Journal

of

Business

Research

Volume

Issue

May

Pages

Selfimage

congruence

in

consumer

behavior

Sameer

Hosany

a

Drew

Martin

b

Get

rights

and

content

Abstract

Selfimage

congruence

helps

explain

and

predict

different

facets

of

consumer

behavior

To

date

application

of

selfcongruence

theories

to

tourist

posttravel

evaluations

is

limited

This

study

tests

a

model

that

includes

selfimage

congruence

cruise

ship

passengers

experiences

satisfaction

and

behavioral

intention

Path

modeling

tests

the

hypotheses

using

a

sample

of

cruise

ship

travelers

Results

indicate

that

selfimage

congruence

actual

and

ideal

affects

passengers

experiences

but

indirectly

influences

satisfaction

levels

Satisfaction

positively

relates

to

respondents

propensity

to

recommend

Overall

this

research

advances

the

understanding

of

cruise

ship

passengers

experiences

and

behaviors

offering

important

managerial

implications

Keywords

Selfimage

congruence

Cruise

ship

passenger

experiences

Satisfaction

Intention

to

recommend

Introduction

The

consumer

behavior

literature

supports

the

proposition

that

individuals

self

images

dictate

specific

purchase

behavior

patterns

eg

Onkvisit

and

Shaw

Consumers

buy

products

and

brands

they

believe

to

possess

symbolic

images

similar

andor

complementary

to

their

selfimage

that

is

to

achieve

image

congruence

Heath

and

Scott

Strong

supporting

evidence

show

selfimage

congruence

explains

and

predicts

different

aspects

of

consumer

behavior

He

and

Mukherjee

A

relatively

small

body

of

work

examines

the

selfimage

congruence

construct

to

explain

tourist

behaviors

Litvin

et

al

Litvin

and

Goh

Sirgy

and

Su

Todd

Chon

first

empirically

applies

selfimage

congruence

theory

to

tourism

He

finds

tourist

satisfaction

significantly

correlates

with

selfimagedestination

image

congruity

Tourists

perceiving

a

low

discrepancy

between

a

destinations

image

and

selfimage

tend

to

be

more

satisfied

with

the

trip

experience

Furthermore

Sirgy

and

Su

propose

an

integrative

model

establishing

the

relationships

among

destination

image

selfcongruence

and

tourists

behaviors

Beerli

et

al

investigate

the

selfimage

congruence

role

in

predicting

destination

choice

Findings

reveal

a

match

between

a

destinations

image

and

ones

selfconcept

associates

with

a

greater

tendency

to

visit

the

destination

Other

studies

however

fail

to

provide

empirical

support

for

the

theory

in

tourism

For

example

Litvin

and

Goh

investigate

the

effect

of

selfimage

congruence

on

travel

interest

and

intention

to

visit

Litvin

and

Goh

report

contradictory

results

and

question

whether

selfcongruity

theory

is

an

effective

tool

for

tourism

marketers

Several

other

scholars

call

for

research

to

establish

the

relevance

of

selfcongruity

theory

and

to

further

extend

the

conceptualization

in

tourism

eg

Beerli

et

al

Boksberger

and

al

forthcoming

Kastenholz

Murphy

et

al

Tourists

increasingly

consume

travel

and

tourism

products

eg

a

cruise

vacation

as

a

means

of

selfexpression

Gross

and

Brown

King

Still

no

known

studies

exist

to

simultaneously

investigate

the

relationship

among

selfimage

congruence

and

the

evaluative

variable

experiences

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

This

study

further

validates

selfcongruity

theory

in

tourism

with

specific

reference

to

cruise

ship

passengers

Cruise

vacations

are

the

fastest

growing

segment

in

the

tourism

industry

with

an

average

annual

passenger

growth

rate

of

Cruise

Lines

International

Association

Cruising

enables

tourists

to

express

their

selfconcepts

Yarnal

and

Kerstetter

The

activity

offers

tourists

experiential

benefits

and

opportunities

to

engage

in

a

memorable

experience

Duman

and

Mattila

Huang

and

Hsu

Despite

a

cruise

vacations

symbolic

nature

the

study

of

cruisers

experiences

and

posttravel

behavior

remains

underexplored

in

tourism

research

Petrick

Conceptual

background

and

hypotheses

development

Symbolic

consumption

selfconcept

and

selfimage

congruence

The

consumer

behavior

literature

establishes

that

people

consume

productsbrandsservices

for

both

functional

value

and

symbolic

meanings

Belk

Lee

and

Hyman

Leigh

and

Gabel

Solomon

Levy

concludes

people

buy

products

not

only

for

what

they

can

do

but

also

for

what

they

mean

Product

consumption

symbolizes

personal

attributes

motivations

and

social

patterns

Symbolic

consumption

reflects

the

personality

and

lifestyle

of

consumers

expressing

social

distinctions

eg

Sirgy

For

example

people

consume

luxury

products

eg

highperformance

automobiles

to

reinforce

their

status

symbol

in

society

Bagwell

and

Bernheim

Eastman

et

al

OCass

and

Frost

Consumption

serves

as

a

vehicle

of

selfexpression

Aaker

and

consumers

choose

productsbrands

perceptually

consistent

with

their

own

selfconcept

Grubb

and

Grathwohl

Sirgy

Purchasing

and

using

products

allow

consumers

to

define

maintain

and

enhance

their

selfconcept

Selfconcept

research

originated

in

the

Birdwell

Grubb

and

Grathwohl

Grubb

and

Hupp

Grubb

and

Stern

Hamm

and

Cundiff

In

early

studies

the

selfconcepts

operationalization

was

a

onedimensional

construct

Scholars

challenge

the

traditional

approach

and

posit

a

person

might

have

multiple

selves

Markus

and

Nurius

Onkvisit

and

Shaw

Recent

conceptualizations

construe

selfconcept

as

a

multidimensional

construct

Sirgy

et

al

Todd

The

marketing

literature

identifies

four

dimensions

of

selfconcept

to

explain

and

predict

behavior

actual

selfconcept

me

as

I

am

how

a

person

sees

himself

or

herself

idealselfconcept

the

good

me

how

a

person

would

like

to

see

himself

or

herself

social

selfconcept

how

consumers

think

others

see

them

ideal

social

selfconcept

how

a

person

would

like

to

be

perceived

by

other

people

Belch

and

Landon

Dolich

Hughes

and

Guerrero

Sirgy

Table

shows

the

majority

of

consumer

studies

in

marketing

and

tourism

operationalize

selfconcept

in

terms

of

two

components

actual

and

ideal

Accordingly

this

studys

focuses

on

actualself

and

idealself

dimensions

because

they

receive

the

most

empirical

support

in

research

Table

Summary

of

selected

studies

on

selfconceptselfimage

congruence

Authors

Study

settings

Dimensions

of

self

concept

Type

of

scale

Dependent

variables

Studies

in

marketing

Birdwell

Automobile

Actual

self

Semantic

differential

Brand

ownership

Dolich

Various

Products

Actual

self

ideal

self

Semantic

differential

Product

preference

Landon

Various

products

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Purchase

intention

Belch

and

Landon

Various

products

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Purchase

intention

Malhotra

Houses

Actual

self

ideal

self

social

self

Semantic

differential

Product

choice

Hong

and

Zinkhan

Automobile

and

shampoos

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Product

preference

purchase

intention

memory

Ericksen

Automobile

Actual

ideal

self

Semantic

differential

Product

preference

purchase

intention

Sirgy

et

al

Various

products

and

services

Actual

self

Likert

scale

Brand

preference

consumer

satisfaction

brand

attitude

choice

Quester

et

al

Functional

and

status

related

products

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likerttype

scale

Product

evaluation

Ekinci

and

Riley

Hospitality

services

Actual

self

ideal

self

Semantic

differential

Satisfaction

attitude

service

quality

and

purchase

intention

Back

Hospitality

services

Social

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Satisfaction

Kressmann

et

al

Automobile

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Brand

loyalty

He

and

Mukherjee

Retailing

Actual

self

ideal

self

social

self

ideal

social

self

Likert

scale

Satisfaction

perceived

value

loyalty

Jamal

and

AlMarri

Automobile

Actual

self

Likert

scale

Satisfaction

brand

preference

Ekinci

et

al

Hospitality

services

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Satisfaction

attitudes

intention

to

return

Han

and

Back

Hospitality

services

Social

self

ideal

social

self

Likert

scale

Consumption

emotion

loyalty

Ibrahim

and

Najjar

Retailing

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Attitudes

Kwak

and

Kang

Sports

merchandise

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Perceived

quality

purchase

intention

Studies

in

tourism

Chon

Tourism

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Satisfaction

Litvin

and

Goh

Tourism

Actual

self

ideal

self

Semantic

differential

Likert

scale

Interest

to

visit

likelihood

of

visitation

Litvin

and

Kar

Tourism

Actual

self

ideal

self

Likert

scale

Satisfaction

Kastenholz

Tourism

Actual

self

Semantic

differential

Intention

to

recommend

intention

to

return

Beerli

et

al

Tourism

Actual

self

ideal

self

Semantic

differential

Choice

Selfimage

congruence

refers

to

the

cognitive

match

between

consumers

selfconcept

eg

actual

self

ideal

self

social

self

and

ideal

social

self

and

a

productbrand

image

store

image

destination

image

or

user

image

of

a

given

productbrandservice

Sirgy

et

al

Sirgy

et

al

Sirgy

and

Su

User

image

is

a

stereotyped

perception

of

a

generalized

user

of

a

particular

productbrand

Sirgy

Selfcongruence

selfimage

congruence

selfcongruity

and

image

congruence

interchangeably

describe

this

phenomenon

Following

the

tourism

literature

eg

Beerli

et

al

the

study

here

uses

the

term

selfimage

congruence

to

denote

the

match

between

tourists

cruisers

selfconcept

actual

and

ideal

and

the

image

of

other

tourists

cruisers

Table

identifies

two

broad

research

streams

on

selfimage

congruence

Earlier

research

mostly

focuses

on

the

relationship

between

selfimage

congruence

and

consumers

prepurchase

evaluations

such

as

purchase

intentions

Landon

product

preferences

Dolich

and

product

choice

Malhotra

However

some

researchers

highlight

the

benefits

of

extending

selfimage

congruence

conceptualizations

to

model

postconsumption

evaluations

eg

Sirgy

et

al

Recent

consumer

behavior

studies

investigate

the

role

of

selfimage

congruence

on

various

postconsumption

variables

such

as

satisfaction

Ekinci

et

al

Jamal

and

Goode

Jamal

and

AlMarri

Sirgy

et

al

loyalty

He

and

Mukherjee

Kressmann

et

al

perceived

quality

Kwak

and

Kang

and

attitudes

Ibrahim

and

Najjar

Few

tourism

studies

examine

selfimage

congruence

theories

Among

the

studies

identified

three

address

postconsumption

variables

satisfaction

intention

to

return

and

intention

to

recommend

Chon

Kastenholz

Litvin

and

Kar

and

two

examine

the

relationship

between

selfimage

congruence

and

pretravel

variables

motivation

to

visit

and

destination

choice

Beerli

et

al

Litvin

and

Goh

To

date

no

studies

exist

that

simultaneously

investigate

the

relationships

among

selfimage

congruence

experiences

tourist

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

The

common

method

of

measuring

selfimage

congruence

employs

semantic

differential

scales

Birdwell

Dolich

Malhotra

Sirgy

et

al

to

capture

productbrand

user

image

and

selfimage

evaluations

Respondents

first

rate

their

perceptions

of

the

typical

user

of

a

productbrand

using

a

set

of

predetermined

image

personality

characteristics

eg

friendly

versus

unfriendly

and

sophisticated

versus

unsophisticated

Participants

also

rate

various

selfconcepts

eg

actual

and

ideal

using

the

same

imagepersonality

items

The

discrepancy

or

distance

scores

between

brand

user

image

and

selfconcept

indicate

congruity

levels

Kressmann

et

al

Sirgy

et

al

Various

mathematical

indices

eg

Euclidean

distance

simple

difference

and

difference

squared

estimate

discrepancies

but

the

absolute

arithmetic

difference

remains

the

most

popular

method

Helgeson

and

Supphellen

Sirgy

and

Samli

compared

indices

and

find

the

absolute

difference

method

best

predicts

product

preference

and

purchase

intention

A

small

absolute

value

indicates

a

high

degree

of

congruence

between

selfconcept

and

perceived

productbrand

or

user

image

Conversely

large

discrepancy

scores

designate

a

low

degree

of

similarityoccurring

when

mismatches

exist

between

the

productimage

or

user

image

and

a

persons

selfconcept

Sirgy

et

al

The

influence

of

selfimage

congruence

on

satisfaction

and

cruisers

experiences

Selfimage

congruence

plays

a

significant

role

in

influencing

consumer

behaviors

Kressmann

et

al

Sirgy

and

Samli

Sirgy

et

al

For

instance

research

finds

selfimage

congruence

affects

advertising

effectiveness

Bjerke

and

Polegato

Hong

and

Zinkhan

facilitates

positive

attitudes

toward

productsbrands

Ekinci

and

Riley

Sirgy

et

al

influences

consumers

choice

Quester

et

al

attitudes

Ibrahim

and

Najjar

perceived

quality

Kwak

and

Kang

brand

preferences

Jamal

and

Goode

and

brand

loyalty

Kressmann

et

al

Extant

research

also

reports

a

strong

relationship

between

selfimage

congruence

and

satisfaction

He

and

Mukherjee

Jamal

and

AlMarri

Sirgy

et

al

Similarly

the

tourism

literature

recognizes

selfconcepts

influence

in

modeling

visitor

behaviors

Chon

examines

the

relationship

between

tourists

selfconceptdestination

image

congruity

and

satisfaction

and

concludes

selfimage

congruence

affects

satisfaction

with

destinations

Fierce

competition

to

attract

tourists

compels

destination

marketers

to

better

comprehend

the

distinguishing

characteristics

of

tourist

experiences

Gretzel

et

al

Tourists

seek

unique

extraordinary

and

memorable

experiences

A

plethora

of

research

seeks

to

understand

tourist

experiences

across

various

settings

Andersson

Oh

et

al

Quan

and

Wang

Yuan

and

Wu

Cruise

ship

passenger

experiences

have

received

limited

attention

Cruise

vacations

are

consumption

experiences

enabling

tourists

to

express

and

reinforce

their

selfconcepts

in

society

Yarnal

and

Kerstetter

The

cruise

experience

consists

of

intrinsic

benefits

or

psychological

outcomes

that

tourists

obtain

from

taking

a

cruise

vacation

Huang

and

Hsu

Arguably

greater

congruity

with

ones

selfconcept

results

in

a

more

pleasant

experience

The

above

discussions

frame

the

following

hypotheses

The

greater

the

congruity

between

ones

actual

selfconcept

and

hisher

image

of

other

cruisers

leads

to

high

versus

low

satisfaction

levels

The

greater

the

congruity

between

ones

ideal

selfconcept

and

hisher

image

of

other

cruisers

leads

to

high

versus

low

satisfaction

levels

The

greater

the

congruity

between

ones

actual

selfconcept

and

hisher

image

of

other

cruisers

the

more

pleasant

cruisers

perceive

their

experience

The

greater

the

congruity

between

ones

ideal

selfconcept

and

hisher

image

of

other

cruisers

the

more

pleasant

cruisers

perceive

their

experience

Relationship

among

cruiser

experiences

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

Cruise

vacations

offer

experiential

benefits

and

opportunities

to

engage

in

socially

unique

and

memorable

experiences

Kwortnik

Understanding

cruisers

experiences

provides

insights

on

postconsumption

evaluations

such

as

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

Duman

and

Mattila

demonstrate

that

the

affective

experience

of

cruise

travel

positively

influences

perceived

overall

satisfaction

Huang

and

Hsu

further

establish

that

cruise

experiences

directly

affect

vacation

satisfaction

Prior

research

shows

consumer

experiences

relate

to

future

behavior

For

example

Chang

and

Chieng

find

creating

a

consistent

experience

drives

customer

loyalty

Several

studies

establish

satisfied

tourists

tend

to

recommend

a

destination

to

other

people

Bigné

et

al

Hui

et

al

Kozak

and

Rimmington

Yoon

and

Uysal

These

empirical

perspectives

inform

the

following

hypotheses

A

pleasant

cruise

experience

relates

positively

to

overall

satisfaction

A

pleasant

cruise

experience

relates

positively

to

intention

to

recommend

Cruisers

satisfaction

relates

positively

to

intention

to

recommend

Methods

The

questionnaire

includes

rating

scales

to

capture

the

studys

main

variables

cruisers

selfconcept

experiences

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

Other

variables

of

interest

include

gender

age

travel

companion

and

nationality

Congruence

between

cruisers

selfconcept

and

hisher

image

of

other

tourists

was

measured

using

the

traditional

method

using

a

twostep

procedure

Helgeson

and

Supphellen

First

respondents

provide

ratings

to

a

set

of

prespecified

image

characteristics

of

the

typical

cruise

tourist

Next

respondents

rate

their

selfconcepts

actual

and

ideal

using

the

same

characteristics

Mathematically

congruence

is

established

by

calculating

the

absolute

discrepancy

score

between

respondents

selfconcept

and

their

perceptions

of

other

tourists

Consistent

with

past

studies

cruisers

selfconcept

actual

and

ideal

and

hisher

image

of

other

tourists

user

image

were

captured

on

a

semantic

differential

scale

eg

Beerli

et

al

Birdwell

Kastenholz

Malhotra

Selfconcept

is

operationalized

in

terms

of

two

dimensions

actual

and

ideal

following

the

rich

traditions

in

consumer

eg

Dolich

Kressmann

et

al

and

tourism

research

eg

Beerli

et

al

Chon

Litvin

and

Goh

The

selfconcept

scale

was

adapted

from

Beerli

et

al

consisting

of

six

items

youngold

conservativeliberal

sophisticatedunsophisticated

moderntraditional

nonconformistconformist

and

like

new

experiencesdislike

new

experiences

For

each

item

respondents

evaluated

their

actual

selfconcept

by

answering

the

question

Using

the

following

list

of

adjectives

how

do

you

see

yourself

and

their

ideal

selfconcept

How

would

you

like

to

see

yourself

Similarly

respondents

evaluated

their

mental

representation

of

other

tourists

onboard

Using

the

following

list

of

attributes

what

is

the

image

you

have

of

the

tourists

onboard

this

cruise

Four

items

adapted

from

Oh

et

al

measured

cruisers

overall

experiences

Respondents

evaluated

the

extent

to

which

their

experience

was

interesting

M

SD

stimulating

M

SD

exciting

M

SD

and

enjoyable

M

SD

on

scales

ranging

from

not

at

all

to

very

much

Satisfaction

is

conceptualized

as

tourists

postconsumption

evaluation

of

their

overall

cruise

vacation

and

measured

by

a

twoitem

scale

Spreng

and

Mackoy

Respondents

provided

overall

satisfaction

ratings

of

their

cruise

experience

on

two

scales

extremely

dissatisfied

to

extremely

satisfied

M

SD

and

terrible

to

delighted

M

SD

Finally

behavioral

intention

is

tourists

intention

to

recommend

M

SD

using

the

question

How

likely

is

it

that

you

would

recommend

this

cruise

to

friends

or

family

members

with

anchors

extremely

unlikely

and

extremely

likely

Cronin

and

Taylor

Data

were

collected

from

guests

on

a

twoweek

cruise

vacation

onboard

the

megaship

Rhapsody

of

the

Seas

cruise

liner

owned

and

operated

by

Royal

Caribbean

International

Cruise

Line

The

cruise

left

Singapore

and

traveled

to

Hong

Kong

with

scheduled

stops

in

Cambodia

Vietnam

and

Thailand

At

each

port

passengers

could

freely

disembark

andor

take

organized

excursions

To

capture

an

individuals

experience

Manfredo

et

al

recommend

data

collection

immediately

after

the

trip

or

activity

Accordingly

disembarked

passengers

waiting

for

onward

transportation

coach

transfers

were

approached

to

participate

in

the

survey

Tourists

evaluations

were

obtained

within

less

than

an

hour

after

the

consumption

had

taken

place

and

thus

minimized

bias

associated

with

retrospective

recall

Podsakoff

et

al

Data

were

obtained

from

a

sample

of

passengers

consisting

of

percent

males

and

percent

females

Respondent

age

groups

ranged

from

percent

to

years

old

percent

to

years

old

percent

and

years

old

percent

to

years

old

percent

were

to

years

old

and

percent

above

years

old

Respondents

mainly

were

accompanied

by

either

their

family

or

their

partner

In

terms

of

nationality

the

USA

was

the

largest

group

followed

by

UK

and

Australia

The

remaining

percent

included

countries

such

as

China

Norway

and

Russia

Results

Following

Beerli

et

al

three

exploratory

factor

analyses

with

a

Varimax

rotation

were

performed

prior

to

testing

the

hypotheses

This

procedure

identified

the

dimensions

of

the

selfconcept

actual

and

ideal

and

user

other

tourists

image

scales

Results

indicate

four

items

namely

sophisticatedunsophisticated

moderntraditional

nonconformistconformist

and

like

new

experiencedislike

new

experiences

were

common

across

the

three

scales

and

explain

most

of

the

variance

Consistent

with

past

research

Birdwell

Dolich

Kressmann

et

al

Sirgy

selfcongruity

was

then

computed

using

absolute

arithmetic

difference

scores

between

respondents

ratings

on

each

of

the

four

attributes

describing

the

image

of

tourists

onboard

and

the

corresponding

actual

and

ideal

selfconcept

see

Table

As

a

result

the

coefficients

see

Table

and

Fig

between

selfimage

congruence

actual

and

ideal

and

the

dependent

measures

experiences

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

are

negative

because

lower

absolute

discrepancy

score

indicates

a

closer

match

between

selfimage

and

perceived

cruisers

image

and

hence

higher

congruity

levels

Table

Reliability

and

convergent

validity

Variables

M

SD

Item

loading

tstatistic

Composite

reliability

AVE

Actual

selfimage

congruence

a

Sophisticatedunsophisticated

b

Moderntraditional

b

Nonconformistconformist

b

Like

new

experiencesdislike

new

experiences

b

Ideal

selfimage

congruence

c

Sophisticatedunsophisticated

b

Moderntraditional

b

Nonconformistconformist

b

Like

new

experiencesdislike

new

experiences

b

Cruisers

experiences

d

Experience

was

stimulating

b

Experience

was

exciting

b

Experience

was

enjoyable

b

Experience

was

interesting

b

Satisfaction

e

Extremely

dissatisfied

extremely

satisfied

b

Terribledelighted

b

Intention

to

recommend

e

Note

Intention

to

recommend

is

a

single

item

measure

AVE

average

variance

extracted

a

Actual

selfimage

congruence

is

computed

using

absolute

arithmetic

difference

scores

between

ratings

of

other

cruisers

image

and

actual

selfconcept

b

Significant

at

the

level

c

Ideal

selfimage

congruence

is

computed

using

absolute

arithmetic

difference

scores

between

ratings

of

other

cruisers

image

and

ideal

selfconcept

d

scale

where

not

at

all

and

very

much

e

semantic

differential

scale

to

Table

Interconstruct

correlations

discriminant

validity

ASIC

ISIC

CExp

Satis

ASIC

ISIC

b

CExp

b

b

Satis

b

b

b

IntRec

a

b

b

b

b

ASIC

actual

selfimage

congruence

ISIC

ideal

selfimage

congruence

CExp

cruisers

experiences

Satis

satisfaction

IntRec

intention

to

recommend

square

root

of

average

variance

extracted

AVE

is

shown

on

the

diagonal

of

the

matrix

interconstruct

correlation

is

shown

off

the

diagonal

Numbers

in

bold

refer

to

AVEs

and

unlike

correlation

coefficients

do

not

have

significance

level

a

Single

item

measure

b

Significant

at

the

level

Download

fullsize

image

Fig

Results

for

the

hypothesized

model

Partial

Least

Square

PLS

path

modeling

Lohmöller

tested

the

hypothesized

research

model

PLS

method

is

a

nontraditional

alternative

to

covariancebased

structural

equation

modeling

CBSEM

In

PLS

structural

models

are

estimated

using

an

iterative

procedure

which

maximizes

the

strength

of

the

relationship

between

independent

and

dependent

variables

PLS

is

suitable

for

predictive

applications

and

theory

building

Chin

Unlike

CBSEM

PLS

imposes

less

restrictive

assumptions

about

normality

and

the

procedure

works

well

with

small

samples

Chin

Chin

and

Newsted

Wold

PLS

path

models

are

defined

in

terms

of

two

sets

of

linear

relation

inner

and

the

outer

models

The

inner

model

specifies

the

relationship

between

unobserved

or

latent

variables

similar

to

CBSEM

structural

models

The

outer

model

or

measurement

model

in

CBSEM

shows

the

relationship

between

a

latent

variable

and

observed

or

manifest

variables

Lohmöller

Unlike

conventional

SEM

PLS

does

not

produce

an

overall

test

static

such

as

the

χ

Goodness

of

Fit

Rigdon

PLS

model

evaluation

is

based

on

multiple

fit

indices

including

rsquare

values

average

variance

explained

AVE

regression

weights

and

path

loadings

Fornell

and

Cha

Lohmöller

The

hypothesized

model

was

estimated

using

SmartPLS

Ringle

et

al

In

addition

the

model

stability

was

tested

via

a

bootstrap

resampling

procedure

Measurement

model

Following

Anderson

and

Gerbings

recommended

procedure

the

studys

main

constructs

see

Table

Table

were

first

examined

for

reliability

convergent

and

discriminant

validity

before

testing

the

structural

model

Reliability

assessment

uses

composite

reliability

estimates

Werts

et

al

From

Table

composite

reliabilities

are

above

the

recommended

cutoff

value

range

from

to

suggesting

the

scales

are

reliable

Fornell

and

Larcker

Nunnally

and

Bernstein

Factor

loadings

significance

and

average

variance

extracted

AVE

assess

convergent

validity

From

Table

factor

loadings

are

higher

than

and

significant

p

with

t

values

ranging

from

to

Average

variances

extracted

are

above

establishing

the

measures

convergent

validity

Fornell

and

Larcker

Discriminant

validity

was

examined

by

comparing

the

square

root

of

AVE

for

individual

constructs

with

the

correlations

among

the

latent

variables

For

adequate

discriminant

validity

the

diagonal

elements

in

Table

should

be

greater

than

the

offdiagonal

elements

Barclay

et

al

Fornell

and

Larcker

Comparing

all

correlation

coefficients

with

square

roots

of

AVEs

in

Table

the

results

suggest

strong

evidence

of

discriminant

validity

Structural

model

The

structural

model

Fig

was

evaluated

using

rsquare

estimates

standardized

path

coefficients

β

and

significance

level

t

statistic

The

rsquare

values

measure

the

structural

models

predictive

power

while

path

loadings

interpreted

as

standardized

regression

coefficients

indicate

the

strength

between

independent

and

dependent

variables

From

Fig

rsquare

coefficients

are

greater

than

the

recommended

value

Falk

and

Miller

suggesting

the

structural

model

exhibits

adequate

explanatory

power

Specifically

the

model

explains

percent

of

cruisers

experiences

percent

of

satisfaction

and

percent

of

intention

to

recommend

A

bootstrapping

procedure

calculated

path

loadings

and

t

statistics

for

the

hypothesized

relationships

see

Fig

For

PLS

parameter

estimates

β

and

β

are

not

significant

p

and

thus

leading

to

the

rejection

of

However

the

path

loadings

from

actual

selfimage

congruence

to

cruisers

experiences

β

and

from

ideal

selfimage

congruence

β

are

significant

p

providing

support

for

Findings

also

confirm

the

relationship

between

cruise

experience

and

overall

satisfaction

β

p

Contrary

to

theoretical

expectations

the

path

between

cruisers

experiences

and

intention

to

recommend

is

not

significant

β

p

and

therefore

H

is

rejected

Finally

H

states

cruisers

satisfaction

positively

relates

to

intention

to

recommend

The

significant

coefficient

β

p

between

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

supports

H

Discussion

and

implications

Selfcongruity

theory

postulates

the

congruence

resulting

from

a

psychological

comparison

involving

the

productuser

image

and

the

consumers

selfconcept

influences

consumer

behavior

Sirgy

et

al

The

selfimage

congruence

effect

on

tourist

postconsumption

evaluations

remains

an

understudied

topic

Beerli

et

al

Kastenholz

This

study

furthers

the

understanding

of

tourist

behavior

by

investigating

interrelationships

among

selfimage

congruence

tourists

experiences

and

intention

to

recommend

The

study

implications

are

discussed

below

and

future

research

areas

are

highlighted

From

a

theoretical

perspective

the

current

study

establishes

the

validity

of

selfcongruity

theory

in

tourism

Specifically

the

results

suggest

higher

congruity

between

cruisers

selfconcept

actual

and

ideal

and

perceived

images

of

other

tourists

contribute

to

overall

favorable

trip

experiences

The

findings

reveal

idealimage

congruity

is

more

important

than

actualimage

congruity

This

result

is

consistent

with

previous

studies

identifying

ideal

selfimage

congruence

as

the

main

variable

in

consumer

research

Ekinci

et

al

Graeff

Hong

and

Zinkhan

Malhotra

Graeff

suggests

conspicuous

products

consumed

publicly

eg

a

cruise

vacation

are

more

influenced

by

idealimage

congruity

than

actualimage

congruity

The

results

do

not

confirm

selfimage

congruences

relationship

to

satisfaction

This

finding

differs

from

previous

tourism

studies

Chon

Litvin

and

Kar

Both

Chon

Litvin

and

Kar

find

actual

selfimage

and

idealimage

congruence

significantly

relate

to

tourist

satisfaction

Methodological

differences

plausibly

explain

the

divergent

results

First

the

present

study

adapts

Beerli

et

als

selfimage

congruence

measure

using

a

variant

of

Malhotras

selfconcept

scale

Respondents

rated

their

perceptions

of

other

tourists

as

well

as

their

selfconcepts

and

the

level

of

congruity

estimated

using

discrepancy

scores

In

contrast

both

Chon

Litvin

and

Kar

directly

ask

tourists

to

rate

their

actual

and

ideal

selfimage

congruence

using

five

statements

Interestingly

Litvin

and

Gohs

comparative

study

report

inconsistent

findings

in

their

applications

of

Chon

Malhotra

scales

Second

Chon

Litvin

and

Kar

operationalize

satisfaction

as

a

dependent

variable

the

present

study

considers

satisfaction

a

mediating

variable

between

selfimage

congruence

and

intention

to

recommend

Chon

Litvin

and

Kar

measure

satisfaction

using

three

questions

a

sevenpoint

facial

scale

smiling

to

angry

face

a

sevenpoint

delightedterrible

scale

and

a

nonverbal

graphic

scale

This

study

conceptualizes

satisfaction

as

an

overall

evaluation

of

the

cruise

vacation

and

assesses

the

construct

using

two

statements

on

a

scale

extremely

dissatisfiedextremely

satisfied

and

terribledelighted

Findings

support

Landon

Malhotra

assertions

that

the

extent

selfconcept

affects

consumer

behavior

depends

on

consumption

situations

To

further

advance

knowledge

of

selfimage

congruitys

role

in

tourism

additional

research

needs

to

consider

recent

studies

eg

Beerli

et

al

and

compare

the

direct

approach

eg

Chon

with

the

traditional

method

eg

Malhotra

in

various

tourism

settings

Furthermore

predicting

tourists

future

behaviors

remains

an

important

area

of

research

eg

Baker

and

Crompton

Hui

et

al

The

study

findings

indicate

tourists

experiences

positively

relate

to

their

satisfaction

level

These

results

support

prior

cruise

vacation

studies

Duman

and

Mattila

Huang

and

Hsu

suggesting

affective

experiences

positively

influence

perceived

overall

satisfaction

In

addition

as

predicted

a

positive

relationship

between

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

exists

confirming

previous

research

Hui

et

al

Yoon

and

Uysal

Overall

results

provide

insights

into

a

model

that

includes

selfimage

congruence

experiences

satisfaction

and

behavioral

intentions

However

these

findings

are

still

exploratory

and

further

validation

is

required

Managerial

implications

Results

broadly

apply

to

managers

in

the

tourism

hospitality

and

service

industries

Marketers

are

under

greater

pressure

to

understand

consumers

experiences

and

the

resulting

influence

on

postpurchase

evaluations

The

findings

show

actual

and

ideal

selfimage

congruence

play

important

roles

in

determining

tourists

experiences

Higher

congruity

between

cruisers

selfconcept

and

hisher

image

of

other

tourists

relates

to

more

stimulating

exciting

enjoyable

and

interesting

cruise

experiences

These

experiences

positively

relate

to

satisfaction

suggesting

important

implications

for

developing

promotional

strategies

Cruise

liners

should

develop

distinctive

brand

positions

reinforcing

the

perceived

imagepersonality

of

the

typical

cruise

tourist

Marketers

must

develop

an

image

closely

matching

Cruise

marketers

must

adapt

their

advertising

messages

to

target

customers

selfconcept

Previous

research

establishes

advertising

appeals

congruent

with

ones

selfconcept

are

more

superior

to

incongruent

appeals

in

enhancing

advertising

effectiveness

Graeff

Hong

and

Zinkhan

In

addition

managers

need

to

understand

the

role

of

actual

selfimage

congruity

ideal

selfimage

congruity

experiences

and

satisfaction

in

explaining

tourists

behavioral

intention

The

findings

suggest

selfimage

congruity

influences

cruisers

experiences

and

through

satisfaction

predicts

intention

to

recommend

Creating

pleasant

and

memorable

experiences

generates

higher

satisfaction

levels

and

positively

influences

passengers

behavioral

intentions

Limitations

and

future

research

Results

advance

theory

about

selfimage

congruence

in

tourism

but

some

study

limitations

exist

First

this

study

only

investigates

the

effects

of

selfcongruity

on

cruisers

experiences

and

posttravel

behaviors

Previous

research

establishes

that

consumer

behaviors

also

can

be

driven

by

functional

congruity

eg

Sirgy

et

al

Sirgy

et

al

Functional

congruity

refers

to

the

match

between

consumers

tourists

ideal

expectations

of

a

product

brand

or

destinations

utilitarian

features

and

how

the

productbranddestination

is

perceived

along

the

same

attributes

Kressmann

et

al

Future

studies

should

incorporate

both

selfcongruity

and

functional

congruity

in

modeling

tourists

experiences

satisfaction

and

intention

to

recommend

Finally

findings

are

limited

to

collecting

data

from

one

cruise

vacation

Future

studies

should

collect

data

from

cruise

passengers

at

different

times

of

the

year

on

different

ships

at

different

locations

and

destinations

and

on

multiple

cruise

lines

References

Aaker

DA

Aaker

Building

strong

brands

The

Free

Press

New

York

Google

Scholar

Anderson

and

Gerbing

JC

Anderson

DW

Gerbing

Structural

equation

modeling

in

practice

a

review

and

recommended

twostep

approach

Psychol

Bull

pp

Google

Scholar

Andersson

TD

Andersson

The

tourist

in

the

experience

economy

Scand

J

Hospitality

Tourism

pp

Google

Scholar

Back

KJ

Back

The

effects

of

image

congruence

on

customers

brand

loyalty

in

the

upper

middleclass

hotel

industry

J

Hospitality

Tourism

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Bagwell

and

Bernheim

LS

Bagwell

BD

Bernheim

Veblen

effects

in

a

theory

of

conspicuous

consumption

Am

Econ

Rev

pp

Google

Scholar

Baker

and

Crompton

DA

Baker

J

Crompton

Quality

satisfaction

and

behavioral

intentions

Ann

Tourism

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Barclay

et

al

D

Barclay

R

Thompson

C

Higgins

The

partial

least

squares

approach

to

causal

modeling

personal

computer

adoption

and

use

as

an

illustration

Technol

Stud

pp

Google

Scholar

Beerli

et

al

A

Beerli

GD

Meneses

SM

Gil

Selfcongruity

and

destination

choice

Ann

Tourism

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Belch

and

Landon

GE

Belch

EL

Landon

Discriminant

validity

of

a

productanchored

selfconcept

measure

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Belk

RW

Belk

Possessions

and

the

extended

self

J

Consum

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Bigné

et

al

JE

Bigné

MI

Sanchez

J

Sanchez

Tourism

image

evaluation

variables

and

after

purchase

behaviour

interrelationship

Tourism

Manage

pp

Google

Scholar

Birdwell

AE

Birdwell

A

study

of

the

influence

of

image

congruence

on

consumer

choice

J

Bus

pp

Google

Scholar

Bjerke

and

Polegato

R

Bjerke

R

Polegato

How

well

do

advertising

images

of

health

and

beauty

travel

across

cultures

a

selfconcept

perspective

Psychol

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Boksberger

and

al

forthcoming

Boksberger

P

Dolnicar

S

Laesser

C

Randle

M

SelfCongruity

Theory

To

What

Extent

Does

It

Hold

in

Tourism

J

Travel

Res

forthcoming

First

published

on

June

as

Google

Scholar

Chang

and

Chieng

PL

Chang

MH

Chieng

Building

consumerbrand

relationship

a

crosscultural

experiential

view

Psychol

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Chin

WW

Chin

The

partial

least

squares

approach

to

structural

equation

modeling

GA

Marcoulides

Ed

Modern

methods

for

business

research

Lawrence

Erlbaum

Associates

Hillsdale

NJ

pp

Google

Scholar

Chin

and

Newsted

WW

Chin

PR

Newsted

Structural

equation

modeling

analysis

with

small

samples

using

partial

least

squares

RH

Doyle

Ed

Statistical

strategies

for

small

sample

research

Sage

Thousand

Oaks

CA

pp

Google

Scholar

Chon

K

Chon

Selfimagedestinationimage

congruity

Ann

Tourism

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Cronin

and

Taylor

JJ

Cronin

SA

Taylor

Measuring

service

quality

a

reexamination

and

extension

J

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Cruise

Lines

International

Association

Cruise

Lines

International

Association

cruise

market

overview

statistical

cruise

industry

data

through

Available

at

accessed

July

Google

Scholar

Dolich

IJ

Dolich

Congruence

relationships

between

selfimages

and

product

brands

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Duman

and

Mattila

T

Duman

AS

Mattila

The

role

of

affective

factors

on

perceived

cruise

vacation

value

Tourism

Manage

pp

Google

Scholar

Eastman

et

al

JK

Eastman

RE

Goldsmith

LR

Flynn

Status

consumption

in

consumer

behavior

scale

development

and

validation

J

Mark

Theory

Pract

pp

Google

Scholar

Ekinci

and

Riley

Y

Ekinci

M

Riley

An

investigation

of

selfconcept

actual

and

ideal

selfcongruence

compared

in

the

context

of

service

evaluation

J

Retailing

Consum

Serv

pp

Google

Scholar

Ekinci

et

al

Y

Ekinci

PL

Dawes

GR

Massey

An

extended

model

of

the

antecedents

and

consequences

of

consumer

satisfaction

for

hospitality

services

Eur

J

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Ericksen

MK

Ericksen

Using

Selfcongruity

and

ideal

congruity

to

predict

purchase

intention

a

European

perspective

J

EuroMark

pp

Google

Scholar

Falk

and

Miller

RF

Falk

NB

Miller

A

primer

for

soft

modelling

University

of

Akron

Press

Akron

OH

Google

Scholar

Fornell

and

Cha

C

Fornell

J

Cha

Partial

least

square

RP

Bagozzi

Ed

Advanced

methods

of

marketing

research

Blackwell

Cambridge

MA

pp

Google

Scholar

Fornell

and

Larcker

C

Fornell

DF

Larcker

Evaluating

structural

equation

models

with

unobservable

variables

and

measurement

error

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Graeff

R

Graeff

Image

congruence

effects

on

product

evaluation

the

role

of

selfmonitoring

and

publicprivate

consumption

Psychol

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Gretzel

et

al

U

Gretzel

DR

Fesenmaier

S

Formica

JT

OLeary

Searching

for

the

future

challenges

faced

by

destination

marketing

organizations

J

Travel

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Gross

and

Brown

MJ

Gross

G

Brown

Tourism

experiences

in

a

lifestyle

destination

setting

the

roles

of

involvement

and

place

attachment

J

Bus

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Grubb

and

Grathwohl

EL

Grubb

HL

Grathwohl

Consumer

selfconcept

symbolism

and

market

behavior

a

theoretical

approach

J

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Grubb

and

Hupp

EL

Grubb

G

Hupp

Perception

of

self

generalized

stereotypes

and

brand

selection

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Grubb

and

Stern

EL

Grubb

BL

Stern

Selfconcept

and

significant

others

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Hamm

and

Cundiff

BC

Hamm

EW

Cundiff

Selfactualization

and

product

perception

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Han

and

Back

H

Han

KJ

Back

Relationships

among

image

congruence

consumption

emotions

and

customer

loyalty

in

the

lodging

industry

J

Hospitality

Tourism

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

He

and

Mukherjee

H

He

A

Mukherjee

I

am

Ergo

I

shop

does

store

image

congruity

explain

shopping

behaviour

of

Chinese

consumers

J

Mark

Manage

pp

Google

Scholar

Heath

and

Scott

AP

Heath

D

Scott

The

selfconcept

and

image

congruence

hypothesis

an

empirical

investigation

in

the

motor

vehicle

market

Eur

J

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Helgeson

and

Supphellen

JG

Helgeson

M

Supphellen

A

conceptual

and

measurement

comparison

of

selfcongruity

and

brand

personality

the

impact

of

socially

desirable

responding

Int

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Hong

and

Zinkhan

JW

Hong

GM

Zinkhan

Self

concept

and

advertising

effectiveness

the

influences

of

congruency

conspicuousness

and

response

modes

Psychol

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Huang

and

Hsu

J

Huang

CHC

Hsu

The

impact

of

customertocustomer

interaction

on

cruise

experience

and

vacation

satisfaction

J

Travel

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Hughes

and

Guerrero

GD

Hughes

JL

Guerrero

Automobile

selfcongruity

models

reexamined

J

Mark

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Hui

et

al

TK

Hui

D

Wan

A

Ho

Tourists

satisfaction

recommendation

and

revisiting

Singapore

Tourism

Manage

pp

Google

Scholar

Ibrahim

and

Najjar

H

Ibrahim

F

Najjar

Assessing

the

effects

of

selfcongruity

attitudes

and

customer

satisfaction

on

behavioural

intentions

in

retail

environment

Mark

Intell

Plann

pp

Google

Scholar

Jamal

and

AlMarri

A

Jamal

M

AlMarri

Exploring

the

effect

of

selfimage

congruence

and

brand

preference

on

satisfaction

the

role

of

expertise

J

Mark

Manage

pp

Google

Scholar

Jamal

and

Goode

A

Jamal

M

Goode

Consumers

and

brands

a

study

of

the

impact

of

selfimage

congruence

on

brand

preference

and

satisfaction

Mark

Intell

Plann

pp

Google

Scholar

Kastenholz

E

Kastenholz

Assessment

and

role

of

destinationselfcongruity

Ann

Tourism

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

King

J

King

Destination

marketing

organisations

connecting

the

experience

rather

than

promoting

the

place

J

Vacation

Mark

pp

Google

Scholar

Kozak

and

Rimmington

M

Kozak

M

Rimmington

Tourist

satisfaction

with

Mallorca

Spain

as

an

offseason

holiday

destination

J

Travel

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Kressmann

et

al

F

Kressmann

MJ

Sirgy

A

Herrmann

F

Huber

S

Huber

DJ

Lee

Direct

and

indirect

effects

of

selfimage

congruence

on

brand

loyalty

J

Bus

Res

pp

Google

Scholar

Kwak

and

Kang

DH

Kwak

JH

Kang

Symbolic

purchase

in

sport

the

roles

of

selfimage

congruence

and

perceived

quality

Manage

Decis

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O