Int

J

Environ

Res

Public

Health

May

Int

J

Environ

Res

Public

Health

May

Published

online

May

doi

PMCID

Pesticide

Exposure

Safety

Issues

and

Risk

Assessment

Indicators

Christos

A

Damalas

and

Ilias

G

Eleftherohorinos

Author

information

Article

notes

Copyright

and

License

information

This

article

has

been

cited

by

other

articles

in

PMC

Abstract

Keywords

pesticide

toxicity

pesticide

safety

risk

assessment

Go

to

Introduction

Pesticides

are

widely

used

in

most

sectors

of

the

agricultural

production

to

prevent

or

reduce

losses

by

pests

and

thus

can

improve

yield

as

well

as

quality

of

the

produce

even

in

terms

of

cosmetic

appeal

which

is

often

important

to

consumers

Pesticides

can

also

improve

the

nutritional

value

of

food

and

sometimes

its

safety

There

are

also

many

other

kinds

of

benefits

that

may

be

attributed

to

pesticides

but

these

benefits

often

go

unnoticed

by

the

general

public

Thus

from

this

point

of

view

pesticides

can

be

considered

as

an

economic

laborsaving

and

efficient

tool

of

pest

management

with

great

popularity

in

most

sectors

of

the

agricultural

production

Despite

their

popularity

and

extensive

use

pesticides

serious

concerns

about

health

risks

arising

from

the

exposure

of

farmers

when

mixing

and

applying

pesticides

or

working

in

treated

fields

and

from

residues

on

food

and

in

drinking

water

for

the

general

population

have

been

raised

These

activities

have

caused

a

number

of

accidental

poisonings

and

even

the

routine

use

of

pesticides

can

pose

major

health

risks

to

farmers

both

in

the

short

and

the

long

run

and

can

degrade

the

environment

In

developing

countries

farmers

face

great

risks

of

exposure

due

to

the

use

of

toxic

chemicals

that

are

banned

or

restricted

in

other

countries

incorrect

application

techniques

poorly

maintained

or

totally

inappropriate

spraying

equipment

inadequate

storage

practices

and

often

the

reuse

of

old

pesticide

containers

for

food

and

water

storage

Obviously

exposure

to

pesticides

poses

a

continuous

health

hazard

especially

in

the

agricultural

working

environment

By

their

very

nature

most

pesticides

show

a

high

degree

of

toxicity

because

they

are

designed

to

kill

certain

organisms

and

thus

create

some

risk

of

harm

Within

this

context

pesticide

use

has

raised

serious

concerns

not

only

of

potential

effects

on

human

health

but

also

about

impacts

on

wildlife

and

sensitive

ecosystems

Often

pesticide

applications

prove

counterproductive

because

they

kill

beneficial

species

such

as

natural

enemies

of

pests

and

increase

the

chances

of

development

of

pest

resistance

to

pesticides

Furthermore

many

end

users

have

poor

knowledge

of

the

risks

associated

to

the

use

of

pesticides

including

the

essential

role

of

the

correct

application

and

the

necessary

precautions

Even

farmers

who

are

well

aware

of

the

harmful

effects

of

pesticides

are

sometimes

unable

to

translate

this

awareness

into

their

practices

Although

pesticides

have

been

developed

to

function

with

reasonable

certainty

and

minimal

risk

to

human

health

and

the

environment

the

published

results

are

not

always

in

agreement

with

this

fact

Even

though

the

development

of

toxicity

reference

levels

for

pesticides

incorporates

uncertainty

factors

that

serve

to

achieve

this

regulatory

standard

in

reality

we

may

never

know

whether

a

pesticide

is

safe

under

all

circumstances

nor

can

we

predict

with

certainty

its

performance

in

hypothetical

situations

Scientific

investigation

is

bound

by

the

tools

and

the

techniques

that

are

available

and

therefore

new

developments

continually

redefine

our

capabilities

Despite

many

studies

on

The

purpose

of

this

paper

is

to

present

and

discuss

basic

safety

issues

related

to

pesticide

registration

common

factors

affecting

exposure

to

pesticides

and

common

indicators

used

for

the

prediction

of

the

adverse

effects

of

pesticides

on

human

health

and

the

environment

as

well

as

their

reliability

and

accuracy

in

the

risk

assessment

of

those

adverse

effects

It

is

worth

mentioning

that

this

paper

does

not

focus

on

the

fate

of

pesticides

in

the

environment

or

their

adverse

effects

on

specific

nontarget

organisms

Go

to

Pesticide

Registration

and

Safety

Pesticide

registration

is

a

scientificallybased

legal

and

also

administrative

process

where

a

wide

variety

of

effects

associated

with

the

use

of

a

pesticide

product

and

its

potential

effect

on

human

health

and

the

environment

is

assessed

The

registration

is

an

important

step

in

the

management

of

pesticides

as

it

enables

authorities

primarily

to

determine

which

pesticide

products

are

permitted

to

be

used

and

for

what

purposes

and

also

to

exercise

control

over

quality

usage

rates

claims

labelling

packaging

and

advertising

of

pesticides

thus

ensuring

that

the

best

interest

of

endusers

as

well

as

the

environment

are

well

protected

In

addition

the

registration

process

is

restricted

to

the

assumption

that

pesticides

are

only

used

for

their

intended

function

and

envisages

proving

that

such

use

does

not

promote

unreasonable

effects

either

on

human

health

or

on

the

environment

Therefore

before

any

pesticide

can

be

used

commercially

several

tests

are

conducted

that

determine

whether

a

pesticide

has

any

potential

to

cause

adverse

effects

on

humans

and

wildlife

including

endangered

species

and

other

nontarget

organisms

or

potential

to

contaminate

surface

waters

and

groundwater

from

leaching

runoff

and

spray

drift

Effects

in

any

nontarget

species

may

translate

into

ecosystem

unbalance

and

foodweb

disruption

Pesticide

registration

is

a

complex

process

and

takes

considerable

time

resources

and

expertise

on

the

part

of

the

registration

authority

the

pesticide

manufacturing

industry

and

various

public

interest

groups

An

expanding

series

of

tests

based

on

improved

technology

is

used

to

provide

precise

pesticide

residue

detections

and

toxicological

assessments

in

response

to

public

concern

In

addition

improved

methods

for

hazard

predictions

novel

approaches

to

hazard

reduction

measures

and

incorporation

of

the

broadening

scope

of

relevant

scientific

knowledge

into

industry

and

government

policy

decisions

contribute

to

changes

and

improvements

in

the

pesticide

registration

process

The

basic

pathway

for

the

registration

of

a

pesticide

is

research

conducted

by

the

manufacturer

prior

to

its

decision

to

pursue

registration

submission

of

data

report

by

the

manufacturer

to

the

registration

authority

review

of

the

data

by

the

registration

authority

and

a

decision

by

the

registration

authority

either

to

register

the

pesticide

based

on

the

merits

of

the

submitted

data

or

to

deny

registration

The

decisions

of

the

registration

authority

to

register

a

pesticide

hinges

on

a

benefittorisk

analysis

of

the

required

data

Therefore

it

is

essential

that

all

steps

in

the

registration

process

are

Also

the

registration

authority

ensures

that

each

registered

pesticide

continues

to

meet

the

highest

standards

of

safety

to

protect

human

health

and

the

environment

as

these

standards

are

becoming

stricter

over

the

years

with

regard

to

our

ability

to

evaluate

the

potential

effects

of

pesticides

Within

this

context

older

pesticides

are

being

reviewed

to

ensure

that

they

meet

current

scientific

and

regulatory

standards

This

process

called

reregistration

considers

the

human

health

and

ecological

effects

of

pesticides

and

results

in

actions

to

reduce

risks

that

are

of

concern

Indeed

very

drastic

changes

have

occurred

in

the

list

of

legally

marketed

pesticides

Also

EPA

in

USA

has

completed

several

individual

pesticide

reregistration

and

tolerance

reassessment

decisions

the

results

of

reviews

are

summarized

in

Reregistration

Eligibility

Decision

documents

which

improved

food

safety

human

health

and

environmental

protection

in

the

United

States

The

registration

process

for

a

pesticide

usually

requires

the

manufacturer

registrant

to

conduct

analyze

and

pay

for

many

different

scientific

tests

These

tests

define

the

product

chemistry

risks

to

humans

and

domestic

animals

the

environmental

fate

of

the

pesticide

and

the

impact

on

nontarget

organisms

Data

required

to

support

an

application

of

a

registration

should

cover

all

relevant

aspects

of

the

product

during

its

full

lifecycle

They

should

include

the

identity

and

physical

and

chemical

properties

of

the

active

ingredient

and

formulated

product

analytical

methods

human

and

environmental

toxicity

proposed

label

and

uses

safety

data

sheets

efficacy

for

the

intended

use

as

well

as

residues

resulting

from

the

use

of

the

pesticide

product

container

management

and

waste

product

disposal

Generation

of

such

data

for

a

single

compound

may

take

several

years

and

costs

a

great

amount

of

money

Also

toxicological

testing

is

conducted

under

stringent

ie

restricted

use

Alternatively

the

registration

authority

may

decide

not

to

allow

its

use

Go

to

Human

Exposure

to

Pesticides

and

Factors

Affecting

Exposure

Human

exposure

to

pesticides

may

occur

through

occupational

exposure

in

the

case

of

agricultural

workers

in

open

fields

and

greenhouses

workers

in

the

pesticide

industry

and

exterminators

of

house

pests

However

irrespective

of

whether

the

occupation

involves

the

use

of

pesticides

the

presence

of

such

chemicals

in

the

working

environment

constitutes

potential

occupational

exposure

Evidently

workers

who

mix

load

transport

and

apply

formulated

pesticides

are

normally

considered

to

be

the

group

that

will

receive

the

greatest

exposure

because

of

the

nature

of

their

work

and

are

therefore

at

highest

risk

for

possible

acute

intoxications

In

some

situations

exposure

to

pesticides

can

occur

from

accidental

spills

of

chemicals

leakages

or

faulty

spraying

equipment

The

exposure

of

workers

increases

in

the

case

of

not

paying

attention

to

the

instructions

on

how

to

use

the

pesticides

and

particularly

when

they

ignore

basic

safety

guidelines

on

the

use

of

personal

protective

equipment

and

fundamental

sanitation

practices

such

as

washing

hands

after

pesticide

handling

or

before

eating

Several

factors

can

affect

exposure

during

pesticide

handling

The

form

of

formulation

of

pesticide

products

may

affect

the

extent

of

exposure

Liquids

are

prone

to

splashing

and

occasionally

spillage

resulting

in

direct

skin

contact

or

indirect

skin

contact

through

clothing

contamination

Solids

may

generate

dust

while

being

loaded

into

the

application

equipment

resulting

in

exposure

to

the

face

and

the

eyes

and

also

respiratory

hazards

The

type

of

packaging

of

pesticide

products

can

also

affect

potential

exposure

For

example

the

opening

of

pesticide

bags

can

result

in

some

kind

of

exposure

depending

on

the

type

of

packaging

in

combination

with

the

formulation

of

the

active

ingredient

Also

the

Weather

conditions

at

the

time

of

application

such

as

air

temperature

and

humidity

may

affect

the

chemical

volatility

of

the

product

the

perspiration

rate

of

the

human

body

and

the

use

of

personal

protective

equipment

by

the

users

Wind

increases

considerably

spray

drift

and

resultant

exposure

to

the

applicator

The

amount

of

pesticide

that

is

lost

from

the

target

area

and

the

distance

the

pesticide

moves

will

increase

as

wind

velocity

increases

so

greater

wind

speed

generally

will

cause

more

drift

In

addition

low

relative

humidity

and

high

temperature

will

cause

more

rapid

evaporation

of

spray

droplets

between

the

spray

nozzle

and

the

target

than

high

relative

humidity

and

low

temperature

General

hygiene

behaviour

of

workers

during

pesticide

use

can

also

have

substantial

impact

on

exposure

For

example

workers

who

avoid

mixing

and

spraying

during

windy

conditions

can

Exposure

of

the

general

population

to

pesticides

occurs

mainly

through

eating

food

and

drinking

water

contaminated

with

pesticides

whereas

substantial

exposure

to

pesticides

can

also

occur

when

living

close

to

a

workplace

that

uses

pesticides

or

even

when

workers

bring

home

contaminated

articles

Nonoccupational

exposure

originating

from

pesticide

residues

in

food

air

and

drinking

water

generally

involves

low

doses

and

is

chronic

or

semichronic

However

clear

links

between

individual

pesticides

and

individual

health

effects

can

only

be

shown

in

animal

studies

but

the

doses

used

in

these

studies

are

far

higher

than

the

enforced

legally

pesticide

limits

Therefore

the

risk

to

human

health

from

these

studies

appears

to

be

negligible

The

actual

acute

exposure

however

may

be

higher

than

that

anticipated

due

to

certain

food

preferences

residue

variability

between

individual

food

items

and

the

greater

than

average

consumption

of

a

particular

food

item

only

at

one

sitting

As

a

result

of

pesticide

use

in

or

around

the

home

individuals

can

be

exposed

during

the

preparation

and

application

of

pesticides

or

even

after

the

applications

are

completed

whereas

delayed

exposure

can

occur

through

inhalation

of

residual

air

concentrations

or

exposure

to

residues

found

on

surfaces

clothing

bedding

food

dust

discarded

pesticide

containers

or

application

equipment

Also

accidental

poisoning

with

pesticides

in

the

home

is

a

possibility

from

pesticide

use

around

the

house

or

garden

Exposure

is

likely

to

occur

from

pesticide

spills

improper

use

or

poor

storage

as

a

result

of

use

without

reading

or

accounting

to

the

pesticide

label

Pesticide

mishandling

such

as

transferring

the

products

from

their

original

packages

into

household

containers

and

also

the

lack

of

compliance

with

instructions

of

the

label

can

be

also

sources

of

exposure

Go

to

Pesticide

and

Human

Health

Risk

assessment

of

pesticide

impact

on

human

health

is

not

an

easy

and

particularly

accurate

process

because

of

differences

in

the

periods

and

the

levels

of

exposure

type

of

pesticides

regarding

toxicity

mixtures

or

cocktails

used

in

the

field

and

the

geographic

and

meteorological

characteristics

of

the

agricultural

areas

where

pesticides

are

applied

Such

differences

refer

mainly

to

the

people

who

prepare

the

mixtures

in

the

field

the

pesticide

sprayers

and

also

the

population

that

lives

near

the

sprayed

areas

pesticide

storage

facilities

greenhouses

or

open

fields

Therefore

considering

that

human

health

risk

is

a

function

of

pesticide

toxicity

and

exposure

a

greater

risk

is

expected

to

arise

from

high

exposure

to

a

moderately

toxic

pesticide

than

from

little

exposure

to

a

highly

toxic

pesticide

However

whether

or

not

dietary

exposure

of

the

general

population

to

pesticide

residues

found

on

food

and

drinking

water

consists

of

a

potential

threat

to

human

health

is

Regardless

of

the

difficulties

in

assessing

risks

of

pesticide

use

on

human

health

the

authorization

for

pesticide

commercialization

in

Europe

currently

requires

data

of

potential

negative

effects

of

the

active

substances

on

human

health

These

data

are

usually

obtained

from

several

tests

focused

on

eg

metabolism

patterns

acute

toxicity

subchronic

or

subacute

toxicity

chronic

toxicity

carcinogenicity

genotoxicity

teratogenicity

generation

study

and

also

irritancy

trials

using

rat

as

a

model

mammal

or

in

some

cases

dogs

and

rabbits

The

respective

toxicity

tests

for

human

health

risk

assessments

required

by

EPA

are

the

acute

toxicity

test

which

assesses

the

effects

of

shortterm

exposure

to

a

single

dose

of

pesticide

oral

dermal

and

inhalation

exposure

eye

irritation

skin

irritation

skin

sensitization

neurotoxicity

the

subchronic

toxicity

test

which

assesses

the

effects

of

intermediate

repeated

exposure

oral

dermal

inhalation

nerve

system

damage

over

a

longer

period

of

time

days

the

chronic

toxicity

test

which

assesses

the

effects

of

longterm

repeated

exposure

lasting

for

most

of

the

test

animals

life

span

and

intended

to

determine

the

effects

of

a

pesticide

product

after

prolonged

and

repeated

exposures

eg

chronic

noncancer

and

cancer

ie

birth

defects

and

how

pesticide

exposure

may

influence

the

ability

of

a

test

animal

to

reproduce

successfully

the

mutagenicity

test

which

assesses

the

potential

of

a

pesticide

to

affect

the

genetic

components

of

the

cell

and

the

hormone

disruption

test

which

measures

the

pesticide

potential

to

disrupt

the

endocrine

system

consists

of

a

set

of

glands

and

the

hormones

they

produce

that

regulate

the

development

growth

reproduction

and

behavior

of

animals

including

humans

The

acute

toxicity

experiments

are

required

for

the

calculation

of

the

median

lethal

dose

LD

which

is

the

pesticide

dose

that

is

required

to

kill

half

of

the

tested

animals

when

entering

the

body

by

a

particular

route

For

example

if

the

substance

is

swallowed

the

figure

is

an

oral

LD

whereas

if

absorbed

through

the

skin

it

is

a

dermal

LD

In

addition

the

acute

inhalation

lethal

concentration

LC

which

is

the

pesticide

concentration

required

to

kill

half

of

the

exposed

for

hours

tested

animals

to

a

pesticide

is

also

calculated

Lethal

concentration

values

are

used

when

the

route

of

administration

is

by

inhalation

or

intake

via

drinking

water

rather

than

oral

dermal

etc

These

endpoints

are

used

for

WHO

and

EPA

toxicity

classifications

of

pesticides

shown

in

Tables

and

Table

Acute

toxicity

of

pesticides

according

to

WHO

classification

adapted

from

Table

Acute

toxicity

of

pesticides

according

to

the

EPA

classification

adapted

from

Table

Acute

toxicity

of

pesticides

eye

and

skin

effects

according

to

the

EPA

classification

adapted

from

The

oral

LD

is

usually

lower

than

the

dermal

LD

since

pesticides

can

enter

the

bloodstream

more

easily

through

the

stomach

than

through

the

skin

It

must

be

noted

that

the

LD

values

given

in

the

WHO

classification

are

for

the

active

ingredient

whereas

these

LD

values

must

be

modified

to

take

account

of

the

concentration

of

the

pesticide

formulation

actually

used

This

is

because

the

actual

toxicity

of

a

commercial

pesticide

product

is

significantly

affected

by

the

formulation

For

example

a

highly

toxic

pesticide

becomes

more

toxic

when

is

formulated

as

emulsifiable

concentrate

than

as

microcapsule

suspension

This

is

because

the

amount

of

the

toxic

active

ingredient

at

the

time

of

application

from

the

emulsifiable

concentrate

is

much

higher

than

that

of

the

microcapsule

suspension

In

addition

the

emulsifiable

concentrate

is

more

toxic

than

the

microcapsule

suspension

because

it

includes

very

often

toxic

organic

solvents

Also

the

toxicity

of

the

liquid

formulation

is

usually

much

higher

than

that

of

the

respective

solid

formulation

since

it

is

more

difficult

for

a

solid

to

pass

through

the

skin

Longterm

studies

exposing

test

animals

at

a

range

of

pesticide

doses

allow

defining

the

reference

point

below

of

which

no

adverse

effects

occur

This

dose

reference

point

known

as

No

Observed

Adverse

Effect

Level

NOAEL

or

No

Observed

Effect

Level

NOEL

is

used

to

derive

the

acceptable

daily

intake

ADI

for

humans

which

is

defined

as

the

amount

of

chemical

that

can

be

consumed

every

day

for

a

lifetime

with

no

harm

It

is

worth

mentioning

that

a

safety

or

uncertainty

factor

is

taken

into

account

in

calculating

the

safe

daily

intakes

of

food

by

humans

This

is

done

The

Acute

Reference

Dose

ARfD

is

also

calculated

for

cases

that

people

intake

much

higher

levels

of

a

pesticide

than

the

ADI

as

a

result

of

consuming

certain

food

items

with

differential

pesticide

contamination

of

the

different

food

items

only

at

once

The

value

of

ARfD

is

based

on

the

lowest

NOAEL

but

is

adjusted

by

an

appropriate

uncertainty

factor

For

individuals

who

work

with

pesticides

regularly

the

Acceptable

Operator

Exposure

Level

AOEL

is

calculated

on

the

basis

of

shortterm

toxicity

studies

related

to

the

oral

route

of

pesticides

Pesticides

are

additionally

classified

according

to

the

principles

of

the

International

Agency

for

Research

on

Cancer

IARC

often

cited

as

IARC

class

The

classification

of

a

pesticide

in

this

category

reflects

the

strength

of

the

evidence

derived

from

epidemiological

studies

in

humans

from

experiments

with

animals

and

from

mechanistic

and

other

relevant

data

A

pesticide

is

classified

in

this

category

when

there

is

sufficient

evidence

of

carcinogenicity

in

humans

Exceptionally

a

pesticide

may

be

placed

in

this

category

when

evidence

of

carcinogenicity

in

humans

is

less

than

sufficient

but

there

is

sufficient

evidence

of

carcinogenicity

in

experimental

animals

and

strong

evidence

in

exposed

humans

that

the

pesticide

acts

through

a

relevant

mechanism

of

carcinogenicity

According

to

IARC

The

results

on

toxicity

characterization

based

on

the

databases

of

EPA

IARC

WHO

and

Pesticide

Action

Network

of

the

legally

marketed

active

substances

in

Europe

indicate

that

out

of

the

fungicides

out

of

the

herbicides

and

out

of

the

insecticides

are

related

to

at

least

one

health

effect

eg

carcinogenic

endocrine

disruptor

reproductive

and

developmental

toxicity

acute

toxicity

In

particular

and

eight

pesticides

including

fungicides

herbicides

and

insecticides

are

characterized

as

carcinogenic

according

to

EPA

and

IARC

databases

respectively

pesticides

are

characterized

as

endocrine

disruptors

based

on

the

database

of

the

Pesticide

Action

Network

pesticides

are

characterized

as

presenting

reproductive

and

developmental

toxicity

Pesticide

Action

Network

and

pesticides

as

presenting

acute

toxicity

based

on

WHO

classification

Eightyfour

out

of

the

approved

active

substances

of

them

are

pesticides

in

Europe

were

characterized

as

toxic

have

at

least

one

adverse

health

effect

characterization

by

Karabelas

et

al

However

different

results

on

the

number

of

toxic

pesticides

were

reported

by

KEMI

for

Swedish

Chemical

Agency

and

by

the

Pesticides

Safety

Directorate

for

UK

In

particular

KEMI

taking

into

account

the

new

hard

cutoff

criteria

of

the

European

Union

EU

for

approval

of

active

substances

found

only

active

substances

eight

herbicides

fungicides

three

insecticides

and

one

plant

growth

regulator

out

of

the

active

substances

included

in

Annex

I

of

Directive

as

well

as

a

number

of

substances

with

decision

pending

to

meet

the

cutoff

criteria

of

the

EU

and

therefore

would

be

removed

Seven

of

these

active

substances

have

been

identified

as

carcinogenic

mutagenic

and

toxic

to

reproduction

have

been

classified

as

endocrine

disruptors

and

four

have

been

identified

as

persistent

considering

the

approval

criteria

adopted

by

the

Commissions

proposal

as

well

as

in

the

European

Parliaments

Environment

Public

Health

and

Food

Safety

Committees

found

that

of

the

active

substances

assessed

were

toxic

It

is

worth

mentioning

that

only

and

characterized

as

toxic

substances

by

Karabelas

et

al

are

classified

as

toxic

in

the

respective

studies

conducted

by

KEMI

and

Pesticides

Safety

Directorate

These

results

show

clearly

that

the

number

of

the

criteria

used

and

the

method

of

their

implementation

to

assess

the

adverse

effects

of

pesticides

on

human

health

lead

to

different

characterization

of

the

already

approved

pesticides

in

Europe

and

would

possibly

affect

the

approval

of

the

new

compounds

that

will

be

developed

in

the

near

future

The

above

findings

should

be

interpreted

with

extra

caution

by

the

decision

policy

makers

because

they

did

not

result

from

causecontrol

studies

on

humans

but

mainly

from

toxicological

studies

on

experimental

animals

rats

dogs

and

rabbits

and

in

some

cases

from

epidemiological

studies

health

effects

due

to

rather

longtime

human

exposure

to

low

concentrations

of

pesticides

associated

with

high

uncertainty

in

the

estimation

of

the

relevant

human

exposure

pattern

The

fact

that

a

very

large

number

of

the

most

toxic

active

substances

have

been

withdrawn

in

Europe

over

the

past

nine

years

implies

that

the

results

of

epidemiological

studies

In

addition

concerns

by

several

independent

scientists

in

Europe

about

the

negative

effects

of

the

fewer

approved

pesticides

should

be

taken

into

account

by

the

policy

makers

on

pesticide

use

Go

to

Pesticide

and

the

Environment

Pesticides

in

addition

to

their

potential

negative

effects

on

human

health

pose

adverse

effects

also

on

the

environment

water

soil

and

air

contamination

toxic

effects

on

nontarget

organisms

In

particular

inappropriate

use

of

pesticides

has

been

linked

with

adverse

effects

on

nontarget

organisms

eg

reduction

of

beneficial

species

populations

water

contamination

from

mobile

pesticides

or

from

pesticide

drift

air

pollution

from

volatile

pesticides

injury

on

nontarget

plants

from

herbicide

drift

injury

to

rotational

crops

from

herbicide

residues

remained

in

the

field

crop

injury

due

to

high

application

rates

wrong

application

timing

or

unfavourable

environmental

conditions

at

and

after

pesticide

application

Many

of

the

adverse

effects

of

pesticides

on

the

environment

depend

on

the

interactions

between

the

physicochemical

properties

vapour

pressure

stability

solubility

pK

a

of

the

pesticide

soil

adsorption

and

soil

persistence

the

soil

factors

pH

organic

components

inorganic

surfaces

soil

moisture

soil

microflora

soil

fauna

the

plant

species

and

the

climatic

variation

Also

the

toxicity

the

dosage

applied

the

weather

conditions

prevailing

after

the

pesticide

application

and

how

long

the

pesticide

persists

in

the

environment

could

account

for

its

adverse

effects

on

the

environment

Soil

factors

and

weather

conditions

have

long

been

recognised

as

the

most

important

factors

that

affect

the

fate

of

the

pesticide

in

the

environment

and

consequently

the

activity

selectivity

and

adverse

effects

on

the

environment

Unfortunately

since

these

factors

vary

from

site

to

site

and

from

year

to

year

the

results

from

any

field

study

on

the

fate

and

behaviour

of

the

pesticide

are

specific

for

one

particular

location

and

season

Therefore

for

the

environmental

risk

assessment

the

behaviour

and

the

fate

of

a

pesticide

are

initially

assessed

by

the

calculation

of

the

predicted

environmental

concentration

PEC

which

in

the

United

States

is

referred

to

as

estimated

environmental

concentration

EEC

These

concentrations

are

calculated

for

soil

water

sediment

and

air

and

the

validation

is

performed

by

comparison

with

the

data

obtained

from

the

three

levels

of

tests

needed

for

approvalregistration

purposes

to

assess

the

pesticide

toxicity

on

key

nontarget

organisms

Table

Also

the

toxicity

exposure

ratio

TER

is

also

calculated

to

determine

whether

the

risk

to

the

organism

is

acceptable

or

not

TER

is

calculated

from

the

LC

or

equivalent

measure

LD

NOEC

no

observed

effect

concentration

of

the

susceptibility

of

an

organism

divided

by

the

PEC

relevant

to

the

situation

in

which

the

organism

is

living

In

general

a

detailed

higher

tier

risk

assessment

is

needed

when

TER

is

below

whereas

a

chronic

risk

assessment

is

required

in

the

case

of

TER

If

TER

is

less

than

the

Annex

VI

of

the

EU

Directive

EEC

requires

that

no

authorisation

shall

be

grantedunless

it

is

clearly

established

through

an

appropriate

risk

assessment

that

under

field

conditions

no

unacceptable

impact

occurs

after

the

use

of

the

product

under

Table

The

three

level

tests

to

assess

pesticide

toxicity

on

nontarget

organisms

adapted

from

Although

the

agricultural

soil

is

the

primary

recipient

of

pesticides

water

bodies

that

are

adjacent

to

agricultural

areas

are

usually

the

ultimate

recipient

for

pesticide

residues

This

issue

is

the

reason

for

European

authorities

to

require

data

before

the

pesticide

commercialization

in

Europe

related

with

the

risk

of

nontarget

terrestrial

and

aquatic

organisms

when

addressing

potential

adverse

effects

of

pesticides

on

the

environment

Considering

the

adverse

effects

linked

with

the

use

of

pesticides

in

agriculture

the

use

of

criteria

to

select

pesticides

that

are

effective

cost

efficient

and

safe

for

the

operator

and

the

environment

now

appears

as

an

imperative

need

Moreover

the

use

of

certain

environmental

risk

indicators

as

alternatives

to

direct

pesticide

impact

measurement

linked

to

methodological

difficulties

ie

impossibility

of

measurement

due

to

complexity

of

the

system

or

due

to

practical

reasons

ie

time

and

costs

has

also

been

a

reality

These

indicators

have

already

been

used

by

Reus

et

al

and

Bockstaller

et

al

to

assess

potential

risks

of

pesticides

for

water

contamination

soil

organisms

mainly

earthworms

bees

air

emissions

bioaccumulation

and

human

health

Calculation

of

the

environmental

indicators

used

in

these

two

studies

was

based

on

the

pesticide

persistence

in

soil

halflife

DT

mobility

in

soil

organiccarbon

adsorption

coefficient

K

oc

and

toxicity

to

water

lethal

concentration

for

aquatic

organisms

LC

and

soil

organisms

NOEC

Regarding

the

contribution

of

the

environmental

indicators

on

pesticide

selection

the

study

conducted

by

Reus

et

al

to

evaluate

individual

pesticide

applications

by

using

eight

indicators

showed

the

following

some

of

the

pesticide

applications

had

a

high

ranking

higher

impact

on

the

environment

with

all

the

indicators

used

but

their

ranking

differed

considerably

when

the

score

for

the

environment

was

concerned

as

a

whole

the

ranking

based

on

the

indicator

kilograms

of

active

ingredient

did

not

correlate

with

most

of

the

rankings

obtained

by

the

other

pesticide

risk

indicators

the

pesticide

risk

indicators

used

gave

similar

rankings

of

the

pesticide

applications

for

the

individual

region

surface

water

groundwater

and

soil

contamination

and

K

oc

However

an

exception

was

recorded

with

two

pesticides

that

were

found

toxic

or

mobile

although

they

had

been

applied

at

extreme

low

rates

These

results

indicate

that

new

indicators

with

greater

reliability

than

those

already

existing

are

needed

to

predict

potential

risk

of

pesticides

and

thus

contribute

to

reduction

of

the

adverse

effects

of

pesticides

on

the

environment

Go

to

Minimizing

the

Negative

Impact

of

Pesticides

Despite

continuing

disagreements

over

the

degree

of

risk

posed

by

pesticides

it

appears

that

people

have

become

increasingly

concerned

about

pesticide

use

and

particularly

about

their

impacts

on

human

health

and

environmental

quality

These

increased

concerns

resulted

mainly

from

reduced

trust

in

the

agricultural

and

industrial

methods

of

production

as

well

as

on

the

authoritys

regulations

aimed

at

protecting

both

the

environment

and

human

health

Therefore

considering

the

existence

of

several

uncertainties

in

the

evaluation

of

pesticide

safety

scientific

data

policy

guidelines

and

professional

judgment

must

be

incorporated

when

estimating

whether

a

pesticide

can

be

used

beneficially

within

the

limits

of

an

acceptable

risk

The

probability

of

reducing

the

environmental

risk

associated

with

the

pesticide

use

is

very

low

because

the

producers

believe

that

lowering

risk

implies

either

decreased

output

or

increased

input

resulting

by

the

substitution

for

the

pesticide

inputs

Thus

policies

aiming

at

reducing

the

risks

associated

with

the

use

of

pesticides

will

impose

costs

on

the

agricultural

community

which

in

turn

has

implications

for

agricultural

commodity

prices

This

has

been

confirmed

by

the

costfunctionbased

production

model

used

by

Paul

et

al

which

indicated

that

substantive

costs

would

be

imposed

on

the

agricultural

sector

by

the

requirements

to

reduce

environmental

risk

deriving

from

pesticide

use

These

costs

are

directly

associated

with

increases

in

demand

of

effective

pesticides

for

a

given

level

of

agricultural

output

and

implies

induced

innovation

to

augment

pesticide

quality

associated

with

increased

cost

Concerns

about

impacts

of

pesticide

use

on

human

health

and

the

environment

led

the

EU

to

develop

a

Thematic

Strategy

on

Sustainable

Use

of

Pesticides

Moreover

agricultural

scientists

started

to

develop

alternative

crop

management

systems

to

minimize

the

negative

effects

of

farming

based

mainly

on

pesticide

use

for

crop

protection

to

the

environment

and

to

human

health

In

particular

the

Integrated

Crop

Management

ICM

includes

guidelines

to

be

used

by

the

farmer

unions

to

enforce

actions

for

production

of

safe

agricultural

products

with

simultaneous

respect

to

the

environment

In

addition

ICM

includes

measures

for

implementation

of

good

agricultural

practices

GAP

the

safety

and

hygiene

of

workers

the

safety

of

the

products

the

full

traceability

of

the

measurements

and

specific

actions

for

the

preservation

of

the

environment

For

the

control

of

pests

ICM

encourages

the

use

of

complementary

methods

of

pest

management

such

as

crop

resistance

against

insects

and

fungi

biological

control

and

other

cultural

or

physical

measures

to

reduce

the

animal

pest

or

weed

population

below

its

economic

injury

level

and

to

minimise

pesticide

impacts

on

other

components

of

the

agroecosystem

Concerning

pesticide

use

ICM

allows

pesticide

use

only

through

an

Integrated

Pest

Management

IPM

program

where

certain

criteria

are

used

for

pesticides

selection

specific

instructions

are

followed

for

their

application

on

crops

and

residue

analysis

is

used

as

one

of

the

tools

for

enforcement

Pesticides

that

are

selected

for

use

in

IPM

are

biologically

effective

high

selectivity

fast

impact

optimal

residual

effect

good

plant

tolerance

low

risk

of

resistance

user

friendly

low

acute

toxicity

and

low

chronic

toxicity

optimum

formulation

safe

packaging

easy

application

method

long

store

stability

environmentally

friendlycompatible

low

toxicity

to

nontarget

organisms

fast

degradation

in

the

environment

low

mobility

in

the

soil

no

residues

in

food

and

fodder

above

Specific

instructions

that

are

followed

during

pesticide

application

on

crops

include

the

use

of

pesticide

at

the

recommended

dose

when

a

pest

is

found

or

a

precautionary

treatment

thought

necessary

the

optimisation

of

pesticide

use

for

economic

saving

through

adjusted

doses

according

to

pest

population

density

and

the

minimization

of

pesticide

need

by

altering

the

cultivation

system

to

lower

the

risk

of

pests

Regarding

the

analysis

of

the

amount

of

active

ingredient

applied

or

the

money

spent

on

pesticides

these

variables

should

be

used

only

as

a

first

approximation

because

the

dosage

of

active

ingredients

is

not

closely

related

to

environmental

activity

while

environmental

friendly

and

innovative

compounds

are

often

more

expensive

than

obsolete

hazardous

ones

All

the

previously

mentioned

indicate

clearly

that

the

introduction

of

IPM

system

would

contribute

to

a

significant

reduction

of

the

pesticide

impact

on

human

health

and

the

environment

without

affecting

crop

productivity

or

increasing

the

probability

of

crop

losses

Apart

from

the

already

mentioned

above

chemical

crop

protection

has

been

changed

tremendously

over

the

last

years

not

only

in

the

development

of

new

active

ingredients

but

also

in

the

assessment

of

the

behaviour

of

these

chemicals

in

the

environment

the

residues

in

crop

plants

and

of

their

potential

toxicity

to

humans

and

the

environment

This

is

attributed

to

the

great

scientific

progress

in

many

disciplines

such

as

chemistry

biology

and

molecular

biology

which

has

improved

considerably

the

way

of

searching

for

new

agrochemicals

and

the

reassessment

of

safety

for

the

already

used

pesticides

Thus

new

agrochemicals

with

novel

modes

of

action

and

improved

safety

profiles

are

now

a

reality

Moreover

these

new

agrochemicals

in

combination

with

the

appropriate

measures

taken

for

safer

and

more

effective

pesticide

application

make

the

chemical

crop

protection

as

one

of

the

most

wellestablished

technologies

in

agriculture

which

seems

that

it

will

continue

to

play

an

important

role

in

the

agribusiness

in

spite

of

the

rapid

emergence

of

novel

biotechnological

solutions

Go

to

Conclusions

Pesticides

have

played

a

key

role

in

providing

reliable

supplies

of

agricultural

produce

at

prices

affordable

to

consumers

improving

the

quality

of

produce

and

ensuring

high

profits

to

farmers

Although

pesticides

are

developed

to

function

with

reasonable

certainty

and

minimal

risk

to

human

health

and

the

environment

many

studies

have

raised

concerns

about

health

risks

from

exposure

of

farmers

or

other

endusers

of

pesticides

and

from

nonoccupational

exposure

of

the

population

to

residues

found

on

food

and

drinking

water

Several

indicators

have

been

used

to

assess

the

potential

risk

of

pesticides

to

human

health

and

the

environment

However

their

use

The

development

of

new

pesticides

with

novel

modes

of

action

and

improved

safety

profiles

and

the

implementation

of

alternative

cropping

systems

that

are

less

dependent

on

pesticides

could

minimize

exposure

to

pesticides

and

the

undesirable

effects

of

exposure

on

human

health

Moreover

the

use

of

appropriate

and

wellmaintained

spraying

equipment

along

with

taking

all

the

precautions

required

in

all

stages

of

pesticide

handling

could

also

reduce

exposure

to

pesticides

The

overall

optimization

of

pesticide

handling

strictly

according

to

the

regulations

and

also

considering

the

public

concerns

about

pesticide

residues

in

food

and

drinking

water

could

contribute

to

reduction

of

the

Go

to

Acknowledgments

This

paper

was

prepared

to

the

great

extent

within

the

framework

of

the

collaborative

project

TEAMPEST

acronym

Seventh

Framework

Programme

THEME

Food

Agriculture

and

Fisheries

and

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Manual

to

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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

pesticide exposure
safety issues
risk assessment indicators