Engagement

in

a

Democracy

Learning

Objectives

By

the

end

of

this

section

you

will

be

able

to

Explain

the

importance

of

citizen

engagement

in

a

democracy

Describe

the

main

ways

Americans

can

influence

and

become

engaged

in

government

Discuss

factors

that

may

affect

peoples

willingness

to

become

engaged

in

government

Participation

in

government

matters

Although

people

may

not

get

all

that

they

want

they

can

achieve

many

goals

and

improve

their

lives

through

civic

engagement

According

to

the

pluralist

theory

government

can

not

function

without

active

participation

by

at

least

some

citizens

Even

if

we

believe

the

elite

make

political

decisions

participation

in

government

through

the

act

of

voting

can

change

who

the

members

of

the

elite

are

WHY

GET

INVOLVED

Are

fewer

people

today

active

in

politics

than

in

the

past

Political

scientist

Robert

Putnam

has

argued

that

civic

engagement

is

declining

although

many

Americans

may

report

belonging

to

groups

these

groups

are

usually

large

impersonal

ones

with

thousands

of

members

People

who

join

groups

such

as

Amnesty

International

or

Greenpeace

may

share

certain

values

and

ideals

with

other

members

of

the

group

but

they

do

not

actually

interact

with

these

other

members

These

organizations

are

different

from

the

types

of

groups

Americans

used

to

belong

to

like

church

groups

or

bowling

leagues

Although

people

are

still

interested

in

volunteering

and

working

for

the

public

good

they

are

more

interested

in

either

working

individually

or

joining

large

organizations

where

they

Putnam

argues

that

a

decline

in

social

capital

the

collective

value

of

all

social

networks

those

whom

people

know

and

the

inclinations

that

arise

from

these

networks

to

do

things

for

each

otheraccompanies

this

decline

in

membership

in

small

interactive

groups

Included

in

social

capital

are

such

things

as

networks

of

individuals

a

sense

that

one

is

part

of

an

entity

larger

than

oneself

concern

for

the

collective

good

and

a

willingness

to

help

others

and

the

ability

to

trust

others

and

to

work

with

them

to

find

solutions

to

problems

This

in

turn

has

hurt

peoples

willingness

and

ability

to

engage

in

representative

government

If

Putnam

is

correct

this

trend

is

unfortunate

because

becoming

active

in

government

and

community

organizations

is

important

for

many

reasons

To

learn

more

about

political

engagement

in

the

United

States

read

The

Current

State

of

Civic

Engagement

in

America

by

the

Pew

Research

Center

Civic

engagement

can

increase

the

power

of

ordinary

people

to

influence

government

actions

Even

those

without

money

or

connections

to

important

people

can

influence

the

policies

that

affect

their

lives

and

change

the

direction

taken

by

government

US

history

is

filled

with

examples

of

people

actively

challenging

the

power

of

elites

gaining

rights

for

themselves

and

protecting

their

interests

For

example

slavery

was

once

legal

in

the

United

States

and

large

sectors

of

the

US

economy

were

dependent

on

this

forced

labor

Slavery

was

outlawed

and

blacks

were

granted

citizenship

because

of

the

actions

of

abolitionists

Although

some

abolitionists

were

The

print

above

published

in

celebrates

the

extension

of

the

right

to

vote

to

African

American

men

The

various

scenes

show

legal

rights

black

slaves

did

not

have

The

rights

gained

by

these

activists

and

others

have

dramatically

improved

the

quality

of

life

for

many

in

the

United

States

Civil

rights

legislation

did

not

focus

solely

on

the

right

to

vote

or

to

hold

public

office

it

also

integrated

schools

and

public

accommodations

prohibited

discrimination

in

housing

and

employment

and

increased

access

to

higher

education

Activists

for

womens

rights

fought

for

and

won

greater

reproductive

freedom

for

women

better

wages

and

access

to

credit

Only

a

few

decades

ago

homosexuality

was

considered

a

mental

disorder

and

intercourse

between

consenting

adults

of

the

same

sex

was

illegal

in

many

states

Although

legal

discrimination

against

gays

and

lesbians

still

remains

consensual

intercourse

between

homosexual

adults

is

no

longer

illegal

anywhere

in

the

United

States

and

samesex

couples

have

the

right

to

legally

marry

Activism

can

improve

peoples

lives

in

less

dramatic

ways

as

well

Working

to

make

cities

clean

up

vacant

lots

destroy

or

rehabilitate

abandoned

buildings

build

more

parks

and

playgrounds

pass

ordinances

requiring

people

to

curb

their

dogs

and

ban

latenight

noise

greatly

affects

peoples

quality

of

life

The

actions

of

individual

Americans

can

make

their

own

lives

better

and

improve

their

neighbors

lives

as

well

Representative

democracy

can

not

work

effectively

without

the

participation

of

informed

citizens

however

Engaged

citizens

familiarize

themselves

with

the

most

important

issues

confronting

the

country

and

with

the

plans

different

candidates

have

for

dealing

with

those

issues

Then

they

vote

for

the

candidates

they

believe

will

be

best

suited

to

the

job

and

they

may

join

others

to

raise

funds

or

campaign

for

those

they

support

They

inform

their

representatives

how

they

feel

about

important

issues

Through

these

efforts

and

others

engaged

citizens

let

their

representatives

know

what

they

want

and

thus

influence

policy

Only

then

can

government

actions

accurately

PATHWAYS

TO

ENGAGEMENT

People

can

become

civically

engaged

in

many

ways

either

as

individuals

or

as

members

of

groups

Some

forms

of

individual

engagement

require

very

little

effort

One

of

the

simplest

ways

is

to

stay

informed

about

debates

and

events

in

the

community

in

the

state

and

in

the

nation

Awareness

is

the

first

step

toward

engagement

News

is

available

from

a

variety

of

reputable

sources

such

as

newspapers

like

the

New

York

Times

national

news

shows

including

those

offered

by

the

Public

Broadcasting

Service

and

National

Public

Radio

and

reputable

internet

sites

Visit

Avaaz

and

Changeorg

for

more

information

on

current

political

issues

Another

form

of

individual

engagement

is

to

write

or

email

political

representatives

Filing

a

complaint

with

the

city

council

is

another

avenue

of

engagement

City

officials

can

not

fix

problems

if

they

do

not

know

anything

is

wrong

to

begin

with

Responding

to

public

opinion

polls

actively

contributing

to

a

political

blog

or

starting

a

new

blog

are

all

examples

of

different

ways

to

be

involved

One

of

the

most

basic

ways

to

engage

with

government

as

an

individual

is

to

vote

Individual

votes

do

matter

City

council

members

mayors

state

legislators

governors

and

members

of

Congress

are

all

chosen

by

popular

vote

Although

the

president

of

the

United

States

is

not

chosen

directly

by

popular

vote

but

by

a

group

called

the

Electoral

College

the

votes

of

individuals

in

their

home

states

determine

how

the

Electoral

College

ultimately

votes

Registering

to

vote

beforehand

is

necessary

in

most

states

but

it

is

usually

a

simple

process

and

many

states

allow

registration

online

We

discuss

voter

registration

Voters

line

up

to

vote

early

outside

an

Ohio

polling

station

in

Many

who

had

never

voted

before

did

so

because

of

the

presidential

candidacy

of

thensenator

Barack

Obama

credit

Dean

Beeler

Voting

however

is

not

the

only

form

of

political

engagement

in

which

people

may

participate

Individuals

can

engage

by

attending

political

rallies

donating

money

to

campaigns

and

signing

petitions

Starting

a

petition

of

ones

own

is

relatively

easy

and

some

websites

that

encourage

people

to

become

involved

in

political

activism

provide

petitions

that

can

be

circulated

through

email

Taking

part

in

a

poll

or

survey

is

another

simple

way

to

make

your

voice

heard

Votes

for

EighteenYearOlds

Young

Americans

are

often

reluctant

to

become

involved

in

traditional

forms

of

political

activity

They

may

believe

politicians

are

not

interested

in

what

they

have

to

say

or

they

may

feel

their

votes

do

not

matter

However

this

attitude

has

not

always

prevailed

Indeed

todays

college

students

can

vote

because

of

the

activism

of

college

students

in

the

Most

states

at

that

time

required

citizens

to

be

twentyone

years

of

age

before

they

could

vote

in

national

elections

This

angered

many

young

people

especially

young

men

who

could

be

drafted

to

fight

the

war

in

Vietnam

They

argued

that

TwentySixth

Amendment

which

lowered

the

voting

age

in

national

elections

to

eighteen

was

ratified

by

the

states

and

went

into

effect

in

Are

you

engaged

in

or

at

least

informed

about

actions

of

the

federal

or

local

government

Are

you

registered

to

vote

How

would

you

feel

if

you

were

not

allowed

to

vote

until

age

twentyone

Some

people

prefer

to

work

with

groups

when

participating

in

political

activities

or

performing

service

to

the

community

Group

activities

can

be

as

simple

as

hosting

a

book

club

or

discussion

group

to

talk

about

politics

Coffee

Party

USA

provides

an

online

forum

for

people

from

a

variety

of

political

perspectives

to

discuss

issues

that

are

of

concern

to

them

People

who

wish

to

be

more

active

often

work

for

political

campaigns

Engaging

in

fundraising

efforts

handing

out

bumper

stickers

and

campaign

buttons

helping

people

register

to

vote

and

driving

voters

to

the

polls

on

Election

Day

are

all

important

Getting

Involved

In

many

ways

the

pluralists

were

right

There

is

plenty

of

room

for

average

citizens

to

become

active

in

government

whether

it

is

through

a

city

council

subcommittee

or

another

type

of

local

organization

Civic

organizations

always

need

volunteers

sometimes

for

only

a

short

while

and

sometimes

for

much

longer

For

example

Common

Cause

is

a

nonpartisan

organization

that

seeks

to

hold

government

accountable

for

its

actions

It

calls

for

campaign

finance

reform

and

paper

verification

of

votes

registered

on

electronic

voting

machines

Voters

would

then

receive

proof

that

the

machine

recorded

their

actual

vote

This

would

help

to

detect

faulty

machines

that

were

inaccurately

tabulating

votes

or

election

fraud

Therefore

one

could

be

sure

that

election

results

were

reliable

and

that

the

winning

candidate

had

in

fact

received

the

votes

counted

in

their

favor

Common

Cause

has

also

advocated

that

the

Electoral

College

be

done

away

with

and

that

presidential

elections

be

decided

solely

on

the

basis

of

the

popular

vote

Followup

activity

Choose

one

of

the

following

websites

to

connect

with

organizations

and

interest

groups

in

need

of

help

Common

Cause

Friends

of

the

Earth

which

mobilizes

people

to

protect

the

natural

environment

Grassroots

International

which

works

for

global

justice

The

Family

Research

Council

which

promotes

traditional

marriage

and

JudeoChristian

values

or

Eagle

Forum

which

supports

greater

restrictions

on

immigration

and

fewer

restrictions

on

home

schooling

Political

activity

is

not

the

only

form

of

engagement

and

many

people

today

seek

other

opportunities

to

become

involved

This

is

particularly

true

of

young

Americans

Although

young

people

today

often

shy

away

from

participating

in

traditional

political

activities

they

do

express

deep

concern

for

their

communities

and

seek

out

volunteer

opportunities

Although

they

may

not

realize

it

becoming

active

in

the

community

and

engaging

in

a

wide

variety

of

communitybased

volunteer

efforts

are

important

forms

of

civic

engagement

and

help

government

do

its

job

The

demands

on

government

are

great

and

funds

do

not

always

exist

to

enable

it

to

undertake

all

the

projects

it

may

deem

necessary

Even

when

there

are

sufficient

funds

politicians

have

differing

ideas

regarding

how

much

government

should

do

and

what

areas

it

should

be

active

in

Volunteers

and

community

organizations

help

fill

the

gaps

Examples

of

community

action

include

tending

a

community

garden

building

a

house

for

Habitat

for

Humanity

cleaning

up

trash

in

a

vacant

lot

volunteering

to

deliver

meals

to

the

elderly

and

tutoring

children

in

afterschool

programs

After

the

Southern

California

wildfires

in

sailors

from

the

USS

Ronald

Reagan

helped

volunteers

rebuild

houses

in

San

Pasqual

as

part

of

Habitat

for

Humanity

Habitat

for

Humanity

builds

homes

for

lowincome

people

credit

Johansen

Laurel

U

S

Navy

Some

people

prefer

even

more

active

and

direct

forms

of

engagement

such

as

protest

marches

and

demonstrations

including

civil

disobedience

Such

tactics

were

used

successfully

in

the

African

American

civil

rights

movement

of

the

and

and

remain

effective

today

Likewise

the

sitins

and

sleepins

and

prayins

staged

by

African

American

civil

rights

activists

which

they

employed

successfully

to

desegregate

lunch

counters

motels

and

churches

have

been

adopted

today

by

movements

such

as

Black

Lives

Matter

and

Occupy

Wall

Street

Other

tactics

such

as

boycotting

businesses

of

whose

policies

the

activists

disapproved

are

also

still

common

Along

with

boycotts

there

are

now

buycotts

in

which

consumers

purchase

goods

and

services

from

companies

that

give

extensively

to

charity

help

the

communities

in

which

they

are

located

or

take

steps

to

protect

the

environment

Volunteers

fed

people

at

New

Yorks

Zuccotti

Park

during

the

Occupy

Wall

Street

protest

in

September

credit

David

Shankbone

Many

ordinary

people

have

become

political

activists

Read

Young

Activists

Changing

America

to

learn

about

people

who

are

working

to

make

peoples

lives

better

Ritchie

Torres

In

at

the

age

of

twentyfive

Ritchie

Torres

became

the

youngest

member

of

the

New

York

City

Council

and

the

first

gay

council

member

to

represent

the

Bronx

Torres

became

interested

in

social

justice

early

in

his

life

He

was

raised

in

poverty

in

the

Bronx

by

his

mother

and

a

stepfather

who

left

the

family

when

Torres

was

twelve

The

mold

in

his

familys

public

housing

apartment

caused

him

to

suffer

from

asthma

as

a

child

and

he

spent

time

in

the

hospital

on

more

than

one

occasion

because

of

it

His

mothers

complaints

to

the

New

York

City

Housing

Authority

were

largely

ignored

In

high

school

Vacca

After

graduation

he

volunteered

to

campaign

for

Vacca

in

his

run

for

a

seat

on

the

City

Council

After

Vacca

was

elected

he

hired

Torres

to

serve

as

his

housing

director

to

reach

out

to

the

community

on

Vaccas

behalf

While

doing

so

Torres

took

pictures

of

the

poor

conditions

in

public

housing

and

collected

complaints

from

residents

In

Torres

ran

for

a

seat

on

the

City

Council

himself

and

won

He

remains

committed

to

improving

housing

for

the

poor

Ritchie

Torres

a

currently

serves

alongside

his

mentor

James

Vacca

b

on

the

New

York

City

Council

Both

men

represent

the

Bronx

Why

dont

more

young

people

run

for

local

office

as

Torres

did

What

changes

might

they

effect

in

their

communities

if

they

were

elected

to

a

government

position

FACTORS

OF

ENGAGEMENT

Many

Americans

engage

in

political

activity

on

a

regular

basis

A

survey

conducted

in

revealed

that

approximately

twothirds

of

American

adults

had

participated

in

some

type

of

political

action

in

the

past

year

These

activities

included

largely

nonpersonal

activities

that

did

not

require

a

great

deal

of

interaction

with

others

such

as

signing

petitions

contacting

elected

representatives

or

contributing

money

to

campaigns

Americans

aged

were

less

likely

to

become

involved

in

traditional

forms

of

political

activity

than

older

Americans

A

poll

of

more

than

three

thousand

young

adults

by

Harvard

Universitys

Institute

of

Politics

revealed

that

only

percent

claimed

to

be

politically

engaged

and

fewer

than

percent

said

that

they

belonged

to

any

type

of

political

organization

or

had

volunteered

for

a

political

campaign

Only

slightly

more

said

that

they

had

gone

to

political

rallies

However

although

Americans

under

age

thirty

are

less

likely

than

older

Americans

to

engage

in

traditional

types

of

political

participation

many

remain

engaged

in

activities

on

behalf

of

their

communities

Onethird

reported

that

they

had

voluntarily

engaged

in

some

form

of

community

service

in

the

past

year

Why

are

younger

Americans

less

likely

to

become

involved

in

traditional

political

organizations

One

answer

may

be

that

as

American

politics

become

more

partisan

in

nature

young

people

turn

away

Committed

partisanship

which

is

the

tendency

to

identify

with

and

to

support

often

blindly

a

particular

political

party

alienates

some

Americans

who

feel

that

elected

representatives

should

vote

in

support

of

the

nations

best

interests

instead

of

voting

in

the

way

their

party

wishes

them

to

When

elected

officials

ignore

all

factors

other

than

their

partys

position

on

a

particular

issue

some

voters

become

disheartened

while

others

may

become

polarized

However

a

recent

study

reveals

that

it

is

a

distrust

of

the

opposing

party

and

not

an

ideological

commitment

to

their

own

party

that

is

at

the

heart

of

most

partisanship

among

Young

Americans

are

particularly

likely

to

be

put

off

by

partisan

politics

More

Americans

under

the

age

of

thirty

now

identify

themselves

as

Independents

instead

of

Democrats

or

Republicans

Instead

of

identifying

with

a

particular

political

party

young

Americans

are

increasingly

concerned

about

specific

issues

such

as

samesex

marriage

People

whose

votes

are

determined

based

on

single

issues

are

unlikely

to

vote

according

to

party

affiliation

Young

Americans

are

likely

to

identify

as

an

Independent

rather

than

a

Democrat

or

a

Republican

However

younger

voters

are

more

likely

to

lean

in

a

liberal

direction

on

issues

and

therefore

favor

the

Democratic

Party

at

the

ballot

box

While

some

Americans

disapprove

of

partisanship

in

general

others

are

put

off

by

the

ideology

established

beliefs

and

ideals

that

help

shape

political

policyof

one

of

the

major

parties

This

is

especially

true

among

the

young

As

some

members

of

the

Republican

Party

have

become

more

ideologically

conservative

eg

opposing

samesex

marriage

legalization

of

certain

drugs

immigration

reform

gun

control

separation

of

church

and

state

and

access

to

abortion

those

young

people

who

do

identify

with

one

of

the

major

parties

have

in

recent

years

tended

to

favor

the

Democratic

Party

Of

the

Americans

under

age

thirty

who

were

surveyed

by

Harvard

in

more

tended

to

hold

a

favorable

opinion

of

Democrats

in

Congress

than

of

Republicans

and

percent

reported

that

they

wanted

the

Democrats

to

win

the

presidency

in

Even

those

young

Americans

who

identify

themselves

as

Republicans

are

more

liberal

on

certain

issues

such

as

being

supportive

of

samesex

marriage

and

immigration

reform

than

are

older

Republicans

The

young

Republicans

also

may

be

more

willing

to

see

similarities

between

themselves

and

Democrats

Once

again

support

for

the

views

of

a

particular

party

does

not

necessarily

mean

that

someone

will

vote

for

members

of

that

party

Other

factors

may

keep

even

those

college

students

who

do

wish

to

vote

away

from

the

polls

Because

many

young

Americans

attend

colleges

and

universities

outside

of

their

home

states

they

may

find

it

difficult

to

register

to

vote

In

places

where

a

stateissued

ID

is

required

students

may

not

have

one

or

may

be

denied

one

if

they

can

not

prove

that

they

paid

instate

tuition

rates

The

likelihood

that

people

will

become

active

in

politics

also

depends

not

only

on

age

but

on

such

factors

as

wealth

and

education

In

a

poll

the

percentage

of

people

who

reported

that

they

were

regular

voters

grew

as

levels

of

income

and

education

increased

Political

involvement

also

depends

on

how

strongly

people

feel

about

current

political

issues

Unfortunately

public

opinion

polls

which

politicians

may

rely

on

when

formulating

policy

or

deciding

how

to

vote

on

issues

capture

only

peoples

latent

preferences

or

beliefs

Latent

preferences

are

not

deeply

held

and

do

not

remain

the

same

over

time

They

may

not

even

represent

a

persons

true

feelings

since

they

may

be

formed

on

the

spot

when

someone

is

asked

a

question

about

which

he

or

she

has

no

real

opinion

Indeed

voting

itself

may

reflect

merely

a

latent

preference

because

even

people

who

do

not

feel

strongly

about

a

particular

political

candidate

or

issue

vote

On

the

other

hand

intense

preferences

are

based

on

strong

feelings

regarding

an

issue

that

someone

adheres

to

over

time

People

with

intense

preferences

tend

to

become

more

engaged

in

politics

they

are

more

likely

to

donate

time

and

money

to

campaigns

or

to

attend

political

rallies

The

more

money

that

one

has

and

the

more

highly

educated

one

is

the

more

likely

that

he

or

she

will

form

intense

preferences

and

take

political

action

Summary

Civic

and

political

engagement

allows

politicians

to

know

how

the

people

feel

It

also

improves

peoples

lives

and

helps

them

to

build

connections

with

others

Individuals

can

educate

themselves

on

important

issues

and

events

write

to

their

senator

or

representative

file

a

complaint

at

city

hall

attend

a

political

rally

or

vote

People

can

also

work

in

groups

to

campaign

or

raise

funds

for

a

candidate

volunteer

in

the

community

or

protest

a

social

injustice

or

an

unpopular

government

policy

Although

wealthier

older

more

highly

educated

citizens

are

the

most

likely

to

be

engaged

with

their

government

especially

if

they

Practice

Questions

What

kinds

of

people

are

most

likely

to

become

active

in

politics

or

community

service

What

political

activities

can

people

engage

in

other

than

running

for

office

Is

citizen

engagement

necessary

for

a

democracy

to

function

Explain

Which

is

the

more

important

reason

for

being

engaged

to

gain

power

or

improve

the

quality

of

life

Why

Are

all

Americans

equally

able

to

become

engaged

in

government

What

factors

make

it

more

possible

for

some

people

to

become

engaged

than

others

What

could

be

done

to

change

this

Which

pathways

of

engagement

in

US

government

do

you

plan

to

follow

Why

do

you

prefer

these

approaches

Are

there

any

redeeming

qualities

to

elitism

and

any

downsides

to

pluralism

Are

there

benefits

to

having

elites

rule

Are

there

problems

with

allowing

interest

groups

to

exercise

influence

over

government

Explain

Show

Selected

Answer

Show

Books

and

Films

Referenced

Robert

D

Putnam

Bowling

Alone

The

Collapse

and

Revival

of

American

Community

New

York

Simon

Schuster

Bowling

Alone

Americas

Declining

Social

Capital

Journal

of

Democracy

About

Social

Capital

httpswwwhksharvardeduprogramssaguaroaboutsocialcapital

May

Jared

Keller

May

Young

Americans

are

Opting

Out

of

Politics

but

Not

Because

Theyre

Cynical

httpwwwpsmagcompoliticsandlawyoungpeoplearenotsopoliticallyinclined

Winston

Ross

Ritchie

Torres

Gay

Hispanic

and

Powerful

Newsweek

January

Aaron

Smith

et

al

September

The

Current

State

of

Civic

Engagement

in

America

Harvard

Institute

of

Politics

Survey

of

Young

Americans

Attitudes

toward

Politics

and

Public

Service

Survey

October

Keller

Young

Americans

are

Opting

Out

Marc

Hetherington

and

Thomas

Rudolph

Why

Dont

Americans

Trust

the

Government

The

Washington

Post

January

Keller

Young

Americans

are

Opting

Out

Harvard

Institute

of

Politics

No

FrontRunner

among

Prospective

Republican

Candidates

httpiopharvardedunofrontrunneramongprospectiverepublicancandidateshillaryclintoncontroldemocraticprimary

May

Jocelyn

Kiley

and

Michael

Dimock

September

The

GOPs

Millennial

Problem

Runs

Deep

Keeping

Students

from

the

Polls

New

York

Times

December

October

Who

Votes

Who

Doesnt

and

Why

Jonathan

M

Ladd

September

Dont

Worry

about

Special

Interests

O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Transport Across the Cell Membrane Facilitated transport Facilitated diffusion is a process by which molecules are transported across the plasma membrane with the help of membrane proteins Learning Objectives Explain why and how passive transport occurs Key Takeaways Key Points A concentration gradient exists that would allow ions and polar molecules to diffuse into the cell but these materials are repelled by the hydrophobic parts of the cell membrane Facilitated diffusion uses integral membrane proteins to move polar or charged substances across the hydrophobic regions of the membrane Channel proteins can aid in the facilitated diffusion of substances by forming a hydrophilic passage through the plasma membrane through which polar and charged substances can pass Channel proteins can be open at all times constantly allowing a particular substance into or out of the cell depending on the concentration gradient or they can be gated and can only be opened by a particular biological signal Carrier proteins aid in facilitated diffusion by binding a particular substance then altering their shape to bring that substance into or out of the cell Key Terms facilitated diffusion The spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transmembrane integral proteins membrane protein Proteins that are attached to or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle Facilitated transport Facilitated transport is a type of passive transport Unlike simple diffusion where materials pass through a membrane without the help of proteins in facilitated transport also called facilitated diffusion materials diffuse across the plasma membrane with the help of membrane proteins A concentration gradient exists that would allow these materials to diffuse into the cell without expending cellular energy However these materials are ions or polar molecules that are repelled by the hydrophobic parts of the cell membrane Facilitated transport proteins shield these materials from the repulsive force of the membrane allowing them to diffuse into the cell The material being transported is first attached to protein or glycoprotein receptors on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane This allows the material that is needed by the cell to be removed from the extracellular fluid The substances are then passed to specific integral proteins that facilitate their passage Some of these integral proteins are collections of betapleated sheets that form a channel through the phospholipid bilayer Others are carrier proteins which bind with the substance and aid its diffusion through the membrane Channels The integral proteins involved in facilitated transport are collectively referred to as transport proteins they function as either channels for the material or carriers In both cases they are transmembrane proteins Channels are specific for the substance that is being transported Channel proteins have hydrophilic domains exposed to the intracellular and extracellular fluids they additionally have a hydrophilic channel through their core that provides a hydrated opening through the membrane layers Passage through the channel allows polar compounds to avoid the nonpolar central layer of the plasma membrane that would otherwise slow or prevent their entry into the cell Aquaporins Channel Proteins in Facilitated Transport Facilitated transport moves substances down their concentration gradients They may cross the plasma membrane with the aid of channel proteins Channel proteins are either open at all times or they are gated which controls the opening of the channel The attachment of a particular ion to the channel protein may control the opening or other mechanisms or substances may be involved In some tissues sodium and chloride ions pass freely through open channels whereas in other tissues a gate must be opened to allow passage An example of this occurs in the kidney where both forms of channels are found in different parts of the renal tubules Cells involved in the transmission of electrical impulses such as nerve and muscle Carrier Proteins Another type of protein embedded in the plasma membrane is a carrier protein This protein binds a substance and in doing so triggers a change of its own shape moving the bound molecule from the outside of the cell to its interior depending on the gradient the material may move in the opposite direction Carrier proteins are typically specific for a single substance This adds to the overall selectivity of the plasma membrane The exact mechanism for the change of shape is poorly understood Proteins can change shape when their hydrogen bonds are affected but this may not fully explain Carrier Proteins Some substances are able to move down their concentration gradient across the plasma membrane with the aid of carrier proteins Carrier proteins change shape as they move molecules across the membrane An example of this process occurs in the kidney Glucose water salts ions and amino acids needed by the body are filtered in one part of the kidney This filtrate which includes glucose is then reabsorbed in another part of the kidney Because there are only a finite number of carrier proteins for glucose if more glucose is present than the proteins can handle the excess is not transported it is excreted from the body in the urine In a diabetic individual this is described as spilling glucose into the urine A different group of carrier proteins called glucose transport Channel and carrier proteins transport material at different rates Channel proteins transport much more quickly than do carrier proteins Channel proteins facilitate diffusion at a rate of tens of millions of molecules per second whereas carrier proteins work at a rate of a thousand to a million molecules per second Primary Active Transport The sodiumpotassium pump maintains the electrochemical gradient of living cells by moving sodium in and potassium out of the cell Learning Objectives Describe how a cell moves sodium and potassium out of and into the cell against its electrochemical gradient Key Takeaways Key Points The sodiumpotassium pump moves K into the cell while moving Na at a ratio of three Na for every two K ions When the sodiumpotassium ATPase enzyme points into the cell it has a high affinity for sodium ions and binds three of them hydrolyzing ATP and changing shape As the enzyme changes shape it reorients itself towards the outside of the cell and the three sodium ions are released The enzymes new shape allows two potassium to bind and the phosphate group to detach and the carrier protein repositions itself towards the interior of the cell The enzyme changes shape again releasing the potassium ions into the cell After potassium is released into the cell the enzyme binds three sodium ions which starts the process over again Key Terms electrogenic pump An ion pump that generates a net charge flow as a result of its activity NaK ATPase An enzyme located in the plasma membrane of all animal cells that pumps sodium out of cells while pumping potassium into cells Primary Active Transport The primary active transport that functions with the active transport of sodium and potassium allows secondary active transport to occur The secondary transport method is still considered active because it depends on the use of energy as does primary transport Active Transport of Sodium and Potassium Primary active transport moves ions across a membrane creating an electrochemical gradient electrogenic transport One of the most important pumps in animals cells is the sodiumpotassium pump Na K ATPase which maintains the electrochemical gradient and the correct concentrations of Na and K in living cells The sodiumpotassium pump moves two K into the cell while moving three Na out of the cell The NaK ATPase exists in two forms depending on its orientation to the interior or exterior of the cell and its affinity for either sodium or potassium ions The process consists of the following six steps With the enzyme oriented towards the interior of the cell the carrier has a high affinity for sodium ions Three sodium ions bind to the protein ATP is hydrolyzed by the protein carrier and a lowenergy phosphate group attaches to it As a result the carrier changes shape and reorients itself towards the exterior of the membrane The proteins affinity for sodium decreases and the three sodium ions leave the carrier The shape change increases the carriers affinity for potassium ions and two such ions attach to the protein Subsequently the lowenergy phosphate group detaches from the carrier With the phosphate group removed and potassium ions attached the carrier protein repositions itself towards the interior of the cell The carrier protein in its new configuration has a decreased affinity for potassium and the two ions are released into the cytoplasm The protein now has a higher affinity for sodium ions and the process starts again Several things have happened as a result of this process At this point there are more sodium ions outside of the cell than inside and more potassium ions inside than out For every three ions of sodium that move out two ions of potassium move in This results in the interior being slightly more negative relative to the exterior This difference in charge is important in creating the conditions necessary for the secondary process The sodiumpotassium pump is therefore an electrogenic pump a pump that creates a charge imbalance creating an electrical imbalance across the membrane and contributing to the ABC Transporters ABC transporters are a protein superfamily that all have an ATP binding cassette and transport substances across membranes Learning Objectives Summarize the function of the three major ABC transporter categories in prokaryotes in gramnegative bacteria and the subgroup of ABC proteins Key Takeaways Key Points ABC transporters use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to transport substrates across cell membranes Bacterial ABC transporters are essential in cell viability virulence and pathogenicity The substrates that can be transported include ions amino acids peptides sugars and other molecules that are mostly hydrophilic Key Terms membrane A flexible enclosing or separating tissue forming a plane or film and separating two environments usually in a plant or animal hydrolysis A chemical process of decomposition involving the splitting of a bond and the addition of the hydrogen cation and the hydroxide anion of water ATPbinding cassette ABC domain The ATPbinding cassette ABC family is a group of proteins which bind and hydrolyse ATP in order to transport substances across cellular membranes ATPbinding cassette transporters ABCtransporters are members of a protein superfamily that is one of the largest and most ancient families with representatives in all extant phyla from prokaryotes to humans ABC transporters are transmembrane proteins that utilize the energy of adenosine triphosphate ATP hydrolysis to carry out certain biological processes including translocation of various substrates across membranes and nontransportrelated processes such as translation of RNA and DNA repair They transport a wide variety of substrates across extra and intracellular membranes including metabolic products lipids and sterols and drugs Proteins are classified as ABC transporters based on the sequence and organization of their ATPbinding cassette ABC domains ABC transporters are involved in tumor resistance cystic fibrosis and a range of other inherited human diseases along with both bacterial prokaryotic and eukaryotic including human development of resistance to multiple drugs Bacterial ABC transporters are essential in cell viability virulence and pathogenicity ABC transporters are divided into three main functional categories In prokaryotes importers mediate the uptake of nutrients into the cell The substrates that can be transported include ions amino acids peptides sugars and other molecules that are mostly hydrophilic The membranespanning region of the ABC transporter protects hydrophilic substrates from the lipids of the membrane bilayer thus providing a pathway across the cell membrane In gramnegative bacteria exporters transport lipids and some polysaccharides from the cytoplasm to the periplasm Eukaryotes do not possess any importers Exporters or effluxers which are both present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes function as pumps that Mechanism of ABC transport Proposed mechanism of transport for ABC importers This alternatingaccess model was based on the crystal structures of ModBCA In bacterial efflux systems certain substances that need to be extruded from the cell include surface components of the bacterial cell eg capsular polysaccharides lipopolysaccharides and teichoic acid proteins involved in bacterial pathogenesis eg hemolysis hemebinding protein and alkaline protease heme hydrolytic enzymes Slayer proteins competence factors toxins antibiotics bacteriocins peptide antibiotics drugs and siderophores They also play important roles in biosynthetic pathways including extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis and cytochrome biogenesis Siderophores Siderophores are classified by which ligands they use to chelate the ferric iron including the catecholates hydroxamates and carboxylates Learning Objectives Describe the function and variety of siderophores Key Takeaways Key Points Siderophores are important for some pathogenic bacteria for their acquisition of iron Many siderophores are nonribosomal peptides although several are biosynthesised independently The wide variety of siderophores may be due to evolutionary pressures placed on microbes to produce structurally different siderophores which can not be transported by other microbes specific active transport systems or in the case of pathogens deactivated by the host organism Microbes release siderophores to scavenge iron from these mineral phases by formation of soluble Fe3 complexes that can be taken up by active transport mechanisms Key Terms siderophores Sidereophores are small highaffinity iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi and also grasses Siderophores are amongst the strongest soluble Fe3 binding agents known Iron is essential for almost all living organisms as it is involved in a wide variety of important metabolic processes However iron is not always readily available therefore microorganisms use various iron uptake systems to secure sufficient supplies from their surroundings There is considerable variation in the range of iron transporters and iron sources utilized by different microbial species Pathogens in particular require efficient iron acquisition mechanisms to enable them to compete successfully for iron in the highly ironrestricted environment of the hosts tissues and body fluids Siderophores are small highaffinity iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria fungi and grasses Siderophores are amongst the strongest soluble Fe 3 binding agents known Iron is essential for almost all life because of its vital role in processes like respiration and DNA synthesis However despite being one of the most abundant elements in the Earths crust the bioavailability of iron in many environments such as the soil or sea is limited by the very low solubility of the Fe 3 ion This ion state is the predominant one of iron in aqueous nonacidic oxygenated environments and accumulates in common mineral phases such as iron oxides and hydroxides the minerals that are responsible for red and yellow soil colours Hence it can not be readily utilized by organisms Microbes release siderophores to scavenge iron from these mineral phases by formation of soluble Fe 3 complexes that can be taken up by active transport mechanisms Many siderophores are nonribosomal peptides although several are biosynthesised independently Siderophores are amongst the strongest binders to Fe 3 known with enterobactin being one of the strongest of these Because of this property they have attracted interest from medical science in metal chelation therapy with the siderophore desferrioxamine B gaining widespread use in treatments for iron poisoning and thalassemia Synthesis of enterobactin Enterobactin also known as Enterochelin is a high affinity siderophore that acquires iron for microbial systems It is primarily found in Gramnegative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium Iron is tightly bound to proteins such as hemoglobin transferrin lactoferrin and ferritin There are great evolutionary pressures put on pathogenic bacteria to obtain this metal For example the anthrax pathogen Bacillus anthracis releases two siderophores bacillibactin and petrobactin to scavenge ferric iron from iron proteins While bacillibactin has been shown to bind to the immune system protein siderocalin petrobactin is assumed to evade the immune system and has been shown to be important for virulence in mice Besides siderophores some pathogenic bacteria produce hemophores heme binding scavenging proteins or have receptors that bind directly to ironheme proteins In eukaryotes other strategies to enhance iron solubility and uptake are the acidification of the surrounding eg used by plant roots or the extracellular reduction of Fe 3 into the more soluble Fe 2 ions Siderophores usually form a stable hexadentate octahedral complex with Fe 3 preferentially compared to other naturally occurring abundant metal ions although if there are less than six donor atoms water can also coordinate The most effective siderophores are those that have three bidentate ligands per molecule forming a hexadentate complex and causing a smaller entropic change than that caused by chelating a single ferric ion with separate ligands Siderophores are usually classified by the ligands used to chelate the ferric iron The majors groups of siderophores include the catecholates phenolates hydroxamates and carboxylates eg derivatives of citric acid Citric acid can also act as a siderophore The wide variety of siderophores may be due to evolutionary pressures placed on microbes to produce structurally different siderophores which can not be transported by other microbes specific active transport systems or in the case of pathogens deactivated by the host organism Group Translocation Group translocation is a protein export or secretion pathway found in plants bacteria and archaea Learning Objectives Recall the following types of transport systems PEP group translocation and the TAT pathway Key Takeaways Key Points PEP is known as a multicomponent system that always involves enzymes of the plasma membrane and those in the cytoplasm An example of this transport is found in E coli cells The Tat pathway is a protein export or secretion pathway that serves to actively translocate folded proteins across a lipid membrane bilayer Systems for secreting proteins across the bacterial outer membrane may be quite complex and play key roles in pathogenesis Key Terms phosphotransferase system A distinct method used by bacteria for sugar uptake where the source of energy is from phosphoenolpyruvate PEP Tat pathway A protein export or secretion pathway found in plants bacteria and archaea With some exceptions bacteria lack membranebound organelles as found in eukaryotes but they may assemble proteins onto various types of inclusions such as gas vesicles and storage granules Bacteria may have a single plasma membrane Grampositive bacteria or an inner membrane plus an outer membrane separated by the periplasm Gramnegative bacteria Proteins may be incorporated into the plasma membrane They can also be trapped in either the periplasm or secreted into the environment according to whether or not there is an outer membrane The basic mechanism at the plasma membrane is similar to the eukaryotic one In addition bacteria may A specialized enzyme sortase cleaves the target protein at a characteristic recognition site near the protein Cterminus such as an LPXTG motif where X can be any amino acid then transfers the protein onto the cell wall Several analogous systems are found that also feature a signature motif on the extracytoplasmic face a Cterminal transmembrane domain and cluster of basic residues on the cytosolic face at the proteins extreme Cterminus The PEPCTERMexosortase system found in many Gramnegative bacteria seems to be related to extracellular polymeric substance production The PGFCTERMarchaeosortase A system in archaea is related to Slayer production The GlyGlyCTERMrhombosortase PEP group translocation also known as the phosphotransferase system or PTS is a distinct method used by bacteria for sugar uptake where the source of energy is from phosphoenolpyruvate PEP It is known as a multicomponent system that always involves enzymes of the plasma membrane and those in the cytoplasm An example of this transport is found in E coli cells The system was discovered by Saul Roseman in 1964 The twinarginine translocation pathway Tat pathway is a protein export or secretion pathway found in plants bacteria and archaea In contrast to the Sec pathway which transports proteins in an unfolded manner the Tat pathway serves to actively translocate folded proteins across a lipid membrane bilayer In bacteria the Tat translocase is found in the cytoplasmic membrane and serves to export proteins to the cell envelope or to the extracellular space In Gramnegative bacteria the Tat translocase is composed of three essential membrane proteins TatA TatB and TatC In the most widely studied Tat pathway that of the Gramnegative bacterium The Tat pathways of Grampositive bacteria differ in that they do not have a TatB component In these bacteria the Tat system is made up from a single TatA and TatC component with the TatA protein being bifunctional and fulfilling the roles of both E coli TatA and TatB Not all bacteria carry the tatABC genes in their genome However of those that do there seems to be no discrimination between pathogens and nonpathogens Despite that fact some pathogenic bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa Legionella pneumophila Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and E coli O157H7 rely on a functioning Tat pathway for full Pseudomonas aeruginosa P aeruginosa is capable of growth in diesel and jet fuel where it is known as a hydrocarbonusing microorganism or HUM bug causing microbial corrosion It creates dark gellish mats sometimes improperly called algae because of their appearance

O O O B I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Introduction to Chemistry Molecular Ionic and Complete Ionic Equations Learning Objective Recognize whether a chemical equation is written in molecular ionic or complete ionic form Key Points Chemical reactions that proceed through ionic forms can be written in a variety of ways Molecular equations show species reacting as their molecular formula with subscripts added to indicate their solid liquid gaseous or aqueous nature Ionic equations show species reacting as their ionic components Subscripts are not needed to describe the state of the matter because all ions are in aqueous solution A net ionic equation is one in which spectator ions are removed Spectator ions are present in solution but do not participate in the actual precipitation reaction Terms saltAn ionic compound that is composed of cations and anions The constituent ions are held together by ionic bonds not covalent bonds electrolytea substance that when dissolved in solution will enable the solution to conduct electricity spectator ionan ion that is present in solution but does not participate in a precipitation reaction Molecular Equation There are various ways to write out precipitation reactions In the molecular equation electrolytes are written as salts followed by aq to indicate that the electrolytes are completely dissociated into their constituent ions the aq designation indicates that the ions are in aqueous solution For example aqueous calcium chlorides reaction with aqueous silver nitrate can be written as follows latexCaCl_2 aq 2 AgNO_3 aq rightleftharpoons CaNO_3_2 aq 2 AgCl slatex On the right hand side of the equation the precipitant AgCl is written in its full formula and designated as a solid since this is the precipitate that is formed in the reaction Note that the remaining salt CaNO 3 2 is still designed with aq to indicate that the ions are dissociated in solution Complete Ionic and Net Ionic Equations Because the reactants and one of the products are strong electrolytes it is possible to write them out in terms of their constituent ions The resulting equation is known as the complete ionic equation and it looks as follows latexCa2aq 2Claq 2Agaq 2NO_3aq rightarrow Ca2aq 2NO_3aq 2 AgCl slatex In this equation every ion is written out on both sides The equation is balanced with the molar amount of each ion preceding it This can be simplified to the net or complete ionic equation which is shown below latex2Claq 2Agaq rightarrow 2AgCl slatex In this representation the ions that are uninvolved in the precipitation reaction latexCa2latex and latexNO_3latex are simply excluded from the reaction because they are essentially redundant on both the left and right side In this particular instance the equation can be further simplified to the reduced balanced form with the cation coming before the anion as is most commonly practiced latexAgaq Claq rightarrow AgCl slatex The precipitated silver chloride appears as a white solid Silver chloride Silver chloride is a precipitant of silver and chloride ions reacting in solution The latexCa2latexlatexNO_3latexand the ions remain in solution and are not part of the reaction They are termed spectator ions because they do not participate directly in the reaction rather they exist with the same oxidation state on both the reactant and product side of the chemical equation They are only needed for charge balance of the original reagents

O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Luther and Protestantism Martin Luther was a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation he strongly disputed the claim that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money famously argued in his Ninetyfive Theses of 1517 LEARNING OBJECTIVE Describe Luthers criticisms of the Catholic Church KEY POINTS Martin Luther was a German professor of theology composer priest monk and seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation Luther strongly disputed the claim that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money called indulgences which he argued in his Ninetyfive Theses of 1517 When confronted by the church for his critiques he refused to renounce his writings and was excommunicated by the pope and deemed an outlaw by the emperor Luthers translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it more accessible to the laity an event that had a tremendous impact on both the church and German culture TERMS Ninetyfive ThesesA list of propositions for an academic disputation written by Martin Luther in 1517 They advanced Luthers positions against what he saw as abusive practices by preachers selling plenary indulgences which were certificates that would reduce the temporal punishment for sins committed by the purchaser or their loved ones in purgatory excommunicationAn institutional act of religious censure used to deprive suspend or limit membership in a religious community or to restrict certain rights within it indulgencesA way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins usually through the saying of prayers or good works which during the middle ages included paying for church buildings or other projects FULL TEXT Overview Martin Luther November 10 1483February 18 1546 was a German professor of theology composer priest monk and seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money proposing an academic discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninetyfive Theses of 1517 His refusal to renounce all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the emperor Luther taught that salvation and subsequently eternal life are not earned by good deeds but are received only as the free gift of Gods grace through the believers faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin His theology challenged the authority and office of the pope by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge from God and opposed priestly intervention for the forgiveness of sins by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood Those who identify with these and all of Luthers wider teachings are called Lutherans though Luther insisted on Christian or His translation of the Bible into the vernacular instead of Latin made it more accessible to the laity an event that had a tremendous impact on both the church and German culture It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language added several principles to the art of translation and influenced the writing of an English translation the Tyndale Bible His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches His marriage to Katharina von Bora a former nun set a model for the practice of clerical marriage allowing Protestant clergy to marry In two of his later works Luther expressed antagonistic views toward Jews writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed their money confiscated and their liberty curtailed Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status Portrait of Martin Luther Martin Luther 1528 by Lucas Cranach the Elder Portrait of Martin Luthers face Personal Life Martin Luther was born to Hans Luther and his wife Margarethe on November 10 1483 in Eisleben Saxony then part of the Holy Roman Empire Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family and he was determined to see Martin his eldest son become a lawyer In 1501 at the age of nineteen Martin entered the University of Erfurt In accordance with his fathers wishes he enrolled in law school at the same university that year but dropped out almost immediately believing that law represented uncertainty Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy expressing particular interest in Aristotle William of Ockham and Gabriel Biel He was deeply influenced by two tutors Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers and to test everything himself by experience Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying offering assurance about the use of reason but no assurance about loving God which to Luther was more important Reason could not lead men to God he felt and he thereafter developed a lovehate relationship with Aristotle over the latters emphasis on reason For Luther reason could be used to question men and institutions but not God Human beings could learn about God Luther dedicated himself to the Augustinian order devoting himself to fasting long hours in prayer pilgrimage and frequent confession In 1507 he was ordained to the priesthood and in 1508 von Staupitz first dean of the newly founded University of Wittenberg sent for Luther to teach theology He was made provincial vicar of Saxony and Thuringia by his religious order in 1515 This meant he was to visit and oversee eleven monasteries in his province Start of the Reformation In 1516 Johann Tetzel a Dominican friar and papal commissioner for indulgences was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St Peters Basilica in Rome Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone whether fiduciary or dogmatic can not justify man justification rather depends only on such faith as is active in charity and good works The benefits of good works could be obtained by donating money to the church On October 31 1517 Luther wrote to his bishop Albert of Mainz protesting the sale of indulgences He enclosed in his letter a copy of his Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences which came to be known as the Ninetyfive Theses Historian Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices and the tone of the writing is accordingly searching rather than doctrinaire Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses particularly in Thesis 86 which asks Why does the pope whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus build the basilica of St Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money The first thesis has become famous When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said Repent he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance In the first few theses Luther develops the idea of repentance as the Christians inner struggle with sin rather than the external system of sacramental confession In theses 4147 Luther begins to criticize indulgences on the basis that they discourage works of mercy by those who purchase them Here he begins to use the phrase Christians are to be taught to state how he thinks people should be instructed on the value of indulgences They should be taught that giving to the poor is incomparably more important than buying indulgences that buying an indulgence rather than giving to the poor invites Gods wrath and that doing good works makes a person better while buying indulgences does not Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that As soon as the coin in the coffer rings the soul from purgatory springs He insisted that since forgiveness was Gods alone to grant those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error Luther closes the Theses by exhorting Christians to imitate Christ even if it brings pain and suffering because enduring punishment and entering heaven is preferable to false security It was not until January 1518 that friends of Luther translated the Ninetyfive Theses from Latin into German and printed and widely copied it making the controversy one of the first to be aided by the printing press Within two weeks copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany within two months they had spread throughout Europe Ninetyfive Theses 1517 Nuremberg printing of the Ninetyfive Theses as a placard now in the Berlin State Library A photo of a 1517 manuscript of the Luthers Ninetyfive Thesis Excommunication and Later Life On June 15 1520 the pope warned Luther with the papal bull Exsurge Domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted fortyone sentences drawn from his writings including the Ninetyfive Theses within sixty days That autumn Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns Karl von Miltitz a papal nuncio attempted to broker a solution but Luther who had sent the pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October publicly set fire to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on December 10 1520 an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles As a consequence Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on January 3 1521 in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem The enforcement of the ban on the Ninetyfive Theses fell to the secular authorities On April 18 1521 Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms a town on the Rhine It was conducted from January 28 to May 25 1521 with Emperor Charles V presiding Prince Frederick III Elector of Saxony obtained a safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting Johann Eck speaking on behalf of the empire as assistant of the Archbishop of Trier presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his and whether he stood by their contents Luther confirmed he was their author but requested time to think about the answer to the second question He prayed consulted friends and gave his response the next day Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God I can not and will not recant anything since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience May God help me Amen Over the next five days private conferences were held to determine Luthers fate The emperor presented the final draft of the Edict of Worms on May 25 1521 which declared Luther an outlaw banned his literature and required his arrest We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter and permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence By 1526 Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organizing a new church later called the Lutheran Church and for the rest of his life would continue building the Protestant movement An apoplectic stroke on February 18 1546 deprived him of his speech and he died shortly afterwards at 245 am aged sixtytwo in Eisleben the city of his birth He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg beneath the pulpit Reluctant Revolutionary PBS Documentary about Martin Luther the Reluctant Revolutionary Luther opposed the Catholic Churchs practices and in 1517 he wrote his Ninetyfive Theses which detailed the churchs failings His actions led to the start of the Protestant Revolution

B I I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Functions of Communication Theory While theories in many disciplines can be hard for some to understand in a field like Communication our theories are important to understand because they directly impact our daily lives In this respect they serve several functions in guiding our communication Communication Theory and You Sean DeBey with Sylfronia King In elementary school you might have believed in cooties Or you might have believed that if a boy was mean to a girl he must have liked her and vice versa In Jr High and High School finding a date to the homecoming or prom could be one of the most intimidating things to do Now in college the dating world has once again evolved The ambiguity between what defines a date and a friendly night out can be frustrating for some and exciting for others Regardless when situations like these appear it is easy to seek advice from friends The first function theories serve is that they help us organize and understand our communication experiences We use theories to organize a broad range of experiences into smaller categories by paying attention to common features of communication situations Infante Rancer Womack How many times have you surfed the internet and found articles or quizzes on relationships and what they mean for different genders Deborah Tannen author of You Just Dont Understand Women and Men in Conversations argues that men and women talk in significantly different ways and for significantly different reasons Of course these differences can not be applied to all men and women But theories on gender communication help us organize and understand the talk of the different genders in a more simplified context so we can understand general patterns of communication behavior This helps us make appropriate decisions in gendered communication situations A second function of theories is that they help us choose what communicative behaviors to study Theories guide where we choose to look what we look at and how we look at communicative phenomenon Remember back to Chapter 1 where we defined communication study Theories focus our attention on certain aspects of that definition If you find that Tannens theories regarding how men and women talk differ from your own perceptions or that theyre outdated you might choose to more closely study the talk or nonverbals of men and women to see if you can rectify the difference in theoretical A third function of theories is that they help us broaden our understanding of human communication Scholars who study communication share theories with one another online through books journal articles and at conferences The sharing of theories generates dialogue which allows us to further refine the theories developed in this field Tannens book allowed the public to rethink the personal theories they had about the communication of men and women With the opportunity to find countless theories through new books magazines the Internet and TV shows the general public has the opportunity to find theories that will influence how they A fourth function of theories is that they help us predict and control our communication When we communicate we try to predict how our interactions will develop so we can maintain a certain level of control Imagine being at a party and you want to talk to someone that you find attractive You will use some sort of theory about how to talk to others to approach this situation in order to make it more successful As in all situations the better your theoretical perspectives the better chances for success when communicating While theories do not allow us to predict A fifth function of theories is that they help us challenge current social and cultural realities by providing new ways of thinking and living People sometimes make the mistake of assuming that the ways we communicate are innate rather than learned This is not true In order to challenge the communicative norms we learn people use critical theories to ask questions about the status quo of human communication particularly focusing on how humans use communication to bring advantage and privilege to particular people or groups For example Tannen argues that when men listen to women express their troubles they listen While theories serve many useful functions these functions dont really matter if we do not have welldeveloped theories that provide a good representation of how our world works While we all form our personal theories through examining our experiences how are communication theories developed

O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Burger King Job Description Crew Member Updated on March 7 2018 Published in Category Fast Food Post navigation Waiter Job Description for Resume Housekeeping Job Description and Duties for Resume

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WATCH SUNDAY MORNING SERVICE Ended Dec 30th 2018 The Dark Side of the Moon Travis Hack Youth Director C crestviewchurch WATCH AGAIN Events Jan 08 Lydia Circle Jan 13 Leadership Training Jan 20 Girls Group Feb 08 Adult Mission Trip Latest News December 6 2018 0 Upward Needs Your Help Promoting the Discovery of Jesus Through Sports Upward 2019 Beginning January 12 We need your help with Announcers Referees Scoreboard Operators HalfTime Devotion Speakers Clean Up Crew December 14 2018 0 Study Series Martin Luther simply wanted to follow Christ and embrace Biblical teaching justified by faith Join us for 5 weeks as we learnabout Luther freedom and love and leadership motivated by faith and couragethen November 29 2018 0 Youth Confirmation Classes Confirmation will begin on Sunday Jan 6 at 930am for both 7th 8th grade youth Anyone age 1217 is invited to go through the confirmation experience November 29 2018 0 After School Tutoring Program Tutors Needed We need tutors for our Crestview Afterschool Tutoring Program on Wednesdays 35 PM beginning January 16 and running through March 13 Contact Denise Chambers for more information Sermons Services Jesus The First Colossians 11520 January 6 2019 Here are things Paul says in this passage Paul states that Christ is the exact likeness of God is himself God and The Dark Side of the Moon December 30 2018 Matthew 142233 Jesus Walks on Water Hark The Herald Angels Sing December 23 2018 Todays worship is centered around the hymn HARK THE HERALD ANGELS SING A scripture to read is Micah 52 But you Bethlehm Ephrathah though Oh Holy Night December 16 2018 The Messiah is born For ages the Jews had waited for this and when it finally happened the announcement came to humble shepherds The Ministries Prayer Requests This a complete list of the current prayer requests for our Crestview family and friends Requests can be submitted by contacting Karen Limoseth Our Crestview family Kate Ryan health issues Carla Sutton health Adult Ministry Regardless of your age or stage of life Christian community is essential Crestview offers a variety of groups and ministries to help you grow in your walk with God From Bible studies to Childrens Ministry Let the little children come Throughout the gospels Jesus has a real heart for little children and especially for their faith At Crestview we share that same heart Our childrens Youth Ministry Junior Senior High Students Welcome The Youth Ministries at Crestview Presbyterian Church are focused on helping 7th12th graders in West Chester and surrounding areas Love God Love Others and share that Love

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How Floatation Therapy Works Imagine floating through space weightless Imagine that all sensations of sight sound temperatureeven the light stress of supporting your own bodyhave simply slipped away Now imagine that all you have to do to get into that space is to step into our floatation pod As you slip into the pod dense magnesiumrich waters support you so perfectly that you float in perfect suspension Soon the water and air temperatures adjust so that you can no longer tell where one stops and the other begins The effect is peaceful Calming Perfect This is the point where relieved of the responsibility of maintaining yourself in threedimensional space you begin from a place of perfect relaxation to free your thoughts What goes in Magnesium sulfate known commonly as Epsom salt is added to the water in the floatation tank Of course this is more than simply adding salt to your bath at home Floatation therapy uses over 800 pounds of magnesium sulfate This huge concentration of salt is what gives the water the buoyancy to hold you in a weightless suspension This is also one of the ways your body benefits 75 of Americans dont get enough magnesium in their diets and over half are severely deficient in this important mineral Magnesium deficiencies are linked to fatigue and weakness as well as many neurological abnormalities including numbness tingling muscle contractions cramps spasms seizures and even personality changes Throughout your session the high concentration of magnesium is slowly absorbed through the skin helping to restore and rejuvenate your body What goes out One of the biggest benefits of floatation therapy is the release of stress and tension As you spend time suspended in weightlessness you are able to relax every muscle in your body Without any gravity to work against all of the tension built up in your muscles begins to release The darkness and silence allow your mind to free itself Floatation therapy clients often report a feeling of disconnecting from the physical world This is similar to what happens when entering a deep sleep Your brain moves from generating alpha and beta waves to generating theta and delta waves During this time the dominant half of your brain relaxes while the other half sees an increase in activity This balance between the left and right hemispheres inspires intense creativity and problemsolving Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video

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Download Travel Claim Form Please complete the form below with your policy details and information about the travel you are claiming for When completed click on the Download Claim Form button to continue where you will be able to download and complete your required forms Please note This is a Claim Form Download process that can be completed electronically or printed and returned by post A claim form will NOT be posted to you using this process Download Claim Form Fields marked with an are required

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