Realigning

election

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message

A

realigning

election

often

called

a

critical

election

political

realignment

or

critical

realignment

is

a

term

from

political

science

and

political

history

describing

a

dramatic

change

in

the

political

system

Scholars

frequently

apply

the

term

to

American

elections

and

occasionally

to

other

countries

Usually

it

means

the

coming

to

power

for

several

decades

of

a

new

coalition

replacing

an

old

dominant

coalition

of

the

other

party

as

in

when

the

Republican

Party

GOP

became

dominant

or

when

the

Democratic

Party

became

dominant

More

specifically

it

refers

to

American

national

elections

in

which

there

are

sharp

changes

in

issues

party

leaders

the

regional

and

demographic

bases

of

power

of

the

two

parties

and

structure

or

rules

of

the

political

system

such

as

voter

eligibility

or

financing

resulting

in

a

new

political

power

structure

that

lasts

for

decades

Realigning

elections

typically

separate

what

are

known

in

the

field

of

comparative

politics

as

Party

Systems

with

for

example

separating

the

First

Party

System

and

the

Second

Party

System

in

the

US

Political

realignments

can

be

sudden

years

or

can

take

place

more

gradually

years

Most

often

however

particularly

in

V

O

Key

Jr

s

original

hypothesis

it

is

a

single

critical

election

that

marks

a

realignment

By

contrast

a

gradual

process

is

called

a

secular

realignment

An

American

example

was

the

change

in

the

voting

patterns

among

white

Southerners

who

from

the

to

had

overwhelmingly

voted

at

the

national

and

state

levels

for

Democrats

what

was

called

the

Solid

South

A

critical

election

came

in

with

a

shift

at

the

presidential

level

to

the

Republican

GOP

presidential

candidates

However

there

was

a

gradual

shift

toward

the

GOP

at

the

state

and

local

levels

as

Aldrich

and

others

have

found

Democratic

voting

remained

strong

into

the

and

only

slowly

shifted

towards

the

GOP

as

state

Republican

organizations

systematically

broadened

their

base

in

the

and

Political

scientists

and

historians

often

disagree

about

which

elections

are

realignments

and

what

defines

a

realignment

and

even

whether

realignments

occur

The

terms

themselves

are

somewhat

arbitrary

however

and

usage

among

political

scientists

and

historians

does

vary

In

the

US

Walter

Dean

Burnham

argued

for

a

year

cycle

of

realignments

Many

of

the

elections

often

included

in

the

Burnham

cycle

are

considered

realigning

for

different

reasons

Some

political

scientists

such

as

Mayhew

are

skeptical

of

the

realignment

theory

altogether

saying

there

are

no

longterm

patterns

Electoral

politics

he

writes

is

to

an

important

degree

just

one

thing

after

another

Elections

and

their

underlying

causes

are

not

usefully

sortable

into

generationlong

spans

It

is

a

Rip

Van

Winkle

view

of

democracy

that

voters

come

awake

only

once

in

a

generation

It

is

too

slippery

too

binary

too

apocalyptic

and

it

has

come

to

be

too

much

of

a

dead

end

Contents

Realignment

theory

Voter

realignment

United

States

Realigning

elections

in

United

States

history

Other

possible

realigning

elections

Canada

Federal

Party

systems

model

Alberta

British

Columbia

Quebec

Realigning

elections

outside

of

North

America

Asia

Europe

Latin

America

Oceania

Australia

New

Zealand

See

also

Notes

and

references

Europe

Canada

United

States

External

links

Realignment

theory

The

central

holding

of

realignment

theory

first

developed

in

the

political

scientist

V

O

Key

Jr

s

article

A

Theory

of

Critical

Elections

is

that

American

elections

parties

and

policymaking

routinely

shift

in

swift

dramatic

sweeps

VO

Key

Jr

EE

Schattschneider

James

L

Sundquist

Walter

Dean

Burnham

and

Paul

Kleppner

are

generally

credited

with

developing

and

refining

the

theory

of

realignment

Though

they

differed

on

some

of

the

details

scholars

have

generally

concluded

that

systematic

patterns

are

identifiable

in

American

national

elections

such

that

cycles

occur

on

a

regular

schedule

once

every

or

so

This

period

of

roughly

years

fits

with

the

notion

that

these

cycles

are

closely

linked

to

generational

change

For

social

scientists

this

point

is

important

since

it

helps

to

provide

an

objective

sociological

basis

for

the

theory

Some

such

as

Schafer

and

Reichley

argue

that

the

patterns

are

longer

closer

to

to

years

in

duration

noting

the

Democratic

dominance

from

to

The

alignment

of

with

Republicans

winning

a

series

of

close

presidential

elections

yielded

abruptly

in

to

an

era

of

more

decisive

GOP

control

in

which

most

presidential

elections

were

blowouts

and

Democratic

Congresses

were

infrequent

and

brief

Thirtysix

years

later

that

system

was

displaced

by

a

cycle

of

Democratic

dominance

lasting

throughout

the

Great

Depression

and

beyond

Voter

realignment

This

article

needs

additional

citations

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verification

Please

help

improve

this

article

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and

removed

October

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and

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remove

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template

message

A

central

component

of

realignment

is

the

change

in

behavior

of

voting

groups

Realignment

means

the

switching

of

voter

preference

from

one

party

to

another

in

contrast

to

dealignment

where

a

voter

group

abandons

a

party

to

become

independent

or

nonvoting

In

the

US

and

Australia

as

the

ideologies

of

the

parties

define

many

of

the

aspects

of

voters

lives

and

the

decisions

that

they

make

a

realignment

by

a

voter

tends

to

have

a

longerlasting

effect

In

Britain

and

Canada

on

the

other

hand

voters

have

a

tendency

to

switch

parties

on

a

whim

perhaps

only

for

one

election

as

there

is

far

less

loyalty

towards

a

particular

party

United

States

Realigning

elections

in

United

States

history

Here

is

presented

a

list

of

elections

most

often

cited

as

realigning

with

disagreements

noted

presidential

election

Thomas

Jefferson

This

election

completed

the

turnover

of

power

in

the

First

Party

System

from

the

Federalist

Party

led

by

Alexander

Hamilton

to

Jefferson

and

his

Republican

Party

The

center

of

power

shifted

from

New

England

to

the

South

and

Jeffersonian

democracy

became

the

dominant

ideology

Republicans

gained

of

House

seats

in

in

and

in

for

a

total

gain

of

in

elections

As

late

as

the

Federalists

came

within

one

state

of

winning

A

larger

shift

in

electoral

politics

arguably

came

in

the

period

as

the

Federalists

became

discredited

after

opposing

the

War

of

presidential

election

Andrew

Jackson

This

election

redefined

the

party

system

in

the

United

States

setting

up

the

Second

Party

System

which

was

dominated

by

Jacksonian

democracy

The

DemocraticRepublicans

split

into

two

parties

later

renamed

as

the

Democratic

Party

and

the

Whig

Party

The

Democrats

were

led

by

Andrew

Jackson

of

Tennessee

and

Martin

Van

Buren

of

New

York

By

the

Whigs

emerged

as

the

opposition

to

Andrew

Jackson

led

by

Henry

Clay

of

Kentucky

presidential

election

Abraham

Lincoln

After

the

Whigs

collapsed

after

party

alignments

were

in

turmoil

with

several

third

parties

such

as

the

Know

Nothings

and

the

Opposition

Party

The

system

stabilized

in

and

the

presidential

election

marked

the

ascendence

of

the

Republican

Party

Abraham

Lincoln

beat

out

three

other

contenders

but

even

if

they

had

somehow

united

he

still

had

the

majority

of

the

electoral

vote

The

Republican

party

was

pledged

to

the

longterm

ending

of

slavery

which

was

proximate

cause

of

secession

Republicans

rallied

around

nationalism

in

and

fought

the

American

Civil

War

to

end

secession

During

the

war

the

Republicans

under

Lincolns

leadership

switched

to

a

goal

of

shortterm

ending

of

slavery

By

the

Republicans

had

a

coalition

built

around

followers

of

the

free

labor

ideology

as

well

as

soldiers

and

veterans

of

the

Union

Army

Since

then

the

military

establishment

has

been

solidly

Republican

The

Republican

Party

went

from

of

the

House

in

to

in

in

and

in

for

a

total

gain

of

in

elections

presidential

election

William

McKinley

The

status

of

this

election

is

hotly

disputed

some

political

scientists

such

as

Jerome

Clubb

do

not

consider

it

a

realigning

election

Other

political

scientists

and

historians

such

as

Kleppner

and

Burnham

consider

this

the

ultimate

realignment

and

emphasize

that

the

rules

of

the

game

had

changed

the

leaders

were

new

voting

alignments

had

changed

and

a

whole

new

set

of

issues

came

to

dominance

as

the

old

Civil

Warera

issues

faded

away

Funding

from

office

holders

was

replaced

by

outside

fund

raising

from

business

in

a

major

shift

in

political

history

Furthermore

McKinleys

tactics

in

beating

William

Jennings

Bryan

as

developed

by

Mark

Hanna

marked

a

sea

change

in

the

evolution

of

the

modern

campaigning

McKinley

raised

a

huge

amount

of

money

from

business

interests

outspending

Bryan

by

to

Bryan

meanwhile

invented

the

modern

technique

of

campaigning

heavily

in

closely

contested

states

the

first

candidate

to

do

so

Bryans

message

of

populism

and

class

conflict

marked

a

new

direction

for

the

Democrats

McKinleys

victory

in

and

repeat

in

was

a

triumph

for

pluralism

as

all

sectors

and

groups

shared

in

the

new

prosperity

brought

about

by

his

policy

of

rapid

industrial

growth

While

Republicans

lost

House

seats

in

this

followed

a

massive

twoelection

gain

from

in

to

in

and

in

for

a

total

gain

Republicans

lost

in

but

still

held

of

House

seats

In

terms

of

correlations

among

counties

the

election

of

is

a

realignment

flop

but

this

is

only

a

problem

if

realignment

is

considered

to

occur

in

single

elections

Rather

if

realignment

is

thought

of

as

a

generational

or

longterm

political

movement

then

change

will

occur

over

several

elections

even

if

there

is

one

critical

election

defining

the

new

alignment

So

as

pointed

out

above

the

realignment

really

began

around

and

the

seat

GOP

gain

after

all

this

is

the

alltime

record

in

meant

there

were

almost

no

seats

left

to

pick

up

in

However

the

presidential

election

in

is

usually

considered

the

start

of

the

new

alignment

since

the

national

election

allowed

the

nation

to

make

a

more

conscious

decision

about

the

future

of

industrial

policy

by

selecting

McKinley

over

Bryan

making

this

the

defining

election

in

the

realignment

The

election

of

passes

the

numbers

test

much

better

compared

to

alone

and

Mayhew

argues

it

resulted

in

far

more

drastic

changes

in

United

States

politics

Reconstruction

came

to

a

sudden

halt

AfricanAmericans

in

the

South

would

soon

be

completely

disenfranchised

and

politicians

began

to

focus

on

new

issues

such

as

tariffs

and

civil

service

reform

presidential

election

Franklin

D

Roosevelt

Of

all

the

realigning

elections

this

one

musters

the

most

agreement

from

political

scientists

and

historians

it

is

the

archetypal

realigning

election

FDRs

admirers

such

as

Arthur

Schlesinger

Jr

have

argued

that

New

Deal

policies

developed

in

response

to

the

crash

of

and

the

miseries

of

the

Great

Depression

under

Herbert

Hoover

represented

an

entirely

new

phenomenon

in

American

politics

More

critical

historians

such

as

Carl

Degler

and

David

Kennedy

see

a

great

deal

of

continuity

with

Hoovers

energetic

but

unsuccessful

economic

policies

There

is

no

doubt

Democrats

vehemently

attacked

Hoover

for

years

In

many

ways

Roosevelts

legacy

still

defines

the

Democratic

Party

he

forged

an

enduring

New

Deal

Coalition

of

big

city

machines

the

White

South

intellectuals

labor

unions

Catholics

Jews

and

Westerners

In

AfricanAmericans

were

added

to

the

coalition

AfricanAmericans

had

previously

been

denied

the

vote

or

voted

Republican

For

instance

Pittsburgh

which

was

a

Republican

stronghold

from

the

Civil

War

up

to

this

point

suddenly

became

a

Democratic

stronghold

and

has

elected

a

Democratic

mayor

to

office

in

every

election

since

this

time

The

Democrats

went

from

controlling

of

House

seats

in

to

in

and

in

for

a

total

gain

of

in

two

elections

In

the

Senate

the

Democrats

went

from

controlling

of

seats

in

to

in

and

in

for

a

total

gain

of

in

two

elections

Other

possible

realigning

elections

elections

The

elections

saw

a

resurgence

of

the

Democratic

Party

Discontent

with

the

presidency

of

Ulysses

S

Grant

and

the

economic

depression

known

at

the

time

as

the

Panic

of

and

the

slow

return

of

disillusioned

Liberal

Republicans

from

their

third

party

ticket

all

energized

the

Democrats

The

Democrats

had

not

controlled

either

chamber

of

Congress

since

before

the

War

The

realignment

meant

the

Democrats

generally

controlled

the

House

of

Representatives

from

to

their

massive

defeat

in

Republicans

eked

out

very

narrow

wins

in

most

of

the

presidential

elections

in

that

period

The

Civil

Rights

Act

of

enacted

in

the

lameduck

session

of

Congress

following

the

elections

was

the

last

major

Reconstruction

law

and

it

was

chiefly

of

symbolic

value

The

new

strength

of

the

Democrats

marked

the

end

of

Reconstruction

legislation

With

the

end

of

Reconstruction

the

former

states

of

the

Confederacy

became

a

dominantparty

system

known

as

the

Solid

South

The

tariff

and

especially

monetary

policy

emerged

as

the

great

ideological

debates

after

Some

debate

exists

today

as

to

what

elections

if

any

could

be

considered

realigning

elections

after

Although

several

candidates

have

been

proposed

there

is

no

widespread

agreement

and

presidential

elections

Lyndon

B

Johnson

and

Richard

Nixon

The

election

is

often

cited

due

to

the

innovative

campaign

strategy

of

Nixon

In

running

against

Hubert

Humphrey

he

used

what

became

known

as

the

Southern

strategy

He

appealed

to

white

voters

in

the

South

with

a

call

for

states

rights

which

they

interpreted

as

meaning

that

the

federal

government

would

no

longer

demand

the

forced

busing

of

school

children

as

ordered

by

federal

courts

Democrats

protested

that

Nixon

exploited

racial

fears

in

winning

the

support

of

white

southerners

and

northern

white

ethnics

Roosevelts

New

Deal

coalition

had

lasted

over

years

but

after

the

urban

riots

and

Vietnam

crisis

of

the

mid

one

by

one

the

coalition

partners

peeled

away

until

only

a

hollow

core

remained

setting

the

stage

for

a

GOP

revival

Nixons

downfall

postponed

the

realignment

which

came

about

under

Reagan

as

even

the

term

liberalism

fell

into

disrepute

Including

this

as

a

realignment

preserves

the

roughly

cyclical

pattern

to

to

and

to

For

political

scientists

was

primarily

an

issuebased

realignment

The

classic

study

of

the

election

by

Carmines

and

Stimson

shows

how

the

polarization

of

activists

and

elites

on

racerelated

issues

sent

clear

signals

to

the

general

public

about

the

historic

change

in

each

partys

position

on

Civil

Rights

Notably

while

only

of

AfricanAmericans

selfidentified

as

Democrats

in

the

National

Election

Study

did

in

and

the

numbers

are

higher

in

the

century

The

clearest

indicator

of

the

importance

of

this

election

was

that

Deep

Southern

states

such

as

Mississippi

voted

Republican

in

In

contrast

much

of

the

traditional

Republican

strongholds

of

the

Northeast

and

Upper

Midwest

voted

Democratic

Vermont

and

Maine

which

stood

alone

voting

against

FDR

in

voted

for

LBJ

in

Many

analysts

do

not

consider

a

realigning

election

because

control

of

Congress

did

not

change

the

Democrats

would

control

the

Senate

until

and

again

from

to

and

the

House

until

Also

missing

was

a

marked

change

in

the

partisan

orientation

of

the

electorate

Importantly

these

two

elections

are

consistent

with

the

theory

in

that

the

old

New

Deal

issues

were

replaced

by

Civil

Rights

issues

as

the

major

factor

explaining

why

citizens

identified

with

each

party

Other

scholars

contend

that

this

is

the

beginning

of

a

thirtyyear

dealignment

in

which

citizens

generally

moved

towards

political

independence

which

ended

with

the

election

presidential

election

Ronald

Reagan

In

this

election

Ronald

Reagan

won

a

sweeping

victory

over

Democrat

Jimmy

Carter

who

won

only

six

states

plus

the

District

of

Columbia

which

accounted

for

just

of

the

electoral

vote

Republicans

also

took

control

of

the

Senate

for

the

first

time

in

over

years

See

Reagans

coattails

The

election

can

be

seen

as

an

ideological

realignment

as

it

marked

the

beginning

of

the

Reagan

Era

and

marked

a

realignment

towards

conservatism

and

conservative

policies

In

addition

Reagan

Democrats

are

a

result

of

his

presidency

and

campaigns

Many

scholars

viewed

Reagans

policies

as

sufficiently

new

to

consider

this

a

realigning

election

On

the

other

hand

critics

like

Mayhew

note

that

control

of

the

House

did

not

change

nor

even

come

close

to

changing

at

this

time

Republicans

actually

held

fewer

House

seats

in

than

they

held

in

In

addition

the

Republicans

lost

the

Senate

again

only

six

years

later

leading

some

to

conclude

that

the

Senators

simply

rode

in

on

Reagans

coattails

and

did

not

represent

a

true

shift

in

the

ideological

preferences

of

their

constituents

Also

absent

was

a

shift

in

partisan

alignment

from

public

opinion

polls

Both

liberals

such

as

Nobel

laureate

Paul

Krugman

and

conservatives

such

as

MSNBC

political

pundit

Nixon

administration

political

advisor

and

Reagan

administration

Communications

Director

Pat

Buchanan

would

also

argue

that

Nixons

victory

in

set

the

stage

for

Reagans

victory

and

the

fact

that

Reagan

did

so

well

in

Southern

states

traditionally

a

Democratic

stronghold

as

well

as

the

fact

that

some

of

Reagans

rhetoric

involving

law

and

order

and

states

rights

seemed

to

mirror

Nixons

Southern

Strategy

seem

to

bear

this

fact

out

presidential

election

Bill

Clinton

Clinton

carried

several

states

that

had

previously

been

Republican

or

swing

states

in

both

the

Northeast

and

on

the

West

Coast

Most

notably

the

largest

state

California

switched

from

being

a

reliably

Republican

state

to

being

consistently

Democratic

it

has

been

carried

by

Democratic

candidates

ever

since

Other

states

that

switched

and

have

remained

with

the

Democrats

since

include

Connecticut

Delaware

Illinois

Maine

Maryland

New

Jersey

and

Vermont

In

contrast

despite

the

fact

Clinton

came

from

the

South

he

only

carried

four

of

the

former

Confederate

states

Arkansas

his

home

state

Louisiana

Tennessee

his

vice

presidents

home

state

and

Georgia

confirming

it

as

a

Republican

base

of

support

Since

the

Democratic

candidate

has

won

the

national

popular

vote

in

every

presidential

election

except

suggesting

some

manner

of

national

realignment

away

from

the

Republican

domination

of

the

and

This

national

tendency

toward

Democratic

presidential

candidates

did

not

necessarily

translate

to

Democratic

victories

in

congressional

elections

However

Republicans

remained

competitive

nationally

making

historic

gains

in

the

and

midterms

although

the

composition

of

the

electorate

in

presidential

versus

midterm

elections

vary

significantly

House

of

Representatives

and

Senate

elections

This

election

is

now

generally

seen

as

a

realigning

election

by

political

scientists

Republicans

won

majorities

in

both

the

House

and

the

Senate

taking

control

of

both

chambers

for

the

first

time

since

In

addition

control

of

the

House

continued

until

Newt

Gingrich

who

promoted

a

Contract

with

America

successfully

nationalized

the

campaign

by

coordinating

races

around

the

country

The

overwhelming

nature

of

the

Republicans

victory

points

to

a

realignment

the

party

gained

seats

in

a

chamber

of

only

while

neither

party

would

gain

more

than

a

handful

of

seats

in

any

election

until

The

GOP

gained

seats

in

of

state

houses

These

gains

continued

into

the

next

decade

so

that

by

the

GOP

held

the

majority

of

state

legislative

seats

for

the

first

time

in

fifty

years

Notably

the

period

of

party

decline

and

mass

dealignment

appears

to

have

ended

in

the

Strength

of

partisanship

as

measured

by

the

National

Election

Study

increased

in

the

as

does

the

percentage

of

the

mass

public

who

perceive

important

differences

between

each

party

This

election

also

indicates

the

rise

of

religious

issues

as

one

of

the

most

important

cleavage

in

American

politics

While

Reagans

election

hinted

at

the

importance

of

the

religious

right

it

was

the

formation

of

the

Christian

Coalition

the

successor

to

the

Moral

Majority

in

the

early

that

gave

Republicans

organizational

and

financial

muscle

particularly

at

the

state

level

By

the

media

portrayed

the

political

nation

as

divided

into

red

Republican

and

blue

Democratic

states

with

reputed

differences

in

cultural

attitudes

and

politics

between

the

two

blocs

The

Republicans

made

historic

inroads

in

the

Solid

South

where

they

picked

up

total

of

House

seats

Going

into

the

election

House

Democrats

outnumbered

House

Republicans

Afterwards

the

Republicans

outnumbered

Democrats

for

the

first

time

since

Reconstruction

presidential

election

Barack

Obama

In

the

elections

the

Democrats

expanded

their

majorities

in

the

Congress

and

won

the

presidency

decisively

This

was

due

to

the

momentum

carried

over

from

the

Democrats

successes

as

well

as

the

continued

unpopularity

of

President

George

W

Bush

whose

administration

was

now

faced

with

a

financial

crisis

and

economic

recession

Some

people

believe

that

is

possibly

a

realigning

election

with

a

longlasting

impact

just

as

the

election

of

Franklin

D

Roosevelt

was

in

and

the

election

of

Ronald

Reagan

in

were

President

Obama

was

reelected

in

the

election

as

well

becoming

only

the

third

Democrat

to

win

an

absolute

majority

of

the

popular

vote

more

than

once

while

losing

only

two

entire

states

that

he

had

won

in

On

the

other

hand

the

Republican

Party

experienced

major

gains

two

years

later

in

retaking

the

house

with

a

gain

of

seats

the

largest

Republican

gain

in

years

Additionally

the

Republican

Party

gained

seats

in

the

Senate

slimming

the

Democratic

majority

Despite

Obamas

reelection

in

the

Republicans

had

another

strong

performance

in

the

midterms

they

not

only

increased

their

majority

in

the

House

and

recaptured

the

Senate

but

also

made

gains

in

the

gubernatorial

races

and

other

statewide

and

local

races

resulting

in

Republican

governorships

and

state

legislative

houses

under

Republican

control

thus

increasing

their

influence

to

the

largest

Republican

majority

in

the

entire

country

in

nearly

a

century

presidential

election

Donald

Trump

In

this

election

Donald

Trump

the

Republican

candidate

won

Wisconsin

Michigan

and

Pennsylvania

all

Midwestern

andor

Rust

Belt

states

that

some

had

previously

considered

safely

Democratic

though

those

states

were

close

in

several

prior

elections

Trump

also

came

close

to

winning

New

Hampshire

Minnesota

and

Maine

and

outperformed

previous

Republican

candidates

in

Connecticut

and

Rhode

Island

winning

more

counties

and

towns

in

the

Northeast

than

any

Republican

since

The

Republican

Party

maintained

their

lead

in

both

the

House

and

Senate

The

Republicans

set

a

modern

record

of

holding

governorships

and

fully

controlling

state

legislatures

However

like

with

the

Obama

election

two

years

later

in

the

United

States

elections

the

Republican

Party

lost

control

of

the

House

in

a

loss

of

seats

and

gained

a

few

seats

in

the

Senate

so

the

full

effect

of

the

election

and

Trump

Presidency

as

a

critical

election

remains

to

be

seen

Canada

The

history

of

the

critical

realigning

elections

in

Canada

both

nationally

and

in

the

provinces

is

covered

by

Argyle

Behiels

suggests

that

experts

in

Canadian

politics

are

now

reporting

that

a

watershed

political

realignment

is

underway

the

kind

of

shift

that

occurs

but

once

a

century

In

light

of

the

and

minority

government

elections

and

the

success

of

Stephen

Harper

many

journalists

political

advisors

and

politicians

argue

that

a

new

political

paradigm

is

emerging

and

it

is

based

on

Harpers

drive

for

a

rightwing

political

party

capable

of

reconfiguring

the

role

of

the

state

federal

and

provincial

in

twentyfirstcentury

Bloomfield

and

Nossal

suggest

that

the

new

political

alignment

has

reshaped

Canadian

foreign

policy

especially

in

improving

relations

with

the

US

taking

a

harder

line

on

the

Middle

East

conflicts

and

backing

away

from

the

Kyoto

Protocol

on

global

warming

Federal

Party

systems

model

According

to

recent

scholarship

there

have

been

four

party

systems

in

Canada

at

the

federal

level

since

Confederation

each

with

its

own

distinctive

pattern

of

social

support

patronage

relationships

leadership

styles

and

electoral

strategies

Steve

Patten

identifies

four

party

systems

in

Canadas

political

history

The

first

party

system

emerged

from

preConfederation

colonial

politics

had

its

heyday

from

to

and

lasted

until

the

Conscription

Crisis

of

and

was

characterized

by

local

patronage

administered

by

the

two

largest

parties

the

Liberals

and

the

Conservatives

The

second

system

emerged

following

the

First

World

War

and

had

its

heyday

from

to

was

characterized

by

regionalism

and

saw

the

emergence

of

several

protest

parties

such

as

the

Progressives

the

Social

Credit

Party

and

the

Cooperative

Commonwealth

Federation

The

third

system

emerged

in

and

had

its

heyday

from

to

and

began

to

unravel

thereafter

The

two

largest

parties

were

challenged

by

a

strong

third

party

the

New

Democratic

Party

Campaigns

during

this

era

became

more

national

in

scope

due

to

electronic

media

and

involved

a

greater

focus

on

leadership

The

dominant

policy

of

the

era

was

Keynesian

economics

The

fourth

party

system

has

involved

the

rise

of

the

Reform

Party

the

Bloc

Québécois

and

the

merger

of

the

Canadian

Alliance

with

the

Progressive

Conservatives

It

saw

most

parties

move

to

onememberonevote

leadership

contests

and

a

major

reform

to

campaign

finance

laws

in

The

fourth

party

system

has

been

characterized

by

marketoriented

policies

that

abandoned

Keynesian

policies

but

maintained

the

welfare

state

Clarkson

shows

how

the

Liberal

Party

has

dominated

all

the

party

systems

using

different

approaches

It

began

with

a

clientelistic

approach

under

Laurier

which

evolved

into

a

brokerage

system

of

the

and

under

Mackenzie

King

The

saw

the

emergence

of

a

panCanadian

system

which

lasted

until

the

The

election

categorized

by

Clarkson

as

an

electoral

earthquake

which

fragmented

the

party

system

saw

the

emergence

of

regional

politics

within

a

four

partysystem

whereby

various

groups

championed

regional

issues

and

concerns

Clarkson

concludes

that

the

inherent

bias

built

into

the

firstpastthepost

system

has

chiefly

benefited

the

Liberals

Main

article

Canadian

federal

election

saw

a

Liberal

victory

Sir

Wilfrid

Laurier

Prime

Minister

From

the

election

until

the

Conservative

Party

of

Sir

John

A

Macdonald

had

governed

Canada

excepting

a

single

term

from

to

The

Liberals

had

struggled

to

retake

office

under

Laurier

and

his

predecessor

Edward

Blake

was

the

first

election

held

after

the

death

of

Macdonald

in

and

the

Conservatives

had

been

in

complete

disarray

in

the

ensuing

years

with

no

less

than

four

different

leaders

The

Liberals

would

remain

in

office

until

Beyond

that

political

scientists

often

consider

this

election

that

made

the

Liberal

Party

the

dominant

force

in

Canadian

politics

holding

office

for

more

than

two

thirds

of

the

time

between

and

Main

article

Canadian

federal

election

saw

the

victory

of

the

Progressive

Conservatives

under

Brian

Mulroney

The

election

of

not

only

saw

Brian

Mulroneys

Progressive

Conservatives

win

the

largest

number

of

seats

in

Canadian

History

of

and

the

second

largest

majority

behind

John

Diefenbaker

s

of

in

it

ended

over

twenty

years

of

Liberal

rule

not

counting

the

brief

tenure

of

Joe

Clark

The

Liberal

Party

under

prime

minister

John

Turner

suffered

its

worst

defeat

ever

at

the

time

winning

a

mere

seats

At

the

time

it

was

the

worst

defeat

of

a

sitting

government

in

Canadian

history

Turner

had

just

succeeded

Pierre

Trudeau

as

prime

minister

when

he

decided

to

call

the

election

and

the

Liberals

were

losing

popularity

due

to

the

downfall

of

the

economy

and

Trudeaus

last

minute

patronage

appointments

The

PCs

victory

was

aided

in

large

part

by

a

massive

breakthrough

in

Quebec

winning

seats

as

compared

to

the

one

Quebec

seat

they

won

in

Mulroney

successfully

campaigned

in

Quebec

on

a

message

that

Trudeaus

Liberals

had

sold

out

the

province

during

the

process

of

patriating

the

Canadian

constitution

in

due

to

the

fact

that

Quebec

never

formally

signed

on

to

the

new

constitution

The

Liberals

were

cut

down

to

only

seats

all

but

four

of

them

in

Montreal

Although

Quebec

had

been

a

Liberal

stronghold

since

with

the

exception

of

from

to

the

Canadian

federal

election

the

Liberals

failed

to

win

the

most

seats

in

the

province

they

came

close

in

and

took

the

majority

by

winning

several

byelections

making

this

province

the

most

longlasting

realignment

in

this

election

Although

Mulroney

is

often

grouped

with

contemporary

conservative

leaders

Margaret

Thatcher

and

Ronald

Reagan

and

the

election

is

seen

as

Canadas

version

of

the

United

Kingdom

and

United

States

elections

Mulroney

proved

in

practice

to

be

a

relatively

centrist

leader

Main

article

Canadian

federal

election

saw

not

only

the

sweeping

success

of

the

Liberals

under

Jean

Chrétien

but

also

the

fracturing

the

Progressive

Conservatives

support

base

to

regional

parties

in

Quebec

and

the

western

provinces

resulting

in

a

five

party

political

system

with

the

Liberals

as

the

dominant

party

Throughout

Canadian

history

two

parties

had

taken

turns

in

government

and

opposition

the

Liberals

and

the

Progressive

Conservatives

sometimes

known

as

LiberalConservatives

Conservatives

Union

and

National

Government

The

Conservative

majority

election

victories

in

and

were

based

on

a

Grand

Coalition

between

socially

conservative

populists

from

the

West

Quebec

nationalists

and

fiscal

conservatives

from

Ontario

and

the

Maritimes

making

it

difficult

for

the

Mulroney

government

to

balance

these

diverse

interests

During

his

second

term

Mulroneys

policies

were

unpopular

while

the

failure

of

the

Meech

Lake

and

Charlottetown

Accords

frustrated

Quebec

and

stirred

up

Western

alienation

New

regional

parties

which

formed

in

protest

to

Mulroneys

government

the

Bloc

Québécois

in

Quebec

and

the

Reform

Party

in

the

west

won

many

seats

formerly

held

by

the

PCs

despite

a

lack

of

national

support

The

New

Democratic

Party

the

longtime

third

party

in

parliament

fell

from

seats

to

nine

The

unpopularity

of

the

provincial

NDP

governments

in

Ontario

and

BC

reflected

badly

on

the

federal

NDP

also

their

endorsement

of

the

Charlottetown

Accord

and

Quebec

nationalism

cost

them

support

among

organized

labour

and

rural

voters

in

the

West

which

switched

their

support

to

Reform

Meanwhile

the

Progressive

Conservatives

were

nearly

wiped

out

falling

from

seats

to

only

twothe

worst

defeat

of

a

sitting

government

at

the

federal

level

The

Liberals

under

Chrétien

would

win

a

further

two

consecutive

majorities

in

and

while

never

being

seriously

challenged

as

the

largest

party

The

Progressive

Conservatives

never

recovered

winning

of

seats

in

and

in

before

merging

with

the

Reform

Partys

successor

the

Canadian

Alliance

to

form

the

new

Conservative

Party

of

Canada

in

late

Due

to

competition

with

the

Liberals

for

leftleaning

voters

the

New

Democrats

had

mixed

successes

in

the

next

several

elections

winning

in

but

dropping

back

to

in

unable

to

approach

their

highwater

mark

showing

until

Main

article

Canadian

federal

election

While

Paul

Martin

s

Liberals

retains

enough

seats

to

continue

as

the

government

it

saw

the

reemergence

of

the

Conservatives

and

the

resurgence

of

Bloc

Québécois

resulting

in

a

four

party

system

with

the

ruling

party

as

a

minority

government

This

was

the

first

of

three

elections

where

no

party

managed

a

majority

of

seats

Martin

succeeded

a

retiring

Jean

Chrétien

in

and

initially

polls

predicted

that

the

Liberals

could

expand

their

control

of

Parliament

in

the

next

election

as

Martin

sought

inroads

in

Quebec

and

Western

Canada

while

the

newly

created

Conservative

Party

was

besought

by

controversy

over

its

merger

However

the

revelation

of

the

sponsorship

scandal

along

with

party

infighting

between

Chrétien

and

Martin

weakened

the

Liberals

while

the

reunited

Conservatives

became

a

viable

governing

alternative

and

the

rejuvenated

Bloc

Québécois

At

midcampaign

polls

predicted

a

Conservative

lead

but

the

Liberals

regained

enough

support

to

win

a

plurality

of

seats

to

remain

the

governing

party

Several

trends

would

also

begin

in

which

signaled

the

Liberal

partys

decline

notably

a

high

turnover

of

permanent

party

leaders

in

contrast

to

their

predecessors

who

usually

served

over

two

or

more

elections

and

its

inability

to

raise

campaign

funds

competitively

once

Chrétien

banned

corporate

donations

and

it

would

gradually

lose

support

to

the

Conservatives

and

later

to

the

NDP

The

election

paved

the

way

for

the

election

of

which

brought

about

the

first

electoral

victory

of

a

Canadian

conservative

party

since

and

the

first

conservative

government

in

Canada

since

November

This

ended

years

of

Liberal

government

whose

minority

government

in

was

propped

up

by

the

New

Democratic

Party

until

they

withdrew

their

support

after

fallout

from

the

sponsorship

scandal

As

early

as

conservative

Stephen

Harper

had

theorized

that

a

realignment

would

occur

pitting

middleclass

taxpayers

against

middleclass

tax

recipients

Main

article

Canadian

federal

election

The

election

resulted

in

a

Conservative

majority

victory

under

the

leadership

of

Prime

Minister

Stephen

Harper

after

forming

two

consecutive

minority

governments

The

Liberals

dropped

to

third

party

status

in

Parliament

for

the

first

time

having

previously

always

been

either

the

governing

party

or

the

official

opposition

and

also

no

longer

had

a

significant

number

of

seats

in

Quebec

their

bastion

of

support

from

to

or

Ontario

a

stronghold

since

especially

the

Greater

Toronto

Area

Some

suggested

that

Rob

Ford

s

mayoral

victory

in

November

had

paved

the

way

for

the

federal

Conservatives

successes

in

Toronto

with

rightofcentre

politicians

garnering

significant

support

from

immigrants

that

traditionally

supported

the

Liberals

The

New

Democratic

Party

led

by

Jack

Layton

won

seats

to

become

the

official

opposition

for

the

first

time

in

party

history

as

a

latecampaign

surge

of

support

in

Quebec

took

them

from

one

to

seats

at

the

expense

of

the

other

parties

particularly

the

Bloc

Québécois

which

saw

their

seats

in

that

province

reduced

to

a

rump

of

four

seats

The

Bloc

had

previously

won

the

majority

of

Quebecs

seats

from

to

The

party

leaders

of

the

Liberals

and

the

Bloc

Michael

Ignatieff

and

Gilles

Duceppe

respectively

were

personally

defeated

in

their

own

constituencies

This

marked

a

return

to

the

three

party

system

in

parliament

which

was

last

seen

in

the

election

Commentators

after

the

major

shakeup

in

stressed

the

theme

of

a

major

realignment

The

Economist

said

the

election

represents

the

biggest

realignment

of

Canadian

politics

since

Lawrence

Martin

commentator

for

the

Globe

and

Mail

said

Harper

has

completed

a

remarkable

reconstruction

of

a

Canadian

political

landscape

that

endured

for

more

than

a

century

The

realignment

sees

both

old

parties

of

the

moderate

middle

the

Progressive

Conservatives

and

the

Liberals

either

eliminated

or

marginalized

Macleans

said

the

election

marked

an

unprecedented

realignment

of

Canadian

politics

as

the

Conservatives

are

now

in

a

position

to

replace

the

Liberals

as

the

natural

governing

party

in

Canada

Andrew

Coyne

proclaimed

The

West

is

in

and

Ontario

has

joined

it

noting

that

the

Conservatives

accomplished

the

rare

feat

of

putting

together

a

majority

by

winning

in

both

Ontario

and

the

western

provinces

difficult

due

to

traditionally

conflicting

interests

while

having

little

representation

in

Quebec

After

the

longest

campaign

in

modern

Canadian

history

the

voters

ousted

Harpers

Conservative

government

and

elected

a

new

national

government

on

October

The

new

Prime

Minister

Justin

Trudeau

led

his

Liberal

Party

to

a

majority

government

The

Conservative

Party

fell

to

second

place

with

seats

marking

a

return

to

previous

system

with

the

New

Democratic

Party

returning

into

a

third

party

status

after

achieving

Official

Opposition

in

The

Liberal

Party

also

won

a

majority

of

seats

in

Quebec

for

the

first

time

since

Alberta

Alberta

general

election

End

of

the

unbroken

rule

of

the

Social

Credit

Party

in

favour

of

the

Progressive

Conservatives

Peter

Lougheed

s

Conservatives

defeated

the

Socreds

led

by

Premier

Harry

E

Strom

Although

the

Socreds

lost

only

a

small

share

of

its

popular

vote

from

their

support

in

the

provinces

two

largest

cities

Edmonton

and

Calgary

almost

disappeared

They

lost

all

of

their

seats

in

Edmonton

and

all

but

five

seats

in

Calgary

There

were

ominous

signs

of

Socreds

decline

in

the

election

in

which

they

failed

to

win

of

the

popular

vote

since

Longtime

Premier

Ernest

C

Manning

retired

a

few

months

later

His

successor

Strom

had

been

unable

to

revive

a

party

that

had

grown

tired

and

complacent

while

the

collapse

of

the

other

opposition

parties

made

the

PCs

the

only

credible

challenger

to

the

Socreds

The

Socreds

sank

into

nearparalysis

in

opposition

being

illprepared

for

that

role

after

being

the

governing

party

for

virtually

all

of

its

history

prior

to

Their

support

collapsed

in

the

election

in

which

they

barely

held

onto

official

status

Although

the

Socreds

stayed

in

the

legislature

until

they

were

never

a

force

Albertan

politics

again

The

Progressive

Conservatives

won

every

election

since

prior

to

despite

losing

some

luster

during

Don

Getty

s

tenure

of

they

have

regained

strength

under

Ralph

Klein

Alberta

general

election

The

unbroken

rule

of

the

Progressive

Conservatives

which

begun

in

was

ended

by

the

Alberta

New

Democratic

Party

who

won

a

majority

government

and

reduced

the

PCs

to

third

place

in

the

legislature

British

Columbia

British

Columbia

general

election

End

of

Social

Credit

as

an

effective

political

force

in

British

Columbia

politics

The

Socreds

under

Premier

Rita

Johnston

was

reduced

to

third

party

status

while

the

New

Democratic

Party

of

Mike

Harcourt

formed

the

government

Liberal

Party

leader

Gordon

Wilson

surprised

observers

by

leading

his

party

to

winning

onethird

of

the

votes

cast

This

was

enough

to

not

only

return

them

to

the

legislature

but

make

them

the

official

opposition

The

Socreds

had

been

beset

by

scandals

during

Bill

Vander

Zalm

s

last

term

as

premier

Party

control

shifted

from

urban

fiscal

conservatives

to

social

conservatives

causing

the

coalition

to

unravel

and

pushing

many

moderates

to

eventually

switch

to

the

Liberals

After

Premier

Vander

Zalm

resigned

Socred

members

voted

the

lesserknown

Johnston

a

close

ally

of

Vander

Zalm

over

Grace

McCarthy

Many

viewed

this

as

a

mistake

as

Johnston

was

close

to

the

Vander

Zalm

legacy

even

NDP

leader

Harcourt

admitted

later

that

he

preferred

Johnston

over

McCarthy

Wilsons

party

gained

gradually

but

surged

after

his

strong

performance

in

the

televised

leaders

debates

Wilson

was

initially

not

invited

and

took

legal

action

to

overturn

his

exclusion

However

once

he

became

opposition

leader

Wilson

proved

unable

to

consolidate

the

partys

leadership

he

was

eventually

deposed

and

later

became

a

New

Democrat

British

Columbia

general

election

The

centreright

coalesced

around

the

BC

Liberal

Party

which

won

of

seats

and

of

the

popular

vote

This

essentially

rebuilt

much

of

the

Socred

coalition

around

the

BC

Liberal

Party

At

the

same

time

the

NDP

faced

significant

unpopularity

after

several

scandals

such

as

the

Fast

Ferry

Scandal

and

failed

to

break

the

Liberal

majority

until

Quebec

A

considerable

number

of

Quebec

general

elections

have

been

known

characterized

by

high

seat

turnovers

with

certain

ones

being

considered

realigning

elections

notably

The

election

which

ended

years

of

Liberal

rule

of

them

recently

under

LouisAlexandre

Taschereau

and

saw

the

rise

of

Maurice

Duplessis

s

Union

Nationale

The

election

after

the

deaths

of

Duplessis

and

his

successor

Paul

Sauvé

which

ended

continuous

years

of

Union

Nationale

rule

and

precipitated

its

gradual

decline

It

also

ushered

in

the

Quiet

Revolution

under

Jean

Lesage

The

election

which

saw

René

Lévesque

s

Parti

Québécois

not

only

make

a

breakthrough

in

the

National

Assembly

it

also

drove

Robert

Bourassa

s

Liberals

from

office

It

also

made

sovereignty

the

dominant

political

issue

The

election

marked

the

successful

political

comeback

of

Bourassa

and

his

Liberals

while

also

putting

sovereignty

as

an

issue

to

rest

until

a

decade

later

The

Quebec

Liberal

Party

unaffiliated

with

the

federal

Liberals

since

survived

since

Confederation

but

they

have

faced

different

opposition

parties

several

of

which

had

formed

the

government

often

alternating

with

the

Liberals

Quebec

general

election

Ascent

of

the

Action

démocratique

du

Québec

ADQ

to

Official

Opposition

status

While

the

federalist

Liberals

maintained

a

plurality

in

the

National

Assembly

of

Quebec

and

Jean

Charest

remained

Premier

the

conservative

Quebec

nationalist

ADQ

successfully

replaced

the

social

democratic

and

sovereigntist

Parti

Québécois

as

the

Official

Opposition

prior

to

this

election

the

ADQ

never

had

more

than

five

Members

of

the

National

Assembly

Quebec

general

election

Return

of

the

Action

démocratique

du

Québec

ADQ

to

third

party

status

The

ADQ

lost

the

great

majority

of

the

seats

they

had

gained

in

the

previous

year

Soon

after

the

election

leader

Mario

Dumont

resigned

and

the

party

fell

into

a

period

of

disarray

Since

the

provincial

elections

in

Quebec

show

increasing

voter

realignment

and

volatility

in

party

support

Realigning

elections

outside

of

North

America

Asia

Indian

general

election

The

Indian

National

Congress

which

had

led

the

country

to

independence

in

and

had

won

every

election

since

the

first

postindependence

election

in

lost

power

to

the

Janata

Party

led

by

Morarji

Desai

after

the

immensely

unpopular

imposition

of

The

Emergency

by

Prime

Minister

Indira

Gandhi

since

Both

Indira

Gandhi

and

her

son

Sanjay

lost

their

seats

Israeli

legislative

election

Likud

defeated

the

Alignment

led

by

the

Israel

Labor

Party

allowing

Likud

to

lead

a

government

for

the

first

time

ever

For

the

first

years

of

Israels

independence

politics

had

been

dominated

by

Labor

and

its

predecessor

Mapai

Pior

to

this

election

a

hypothetical

bloc

of

Rightwing

and

Religious

parties

would

rarely

ever

approach

the

threshold

of

a

majority

government

however

since

a

combination

of

these

two

blocs

have

made

up

the

majority

of

Israels

electorate

since

then

with

exceptions

of

a

few

elections

but

no

longer

running

far

behind

in

comparison

to

prior

to

Due

to

corruption

in

the

Labor

Party

many

former

Labor

voters

defected

to

the

new

Democratic

Movement

for

Change

which

won

seats

coming

in

third

behind

the

Likud

with

seats

and

Alignment

Labor

plus

Mapam

with

seats

The

DMC

collapsed

within

three

years

allowing

Labor

to

rebound

in

the

next

election

Labor

and

Likud

dominated

Israeli

politics

until

when

Labor

went

into

sudden

decline

due

to

a

backlash

against

the

failed

Oslo

Accords

and

the

outbreak

of

the

Second

Intifada

Republic

of

China

presidential

election

Taiwan

Chen

Shuibian

Though

more

popular

and

consistently

ranked

higher

in

the

polls

James

Soong

failed

to

gain

the

ruling

Kuomintang

s

KMT

nomination

over

incumbent

Vice

President

Lien

Chan

As

a

result

he

announced

his

candidacy

as

an

independent

candidate

and

was

consequently

expelled

from

the

party

The

split

in

the

KMT

vote

resulted

in

a

victory

for

Chen

Shuibian

of

the

Democratic

Progressive

Party

even

though

he

won

only

of

the

popular

vote

After

the

election

Soong

founded

the

People

First

Party

which

attracted

members

from

the

KMT

and

the

prounification

New

Party

which

was

by

that

time

beginning

to

fade

Angry

from

the

defeat

the

KMT

expelled

chairman

Lee

Tenghui

who

was

president

until

and

was

widely

suspected

of

causing

the

KMT

split

so

that

Chen

would

win

Lee

then

founded

the

proindependence

Taiwan

Solidarity

Union

The

impact

of

these

events

changed

the

political

landscape

of

Taiwan

Not

only

did

the

KMT

lose

the

presidency

for

the

first

time

in

half

a

century

but

its

policies

swung

away

from

Lees

influence

and

it

began

intraparty

reform

The

two

newly

founded

parties

became

far

more

viable

than

other

minor

parties

in

the

past

and

the

multiparty

nature

of

Taiwans

politics

was

confirmed

by

the

legislative

elections

of

The

KMT

would

not

return

to

power

until

under

the

leadership

of

Ma

Yingjeou

Turkish

general

election

Justice

and

Development

Party

victory

This

election

was

notable

in

that

every

party

in

the

previous

Grand

National

Assembly

of

Turkey

was

ejected

from

Parliament

as

of

them

crossed

the

percent

threshold

This

not

only

included

the

governing

coalition

of

the

Democratic

Left

Party

Motherland

Party

and

Nationalist

Movement

Party

but

the

largest

opposition

party

the

True

Path

Party

The

AKP

which

won

government

in

this

election

has

dominated

Turkish

politics

since

then

Palestinian

legislative

election

Palestinian

National

Authority

Hamas

victory

Ismail

Haniyeh

Prime

Minister

In

January

the

militant

Hamas

organization

classified

as

a

terrorist

group

by

the

United

States

government

and

other

groups

won

a

landslide

victory

over

the

ruling

Fatah

party

which

had

been

in

power

under

the

leadership

of

former

PLO

chairman

Yasser

Arafat

The

Bush

Administration

the

Quartet

and

Israel

all

threatened

to

cut

off

aid

to

the

Palestinian

Authority

if

Hamas

refused

to

abandon

terrorist

tactics

and

recognize

the

right

of

the

State

of

Israel

to

exist

This

concession

though

discussed

in

Hamas

circles

did

not

come

about

soon

enough

to

prevent

a

serious

breakdown

in

services

under

Hamas

government

and

Western

especially

American

support

of

Fatah

paramilitaries

eventually

led

to

the

breakout

of

the

FatahHamas

conflict

termed

a

Palestinian

Civil

War

by

some

in

December

The

Hamas

government

was

suspended

by

PA

President

Mahmoud

Abbas

a

member

of

Fatah

after

some

weeks

of

fighting

and

installed

a

caretaker

government

under

the

leadership

of

Salam

Fayyad

Europe

Irish

general

election

Sinn

Féin

victory

For

the

previous

four

decades

Irish

politics

had

been

dominated

by

the

moderate

nationalist

Irish

Parliamentary

Party

which

sought

Home

Rule

within

the

United

Kingdom

The

election

was

a

landslide

victory

for

the

Republican

Sinn

Féin

party

which

won

nearly

of

the

seats

The

new

Sinn

Féin

MPs

refused

to

take

their

seats

in

the

Westminster

Parliament

and

instead

set

up

their

own

republican

assembly

called

Dáil

Éireann

This

assembly

issued

a

unilateral

Declaration

of

Independence

which

led

to

the

start

of

the

War

of

Independence

and

eventually

to

Irish

independence

from

the

United

Kingdom

in

The

Irish

Parliamentary

Party

never

recovered

from

this

defeat

The

two

largest

parties

in

Ireland

Fianna

Fáil

and

Fine

Gael

originated

from

splits

in

the

Sinn

Féin

party

which

won

the

election

of

United

Kingdom

general

election

Conservative

victory

Andrew

Bonar

Law

Prime

Minister

This

election

marked

the

Conservatives

first

election

victory

since

More

importantly

the

Labour

Party

passed

the

two

wings

of

the

Liberals

to

become

the

Loyal

Opposition

for

the

first

time

ever

For

over

years

the

Liberals

and

Conservatives

and

their

antecedents

had

been

the

UKs

major

parties

However

the

election

saw

Labour

pass

the

Liberals

in

the

British

landscape

Labour

and

the

Conservatives

have

been

the

UKs

major

parties

since

then

The

Liberals

would

not

be

a

major

force

in

UK

politics

again

until

when

as

the

Liberal

Democrats

they

formed

a

coalition

government

with

the

Conservatives

Irish

general

election

Fianna

Fáil

victory

Éamon

de

Valera

President

of

the

Executive

Council

This

election

resulted

in

Fianna

Fáil

led

by

Éamon

de

Valera

becoming

the

largest

party

in

Dáil

Éireann

for

the

first

time

Fianna

Fáil

remained

in

power

for

the

next

years

and

remained

the

largest

party

in

the

lower

house

of

the

Oireachtas

for

the

next

years

serving

as

the

government

more

than

of

those

years

United

Kingdom

general

election

Conservative

victory

Margaret

Thatcher

Prime

Minister

This

election

brought

the

Conservatives

into

government

where

they

remained

for

years

Thatchers

policies

of

monetarism

and

privatization

represented

a

very

different

strand

of

Conservatism

to

that

of

previous

governments

and

a

bold

shift

from

the

post

war

consensus

that

had

existed

since

The

shockwaves

led

to

a

new

party

the

Social

Democratic

Party

and

a

long

period

of

opposition

for

Labour

during

which

time

they

were

reformed

and

transformed

into

New

Labour

before

they

returned

to

government

At

a

more

base

level

it

led

to

a

shift

in

voting

patterns

as

the

traditional

class

based

voting

started

to

break

down

and

many

of

the

working

classes

in

particular

skilled

workers

home

owners

and

those

in

southern

England

voted

Conservative

whilst

at

the

same

time

many

public

sector

professionals

turned

away

from

them

Spanish

general

election

Spanish

Socialist

Workers

Party

victory

This

election

saw

the

Union

of

the

Democratic

Centre

the

party

that

had

shepherded

the

country

through

its

transition

to

democracy

nearly

wiped

out

The

UCD

fell

to

only

seats

and

was

replaced

as

the

main

nonsocialist

party

by

the

Peoples

Alliance

The

PSOE

and

the

APnow

the

Peoples

Party

have

dominated

Spanish

politics

Italian

general

election

Forza

Italia

Pole

of

Freedoms

victory

This

election

resulted

in

the

neardestruction

of

the

Italian

Peoples

Party

the

renamed

Christian

Democrats

which

had

been

the

largest

party

in

the

country

since

The

Italian

Socialist

Party

a

major

coalition

partner

for

the

last

years

was

decimated

as

well

Polish

parliamentary

election

The

elections

resulted

in

a

widely

expected

heavy

defeat

for

the

postCommunist

Democratic

Left

Alliance

government

with

conservative

parties

such

as

Law

and

Justice

and

Civic

Platform

emerging

as

the

dominant

parties

in

Poland

Irish

general

election

Fianna

Fáil

who

had

governed

Ireland

for

most

of

the

postindependence

era

were

heavily

defeated

in

the

election

following

anger

over

Irelands

financial

crisis

For

the

first

time

Fine

Gael

overtook

Fianna

Fáil

to

win

the

most

votes

and

seats

while

Fianna

Fáil

fell

from

first

place

to

third

place

in

terms

of

both

votes

and

seats

Fine

Gael

and

the

second

largest

party

in

the

Dáil

the

Labour

Party

formed

a

coalition

government

Greek

legislative

election

May

Greeces

two

main

political

parties

since

the

restoration

of

democracy

in

New

Democracy

and

the

Panhellenic

Socialist

Movement

PASOK

saw

a

combined

fall

in

support

from

nearly

in

to

just

one

third

of

support

for

their

role

in

supporting

austerity

measures

to

alleviate

the

Greek

governmentdebt

crisis

In

this

election

PASOK

fell

dramatically

from

first

place

to

third

place

This

election

also

saw

the

shift

of

leftleaning

support

to

Coalition

of

the

Radical

Left

SYRIZA

which

has

at

been

the

forefront

of

opposition

to

the

austerity

measures

French

presidential

election

Neither

the

mainstream

left

Socialist

Party

nor

the

mainstream

right

Republicans

made

the

second

round

of

voting

the

first

time

since

the

Second

World

War

that

both

of

the

formerly

dominant

strands

of

French

politics

have

not

been

represented

Instead

the

two

leading

candidates

the

eventual

winner

centrist

liberal

proEuropean

Emmanuel

Macron

of

En

Marche

and

farright

Eurosceptic

Marine

Le

Pen

of

the

National

Front

were

identified

by

many

analysts

as

representing

a

new

openclosed

political

spectrum

between

conservative

protectionism

and

liberal

globalism

United

Kingdom

general

election

This

election

saw

traditional

blue

collar

Labour

Party

voters

who

voted

in

the

referendum

to

leave

the

European

Union

swing

significantly

to

the

Conservatives

This

is

attributed

to

the

socially

conservative

attitudes

on

immigration

increasingly

taking

precedence

over

left

wing

economic

views

amongst

this

segment

In

the

meantime

areas

with

a

greater

share

of

people

with

university

education

saw

greater

swings

to

the

Labour

Party

in

urban

areas

like

London

and

the

South

of

England

with

its

appeal

to

educated

cosmopolitan

city

dwellers

The

Conservative

and

Labour

parties

saw

their

combined

share

of

the

vote

rise

to

the

highest

Latin

America

Brazilian

general

election

Luís

Inácio

Lula

da

Silva

President

According

to

political

theorist

and

former

spokesman

of

the

Brazilian

Presidency

André

Singer

the

rise

to

power

of

the

Workers

Party

PT

and

the

subsequent

creation

and

expansion

of

income

redistribution

policies

Bolsa

Família

minimum

wage

increases

etc

has

realigned

the

Brazilian

political

scene

Even

in

the

event

of

an

PTs

electoral

defeat

it

is

argued

no

president

would

risk

reverting

Lulas

programs

for

fear

of

the

reaction

of

the

lower

classes

Lulas

victory

in

marked

the

beginning

of

the

first

leftwing

government

since

Colombian

presidential

election

Enrique

Olaya

Herrera

President

After

a

domination

in

national

politics

by

the

Conservative

Party

since

the

division

of

the

conservative

ticket

along

with

the

economic

crisis

and

the

Banana

Massacre

caused

the

first

victory

of

the

Liberal

Party

in

half

a

century

This

was

the

start

of

the

period

known

as

Liberal

Republic

in

which

the

liberals

kept

the

presidency

for

years

Furthermore

this

also

started

a

winningstrike

in

legislative

elections

that

would

last

until

with

the

liberals

winning

in

all

elections

they

participated

in

with

either

a

majority

or

plurality

being

the

first

force

in

Congress

in

out

of

years

Venezuelan

presidential

election

Hugo

Chávez

Frías

President

Oceania

Australia

Australian

federal

election

Labor

victory

Andrew

Fisher

Prime

Minister

Australian

federal

election

Liberal

victory

Robert

Menzies

Prime

Minister

Australian

federal

election

Labor

victory

Gough

Whitlam

Prime

Minister

After

twentythree

years

of

Liberal

rule

the

Labor

Party

took

power

in

with

the

slogan

Its

Time

The

significance

of

this

election

was

broader

than

merely

a

change

of

partisan

rule

new

issues

such

as

the

environment

Aboriginal

affairs

abortion

multiculturalism

and

a

broader

acceptance

of

state

spending

resulted

from

the

Whitlam

government

which

in

many

respects

created

a

bipartisan

consensus

on

major

issues

of

social

policy

Although

the

Whitlam

government

was

relatively

brief

its

policy

legacyin

creating

new

government

policies

for

society

and

culturelasted

in

many

respects

to

the

election

and

even

to

the

present

day

Australian

federal

election

Labor

victory

Bob

Hawke

Prime

Minister

Australian

federal

election

Liberal

victory

John

Howard

Prime

Minister

The

recent

Australian

political

spectrum

has

consisted

of

two

major

parties

the

conservative

Liberal

Party

of

Australia

and

the

democratic

socialist

Australian

Labor

Party

ALP

although

as

of

late

Labor

has

been

more

aligned

with

the

third

way

This

election

followed

Labors

reelection

in

the

election

which

was

termed

the

unwinnable

election

for

the

Labor

Prime

Minister

Paul

Keating

It

marked

the

end

of

the

Hawke

Keating

Labor

government

which

had

been

in

power

for

years

During

this

time

the

conservative

Liberal

party

had

undergone

several

failed

leadership

changes

including

Andrew

Peacock

in

and

John

Howard

in

and

John

Hewson

in

The

election

saw

the

ALP

lose

seats

in

the

House

of

Representatives

with

a

twopartypreferred

result

of

the

lowest

for

Labor

since

The

election

was

significantly

influenced

by

the

demographic

coined

as

the

Howards

battlers

These

were

traditionally

lower

middle

class

Labor

party

voters

who

felt

that

the

ALP

was

no

longer

giving

them

the

recognition

they

deserve

Notorious

demographics

which

fell

in

were

outer

suburb

mortgage

belt

areas

Howards

battlers

played

a

part

in

the

election

where

the

ALP

under

Kevin

Rudd

was

returned

to

power

Large

gains

made

by

Labor

took

place

in

many

of

former

Liberal

strongholds

in

the

mortgage

belt

due

to

various

issues

common

with

the

election

in

terms

of

general

dissatisfaction

as

well

as

high

interest

rates

Queensland

Queensland

state

election

Labor

victory

TJ

Ryan

Premier

of

Queensland

Labor

forms

majority

government

in

Queensland

for

the

first

time

and

would

win

out

of

state

elections

the

exception

being

in

until

the

ALPDLP

split

resulted

in

the

expulsion

of

Labor

Premier

Vince

Gair

from

the

ALP

in

Queensland

state

election

Country

Liberal

Coalition

victory

Frank

Nicklin

Premier

of

Queensland

The

Country

Party

forms

majority

government

in

Queensland

in

coalition

with

the

Liberal

Party

after

the

split

of

the

ruling

Labor

Party

The

Country

Party

would

be

in

Government

in

Queensland

for

the

next

years

and

state

elections

during

this

period

with

years

under

the

Premiership

of

Sir

Joh

BjeklePetersen

as

the

longest

serving

Premier

of

Queensland

The

CountryNational

Party

would

even

win

a

Parliamentary

majority

in

its

own

right

at

the

Queensland

state

elections

in

and

the

only

occasions

where

the

party

has

governed

a

State

or

Territory

of

Australia

without

being

in

Coalition

with

the

Liberal

Party

Queensland

state

election

Labor

victory

Wayne

Goss

Premier

of

Queensland

Labor

forms

majority

government

in

Queensland

for

the

first

time

since

after

the

Fitzgerald

Inquiry

into

Police

and

Political

Corruption

results

in

the

resignation

of

Sir

Joh

BjeklePetersen

and

the

collapse

in

support

for

the

Nationals

Party

Labor

has

won

out

of

the

Queensland

state

elections

during

this

period

the

exception

being

in

only

twice

have

the

LiberalNational

coalition

formed

government

under

Rob

Borbidge

and

Campbell

Newman

New

Zealand

New

Zealand

general

election

Liberal

victory

John

Ballance

Prime

Minister

The

coming

to

power

of

the

Liberal

Party

is

heralded

as

a

major

milestone

in

New

Zealand

history

It

marked

the

beginning

of

proper

party

politics

in

New

Zealand

While

groupings

of

Liberal

and

Conservative

politicians

date

back

to

the

they

were

more

akin

to

loose

factions

rather

than

properly

organised

parties

Massive

economic

and

social

reforms

took

place

following

with

a

progressive

land

tax

partnered

with

leasehold

sponsorship

to

stimulate

agriculture

which

recovered

the

country

from

the

Long

Depression

Ballances

successor

Richard

Seddon

carried

on

reforms

concentrating

largely

on

establishing

welfare

Arguably

the

Liberals

most

famous

and

important

achievement

was

the

enfranchisement

of

women

a

major

social

upheaval

which

saw

New

Zealand

become

the

first

country

in

the

world

to

allow

women

to

vote

New

Zealand

general

election

Labour

victory

Michael

Joseph

Savage

Prime

Minister

The

election

brought

Labour

to

power

for

the

first

time

Huge

economic

change

resulted

from

their

entry

into

office

at

the

height

of

the

Great

Depression

which

was

to

remain

in

place

for

half

a

century

A

generous

welfare

system

labeled

as

social

security

was

instigated

and

the

countrys

existing

free

market

economy

was

completely

abandoned

in

favour

of

a

Keynesian

based

system

with

higher

tariffs

guaranteed

prices

for

producers

and

emphasis

on

local

manufacturing

to

create

jobs

The

government

was

praised

for

their

policies

resulting

in

another

landslide

victory

in

The

political

landscape

was

also

to

change

with

the

three

party

era

ending

with

the

United

and

Reform

parties

who

had

formed

a

coalition

between

and

completely

merging

into

the

new

National

Party

who

remain

Labours

main

rival

to

the

present

day

both

occupying

either

government

or

opposition

ever

since

New

Zealand

general

election

Labour

victory

David

Lange

Prime

Minister

The

election

of

the

Labour

Government

under

the

leadership

of

David

Lange

and

Roger

Douglas

brought

about

radical

economic

reform

moving

New

Zealand

from

what

had

probably

been

one

of

the

most

protected

regulated

and

statedominated

system

of

any

capitalist

democracy

to

an

extreme

position

at

the

open

competitive

freemarket

end

of

the

spectrum

Social

policies

also

took

a

dramatic

change

with

New

Zealands

largely

socially

conservative

outlook

being

reshaped

with

more

liberal

outlooks

in

the

Lange

governments

policy

epitomised

by

policies

such

as

the

passing

of

antinuclear

legislation

and

the

legalisation

of

homosexuality

Foreign

relations

also

changed

dramatically

with

New

Zealand

abandoning

their

allegiances

with

the

United

States

largely

over

the

issue

of

antinuclear

policy

culminating

in

their

exclusion

from

ANZUS

by

both

the

US

and

Australia

New

Zealand

general

election

National

New

Zealand

First

coalition

victory

Jim

Bolger

Prime

Minister

The

election

was

the

first

held

under

the

new

mixedmember

proportional

MMP

voting

system

introduced

after

two

referendums

in

and

and

signalled

the

transition

from

the

twoparty

era

to

a

new

multiparty

era

See

also

American

election

campaigns

in

the

century

Second

Party

System

Third

Party

System

Fifth

Party

System

Wave

election

Notes

and

references

a

b

c

d

e

Jenkins

et

al

Schafer

Rosenof

Reichley

A

James

The

Life

of

the

Parties

Paperback

ed

Rowman

Littlefield

pp

Sundquist

Rosenof

a

b

Silbey

Michael

F

Holt

The

Political

Crisis

of

the

Robert

J

Dinkin

Campaigning

in

America

A

History

of

Election

Practices

Lewis

L

Gould

New

Perspectives

on

the

Republican

Party

American

Historical

Review

Vol

No

Oct

pp

Burnham

a

b

c

Schafer

Campbell

James

E

Fall

Party

Systems

and

Realignments

in

the

United

States

Social

Science

History

doi

JSTOR

Barreyre

Nicolas

October

The

Politics

of

Economic

Crises

The

Panic

of

the

End

of

Reconstruction

and

the

Realignment

of

American

Politics

The

Journal

of

the

Gilded

Age

and

the

Progressive

Era

doi

JSTOR

Mayhew

Rosenof

Shafer

Perlstein

Rick

Nixonland

The

Rise

of

a

President

and

the

Fracturing

of

America

Simon

and

Schuster

Rosenof

Shafer

Perlstein

Nixonland

Kleppner

Loughlin

Sean

July

Reagan

cast

a

wide

shadow

in

politics

CNN

Retrieved

October

Troy

Gil

The

Age

of

Reagan

The

Gilder

Lehrman

Institute

of

American

History

Gilderlehrmanorg

Retrieved

June

a

b

Page

Susan

June

USATODAYcom

Reagans

political

force

realigned

political

landscape

Retrieved

June

Rosenof

Schafer

Abramowitz

and

Saunders

Krugman

Paul

The

Conscience

of

a

Liberal

New

York

City

W

W

Norton

Print

Morning

Joe

MSNBC

Retrieved

Opinion

despite

autopsy

GOP

could

have

revival

in

Politico

April

Retrieved

May

Ruth

Murray

Brown

For

a

Christian

America

A

History

of

the

Religious

Right

Peter

Applebome

November

THE

ELECTIONS

THE

SOUTH

The

Rising

GOP

Tide

Overwhelms

the

Democratic

Levees

in

the

South

New

York

Times

Retrieved

September

Obama

in

Reagans

shadow

The

Week

Retrieved

End

Times

for

Reaganism

The

Week

Retrieved

Nichols

John

November

Obamas

Million

Vote

Electoral

College

Landslide

Majority

of

States

Mandate

The

Nation

Retrieved

November

Zeleny

Jeff

Rutenberg

Jim

November

Divided

US

Gives

Obama

More

Time

The

New

York

Times

Retrieved

November

Pierog

Karen

Republicans

gain

big

in

state

legislative

elections

Reuters

Reuters

Retrieved

November

Nearly

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Americans

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under

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The

Washington

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The

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November

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Eric

Democrats

Got

Wrecked

Again

in

State

Legislative

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and

it

Matters

More

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You

Might

Think

Reason

Retrieved

August

Ray

Argyle

Turning

Points

The

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That

Changed

Canada

and

Before

excerpt

and

text

search

Behiels

cites

Tom

Flanaganm

Harpers

Team

Behind

the

Scenes

in

the

Conservative

Rise

to

Power

ed

McGillQueens

UP

Chantal

Hébert

French

Kiss

Stephen

Harpers

Blind

Date

with

Quebec

Knopf

Canada

William

Johnson

Stephen

Harper

and

the

Future

of

Canada

ed

McClelland

Stewart

Lloyd

Mackay

Stephen

Harper

The

Case

for

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ECW

Press

Bob

Plamondon

Full

Circle

Death

and

Resurrection

in

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Books

and

Paul

Wells

Right

Side

Up

The

Fall

of

Paul

Martin

and

the

Rise

of

Stephen

Harpers

New

Conservatism

Douglas

Gibson

Books

Michael

D

Behiels

Stephen

Harpers

Rise

to

Power

Will

His

New

Conservative

Party

Become

Canadas

Natural

Governing

Party

of

the

TwentyFirst

Century

American

Review

of

Canadian

Studies

Vol

No

March

Alan

Bloomfield

and

Kim

Richard

Nossal

Towards

an

Explicative

Understanding

of

Strategic

Culture

The

Cases

of

Australia

and

Canada

Contemporary

Security

Policy

online

AlainG

Gagnon

and

A

Brain

Tanguay

Canadian

Parties

in

Transition

ed

Steve

Patten

The

Evolution

of

the

Canadian

Party

System

in

Gagnon

and

Tanguay

eds

Canadian

Parties

in

Transition

pp

Stephen

Clarkson

The

Big

Red

Machine

How

the

Liberal

Party

Dominates

Canadian

Politics

Ray

Argyle

Turning

Points

The

Campaigns

That

Changed

Canada

and

Before

excerpt

and

text

search

ch

a

b

c

Scott

Stinson

Redefining

the

Liberals

not

a

quick

process

Full

Comment

National

Post

Fullcommentnationalpostcom

Archived

from

on

Retrieved

a

b

Conrad

Black

The

full

measure

of

Harpers

triumph

Full

Comment

National

Post

Fullcommentnationalpostcom

Retrieved

Wells

Paul

The

untold

story

of

the

election

Introduction

and

Chapter

Paul

Wells

Macleansca

Retrieved

CBC

News

In

Depth

Reality

Check

John

Gray

Cbcca

Retrieved

William

Johnson

Stephen

Harper

and

the

Future

of

Canada

pp

Ray

Argyle

Turning

Points

The

Campaigns

That

Changed

Canada

and

Before

excerpt

and

text

search

ch

Howard

Cody

and

Jamie

Gillies

The

Canadian

Party

System

and

the

Leadership

of

Stephen

Harper

The

New

England

Journal

of

Political

Science

Rob

Fords

approval

rating

at

poll

Posted

Toronto

National

Post

Newsnationalpostcom

Retrieved

This

page

is

available

to

GlobePlus

subscribers

Theglobeandmailcom

Retrieved

Economist

May

Lawrence

Martin

Harpers

triumph

a

realignment

of

historic

proportions

Globe

and

Mail

May

Andrew

Coyne

The

West

is

in

and

Ontario

has

joined

it

How

the

election

led

to

an

unprecedented

realignment

of

Canadian

politics

Macleans

May

Jon

H

Pammett

and

Christopher

Dornan

eds

The

Canadian

Federal

Election

of

Dundurn

James

P

Allan

and

Richard

Vengroff

Party

System

Change

in

Québec

Evidence

from

Recent

Elections

Southern

Journal

of

Canadian

Studies

Danner

Chas

April

What

Pundits

Are

Saying

About

the

Next

Phase

of

the

French

Election

New

York

Magazine

Retrieved

April

Election

how

the

UK

voted

in

charts

Financial

Times

June

Retrieved

July

Missing

or

empty

title

help

Further

reading

Wagner

Matthew

L

and

Paul

White

Jr

Parties

and

Democratic

Transitions

The

Decline

of

Dominant

and

Hegemonic

Parties

Europe

Heppell

Tim

The

conservative

party

leadership

of

David

Cameron

Heresthetics

and

the

realignment

of

British

Politics

British

Politics

Hutcheson

Derek

S

The

Seismology

Of

Psephology

Earthquake

Elections

From

The

Folketing

To

The

Dáil

Representation

Keil

Silke

and

Oscar

Gabriel

The

BadenWürttemberg

State

Election

of

A

Political

Landslide

German

Politics

White

Timothy

J

The

Irish

General

Election

Critical

Realigning

Deviating

or

Something

Else

Irish

Journal

of

Public

Policy

Canada

Johnston

Richard

Alignment

Realignment

and

Dealignment

in

Canada

The

View

From

Above

Canadian

Journal

of

Political

Science

Koop

Royce

and

Amanda

Bittner

Parties

and

Elections

after

The

Fifth

Canadian

Party

System

Parties

Elections

and

the

Future

of

Canadian

Politics

LeDuc

Lawrence

The

federal

election

in

Canada

May

Electoral

Studies

United

States

Abramowitz

Alan

I

and

Kyle

L

Saunders

Ideological

Realignment

in

the

US

Electorate

Journal

of

Politics

Aldrich

John

H

Why

Parties

The

Origin

and

Transformation

of

Party

Politics

in

America

Chicago

The

University

of

Chicago

Press

Aldrich

John

H

Southern

Politics

in

State

and

Nation

Journal

of

Politics

Bullock

Charles

S

III

Donna

R

Hoffman

and

Ronald

Keith

Gaddie

Regional

Variations

in

the

Realignment

of

American

Politics

Social

Science

Quarterly

v

Sept

pp

Finds

both

critical

and

secular

realignments

at

work

with

different

patterns

in

each

region

since

Stresses

the

collapse

of

Republican

hegemony

in

the

Northeast

and

Pacific

West

election

was

a

realigning

election

Burnham

Walter

Dean

Critical

elections

and

the

mainsprings

of

American

politics

ISBN

Burnham

Walter

Dean

Periodization

Schemes

and

Party

Systems

The

System

of

as

a

Case

in

Point

Social

Science

History

Vol

No

Autumn

pp

in

JSTOR

Chambers

William

Nisbet

and

Walter

Dean

Burnham

eds

American

Party

Systems

Stages

of

Political

Development

ISBN

Carmines

Edward

G

and

James

A

Stimson

Issue

Evolution

Race

and

the

Transformation

of

American

Politics

ISBN

Clubb

Jerome

M

William

H

Flanigan

Nancy

H

Zingale

Partisan

Realignment

Voters

Parties

and

Government

in

American

History

Cunningham

Sean

P

Cowboy

Conservatism

Texas

and

the

Rise

of

the

Modern

Right

Gerring

John

Party

Ideologies

in

America

ISBN

Gienap

William

E

The

Origins

of

the

Republican

Party

ISBN

Holt

Michael

F

The

New

Political

History

and

the

Civil

War

Era

Reviews

in

American

History

Vol

No

Mar

pp

in

JSTOR

Jensen

Richard

J

Grass

Roots

Politics

Parties

Issues

and

Voters

Westport

Greenwood

ISBN

Jensen

Richard

The

Winning

of

the

Midwest

Social

and

Political

Conflict

ISBN

Jenkins

Shannon

Douglas

D

Roscoe

John

P

Frendreis

and

Alan

R

Gitelson

Ten

Years

After

the

Revolution

and

Partisan

Control

of

Government

in

Green

and

Coffey

The

State

of

the

Parties

ed

ISBN

Key

VO

A

Theory

of

Critical

Elections

The

Journal

of

Politics

Kleppner

Paul

ed

Evolution

of

American

Electoral

Systems

ISBN

Ladd

Jr

Everett

Carll

with

Charles

D

Hadley

Transformations

of

the

American

Party

System

Political

Coalitions

from

the

New

Deal

to

the

ed

ISBN

Lichtman

Allan

J

Critical

elections

theory

and

the

reality

of

American

presidential

politics

American

Historical

Review

in

JSTOR

Lichtman

Allan

J

Political

Realignment

and

Ethnocultural

Voting

in

Late

Nineteenth

Century

America

Journal

of

Social

History

Vol

No

Spring

pp

in

JSTOR

Manza

Jeff

and

Clem

Brooks

Social

Cleavages

and

Political

Change

Voter

Alignments

and

US

Party

Coalitions

Oxford

University

Press

ISBN

McCormick

Richard

P

The

Second

American

Party

System

Party

Formation

in

the

Jacksonian

Era

ISBN

Maisel

L

Sandy

ed

Political

Parties

and

Elections

in

the

United

States

An

Encyclopedia

ISBN

Mayhew

David

R

Electoral

Realignments

A

Critique

of

an

American

Genre

ISBN

Paulson

Arthur

Electoral

Realignment

and

the

Outlook

for

American

Democracy

ISBN

Rosenof

Theodore

Realignment

The

Theory

That

Changed

the

Way

We

Think

about

American

Politics

ISBN

Rapoport

Ronald

and

Walter

Stone

Threes

a

Crowd

The

Dynamic

of

Third

Parties

Ross

Perot

and

Republican

Resurgence

ISBN

Saunders

Kyle

L

and

Alan

I

Abramowitz

Ideological

Realignment

and

Active

Partisans

in

the

American

Electorate

American

Politics

Research

Schafer

Byron

ed

Critical

realignment

Dead

or

alive

in

The

End

of

Realignment

University

of

Wisconsin

Press

Schlozman

Daniel

When

Movements

Anchor

Parties

Electoral

Alignments

in

American

History

Princeton

University

Press

xiv

pp

Shafer

Byron

E

and

Anthony

J

Badger

eds

Contesting

Democracy

Substance

and

Structure

in

American

Political

History

ISBN

Sternsher

Bernard

The

New

Deal

Party

System

A

Reappraisal

Journal

of

Interdisciplinary

History

Summer

pp

JSTOR

Silbey

Joel

The

American

Political

Nation

Stanford

Stanford

University

Press

ISBN

Sundquist

James

L

Dynamics

of

the

Party

System

Alignment

and

Realignment

of

Political

Parties

in

the

United

States

online

External

links

A

New

Nation

Votes

American

Election

Returns

realigning election
political science
american elections


Rheum

From

Wikipedia

the

free

encyclopedia

This

article

needs

additional

citations

for

verification

Please

help

improve

this

article

by

adding

citations

to

reliable

sources

Unsourced

material

may

be

challenged

and

removed

April

Learn

how

and

when

to

remove

this

template

message

For

the

genus

see

Rheum

plant

Rheum

in

a

cats

eyes

Rheum

ˈ

r

uː

m

from

Greek

ῥεῦμα

rheuma

a

flowing

rheum

also

known

as

gound

is

thin

mucus

naturally

discharged

from

the

eyes

nose

or

mouth

during

sleep

cf

mucopurulent

discharge

Rheum

dries

and

gathers

as

a

crust

in

the

corners

of

the

eyes

or

the

mouth

on

the

eyelids

or

under

the

nose

It

is

formed

by

a

combination

of

mucus

in

the

case

of

the

eyes

consisting

of

mucin

discharged

from

the

cornea

or

the

conjunctiva

nasal

mucus

blood

cells

skin

cells

or

dust

Rheum

from

the

eyes

is

particularly

common

Dried

rheum

is

commonly

called

sleep

sleepyseeds

sleepy

buds

sleepy

sand

sleepers

eye

goop

cheese

eye

boogers

eye

wappies

or

sleepy

dust

When

the

individual

is

awake

blinking

of

the

eyelid

causes

rheum

to

be

washed

away

with

tears

via

the

nasolacrimal

duct

The

absence

of

this

action

during

sleep

however

results

in

a

small

amount

of

dry

rheum

accumulating

in

corners

of

the

eye

most

notably

in

children

A

number

of

conditions

can

increase

the

production

of

rheum

in

the

eye

In

the

case

of

allergic

conjunctivitis

the

buildup

of

rheum

can

be

considerable

many

times

preventing

the

sufferer

from

opening

the

eye

upon

waking

without

prior

cleansing

of

the

eye

area

The

presence

of

pus

in

an

instance

of

heavy

rheum

buildup

can

indicate

dry

eye

or

conjunctivitis

among

other

infections

In

infants

the

tear

ducts

that

drain

the

tears

occasionally

fail

to

open

resulting

in

the

overflow

of

tears

onto

the

cheeks

epiphora

and

rheum

deposition

on

the

surrounding

skin

See

also

Mucopurulent

discharge

References

Rheum

discharge

Memidex

DictionaryThesaurus

Retrieved

Amodio

Aimee

Where

Do

Eye

Boogers

Come

From

Familiescom

blog

a

b

Hiskey

Daven

What

the

Sleep

In

Your

Eyes

Is

Today

I

Found

Out

February

Shorter

Oxford

English

Dictionary

Oxford

University

Press

ISBN

a

b

Eric

Partridge

Paul

Beale

ed

A

Dictionary

of

Slang

and

Unconventional

English

edition

sv

External

links

Look

up

rheum

in

Wiktionary

the

free

dictionary

Eye

Discharge

Categories

Symptoms

Ophthalmology

Body

fluids

B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O


Rocky

Mountain

oysters

From

Wikipedia

the

free

encyclopedia

For

the

eggbased

drink

used

as

a

hangover

cure

also

known

as

prairie

oyster

see

Prairie

oyster

Rocky

Mountain

oysters

Rocky

Mountain

oysters

served

with

lemon

and

cocktail

sauce

Alternative

names

Prairie

oysters

calf

fries

cowboy

oysters

Course

Hors

doeuvre

Region

or

state

North

America

West

and

South

America

Serving

temperature

Hot

Main

ingredients

Testicles

bull

calf

flour

pepper

and

salt

Cookbook

Rocky

Mountain

oysters

Media

Rocky

Mountain

oysters

Raw

bovine

testicles

in

an

Italian

market

Rocky

Mountain

oysters

also

known

as

prairie

oysters

in

Canada

French

animelles

is

a

dish

made

of

bull

testicles

The

organs

are

often

deepfried

after

being

peeled

coated

in

flour

pepper

and

salt

and

sometimes

pounded

flat

This

delicacy

is

most

often

served

as

an

appetizer

The

dish

is

served

in

parts

of

Canada

where

cattle

ranching

is

prevalent

and

castration

of

young

male

animals

is

common

Prairie

oysters

is

the

preferred

name

in

Canada

where

they

are

served

in

a

demiglace

In

Oklahoma

and

the

Texas

Panhandle

they

are

often

called

bull

fries

In

Spain

Argentina

and

many

parts

of

Mexico

they

are

referred

to

as

criadillas

and

they

are

colloquially

referred

to

as

huevos

de

toro

literally

bulls

eggs

besides

its

literal

meaning

huevos

is

a

Spanish

slang

term

for

testicles

in

Central

and

South

America

Rocky

Mountain

oysters

are

sometimes

confused

with

cattle

fries

or

animelles

cattle

testicles

which

are

served

in

a

similar

manner

A

few

other

terms

such

as

cowboy

caviar

Montana

tendergroins

dusted

nuts

swinging

beef

or

simply

mountain

oysters

may

be

used

The

dish

purportedly

cowboy

fare

is

most

commonly

found

served

at

festivals

amongst

ranching

families

or

at

certain

specialty

eating

establishments

and

bars

They

are

however

also

readily

available

at

some

public

venues

eg

at

Coors

Field

during

Colorado

Rockies

baseball

games

Eagle

Idaho

claims

to

have

the

Worlds

Largest

Rocky

Mountain

Oyster

Feed

during

its

Eagle

Fun

Days

now

held

the

second

weekend

in

July

Clinton

Montana

Deerfield

Michigan

Huntley

Illinois

Olean

Missouri

Severance

Colorado

and

Tiro

Ohio

also

hold

testicle

festivals

Rocky

mountain

oysters

are

sometimes

served

as

a

prank

to

those

unaware

of

the

origin

of

these

oysters

They

are

also

considered

to

be

an

aphrodisiac

by

many

people

The

primary

goal

of

testicle

removal

is

not

culinary

Castration

in

veterinary

practice

and

animal

husbandry

is

common

and

serves

a

variety

of

purposes

including

the

control

of

breeding

the

growth

of

skeletal

muscle

suitable

for

beef

and

temperament

alteration

Contents

Similar

dishes

See

also

External

links

Similar

dishes

Testicles

from

other

animals

can

also

be

used

in

similar

dishes

The

most

common

is

lamb

fries

made

with

testicles

from

castrated

sheep

In

some

cases

pig

testicles

are

used

as

well

to

make

pig

fries

Another

dish

found

on

occasion

is

turkey

fries

made

from

turkey

testes

These

are

sometimes

known

as

short

fries

as

well

See

also

List

of

beef

dishes

List

of

deep

fried

foods

List

of

delicacies

List

of

hors

doeuvre

References

Linda

Stradley

metacafecom

Testicle

Festival

in

Calgary

Alberta

Metacafe

Pensando

En

Los

Huevos

Del

Toro

EltiempoCom

Archived

from

the

original

on

a

b

Stradley

Linda

May

Rocky

Mountain

Oysters

Recipe

and

History

Cowboy

Grub

by

Richard

W

Slatta

proprietor

of

the

Lazy

S

Ranch

Where

cowboys

roam

the

Old

West

Welcome

to

Eagle

a

b

Runyon

Luke

October

Rocky

Mountain

Oysters

Are

What

We

Try

A

Dish

Of

Cowboy

Lore

The

Salt

NPR

Retrieved

September

Castration

Not

Cutting

Will

Cut

Profits

wwwcalsncsuedu

External

links

Earles

Jim

Rocky

Mountain

Oysters

Expanding

on

the

List

of

Organ

Meats

The

Weston

A

Price

Foundation

Brown

Patricia

Leigh

Delicacy

of

the

Wild

West

Lives

on

for

Those

So

Bold

The

New

York

Times

Wednesday

March

Lakey

Dwight

Songwriter

Rocky

Mountain

Oysters

Songwriter

Dwight

Lakeys

ASCAP

song

about

Rocky

Mountain

oysters

Brown

Barn

Publishing

Dwight

Lakey

Danville

VT

Julesburg

CO

All

Rights

Reserved

v

t

e

Beef

and

veal

v

t

e

Cuisine

of

the

United

States

Categories

Offal

Cuisine

of

the

Western

United

States

Appetizers

Cowboy

culture

Testicle

Central

American

cuisine

South

American

cuisine

Deep

fried

foods

Beef

dishes

Canadian

cuisine

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rocky mountain oysters
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