Economic

inequality

by

gender

by

Esteban

OrtizOspina

and

Max

Roser

cite

This

article

was

first

published

in

March

Wed

like

to

thank

Sandra

Tzvetkova

and

Diana

Beletekian

for

great

research

assistance

In

this

entry

we

present

data

and

research

on

economic

inequalities

between

men

and

women

Here

is

an

overview

of

some

of

the

points

we

cover

below

All

over

the

world

men

tend

to

earn

more

than

women

Jump

to

this

section

Women

are

often

underrepresented

in

senior

positions

within

firms

while

at

the

same

time

they

tend

to

be

overrepresented

in

lowpaying

jobs

Jump

to

this

section

In

many

countries

men

are

more

likely

to

own

land

and

control

productive

assets

than

women

Jump

to

this

section

Women

often

have

limited

influence

over

important

household

decisions

including

how

their

own

personal

earned

income

is

spent

Jump

to

this

section

Whenever

the

data

allows

it

we

also

discuss

below

how

these

inequalities

have

been

changing

over

time

As

we

show

although

economic

gender

inequalities

remain

common

and

large

they

are

today

smaller

than

they

used

to

be

some

decades

ago

In

most

countries

the

gender

pay

gap

has

decreased

in

the

last

couple

of

decades

Jump

to

this

section

Genderequal

inheritance

systems

which

were

rare

until

recently

are

now

common

across

the

world

Jump

to

this

section

Composite

indices

that

cover

multiple

dimensions

show

that

on

the

whole

gender

inequalities

have

been

shrinking

substantially

over

the

last

century

Jump

to

this

section

Related

shorter

posts

on

Our

World

in

Data

In

what

follows

we

focus

on

visualizing

key

data

with

concise

explanations

But

we

have

several

other

articles

on

this

topic

delving

into

more

detailed

commentary

and

a

literature

review

of

relevant

academic

research

These

articles

can

be

read

here

Empirical

view

Differences

in

pay

In

most

countries

there

is

a

substantial

gender

pay

gap

Men

tend

to

earn

more

than

women

in

most

countries

That

is

there

is

a

gender

pay

gap

Differences

in

pay

capture

differences

along

many

possible

dimensions

including

worker

education

experience

and

occupation

When

the

pay

gap

is

calculated

by

comparing

all

male

workers

to

all

female

workers

irrespective

of

differences

along

these

additional

dimensions

the

result

is

the

raw

or

unadjusted

pay

gap

Crosscountry

data

on

the

unadjusted

gender

pay

gap

is

patchy

but

the

most

complete

source

in

terms

of

coverage

is

the

United

Nations

International

Labour

Organization

ILO

The

following

visualization

presents

this

data

You

can

add

observations

by

clicking

on

the

option

add

country

at

the

bottom

of

the

chart

The

estimates

shown

below

correspond

to

differences

between

average

hourly

earnings

of

men

and

women

expressed

as

a

percentage

of

average

hourly

earnings

of

men

and

cover

all

workers

irrespective

of

whether

they

work

full

time

or

part

time

As

we

can

see

i

in

most

countries

the

gap

is

positive

and

ii

there

are

large

differences

in

the

size

of

this

gap

across

countries

NB

By

this

measure

the

gender

wage

gap

can

be

positive

or

negative

If

it

is

negative

it

means

that

on

an

hourly

basis

men

earn

on

average

less

than

women

This

is

the

case

in

some

countries

such

as

Malaysia

A

discussion

of

the

adjusted

pay

gap

can

be

found

further

below

in

this

entry

In

most

countries

the

gender

pay

gap

has

decreased

in

the

last

couple

of

decades

How

is

the

gender

pay

gap

changing

over

time

To

answer

this

question

lets

consider

the

following

chart

showing

available

estimates

from

the

OECD

These

estimates

include

OECD

member

states

as

well

as

some

other

nonmember

countries

and

they

are

the

longest

available

series

of

crosscountry

data

on

the

gender

pay

gap

that

we

are

aware

of

Here

we

see

that

the

gap

is

large

in

most

OECD

countries

but

it

has

been

going

down

in

the

last

couple

of

decades

In

some

cases

the

reduction

is

remarkable

In

the

UK

for

example

the

gap

went

down

from

almost

in

to

about

in

These

estimates

are

not

directly

comparable

to

those

from

the

ILO

because

the

pay

gap

is

measured

slightly

differently

here

The

OECD

estimates

refer

to

percent

differences

in

median

earnings

ie

the

gap

here

captures

differences

between

men

and

women

in

the

middle

of

the

earnings

distribution

and

they

cover

only

fulltime

employees

and

selfemployed

workers

ie

the

gap

here

excludes

disparities

that

arise

from

differences

in

hourly

wages

for

parttime

and

fulltime

workers

However

the

ILO

data

shows

similar

trends

for

the

period

The

gender

pay

gap

is

larger

for

older

workers

The

United

States

Census

Bureau

defines

the

pay

gap

as

the

ratio

between

median

wages

that

is

they

measure

the

gap

by

calculating

the

wages

of

men

and

women

at

the

middle

of

the

earnings

distribution

and

dividing

them

By

this

measure

the

gender

wage

gap

is

expressed

as

a

percent

median

earnings

of

women

as

share

of

median

earnings

of

men

and

it

is

always

positive

Here

values

below

mean

that

women

earn

less

than

men

while

values

above

mean

than

women

earn

more

Values

closer

to

reflect

a

lower

gap

The

next

chart

shows

available

estimates

of

this

metric

for

fulltime

workers

in

the

US

by

age

group

First

we

see

that

the

series

trends

upwards

meaning

the

gap

has

been

shrinking

in

the

last

couple

of

decades

Secondly

we

see

that

there

are

important

differences

by

age

The

second

point

is

crucial

to

understand

the

gender

pay

gap

the

gap

is

a

statistic

that

changes

during

the

life

of

a

worker

In

most

rich

countries

its

small

when

formal

education

ends

and

employment

begins

and

it

increases

with

age

As

we

discuss

in

our

analysis

of

the

determinants

the

gender

pay

gap

tends

to

increase

when

women

marry

and

whenif

they

have

children

The

gender

pay

gap

is

smaller

in

countries

with

low

labor

force

participation

of

women

The

following

scatter

plot

shows

available

ILO

estimates

on

the

gender

pay

gap

vertical

axis

vs

GDP

per

capita

on

a

logarithmic

scale

along

the

horizontal

axis

As

we

can

see

there

is

a

weak

positive

correlation

between

GDP

per

capita

and

the

gender

pay

gap

The

pattern

above

needs

to

be

interpreted

with

caution

since

some

of

the

countries

with

very

low

wage

gaps

are

also

countries

with

low

female

participation

in

labor

markets

eg

Honduras

So

rather

than

reflect

greater

equality

the

lower

wage

gaps

observed

in

some

countries

could

indicate

that

only

women

with

certain

characteristics

for

instance

with

no

husband

or

children

are

entering

the

workforce

Olivetti

and

Petrongolo

explain

it

as

follows

if

women

who

are

employed

tend

to

have

relatively

highwage

characteristics

low

female

employment

rates

may

become

consistent

with

low

gender

wage

gaps

simply

because

lowwage

women

would

not

feature

in

the

observed

wage

distribution

As

we

show

in

the

next

chart

there

is

indeed

a

correlation

between

female

labor

force

participation

and

the

unadjusted

pay

gap

across

countries

And

this

is

true

within

world

regions

For

example

in

Europe

the

countries

with

the

lowest

unadjusted

pay

gap

have

also

the

lowest

participation

of

women

in

labor

markets

eg

Italy

The

gender

pay

gap

is

larger

if

we

account

for

gender

differences

in

employment

In

all

the

charts

above

the

gender

pay

gap

is

taken

only

with

respect

to

men

and

women

who

are

employed

If

we

estimate

the

unadjusted

pay

gap

assigning

zero

income

to

people

who

are

not

employed

we

get

a

much

larger

pay

gap

since

employmenttopopulation

ratios

tend

to

be

much

higher

for

men

than

for

women

The

next

chart

shows

the

unadjusted

pay

gaps

under

this

alternative

approach

whereby

individuals

who

are

not

employed

are

assigned

zero

income

The

figures

correspond

to

womens

income

as

a

percent

of

mens

and

include

wages

and

profits

from

selfemployment

Here

the

gender

wage

gap

is

expressed

as

a

percent

average

earnings

of

women

as

share

of

average

earnings

of

men

and

it

is

always

positive

Values

below

mean

that

women

earn

less

than

men

and

values

closer

to

reflect

a

lower

gap

NB

These

figures

come

from

this

blog

post

from

the

Center

for

Global

Development

where

you

can

find

more

details

and

discussion

Access

to

top

jobs

Women

tend

to

be

underrepresented

in

senior

managerial

positions

The

chart

below

plots

the

proportion

of

women

in

senior

and

middle

management

positions

around

the

world

It

shows

that

women

all

over

the

world

are

underrepresented

in

highprofile

jobs

which

tend

to

be

better

paid

The

next

chart

provides

an

alternative

perspective

on

the

same

issue

Here

we

show

the

share

of

firms

that

have

a

woman

as

manager

We

highlight

world

regions

by

default

but

you

can

add

specific

countries

by

using

the

option

add

country

As

we

can

see

all

over

the

world

firms

tend

to

be

managed

by

men

And

globally

only

about

of

firms

have

a

female

manager

Firms

with

female

managers

tend

to

be

different

to

firms

with

male

managers

For

example

firms

with

female

managers

tend

to

also

be

firms

with

more

female

workers

Women

in

rich

countries

tend

to

be

overrepresented

in

lowpaying

jobs

Above

we

show

that

women

all

over

the

world

are

underrepresented

in

highprofile

jobs

which

tend

to

be

better

paid

As

it

turns

out

in

many

countries

women

are

at

the

same

time

overrepresented

in

lowpaying

jobs

This

is

shown

in

the

chart

below

Here

lowpay

refers

to

workers

earning

less

than

twothirds

of

the

median

ie

the

middle

of

the

earnings

distribution

A

share

above

implies

that

women

are

overrepresented

in

the

sense

that

among

those

with

low

wages

there

are

more

women

than

men

The

fact

that

women

in

rich

countries

are

overrepresented

in

the

bottom

of

the

income

distribution

goes

together

with

the

fact

that

working

women

in

these

countries

are

overrepresented

in

lowpaying

occupations

The

chart

below

shows

this

for

the

US

In

several

countries

the

evidence

suggests

there

is

a

glass

ceiling

The

chart

below

shows

the

proportion

of

women

within

different

brackets

of

the

income

distribution

in

the

UK

across

time

As

we

can

see

among

those

with

high

incomes

women

remain

a

minority

in

the

UK

Interestingly

however

we

also

see

that

while

the

representation

of

women

at

the

top

of

the

income

distribution

has

been

increasing

over

time

the

rate

of

increase

is

smaller

within

the

very

top

income

groups

This

is

usually

interpreted

as

sign

of

the

glass

ceiling

in

female

earnings

and

is

actually

a

pattern

that

is

observed

in

other

countries

too

In

the

US

for

example

the

gender

pay

gap

declined

much

more

slowly

at

the

top

of

the

wage

distribution

than

at

the

middle

or

bottom

Percentage

of

women

in

top

income

groups

UK

to

Atkinson

Casarico

and

Voitchovsky

Control

over

household

resources

Women

often

have

no

control

over

their

personal

earned

income

The

chart

below

plots

crosscountry

estimates

of

the

share

of

women

who

are

not

involved

in

decisions

about

their

own

income

The

line

shows

national

averages

while

the

dots

show

averages

for

rich

and

poor

households

ie

averages

for

women

in

households

within

the

top

and

bottom

quintiles

of

the

corresponding

national

income

distribution

As

we

can

see

in

many

countries

particularly

in

SubSaharan

Africa

and

Asia

a

large

fraction

of

women

are

not

involved

in

household

decisions

about

spending

their

personal

earned

income

And

this

pattern

is

stronger

among

lowincome

households

within

lowincome

countries

Percentage

of

women

not

involved

in

decisions

about

their

own

income

World

Development

Report

In

many

countries

women

have

limited

influence

over

important

household

decisions

Above

we

focus

on

whether

women

get

to

choose

how

their

own

personal

income

is

spent

Now

we

look

at

womens

influence

over

total

household

income

In

the

next

chart

we

plot

the

share

of

currently

married

women

who

report

having

a

say

in

major

household

purchase

decisions

against

national

GDP

per

capita

We

see

that

in

many

countries

notably

in

SubSaharan

Africa

and

Asia

an

important

number

of

women

have

limited

influence

over

major

spending

decisions

The

chart

above

shows

that

womens

control

over

household

spending

tends

to

be

greater

in

richer

countries

In

the

chart

below

we

show

that

this

correlation

also

holds

within

countries

Womens

control

is

greater

in

wealthier

households

Households

wealth

is

shown

by

the

quintile

in

the

wealth

distribution

on

the

xaxis

the

poorest

households

are

in

the

lowest

quintiles

on

the

left

There

are

many

factors

at

play

here

and

its

important

to

bear

in

mind

that

this

correlation

partly

captures

the

fact

that

richer

households

enjoy

greater

discretionary

income

beyond

levels

required

to

cover

basic

expenditure

while

at

the

same

time

in

richer

households

women

often

have

greater

agency

via

access

to

broader

networks

as

well

as

higher

personal

assets

and

incomes

Percentage

of

women

with

some

control

over

decisions

by

regions

and

household

income

quintiles

World

Development

Report

Land

ownership

is

more

often

in

the

hands

of

men

Economic

inequalites

between

men

and

women

manifest

themselves

not

only

in

terms

of

wages

earned

but

also

in

terms

of

assets

owned

For

example

as

the

chart

below

shows

in

nearly

all

low

and

middleincome

countries

with

data

men

are

more

likely

to

own

land

than

women

Womens

lack

of

control

over

important

household

assets

such

as

land

can

be

a

critical

problem

in

case

of

divorce

or

the

husbands

death

Closely

related

to

the

issue

of

land

ownership

is

the

fact

that

in

several

countries

women

do

not

have

the

same

rights

to

property

as

men

These

countries

are

highlighted

in

the

map

below

This

map

from

the

World

Development

Report

provides

a

more

finegrained

overview

of

different

property

regimes

operating

in

different

countries

Gender

equal

inheritance

systems

have

been

adopted

in

most

but

not

all

countries

Inheritance

is

one

of

the

main

mechanisms

for

the

accumulation

of

assets

In

the

map

below

we

provide

an

overview

of

the

countries

that

do

and

do

not

have

genderequal

inheritance

systems

If

you

move

the

slider

to

you

will

see

that

while

gender

equal

inheritance

systems

were

very

rare

in

the

early

century

today

they

are

much

more

common

And

still

despite

the

progress

achieved

in

many

countries

notably

in

North

Africa

and

the

Middle

East

women

and

girls

still

have

fewer

inheritance

rights

than

men

and

boys

Gender

differences

in

access

to

productive

inputs

are

often

large

Above

we

show

that

there

are

large

gender

gaps

in

land

ownership

across

lowincome

countries

Here

we

show

that

there

are

also

large

gaps

in

terms

of

access

to

borrowed

capital

The

chart

below

shows

the

percentage

of

men

and

women

who

report

borrowing

any

money

in

the

past

months

to

start

operate

or

expand

a

farm

or

business

As

we

can

see

almost

everywhere

including

in

many

rich

countries

women

are

less

likely

to

get

borrowed

capital

for

productive

purposes

This

can

have

large

knockon

effects

In

agriculture

and

entrepreneurship

gender

differences

in

access

to

productive

inputs

including

land

and

credit

can

lead

to

gaps

in

earnings

via

lower

productivity

Indeed

studies

have

found

that

when

statistical

gender

differences

in

agricultural

productivity

exist

they

often

disappear

when

access

to

and

use

of

productive

inputs

are

taken

into

account

Multidimensional

indices

Womens

Economic

Opportunity

Index

The

previous

discussion

focused

on

particularly

aspects

one

by

one

What

is

the

the

picture

on

economic

inequality

in

the

aggregate

Tracking

progress

across

multiple

dimensions

of

gender

inequalities

can

be

difficult

since

changes

across

dimensions

often

go

in

different

directions

and

have

different

magnitudes

Because

of

this

researchers

and

policymakers

often

construct

synthetic

indicators

that

aggregate

various

dimensions

The

Womens

Economic

Opportunity

Index

WEO

published

by

The

Economist

Intelligence

Unit

is

one

such

effort

to

aggregate

various

aspects

of

female

economic

empowerment

into

a

single

metric

The

WEO

index

defines

womens

economic

opportunity

as

a

set

of

laws

regulations

practices

customs

and

attitudes

that

allow

women

to

participate

in

the

workforce

under

conditions

roughly

equal

to

those

of

men

whether

as

wageearning

employees

or

as

owners

of

a

business

It

is

calculated

from

indicators

drawing

on

data

from

many

sources

including

the

UN

and

the

OECD

Here

is

a

map

showing

scores

on

this

index

higher

scores

denote

more

economic

opportunities

for

women

The

Gender

Inequality

Index

from

the

Human

Development

Report

The

Human

Development

Report

produced

by

the

UN

includes

a

composite

index

that

captures

gender

inequalities

across

several

dimensions

including

economic

status

This

index

called

the

Gender

Inequality

Index

measures

inequalities

in

three

dimensions

reproductive

health

based

on

maternal

mortality

ratio

and

adolescent

birth

rates

empowerment

based

on

proportion

of

parliamentary

seats

occupied

by

females

and

proportion

of

adult

females

aged

years

and

older

with

at

least

some

secondary

education

and

economic

status

based

on

labour

market

participation

rates

of

female

and

male

populations

aged

years

and

older

The

map

below

shows

scores

country

by

country

Historical

Gender

Equality

Index

The

Gender

Inequality

Index

from

the

Human

Development

Report

only

has

data

from

Considering

this

Sarah

Carmichael

Selin

Dilli

and

Auke

Rijpma

from

Utrecht

University

produced

a

similar

composite

index

of

gender

inequality

using

available

data

for

the

period

in

order

to

make

aggregate

comparisons

over

the

long

run

This

index

covers

four

dimensions

i

Health

measured

by

sex

rations

in

life

expectancy

ii

Socioeconomic

resources

measured

by

sex

ratios

in

average

years

of

education

and

labour

force

participation

iii

Gender

disparities

in

the

household

captured

by

sex

ratios

in

marriage

ages

and

iv

Gender

disparities

in

politics

measured

by

sex

rations

in

parliamentary

seats

The

results

from

this

study

are

shown

in

the

chart

below

As

we

can

see

the

second

half

of

the

century

saw

global

improvements

and

the

regions

with

the

steepest

increase

in

gender

equality

were

Latin

America

and

Western

Europe

Interestingly

this

chart

also

shows

that

in

Eastern

Europe

there

was

important

progress

in

the

period

but

there

was

a

reversal

after

the

fall

of

the

Soviet

Union

Determinants

of

the

pay

gap

Education

and

human

capital

Education

and

experience

have

become

much

less

important

in

explaining

gender

differences

in

wages

in

the

US

Since

differences

in

education

partly

contribute

to

explain

differences

in

wages

it

is

common

to

distinguish

between

unadjusted

and

adjusted

pay

differences

When

the

gender

pay

gap

is

calculated

by

comparing

all

male

and

female

workers

irrespective

of

differences

in

worker

characteristics

the

result

is

the

raw

or

unadjusted

pay

gap

In

contrast

to

this

when

the

gap

is

calculated

after

accounting

for

underlying

differences

in

education

experience

and

other

factors

that

matter

for

the

pay

gap

then

the

result

is

the

adjusted

pay

gap

The

idea

of

the

adjusted

pay

gap

is

to

make

comparisons

within

groups

of

workers

with

roughly

similar

jobs

tenure

and

education

This

allows

us

to

tease

out

the

extent

to

which

different

factors

contribute

to

observed

inequalities

The

following

chart

from

Blau

and

Kahn

shows

the

evolution

of

the

adjusted

and

unadjusted

gender

pay

gap

in

the

US

More

precisely

the

chart

shows

the

evolution

of

female

to

male

wage

ratios

in

three

different

scenarios

i

Unadjusted

ii

Adjusted

controlling

for

gender

differences

in

human

capital

ie

education

and

experience

and

iii

Adjusted

controlling

for

a

full

range

of

covariates

including

education

experience

job

industry

and

occupation

among

others

The

difference

between

and

the

full

specification

the

green

bars

is

the

unexplained

residual

Several

points

stand

out

here

First

the

unadjusted

gender

pay

gap

in

the

US

shrunk

over

this

period

This

is

evident

from

the

fact

that

the

blue

bars

are

closer

to

in

than

in

Second

if

we

focus

on

groups

of

workers

with

roughly

similar

jobs

tenure

and

education

we

also

see

a

narrowing

The

adjusted

gender

pay

gap

has

shrunk

Third

we

can

see

that

education

and

experience

used

to

help

explain

a

very

large

part

of

the

pay

gap

in

but

this

changed

substantially

in

the

decades

that

followed

This

third

point

follows

from

the

fact

that

the

difference

between

the

blue

and

red

bars

was

much

larger

in

than

in

And

fourth

the

green

bars

grew

substantially

in

the

but

stayed

fairly

constant

thereafter

In

other

words

Most

of

the

convergence

in

earnings

occurred

during

the

a

decade

in

which

the

unexplained

gap

shrunk

substantially

Blau

and

Kahn

further

break

down

the

wage

gap

into

contributing

factors

The

following

chart

shows

the

relative

importance

of

specific

labor

market

characteristics

in

and

Now

we

see

that

in

the

US

education

and

experience

have

become

much

less

important

in

explaining

gender

differences

in

wages

over

time

while

occupation

and

industry

have

become

more

important

The

unexplained

residual

is

not

the

same

as

discrimination

The

chart

above

shows

that

the

unexplained

residual

went

down

over

the

period

in

the

US

This

means

the

observable

characteristics

of

workers

and

their

jobs

explain

wage

differences

better

today

than

a

couple

of

decades

ago

At

first

sight

this

seems

like

good

news

it

suggests

that

today

there

is

less

discrimination

in

the

sense

that

differences

in

earnings

are

today

much

more

readily

explained

by

differences

in

productivity

factors

But

is

this

really

the

case

The

unexplained

residual

may

include

aspects

of

unmeasured

productivity

ie

unobservable

worker

characteristics

that

can

not

be

controlled

for

in

a

regression

while

the

explained

factors

may

themselves

be

vehicles

of

discrimination

For

example

suppose

that

women

are

indeed

discriminated

against

and

they

find

it

hard

to

get

hired

for

certain

jobs

simply

because

of

their

sex

This

would

mean

that

in

the

adjusted

specification

we

would

see

that

occupation

and

industry

are

important

contributing

factors

but

that

is

precisely

because

discrimination

is

embedded

in

occupational

differences

Hence

while

the

unexplained

residual

gives

us

a

firstorder

approximation

of

what

is

going

on

we

need

much

more

detailed

data

and

analysis

in

order

to

say

something

definitive

about

the

role

of

discrimination

in

observed

pay

differences

I

will

discuss

the

evidence

on

discrimination

further

below

Gender

pay

differences

around

the

world

are

better

explained

by

occupation

than

by

education

The

set

of

three

maps

below

taken

from

the

World

Development

Report

shows

that

today

gender

pay

differences

are

much

better

explained

by

occupation

than

by

education

This

is

consistent

with

the

point

already

made

above

using

data

for

the

US

as

education

expanded

radically

over

the

last

few

decades

human

capital

has

become

much

less

important

in

explaining

gender

differences

in

wages

This

blog

post

from

Justin

Sandefur

at

the

Center

for

Global

Development

shows

that

education

also

fails

to

explain

wage

gaps

if

we

include

workers

with

zero

income

ie

if

we

decompose

the

wage

gap

after

including

people

who

are

not

employed

Gender

pay

gap

after

adjusting

for

education

and

occupation

WDR

Job

flexibility

All

over

the

world

women

tend

to

do

more

unpaid

care

work

at

home

than

men

and

women

tend

to

be

overrepresented

in

low

paying

jobs

where

they

have

the

flexibility

required

to

attend

to

these

additional

responsibilities

The

most

important

evidence

regarding

this

link

between

the

gender

pay

gap

and

job

flexibility

is

presented

and

discussed

by

Claudia

Goldin

in

the

article

A

Grand

Gender

Convergence

Its

Last

Chapter

where

she

digs

deep

in

the

data

from

the

US

There

are

some

key

lessons

that

apply

both

to

rich

and

nonrich

countries

Goldin

shows

that

when

one

looks

at

the

data

on

occupational

choice

in

some

detail

it

becomes

clear

that

women

disproportionately

seek

jobs

including

fulltime

jobs

that

tend

to

be

compatible

with

childrearing

and

other

family

responsibilities

In

other

words

women

more

than

men

are

expected

to

have

temporal

flexibility

in

their

jobs

Things

like

shifting

hours

of

work

and

rearranging

shifts

to

accommodate

emergencies

at

home

And

these

are

jobs

with

lower

earnings

per

hour

even

when

the

total

number

of

hours

worked

is

the

same

The

importance

of

job

flexibility

in

this

context

is

very

clearly

illustrated

by

the

fact

that

over

the

last

couple

of

decades

women

in

the

US

increased

their

participation

and

remuneration

in

only

some

fields

In

a

recent

paper

Goldin

and

Katz

show

that

pharmacy

became

a

highly

remunerated

femalemajority

profession

with

a

small

gender

earnings

gap

in

the

US

at

the

same

time

as

pharmacies

went

through

substantial

technological

changes

that

made

flexible

jobs

in

the

field

more

productive

eg

computer

systems

that

increased

the

substitutability

among

pharmacists

The

chart

below

shows

how

quickly

female

wages

increased

in

pharmacy

relative

to

other

professions

over

the

last

few

decades

in

the

US

Female

median

earnings

of

fulltime

yearround

pharmacists

relative

to

other

professions

US

Goldin

and

Katz

The

motherhood

penalty

Closely

related

to

job

flexibility

and

occupational

choice

is

the

issue

of

work

interruptions

due

to

motherhood

On

this

front

there

is

again

a

great

deal

of

evidence

in

support

of

the

socalled

motherhood

penalty

Lundborg

Plug

and

Rasmussen

provide

evidence

from

Denmark

more

specifically

Danish

women

who

sought

medical

help

in

achieving

pregnancy

By

tracking

womens

fertility

and

employment

status

through

detailed

periodic

surveys

these

researchers

were

able

to

establish

that

women

who

had

a

successful

in

vitro

fertilization

treatment

ended

up

having

lower

earnings

down

the

line

than

similar

women

who

by

chance

were

unsuccessfully

treated

Lundborg

Plug

and

Rasmussen

summarise

their

findings

as

follows

Our

main

finding

is

that

women

who

are

successfully

treated

by

in

vitro

fertilization

earn

persistently

less

because

of

having

children

We

explain

the

decline

in

annual

earnings

by

women

working

less

when

children

are

young

and

getting

paid

less

when

children

are

older

We

explain

the

decline

in

hourly

earnings

which

is

often

referred

to

as

the

motherhood

penalty

by

women

moving

to

lowerpaid

jobs

that

are

closer

to

home

The

fact

that

the

motherhood

penalty

is

indeed

about

motherhood

and

not

parenthood

is

supported

by

further

evidence

A

recent

study

also

from

Denmark

tracked

men

and

women

over

the

period

and

found

that

after

the

first

child

womens

earnings

sharply

dropped

and

never

fully

recovered

But

this

was

not

the

case

for

men

with

children

nor

the

case

for

women

without

children

These

patterns

are

shown

in

the

chart

below

The

first

panel

shows

the

trend

in

earnings

for

Danish

women

with

and

without

children

The

second

panel

shows

the

same

comparison

for

Danish

men

Note

that

these

two

examples

are

from

Denmark

a

country

that

ranks

high

on

gender

equality

measures

and

where

there

are

legal

guarantees

requiring

that

a

woman

can

return

to

the

same

job

after

taking

time

to

give

birth

This

shows

that

although

familyfriendly

policies

contribute

to

improve

female

labor

force

participation

and

reduce

the

gender

pay

gap

they

are

only

part

of

the

solution

Even

when

there

is

generous

paid

leave

and

subsidized

childcare

as

long

as

mothers

disproportionately

take

additional

work

at

home

after

having

children

inequities

in

pay

are

likely

to

remain

Ability

personality

and

social

norms

The

discussion

so

far

has

emphasised

the

importance

of

job

characteristics

and

occupational

choice

in

explaining

the

gender

pay

gap

This

leads

to

obvious

questions

What

determines

the

systematic

gender

differences

in

occupational

choice

What

makes

women

seek

job

flexibility

and

take

a

disproportionate

amount

of

unpaid

care

work

One

argument

usually

put

forward

is

that

to

the

extent

that

biological

differences

in

preferences

and

abilities

underpin

gender

roles

they

are

the

main

factors

explaining

the

gender

pay

gap

In

their

review

of

the

evidence

Francine

Blau

and

Lawrence

Kahn

show

that

there

is

limited

empirical

support

for

this

argument

To

be

clear

yes

there

is

evidence

supporting

the

fact

that

men

and

women

differ

in

some

key

attributes

that

may

affect

labor

market

outcomes

For

example

standardized

tests

show

that

there

are

statistical

gender

gaps

in

maths

scores

in

some

countries

and

experiments

show

that

women

avoid

more

salary

negotiations

and

they

often

show

particular

predisposition

to

accept

and

receive

requests

for

tasks

with

low

promotion

potential

However

these

observed

differences

are

far

from

being

biologically

fixed

gendering

begins

early

in

life

and

the

evidence

shows

that

preferences

and

skills

are

highly

malleable

You

can

influence

tastes

and

you

can

certainly

teach

people

to

tolerate

risk

to

do

maths

or

to

negotiate

salaries

Whats

more

independently

of

where

they

come

from

Blau

and

Kahn

show

that

these

empirically

observed

differences

can

typically

only

account

for

a

modest

portion

of

the

gender

pay

gap

In

contrast

the

evidence

does

suggest

that

social

norms

and

culture

which

in

turn

affect

preferences

behaviour

and

incentives

to

foster

specific

skills

are

key

factors

in

understanding

gender

differences

in

labor

force

participation

and

wages

You

can

read

more

about

this

in

our

blog

post

dedicated

to

answer

the

question

How

well

do

innate

gender

differences

explain

the

gender

pay

gap

Discrimination

and

bias

Independently

of

the

exact

origin

of

the

unequal

distribution

of

gender

roles

it

is

clear

that

our

recent

and

even

current

practices

show

that

these

roles

persist

with

the

help

of

institutional

enforcement

Goldin

for

instance

examines

past

prohibitions

against

the

training

and

employment

of

married

women

in

the

US

She

touches

on

some

wellknown

restrictions

such

as

those

against

the

training

and

employment

of

women

as

doctors

and

lawyers

before

focusing

on

the

lesser

known

but

even

more

impactful

marriage

bars

which

arose

in

the

late

and

early

These

work

prohibitions

are

important

because

they

applied

to

teaching

and

clerical

jobs

occupations

that

would

become

the

most

commonly

held

among

married

women

after

Around

the

time

the

US

entered

World

War

II

it

is

estimated

that

of

all

school

boards

would

not

hire

a

married

woman

and

would

not

retain

an

unmarried

woman

who

married

The

map

shown

below

highlights

that

to

this

day

legal

barriers

to

fight

discrimination

are

far

from

being

the

norm

However

even

after

explicit

barriers

are

lifted

and

legal

protections

put

in

their

place

discrimination

and

bias

can

persist

in

less

overt

ways

Goldin

and

Rouse

for

example

look

at

the

adoption

of

blind

auditions

by

orchestras

and

show

that

by

using

a

screen

to

conceal

the

identity

of

a

candidate

impartial

hiring

practices

increased

the

number

of

women

in

orchestras

by

between

and

Many

other

studies

have

found

similar

evidence

of

bias

in

different

labor

market

contexts

Biases

also

operate

in

other

spheres

of

life

with

strong

knockon

effects

on

labor

market

outcomes

For

example

at

the

end

of

World

War

II

only

of

people

in

the

US

thought

that

a

wife

should

work

if

her

husband

was

able

to

support

her

This

obviously

circles

back

to

our

earlier

point

about

social

norms

Key

definitions

What

is

the

gender

pay

gap

The

gender

pay

gap

or

the

gender

wage

gap

is

a

metric

that

tells

us

the

difference

in

pay

or

wages

or

income

between

women

and

men

Its

a

measure

of

inequality

and

captures

a

concept

that

is

broader

than

the

concept

of

equal

pay

for

equal

work

Differences

in

pay

between

men

and

women

capture

differences

along

many

possible

dimensions

including

worker

education

experience

and

occupation

When

the

gender

pay

gap

is

calculated

by

comparing

all

male

workers

to

all

female

workers

irrespective

of

differences

along

these

additional

dimensions

the

result

is

the

raw

or

unadjusted

pay

gap

On

the

contrary

when

the

gap

is

calculated

after

accounting

for

underlying

differences

in

education

experience

etc

then

the

result

is

the

adjusted

pay

gap

Discrimination

in

hiring

practices

can

exist

in

the

absence

of

pay

gaps

for

example

if

women

know

they

will

be

treated

unfairly

and

hence

choose

not

to

participate

in

the

labor

market

Similarly

it

is

possible

to

observe

large

pay

gaps

in

the

absences

of

discrimination

in

hiring

practices

for

example

if

women

get

fair

treatment

but

apply

for

lowerpaid

jobs

The

implication

is

that

observing

differences

in

pay

between

men

and

women

is

neither

necessary

nor

sufficient

to

prove

discrimination

in

the

workplace

Both

discrimination

and

inequality

are

important

But

they

are

not

one

and

the

same

How

is

the

unadjusted

gender

pay

gap

measured

Percent

differences

in

average

or

median

earnings

The

gender

wage

gap

is

often

measured

as

the

difference

between

average

earnings

of

men

and

average

earnings

of

women

expressed

as

a

percentage

of

average

earnings

of

men

By

this

measure

the

gender

wage

gap

can

be

negative

This

is

the

definition

used

by

the

ILO

We

explore

the

ILO

data

above

Comparisons

of

averages

can

often

be

misleading

because

averages

are

very

sensitive

to

extreme

data

points

Hence

it

is

also

common

to

measure

gender

gaps

by

comparing

earnings

for

the

individuals

at

the

median

or

middle

of

the

earnings

distribution

This

is

the

definition

used

by

the

OECD

We

explore

the

OECD

data

above

Ratios

of

average

or

median

earnings

In

addition

to

percent

differences

it

is

also

common

to

express

the

gender

pay

gap

as

a

simple

ratio

between

wages

This

is

the

measure

adopted

by

the

United

States

Census

Bureau

By

this

measure

the

gender

wage

gap

is

expressed

as

a

percent

median

earnings

of

women

as

share

of

median

earnings

of

men

and

it

is

always

positive

Here

values

below

mean

that

women

earn

less

than

men

while

values

above

mean

than

women

earn

more

Values

closer

to

reflect

a

lower

gap

Sources

Data

hubs

dedicated

to

gender

statistics

United

Nations

Gender

Statistics

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

Minimum

Set

of

Gender

Indicators

as

agreed

by

the

United

Nations

Statistical

Commission

in

its

Session

in

Geographical

coverage

Global

by

country

Link

httpsgenderstatsunorghome

World

Bank

Gender

Statistics

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

Several

gender

indicators

are

included

in

this

database

Here

are

some

that

we

cover

in

this

entry

Laws

mandating

equal

remuneration

for

females

Firms

with

female

top

managers

Participation

of

women

in

purchase

decisions

Percentage

of

men

and

women

age

who

solely

own

a

land

which

is

legally

registered

with

their

name

or

can

not

be

sold

without

their

signature

Ownership

rights

by

gender

Percentage

of

men

and

women

ages

who

report

borrowing

any

money

in

the

past

months

by

themselves

or

together

with

someone

else

to

start

operate

or

expand

a

farm

or

business

Geographical

coverage

Global

by

country

Link

httpsdatacatalogworldbankorgdatasetgenderstatistics

United

Nations

Gender

Statistics

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

Minimum

Set

of

Gender

Indicators

as

agreed

by

the

United

Nations

Statistical

Commission

in

its

Session

in

Geographical

coverage

Global

by

country

Link

httpsgenderstatsunorg

OECD

Development

Centres

Social

Institutions

and

Gender

Index

SIGI

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

This

data

hub

covers

crosscountry

measures

of

discrimination

against

women

in

social

institutions

formal

and

informal

laws

social

norms

and

practices

across

countries

Geographical

coverage

countries

Link

wwwgenderindexorg

OECD

Gender

data

portal

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

The

OECD

Gender

Data

Portal

includes

selected

indicators

shedding

light

on

gender

inequalities

in

education

employment

entrepreneurship

health

and

development

showing

how

far

we

are

from

achieving

gender

equality

and

where

actions

is

most

needed

The

data

cover

OECD

member

countries

as

well

as

partner

economies

including

Brazil

China

India

Indonesia

and

South

Africa

Link

httpwwwoecdorggenderdata

Wikigender

statistics

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

This

data

hub

links

several

external

resources

including

the

OECDs

Gender

Institutions

and

Development

Database

as

well

as

the

OECDs

Gender

data

portal

Geographical

coverage

Global

by

country

Link

wwwwikigenderorgstatistics

Other

sources

referenced

in

this

article

International

Labor

Organization

ILO

Data

Source

ILO

Description

of

available

measures

Unadjusted

gender

gap

in

average

hourly

wages

Female

share

of

low

pay

earners

Time

span

Geographical

coverage

Global

by

country

Link

httpwwwiloorgilostat

World

Bank

World

Development

Indicators

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

Several

gender

indicators

are

included

in

this

database

Here

are

some

that

we

cover

in

this

entry

Laws

mandating

equal

remuneration

for

females

Firms

with

female

top

managers

Participation

of

women

in

purchase

decisions

Geographical

coverage

Global

by

country

Link

httpdataworldbankorgdatacatalogworlddevelopmentindicators

UN

Human

Development

Report

Data

Source

Multiple

sources

Description

of

available

measures

Gender

Development

Index

Gender

Inequality

Index

Geographical

coverage

Global

by

country

Link

httphdrundporgendata

Footnotes

There

are

some

exceptions

to

this

definition

In

particular

sometimes

selfemployed

workers

or

parttime

workers

are

excluded

You

can

explore

these

exceptions

using

the

documentation

files

containing

all

the

relevant

indicator

notes

Olivetti

C

Petrongolo

B

Unequal

pay

or

unequal

employment

A

crosscountry

analysis

of

gender

gaps

Journal

of

Labor

Economics

Figure

in

Atkinson

Casarico

and

Voitchovsky

Top

incomes

and

the

glass

ceiling

VOX

CEPRs

Policy

Portal

online

at

voxeuorgarticlegenderandglassceiling

World

Bank

World

development

report

gender

equality

and

development

World

Bank

Publications

Available

online

at

World

Bank

World

development

report

gender

equality

and

development

World

Bank

Publications

Available

online

at

For

more

discussion

of

the

evidence

see

page

in

World

Bank

World

development

report

gender

equality

and

development

World

Bank

Publications

Available

online

at

Blau

Francine

D

and

Lawrence

M

Kahn

The

Gender

Wage

Gap

Extent

Trends

and

Explanations

Journal

of

Economic

Literature

Available

online

here

For

each

specification

Blau

and

Kahn

perform

regression

analyses

on

data

from

the

PSID

the

Michigan

Panel

Study

of

Income

Dynamics

which

includes

information

on

labormarket

experience

and

considers

men

and

women

ages

who

were

fulltime

nonfarm

wage

and

salary

workers

In

unionization

and

education

show

negative

values

this

reflects

the

fact

that

women

have

surpassed

men

in

educational

attainment

and

unionization

in

the

US

has

been

in

general

decline

with

a

greater

effect

on

men

The

full

source

is

World

Development

Report

Gender

Equality

and

Development

World

Bank

Available

online

from

httpssiteresourcesworldbankorg

Goldin

C

A

grand

gender

convergence

Its

last

chapter

The

American

Economic

Review

Goldin

C

Katz

L

F

A

most

egalitarian

profession

pharmacy

and

the

evolution

of

a

familyfriendly

occupation

Journal

of

Labor

Economics

Available

online

here

Goldin

C

Katz

L

F

A

most

egalitarian

profession

pharmacy

and

the

evolution

of

a

familyfriendly

occupation

Journal

of

Labor

Economics

Available

online

here

Lundborg

P

Plug

E

Rasmussen

A

W

Can

Women

Have

Children

and

a

Career

IV

Evidence

from

IVF

Treatments

American

Economic

Review

Blau

Francine

D

and

Lawrence

M

Kahn

The

Gender

Wage

Gap

Extent

Trends

and

Explanations

Journal

of

Economic

Literature

Available

online

here

Goldin

C

Marriage

bars

Discrimination

against

married

women

workers

to

Available

here

Goldin

C

Rouse

C

Orchestrating

impartiality

The

impact

of

blind

auditions

on

female

musicians

American

Economic

Review

Available

here

Blau

and

Kahn

provide

a

whole

list

of

experimental

studies

that

have

found

labormarket

discrimination

Another

early

example

is

from

Neumark

et

al

who

look

at

discrimination

in

restaurants

In

this

case

male

and

female

pseudojobseekers

were

given

similar

CVs

to

apply

for

jobs

waiting

on

tables

at

the

same

set

of

restaurants

in

Philadelphia

The

results

showed

discrimination

against

women

in

highpriced

restaurants

The

full

reference

of

this

study

is

Neumark

D

Bank

R

J

Van

Nort

K

D

Sex

discrimination

in

restaurant

hiring

An

audit

study

The

Quarterly

Journal

of

Economics

B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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Owlcation

Academia

Teaching

How

to

Plan

a

Field

Trip

A

StepbyStep

Guide

Updated

on

August

Sharilee

Swaity

Sharilee

obtained

a

degree

in

secondary

English

education

from

the

University

of

Calgary

She

has

taught

in

Canada

for

ten

years

How

to

Plan

a

Field

Trip

Knowing

exactly

how

to

plan

a

field

trip

is

a

very

important

skill

For

teachers

that

wish

to

take

their

students

out

of

the

classroom

to

experience

some

reallife

learning

field

trips

can

be

a

dream

or

a

nightmare

depending

on

how

well

they

are

planned

It

is

no

wonder

that

school

boards

have

become

increasingly

cautious

when

it

comes

to

allowing

field

trips

Afraid

of

litigation

administrators

are

slow

to

permit

anything

considered

dangerous

or

risky

Considering

the

current

climate

it

is

especially

important

to

plan

carefully

for

all

contingencies

Taking

a

large

group

of

children

or

teenagers

out

to

a

public

place

is

a

somewhat

complex

task

and

a

large

amount

of

planning

needs

to

be

done

to

make

it

successful

Having

planned

many

field

trips

myself

I

am

glad

to

share

some

of

the

things

I

have

learned

from

these

experiences

Plan

your

field

trip

correctly

and

it

can

truly

be

a

memorable

and

meaningful

experience

for

everyone

involved

This

article

is

about

the

practical

aspect

of

how

to

plan

a

field

trip

This

guide

is

directed

primarily

at

teachers

but

the

information

could

be

adapted

by

daycare

workers

recreation

workers

home

schoolers

parent

volunteers

or

even

parents

planning

a

special

trip

for

their

child

and

friends

Steps

To

Planning

a

Field

Trip

Decide

Where

You

are

Going

Ask

Your

Administrator

Arrange

for

Transportation

Decide

On

a

Food

Plan

Plan

Your

Schedule

Arrange

Your

Supervision

Create

a

Permission

Form

Decide

Whos

Allowed

To

Go

Tie

in

Your

Field

Trip

to

Your

Curriculum

These

are

the

steps

you

will

need

to

cover

for

your

field

trip

plan

The

order

of

these

steps

may

be

different

for

you

but

be

sure

to

think

about

all

of

these

points

Decide

Where

You

are

Going

You

may

already

know

where

you

are

going

and

can

skip

this

step

but

if

not

do

some

brainstorming

Talk

to

colleagues

who

may

also

be

involved

with

the

trip

and

try

to

come

up

with

some

ideas

Think

about

places

that

enhance

and

reinforce

your

curriculum

goals

Do

some

quick

research

to

see

if

these

ideas

are

feasible

Check

for

cost

location

and

the

services

that

the

place

offers

Also

check

to

make

sure

they

are

open

on

the

day

you

are

considering

coming

Once

you

have

narrowed

it

down

talk

to

your

colleagues

again

You

also

may

depending

on

how

much

student

input

you

allow

ask

the

students

for

their

preferences

Explain

that

you

cant

promise

anything

but

you

would

like

to

get

their

ideas

Finally

decide

on

where

you

are

going

Talk

To

Your

Principal

Talking

to

your

principal

is

the

first

step

in

planning

a

field

trip

Ask

Your

Administrator

Next

you

have

to

check

with

your

administrator

Hopefully

you

already

know

that

you

are

allowed

to

have

a

field

trip

of

some

kind

but

now

you

will

have

to

run

the

specific

idea

past

him

Jot

some

notes

before

you

go

to

present

the

idea

Tell

her

why

you

want

to

go

that

darn

curriculum

again

what

dates

you

are

thinking

of

and

what

the

cost

will

be

She

may

say

yes

right

away

but

you

may

have

to

wait

When

you

get

the

goahead

fill

out

whatever

forms

are

required

for

your

school

division

it

may

be

asking

for

permission

from

the

board

or

it

may

be

filling

out

a

bus

form

Just

make

sure

all

of

that

paperwork

is

done

well

ahead

of

time

This

keeps

your

principal

happy

which

keeps

you

happy

It

is

Important

to

Arrange

Transportation

Be

sure

to

arrange

transportation

for

your

field

trip

early

Arrange

for

Transportation

First

of

all

we

have

to

focus

on

some

very

basic

things

You

have

to

decide

how

you

are

going

to

get

those

little

munchkins

there

and

back

and

how

you

are

going

to

feed

them

In

most

cases

it

will

be

a

bus

but

with

smaller

groups

you

may

take

staff

vehicles

If

it

is

very

local

you

may

even

walk

to

the

destination

If

taking

the

bus

or

staff

vehicles

it

is

important

to

fill

out

the

required

forms

NO

BUS

NO

TRIP

The

transportation

has

to

have

the

time

to

make

sure

they

can

find

a

driver

and

have

an

available

bus

As

well

they

will

need

to

know

when

your

departing

and

coming

back

because

they

may

need

those

buses

for

other

purposes

Decide

on

a

Food

Plan

Decide

on

where

you

will

eat

and

when

Here

are

some

different

options

On

site

restaurantcafeteria

Sometimes

the

facility

will

have

a

restaurant

or

cafeteria

onsite

This

makes

for

easier

supervision

but

you

are

not

sure

of

the

food

quality

The

facility

may

even

offer

a

special

for

groups

coming

in

so

check

with

them

to

see

if

they

do

This

would

be

an

easy

option

because

it

could

be

done

up

ahead

and

would

save

on

waiting

time

Bring

their

own

lunch

This

is

the

cheapest

option

The

downfall

to

this

can

be

that

some

kids

dont

bother

to

bring

one

and

are

grouchy

and

irritable

from

not

eating

The

good

part

is

that

you

dont

have

to

worry

about

collecting

the

money

or

waiting

for

people

to

order

Offsite

restaurant

The

advantage

of

this

is

that

it

is

usually

popular

with

students

The

disadvantage

is

that

it

isnt

healthy

and

may

make

it

harder

to

supervise

It

can

also

eat

up

an

inordinate

amount

of

time

if

you

have

a

big

group

PrePlanning

Ideas

Before

the

Field

Trip

Activities

and

Lessons

To

Prepare

For

a

Field

Trip

Ideas

for

activities

to

do

before

the

field

trip

to

prepare

your

students

Plan

your

schedule

Plan

your

schedule

for

the

day

Break

it

up

into

activities

and

decide

how

long

each

one

would

take

Take

into

consideration

the

attention

span

and

interests

of

the

students

Try

to

plan

a

variety

of

activities

that

different

types

of

students

will

enjoy

Plan

very

carefully

not

allowing

for

time

that

is

not

planned

for

This

is

when

kids

get

into

trouble

when

they

dont

know

what

they

are

supposed

to

be

doing

Your

students

are

in

a

new

environment

they

will

be

excited

and

you

dont

have

your

safe

four

walls

to

keep

them

in

When

planning

your

trip

think

in

terms

of

stations

For

example

I

planned

a

trip

to

a

seniors

lodge

for

all

of

our

grade

twos

We

had

two

different

areas

of

the

lodge

they

were

to

visit

one

was

touring

the

facilities

with

a

guide

The

other

was

visiting

the

elders

themselves

and

hearing

their

stories

Strive

to

plan

your

stations

with

equal

amounts

of

time

so

that

one

group

is

not

waiting

for

the

other

group

and

again

apt

to

get

into

trouble

Besides

going

to

your

official

destination

you

may

want

to

schedule

some

fun

time

at

a

park

or

elsewhere

to

let

off

steam

Just

be

sure

that

you

can

supervise

properly

and

everyone

is

clear

about

when

they

have

to

come

back

When

I

was

teaching

an

alternative

class

we

went

on

two

field

trips

where

we

went

to

our

official

destination

in

the

AM

and

then

to

the

park

for

PM

It

was

great

we

brought

footballs

and

frisbees

and

everyone

stayed

fairly

close

by

Figure

out

your

supervision

You

must

decide

how

many

adults

you

need

in

order

to

handle

the

children

This

will

vary

depending

on

the

behaviour

of

your

students

as

well

as

their

age

and

maturity

Check

with

your

administrator

for

permission

to

take

the

teachers

aide

and

perhaps

an

extra

teachers

aide

on

the

trip

You

may

need

to

ask

for

parent

volunteers

as

well

You

may

do

this

by

calling

up

specific

parents

by

a

letter

or

by

asking

students

to

ask

their

parents

or

in

your

regular

communication

you

have

with

your

parents

Ie

communication

book

newsletter

website

etc

Go

over

your

students

and

put

into

groups

of

no

more

than

preferably

less

and

assign

each

adult

a

group

Make

up

a

list

of

group

members

for

each

staff

member

which

you

will

use

for

roll

call

during

the

trip

Now

that

you

have

your

itinerary

planned

out

and

all

the

resources

in

place

you

are

ready

to

write

your

permission

form

letter

Cute

Entertainment

about

Field

Trips

Your

browser

does

not

currently

recognize

any

of

the

video

formats

available

Click

here

to

visit

our

frequently

asked

questions

about

video

Create

a

Permission

Form

This

letter

has

two

parts

First

Part

of

Letter

The

top

part

of

the

letter

should

contain

the

following

information

a

Where

you

are

going

b

What

the

purpose

of

your

trip

including

the

curriculum

connection

c

When

you

are

going

including

the

time

you

are

leaving

and

the

time

you

are

being

picked

up

d

The

contact

information

for

the

school

and

contact

person

probably

you

but

it

could

be

the

school

secretary

or

another

staff

member

e

What

students

will

need

to

wear

if

applicable

and

any

thing

they

need

to

bring

including

money

if

applicable

f

What

you

will

be

doing

for

food

arrangements

g

What

the

transportation

arrangements

are

h

By

what

date

the

permission

forms

need

to

be

sent

back

Second

Part

of

Letter

The

second

part

of

the

letter

will

be

at

the

bottom

and

meant

to

be

torn

off

This

part

will

look

like

this

I

parentguardian

give

permission

for

to

attend

the

field

trip

on

the

date

of

Signed

___________________________________________

Remind

the

students

regularly

to

bring

back

the

forms

You

might

have

this

guy

in

your

class

Your

browser

does

not

currently

recognize

any

of

the

video

formats

available

Click

here

to

visit

our

frequently

asked

questions

about

video

Decide

Who

Gets

To

Go

On

The

Trip

Sometimes

kids

have

not

shown

appropriate

behaviour

and

do

not

go

on

the

field

trip

Decide

Parameters

for

whos

allowed

to

go

on

trip

Decide

who

will

be

going

on

the

trip

By

this

I

mean

that

you

might

require

acceptable

behaviour

for

a

week

before

the

trip

This

is

a

good

incentive

for

children

and

it

does

stop

a

student

from

going

who

will

be

a

behaviour

problem

and

ruin

for

everyone

else

Decide

on

will

be

done

with

the

students

that

cant

go

on

the

trip

stay

home

Go

to

another

class

Library

Check

to

make

sure

that

another

adult

is

responsible

for

him

or

her

while

you

are

gone

for

the

day

Have

a

backup

plan

Decide

what

you

will

do

if

a

student

is

absolutely

defiant

and

refuses

to

listen

and

causes

a

scene

Hopefully

this

doesnt

happen

but

decide

ahead

of

time

just

in

case

You

might

an

agreement

that

that

child

will

go

to

the

bus

for

a

time

to

cool

down

Decide

whatever

is

appropriate

and

let

all

the

children

know

that

there

will

be

consequences

for

misbehaviour

Just

like

they

do

with

parents

at

a

grocery

store

kids

will

sometimes

see

a

public

place

as

an

opportunity

to

get

away

with

as

much

as

they

can

Tie

in

your

Field

Trip

to

Curriculum

Decide

what

kind

of

assignment

and

learning

you

would

like

to

tie

in

with

this

lesson

plan

For

some

ideas

for

assignments

to

do

before

the

trip

see

this

article

This

may

include

prelearning

where

you

do

some

background

reading

on

the

place

you

are

going

or

on

a

related

topic

You

may

also

do

some

assignments

while

you

are

there

Also

see

what

the

facility

has

for

learning

activities

while

there

Tell

students

that

they

have

to

do

these

because

they

are

part

of

their

mark

Also

you

can

have

followup

activities

and

assignments

I

have

a

lot

of

ideas

for

curriculum

tieins

which

I

will

save

for

another

article

Day

of

the

Trip

Quick

Pointers

The

day

of

the

trip

try

to

arrive

at

the

school

a

little

earlier

than

usual

to

give

yourself

peace

of

mind

Check

to

make

sure

all

students

have

their

permission

forms

signed

back

in

and

the

money

is

collected

Have

all

students

wait

in

their

rooms

until

is

time

to

go

Have

an

activity

for

them

If

this

relates

to

the

trip

thats

great

It

might

be

a

group

game

or

a

puzzle

The

point

is

that

they

have

something

to

do

because

this

time

is

one

of

anticipation

for

them

and

you

need

a

plan

When

the

transportation

is

ready

have

students

go

the

buses

or

cars

in

groups

Dont

have

everyone

go

at

once

unless

you

have

a

very

small

group

Assign

each

staff

member

a

group

and

give

them

their

list

They

will

do

roll

call

throughout

the

day

They

do

this

either

silently

by

just

doing

a

visual

check

or

if

its

a

big

group

call

out

their

names

Give

instructions

at

two

times

to

make

sure

they

are

heard

Check

for

understanding

by

getting

one

of

the

students

to

repeat

it

Treat

this

like

the

learning

experience

it

is

Bring

along

some

puzzle

books

and

magazines

to

give

out

to

students

if

youre

going

to

be

driving

for

more

than

half

an

hour

Have

a

great

day

If

you

take

the

time

to

do

all

this

planning

you

should

have

a

great

trip

O O O O O O B I I I O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

plan a field trip
guide
decide where you are going


Support Choosing the right battery Choosing the right battery Select a different vehicle to begin a new search A healthy battery is one of the many key components to proper vehicle operation It helps start the engine and helps keep the electronics running It also lets you charge your phone and play your musiceven when the engine is off But automotive batteries gradually lose power over time and cold weather is especially hard on them You should have your battery tested at a local dealership If you need a new battery heres what you need to know to get the right one THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A NEW BATTERY When shopping for a new battery you should consider three important factors group size cold cranking amps and reserve capacity Heres some additional information to help you choose the battery thats right for your vehicle Battery Group Size The group size is the length width and height of the battery Most vehicles will allow for more than one group size so check your owners manual to find which battery group sizes fit Cold Cranking Amps CCA CCA is a very important battery performance indicator Its based on how well a new battery will supply sufficient power for 30 seconds at zero degrees Fahrenheit The higher the number the better Your new batterys CCA number should match the CCA number in your owners manual or the CCA of the vehicles original battery If you live in a cold climate a slightly higher CCA rating may be beneficial to your vehicles coldstarting performance Note that some batteries use hot cranking amps HCA cranking amps CA or marine cranking amps MCA numbers HCA CA or MCA numbers may look higher than the CCA number but because these tests take place at 32 degrees and 80 degrees Fahrenheit they are not equal to CCAs Choose a battery based on CCAs instead Reserve Capacity RC Reserve capacity is another important performance indicator It measures how many minutes the battery can supply power before falling below the minimum voltage level With RC the higher the number the better This is an important factor to consider if youll be operating electrical equipment on your vehicle while the engine is off Battery Date Code Most batteries have a date code which shows when it was made Date codes come in the form of a sticker or the code may be melted into the battery itself On your original Ford battery the first two characters in the code are a letter and a number The letter is the month A is for January B is for February and so on The number is the last digit of the year of manufacture So a code starting with A9 would mean the battery was made in January of 2009 When you buy a new battery be sure to ask the salesperson for the newest available battery in your group size A battery thats been on the shelf for an extended period can lose some of its charge and might not perform as well Warranty Read the batterys warranty Look at how long the free replacement period is and if there is any coverage on a prorated basis beyond that point Quick Tip All Motorcraft are built with the latest technologies in design and engineering They provide your Ford with dependable power across a wide range of conditions Thats why theyre recommended by Ford Motor Company Motorcraft Tested Tough PLUS 18month free replacement period 84month unlimited mileage Reliable performance Motorcraft Tested Tough MAX Authorized as original equipment replacement for all Ford vehicles 36month free replacement 100month unlimited mileage Reduced charging time Excellent performance in highheat applications See your Dealer for limited warranty coverage details Is this helpful

O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O B B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Click to share on Facebook Opens in new window Flipboard Click to email this to a friend Opens in new window exclusive Gillian Hearst files for divorce from husband of 10 years By Emily Smith and Oli Coleman February 19 2018 845pm Modal Trigger Gillian Hearst and Christian Simonds Patrick McMullan Gillian Hearst the daughter of Patty Hearst and greatgranddaughter of William Randolph Hearst filed for divorce on Friday after 10 years of marriage Page Six has exclusively learned Were told the socialite and Town Country contributing editor cited irreconcilable differences in her split with lawyer Christian Simonds The pair who have three daughters aged 4 3 and 1 will have quite the real estate portfolio to divide They recently upgraded from the Sheffield right next door to the family HQ Hearst Tower to a 10 million Upper West Side manse in 2016 The newer digs are a 4176squarefoot fourstory townhouse on West 83rd Street according to the Observer Gillian is the daughter of Patty and Bernard Shaw and the sister of actress Lydia Hearst The past few years have presented some challenges for the couple According to his Instagram Simonds broke his spine and two ribs in the Bahamas over New Years in 2016 Plus the split comes at a time when the prominent publishing family is back in the news CNN is screening a multipart documentary series The Radical Story of Patty Hearst based on Jeffrey Toobins book American Heiress The Wild Saga of the Kidnapping Crimes and Trial of Patty Hearst about her 1974 abduction from her Berkeley Calif apartment by a domestic terrorist group when she was 19 Patty has slammed the book which she says cites one of her kidnappers as its main source as romanticizing my rape and torture Patty has described her 19month ordeal as one in which she was brainwashed raped and repeatedly threatened with death Filed under celebrity divorces hearst patty hearst Where Steph Curry fueled up before the NBA AllStar Game Sightings Gigi Hadid at Fresco by Scotto restaurant with a group of 10 including agent Jill Smoller SEE ALL Latest Videos Lady Gagas style before A Star Is Born was wild Weekdays Where to watch

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O