Human

Trafficking

Literature

in

the

Past

Decade

A

Review

of

the

Literature

Conference

Paper

PDF

Available

January

with

Reads

Conference

Conference

The

Society

for

Social

Work

and

Research

Annual

Conference

Export

this

citation

Y

Joon

Choi

University

of

Georgia

Jennifer

Elkins

University

of

Georgia

Shari

E

Miller

University

of

Georgia

David

Okech

University

of

Georgia

Abstract

Discover

the

worlds

research

million

members

million

publications

research

projects

Figures

uploaded

by

David

Okech

Author

content

Article

inclusion

process

using

the

PRISMA

flow

chart

Content

uploaded

by

David

Okech

Author

content

Download

fulltext

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Full

Terms

Conditions

of

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use

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Date

January

At

Journal

of

EvidenceInformed

Social

Work

ISSN

Print

Online

Journal

homepage

Seventeen

years

of

human

trafficking

r

esearch

in

social

work

A

revie

w

of

the

literature

David

Okech

Y

Joon

Choi

Jennifer

Elkins

Abigail

C

Burns

To

cite

this

article

David

Okech

Y

Joon

Choi

Jennifer

Elkins

Abigail

C

Burns

Seventeen

years

of

human

trafficking

research

in

social

work

A

review

of

the

literature

Journal

of

EvidenceInformed

Social

Work

DOI

To

link

to

this

article

httpsdoior

Published

online

Dec

Submit

your

article

to

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Article

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Crossmark

data

Seventeen

years

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

research

in

social

work

A

review

of

the

literature

David

Okech

Y

Joon

Choi

Jennifer

Elkins

and

Abigail

C

Burns

School

of

Social

Work

University

of

Georgia

Athens

GA

USA

ABSTRACT

The

tra

ﬃ

cking

of

persons

around

the

world

is

a

serious

violation

of

human

rights

and

manifestation

of

social

injustice

It

disproportio

nately

a

ﬀ

ects

women

and

children

worldwide

Given

the

values

of

the

social

work

profession

and

the

prevalence

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

it

is

essential

to

understand

the

current

literature

on

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

social

work

journals

Using

the

PRISMA

method

this

systematic

review

n

articles

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

social

work

journals

found

the

following

more

focus

on

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

than

other

forms

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

a

lack

of

a

clear

conceptualization

and

de

ﬁ

nition

on

the

entire

spectrum

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

a

lack

of

evidenceinformed

empirical

research

to

inform

programs

practice

and

policy

and

a

dearth

of

recommendations

for

social

work

education

Speci

ﬁ

c

implications

for

social

work

policy

research

practice

and

education

are

highlighted

and

discussed

KEYWORDS

Human

tra

ﬃ

cking

social

work

social

justice

TVPA

systematic

review

Background

The

tra

ﬃ

cking

of

persons

around

the

world

is

a

serious

violation

of

human

rights

and

a

manifestation

of

social

injustice

Although

valid

and

reliable

data

are

hard

to

ﬁ

nd

a

recent

report

estimated

that

million

individuals

around

the

world

are

currently

victims

of

forced

labor

ILO

These

individuals

are

exploited

in

economic

activities

such

as

agriculture

ﬁ

shing

domestic

work

construction

manufacturing

and

the

commercial

sex

industry

Although

the

majority

of

detected

victims

are

tra

ﬃ

cked

across

international

borders

are

victimized

within

their

own

countries

UNODC

Among

these

detected

victims

are

female

and

are

children

UNODC

Tra

ﬃ

cking

is

frequently

exacerbated

by

socioeconomic

problems

con

ﬂ

icts

or

natural

disasters

that

force

people

to

seek

work

far

from

home

or

to

migrate

for

survival

Sigmon

Macrolevel

factors

associated

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

include

economic

injustice

poverty

wars

and

natural

disasters

globalization

of

the

consumer

market

lesser

respect

for

females

unattached

men

in

construction

operations

and

military

installations

in

develop

ing

countries

and

global

sex

tourism

Roby

Microlevel

risk

factors

include

family

breakdown

poor

family

relations

child

abuse

and

neglect

mental

illness

and

substance

use

among

parents

and

homelessness

among

children

Roby

CONTACT

David

Okech

dokechugaedu

School

of

Social

Work

University

of

Georgia

Williams

Street

Athens

GA

Color

versions

of

one

or

more

of

the

ﬁ

gures

in

the

article

can

be

found

online

at

wwwtandfonlinecomWEBS

JOURNAL

OF

EVIDENCEINFORMED

SOCIAL

WORK

Taylor

Francis

Downloaded

by

University

of

Georgia

at

January

To

address

the

problem

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

the

US

enacted

the

Tra

ﬃ

cking

Victims

Protection

Act

TVPA

US

Department

of

State

in

as

part

of

the

Violence

Against

Women

Act

The

TVPA

is

the

centerpiece

of

US

antitra

ﬃ

cking

legislation

In

its

conception

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

the

TVPA

distinguishes

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

from

other

forms

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

Tra

ﬃ

cking

in

which

a

commercial

sex

act

is

induced

by

force

fraud

or

coercion

or

in

which

the

person

induced

to

perform

such

acts

has

not

attained

years

of

age

is

de

ﬁ

ned

speci

ﬁ

cally

as

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

Human

tra

ﬃ

cking

more

generally

is

de

ﬁ

ned

as

the

recruitment

harboring

transportation

provision

or

obtaining

of

a

person

for

labor

or

services

through

the

use

of

force

fraud

or

coercion

for

the

purpose

of

subjection

to

involuntary

servitude

peonage

debt

bondage

or

slavery

US

Department

of

the

State

p

The

TVPA

was

reauthorized

in

and

As

policy

informs

practice

and

research

which

by

extension

must

inform

social

work

education

there

is

a

critical

need

to

synthesize

the

body

of

knowledge

related

to

tra

ﬃ

cking

that

appears

in

social

work

journals

In

so

doing

themes

that

can

inform

continued

policy

practice

research

and

education

e

ﬀ

orts

can

be

located

The

study

presented

here

is

a

systematic

review

of

the

social

work

literature

in

the

years

since

the

enactment

of

the

original

TVPA

The

TVPA

is

the

signature

legal

and

policy

frame

work

for

dealing

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

the

United

States

it

has

also

in

ﬂ

uenced

antitra

ﬃ

cking

e

ﬀ

orts

abroad

The

paper

is

organized

into

four

main

sections

The

ﬁ

rst

section

describes

social

work

s

values

in

relation

to

antitra

ﬃ

cking

e

ﬀ

orts

Section

two

describes

the

study

methodology

while

section

three

provides

the

descriptive

results

and

some

emergent

themes

Section

four

highlights

speci

ﬁ

c

applications

to

policy

research

practice

and

education

from

the

reviewed

studies

The

social

work

profession

and

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

Although

the

applications

of

social

work

may

vary

globally

there

are

values

principles

and

practices

that

tie

the

profession

together

transnationally

The

codes

of

ethics

of

the

U

Sbased

National

Association

of

Social

Workers

NASW

the

British

Association

of

Social

Workers

BASW

and

the

International

Federation

of

Social

Workers

IFSW

a

ﬃ

rm

the

profession

s

responsibility

to

pursue

social

change

and

human

rights

particularly

on

behalf

of

vulnerable

and

oppressed

people

and

toward

the

liberation

of

all

people

see

BASW

IFSW

NASW

Similarly

the

Council

on

Social

Work

Education

CSWE

the

accrediting

body

for

social

work

programs

in

the

United

States

maintains

that

the

purpose

of

social

work

purpose

is

actualized

through

its

quest

for

social

and

economic

justice

the

prevention

of

conditions

that

limit

human

rights

the

elimination

of

poverty

and

the

enhancement

of

the

quality

of

life

for

all

persons

locally

and

globally

CSWE

p

The

IFSW

the

International

Association

of

Schools

of

Social

Work

IASSW

and

the

International

Council

on

Social

Welfare

ICSW

proposed

that

in

order

to

work

toward

this

collective

mission

social

work

as

a

profession

and

educational

structure

should

advocate

for

a

new

world

order

which

makes

a

reality

of

respect

for

human

rights

and

dignity

and

a

di

ﬀ

erent

structure

of

human

relationships

IFSW

IASSW

ICSW

p

The

values

implicit

and

explicit

in

these

statements

make

it

clear

that

as

one

of

the

most

critical

human

rights

issues

of

this

era

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

should

be

of

central

concern

to

the

profession

and

to

social

work

education

transnationally

It

is

therefore

D

OKECH

ET

AL

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by

University

of

Georgia

at

January

surprising

that

at

the

beginning

of

this

century

social

work

speci

ﬁ

c

literature

featured

little

discussion

on

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

Schatz

Furman

Hodge

and

Lietz

reviewed

the

literature

on

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

reported

the

following

themes

a

de

ﬁ

nitions

of

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

b

globalization

of

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

c

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

as

a

highreward

lowrisk

enterprise

d

recruitment

strategies

and

e

ecological

responses

to

tra

ﬃ

cking

In

their

search

of

the

literature

the

authors

cited

a

total

of

articles

that

discussed

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

only

two

of

which

were

published

in

social

workspeci

ﬁ

c

journals

ie

Lundy

Grossman

Schatz

Furman

The

dearth

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

literature

in

social

workspeci

ﬁ

c

journals

however

is

not

necessarily

indicative

that

social

work

researchers

and

professionals

are

not

involved

in

antitra

ﬃ

cking

e

ﬀ

orts

To

be

clear

Hodge

and

Lietz

s

review

focused

exclusively

on

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

not

the

entire

spectrum

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

This

is

not

surprising

because

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

has

received

considerable

attention

however

other

forms

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

are

as

deleterious

to

the

victims

and

require

similar

attention

both

by

social

work

scholars

and

practitioners

A

social

work

perspective

on

the

issue

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

is

critical

in

antitra

ﬃ

cking

e

ﬀ

orts

not

only

because

of

the

professional

guiding

principles

and

values

but

also

because

of

the

holistic

nature

of

social

work

interventions

A

criminal

or

jurisprudence

approach

to

tra

ﬃ

cking

may

sanction

sti

ﬀ

punishments

for

perpetrators

but

may

also

view

victims

as

complicit

in

the

crime

For

instance

Herzog

noted

that

there

are

signi

ﬁ

cant

attitudinal

disparities

among

the

general

public

who

continue

to

view

victims

of

tra

ﬃ

ck

ing

as

complicit

with

the

crime

A

social

work

approach

is

not

only

guided

by

the

values

of

social

justice

and

human

rights

it

also

sees

the

greater

micro

mezzo

and

macro

contexts

that

are

associated

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

Social

workers

are

uniquely

positioned

to

use

person

inenvironment

strengths

based

and

ecological

approaches

to

look

beyond

the

perpe

tratorvictim

dichotomy

to

the

qualities

that

empower

individuals

and

groups

as

survivors

and

advocates

Given

the

seriousness

and

growth

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

as

a

human

rights

and

profound

social

justice

concern

the

present

review

sought

to

investigate

the

state

of

the

current

literature

on

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

social

workspeci

ﬁ

c

journals

between

when

the

TVPA

was

enacted

and

as

the

US

Congress

considers

its

ﬁ

fth

reauthorization

For

the

purposes

of

this

review

only

those

articles

focused

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

for

the

pur

poses

of

sex

l

abor

or

other

s

ocial

and

econ

omic

exploit

ation

were

included

Articles

focusing

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

of

arms

drugs

and

body

parts

were

excluded

Method

In

order

to

perform

a

systematic

review

of

the

literature

we

used

the

PRISMA

method

Moher

Liberati

Tetzla

ﬀ

Altman

The

PRISMA

Group

in

determining

the

articles

that

would

be

included

in

the

ﬁ

nal

review

see

Figure

The

ﬁ

rst

step

was

to

establish

an

exhaustive

list

of

all

social

work

journals

In

order

to

do

this

we

began

with

two

published

lists

of

social

work

journals

see

Hodge

Lacasse

Thyer

A

complete

list

of

the

journals

was

created

by

including

all

journals

appearing

on

both

lists

for

a

total

of

journals

Eight

of

these

journals

were

eliminated

three

because

they

were

not

published

in

English

three

because

they

were

not

peerreviewed

and

two

because

they

JOURNAL

OF

EVIDENCEINFORMED

SOCIAL

WORK

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of

Georgia

at

January

could

not

be

located

and

appeared

to

have

ceased

publication

The

ﬁ

nal

list

included

social

workspeci

ﬁ

c

journals

This

stu

dy

focused

on

so

cial

work

j

ournals

in

or

der

to

under

stand

the

ex

tent

to

whic

h

mostly

so

cial

work

resea

rchers

were

foc

using

on

the

seri

ous

problem

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

als

o

known

as

modern

day

slave

ry

All

jou

rnals

were

c

aptured

via

an

initi

al

search

usi

ng

the

follo

wing

four

data

bases

Soc

ial

Work

Abs

tracts

So

cial

Servic

es

Abstrac

ts

SocAbst

racts

and

SO

CIndex

The

foll

owing

searc

h

terms

were

u

sed

tra

ﬃ

ck

ing

human

tr

a

ﬃ

cking

sex

ual

tra

ﬃ

c

king

anti

tra

ﬃ

cki

ng

commer

cial

sexual

exploitati

on

prosti

tution

sex

industry

fo

rced

labor

smuggling

labor

exploitation

a

n

d

modern

day

sl

avery

This

in

itial

searc

h

yielded

articles

After

removing

duplicate

records

two

trained

graduate

research

assistants

GRAs

screened

and

retained

articles

that

met

the

following

four

inclusion

criteria

published

in

one

of

the

journals

included

on

the

comprehensive

list

published

between

January

and

September

published

in

English

or

with

English

translation

and

focused

on

the

above

listed

search

terms

This

screening

process

yielded

a

total

of

possible

articles

The

review

criteria

were

developed

by

the

ﬁ

rst

author

of

this

paper

Two

coauthors

who

are

familiar

with

qualitative

research

methods

as

well

as

the

topic

each

read

full

length

articles

to

determine

if

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

was

a

primary

focus

ie

did

a

substantive

portion

of

the

article

address

issues

related

to

tra

ﬃ

cking

as

de

ﬁ

ned

above

and

by

noted

search

criteria

and

if

they

met

at

least

one

of

the

following

ﬁ

ve

conditions

a

did

tra

ﬃ

cking

appear

in

the

title

b

did

tra

ﬃ

cking

appear

in

the

abstract

c

was

tra

ﬃ

cking

discussed

in

the

introductory

section

of

the

article

d

did

the

literature

reviewed

in

the

article

emphasize

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

e

were

implications

practice

recom

mendations

andor

suggestions

for

future

research

related

to

tra

ﬃ

cking

included

The

records

identified

through

database

searches

records

after

duplicates

removed

records

screened

fulltext

articles

excluded

fulltext

articles

assessed

for

eligibility

articles

included

in

review

records

excluded

Figure

Article

inclusion

process

using

the

PRISMA

ﬂ

ow

chart

D

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ET

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of

Georgia

at

January

coauthors

then

crosschecked

and

reviewed

each

other

s

articles

The

reviewers

elimi

nated

articles

because

they

did

not

meet

the

inclusion

criteria

or

because

tra

ﬃ

cking

was

not

a

primary

focus

of

the

article

This

yielded

a

ﬁ

nal

total

of

articles

Following

the

above

steps

research

articles

were

coded

by

the

coauthors

and

their

two

trained

and

supervised

GRAs

Interrater

reliability

tests

were

conducted

four

times

once

prior

to

formal

coding

once

in

the

beginning

and

midpoint

of

the

coding

period

and

once

at

the

end

of

the

coding

period

Interrater

agreement

exceeded

Articles

were

reviewed

and

coded

on

the

basis

of

the

following

features

de

ﬁ

nition

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

type

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

study

design

target

population

target

population

demographics

country

of

origin

of

the

authors

recommendations

for

social

work

and

journal

see

Table

Coding

discrepancies

were

resolved

by

discussion

and

consensus

in

regular

facetoface

super

vision

meetings

Data

were

analyzed

descriptively

and

the

content

of

the

body

of

literature

was

analyzed

further

to

locate

emergent

themes

Findings

Descriptive

results

A

total

of

articles

on

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

were

published

in

social

workspeci

ﬁ

c

journals

between

and

Table

lists

the

publications

by

year

as

well

as

the

number

of

publications

per

journal

Close

to

half

of

the

articles

were

published

between

and

n

International

Social

Work

n

and

A

ﬃ

lia

Journal

of

Women

and

Social

Work

n

had

the

highest

number

of

publications

The

majority

of

the

articles

were

from

the

USbased

journals

n

Most

of

the

articles

were

written

by

authors

a

ﬃ

liated

with

institutions

of

the

United

States

n

close

to

a

quarter

of

the

articles

were

by

authors

a

ﬃ

liated

with

institutions

outside

the

United

States

n

the

rest

n

had

authors

based

both

within

and

outside

the

United

States

A

total

of

articles

included

speci

ﬁ

c

recommendations

for

social

work

policy

practice

research

andor

education

Emergent

patterns

In

order

to

further

understand

the

landscape

of

the

tra

ﬃ

cking

literature

published

in

social

work

journals

the

reviewers

built

on

the

descriptive

analysis

to

locate

emergent

patterns

for

the

coding

variables

Each

thematic

pattern

is

discussed

below

Table

Variables

and

coding

scheme

Name

of

journal

Country

of

origin

of

authors

ie

US

nonUS

both

Country

of

origin

of

journal

ie

US

nonUS

both

Is

the

primary

focus

of

the

article

tra

ﬃ

cking

De

ﬁ

nition

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

ie

US

de

ﬁ

nition

UN

de

ﬁ

nition

Both

Other

Type

of

Tra

ﬃ

cking

ie

sex

labor

both

other

Type

of

article

ie

conceptualtheoretical

qualitative

quantitative

mixed

methods

intervention

other

Article

s

population

of

focus

ie

victims

perpetrators

professionals

politicians

etc

Age

group

of

victim

population

of

focus

ie

children

and

youth

adults

both

unspeci

ﬁ

ed

Gender

of

victim

population

of

focus

ie

female

only

male

only

both

genders

unspeci

ﬁ

ed

National

origin

of

victim

population

Recommendations

for

social

work

policy

research

practice

education

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Article

focus

The

ﬁ

rst

emergent

pattern

focused

on

the

emphasis

placed

on

particular

types

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

Among

the

ar

ticles

focused

on

sex

tr

a

ﬃ

cking

Table

Year

of

publication

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

arti

cles

in

social

work

journals

n

Year

of

Publication

Number

Table

Social

work

journals

of

publication

for

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

articles

n

Journal

Number

Advances

in

Social

Work

A

ﬃ

lia

Journal

of

Women

and

Social

Work

British

Journal

of

Social

Work

Child

and

Adolescent

Social

Work

Journal

Global

Social

Policy

Health

and

Social

Work

Indian

Journal

of

Social

Work

International

Journal

of

Social

Welfare

International

Social

Work

Journal

of

Comparative

Social

Welfare

Journal

of

Comparative

Social

Work

Journal

of

Ethnic

Cultural

Diversity

in

Social

Work

Journal

of

European

Social

Policy

Journal

of

Gerontological

Social

Work

Journal

of

Human

Behavior

in

the

Social

Environment

Journal

of

Progressive

Human

Services

Journal

of

Social

Service

Research

Journal

of

Social

Work

Journal

of

Social

Work

Research

and

Evaluation

Journal

of

Social

Work

Values

and

Ethics

Journal

of

Sociology

and

Social

Welfare

Journal

of

Technology

in

Human

Services

Journal

of

the

Society

for

Social

Work

and

Research

Social

Work

Maatskaplike

Werk

Practice

Qualitative

Social

Work

Research

on

Social

Work

Practice

Social

Work

Review

Revista

de

Asistenta

Sociala

Review

of

Research

and

Social

Intervention

Revista

de

Cercetare

si

Interventie

Social

Development

Issues

Social

Work

Social

Work

and

Christianity

Social

Work

and

Society

Social

Work

with

Groups

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exclusivel

y

An

additio

nal

inc

luded

a

combine

d

focus

on

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

other

forms

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

such

as

labor

exploitation

Five

articles

focused

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

related

to

parenthood

such

as

illegal

intercountry

adoption

egg

and

surrogacy

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

other

forms

of

reproductive

exploitation

Only

one

article

exclusively

focused

on

labor

tra

ﬃ

cking

Almost

al

l

of

the

articl

es

inclu

ded

discussions

of

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

see

Table

Tra

ﬃ

cking

de

ﬁ

nition

The

second

emergent

pattern

focused

on

the

particular

de

ﬁ

nitions

that

informed

the

conceptualization

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

the

body

of

the

literature

This

is

important

because

a

the

TVPA

factored

into

the

search

and

review

criteria

b

policy

is

an

essential

considera

tion

related

to

social

work

s

role

in

addressing

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

c

conceptual

clarity

is

essential

for

systematic

research

Thirtyeight

articles

did

not

include

any

explicit

de

ﬁ

nition

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

while

included

one

de

ﬁ

nition

Among

these

articles

cited

the

UN

de

ﬁ

nition

as

stated

in

the

Protocol

on

Tra

ﬃ

cking

in

Persons

cited

the

USbased

TVPA

de

ﬁ

nition

and

ﬁ

ve

used

another

de

ﬁ

nition

Thirteen

articles

cited

multiple

de

ﬁ

nitions

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

most

commonly

the

TVPA

and

UN

de

ﬁ

nitions

Article

type

The

third

emergent

pattern

focused

on

whether

articles

were

empirically

based

or

con

ceptual

The

majority

of

articles

were

conceptual

or

theoretical

in

nature

that

is

articles

while

articles

were

empirical

Among

the

empirical

articles

utilized

qualitative

methodologies

ﬁ

ve

utilized

mixed

methods

and

four

used

quantitative

methodologies

Seven

of

the

empirical

articles

described

interventions

most

of

these

seven

studies

used

qualitative

methods

and

nonexperimental

or

quasiexperimental

designs

The

population

of

focus

The

fourth

emergent

pattern

centered

around

the

primary

population

of

focus

eg

vict

ims

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

policy

ma

kers

profes

sionals

etc

In

coding

the

a

rticles

the

GRAs

had

the

latitude

to

indicate

more

than

one

category

if

appropriate

Seventynine

articles

emphasized

victims

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

emphasized

professionals

such

as

social

workers

and

advocates

focused

on

policieslaws

ﬁ

ve

articles

emphasized

policy

makers

highlighted

perpetrators

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

speci

ﬁ

cally

noted

law

enforcement

and

speci

ﬁ

cally

emphasized

sex

workers

Victim

age

The

ﬁ

fth

emergent

pattern

considered

if

and

how

tra

ﬃ

cking

victim

age

played

a

role

in

the

body

of

the

literature

Fortyfour

articles

focused

on

victims

across

the

lifespan

articles

focused

on

minors

years

focused

speci

ﬁ

cally

on

adults

years

and

four

articles

did

not

specify

age

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Victim

gender

The

sixth

emergent

pattern

considered

the

gender

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

Thirtyeight

articles

were

focused

exclusively

on

women

and

girls

articles

had

a

mixedgender

focus

and

two

did

not

discuss

the

gender

of

the

victim

population

No

articles

focused

speci

ﬁ

cally

on

male

victims

Among

the

mixedgender

articles

were

truly

mixedgender

explicitly

mentioning

both

male

and

female

victims

used

a

combination

of

genderspeci

ﬁ

c

terms

and

genderneutral

language

eg

victims

or

children

one

article

maintained

genderneutrality

throughout

Victim

location

The

ﬁ

nal

emergent

pattern

explored

national

transnational

or

global

emphasis

in

the

body

of

literature

Articles

were

coded

on

the

basis

of

region

of

focus

Among

the

articles

focused

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

within

and

to

the

United

States

focused

on

US

domestic

tra

ﬃ

cking

focused

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

and

between

other

countries

and

discussed

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

a

general

global

context

Among

the

articles

about

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

countries

other

than

the

United

States

about

half

n

focused

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

within

and

to

European

states

Application

to

social

work

practice

policy

research

and

education

The

challenges

of

engaging

in

systematic

research

with

this

population

are

explained

by

the

di

ﬃ

culties

in

locating

victims

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

as

well

as

the

host

of

contextual

issues

surrounding

the

problem

and

their

lives

These

challenges

highlight

Hodge

and

Lietz

s

assertion

that

social

work

should

emphasize

both

macrolevel

and

direct

practice

interventions

Based

on

our

review

it

is

essential

for

social

work

to

engage

in

more

systematic

research

to

inform

both

development

and

evaluation

of

those

interventions

In

order

to

determine

what

patterns

were

present

in

the

body

of

the

literature

related

to

particular

recommendations

for

social

work

policy

research

practice

and

education

the

coauthors

closely

reviewed

the

articles

that

included

recommendations

Two

co

authors

divided

the

articles

in

half

each

closely

read

their

designated

articles

and

recorded

in

a

table

all

recommendations

for

each

of

the

four

stated

categories

Once

that

table

was

created

the

reviewers

then

went

back

and

analyzed

the

content

to

locate

themes

One

reviewer

focused

on

recommendations

for

policy

and

research

and

the

other

focused

on

practice

and

education

This

section

highlights

some

of

the

important

applications

to

policy

research

practice

and

education

for

social

work

Implications

for

policy

Two

major

themes

emerged

from

the

policy

recommendations

revolving

around

enforcing

laws

and

policies

as

well

as

supporting

victims

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

The

ﬁ

rst

major

policy

recommendation

was

the

need

for

collaboration

and

coordination

among

the

various

stakeholders

and

policy

makers

in

the

local

and

international

arenas

For

instance

Lusk

and

Lucas

noted

that

nearly

all

major

cities

in

the

United

States

have

antihuman

tra

ﬃ

cking

task

forces

These

task

forces

are

said

to

be

replicated

worldwide

particularly

in

Western

Europe

Ideally

these

task

forces

should

coordinate

antitra

ﬃ

cking

e

ﬀ

orts

for

increased

e

ﬃ

ciency

Some

authors

described

models

of

interagency

collaboration

that

have

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succeeded

in

meeting

the

complex

needs

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

BuschArmendariz

Nsonwu

He

ﬀ

ron

Lux

Mosley

Similarly

other

scholars

highlighted

the

need

for

increased

coordination

between

agencies

in

order

to

achieve

the

stated

goals

of

the

TVPA

Baker

Grove

Heilemann

Santhiveeran

Hodge

Lietz

Johnson

Jones

Engstrom

Hillard

Diaz

Roby

Some

authors

criticized

the

way

the

TVPA

was

initially

formulated

and

how

it

is

being

used

to

coordinate

local

and

international

antitra

ﬃ

cking

e

ﬀ

orts

Potocky

noted

how

the

policy

focuses

more

on

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

than

labor

tra

ﬃ

cking

a

bifurcation

that

she

contended

was

a

compromise

owing

to

pressures

from

US

business

groups

who

lobbied

against

the

inclusion

of

labor

as

a

form

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

Brom

ﬁ

eld

and

CapousDesyllas

found

that

the

policy

discourse

surrounding

the

formulation

of

TVPA

was

dominated

by

a

moral

agenda

to

abolish

all

forms

of

sex

work

Both

authors

highlight

the

role

of

interest

groups

in

the

policymaking

process

that

lead

to

a

diminished

focus

on

labor

tra

ﬃ

cking

In

their

discussion

of

global

antitra

ﬃ

cking

policy

Alvarez

and

Alessi

called

for

conside

rable

attent

ion

to

labor

tr

a

ﬃ

cking

in

the

formulation

and

implementation

of

laws

and

victim

services

As

Lusk

and

Lucas

noted

in

Pakis

tan

most

hand

tied

carpets

are

produced

by

forced

labor

and

a

signi

ﬁ

cant

proportion

of

that

labor

is

by

child

slaves

E

ﬀ

orts

are

ongoing

to

verify

consumer

products

as

slaveryfree

One

notable

example

is

RugMark

a

certi

ﬁ

cation

that

carpets

and

rugs

with

this

product

listing

have

been

made

by

free

workers

Lusk

Lucas

Clearly

then

it

seems

that

antitra

ﬃ

cking

policies

should

focus

on

the

entire

spectrum

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

T

h

e

r

ei

sap

a

r

t

i

c

u

l

a

rn

e

e

df

o

rm

o

r

ep

o

l

i

c

i

e

st

ot

a

c

k

l

et

h

ei

s

s

u

eo

ft

r

a

ﬃ

cking

for

labor

and

reproductive

purposes

A

second

major

policy

implication

for

policy

was

the

need

for

implementing

and

executing

existing

antitra

ﬃ

cking

policies

that

punish

o

ﬀ

enders

while

at

the

same

time

protect

and

rehabilitate

victims

The

recommendations

included

the

following

prosecution

of

the

perpetrators

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

Engstrom

Minas

Espinoza

Jones

Kotrla

Potocky

Roby

Sloan

Wahab

tougher

statutes

against

tra

ﬃ

ckers

and

enforcement

of

existing

laws

Gjermeni

Van

Hook

Hodge

Lietz

Jani

Anstadt

enabling

women

to

seek

help

from

the

authorities

without

fear

of

deporta

tion

Van

Hook

Gjermeni

Haxhiymeri

and

protecting

victims

during

legal

proceedings

against

their

tra

ﬃ

ckers

Acharya

Suarez

Ontiveros

Jordan

Patel

Rapp

RoeSepowitz

Hickle

Dahlstedt

Gallagher

As

Roby

indicates

there

is

a

lag

between

legislation

and

their

e

ﬀ

ective

implementation

owing

to

attitudes

of

disrespect

for

women

and

girls

insu

ﬃ

cient

funding

and

even

police

conspiracy

in

the

multibilliondollar

tra

ﬃ

cking

industry

In

some

cultural

contexts

traditional

beliefs

about

the

incomeearning

role

of

children

can

produce

reluctance

among

policymakers

to

create

and

enforce

antichild

tra

ﬃ

cking

laws

Warria

Nel

Triegaardt

Citing

the

US

Department

of

Justice

data

Potocky

noted

that

when

US

attorneys

decided

to

prosecute

a

tra

ﬃ

cking

case

the

conviction

rate

was

However

US

attorneys

declined

to

prosecute

approximately

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

cases

compared

with

only

about

of

all

federal

criminal

cases

The

global

conviction

rate

is

considerably

lower

in

among

prosecuted

tra

ﬃ

ckers

were

ultimately

convicted

US

Department

of

State

This

indicates

that

given

the

hidden

and

complex

nature

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

prosecution

and

conviction

in

human

tra

ﬃ

ck

ing

cases

are

highly

problematic

Those

who

have

been

tra

ﬃ

cked

must

be

viewed

as

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victims

ﬁ

rst

then

as

credible

witnesses

and

further

protected

during

the

criminal

process

To

enhance

victim

participation

in

the

judicial

process

Roby

stressed

the

need

to

provide

victims

with

legal

status

while

they

await

the

resolution

of

their

cases

In

this

regard

the

European

Union

has

been

issuing

residence

permits

to

victims

who

cooperate

with

law

enforcement

In

the

United

States

the

law

provides

TVisas

for

victims

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

UVisas

for

victims

of

certain

violent

crimes

associated

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

Lusk

Lucas

It

was

also

noted

that

given

the

fact

that

victims

had

been

traumatized

and

experienced

di

ﬃ

culties

in

meeting

basic

needs

social

services

including

psychosocial

counseling

should

be

extended

Andro

ﬀ

Hodge

Leitz

Lusk

Lucas

Roby

Sossou

Yogtiba

Van

Hook

et

al

The

provision

of

care

and

basic

needs

should

ultimately

increase

cooperation

in

the

legal

process

which

in

turn

would

increase

the

number

of

convictions

and

thus

help

in

strengthening

existing

antitra

ﬃ

cking

laws

However

advocacy

is

essential

to

provide

services

to

victims

irre

spective

of

whether

they

can

participate

in

the

legal

process

Several

articles

mentioned

the

need

for

policy

to

address

macrolevel

sources

of

vulner

ability

to

tra

ﬃ

cking

Some

called

for

policies

to

address

poverty

as

a

root

cause

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

by

developing

economic

capacity

particularly

among

women

and

girls

Edwards

Mika

NoyoriCorbett

Moxley

Alvarez

and

Alessi

highlighted

the

role

of

globalized

markets

in

creating

the

conditions

in

which

tra

ﬃ

ckers

thrive

Jani

and

Felke

recommended

that

education

and

employment

initiatives

be

accompanied

by

legal

changes

to

target

gender

inequality

in

economic

social

and

political

domains

Orme

and

RossSheri

ﬀ

described

how

social

workers

are

well

suited

to

operate

as

community

change

agents

for

tra

ﬃ

cking

prevention

by

implementing

economic

interventions

that

decrease

the

vulnerability

of

impoverished

individuals

and

families

Implications

for

research

Perhaps

the

most

patent

issue

in

tra

ﬃ

cking

is

the

lack

of

empirical

research

on

the

topic

Only

of

the

reviewed

articles

were

empirical

with

the

majority

using

qualitative

methods

The

lack

of

empirical

studies

with

quantitative

or

experimental

designs

is

not

entirely

surprising

because

of

the

secretive

nature

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

di

ﬃ

culties

in

obtain

ing

accurate

data

Three

main

themes

that

were

proposed

in

directing

future

research

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

included

the

following

a

studies

that

more

accurately

document

the

preva

lence

and

incidence

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

Andro

ﬀ

Flynn

Alston

Mason

Kotrla

Orme

RossSheri

ﬀ

Potocky

b

studies

on

the

e

ﬃ

cacy

of

policies

and

programs

designed

to

reduce

tra

ﬃ

cking

Edwards

Mike

Hodge

Lietz

Potocky

Roby

Sossou

Yogtiba

and

c

culturally

competent

research

and

evaluation

in

national

and

international

arenas

to

understand

the

implications

and

e

ﬀ

ects

of

antitra

ﬃ

cking

policies

on

the

welfare

of

those

individuals

CapousDesyllas

Hodge

Lietz

NoyoriCorbett

Moxley

Roby

Whitaker

and

Hinterlong

s

empirical

study

proposed

a

model

in

which

researchers

practitioners

and

policymakers

may

be

empowered

and

obliged

to

build

knowledge

of

the

contexts

within

the

United

States

that

reduce

the

controllability

of

tra

ﬃ

cked

individuals

Roby

and

Vincent

suggested

a

stateslevel

analysis

to

elucidate

the

policy

environments

and

patterns

of

vulnerability

that

produce

regional

di

ﬀ

erences

in

the

rates

of

domestic

minor

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

victimization

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Potocky

emphasized

how

accessing

government

data

on

tra

ﬃ

cking

is

extremely

di

ﬃ

cult

This

indicates

that

it

is

not

possible

to

assess

the

e

ﬀ

ectiveness

of

macrolevel

policies

or

programs

given

that

baseline

data

are

not

available

and

most

government

data

are

not

longitudinal

In

fact

she

noted

that

there

were

no

publicly

available

outcome

evaluations

of

services

for

immigrant

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

Potocky

As

Sossou

and

Yogtiba

noted

there

is

a

need

to

establish

multidisciplinary

national

and

regional

scienti

ﬁ

c

databases

on

the

incidence

prevalence

dimensions

and

consequences

of

all

forms

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

to

enable

a

more

organized

and

collaborative

approach

toward

ﬁ

nding

permanent

durable

and

sustainable

solutions

to

the

problem

Although

program

evalua

tion

is

among

the

purposes

of

social

work

research

it

is

impossible

to

e

ﬀ

ectively

perform

this

task

without

accurate

and

reliable

data

Therefore

research

in

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

remains

the

most

uncharted

territory

as

far

as

antitra

ﬃ

cking

e

ﬀ

orts

are

concerned

This

is

indeed

a

worthy

cause

for

social

work

researchers

and

a

venture

that

will

require

multidisciplinary

as

well

as

international

collaborations

For

example

the

Europe

Institute

for

Social

Work

among

other

initia

tives

supports

rigorous

research

on

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

The

Institute

a

maps

and

evaluates

research

on

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

within

the

European

Union

b

explores

new

research

ﬁ

elds

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

issues

c

assesses

the

work

of

social

welfare

organizations

in

the

ﬁ

eld

of

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

d

provides

consultancy

to

organizations

combating

human

tra

ﬃ

cking

Europe

Ins

titute

for

Soci

al

Work

nd

However

records

of

published

empirical

works

by

the

Institute

are

not

available

from

its

website

possibly

indicating

the

challenges

that

currently

exist

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

research

Implications

for

practice

When

considering

patterns

that

emerged

regarding

recommendations

for

practice

it

became

clear

that

overall

there

is

an

acknowledgment

that

practice

approaches

to

addressing

tra

ﬃ

cking

must

i

span

the

practice

continuum

and

ii

consider

not

only

victims

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

but

their

communities

as

well

A

number

of

authors

indicated

that

destigmatizing

and

depathologizing

the

nature

of

sex

work

and

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

is

essential

to

practice

in

this

area

Engstrom

et

al

Sloan

Wahab

Sossou

Yogtiba

Additional

speci

ﬁ

c

emphasis

was

placed

on

challenging

cultural

traditions

that

are

oppressive

Roby

Sossou

Yogtiba

modeling

shifts

in

behavior

and

language

use

related

to

youth

involved

in

the

sex

trade

Kotrla

and

acknowledging

and

addressing

community

attitudes

as

potential

barriers

to

successful

reentry

of

victims

Jordan

et

al

Van

Hook

et

al

Related

to

these

ideas

was

a

notable

focus

on

the

need

for

public

education

awareness

and

prevention

e

ﬀ

orts

Hodge

Leitz

Jani

Anstadt

Jordan

et

al

Kotrla

Lusk

Lucas

Popovic

et

al

Potocky

Roby

Sossou

Yogtiba

Van

Hook

et

al

Warria

Nel

Triegaardt

Community

intervention

was

recommended

Hodge

Leitz

with

particular

focus

on

community

organizing

Alexandru

Whitaker

Hinterlong

and

comprehensive

frame

works

for

wraparound

service

provision

Hodge

Lietz

Roby

Related

to

community

intervention

was

a

strong

recommendation

for

community

development

mod

els

Roby

in

the

interest

of

promoting

economic

justice

and

capacity

building

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Edwards

Mika

Roby

Sloan

Wahab

Van

Hook

et

al

creating

employment

options

Sloan

Wahab

focusing

on

outreach

McDonald

Timoshkina

NoyoriCorbett

Moxley

Perkins

Ruiz

Wirsing

and

education

for

women

Sloan

Wahab

Van

Hook

et

al

Other

authors

noted

the

critical

need

for

strong

collaborations

or

partnerships

between

agenciesstake

holders

both

locally

and

internationally

Heilemann

Santhiveeran

Hodge

Lietz

Jones

et

al

Roby

Van

Hook

et

al

as

well

as

the

need

for

a

multidisciplinary

team

approach

Hayes

Unwin

Hickle

Hodge

Lietz

Johnson

Roby

Van

Hook

et

al

In

this

vein

authors

suggested

that

socia

lw

o

r

ka

sap

r

o

f

e

s

s

i

o

ns

h

o

u

l

db

ec

r

i

t

i

c

a

l

l

y

selfconscious

Brom

ﬁ

eld

Cree

Cree

Clapton

Smith

F

l

y

n

n

et

al

develop

and

emphasize

models

of

intervention

that

promote

harm

reduction

and

are

grounded

in

empowerment

Brom

ﬁ

eld

CapousDesyllas

Pardasani

T

s

a

i

Van

Hook

et

al

and

incorporate

t

he

strengths

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

Heilemann

Santhiverran

Studies

indicated

that

reinte

gration

services

shoul

d

be

expansive

Kotrla

Lusk

Lucas

M

c

D

o

n

a

l

d

Timoshkina

P

o

t

o

c

k

y

Van

Hook

et

al

span

the

practice

con

tinuum

and

be

designed

to

meet

immedi

ate

needs

and

also

provide

longterm

support

services

Hodge

Lietz

K

o

t

r

l

a

For

those

providing

micro

services

it

was

strongly

recommended

tha

t

they

should

understand

both

the

physical

and

psychological

e

ﬀ

ects

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

assess

treat

or

refer

survivors

for

necessary

mental

health

services

Engstrom

et

al

H

o

d

g

eL

i

e

t

z

Kotrla

Lusk

Lucas

Potocky

R

o

b

y

Alongside

micro

services

advocacy

for

the

victims

and

survivors

was

also

noted

as

essential

Heilemann

Santhiveeran

J

o

n

e

se

ta

l

K

o

t

r

l

a

R

o

b

y

Roby

Vincent

Among

the

seven

empirical

articles

that

described

speci

ﬁ

c

interventions

for

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

all

were

psychosocial

interventions

delivered

to

victims

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

for

sexual

exploitation

and

most

were

limited

to

children

and

adolescents

of

these

studies

employed

rigorous

experimental

designs

Therefore

causal

relationships

between

inter

vention

strategies

and

survivor

outcomes

can

not

be

determined

However

several

group

based

aftercare

interventions

appeared

to

reduce

trauma

symptoms

and

diminish

the

risk

of

retra

ﬃ

cking

These

programs

include

a

music

therapy

intervention

for

child

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

survivors

and

their

caregivers

in

Cambodia

Schrader

Wendland

a

psychoeducation

and

psychotherapy

intervention

for

adolescent

girls

victimized

by

domestic

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

the

United

States

Hickle

RoeSepowitz

and

a

mixedgender

shelter

program

for

child

survivors

of

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

in

Italy

Maculan

Lozzi

Rothman

Some

authors

noted

that

models

of

service

provision

for

other

populations

could

be

modi

ﬁ

ed

or

extended

to

meet

the

needs

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

and

survivors

Examples

of

such

adaptation

include

Hickle

and

RoeSepowitz

s

group

intervention

which

was

modi

ﬁ

ed

from

a

program

for

incarcerated

women

with

history

of

sexual

trauma

Warria

et

al

suggested

that

psychosocial

services

for

child

tra

ﬃ

cking

survivors

could

be

made

similar

to

the

services

that

are

currently

provided

to

unaccompanied

child

migrants

and

refugees

Dewan

stated

that

social

work

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

should

be

grounded

in

principles

of

social

work

with

immigrants

such

as

situating

client

s

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experiences

in

a

global

context

and

remaining

mindful

of

the

impact

of

culture

on

service

utilization

Others

noted

that

many

of

the

needs

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

could

be

met

through

services

and

therapeutic

modalities

that

were

originally

designed

for

survivors

of

domestic

violence

sexual

abuse

or

torture

Park

Lee

Hand

Anderson

Schleitwiler

RoeSepowitz

et

al

Several

authors

cited

traumainformed

cognitive

beha

vioral

therapy

TFCBT

as

a

promising

intervention

for

managing

the

posttraumatic

symptoms

that

many

tra

ﬃ

cking

survivors

experience

Hodge

Johnson

Orme

RossSheri

ﬀ

Park

et

al

In

lowresource

settings

the

extension

and

elaboration

of

existing

service

frameworks

could

be

the

most

e

ﬃ

cient

use

of

limited

sta

ﬀ

and

funds

Furthermore

in

the

absence

of

interventions

that

have

been

empirically

tested

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

it

is

logical

for

practitioners

to

employ

evidencebased

practices

for

work

with

other

traumatized

popula

tions

such

as

TFCBT

However

as

many

authors

highlighted

subsuming

care

for

tra

ﬃ

ck

ing

victims

into

models

that

were

created

for

other

populations

could

result

in

failure

to

meet

the

unique

needs

of

children

and

adults

who

have

survived

labor

or

sexual

exploitation

Regardless

of

whether

generalized

or

specialized

models

of

care

are

utilized

in

a

given

agency

comprehensive

needs

assessment

upon

intake

and

throughout

the

recovery

process

will

be

crucial

in

order

to

tailor

intervention

e

ﬀ

orts

to

clients

needs

Hardy

Compton

McPhatter

Hayes

Unwin

McIntyre

Rigby

Whyte

Implications

for

education

One

of

the

most

notable

ﬁ

ndings

that

emerged

out

of

the

review

of

the

articles

recom

mendations

for

social

work

was

the

absence

of

speci

ﬁ

c

recommendations

for

social

work

education

Although

strong

emphasis

was

placed

on

policy

practice

and

to

some

extent

research

recommendations

explicit

recognition

of

the

necessity

of

locating

human

traf

ﬁ

cking

in

the

social

work

curriculum

transnationally

was

lacking

only

of

the

articles

with

recommendations

mentioned

social

work

education

A

prominent

recommendation

for

social

work

education

was

to

increase

awareness

of

the

existing

policy

frameworks

that

enable

and

constrain

social

work

practice

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

and

survivors

These

policy

frameworks

include

those

that

are

tra

ﬃ

ck

ingspeci

ﬁ

c

such

as

TVPA

as

well

as

laws

related

to

sex

work

labor

rights

and

immigration

more

broadly

Roby

Vincent

Warria

et

al

Brom

ﬁ

eld

stated

that

social

work

education

should

address

the

ﬁ

eld

s

problematic

history

with

sex

tra

ﬃ

cking

and

encourage

critical

thinking

about

current

policy

and

practice

Several

authors

emphasized

the

need

for

educational

modules

to

facilitate

the

identi

ﬁ

ca

tion

of

potential

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

Popovic

et

al

Warria

et

al

Orme

and

RossSheri

ﬀ

described

how

extant

curricula

for

traumainformed

care

could

be

expanded

to

include

applications

of

traumainformed

assessment

and

treatment

with

tra

ﬃ

cking

victims

Acknowledging

the

need

for

a

valid

instrument

to

assess

the

need

for

and

evaluate

the

results

of

tra

ﬃ

cking

curricula

in

social

work

education

Nsonwu

and

colleagues

developed

the

Perceptions

Knowledge

and

Attitudes

toward

Human

Tra

ﬃ

cking

Questionnaire

PKAHTQ

This

survey

shows

promise

as

a

self

appraisal

tool

for

social

work

students

and

an

evaluative

tool

for

social

work

educators

Sossou

and

Yogtiba

made

some

very

particular

recommendations

for

social

work

education

with

an

exclusive

emphasis

on

Africa

They

noted

the

necessity

for

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collaboration

and

support

between

the

IFSW

and

the

Association

of

Social

Work

Education

in

Africa

ASWEA

They

suggested

that

with

the

support

of

IFSW

the

ASWEA

must

take

on

a

leadership

role

in

developing

curricula

and

training

programs

with

cultural

relevance

They

also

noted

that

social

workers

in

Africa

should

be

trained

in

the

necessary

mental

health

protocols

and

procedures

to

guide

assessments

and

the

development

of

familycentered

interventions

Sossou

and

Yogtiba

s

recommenda

tions

are

judicious

because

tra

ﬃ

cking

is

growing

fast

in

Africa

with

an

estimated

million

people

currently

victimized

by

sex

or

labor

tra

ﬃ

cking

within

the

continent

and

tens

of

thousands

tra

ﬃ

cked

from

the

continent

each

year

ILO

However

Healy

warned

against

an

international

exchange

model

that

assumes

social

work

practice

and

education

models

in

the

West

can

be

uncritically

duplicated

in

developing

countries

She

also

suggested

an

education

model

in

which

both

partners

exchange

ideas

and

practices

in

a

collaborative

manner

within

an

atmosphere

of

mutual

respect

Roby

made

the

less

speci

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the society for social work and research 2014 annual conference


A Review of AntiCorruption Wars in Nigeria Article PDF Available September 2014 with 4107 Reads DOI 104102apsdprv2i363 Export this citation Nnamdi Nwaodu Fort Hare University David Adam Okechukwu Okereke Abstract Corruption still subsists as one of the greatest challenges facing Nigeria The existence of this phenomenon in virtually all aspects of the nations socioeconomic life is said to be one reason why poverty level remains high irrespective of her position as the six highest suppliers of oil to the whole wide world and a possessor of numerous other human and natural resources A recent attempt by the Federal Government of Nigeria to curb this societal ill led to the establishment of Economic and Financial Crimes Commission EFCC the Independent Corrupt Practices Related Offences Commission ICPC among others bodies This paper Discover the worlds research 15 million members 118 million publications 700k research projects Available via license CC BY 40 Download fulltext PDF 153 A Review of AntiCorruption Wars In Nigeria NWAODU Nnamdi ADAM David OKEREKE Okechukwu Abstract orruption still subsists as one of the greatest challenges facing Nigeria The existence of this phenomenon in virtually all aspects of the nations socio economic life is said to be one reason why poverty level remains high irrespective of her position as the six highest suppliers of o i l t o t h e w h o l e w i d e w o r l d a n d a possessor of numerous other human and natural resources A recent attempt by the Federal Government of Nigeria to curb this societal ill led to the establishment of Economic and Financial Crimes Commission EFCC the Independent C o r r u p t P r a c t i c e s R e l a t e d O f f e n c e s Commission ICPC among others bodies T h i s p a p e r h i s t o r i c a l l y e x p l o r e s t h e a n t i corruption war in Nigeria and specifically zeros itself to review EFCCs role in this w a r T h e m e t h o d o l o g y a d o p t e d i n t h i s paper is the narrativetextual case study NTCS a research method that sources the required quantitative and qualitative secondary data on the phenomenon of study from secondary sources like the internet World Wide Web online databases elibraries et cetera On the strength of the qualitative data sourced it was discovered that the agency has made s o m e s u c c e s s e s b u t i s b e i n g h i n d e r e d b y political administrative and judicial bureaucracy from efficient performance The paper therefore boldly recommends that transparency be enshrined into all aspect Nigerian political and administrative life and extant antigraft laws be reviewed harmonized and strengthened to enhance the effectiveness o f f i g h t a g a i n s t c o r r u p t i o n a n d b r e a c h o f corporate governance ethics by those holding political and nonpolitical positions in Nigeria Keywords Corruption Corporate Governance Accountability EFCC ICPC C A RTICLE 154 Africas Public Servic e Delivery Perf ormance Review Introduction The corrosive effects of corruption on development and developm ent process have always instigated governments to mount anticorruption programm es a n d a g e nc i e s f o r eliminating or at least abating the existence of the phenomenon in their societies Such fi gh ts at ti me s r ec or d s om e m ea su re s o f s uc ce ss Fo r e xa mp le n early two decades ago Daniel Kaufmannad observed that the anticorruption watchdog bod i e s s u c h a s t h e Independent Commission against Corruption in Hong Kong and smaller corruption fighting institutions in Botswana Chile Malaysia and Singapore were often credited with m u c h o f p r o g r e s s K a u f m a n n a d 1 9 9 7 1 8 O n t h e c o n t r a r y h e a l s o identified that the contrast was the case in the broader economic and institutional re fo rm s t ha t h ad ta ke n place in some other countries It was noted that back in Uganda in 1986 the government that came to power impl emented a strategy encompassi ng economic reforms and deregulation civil service reform a strengthened AuditorGenerals office the appointment of a reputable inspectorGeneral empowered to i nvestigate and prosecute cor ruption and implementation of a public informatio n campaign against corruption In Botswana the institution of sound economic and public sector management policies led to honest governance earlier on and it s success principally outweighed that derived from t he more recent advent of its anticorruption department Nwaodu 201276 The antiCorruption war in Nigeria has spanned several decades across variant reg imes an d gove rnment s In o ther w ords f rom th e mili tary to c ivilian governments one f o r m o f m e c h a n i s m o r t h e o t h e r h a s b e e n d e v i s e d i n t h e p r o s e c u t ion of this fight against this social menace The elitemass theory is put forwar d a s t h e u n d e r p i n n i n g theory of corruption in Nigeria however structuralfunctional ism which origin can be traced to Comte better explains the AntiCorruption war in Nige ria According to Nwagwu 2012 the prominent theorists of structuralfunctionali sm a re H er b er t Sp e nc e r 187496 Almond 1966 Parsons 1937 1961 Merton 1957 D a v i s 1 9 5 9 E v a n s Pritchard 1940 Meyer Fortes 1945 etc A l m o n d 1 9 6 6 o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l proponents of structural functionalism argues that every polit ical system performs certain functions having adopted Eastons systems analysis and stressed the functions which could be included among the input and output functions of all political systems It was developed for political analysis by Gabriel Almond Haralam bos Holborn and Heald A Review of AntiCorruption Wars in Nigeria 155 2 0 0 6 T h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l f r a m e w o rk is that all systems have structures which can be identified and those structures p erform specific set of t as ks if t he y a re t o r em ai n in ex is t en ce an d ma in ta i n t he ir r el evance to the system All p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s a r e t h e r e f o r e p e r c e i v e d t o p e r f o r m t w o b a s i c functions input and output functions Input functions are political socialization a nd recruitment interest articulation interest aggregation and political communication while output functions are rule making rule application and rule adjudication In an xr a y o f t h i s t h e o r y V a r m a notes that structural functionalism revolves around two main co ncepts namely functions and structures on the basis of which three basic questions can be raised what basic functions are fulfilled in any given political syste m by what structures And under what conditions He stresses that while functions deal with the consequence ie involving objectives as well as processes of patterns of actions structure refers to the arrangements within the system which performs the functions Okolie 2003 Structural functional analysis enabled the researcher to establ ish the relevance of the structures created by government to eradicate corruption in the w h o l e s y s t e m T h e structural functionalism as a broad perspective in the social s ciences which addresses social structure in terms of the function of its constituent el ements ie norms customs traditions and institutions as applied assisted the research er to xray the operations of the EFCC in the light of effectiveness andor ineffectiveness co n st ra i nt s of th e Ac t t h at established the antigraft agency and its application of doubl e standard in its fight against corruption in Nigeria since its establishment in 2004 T h e r e f o r e t h i s p a p e r i s analyzed based on the structural functional theory research de sign tables and the l o g i c a l d a t a f r a m e w o r k L D F a s r e l e v a n t t o o l s u s e d t o g e n e r a t e a p p r o p r i a t e d a t a a s illustrated below Nwagwu 2012 The main objective of this study is to unveil the history of an ticorruption in Nigeria but critically review the EFCC activities in this regard and pr offer solution as to how to improve in this fight to eliminate or reduce corruption in Nige ria as to advance the course of the nations development It is hoped that the findin gs of this work will greatly benefit the different tiers of government various anticorrupt ion agencies and non governmental organizations among others agencies that are gener ally committed to fighting corruption and advancing the nation towards her noble development goals 156 Africas Public Servic e Delivery Perf ormance Review Evolution of AntiCorruption Wars in Nigeria In Nigeria historically the war against corruption could be t raced back to the pre c o lo n i a l er a T h e v a r i o us p r e c o l o n ia l s o ci et i e s ha d h a d i n p l a ce institutions or policies that were preset to fight corru pt practices The Yoruba Alaafi n stood to commit suicide o r b e b a n i s h e d o n a n y e v e n t o f g r o s s a b u s e o f h i s o f f i c e E z e n w aji 20003 This act e s s e n t i a l l y c h e c k e d t h e A l a a f i n t h e h e a d t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l Yoruba Society from corrupt practices and he himself was to ensure that his officials were not corrupt In the Igbo societies uprightness was the watchword of all the people Even at this for fear o f any possible abuse of office the Igbo political system did not repose authority on a single individual I n t h e N or th t he Em i r w a s c h e c ke d b y t h e c o l l e c ti ve ef fo rt s o f his officials against corrupt practices Nwaodu 201276 The Sharia Laws were the st a n d a r d f o r a l l t h e faithful including the emir and its punishments abound for corr upt acts In the early y e a r s o f t h e B r i t i s h r u l e t h e r e w e r e c o m p l a i n t s t h a t e m i r s a n d c h i e f s w e r e d i f f i c u l t t o trust with money among other corrupt acts and very quickly the administration issued a proclamation on how to deal with it which was essentially that c or r u p t o f fi c e r s w o ul d have their appointments terminated and go to jail Detailed acc ounting and auditing guidelines were also circulated to assist and warn all officers Falola cited in Mbaku 1998 They were also traditional anticorruption bodies like the police and the courts However the weaknesses of these institutions following their i nfection with the same v i ce t h ey w e r e t o f i gh t m ad e i t ne c e s sa r y fo r t h e c o l o ni a l g ov e rnment to device other me a ns of fi gh ti ng co rr up t io n Th e l ev el of aw ar e ne ss of th e n ee d to combat corruption b y t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s a w o k e n b y t h e m o t i o n m o v e d o n February 26th 1 9 5 2 b y t h e E m i r o f G w a n d u a t t h e f l o o r o f t h e N o r t h e r n H o u s e o f C h i e f s T h a t t h i s House agreeing that bribery and corruption are widely prevalen t in all walks of life recommends that Native Authoritie s should make every effort to trace and punish offenders with strict impartiality and to educate public opinio n against bribery and corruption Adebayo 1986 By 1950s the colonial administration ha d mo ve d a wa y f ro m just the use of the traditional anticorruption machineries to the use of commissions of

O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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Motivation Retail Sales Training retail employee sales management Motivation Beyond Paying Retail Sales Commission 3 Ways To Get Employees To Sell By Bob Phibbs Motivating employees Its always tough in a retail store You want to be as successful a retailer as Apple as Nordstrom as Lululemon but you know you havent got a snowballs chance in hell of seeing that kind of success unless you can truly engage your shoppers and keep them interested in what you have to sell And the only way to do that is to get your employees to engage those shoppers to get them to commit to creating an exceptional experience for visitors so they buy from you instead of scan and buy online from a competitor The big question is how to get your employees to focus on the customer Employee motivation is an elusive creature I know onetime a manager asked their crew what would motivate them during the holidays They wanted a Secret Santa So he went alongthat is until one clue was he had to sit on Santas lap and ask for his last clue Motivating employees is perhaps the hardest thing any manager ever has to work toward You worry that youre not connecting that your words dont resonate deeply with your employees and you struggle to figure out a magic formula And thats good Thats because employees dont come to us hardwired to perform well in a vacuum Unless you can find a way to connect powerfully with your crew your sales are doomed to failure I know I knowit seems easy to say just pay them more But many times no matter how much you pay them after a period of time their selfmotivation wanes Thats because when you employ people you are also taking on all of their innate hardships and challenges the things they deal with at home along with the things that keep them up at night You are taking on the whole person for all of the good and the bad that brings Their natural tendency is to do less and less unless someone encourages them to do more When its time to open the store and welcome your customers each day it becomes your daily challenge to help your employees put their best face forward focus on serving the customer and keep their eyes on the goal of closing as many sales as possible And off of Facebook or WhatsApp For some retailers this challenge is settled by simple performance metrics Dollars You close X number of sales you get more money in your paycheck And for many retailers especially luxury retailers a commission or performance bonusincented sales metric makes sense But if you find yourself in a position where commissionbased sales dont work for your company you still have to find new ways to motivate your employees Here are three ideas to help motivate your sales associates that dont involve paying them based on the number of units they move 1 Give Them Luxury For your best performing associates it is great to give them a little bit of something special Maybe its a box of especially good chocolates at the end of a hard week Maybe its a bottle of Scandinavian water they werent expecting Maybe its a 30minute massage I know one owner who surprised her ofage crew for beating their daily goal with pizza bowling and champagne and it worked great Maybe its just a handwritten thank you note from you the boss who they look up to mailed to their house Or when you pass out a gift certificate towards a fine dining restaurant when you spot them doing something particularly well Ultimately it doesnt really matter what the luxury is It only matters that you took the time to think of them and thank them for their amazing work in an impromptu fashion People want to feel important If you have good people on your team make them feel important and they are more likely to stay on your team To put a finer point on it the more important you make them feel special the more likely they will make your customers feel important A caveat dont publish your criteria or you will have to do it each and every time much like a contest which defeats the purpose 2 Give Them Time Time is our most precious resource and there is no sweeter way to reward one of your sales team than to give them a few hours of their time back So for your top performer this month give them a half or full extra day off with pay Do it without any fanfare Just let this person stay home sleep late take care of their kids or go to a movie while you cover their shift Dont make a big deal about it Its not a contest its a gift that you are giving them And when they come back they will be refreshed 3 Give Them Space If youve seen the movie Office Space then you understand the importance of a red stapler It represents something that is yours Even if its only a stapler you have earned it Office space literally can feel very much the same It is home When you designate physical space to an employee you are telling that person that they have a place here A permanent place They matter This is not a small thing For your best retail associates carve out a place in the back to set their photos of their kids and their dogs a place for them to pin ridiculous things they might print out from Facebook whatever While big companies like Google let employees bring their dogs to work and you cant the goal is to let employees feel at home when they are at work See also 3 Steps For How To Motivate Yourself And Increase Retail Sales When Its Slow In Sum This only works if you hire people who themselves have some internal motivation You cant motivate a rock to move I dont care what you try If you feel stuck with certain unmotivated employees dont give up on motivation but do get rid of the rocklike employees When you have done the hard job of whittling down your applicants onboarding them to your culture and giving them retail sales training your number one job is to see what helps them stay motivated and change it up often That way it keeps everyone wondering what they will get for hitting a goal doing a good job or extending themselves for your customers benefit And thats great motivation for everyone not just your sales team Cure Your Sales Problems Have Bob Be Your Sales Trainer Learn More Here Tweet Bob Phibbs Comments Topics Motivation Retail Sales Training retail employee sales management Read More About Topic

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

employee motivation
ideas to help motivate


The 5 As The 5As model was originally designed as a behavioral intervention strategy for smoking cessation in patient consultations 1 The model was modified for obesity management for health care professionals to use as a framework to guide a conversation The 5As model has been associated with increased patient motivation and behavioral change when used by health care providers in weightmanagement consultations with patients 2 The 5As for obesity management are as follows 3 ASK Example Ask for permission to discuss weight Explore readiness for change ASSESS Example Assess obesity class and stage Assess for drivers complications and barriers ADVISE Example Advise on obesity risks Explain benefits of modest weight loss Explain need for longterm strategy Discuss treatment options AGREE Example Agree on realistic weightloss expectations Focus on behavioral goals SMART and health outcomes Agree on treatment plan ASSIST Example Address drivers and barriers Provide education and resources Refer to appropriate provider Arrange followup For more information on the 5As of Obesity Management please visit wwwobesitynetworkca5As Additional links to guidelines can be found here Also in Professional Education Watch the Video Beginning the Weight Conversation Learn the Techniques of Motivational Interviewing See How to Foster Successful Conversations Explore the Basics of Behavioral Therapy

B I I O O O O O O O O B I I O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

the 5 as
behavioral intervention strategy
smoking cessation


Business News September 23 2018 419 PM 3 months ago Global spending on digital marketing nears 100 billion study 3 Min Read FRANKFURT Reuters Spending on digital marketing grew by 44 percent last year in the United States and Britain to 52 billion a study has found estimating that global outlays on such tactics are approaching 100 billion FILE PHOTO A man uses a smartphone in New York City in this picture taken November 6 2013 REUTERSMike SegarFile Photo In contrast to placing online ads through intermediaries digital marketing or martech has the appeal of enabling brands to target consumers directly via social media searchengine optimization or voiceactivated assistants such as Amazons AMZNO Alexa The growth in part reflects a desire to take functions in house following highprofile complaints by consumer giants Procter Gamble PGN and Unilever UNcAS over fraud in online advertising The issue of brand safety which can be jeopardized when ads appear next to unsuitable online content has also frustrated marketers and encouraged them to seek greater control over how they target audiences Clearly marketers are seeking to build inhouse strength and are set to spend more on martech to remain competitive said study author Damian Ryan a partner at UK accountancy firm Moore Stephens Our research finds that this budget is coming from media spend and will have a resounding impact on the value of mediacentric agencies he added referring to traditional ad agencies that are struggling to adapt to the digital era The Moore Stephens survey conducted with advertising and media consultancy WARC covered 800 companies in North America the AsiaPacific and Europe It found that brands in Britain and North America spent 23 percent of their budgets on martech up from 16 percent a year ago And 63 percent of US technology budgets were spent inhouse compared with 44 percent last year Tough European data protection rules that took effect in May as well as concerns over the data practices of search giant Google GOOGLO and social network Facebook FBO the two biggest online advertising platforms have led several players in the ad industry to merge or retrench Were at the beginning of the shakeout Ryan told Reuters in an interview Apple shares sink as China gamble backfires The emergence of platform companies that offer a onestop shop for marketers is another trend to watch he said highlighting Adobe Systems ADBEO acquisition in May of ecommerce company Magento for 17 billion Adobe has just struck another deal to buy businesstobusiness marketing software firm Marketo for 475 billion Fundamentally brands dont like to trust agencies with data The clear trend shows that brands are seeking to take control over marketing technology said Ryan Against that we can see that at the upper end where brands are spending more they are still working with agencies Reporting by Douglas Busvine editing by Louise Heavens Our Standards The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles

O O O O O O O O O O B I O B I O B I O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

100 billion
digital marketing
global spending