AMI a given households income is Among the programs that determine eligibility based on the AMI are Section 8 HOME LIHTC Section 515 202 and 811 Rental Assistance in Gatlinburg Rental assistance is a type of housing subsidy that pays for a portion of a renters monthly housing costs including rent and tenant paid utilities This housing assistance can come in the form of Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers projectbased Section 8 contracts public housing USDA Rental Assistance in Section 515 properties as well as HUD Section 202 and 811 properties for elderly and disabled households Income Qualifications for Gatlinburg HUD Rental Assistance in Gatlinburg Income 1 Person 2 Person 3 Person 4 Person 5 Person 6 Person 7 Person 8 Person 30 of Median 12300 16460 20780 25100 29420 33740 36300 38650 50 of Median 20500 23400 26350 29250 31600 33950 36300 38650 80 of Median 32800 37450 42150 46800 50550 54300 58050 61800 You can identify apartment communities that participate in a program that provides rental assistance by looking for the Section 202 Supportive Housing for the Elderly Section 811 Supportive Housing for Persons with Disabilities Rental Assistance Payments ProjectBased Section 8 Rural Development Rental Assistance Public Housing tags in the apartment list above View Apartments You can identify apartment communities that participate in the program in Gatlinburg by looking for the Low Income Housing Tax Credit tag in the apartment list above View Apartments If your income is less than 60 of the Area Median Income AMI you should not expect to pay more than the rent value for a unit in the table below However Affordable apartment communities that receive funding through the Low Income Housing Tax Credit program may have rental units that are not subject to income and rent limits Rent limits for the LIHTC Program are determined so that a household making the maximum income for the expected household size of the unit would only pay 30 of their income for rent Income Qualifications for Low Income Housing Tax Credit Apartments in Gatlinburg Income 1 Person 2 Person 3 Person 4 Person 5 Person 6 Person 7 Person 8 Person 50 of Median 20500 23400 26350 29250 31600 33950 36300 38650 HERA 50 22000 25150 28300 31400 33950 36450 38950 41450 60 of Median 24600 28080 31620 35100 37920 40740 43560 46380 HERA 60 26400 30180 33960 37680 40740 43740 46740 49740 For example the expected household size for a two bedroom apartment is 3 people Using the table above the maximum income for a 3 person household at 60 of the AMI in Gatlinburg is 31620 a year or 2635 a month To determine the maximum rent in the table below we multiply the monthly maximum income 2635 by 30 to get a maximum rent of 791 a month Rent for units in the LIHTC Program include a utility allowance which is determined by the average monthly cost of utilities paid directly by residents This allowance has not been subtracted from the rents in the table below These utility allowances are set on a property by property basis of AMI Studio 1 Bed 2 Bed 3 Bed 4 Bed 5 Bed 50 513 549 659 761 849 937 60 615 659 791 913 1019 1124 Fair Market Rents in Gatlinburg Fair Market Rents often abbreviated as FMR can be used to better understand the average housing costs of an area Notably Fair Market Rents are used to establish the payment standards for the Housing Choice Voucher Program maximum rents in HOME financed rental projects and initial rents for Section 8 project based assistance 2019 Fair Market Rents Studio One BR Two BR Three BR Four BR 616 625 724 1030 1130

B I O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

cheap apartments
gatlinburg
housing authorities


About the Attorney General New York State Attorney General Barbara D Underwood Barbara D Underwood has served as New York Attorney General since May 2018 Throughout her career she has held some of the most vital roles in the legal profession After finishing first in her class at Georgetown University Law Center Barbara served as law clerk to two of the nations most brilliant legal minds Chief Judge David L Bazelon of the US Court of Appeals for the DC Circuit and Justice Thurgood Marshall of the US Supreme Court She has held executive positions in the Queens and Brooklyn District Attorneys Offices and served as a trial attorney in the Manhattan District Attorneys Office From 1998 to 2001 Barbara served as the Acting Solicitor General and Principal Deputy Solicitor General of the United States the first female Solicitor General in American history She has argued 20 cases in the United States Supreme Court After serving as Chief Assistant to the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of New York EDNY from 1993 to 1998 and 2001 to 2003 and EDNY Counsel from 2003 to 2007 Barbara was appointed in 2007 to serve as New Yorks Solicitor General and has held that position ever since She has also served as Chair of the New York City Bar Associations Executive Committee and Council on Criminal Justice She was a tenured Professor of Law at Yale Law School a visiting Professor at New York University School of Law and an adjunct Professor at Brooklyn Law School Throughout her career Barbara has been a guardian of equal justice for all Among many cases she has fought against racially discriminatory jury selection argued that federal law protects employees and students of federallyfunded educational institutions from sex discrimination and defended the constitutionality of reasonable buffer zones around womens health clinics to protect a womans right to choose En Español

O O B I O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Age of Empires III Age of Empires III The Asian Dynasties is one of those games that keep you hooked to the computer for hours and hours For sure that you have ever heard of Age of Empires and this time they have released a really exciting game The Asian Dynasties is the next step in strategy game If you enjoyed Age of Empires III youll love this expansion Now youll be able to take the control of one of the three Asian dynasties Japanese Chinese or Indian and experience something different new characters new weapons new wonders new maps and even a new game mode Youll have to construct new wonders to go to the next age so youll be able to appreciate The Indian Charminar Gate The Chinese Confucian Academy The Japanese Torii Gates The Japanese Great Buddha The Chinese Porcelain Tower Its great Age of Empires III The Asian Dynasties adds three new civilizations 15 monumental Asian Wonders the new Export resource new random maps three five scenariocampaigns that feature all new Age of Empires III characters Eastern native tribes and a wealth of exciting new Home City content Lead the Chinese army Japanese army or Indian army Explore battle manage sources with only one goal have the world at your knees Youll be surprised with the graphics and the detail level of Age of Empires II Asian dynasties The movements of the people the game mode that will trap you easy to play but difficult to master youll learn how to manage your civilization step by step If you like strategy games the latest Age of Empires is a must have Restrictions The demo version features the Japanese dynasty a new random map Honshu and the chance to play King of the Hill a new game type Technical information License Demo Language English Author Ensemble studios Opinions about Age of Empires III yojac in 2017 idioma como cmbiar edioma de este juego que es bueno a español por esa razon doy una estrella por que creo que aun le falta que uno acomode el juego a su idioma yojac in 2017 Age of Empires III quiero cambiar el idioma del juego a español he intentado de mil formar que hacer patato3 in 2012 PARECE ESTAR BIEN Oye porke esta en inglesno ay nada para traducir en espa ditoo in 2011 Age of Empires III Asian Dynasties elles estoes un demo oke pepechuy9522 in 2010 Age of Empires III Asian Dynasties tarda demasiado en descargar pero creo que vladra la pena ya q tengo el age of empires pero de otra tribu Questions about Age of Empires III patato3 in 2012 PARECE ESTAR BIEN Oye porke esta en inglesno ay nada para traducir en espa Similar to Age of Empires III Linden Research Second Life Create your second character and start a new life 502324126 Squad Kerbal Space Program Design Your Space Rocket Launch It and Discover New Worlds Ensemble Studios Age of Empires The future of your colony is in your hands III 11 Lucas Monge Lucas Chess Refine your chess skills or learn from zero 904 Goodgame Studios Big Farm Make your farm prosper with innovative crops FireFly Studios Stronghold Kingdoms Grow your empire and become a medieval lord Enlight Seven Kingdoms Ancient Adversaries The world is at war now pick a side 2144 React Games Archon Classic Play chess like never before

B I I I B I I I O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I B I O O O O O O O O B I I I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O