Economic Affairs , From the beginning of 1998, prospects for the world economy were marked by uncertainty as the Asian crisis that began in July 1997 with the collapse of the Thai baht deepened. (See Spotlight: The Troubled World Economy.) As the year progressed, it was clear that the effects of the recession in Japan and the repercussions of the financial crisis in East and Southeast Asian countries were worse than expected, although both Thailand and South Korea were showing strong signs of recovery. Because of the deterioration, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) revised its projections for world growth in 1998 to 2%, only half the level it was projecting a year earlier. (See Special Report.)
By September--in the wake of the August financial collapse in Russia, which caused a general retreat by investors from all emerging markets--the financial turbulence was spreading to the developed countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (For Real Gross Domestic Products of Selected OECD Countries, see Table.) Stock markets were falling, and trading losses were being made by some of the world’s largest investment funds. Interest rates in the U.S., the U.K., and much of continental Europe were reduced. (For Interest Rates: Long-term and Short-term , see Graphs.) In Japan new legislation was adopted, supported by ¥60 trillion to recapitalize and reform the banking system. Many less-developed country (LDC) currencies came under severe pressure, which forced further drops in commodity prices. (For Changes in Consumer Prices in Less-Developed Countries, see Table.) The lack of investor confidence created particular problems in LDCs, given their limited access to external capital.
|Country ||1994 ||1995 ||1996 ||1997 ||19981 |
|United States ||3.5 ||2.0 ||2.8 ||3.8 || 2.7 |
|Japan ||0.6 ||1.5 ||3.9 ||0.9 ||-0.3 |
|Germany ||2.7 ||1.8 ||1.4 ||2.2 || 2.7 |
|France ||2.8 ||2.1 ||1.5 ||2.4 || 2.9 |
|Italy ||2.2 ||2.9 ||0.7 ||1.5 || 2.4 |
|United Kingdom ||4.3 ||2.7 ||2.2 ||3.3 || 1.7 |
|Canada ||3.9 ||2.2 ||1.2 ||3.8 || 3.3 |
|All developed countries ||2.9 ||2.2 ||2.8 ||3.1 || 2.4 |
|Seven major countries above ||2.8 ||2.0 ||2.5 ||2.8 || 2.1 |
|European Union ||2.9 ||2.5 ||1.7 ||2.6 || 2.7 |
|Area ||1994 ||1995 ||1996 ||1997 ||19981 |
|All less-developed countries || 51.6 || 22.3 ||14.1 || 9.1 ||10.3 |
|Regional groups |
| Africa || 37.5 || 34.1 ||26.7 ||11.0 || 7.7 |
| Asia || 15.0 || 12.8 || 7.9 || 4.7 || 8.3 |
| Middle East and Europe || 31.9 || 35.9 ||24.6 ||22.6 ||22.6 |
| Western Hemisphere ||208.3 || 35.9 ||20.8 ||13.9 ||10.8 |
During the year output in the major industrialized countries rose 2%, compared with 3.1% in 1997. (For Industrial Production in selected OECD countries, see Graph.) The overall picture was distorted, however, by the recession in Japan, where a marked deterioration in the first half of the year led to a 2.5% decline, compared with a marginal rise in 1997. In the newly industrializing economies such as South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore, there was an even sharper fall of 2.9% after a 6% increase in 1997. The American economy was extremely buoyant, particularly in the first half of the year, when it appeared to be overheating, and output increased 3.5%, which was only slightly below 1997 growth. Strong domestic demand provided the impetus for growth in the U.S. as it did in the European Union (EU), where output increased from 2.7% in 1997 to 2.9% in 1998. This included a 2.3% rise in the U.K., which was at a much more advanced stage in the economic cycle than France and Germany. Output in Central and Eastern Europe accelerated to 3.4% in 1998 from 2.8%, but only Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia regained their 1989 levels of output; most were well below it. The 6% decline in Russia was the cause of a slight overall decline in output in the formerly centrally planned economies.
The growth rate of output in LDCs fell back from 8% in 1997 to 2.3% in 1998. (See Table.) Contributing to the increase was a 3.7% rise in Africa, where financial restructuring continued and good weather boosted agricultural output in some countries, whereas others benefited or suffered from falling commodity prices and strengthening demand in Europe. Lower output in the Middle East (2.3%) and in Latin America (2.8%) was closely linked to the slump in oil prices. Holding down growth in output to l.8% in Asia were Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, where there was a decline of more than 10%. In Indonesia output in the third quarter was running at 17% below that of the same period a year earlier. By contrast, China, which retained its currency link with the U.S. dollar, and Taiwan showed more resilience
|Area ||1994 ||1995 ||1996 ||1997 ||19981 |
|All less-developed countries || 6.7 || 6.1 || 6.6 || 5.8 || 2.3 |
|Regional groups |
| Africa || 2.2 || 3.1 || 5.8 || 3.2 || 3.7 |
| Asia || 9.6 || 9.0 || 8.2 || 6.6 || 1.8 |
| Middle East and Europe || 0.7 || 3.8 || 4.7 || 4.7 || 2.3 |
| Western Hemisphere || 5.2 || 1.2 || 3.5 || 5.1 || 2.8 |
| Countries in transition ||-7.1 ||-1.5 ||-1.0 ||-2.0 ||-0.2 |
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The volume of world trade in goods and services grew more slowly in 1998--by 3.7%, compared with 9.7% in 1997. In value terms, export growth was similar to 1997, reflecting the fall in oil and other nonfuel commodities. Despite the difficult trading conditions, the trend toward opening up multilateral, regional, and unilateral markets was maintained. At the end of 1997, agreement was reached by 70 members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to further liberalize financial services. The members, which represented 95% of global markets and included some of the East Asian countries most affected by the financial crisis, agreed to open up their financial markets. At the WTO meeting in May, the commitment to liberalization of markets was reinforced when governments rejected protectionism.
In much of the world, the problem and fear of inflation receded as the year progressed. In most advanced countries price rises eased gradually throughout the year. (For Consumer Prices in OECD Countries, see Table.) Although the average inflation rate for these countries was projected at 2%, compared with 3.l% in 1997, consumer prices were falling in several countries in the last months of the year. (For Inflation Rate in selected countries, see Graph.) Concern about inflation was being superseded by the growing fears of deflation--and the associated risk of recession--over which governments could exercise little control.
|Country ||1994 ||1995 ||1996 ||1997 ||19981 |
|United States || 2.6 || 2.8 || 2.9 || 2.3 || 1.6 |
|Japan || 0.7 || -0.1 || 0.1 || 1.7 || 0.4 |
|Germany || 2.7 || 1.8 || 1.5 || 1.8 || 1.0 |
|France || 1.7 || 1.7 || 2.0 || 1.2 || 0.7 |
|Italy || 3.9 || 5.4 || 3.8 || 1.8 || 1.7 |
|United Kingdom || 2.5 || 3.4 || 2.4 || 3.1 || 2.6 |
|Canada || 0.2 || 2.2 || 1.6 || 1.6 || 1.2 |
|Austria || 3.0 || 2.2 || 1.9 || 1.3 || 1.1 |
|Belgium || 2.4 || 1.5 || 2.1 || 1.6 || 1.0 |
|Denmark || 2.0 || 2.1 || 2.1 || 2.2 || 1.9 |
|Finland || 1.1 || 1.0 || 0.6 || 1.2 || 1.5 |
|Greece || 10.9 || 8.9 || 8.2 || 5.5 || 4.8 |
|Iceland || 1.6 || 1.7 || 2.3 || 1.8 || 2.2 |
|Ireland || 2.3 || 2.5 || 1.7 || 1.4 || 2.8 |
|Luxembourg || 2.2 || 1.9 || 1.4 || 1.4 || 1.6 |
|Netherlands, The || 2.8 || 1.9 || 2.0 || 2.2 || 1.8 |
|Norway || 1.4 || 2.5 || 1.3 || 2.6 || 2.3 |
|Portugal || 5.2 || 4.1 || 3.1 || 2.2 || 2.7 |
|Spain || 4.7 || 4.7 || 3.6 || 2.0 || 1.9 |
|Sweden || 2.4 || 2.9 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 0.5 |
|Switzerland || 0.9 || 1.8 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 0.1 |
|Turkey ||105.1 ||89.1 ||80.4 ||85.7 ||84.7 |
|Australia || 1.9 || 4.6 || 2.6 || 0.3 || 1.7 |
|New Zealand || 1.8 || 3.8 || 2.3 || 1.2 || 1.6 |
|Total OECD || 5.0 || 5.9 || 4.2 || 4.7 || -- |
In a crucial development that had as-yet-unclear implications for the world economy, 11 EU countries--Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain--were preparing their economies for the final stage of economic and monetary union (EMU). This was to culminate on Jan. 1, 1999, with the replacement of national currencies by a new currency, the euro. Monetary control was to move to the European Central Bank (ECB), which would set a single interest rate for the 11 countries. The four other members of the EU--Denmark, Greece, Sweden, and the U.K.--were not adopting the euro, at least for the time being.
National Economic Policies
Once again the U.S. led growth among the major industrial countries. For the seventh year in succession, the U.S. had exceeded by far the increase in output of most other advanced countries. (For Industrial Production in selected countries, see Graph.) The IMF projected rise in gross domestic product (GDP) was 3.5%, but with higher-than-expected third-quarter output, it could be slightly more. In any event, it was expected to be close to the 3.9% recorded in 1997. The strength of the economic performance was reflected in the achievement of the first balanced federal budget since 1960; it followed an unexpected fall in the 1997 deficit to $23 billion. The need to cut the deficit had become a political imperative since it peaked at $290 billion in fiscal 1992, but eliminating it before fiscal 2000 had not been thought possible.
The momentum continued to be driven by consumer spending, which accounted for some two-thirds of economic activity and showed few signs of slowing over the year. In the third quarter it was rising at an annual rate of 4.1%. The fact that spending was exceeding earnings in September and October raised some concerns. The personal savings rate (savings as a share of after-tax income) fell by 0.3% in those two months as Americans took advantage of falling interest rates through cheaper credit or drew on their savings or other assets. In the first quarter, when GDP was rising at an annual rate of 4.2%, retail sales advanced 3.3%, housing demand was buoyant, and cars and small trucks were selling at the rate of 14 million a year. The second quarter showed even more activity, with retail sales increasing by 6.3% over a year earlier. By November consumer spending had not fallen in any month since June 1996.
Consumer demand was being fueled by the strong growth in personal incomes, high employment, and low inflation. (See Graph.) The tighter labour market forced employers to increase compensation at a faster rate than inflation in order to retain and attract employees. Wages and salaries rose by 4% in the year to end September, the fastest rate for seven years, easing back slightly to 3.1% in the three months to November before it rose again in December. New job creation was helped by the flexibility in the labour market; relative to labour conditions in Europe, American minimum wages and social benefits were low, and fewer members of the labour force were unionized. In 1998, for the first time, American manufacturing workers cost more than those in Spain while remaining ahead of Canada and Italy. There were, however, signs of an easing in the tight labour market during the second half of the year. The average rate of unemployment continued the annual downward trend that began in 1992 (7.5%). (See Table.) The unemployment rate edged up from a 28-year low of 4.3% in May and was holding at 4.6% through to October. It fell back again, to 4.4% in November and 4.3% in December, boosted by holiday recruitment in the retail sector and in the buoyant construction sector. The number of new jobs being created also declined from an average 244,000 a month in the first half of the year to 165,000 in the third quarter and in the fourth quarter.
|Country ||1993 ||1994 ||1995 ||1996 ||1997 ||19981 |
|United States || 6.9 || 6.1 || 5.6 || 5.4 || 4.9 || 4.8 |
|Japan || 2.5 || 2.9 || 3.1 || 3.3 || 3.4 || 4.4 |
|Germany || 8.9 || 9.6 || 9.4 ||10.3 ||11.4 ||11.5 |
|France ||11.7 ||12.2 ||11.5 ||12.3 ||12.4 ||11.9 |
|Italy ||10.2 ||11.3 ||12.0 ||12.1 ||12.3 ||12.0 |
|United Kingdom ||10.3 || 9.4 || 8.6 || 8.0 || 6.9 || 6.8 |
|Canada ||11.2 ||10.4 || 9.5 || 9.7 || 9.2 || 8.6 |
|All developed countries || 8.0 || 7.9 || 7.6 || 7.5 || 7.2 || 7.1 |
|Seven major countries above || 7.3 || 7.2 || 6.9 || 7.0 || 6.8 || 6.7 |
|European Union ||11.1 ||11.5 ||11.2 ||11.4 ||11.2 ||10.9 |
Nevertheless, consumer confidence was only slightly dented. After falling for four months from the June peak, it recovered again in November (according to the Department of Trade Conference Board). The housing market remained buoyant, with construction in the third quarter rising at an annual rate of 9%. The amount of consumer credit was cause for some concern because Americans appeared to be living beyond their means. In September, when consumer installment credit was $8.4 billion and rising at an annual rate of 7.9%, spending exceeded saving for the first time since records began in the 1930s. Despite the strength of consumer demand, inflation was no longer considered a problem as the price stability achieved in 1997 (when the average inflation rate was 2.3%) continued. In November 1998 consumer prices were up only 1.5%, and the lower GDP deflator at 0.8% was the lowest for 35 years.
Although household expenditure remained buoyant, there were signs of a slowdown in areas affected by global trade. Industrial output rose by only 1.5% in the 12 months ending in November, although the latest three months showed some acceleration (up 2.4%). Factory orders for big-ticket goods declined in October for the first time in five months, a reflection of weaker demand for industrial hardware, railroad equipment, ships, and primary metals. The key indicator of spending on new equipment used in manufacture (nondefense capital goods excluding aircraft) fell 9.2% in October, the largest drop since November 1990, when the U.S. was in recession. The falloff in demand was also reflected in factory shipments of durable goods.
Because of the strength of the economy and the risk of its overheating, federal policy remained tight for the first three quarters. Until August policy makers had been ready to raise interest rates, but this changed as the impact of the global slowdown became apparent. For the first time in 40 years, export sales fell for three consecutive quarters while imports rose. The October deficit fell to $14.2 billion as export sales of farm products shot up. Nevertheless, the trade deficit with Pacific Rim countries in the first 10 months of the year was up by 34% to $134 billion. The uncertainty generated by the external factors and fears that the domestic economy could slow down led the monetary authorities to cut the target Fed Funds rate three times from September 29, each time by 0.75 percentage point, down to 4.75%. (For Interest Rates: Long-term and Short-term, see Graphs.)
The economy started the year on a high note. Indicators reflected the buoyancy built up over the previous five years, when annual growth in output exceeded the long-term trend rate of 2.25%. During the year common EU statistical practices were being adopted, and--among other changes--all the national accounts were rebased. The revisions to historical economic indicators showed that the annual average increase in real GDP since 1991 was 0.25 percentage point higher than previously calculated. On this basis the 1997 increase output rose from 3.4% to 3.5%. As 1998 progressed, however, the economy lost momentum--not least because of the deterioration in the international economy--and the increase in 1998 output was expected to decline to 2.8%. By year’s end business confidence had fallen, and a short period of recession was being widely predicted, with growth in 1999 not expected to exceed 1%.
Economic growth was led by the domestic economy, which was less vulnerable than the trade sector to the effects of the strong pound and the weak demand in Asian and other LDCs. Consumer demand and business investment provided the main impetus in the first half of the year. By the third quarter, however, it was clear that growth in consumer demand was slowing down. Retail sales growth eased over the year and in September and October fell compared with one year earlier, although it unexpectedly recovered in November. Turnover in the housing market declined further from the 1.4 million units in 1997, but prices remained high because of supply shortage. Business investment remained buoyant in the early part of the year and was likely to increase by up to 8% over the year. It was expected to slow down in response to lower profits. The dominant service sector, accounting for 60% of output, outperformed the rest of the British economy, but by the second quarter the growth rate had eased despite continuing strong demand in the transportation and telecommunications sectors. Manufacturing accounted for only 20% of output but was a major consumer of services. Demand for business services grew more slowly, a reflection of the slowdown in demand from manufacturers. (For Industrial Production, see Graph.)
There were a number of positive developments during the year. The rate of inflation (see Graph ) was more the result of external factors than actions by the Bank of England’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC), which was responsible for managing interest rates to facilitate an economic growth rate compatible with low inflation. (For Interest Rates: Long-term and Short-term, see Graphs.) The MPC benchmark was 2.25%, growth above which was perceived to be inflationary. Given the effect of the slowdown of global demand, however, this approach looked too simplistic. Fears of inflation were being superseded by uncertainty created by the less-familiar prospect of deflation.
Consumer prices were expected to have risen by 2.7% (excluding mortgage payments) in 1998, the same rate as in 1997. The annual rate rose above 3% in April and May as a result of increases in local tax and road-fuel excise duties and seasonal food prices. As the effects of indirect taxes diminished, the rate declined, helped by the impact of the Asian crisis and the strength of sterling, which, combined with falling exchange rates outside the euro area, resulted in lower year-on-year prices on a wide range of goods. The cost of services was continuing to rise around 5% a year.
Revisions to the average earnings data showed that growth in the first quarter fell to an annual rate of 3.9%, compared with a peak of 5.3% in the same period a year earlier. By midyear the rate had accelerated to 5.4%, with most of the pressure coming from the private sector (6.2%) and more restrained growth in the public sector (2.5%). Over the year, average earnings were expected to rise by around 4% but to slow down in early 1999 in response to falling corporate profits. Despite signs of recession and the closure of a number of manufacturing plants, job creation was maintained at a brisk level, and unemployment fell by another 11,900 (to 1.3 million) in September. Additional job gains were recorded in the three months to October, when the number of employed rose to 27.2 million, up 259,000 on a year earlier. At around 6.2%, unemployment was at its lowest since 1980.
The year began on a weak note following signs of deepening recession and scandals and bankruptcies in the financial sectors, which had started at the end of 1997. International as well as domestic confidence in the Japanese economy had been badly damaged. Growth in output fell to a low 1% in 1997 following a real decline in the final quarter; this marked the start of the longest period of decline since World War II. In 1998 the economy continued to deteriorate despite government measures to shore it up, and by the end of the year the 2.5% decline predicted by the IMF seemed optimistic. In late December, however, the government predicted a fall of 2.2% in the year through March 1999.
The government’s response to recession marked a reversal of policy. It announced at the end of l997 a surprise ¥2 trillion in tax cuts and an acceleration of public investment planned for fiscal 1998. This did little to restore confidence or solve the country’s problems. In the first quarter of 1998, industrial production fell for the third quarter running. (See Graph.) Inventories rose as consumers remained cautious, and exports fell to Asian countries suffering their own crises. At the same time, imports declined, which added to the already large current-account surplus. By April the unemployment rate, which had been rising slowly but steadily, rose to a record-high 4.1%. Nearly all the first-quarter indicators (in year-on-year terms)--including real consumption (down 4.9%), retail sales, new car registrations (down 20.4%), and machinery orders (down 5.8%)--reflected the continuing deterioration. Deflationary pressure was growing as both the overall and the domestic wholesale price indexes rose ever more slowly. (For Inflation Rate in selected countries, see Graph.) In March, for the first time, each recorded declines of l.1% and 0.1%, respectively. The next month the Bank of Japan presented a gloomy forecast of the economy that, among other things, reflected its concerns about the stability of the financial system.
On April 24 the government announced details of Japan’s largest-ever economic stimulus package to pump prime the economy. Of the ¥16,650,000,000,000 involved, two-thirds was to go to new public-works spending, special income and residential tax cuts, and more central and local government spending on social infrastructure. The defeat of the Liberal Democratic Party in upper house elections on July 12 led to the resignation of Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto and plunged Japan into more uncertainty. A major fear was that the planned reforms to stimulate the economy and measures to deal with the bad debt problems in the banking sector would be delayed. Concern also centred on whether bank reforms would address the problem adequately. If they dealt only with technically failed institutions and not the bad loans in apparently healthy banks, the reforms would be ineffective. (For Interest Rates: Long-term and Short-term, see Graphs.)
In fact, all three possible successors to Hashimoto were committed to such policies. The new government, led by former foreign minister Keizo Obuchi (see BIOGRAPHIES), announced a fiscal-stimulus package of ¥17 trillion in the form of tax cuts and more public spending. In October legislation was finally agreed for banking reforms to be put in place. To support them an exceptionally large sum of public funds (around ¥60 trillion, the equivalent of 12% of GDP) was made available, including ¥18 trillion for the nationalization of weak but essentially solvent banks and ¥17 trillion for the protection of depositors.
The government’s fiscal package provided little relief, and economic conditions continued to deteriorate. In the April-June quarter real GDP contracted by 0.8%, and by the third quarter it was down 3.6% at an annual rate. Business and consumer confidence remained low, with corporate spending still falling. The continuing decline in consumer spending reflected the fall in incomes because of lower bonuses and less overtime (nonfarm incomes were down 3.8% on the year earlier) and offset the effect of tax rebates. Deflationary fears were realized, with consumer prices falling in both July and August. The unemployment rate increased to 4.4%, low by international standards but a postwar high for Japan.
The government announced another rescue package in November of a record ¥23.9 trillion. It included more spending on infrastructure as well as permanent income and corporate tax cuts. Despite the stimulus being provided by the government and a hoped-for strengthening of the financial sector, the outlook remained uncertain. The weakness of the external sector was expected to continue, with increasing pressure on Japan’s Asian operations and the prospect of shrinking demand from advanced countries. Output was not expected to recover until the year 2000.
By early 1998 the 11 EU countries scheduled to adopt the euro as a single currency on Jan. 1, 1999, were increasingly being viewed as one economy. The IMF designated these countries the euro area, but the new bloc was also known as euroland and the euro zone.
On May 2, 1998, formal approval was given for the 11 countries to participate in the third stage and final stage of the EMU. It was agreed that on December 3l the 11 national currencies would be converted into euros. The internal exchange rate of the euro to the 11 national currencies (Belgium and Luxembourg would have the same rate) was to be irrevocably fixed, whereas the market would determine its external value. The new currency was to be managed by the 17 governing members of the ECB, which was to become operational on January 1. A six-member executive board, led by Dutch banker Wim Duisenberg (see BIOGRAPHIES), was to share decision making with the central bank governors of the 11 member countries. The status of the ECB was one of strict independence and neutrality, and the central bank governors in turn had to preserve their independence regardless of pressure from their governments.
In the first few months of 1998, fiscal and monetary policy in the euro area continued to be influenced by the necessity to meet the convergence criteria set out by the Maastricht Treaty in order to qualify for the third stage of EMU. A flexible approach to achievement of the criteria was adopted so that countries qualified even if they failed to meet all the criteria. For example, the ratio of public debt to GDP in Belgium and Italy exceeded 120%, whereas the criteria stipulated a 60% "reference value." This was waived on the grounds that the ratio was declining.
In accordance with the stability and growth pact signed by the EU members in June 1997, most governments maintained a tight monetary policy in 1998. This was to keep fiscal deficits within the 3% of GDP limit that was one of the EMU qualification requirements and the maximum allowed under the pact. In 1998 the euro-area budget deficit was expected to meet its limit--for only the second time in 20 years--resulting in an improvement in the euro area’s government finances. The ECB had to pursue price stability as a priority, and other objectives, such as employment and growth, could be pursued only if they were consistent with low inflation. A principal objective of the ECB was to maintain price stability. There were signs, however, that faced with the new threat of deflation rather than that of inflation, some euro-area governments wanted to relax fiscal policy and spend their way out of trouble in the short term rather than risk a return to recession. Significantly, the strong political swings to the left in France, Italy, and Germany, which were major influences in the euro area, were shifting emphasis away from austerity, and there was more likelihood that public spending would be used to boost demand.
Some easing of monetary conditions was provided by the downward trend in short-term interest rates. (For Interest Rates: Long-term and Short-term, see Graphs.) These were converging in readiness for January l, after which interest rates were to be fixed by the ECB and be binding on all the euro-area countries. By November 1998 it was widely believed that the rate would be set at a floor of 3.3%, which had been the rate for several months before in France and Germany. Spain, Italy, Ireland, and Portugal had made moves toward this rate. On December 3, in an unexpected move, the Bundesbank cut its rate to 3%. The other currencies, with the exception of Italy (3.5%), followed suit. The ECB was not expected to cut the rate again at its first meeting in January 1999.
Export-led growth in output in the euro area accelerated in the first quarter to an annual rate of 3.2% from 3% in the last three months of 1997. Leading the growth among the larger economies were The Netherlands (3.9%) and Spain (3.7%), whereas Italy’s output stagnated at 2.5%. There was a modest slowdown in the second quarter, with industrial orders being adversely affected by the Asia crisis. The slack, however, was largely taken up by domestic demand; this was being reflected in more construction activity and investment in plants, as well as increased car sales. Consumer confidence was boosted by the fall in inflation to 1.2%, faster real-income growth, and cheaper credit. (For Inflation Rate in selected countries, see Graph.) At the same time, the appreciation of the European Currency Unit against the dollar was damaging export prospects in the euro area and increasing the imports. In the third quarter industrial output rose by an annual rate of less than 3%, compared with 6% in the first three months. (For Industrial Production in selected countries, see Graph.) As the year drew to a close, business and consumer confidence was falling and the decline in unemployment had ceased.
The Former Centrally Planned Economies
In 1998 economic output in these countries was expected to decline by 1% or more. This followed an increase in output of 2% in 1997, the first regional rise after five consecutive years of decline and the first in Russia since 1989. The downturn was the result of several factors. These were led by the financial crisis in Asia, which prompted a fall in confidence in emerging markets generally and in the Russian financial system more specifically. Owing to financial market concerns, the authorities took emergency measures. On August 17 Russia devalued its currency, defaulted on a large portion of its government debt, and stopped foreign credit repayments by companies and banks. The sharp depreciation of the ruble and the fall of Prime Minister Sergey Kiriyenko’s government later the same month generated instability and uncertainty through much of the region.
In Russia output was expected to decline by around 6%, but elsewhere the overall picture was less-gloomy. In Central Europe and Eastern Europe, real output was forecast to rise for the sixth consecutive year, accelerating from 3.1% in 1997 to 5.1% in 1988. Output was forecast to increase in Poland (5.8%) and in Hungary (5.2%), helped by strong domestic demand. The Czech Republic (up 1%) remained in recession because of policy mismanagement and the aftereffects of the May 1987 currency crisis. Only Romania and Ukraine experienced real declines (4% and 1%, respectively).
In the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, growth in output rose for the third straight year--4.1%, compared with 2.1% in 1997--with most countries experiencing faster growth. Against the trend, however, there was a marked turnaround in Turkmenistan, where, following several years of decline, the economy was variously forecast to grow by 5-20%.
Despite the return to growth in many of the transition economies, only Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia regained their 1989 levels of output. For all of the countries together the projection for real gross domestic product in 1998 was an average 55% of the 1989 level. The output of the majority was well below half the 1989 level, with Georgia (35%) and Ukraine (37%) having the most ground to make up. Elsewhere, progress had been made, but most countries were still only three-quarters of the way or less to their 1989 levels.
There was a marked easing in inflationary pressures, but there was no room for complacency, as few countries had achieved the low inflation rates of most advanced countries. The International Monetary Fund projected an annual rise of 30% across the region, compared with 28% in 1997. The increase, however, obscured sharp falls in most of the 26 countries, and many were below or close to single-digit rates. In Central and Eastern Europe (excluding Russia), the rate fell from 15% to a projected 11%, with a dramatic dive in Bulgaria, where the rate fell from 1,082% to 27%. In the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, the inflation rate declined from 31% in 1997 to a projected 21%.
The notable exception to this trend was Russia, where the IMF projected an increase from 15% to 48%. By the year-end this looked too optimistic. The collapse of the ruble and crisis in the banking system resulted in spiralling price increases that were expected to exceed 100% year on year. At the same time, there were signs that Russian consumers were more willing to spend their devalued currency on products produced by domestic manufacturers than on the more expensive products of the foreign companies.
Restructuring suffered a setback in 1998. The numerical transition indicators of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development provided a means by which the cumulative progress of the former centrally planned economies toward market economies since 1994 could be measured. Among the indicators being monitored were large- and small-scale privatization, price liberalization, corporate governance and restructuring, trade and foreign-exchange systems, competition policy, and financial-sector reforms. The indicators showed a much slower pace of reform in 1998 than in previous years, with progress that was made tending to reflect the catching up on long-delayed reforms. In Poland there was progress in the privatization of banking, and in Hungary private investors played a role in improving corporate governance. Progress in Russia slid backward in four areas: banking reforms, price liberalization, securities markets, and trade and foreign-exchange liberalization. Croatia tightened capital controls to contain the domestic credit growth stimulated by short-term capital inflows. Some countries--including Belarus, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan--continued to delay or deviate from the road to market economies.
At the end of 1997, the IMF projected that growth in the LDCs would be about 6% in 1998. At that time it was not realized how deep and widespread the contagion effect of the Asian and Russian crises would be on the global economy. Subsequent downward revisions were made, and LDC output was expected to increase by 2.3%, compared with 5.8% in 1997. On a per-head basis, GDP grew by 0.7%, a sharp decline following six consecutive years in which real GDP per head grew by 4% or more. The latest output projection for 1999 was for 3.6%, although the outcome would heavily depend on the movement of commodity prices, which remained uncertain.
For the first time, the Asian LDCs, which had averaged real growth of 7% annually in the 1980s and ’90s, trailed the other regions. It was clear by mid-1998 that the recession in Asia was much deeper than expected. (See Spotlight: The Troubled World Economy.) Africa grew fastest in 1998, with output up by 3.7% despite the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the civil unrest it generated in surrounding countries. This was in excess of the average annual performance over the previous two decades and produced a modest increase per head of 1.2%. The Middle East grew by 2.3%, falling slightly on a per-head basis. This compared with a 4.7% expansion in each of the previous two years. Latin-American output was expected to increase by 2.8%, compared with 5.1% in 1997.
Oil and nonfuel commodities were a major influence on the performance of Africa and the Middle East. In Africa the government oil revenues as a share of GDP in 1998 were 15-25% in Algeria, Angola, the Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Nigeria. In the Middle East there were even higher dependencies on oil. In Kuwait the government relied on oil revenue as the GDP equivalent of 38%, followed by Qatar (27%), Oman (23%), and Saudi Arabia (19%). Latin-American governments were less reliant on oil, with the notable exception of Venezuela, where 58% of total revenue in 1996-97 was from oil; in l998 oil revenue was 7.3% of GDP.
For the oil-importing countries in the Middle East, the benefits of lower oil prices were partially offset by lower remittances and investment and reduced demand from oil-exporting neighbouring countries. Nonfuel commodity price declines in 13 of the 43 oil-importing African countries were expected to offset the gains from lower oil prices.
The overall growth in Africa was boosted by strong expansion in several countries, including Algeria and Morocco (up 6%) in the north, where better weather conditions improved agricultural output following drought in 1997. No expansion was expected in South Africa following a 1.7% rise in 1997 and more than 3% in each of the previous two years. The country suffered financial contagion from the Asian crisis, and international investors were deterred. The fall in value of the rand (in dollar terms) brought inflationary pressure, and by November consumer prices were up 9.4% on a yearly basis.
In Latin America weaker oil prices and cutbacks in production contributed to lower-than-expected growth in Colombia, Mexico, and most of Venezuela. Most countries were forced to tighten monetary and fiscal policies because of the Asian crisis, which helped keep inflation down to an average 10.8%. Investor confidence remained strong until Russia devalued its currency in August. Given the region’s low savings rate and heavy dependence on external funding, there was growing pressure on currencies. In September Colombia, Chile, and Ecuador adjusted their exchange rates. In Brazil political uncertainty led to heavy outflows of capital and fears of a financial crisis. An IMF rescue package that was agreed on in November was expected to stabilize the situation, depending on how quickly interest rates could be lowered. Argentina grew by 7% in the first half of the year and was expected to expand by 6% over 1998. Its strong credit rating enabled it to successfully launch a $250 million euro bond toward the end of the year. The Mexican economy grew by 4.5% despite some peso volatility as a result of the Asia crisis and lower oil prices.