The

Internet

and

Higher

Education

Volume

October

Pages

Unpacking

online

learning

experiences

Online

learning

selfefficacy

and

learning

satisfaction

Demei

Shen

a

MoonHeum

Cho

b

ChiaLin

Tsai

c

Rose

Marra

d

Get

rights

and

content

Highlights

The

study

shows

that

the

online

learning

selfefficacy

is

multidimensional

Online

learning

selfefficacy

is

explained

with

five

dimensions

Gender

number

of

online

courses

taken

and

academic

status

predict

selfefficacy

Online

learning

selfefficacy

explains

learning

satisfaction

Abstract

Selfefficacy

is

believed

to

be

a

key

component

in

successful

online

learning

however

most

existing

studies

of

online

selfefficacy

focus

on

the

computer

Although

computer

selfefficacy

is

important

in

online

learning

researchers

have

generally

agreed

that

online

learning

entails

selfefficacy

of

multifaceted

dimensions

therefore

one

of

the

purposes

of

the

current

study

was

to

identify

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

Through

exploratory

factor

analysis

we

identified

five

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

a

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

b

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

c

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

Course

Management

System

CMS

d

selfefficacy

to

Keywords

Online

learning

Selfefficacy

Online

learning

selfefficacy

Learning

satisfaction

Introduction

Beliefs

about

selfefficacy

determine

level

of

motivation

as

reflected

in

the

amount

of

effort

exerted

in

an

endeavor

and

the

length

of

time

persisting

in

a

difficult

situation

Bandura

Selfefficacy

is

defined

as

peoples

judgments

of

their

capabilities

to

organize

and

execute

a

course

of

action

required

to

attain

designated

types

of

performances

Bandura

p

If

a

person

has

a

low

level

of

selfefficacy

toward

a

task

he

or

she

is

less

likely

to

exert

effort

therefore

the

person

will

less

likely

achieve

Other

research

findings

have

demonstrated

that

selfefficacy

is

a

better

predictor

of

academic

achievement

than

any

other

cognitive

or

affective

processes

Schunk

therefore

selfefficacy

is

critical

in

learning

and

performance

Hodges

Student

selfefficacy

seems

particularly

important

in

challenging

learning

environments

such

as

an

online

learning

environment

where

students

lack

the

opportunity

to

interact

with

others

and

as

a

result

can

become

socially

isolated

and

easily

lost

Cho

and

Jonassen

Cho

et

al

Recent

studies

have

shown

that

the

dropout

rate

among

students

in

online

learning

environments

is

higher

than

in

traditional

learning

environments

Ali

Leeds

Some

researchers

have

asserted

that

the

dropout

rate

is

related

in

part

to

lack

of

selfefficacy

Lee

Choi

Researchers

have

argued

that

with

the

selfdirected

nature

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

can

be

a

key

component

of

academic

success

in

distance

education

Hodges

therefore

understanding

selfefficacy

in

online

learning

is

critical

to

improve

online

education

The

current

study

was

an

investigation

of

selfefficacy

in

online

learning

settings

Selfefficacy

in

online

learning

settings

Selfefficacy

is

contextspecific

Bandura

In

terms

of

online

selfefficacy

we

need

to

consider

at

least

three

areas

technology

learning

and

social

interaction

however

a

majority

of

researchers

of

online

selfefficacy

consider

only

the

technological

aspect

of

online

learning

Consequently

selfefficacy

in

the

other

two

areas

has

rarely

been

explored

With

regard

to

technology

numerous

studies

have

been

conducted

on

the

role

of

technological

selfefficacy

in

online

student

achievement

For

instance

McGhee

found

a

significant

moderate

and

positive

relationship

between

online

technological

selfefficacy

and

the

academic

achievement

of

community

college

students

Thompson

and

Lynch

studied

the

psychological

processes

underlying

resistance

to

webbased

instruction

WBI

and

demonstrated

that

students

with

weak

Internet

selfefficacy

beliefs

tended

to

resist

WBI

Regarding

learning

Ergul

showed

that

selfefficacy

in

distance

education

significantly

and

positively

predicted

students

academic

achievement

In

addition

Artino

found

that

students

with

higher

selfefficacy

for

computerbased

learning

are

more

likely

to

experience

learning

satisfaction

than

students

with

low

selfefficacy

In

terms

of

social

interaction

Cho

and

Jonassen

found

two

dimensions

of

online

selfefficacy

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

and

selfefficacy

to

contribute

to

the

online

community

In

addition

they

found

that

students

who

have

high

selfefficacy

in

interacting

with

instructors

and

contributing

to

the

online

community

are

more

likely

to

use

active

interaction

strategies

such

as

writing

responding

and

reflecting

According

to

Cho

and

Jonassen

researchers

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

should

consider

diverse

situations

that

can

occur

in

online

learning

contexts

such

as

interacting

with

others

through

discussion

or

collaboration

Hodges

claimed

that

research

on

selfefficacy

in

online

environments

is

in

its

infancy

p

in

fact

how

selfefficacy

manifests

in

online

learning

contexts

deserves

additional

research

and

studies

Although

diverse

learning

settings

are

assumed

little

empirical

research

on

selfefficacy

has

been

conducted

with

a

focus

on

all

three

settings

in

online

learning

environments

Variables

of

selfefficacy

in

online

learning

settings

Three

types

of

variables

relating

to

student

selfefficacy

in

online

learning

environments

are

prior

online

learning

experience

gender

and

academic

status

Existing

empirical

research

on

relationships

among

the

three

variables

and

selfefficacy

shows

different

findings

therefore

the

current

empirical

study

contributes

to

filling

the

void

Prior

online

experience

and

selfefficacy

Although

little

research

has

been

conducted

to

investigate

the

relationships

between

prior

online

learning

experience

and

selfefficacy

a

reasonable

hypothesis

is

that

the

more

students

experience

online

the

more

they

are

likely

to

have

higher

levels

of

online

selfefficacy

Another

possible

hypothesis

is

that

prior

online

experience

is

not

related

to

online

selfefficacy

In

their

recent

study

Cho

and

Kim

found

that

the

number

of

online

courses

students

took

is

not

related

to

their

selfregulation

for

interaction

with

others

They

viewed

other

factors

such

as

task

structures

for

interaction

and

requirements

for

interaction

including

quality

and

the

number

of

online

interaction

may

be

associated

with

selfregulation

for

interaction

with

others

Although

Cho

and

Kims

study

is

not

directly

related

to

online

selfefficacy

their

findings

imply

that

prior

online

experience

may

not

necessarily

predict

online

selfefficacy

Because

we

have

two

reasonable

but

contrasting

hypotheses

and

because

little

research

has

been

done

to

investigate

the

relationship

between

online

experience

and

selfefficacy

our

Gender

and

selfefficacy

Gender

difference

in

selfefficacy

has

been

reported

in

many

empirical

studies

For

example

Wesley

studied

community

college

students

and

found

no

significant

difference

in

the

selfefficacy

of

male

and

female

students

but

students

years

old

and

older

exhibited

higher

levels

of

selfefficacy

than

younger

students

Li

collecting

data

from

Taiwanese

students

at

a

technical

college

found

that

male

students

had

higher

level

of

general

selfefficacy

and

computer

selfefficacy

than

female

students

and

senior

students

had

a

higher

level

of

both

of

the

two

types

of

selfefficacy

than

underclass

students

Fletcher

found

that

gender

and

previous

online

experience

influence

online

learning

selfefficacy

with

female

students

having

greater

selfefficacy

however

more

recently

Hung

Chou

Chen

and

Own

found

no

gender

differences

in

computer

or

Internet

selfefficacy

or

online

communication

selfefficacy

Because

of

mixed

research

results

more

empirical

study

is

necessary

Academic

status

and

selfefficacy

Billings

Skiba

and

Connors

compared

differences

between

undergraduate

and

graduate

nursing

students

who

took

webbased

courses

and

found

that

undergraduates

perceived

higher

levels

of

facultystudent

interactions

than

graduate

students

and

undergraduate

reported

higher

levels

of

perceived

connection

with

other

students

and

instructor

Using

the

independent

samples

t

test

Artino

and

Stephens

compared

undergraduate

and

graduate

students

enrolled

in

several

online

courses

with

regard

to

their

academic

motivation

and

selfregulation

strategies

They

found

that

undergraduates

had

more

online

learning

experience

took

a

greater

number

of

online

courses

showed

significantly

greater

levels

of

task

value

beliefs

and

were

more

likely

to

continue

to

take

online

courses

in

the

future

than

graduate

students

graduate

students

showed

significantly

higher

levels

of

critical

thinking

They

found

no

statistical

differences

between

the

two

groups

in

selfefficacy

beliefs

More

empirical

research

will

contribute

to

identifying

relationships

between

academic

status

and

online

selfefficacy

Students

satisfaction

with

online

learning

Selfefficacy

has

been

reported

as

a

consistent

variable

in

predicting

students

learning

satisfaction

in

online

learning

environments

Womble

who

investigated

the

relationship

between

elearning

selfefficacy

and

eleaner

satisfaction

among

government

agency

employees

in

training

courses

found

significant

and

positive

correlation

between

them

Lim

examined

the

relationships

among

computer

selfefficacy

academic

selfconcept

satisfaction

and

future

participation

of

adult

distance

learners

Findings

indicated

that

computer

selfefficacy

was

a

significant

predictor

of

both

the

satisfaction

of

online

learners

and

their

intention

to

take

future

webbased

courses

Lin

Lin

and

Laffey

investigated

students

task

value

selfefficacy

social

ability

and

learning

satisfaction

Among

participants

from

online

courses

in

a

distance

learning

program

the

researchers

found

that

selfefficacy

task

value

and

social

ability

significantly

impacted

online

learning

satisfaction

Research

questions

The

overarching

research

question

in

this

study

was

designed

to

investigate

the

role

of

selfefficacy

in

online

learning

environments

More

specifically

the

following

three

research

questions

were

examined

in

this

study

What

are

the

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

What

variables

are

related

to

students

online

learning

selfefficacy

To

what

extent

is

selfefficacy

related

to

students

online

learning

satisfaction

Method

Participants

The

participants

in

this

study

were

students

who

were

enrolled

in

an

online

course

at

the

time

the

study

was

conducted

Response

rate

was

not

calculated

because

students

were

not

required

to

report

their

course

information

A

total

of

online

students

participated

in

the

study

Among

them

students

were

female

and

students

were

male

The

majority

N

of

the

participants

were

Caucasian

More

than

of

the

participants

were

in

pursuit

of

a

graduate

degree

N

but

undergraduates

were

also

included

in

the

pool

of

respondents

N

See

Table

for

detailed

demographic

information

Table

Description

of

participants

Demographic

variables

N

Gender

Male

Female

No

response

Ethnicitycitizenship

AfricanAfrican

American

Asian

Asian

American

or

Pacific

Islander

LatinoLatino

American

CaucasianCaucasian

American

Biracial

No

response

Degree

pursuing

Undergraduate

Graduate

Other

Total

Measures

Two

instruments

were

used

for

this

study

one

for

identifying

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

and

the

other

for

measuring

online

learning

satisfaction

Demographic

variables

Participants

were

asked

to

selfreport

demographic

information

including

gender

academic

status

and

number

of

online

courses

taken

Gender

was

a

twocategory

variable

with

male

coded

as

and

female

coded

as

Academic

status

was

reported

as

graduate

student

or

undergraduate

student

Participants

were

asked

to

provide

the

number

of

online

courses

they

had

taken

up

to

the

time

of

the

survey

Online

learning

selfefficacy

A

new

scale

was

developed

to

measure

students

online

learning

selfefficacy

Following

a

literature

review

online

learning

selfefficacy

was

conceptualized

into

six

types

of

selfefficacy

a

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

b

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

c

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

an

instructor

d

selfefficacy

to

selfregulate

in

online

learning

e

selfefficacy

to

handle

a

course

management

system

and

f

selfefficacy

to

socialize

with

classmates

An

initial

item

pool

consisting

of

items

was

generated

to

assess

six

types

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

Each

item

was

evaluated

through

an

expert

review

conducted

by

five

doctoral

students

and

two

Learning

satisfaction

Learning

satisfaction

was

measured

with

five

items

on

a

scale

of

to

where

denoted

strongly

disagree

and

denoted

strongly

agree

They

were

adapted

from

Lins

research

Cronbachs

alpha

for

learning

satisfaction

in

this

study

was

Procedure

The

data

were

collected

from

two

universities

in

the

Midwestern

US

The

authors

of

the

current

study

contacted

online

instructors

and

asked

for

permission

to

conduct

the

study

in

their

online

courses

With

their

approval

the

researchers

posted

the

recruiting

letter

and

link

to

the

online

survey

on

a

message

board

The

instructors

also

encouraged

students

to

participate

in

the

study

After

students

filled

out

the

online

consent

form

they

were

directed

to

fill

out

the

online

survey

on

the

website

This

study

was

approved

by

the

IRB

and

conducted

ethically

Results

Question

what

are

the

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

An

exploratory

factor

analysis

was

conducted

to

identify

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

The

principle

axis

factoring

PAF

extraction

method

with

oblique

rotation

was

applied

in

this

case

Promax

We

chose

an

oblique

rotation

method

because

each

selfefficacy

dimension

was

assumed

to

be

correlated

with

one

another

Four

criteria

were

used

to

arrive

at

the

solution

First

item

loadings

should

be

above

Second

any

discrepancies

between

crossloadings

with

an

absolute

value

less

than

were

deleted

third

no

item

was

crossloaded

highly

to

more

than

one

factor

for

example

greater

than

And

fourth

each

factor

should

have

at

Pett

Lackey

Sullivan

Our

results

suggested

five

factors

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

The

KaiserMeyerOlkin

measure

of

sampling

adequacy

KMO

value

was

and

the

chisquare

value

of

Bartletts

Test

of

Sphericity

was

x

with

p

Both

of

the

tests

indicated

a

high

level

of

appropriateness

for

a

factor

analysis

to

proceed

The

five

factors

explained

of

the

total

variance

and

each

factor

explained

and

of

the

variance

respectively

In

accordance

with

the

items

included

in

the

factors

we

named

the

five

factors

as

follows

a

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

b

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

c

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

Course

Management

System

CMS

d

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

and

e

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

Cronbachs

alpha

for

each

dimension

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

was

and

Table

for

more

detailed

information

about

factor

loadings

items

and

Cronbachs

alpha

Table

Results

of

exploratory

factor

analysis

Factor

loadings

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

Eigenvalue

of

variance

explained

alpha

How

confident

are

you

that

you

could

do

the

following

tasks

in

the

Online

Course

Complete

an

online

course

with

a

good

grade

Understand

complex

concepts

Willing

to

face

challenges

Successfully

complete

all

of

the

required

online

activities

Keep

up

with

course

schedule

Create

a

plan

to

complete

the

given

assignments

Willingly

adapt

my

learning

styles

to

meet

course

expectations

Evaluate

assignments

according

to

the

criteria

provided

by

the

instructor

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

Eigenvalue

of

variance

explained

alpha

How

confident

are

you

that

you

could

do

the

following

social

interaction

tasks

with

your

CLASSMATES

in

the

ONLINE

course

Initiate

social

interaction

with

classmates

Socially

interact

with

other

students

with

respect

Develop

friendship

with

my

classmates

Apply

different

social

interaction

skills

depending

on

situations

Pay

attention

to

other

students

social

actions

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

Eigenvalue

of

variance

explained

alpha

How

confident

are

you

that

you

could

use

the

following

tasks

while

using

online

course

TOOLS

in

the

course

management

system

Download

instructional

materials

Post

a

new

message

in

a

discussion

board

Reply

to

others

message

in

a

discussion

board

Submit

assignments

Open

files

within

the

course

management

system

Send

email

to

others

with

or

without

attached

files

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

Eigenvalue

of

variance

explained

alpha

How

confident

are

you

that

you

could

do

the

following

tasks

while

interacting

with

your

INSTRUCTOR

in

the

ONLINE

Course

Clearly

ask

my

instructor

questions

Timely

inform

the

instructor

when

unexpected

situations

arise

Initiate

discussions

with

the

instructor

Express

my

opinions

to

instructor

respectfully

Seek

help

from

instructor

when

needed

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

Eigenvalue

of

variance

explained

alpha

How

confident

are

you

that

you

could

do

the

following

tasks

while

interacting

with

your

CLASSMATES

in

the

ONLINE

course

Actively

participate

in

online

discussions

Effectively

communicate

with

my

classmates

Express

my

opinions

to

other

students

respectfully

Respond

to

other

students

in

a

timely

manner

Provide

help

to

other

students

when

assistance

is

needed

Request

help

from

others

when

needed

Note

the

bold

emphasis

indicates

the

loading

value

of

an

item

and

that

the

item

has

loaded

on

the

identified

factor

Question

what

variables

are

related

to

students

online

selfefficacy

In

order

to

answer

Research

Question

descriptive

statistics

and

multiple

regressions

were

conducted

using

IBM

SPSS

Statistics

Descriptive

statistics

of

variables

Descriptive

statistics

including

mean

and

standard

deviations

were

acquired

and

have

been

presented

in

Table

Information

about

how

many

online

courses

students

took

prior

to

participating

in

the

study

was

also

collected

Students

reported

that

on

average

they

took

online

courses

SD

Students

tended

to

have

high

levels

of

selfefficacy

beliefs

and

the

mean

value

of

all

the

five

selfefficacy

factors

were

above

out

of

Their

learning

satisfaction

score

was

high

as

well

with

a

mean

value

of

The

correlation

of

factors

indicated

all

the

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

significantly

ranged

from

r

to

r

correlated

to

one

another

and

they

all

significantly

correlated

to

learning

satisfaction

ranged

from

r

to

r

To

conduct

the

following

analyses

gender

was

treated

as

a

dichotomous

variable

with

indicated

female

and

represented

male

Similarly

we

used

to

represent

undergraduate

and

to

indicate

graduate

Gender

and

number

of

online

courses

both

weakly

correlated

with

four

selfefficacy

factors

except

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

Table

shows

the

result

of

descriptive

statistics

Table

Descriptive

statistics

of

variables

Variables

Academic

status

Gender

Number

of

Online

Courses

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

Factor

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

Learning

Satisfaction

M

SD

p

p

Multiple

regressions

To

investigate

how

demographic

variables

are

associated

with

students

online

learning

selfefficacy

five

separate

multiple

regressions

were

performed

The

demographic

variables

included

the

number

of

online

courses

students

took

prior

to

participating

in

the

study

as

well

as

gender

and

academic

status

Selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

The

number

of

online

courses

gender

and

academic

status

together

accounted

for

approximately

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

R

adj

F

p

The

number

of

online

courses

was

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

sr

Holding

other

variables

constant

we

found

that

as

one

more

online

course

was

taken

by

students

their

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

was

estimated

to

increase

by

about

point

CI

Beta

Gender

was

also

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

sr

Holding

other

variables

constant

we

found

that

males

had

point

less

than

their

female

counterparts

CI

Beta

Academic

status

was

not

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

t

p

Selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

The

number

of

online

courses

gender

and

academic

status

did

not

significantly

predict

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

F

p

Selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

The

number

of

online

courses

gender

and

academic

status

together

significantly

predicted

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

and

accounted

for

approximately

of

the

variance

R

adj

F

p

The

number

of

online

courses

was

not

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

t

p

Gender

was

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

sr

Holding

other

variables

constant

we

found

that

males

had

point

less

than

their

female

counterparts

CI

Beta

Academic

status

was

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

sr

Holding

other

variables

constant

we

found

that

graduate

students

had

point

more

than

undergraduate

students

in

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

CI

Beta

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

The

number

of

online

courses

gender

and

academic

status

together

significantly

predicted

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

and

accounted

for

approximately

of

the

variance

R

adj

F

p

Number

of

online

courses

was

not

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

t

p

Gender

was

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

in

a

CMS

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

sr

Holding

other

variables

constant

we

found

that

males

had

point

less

than

their

female

counterparts

CI

Beta

in

their

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

Academic

status

was

not

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

t

p

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

The

number

of

online

courses

gender

and

academic

status

together

accounted

for

approximately

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

R

adj

F

p

The

number

of

online

courses

was

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

not

accounted

for

by

gender

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

sr

Holding

other

variables

constant

we

found

that

as

one

more

online

course

was

taken

by

students

their

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

was

estimated

to

increase

by

about

point

CI

Beta

Gender

was

also

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

in

a

CMS

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purpose

not

accounted

for

by

gender

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

sr

Holding

the

number

of

online

courses

constant

males

had

an

average

point

less

than

their

female

counterparts

CI

Beta

in

their

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

Academic

status

was

not

a

significant

predictor

of

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

t

p

Please

see

Table

for

more

information

about

the

regression

results

Table

Multiple

regression

analysis

results

for

selfefficacy

factors

Variable

B

SE

β

pr

Sr

CI

T

Sig

Lower

Upper

Selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

Constant

Number

of

Online

Courses

Gender

Academic

status

Selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

Constant

Number

of

Online

Courses

Gender

Academic

status

Selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

Constant

Number

of

Online

Courses

Gender

Academic

status

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

Constant

Number

of

Online

Courses

Gender

Academic

status

Self

efficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purpose

Constant

Number

of

Online

Courses

Gender

Academic

status

p

p

Question

to

what

extent

is

selfefficacy

related

to

students

online

learning

satisfaction

Multiple

regression

analysis

was

performed

using

the

five

selfefficacy

factors

as

independent

variables

and

learning

satisfaction

as

dependent

variable

to

detect

whether

the

five

selfefficacy

belief

factors

predict

learning

satisfaction

Table

Table

Multiple

Regression

Analysis

Results

for

Learning

Satisfaction

Variable

B

SE

β

pr

sr

CI

T

Sig

Lower

Upper

Constant

Selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

Selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

Selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purpose

Note

R

Square

Adjusted

R

Square

p

p

p

The

five

selfefficacy

factors

together

accounted

for

approximately

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

R

adj

F

p

Selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

was

a

significant

predictor

of

lea

rning

satisfaction

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

sr

Holding

other

selfefficacy

factors

constant

as

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

increased

by

point

learning

satisfaction

was

estimated

to

increase

by

about

point

CI

Beta

Selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

was

a

significant

predictor

of

learning

satisfaction

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

sr

Holding

other

selfefficacy

factors

constant

as

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

increased

by

point

learning

satisfaction

was

estimated

to

increase

by

about

point

CI

Beta

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

was

a

significant

predictor

of

learning

satisfaction

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

sr

Holding

other

selfefficacy

factors

constant

as

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

increased

by

point

learning

satisfaction

was

estimated

to

increase

by

about

point

CI

Beta

Selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purpose

was

a

significant

predictor

of

learning

satisfaction

t

p

which

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

not

accounted

for

by

other

selfefficacy

factors

pr

and

uniquely

accounted

for

of

the

variance

in

learning

satisfaction

sr

Holding

other

selfefficacy

factors

constant

as

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purpose

increased

by

point

learning

satisfaction

was

estimated

to

decrease

by

about

point

CI

Beta

Selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

was

not

a

significant

predictor

of

learning

satisfaction

t

p

Discussion

Multiple

dimensions

of

online

selfefficacy

One

of

the

purposes

of

this

study

was

to

investigate

dimensions

of

selfefficacy

in

online

learning

Through

the

exploratory

factor

analysis

we

found

five

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

This

result

indicates

that

online

learning

selfefficacy

is

multidimensional

and

reflects

the

complex

multifaceted

situation

of

online

learning

Different

from

much

online

selfefficacy

research

that

focused

solely

on

one

aspect

of

learning

setting

such

as

technology

the

current

online

selfefficacy

study

involved

three

aspects

of

online

contexts

including

technology

learning

and

social

interaction

The

five

dimensions

of

the

selfefficacy

scale

may

contribute

to

understanding

multifaceted

selfefficacy

in

online

learning

environments

Interestingly

enough

different

from

our

assumption

that

selfefficacy

in

selfregulation

is

a

separate

online

selfefficacy

selfefficacy

in

selfregulation

did

not

emerge

as

a

separate

factor

at

least

not

with

our

data

set

The

three

items

which

were

created

to

assess

selfefficacy

for

selfregulated

learning

loaded

to

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

These

three

items

included

the

following

Create

a

plan

to

complete

the

given

assignments

willingly

adapt

my

learning

styles

to

meet

course

expectations

and

evaluate

assignments

according

to

the

criteria

provided

by

the

instructor

One

possible

explanation

is

that

students

might

have

interpreted

selfregulation

skills

such

as

planning

Variables

related

to

selfefficacy

in

online

settings

Three

variables

including

gender

online

experience

and

academic

status

were

related

to

online

learning

selfefficacy

to

some

extent

First

gender

was

a

significant

predictor

of

all

the

selfefficacy

beliefs

except

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

In

general

the

results

demonstrate

that

female

students

were

likely

to

have

higher

online

learning

selfefficacy

than

male

students

implying

that

female

students

may

be

more

active

seek

more

help

or

function

better

than

male

students

Our

results

are

consistent

with

Gebaras

study

demonstrating

that

female

students

reported

higher

level

of

online

selfefficacy

than

male

students

Second

online

experience

measured

with

the

number

of

online

courses

was

a

significant

predictor

for

two

selfefficacy

beliefs

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

and

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

This

finding

indicates

that

the

students

who

took

more

online

courses

were

more

likely

to

have

higher

online

learning

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

in

addition

they

were

more

likely

to

communicate

and

collaborate

with

other

students

on

academic

tasks

However

online

experience

was

not

significantly

related

to

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

and

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

Last

academic

status

was

not

related

with

most

of

the

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

which

was

consistent

with

other

studies

for

example

Artino

and

Stephens

found

no

significant

difference

in

selfefficacy

between

undergraduates

and

graduates

In

the

current

study

academic

status

predicted

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

only

in

other

words

graduate

students

tended

to

have

higher

levels

of

technological

selfefficacy

than

undergraduate

students

perhaps

because

graduate

students

had

more

experience

with

online

learning

technology

and

perhaps

because

more

graduate

level

courses

were

delivered

online

than

undergraduate

courses

This

was

verified

by

the

number

of

online

courses

taken

by

undergraduate

and

graduate

students

An

independent

sample

t

test

on

number

of

online

courses

by

academic

status

revealed

that

graduate

students

had

taken

significantly

more

online

courses

M

SD

than

undergraduates

M

SD

t

p

Overall

gender

the

number

of

online

courses

and

academic

status

together

did

not

explain

much

of

the

variance

in

the

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

R

squared

less

than

showing

that

other

reasons

may

play

vital

roles

in

development

of

selfefficacy

beliefs

in

online

contexts

Perhaps

what

really

influences

to

students

online

selfefficacy

is

quality

of

learning

experience

instead

of

demographic

information

including

gender

and

academic

status

or

the

number

of

online

courses

students

took

Recently

Cho

and

Kim

found

that

instructors

scaffolding

efforts

to

facilitate

social

interaction

among

students

or

between

students

and

teacher

are

most

significantly

related

to

students

selfregulation

for

interaction

with

others

than

any

other

variables

such

as

demographic

variables

and

the

number

of

online

courses

in

online

learning

settings

This

shows

that

if

students

perceived

that

they

received

quality

support

from

online

instructors

the

students

might

engage

in

more

social

interaction

with

others

perhaps

leading

them

to

develop

high

selfefficacy

for

social

interactions

regardless

the

number

of

course

she

or

he

takes

Selfefficacy

and

learning

satisfaction

The

five

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

except

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

significantly

predicted

students

online

learning

satisfaction

Among

the

four

significant

dimensions

of

selfefficacy

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

was

most

significantly

associated

with

learning

satisfaction

and

it

explained

approximately

of

variance

in

satisfaction

However

the

power

of

remaining

selfefficacies

that

explain

variance

in

satisfaction

is

marginal

Selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

and

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purpose

explain

variance

in

satisfaction

only

and

respectively

The

results

show

Implications

for

online

teaching

The

five

dimensions

of

online

selfefficacies

were

identified

selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

instructors

in

an

online

course

and

selfefficacy

to

interact

with

classmates

for

academic

purposes

Several

implications

for

online

teaching

follow

Scaffold

students

to

participate

in

learning

activities

Selfefficacy

to

complete

an

online

course

explains

most

of

the

variance

both

in

online

selfefficacy

and

in

learning

satisfaction

Online

instructors

can

support

students

course

completion

by

providing

coregulation

opportunities

for

example

online

instructors

regular

monitoring

on

students

course

participation

and

providing

support

and

encouragement

to

complete

an

online

course

Shea

Li

Pickett

Through

regular

monitoring

of

students

activities

online

instructors

can

find

students

slow

participation

or

failure

to

submit

assignments

especially

for

less

experienced

online

students

Then

online

instructors

can

provide

immediate

support

and

guidance

for

students

to

participate

in

the

activities

or

complete

the

tasks

Promote

social

interaction

with

others

The

current

study

shows

that

three

dimensions

of

online

selfefficacy

are

related

to

social

interactions

among

students

and

between

students

and

instructors

The

nature

of

online

learning

requires

students

to

interact

actively

with

both

instructors

and

classmates

Especially

those

students

with

less

experience

may

experience

anxiety

about

interacting

with

others

and

may

feel

social

isolation

if

they

perceive

lack

of

support

from

others

Online

literature

suggests

that

instructors

should

create

social

presence

and

teaching

presence

to

foster

a

sense

of

learning

community

Yang

Tsai

Kim

Cho

Laffey

Possible

examples

to

promote

social

interactions

with

others

include

instructors

direct

interactions

efforts

such

as

participating

in

discussion

boards

Artino

Stephens

providing

guidelines

for

social

interaction

recognizing

students

contribution

to

online

learning

community

Shea

et

al

and

monitoring

students

social

interaction

processes

Cho

Kim

Provide

an

orientation

to

enhance

students

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

Although

we

found

that

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

was

not

a

significant

predictor

for

learning

satisfaction

we

found

that

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

is

still

a

dimension

of

online

selfefficacy

In

addition

a

significant

number

of

studies

consistently

reported

that

technologyrelated

selfefficacy

promotes

student

motivation

and

learning

In

particular

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

is

important

for

new

online

learners

or

at

the

beginning

of

the

class

Cho

An

orientation

program

will

help

students

develop

selfefficacy

to

handle

tools

in

a

CMS

Possible

examples

of

orientation

include

scavenger

activities

that

engage

students

with

tools

in

a

CMS

and

a

video

tutorial

that

demonstrates

the

use

of

tools

in

a

CMS

Consider

gender

differences

in

online

selfefficacy

Our

study

findings

demonstrate

gender

differences

in

all

dimensions

of

online

selfefficacy

except

for

selfefficacy

to

interact

socially

with

classmates

Female

students

have

significantly

higher

selfefficacy

than

male

students

Online

instructors

may

need

to

provide

additional

support

for

male

students

to

help

them

develop

online

selfefficacy

Possible

instructional

strategies

include

paying

extra

attention

to

male

students

learning

processes

providing

immediate

feedback

and

assistance

supporting

them

in

the

completion

of

tasks

and

encouraging

them

to

interact

with

others

by

sending

an

individual

note

or

recognizing

their

contributions

to

the

development

of

an

online

learning

community

Conclusion

Considering

three

aspects

of

dynamic

online

learning

environments

technology

learning

and

social

interaction

we

explored

the

dimensions

of

online

learning

selfefficacy

and

found

that

online

selfefficacy

involves

five

dimensions

Although

more

research

is

necessary

to

test

its

validity

with

larger

samples

from

multiple

online

courses

our

study

provides

a

reliable

instrument

that

can

be

used

to

measure

diverse

aspects

of

online

selfefficacy

In

addition

the

study

demonstrates

that

researchers

studying

online

learning

selfefficacy

should

consider

multiple

aspects

of

selfefficacy

in

online

contexts

Different

from

the

existing

selfefficacy

researchers

who

have

explored

only

one

or

two

aspects

of

selfefficacy

in

online

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Abstract

Copyright

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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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