|Types of fats in food|
In chemistry, particuwarwy in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxywic acid wif a wong awiphatic chain, which is eider saturated or unsaturated. Most naturawwy occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 28. Fatty acids are usuawwy derived from trigwycerides or phosphowipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuew for animaws because, when metabowized, dey yiewd warge qwantities of ATP. Many ceww types can use eider gwucose or fatty acids for dis purpose. Long-chain fatty acids cannot cross de bwood–brain barrier (BBB) and so cannot be used as fuew by de cewws of de centraw nervous system; however, free short-chain fatty acids and medium-chain fatty acids can cross de BBB, in addition to gwucose and ketone bodies.
- 1 Types of fatty acids
- 2 Nomencwature
- 3 Production
- 4 Fatty acids in dietary fats
- 5 Reactions of fatty acids
- 6 Circuwation
- 7 See awso
- 8 References
- 9 Externaw winks
Types of fatty acids
Fatty acids dat have carbon–carbon doubwe bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids widout doubwe bonds are known as saturated. They differ in wengf as weww.
Lengf of free fatty acid chains
Fatty acid chains differ by wengf, often categorized as short to very wong.
- Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are fatty acids wif awiphatic taiws of five or fewer carbons (e.g. butyric acid).
- Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) are fatty acids wif awiphatic taiws of 6 to 12 carbons, which can form medium-chain trigwycerides.
- Long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) are fatty acids wif awiphatic taiws of 13 to 21 carbons.
- Very wong chain fatty acids (VLCFA) are fatty acids wif awiphatic taiws of 22 or more carbons.
Unsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more doubwe bonds between carbon atoms. (Pairs of carbon atoms connected by doubwe bonds can be saturated by adding hydrogen atoms to dem, converting de doubwe bonds to singwe bonds. Therefore, de doubwe bonds are cawwed unsaturated.)
The two carbon atoms in de chain dat are bound next to eider side of de doubwe bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- A cis configuration means dat de two hydrogen atoms adjacent to de doubwe bond stick out on de same side of de chain, uh-hah-hah-hah. The rigidity of de doubwe bond freezes its conformation and, in de case of de cis isomer, causes de chain to bend and restricts de conformationaw freedom of de fatty acid. The more doubwe bonds de chain has in de cis configuration, de wess fwexibiwity it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes qwite curved in its most accessibwe conformations. For exampwe, oweic acid, wif one doubwe bond, has a "kink" in it, whereas winoweic acid, wif two doubwe bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linowenic acid, wif dree doubwe bonds, favors a hooked shape. The effect of dis is dat, in restricted environments, such as when fatty acids are part of a phosphowipid in a wipid biwayer, or trigwycerides in wipid dropwets, cis bonds wimit de abiwity of fatty acids to be cwosewy packed, and derefore can affect de mewting temperature of de membrane or of de fat.
- A trans configuration, by contrast, means dat de adjacent two hydrogen atoms wie on opposite sides of de chain, uh-hah-hah-hah. As a resuwt, dey do not cause de chain to bend much, and deir shape is simiwar to straight saturated fatty acids.
In most naturawwy occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each doubwe bond has dree n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and aww are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in de trans configuration (trans fats) are not found in nature and are de resuwt of human processing (e.g., hydrogenation).
The differences in geometry between de various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as weww as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, pway an important rowe in biowogicaw processes, and in de construction of biowogicaw structures (such as ceww membranes).
|Common name||Chemicaw structure||Δx||C:D||n−x|
Essentiaw fatty acids
Fatty acids dat are reqwired by de human body but cannot be made in sufficient qwantity from oder substrates, and derefore must be obtained from food, are cawwed essentiaw fatty acids. There are two series of essentiaw fatty acids: one has a doubwe bond dree carbon atoms away from de medyw end; de oder has a doubwe bond six carbon atoms away from de medyw end. Humans wack de abiwity to introduce doubwe bonds in fatty acids beyond carbons 9 and 10, as counted from de carboxywic acid side. Two essentiaw fatty acids are winoweic acid (LA) and awpha-winowenic acid (ALA). They are widewy distributed in pwant oiws. The human body has a wimited abiwity to convert ALA into de wonger-chain omega-3 fatty acids — eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which can awso be obtained from fish. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are biosyndetic precursors to endocannabinoids wif antinociceptive, anxiowytic, and neurogenic properties.
Saturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids have no doubwe bonds. Thus, saturated fatty acids are saturated wif hydrogen (since doubwe bonds reduce de number of hydrogens on each carbon). Because saturated fatty acids have onwy singwe bonds, each carbon atom widin de chain has 2 hydrogen atoms (except for de omega carbon at de end dat has 3 hydrogens).
|Common name||Chemicaw structure||C:D|
Numbering of de carbon atoms in a fatty acid
The position of de carbon atoms in a fatty acid can be indicated from de COOH- (or carboxy) end, or from de –CH3 (or medyw) end. If indicated from de -COOH end, den de C-1, C-2, C-3, ….(etc.) notation is used (bwue numeraws in de diagram on de right, where C-1 is de –COOH carbon). If de position is counted from de oder, –CH3, end den de position is indicated by de ω-n notation (numeraws in red, where ω-1 refers to de medyw carbon).
The positions of de doubwe bonds in a fatty acid chain can, derefore, be indicated in two ways, using de C-n or de ω-n notation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Thus, in an 18 carbon fatty acid, a doubwe bond between C-12 (or ω-7) and C-13 (or ω-6) is reported eider as Δ12 if counted from de –COOH end (indicating onwy de “beginning” of de doubwe bond), or as ω-6 (or omega-6) if counting from de –CH3 end. The “Δ” is de Greek wetter “dewta”, which transwates into “D” ( for Doubwe bond) in de Roman awphabet. Omega (ω) is de wast wetter in de Greek awphabet, and is derefore used to indicate de “wast” carbon atom in de fatty acid chain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Since de ω-n notation is used awmost excwusivewy to indicate de positions of de doubwe bonds cwose to de –CH3 end in essentiaw fatty acids, dere is no necessity for an eqwivawent “Δ”-wike notation - de use of de “ω-n” notation awways refers to de position of a doubwe bond.
Naming of fatty acids
The fowwowing tabwe describes de most common systems of naming fatty acids.
|Triviaw nomencwature||Pawmitoweic acid||Triviaw names (or common names) are non-systematic historicaw names, which are de most freqwent naming system used in witerature. Most common fatty acids have triviaw names in addition to deir systematic names (see bewow). These names freqwentwy do not fowwow any pattern, but dey are concise and often unambiguous.|
|Systematic nomencwature||(9Z)-octadecenoic acid||Systematic names (or IUPAC names) derive from de standard IUPAC Ruwes for de Nomencwature of Organic Chemistry, pubwished in 1979, awong wif a recommendation pubwished specificawwy for wipids in 1977. Counting begins from de carboxywic acid end. Doubwe bonds are wabewwed wif cis-/trans- notation or E-/Z- notation, where appropriate. This notation is generawwy more verbose dan common nomencwature, but has de advantage of being more technicawwy cwear and descriptive.|
|Δx nomencwature||cis,cis-Δ9,Δ12 octadecadienoic acid||In Δx (or dewta-x) nomencwature, each doubwe bond is indicated by Δx, where de doubwe bond is wocated on de xf carbon–carbon bond, counting from de carboxywic acid end. Each doubwe bond is preceded by a cis- or trans- prefix, indicating de configuration of de mowecuwe around de bond. For exampwe, winoweic acid is designated "cis-Δ9, cis-Δ12 octadecadienoic acid". This nomencwature has de advantage of being wess verbose dan systematic nomencwature, but is no more technicawwy cwear or descriptive.|
|n−x nomencwature||n−3||n−x (n minus x; awso ω−x or omega-x) nomencwature bof provides names for individuaw compounds and cwassifies dem by deir wikewy biosyndetic properties in animaws. A doubwe bond is wocated on de xf carbon–carbon bond, counting from de terminaw medyw carbon (designated as n or ω) toward de carbonyw carbon, uh-hah-hah-hah. For exampwe, α-Linowenic acid is cwassified as a n−3 or omega-3 fatty acid, and so it is wikewy to share a biosyndetic padway wif oder compounds of dis type. The ω−x, omega-x, or "omega" notation is common in popuwar nutritionaw witerature, but IUPAC has deprecated it in favor of n−x notation in technicaw documents. The most commonwy researched fatty acid biosyndetic padways are n−3 and n−6.|
|Lipid numbers take de form C:D, where C is de number of carbon atoms in de fatty acid and D is de number of doubwe bonds in de fatty acid (if more dan one, de doubwe bonds are assumed to be interrupted by CH
2 units, i.e., at intervaws of 3 carbon atoms awong de chain). This notation can be ambiguous, as some different fatty acids can have de same numbers. Conseqwentwy, when ambiguity exists dis notation is usuawwy paired wif eider a Δx or n−x term.
Esterified, free, unsaturated, conjugated
When fatty acids circuwating in de pwasma (pwasma fatty acids) are not in deir gwycerow ester form (gwycerides), dey are known as non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) or free fatty acids (FFAs). The watter term can be viewed as a misnomer because dey are transported compwexed wif a transport protein, such as awbumin, as opposed to being unattached to any oder mowecuwe. But de term conveys de idea dat dey are circuwating and avaiwabwe for metabowism.
Fatty acids can exist in various states of saturation. Unsaturated fatty acids incwude monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and powyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Conjugated fatty acids are a subset of PUFAs.
Fatty acids are usuawwy produced industriawwy by de hydrowysis of trigwycerides, wif de removaw of gwycerow (see oweochemicaws). Phosphowipids represent anoder source. Some fatty acids are produced syndeticawwy by hydrocarboxywation of awkenes.
Carbohydrates are converted into pyruvate by gwycowysis as de first important step in de conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids. Pyruvate is den dehydrogenated to form acetyw-CoA in de mitochondrion. However, dis acetyw CoA needs to be transported into cytosow where de syndesis of fatty acids occurs. This cannot occur directwy. To obtain cytosowic acetyw-CoA, citrate (produced by de condensation of acetyw-CoA wif oxawoacetate) is removed from de citric acid cycwe and carried across de inner mitochondriaw membrane into de cytosow. There it is cweaved by ATP citrate wyase into acetyw-CoA and oxawoacetate. The oxawoacetate is returned to de mitochondrion as mawate. The cytosowic acetyw-CoA is carboxywated by acetyw CoA carboxywase into mawonyw-CoA, de first committed step in de syndesis of fatty acids.
Mawonyw-CoA is den invowved in a repeating series of reactions dat wengdens de growing fatty acid chain by two carbons at a time. Awmost aww naturaw fatty acids, derefore, have even numbers of carbon atoms. When syndesis is compwete de free fatty acids are nearwy awways combined wif gwycerow (dree fatty acids to one gwycerow mowecuwe) to form trigwycerides, de main storage form of fatty acids, and dus of energy in animaws. However, fatty acids are awso important components of de phosphowipids dat form de phosphowipid biwayers out of which aww de membranes of de ceww are constructed (de ceww waww, and de membranes dat encwose aww de organewwes widin de cewws, such as de nucweus, de mitochondria, endopwasmic reticuwum, and de Gowgi apparatus).
The "uncombined fatty acids" or "free fatty acids" found in de circuwation of animaws come from de breakdown (or wipowysis) of stored trigwycerides. Because dey are insowubwe in water, dese fatty acids are transported bound to pwasma awbumin. The wevews of "free fatty acids" in de bwood are wimited by de avaiwabiwity of awbumin binding sites. They can be taken up from de bwood by aww cewws dat have mitochondria (wif de exception of de cewws of de centraw nervous system). Fatty acids can onwy be broken down to CO2 and water in mitochondria, by means of beta-oxidation, fowwowed by furder combustion in de citric acid cycwe. Cewws in de centraw nervous system, which, awdough dey possess mitochondria, cannot take free fatty acids up from de bwood, as de bwood-brain barrier is impervious to most free fatty acids, excwuding short-chain fatty acids and medium-chain fatty acids. These cewws have to manufacture deir own fatty acids from carbohydrates, as described above, in order to produce and maintain de phosphowipids of deir ceww membranes, and dose of deir organewwes.
Fatty acids in dietary fats
|Pawm kernew oiw||81.5||11.4||1.6||0||3.80|
|Wheat germ oiw||18.8||15.9||60.7||0||136.65|
Reactions of fatty acids
Fatty acids exhibit reactions wike oder carboxywic acids, i.e. dey undergo esterification and acid-base reactions.
Fatty acids do not show a great variation in deir acidities, as indicated by deir respective pKa. Nonanoic acid, for exampwe, has a pKa of 4.96, being onwy swightwy weaker dan acetic acid (4.76). As de chain wengf increases, de sowubiwity of de fatty acids in water decreases very rapidwy, so dat de wonger-chain fatty acids have minimaw effect on de pH of an aqweous sowution, uh-hah-hah-hah. Even dose fatty acids dat are insowubwe in water wiww dissowve in warm edanow, and can be titrated wif sodium hydroxide sowution using phenowphdawein as an indicator. This anawysis is used to determine de free fatty acid content of fats; i.e., de proportion of de trigwycerides dat have been hydrowyzed.
Hydrogenation and hardening
Hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids is widewy practiced, typicaw conditions invowving 2.0–3.0 MPa of H2 pressure, 150 ºC, and nickew supported on siwica. This treatment affords saturated fatty acids, as refwected in deir iodine number. Hydrogenated fatty acids are wess prone toward rancidification. Since de saturated fatty acids are higher mewting dan de unsaturated precursors, de process is cawwed hardening. Rewated technowogy is used to convert vegetabwe oiws into margarine. The hydrogenation of trigwycerides is advantageous because de carboxywic acids degrade de nickew catawysts, affording nickew soaps. During partiaw hydrogenation, unsaturated fatty acids can be isomerized from cis to trans configuration, uh-hah-hah-hah.
More forcing hydrogenation, i.e. using higher pressures of H2 and higher temperatures, converts fatty acids into fatty awcohows. Fatty awcohows are, however, more easiwy produced from fatty acid esters.
In de Varrentrapp reaction certain unsaturated fatty acids are cweaved in mowten awkawi, a reaction at one time of rewevance to structure ewucidation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Auto-oxidation and rancidity
Unsaturated fatty acids undergo a chemicaw change known as auto-oxidation. The process reqwires oxygen (air) and is accewerated by de presence of trace metaws. Vegetabwe oiws resist dis process because dey contain antioxidants, such as tocopherow. Fats and oiws often are treated wif chewating agents such as citric acid to remove de metaw catawysts.
In chemicaw anawysis, fatty acids are separated by gas chromatography of medyw esters; additionawwy, a separation of unsaturated isomers is possibwe by argentation din-wayer chromatography.
Digestion and intake
Short- and medium-chain fatty acids are absorbed directwy into de bwood via intestine capiwwaries and travew drough de portaw vein just as oder absorbed nutrients do. However, wong-chain fatty acids are not directwy reweased into de intestinaw capiwwaries. Instead dey are absorbed into de fatty wawws of de intestine viwwi and reassembwed again into trigwycerides. The trigwycerides are coated wif chowesterow and protein (protein coat) into a compound cawwed a chywomicron.
From widin de ceww, de chywomicron is reweased into a wymphatic capiwwary cawwed a wacteaw, which merges into warger wymphatic vessews. It is transported via de wymphatic system and de doracic duct up to a wocation near de heart (where de arteries and veins are warger). The doracic duct empties de chywomicrons into de bwoodstream via de weft subcwavian vein. At dis point de chywomicrons can transport de trigwycerides to tissues where dey are stored or metabowized for energy.
Fatty acids (provided eider by ingestion or by drawing on trigwycerides stored in fatty tissues) are distributed to cewws to serve as a fuew for muscuwar contraction and generaw metabowism. They are broken down to CO2 and water by de intra-cewwuwar mitochondria, reweasing warge amounts of energy, captured in de form of ATP drough beta oxidation and de citric acid cycwe.
Bwood fatty acids are in different forms in different stages in de bwood circuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. They are taken in drough de intestine in chywomicrons, but awso exist in very wow density wipoproteins (VLDL) and wow density wipoproteins (LDL) after processing in de wiver. In addition, when reweased from adipocytes, fatty acids exist in de bwood as free fatty acids.
It is proposed dat de bwend of fatty acids exuded by mammawian skin, togeder wif wactic acid and pyruvic acid, is distinctive and enabwes animaws wif a keen sense of smeww to differentiate individuaws.
|Wikimedia Commons has media rewated to Fatty acids.|
- Fatty acid syndase
- Fatty acid syndesis
- Fatty awdehyde
- List of saturated fatty acids
- List of unsaturated fatty acids
- List of carboxywic acids
- Vegetabwe oiw
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- In n minus x (awso ω−x or omega-x) nomencwature a doubwe bond of de fatty acid is wocated on de xf carbon–carbon bond, counting from de terminaw medyw carbon (designated as n or ω) toward de carbonyw carbon, uh-hah-hah-hah.
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