10.13125/2039-6597/2635
The antithetic pair of the Jewish Villain and his daughter the Beautiful Jewess made their entry into literature with Shakespeare’s ‘The Merchant of Venice’ and Marlowe’s ‘The Jew of Malta’. Nineteenth-century non-Jewish novelists re-use them to reflect their ambiguous feelings towards Jews. As an object of conquest and conversion, the character of the Beautiful Jewess is portrayed as belonging to the Bible and the Orient. Due to his resistance to conversion the Jewish villain is confined to the fading ghettos where he withdraws into an inanimate world of his own creation. Although following different paths, their longing to belong to society is denied. At the end of the nineteenth century a passage from religious to racial Anti-Semitism takes place, leading them back to the status of pariah. From now on both of them are accused of coveting the money of a decadent aristocracy, who is struggling to cope with economic change. She is reduced to a prostitute and he to a dangerous cosmopolitan parvenu, exposing the shattered values of nineteenth-century society.
application/pdf
2039-6597
2635
13
en
Catherine Jeannine Bartlett
Between
Otherness
Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain in the Nineteenth-Century German, English and French Novel
Text.Serial.Journal
https://ojs.unica.it/index.php/between
7
Identarian Images
2017-06-02
2017-02-01
2017-06-02
2017-06-02
1
Catherine Jeannine Bartlett
2017/06/02
10.13125/2039-6597/2635
University of Kent/University of Strasbourg
2039-6597
13
Otherness
en
Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain in the Nineteenth-Century German, English and French Novel
https://ojs.unica.it/index.php/between/article/download/2635/2480
7
     Belonging and Longing of the
    Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish
   Villain in the Nineteenth-Century
   German, English and French Novel
                            Catherine J. Bartlett


      During the first decades of the twenty-first century, research on
the representation of the Jewish woman in literature, perhaps under
the influence of Postcolonial Studies, has concentrated on the Oriental
aspect of this character: as explored in, for instance, Nadia Valman’s
The Jewess in British Literature and Culture (2007), Eric Fournier’s La
“Belle Juive” d’Ivanhoë à la Shoah (2012) or Hildegard Frübis’ Die Jüdin
als Orientalin oder die orientalische Jüdin (2014). This article aims to
contribute to this scholarly approach by expanding it in three ways:
firstly, by including an analysis of the dynamic between the Beautiful
Jewess and her father, the Jewish Villain; secondly, by examining
nineteenth-century literature less frequently studied regarding this
topic; and thirdly, by taking a comparative approach. The goal is to
investigate how nineteenth-century German/Austrian, English and
French non-Jewish writers perceived the belonging and longing of the
Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain: an inseparable antithetic pair
introduced into literature by Marlowe in his 1592 play The Jew of Malta
(Barabbas and Abigail) and by Shakespeare in The Merchant of Venice
(1605) (Shylock and Jessica). Notwithstanding, this pairing can be
traced back further, as noted by Hyam Maccoby: indeed, they derive
«from the “exempla” or moral tales, which featured an old and ugly
Jewish miser and sorcerer who is robbed of both his treasure and his
daughter by a Christian» (Maccoby 1992: 18). They are therefore


Between, vol. VII, n. 13 (Maggio/ May 2017)
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



constructions of literature and religion. However, during the
nineteenth century, these characters gain vitality and depth through
historical events such as the colonisation of the Orient by France and
Britain, the German study of the Orient, and of course Jewish
emancipation in Europe.
       First of all, it is significant that the loci the Beautiful Jewess and the
Jewish Villain belong to, i.e. the Orient and the ghetto, allow novelists
to question their identity, and to imagine their true longings. In
nineteenth-century France, Britain and the German states, there was a
longing for the Orient, perceived as a far-away time, a far-away place
and a refuge for the writer’s dreams, a sentiment expressed by Gérard
de Nerval in a letter to Théophile Gautier at the end of August 1843
(Nerval 1960: 297-8). For a nineteenth-century mind, the Orient was not
a precise region; rather, it consisted of an amalgam of different
geographical areas such as Greece, Turkey, Northern Africa and India.
It is important to notice that the German perception of the Orient was
different from the French and the British ones, as Edward Said writes
in Orientalism:

         There was nothing in Germany to correspond to the Anglo-
      French presence in India, the Levant, North Africa. Moreover, the
      German Orient was almost exclusively a scholarly, or at least a
      classical, Orient: it was made the subject of lyrics, fantasies, and
      even novels, but it was never actual, the way Egypt and Syria
      were actual for Chateaubriand, Lane, Lamartine, Burton, Disraeli
      or Nerval. (Said 1978: 19)

     Nevertheless, it can be seen that in all three cultures, the Orient
was a constructed one, and as novelists created their Beautiful Jewess,
they mostly referred to an imaginary part of it. Indeed, the two
components of the Beautiful Jewess: ‘Jewish’ and ‘Beauty’ originate in
King Solomon’s Song (the Jewish name) or the Canticles. Since the
Middle Ages, the Jewish woman had been portrayed as belonging to a
glorious Biblical past in which she was described as a heroine saving
her countrymen, like Judith or Esther, or as a weeping mother at the



2
                                         Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)



Massacre of the Innocents, or at Jesus’ crucifixion in which she took no
part and therefore benefited from a positive image in the Christian
mind. This explains why nineteenth-century writers often chose to
refer to the Canticles as a way of celebrating the beauty and virtue of
their Beautiful Jewess. A good example is Petrus Borel, who in Dina ou
la belle Juive compares Dina to «une tourelle d’ivoire»1, (Borel 1833: 3)
alluding to Canticles (8:5): «your neck is an ivory tower». In Zillah; a
Tale of the Holy City, Horace Smith endows Zillah with «large round
eyes, of the darkest hazel, mild as the dove’s» (Smith 1828: 78), relating
to Canticles (1:15): «Your eyes are doves». In Wilhelm Jensen’s Die Juden
von Cölln (1869) Lea, who believes her daughter Tamar dead claims:
«Eine Blume zu Saron warst du und eine Rose im Tal»2, (Jensen 2008:
139) which corresponds to Canticles (2:1): «I am the rose of Sharon, the
lily of the valleys». Finally, in Scott’s Ivanhoe (1820), at the sight of
Rebecca of York, the Prior exclaims: «she is the very bride of the
Canticles» (Scott 1994: 83).
      Many German novelists, such as Karl Gutzkow in Die Kurstauben
(1864), linked the beauty of their Jewish heroines to the Ancient Greek
concept of ‘kalokagathia’ (the union of ‘kalos’ beautiful with ‘agathos’
good), which establishes a connection between physical and moral
beauty: «Die Nase war von seltenem Ebenmaß und wie beim Profil
einer Griechin mit der kleinen gedankenvollen Stirn in eine Linie
verbunden»3 (Gutzkow 1963: 132). When councillor Scholten meets
Frau Salome in Wilhelm Raabe’s Frau Salome (1875), he exclaims ‘Ichor’
(Raabe 1962: 21), a word that Greeks believed characterised a divine
bloodline. By adding this Greek element to their description of a
Beautiful Jewess they intend to add nobility to her beauty and try to
make it universal. Besides, German novelists contradict Matthew
Arnold’s view on the supremacy of Hebraism in their culture over
Hellenism as described in Culture and Anarchy (1869).

     1
      «An ivory tower». All translations in this article are mine
     2
      «You were a flower of Sharon and a rose in the valley».
    3 «The nose was of a rare regularity and, in the profile like that of a

Greek woman, attached to the small pensive forehead in a line.»


                                                                                3
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



     Bonaparte’s Egyptian Campaign (1798-1800), the French conquest
of Algeria (1830-47) and Britain’s overseas empire with Queen Victoria
being made Empress of India in 1877 rendered it possible for artists
and writers to experience the Orient, which was present in their
imagination not only as the one of the Canticles, but also as that of The
Arabian Nights. The Beautiful Jewess also belongs to this latter
imaginary Orient which exudes perfumes of eroticism and exoticism.
Indeed, in George Eliot’s novel Daniel Deronda (1876), Mab compares
Mirah Lapidoth to the Queen Budoor, a protagonist in a story from The
Arabian Nights (Eliot 1995: 184). Then, in Alphonse Daudet’s novel Les
Rois en Exil (1879), when King Christian of Illyria has a glimpse of
Sephora Leemans, he imagines her as «quelque esclave d’Orient
implorant au dehors par le treillis de sa terrasse»4 (Daudet 2006: 91).
Gustav Lanbek transports his Beautiful Jewess back to Canaan and
compares her to a Saracen seductress, when he exclaims at the sight of
Lea Oppenheimer:

           “Wahrlich”, rief er, “du gleichst der Zauberin Armida, und
      so denke ich mir die Töchter deines Stammes, als ihr noch Kanaan
      bewohntet. So war Rebekka und die Tochter Jephthas5 (Hauff
      1981: 5).

     In Colonial Fantasies: Conquest, Family, and Nation in Precolonial
Germany, 1770-1870, Susanne Zantop provides an explanation for this
confusion between the Bible and The Arabian Nights by the lack of
German colonialism, which led to the awakening of colonial fantasies
in the German mind (Zantop 1997: 7) and allowed the construction of
German identity.



      4
        «Some Oriental slave, looking imploringly at the outside through the
lattice of her balcony.»
      5 «“In truth”, he exclaimed, “you are like the enchantress Armida, and I

can only imagine the daughters of your tribe when you still lived in Canaan.
Like this were Rebecca and Jephthah’s daughter.”»


4
                                           Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)



     Moreover, the Orient traditionally designates the territories of the
east where the sun rises, as expressed in the Hebrew word ‘Kedem’ or
the Greek one ‘Anatolè’. This fascinating light of the Orient is reflected
in the eye of the Beautiful Jewess. In his novel Splendeurs et misères des
courtisanes (1838-1847), Balzac applied a geographical determinism to
his Beautiful Jewess, Esther Gobseck:

           L’origine d’Esther se trahissait dans cette coupe orientale de
     ses yeux à paupières turques [...]. Il n’y a que les races venues de
     déserts qui possèdent dans l’œil le pouvoir de fascination sur
     tous.6 (Balzac 1988: 46)

     While in Ivanhoe, Scott describes Rebecca’s eyes «whose brilliancy
was shaded, and as it were, mellowed, by the fringe of her long
eyelashes» (Scott 1994: 299), Hauff imitates him to a certain extent
when he describes Lea in Jud Süss (1827):

         Man könnte ihr Gesicht die Vollendung orientalischer Züge
     nennen. Dieses Ebenmaß in den feingeschnittenen Zügen, diese
     wundervollen dunklen Augen, beschattet von langen seidenen
     Wimpern.7 (Hauff 1981: 56)

     Occasionally, the inborn light she owed to her Oriental origins, is
enhanced by the non-organic light of jewels. In Die Juden von Cölln
Tamar’s jewels are shown on a painting in which she posed as a
Biblical Queen:

     eine leichte Krone […] perlenbesetzt leuchtete sie matt über den
     dunklen Locken wie ein fernes Irrlicht […] Juwelenbesetzte


     6
       «The Oriental form of Esther’s eyes, Turkish-like, betrayed her origins
[…]. Only races from the desert possess in their eyes the power to fascinate
everybody.»
      7 «Her face could be called the perfection of Oriental traits. This

regularity in her fine features, those wonderful dark eyes, shaded by long
silky eyelashes.»


                                                                                  5
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



      Spangen hielten einen weiten Mantel […]. Das Gewebe war kaum
      sichtbar, denn es war über und über mit Saphiren Smaragden
      besetzt.8 (Jensen 2008: 26)

      Scott mentions in Rebecca’s diamond necklace and pendants
(Scott 1994: 83) and Borel in his portrayal of Dina Petrus emphasises
the Oriental abundance of jewels on her simple costume: «Son costume
était simple, mais des joyaux étincelants atournaient ses cheveux, son
front, ses oreilles, son cou, ses doigts et trahissaient sa fortune. »9 (Borel
1833: 7)
      For non-Jewish nineteenth-century novelists, the Beautiful Jewess
or the Bride of the Canticles remains impregnated by the Orient she left
long ago as she is about to leave her ghetto to enter European society.
They believed she had no choice but to become Christian, because
Christianity viewed itself as the heir of Judaism.
      However, in the second part of the nineteenth century, a new
trend began with the end of Romanticism and the beginning of
Realism. Some writers, like Charles Baudelaire in his poem ‘Une nuit
que j’étais près d’une affreuse Juive’ in the 1857 Edition of Les Fleurs du
Mal, reduced the Beautiful Jewess to a vulgar prostitute who belonged
to the brothel. This demystification of the Beautiful Jewess had actually
already been broached in the anticlerical perspective of the
Enlightenment which had reduced Biblical heroines to dangerous
seductresses.
      Art also contributed to her downfall. In Bodies of Art: French
Literary Realism and the Artist’s Model, Marie Lathers reveals that
painters such as Delacroix and Matisse used prostitutes and Jewish
models to represent women in the harem and the baths, and this


      8
       «a light crown […] scattered with pearls casted a dull light over the
dark curls like a faraway will o’ the wisp […]. Clasps covered with gems
held an ample coat […]. The fabric was barely visible because of the
sapphires and emeralds which literally engulfed it.»
     9 «Her outfit was simple, but sparkling jewels adorned her hair, her

forehead, her ears, her neck, her fingers, and betrayed her richness.»


6
                                        Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)



helped to categorise them as such in the European mind (Lathers 2001:
3).
      Famous courtesans like La Païva, a Jewish woman, who became
famous for bathing in Champagne in her Parisian mansion, and free-
spirited famous Jewish actresses like Mademoiselle Rachel and Sarah
Bernhardt re-enforced this new tarnished image of the Beautiful Jewess
in the public mind.
      By this time, the Beautiful Jewess had lost not only her exotic
appeal, but also her positive aura, and confusion and ambiguity arose
as to where she belonged. Moreover, the emergence of a Jewish
bourgeoisie provoked mixed feelings in nineteenth-century European
society. In some portrayals, such as Manette Salomon, in the Goncourt
brothers’ eponymous novel (1867), her skin is pale and her eyes are
blue. She might be occidental in appearance, but her essence does not
belong to the Occident. Her brilliant Oriental eye is transformed into a
dark eye which absorbs the light of the Occident and threatens to
reverse European colonialism. Edouard Drumont’s La France Juive
(1886) marks this turning point, by deliberately avoiding previous
philosemitic representations of Jewish women and transforming the
Beautiful Jewess into a ‘Femme Fatale’.
      The Beautiful Jewess was reduced to the ‘Jewess’, illustrating a
radical Anti-Semitic re-evaluation of Jewish women towards the end of
the nineteenth-century. Following this shift, she is re-connected with
her father the Jewish Villain, the personification of ugliness and
villainy, and thrown back to the poor reality of the ghetto, from which
she had been extirped by the imagination of artists and novelists. Both
characters now form a negative collective of ‘the Jews’.
      Even though the Beautiful Jewess belongs to her father, if she has
one, she longs for freedom. She believes that her Christian lover is her
chance to escape. When she meets him, she is forced to acknowledge
her needs and stop her self-denial. In this, she joins nineteenth-century
heroines like Emma Bovary, Effi Briest and Anna Karenina, who
vindicate the right to love, a subject still highly contentious in that
period, especially between people from different social classes or
ethnic backgrounds. Therefore, she becomes an embodiment of the


                                                                               7
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



emancipation of women, which began at the end of the eighteenth
century –with, notably, Mary Wollstonescraft’s A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman (1792) and Olympe de Gouges’ Déclaration des droits de
la femme et de la citoyenne (1791)– and develops during the nineteenth
century.
      In longing for love, the Beautiful Jewess is doomed to lose her
identity: the only way to belong to her Christian lover and Christian
society is to convert to Christianity and reject her Jewishness. Both her
love for her father and then her Christian lover require her self-
sacrifice. Thus, she loses herself in the quest for love. Torn between
‘eros’ and ‘familia’, like the heroine of a Greek tragedy, her destiny can
only end in madness, suicide or death. Arguably, writers use her story
to cast doubt on successful assimilation of the Jews into European
society.
      The Beautiful Jewess also longs for the realisation of her personal
feminine energy, although she rarely achieves it. Most of the Beautiful
Jewesses are not only beautiful, but also extremely clever. This aspect
is prevalent among English and German Beautiful Jewesses. It takes its
root from the German concept of ‘Gelehrte Jüdin‘, based on real
German Jewish ‘salonnières’, such as Rahel Varnhagen or Dorothea
Mendelssohn, who took part in the diffusion of literature in Europe.
These intellectual abilities sometimes lead the Beautiful Jewesses to
question and reject their Jewish faith and long for another
impossibility, not to be Jewish. A good example of this is found in the
Seligmann Hirsch (1889) by the Austrian novelist Ferdinand von Saar:

             “Sie stammt aus sehr feinem, vornehmem Haus – und
      gebildet ist sie – gebildet! Alle Sprachen spricht sie – und Bücher
      liest sie, von denen wir beide keine Ahnung haben, aber sie ist
      eitel, sehr eitel. Alles, was in Wien irgendwie hervorragt, soll sich
      in ihrem Hause versammeln: Staatsmänner, Gelehrte, Künstler
      und Schriftsteller”.10 (Saar 1958: 374)


       «“She comes from a very fine, distinguished home – and she is so
      10

educated! She speaks all languages – and she reads books both of us have not


8
                                            Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)



     Only when her mind and heart unite she can become an
‘illuminatrix’ of humanity, like Frau Salome who uses her intelligence
and generosity to save people from a fire, or Rebecca of York, who
decides to dedicate her life to the poor and the sick.
     This longing of hers accentuates the contrast with her father, the
Jewish Villain, who resembles a medieval Jewish usurer. Besides, this
comparison illustrates a trend amongst nineteenth-century writers to
draw from the past (Antiquity for the Beautiful Jewess and the Middle-
Ages for the Jewish Villain) before constructing their own version of
the character. The character of the Jewish Villain is linked to the ghetto,
to underline his belonging to Jewishness and to show his resistance to
assimilation, whereas his daughter who originally belonged to the
Orient becomes open to conquest and assimilation.
     Many ghettos were abolished during the first half of the
nineteenth century, but the character of the Jewish Villain sometimes
chooses to belong to a self-imposed ghetto. Writers often sullied the
body of their Jewish Villain with traces of the ghetto to awaken
suspicion and repulsion in the other characters: dirt and especially
grease, a form of dirt which cannot be removed, is often present on his
clothing. In L’Argent (1891), Émile Zola signalled this through Busch’s
dress: «vêtu d’une belle redingote graisseuse et cravaté de blanc»11
(Zola 1979: 24). In Wilhelm von Polenz’s Der Büttnerbauer (1895), Sam
Harrassowitz’s outfit betrays his duplicity: «Im hellen Tageslichte
besehen, zeigte es sich, daß sein Hemdkragen nicht vom reinsten und
da auf seiner hellen Weste verschiedene Fettflecke seien»12 (Polenz
1994: 85). And Charles Dickens indicates in Oliver Twist (1838) that



got a clue of, but she is vain, very vain. Everything, which somehow is
eminent in Vienna, ought to go and meet in her house: politicians, scholars,
artists and writers.”»
      11 «dressed in a beautiful greasy frock coat and wearing a white tie».

      12 «Strong daylight rendered apparent that the collar of his shirt was not

one of the cleanest and that there were marks of grease on his light
waistcoat».


                                                                                   9
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



when Oliver meets Fagin for the first time, he notices his «greasy
flannel coat» (Dickens 1994: 71).
      A second characteristic of ghetto life is the restriction of space,
leading to a swarming of people and objects. For the Jewish Villain,
this can manifest itself, firstly, in the form of his many debtors and staff
and, secondly, by the many objects he accumulates in a ‘capharnaüm’,
a place marked by a disorderly accumulation of objects. Besides, The
Larousse Dictionary of the Nineteenth Century (1866) underlines the
Jewish connotation attached to this term in the following expression:
«somptueux capharnaüm du ghetto de Venise»13 (Vol. III: 307). The
Jewish identity of the Jewish Villain is thereby accentuated by his
habitat.
      In the nineteenth century, the ghetto was synonymous with decay
and darkness; in other words, a kingdom of death to which the Jewish
Villain belongs to. This is in contrast to his daughter, who, as we have
seen, radiates light and life. Unable to adapt to change, the Jewish
Villain keeps his surroundings in the same state as himself: aging,
decaying and slowly wasting away. Balzac provides a good example of
this in Gobseck (1830):

           Dans la chambre voisine de celle de Gobseck où Gobseck
      avait expiré, se trouvaient des pâtés pourris, une foule de
      coquillages, de poissons qui avaient de la barbe et dont diverses
      puanteurs faillirent m’asphyxier […]. Cette pièce était encombrée
      de meubles, de lampes, de tableaux, de vases, de livres, de belles
      gravures roulées, sans cadres, et de curiosités.14 (Balzac 1984: 126-
      7)

    A similar scene is described by Wilhelm Raabe in Der
Hungerpastor (1864):

      13
        «Sumptuous ‘capharnaüm’ of the Venetian ghetto».
      14
        «In the room next to the one where Gobseck had died, there were
rotten pâtés, many shellfish, bearded fishes, of which various stenches nearly
suffocated me […] This room was cluttered with furniture, lamps, paintings,
vases, books, beautiful engravings rolled without frames and curiosities.»


10
                                           Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)




           Knochen, zerbrochenes Glas und Eisen […]. Gold, Silber,
     Juwelen und getragene Kleidungsstücken […] eine Dämmerung,
     in welcher man anfangs keinen Gegenstand von den anderen
     unterschied, und […] eine Atmosphäre, welche ebenfalls aus
     mancherlei ununterscheidbaren Düften zusammengesetzt war
     […].15 (Raabe undated: 40-1)

     Having been socially alienated and deprived, the Jewish Villain is
possessed by an insatiable quest for the inanimate, which he treats
lovingly. This impulse of the character for regression reaches its full
expression when he longs to go back to an original world where the
animate and inanimate were connected. It alludes to the idea of an
interdependency between the Divine and the human, animal, mineral
and vegetal kingdoms as developed by the Romantic naturalist
Gotthilf Heinrich Schubert in Ansichten der Naturwissenschaften (1808).
When the Jewish Villain has no Beautiful Jewess at his side (as is the
case with many French Jewish Villains), he compensates for this lack of
a feminine presence with the acquisition of gems which, at the time,
were considered a form of wealth mostly acquired by women and
therefore representing femininity for him. This is illustrated, for
instance, in Zola’s L’Argent: «Déjà, un à un, il prenait les bijoux, les
retournait, les élevait en l’air, de ses gros doigts tremblants
d’amoureux, avec sa passion des pierreries»16 (Zola 1979: 466) and in
Balzac’s Gobseck: «Ses yeux, où le scintillement des pierres semblait se
répéter, brillaient d’un feu surnaturel »17 (Balzac 1984: 102).

     15
         «Bones, broken glass and iron […]. Gold, silver, jewels and clothes
which had been worn […] a twilight in which one first could not distinguish
an object from another, and […] an atmosphere which was also composed of
all kinds of indistinguishable smells […]».
      16 «He had already taken the jewels, one after the other, examined them,

raised them up, with his thick fingers, which shook like the ones of a lover,
smitten with gems.»
      17 «His eyes where the sparkling of the gems seemed to be repeated,

blazed with a supernatural fire.»


                                                                                 11
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



      The Jewish Villain rejects the outside world and shuts himself in
his shop full of inanimate objects from the past. He exemplifies a belief
that the Jewish community does not want to assimilate into nineteenth-
century society. His clear preference for objects dating from the pre-
revolutionary era unveils a longing for this period and the place
occupied in society by the collapsing aristocracy. This could also be
considered as a form of retribution on the aristocracy who in the
Middle-Ages had robbed Jews of any wealth they acquired. In
Dorothea Gerard’s novella Recha, when entering Gedeile Wolf’s
sanctuary for a third time, Theodor Borkam discovers his last purchase
of eighteenth-century furniture, which shows a Parisian elegance
damaged by partying by its former aristocratic owners (Gerard 1890:
32). Despite being a negative character the Jewish Villain is used by
novelists to denounce the decadence of the aristocracy in the
nineteenth century. He seems to fulfill a didactic function that compels
the reader to think about the values and institutions of their time.
      His alienation is perpetuated when novelists exclude him from
humanity and reduce him to an animal. In some instances, he is
compared to a bird of prey which has obvious comparisons with the
traits of a usurer. Another animal associated with the Jewish Villain is
the dog, as Sarah Juliette Sasson explains in Longing to belong: the
Parvenu in Nineteenth-Century French and German Literature: «The dog
constitutes the most basic form of the nonhuman [...]. This is the
example Shylock employs when he complains bitterly of inhumane
treatment» (Sasson 2012: 145). This comparison also hints at the
suggestion that many Jewish Villains seem to be able to sniff out
money. Finally, the peacock is also significant in the evolution of the
Jewish Villain. Indeed, in the later part of the nineteenth century the
medieval Jewish usurer is transformed into the Jewish upstart, a show-
off, open to ridicule, but now belonging to the bourgeoisie.
      The historical context in France, Germany and Britain provides an
explanation for this shift between usurer and parvenu within the
character of the Jewish Villain. After the French Revolution, French
Jews were emancipated, and some of the members of their community,
like for instance the Rothschild family, flourished in banking and


12
                                           Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)



entered the haute bourgeoisie. Following rapid economic growth and
after many setbacks, the legal emancipation of German Jews was
completed in the second half of the nineteenth century. British Jews
also struggled before receiving formal emancipation in 1858, although
Benjamin Disraeli, a baptized Jew, became Prime Minister in 1837.
With the removal of political restrictions, Jews were able to become
politically active. In Jewish Emancipation and Bourgeois Society (1969)
Reinhard Rürup reveals how Jewish emancipation in Europe was part
of the triumph of the bourgeoisie in the nineteenth century:

           The nineteenth century is the century of the European
     bourgeois, of his technology and industry, his trade and economy,
     his art and science. The period between 1780 and 1870 spans that
     economic and political “dual revolution” which resulted in the
     political, social and cultural emancipation of the middle classes in
     Europe. This fundamental transformation unfolds in England,
     France and Germany under different specific conditions, at
     different speeds, by different methods; nevertheless, the process is
     the same in each case: the dissolution of the old European order
     with its corporate structure and mostly absolutist government and
     the emergence of a new bourgeois society dominated by the two
     watchwords of “Constitution” and “Machinery”. (1969: 67)

     Like the Beautiful Jewess, the Jewish upstart adorns himself with
gold and gems, but not with the same aim. His is to shine in society
and impress, and of course hide his internal darkness. For example, in
Guy de Charnacé’s Le Baron Vampire (1885) Baron de Rakonitz displays
this vulgar ostentation of wealth with his passion for emeralds: «sa
cravate de satin vert retenue par une émeraude cabochon [...] boutons à
manchettes, bouton de chemise, boutons de gilet, autant d’émeraudes
cabochon»18 (Charnacé 1885: 83). In Freytag’s Soll und Haben (1855), on
a visit to Baron Rothsattel, Ehrenthal feels obliged to wear a diamond


     18 «his tie of green satin was held by a cabochon emerald […] cuff links,
shirt buttons, cardigan buttons, so many cabochon emeralds.»


                                                                                 13
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



on his clothes: «eine diamantene Busennadel auf dem Hemd»19
(Freytag 2009: 30). Having been elected a member of parliament,
Augustus Melmotte, in Trollope’s The Way We Live Now (1875), is
rejected by his peers because of his lack of modesty: «The lapels of his
coat were thrown back a little wider, displaying the large jewelled
studs, which he wore on his shirt» (Trollope 1982: 313).
     The Jewish parvenu is a reflection on social mobility in the
nineteenth-century. He breaks the walls of the ghetto, of his
‘capharnaüm’, and using his newly-acquired wealth, he buys and
transforms old buildings: symbols of immutability of the old rural
aristocracy. This is a liberation for him: he does not belong to walls,
they belong to him, he creates the space to which he wants to belong.
Baron Rakonitz transforms beyond recognition Prince Ravioli’s old
hotel (Charnacé 1885: 139), while Melmotte modifies Grosvenor Square
twice: once for Madame Melmotte’s ball, and then to receive the
Emperor of China: «When he was shown into the hall he was
astonished to find that it was not only stripped, but was full of planks,
and ladders, and trussels, and mortar» (Trollope 1982: 377). When Sam
Harrassowitz appropriates Büttner’s farm he sets up various factories
on his newly acquired land (Polenz 1994: 256).
     Most importantly, the upstart belongs to cosmopolitanism in
opposition to the nineteenth-century rise of nationalism. To fulfil his
destiny, he breaks all the spatial frontiers. Thus, he belongs to
foreignness, a label which alienates him again. His mobility within
Europe can only raise suspicion and rejection from others because his
identity is not readable and he is a product of modernity. Indeed, in
Bourget’s Cosmopolis, Montfanon denounces Baron Hafner’s
unreliability:

           “C’est l’incarnation du monde moderne dans ce qu’il a de
      plus haïssable que ces aventuriers cosmopolites, qui jouent aux
      grands seigneurs avec des millions flibustés dans quelques coups
      de bourse. Ça n’a pas de patrie, d’abord. Qu’est-ce qu’il est, ce


      19
           «a pin with diamonds on the shirt».


14
                                          Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)



     baron Justus Hafner, Allemand, Autrichien, Italien ?”20 (Bourget
     1893 : 18)

     In Raabe’s Der Hungerpastor, before settling in Germany, Samuel
Freudenstein, probably born in Ukraine, does business in Warsaw and
St Petersburg, even Constantinople, before going to Italy, Vienna and
Prague (Raabe undated: 42). Melmotte comes from Paris, tries to settle
in Vienna before ending up in Britain (Trollope 1982: 31).
      The Jewish parvenu presents another face of the Jewish Villain, as
dangerous, but more active: he longs not only to raise himself to the
social level of the aristocracy, but also to displace it. This shows two
tendencies of the Jewish community perceived by nineteenth-century
novelists: on one side, social preservation, on the other progression. In
Trollope’s The Way We Live Now, Melmotte is shown socialising with
Mr Longestaffe, whose estate he covets. A way of truly belonging to
the aristocracy is marriage, as Baron Hafner nearly succeeds in doing
in Paul Bourget’s Cosmopolis (1893). In Freytag’s Soll und Haben, Hirsch
Ehrenthal initially takes the role of Hofjude21 , but, as demonstrated in
the passage below, he truly longs to see his son as the heir of Baron von
Rothsattel’s estate:

           “Was ich getan habe, für wen habe ich’s getan? Nicht für
     mich und meine alten Tage. Ich habe dabei gedacht jeden Tag an
     dich, mein Sohn, der du bist ein anderer Mann als dein Vater. Ich
     werde haben den Kummer, und du sollst gehen aus dem Schloß in
     den Garten und wieder zurück in das Schloß, und wenn du gehst,
     soll der Amtmann abziehen seine Mütze und die Knechte im Hofe
     abziehen ihre Hüte, und sie sollen zu sich sagen: Das ist der junge

     20
          «“Those cosmopolitan adventurers are the embodiment of the
modern world in its most detestable manifestation. They flash millions
around, which they have stolen thanks to some tricks on the Stock Exchange.
First, they have no homeland. What is he, this Baron Justus Hafner, German,
Austrian, Italian?”»
      21 Court Jew: in the early modern period a Jew who used to manage the

finances of an aristocrat in exchange for social privileges.


                                                                                15
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



      Herr Ehrenthal, welcher ist unser Herr, der da geht.”22 (Freytag
      2009: 471)

      In conclusion, the character of the Jew is obviously marked by
dichotomy, firstly between the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain,
and secondly between the Jewish Usurer and the Jewish Parvenu. This
exemplifies the uncertainty of writers when it comes to designate
where the Jews belongs to, and their desire for a catharsis of
clarification, as mentioned by Claude Lévi-Strauss in The Savage Mind
(1966: 22). These characters also offer the opportunity to imagine what
they long for. Both the Jewish Villain and the Beautiful Jewess long to
belong to the society they live in. But they do not long in the same way
and this leads to conflict between them, reflecting the torment of
nineteenth-century Jews between their belonging to their community
and their longing to be accepted in the society of their country.




       «“What I have done, for whom have I done it? Not for myself and my
      22

old days. And while doing it, every day, I have thought of you, my son, you
who are a man different from your father. I shall have the trouble, and when
you walk from the castle to the garden and back, the civil servant and the
servants in the courtyard will take their hat off, and they will say to
themselves: Here goes the young Sir Ehrenthal who is our master”.»



16
                                       Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)




                           Works cited
Balzac, Honoré de, Gobseck (1830), Paris, Flammarion, 1984.
Balzac, Honoré de, Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes (1838-1847),
    Paris, Le Livre de Poche, 1988.
Borel, Petrus, Dina ou la belle Juive, Paris, Eugène Renduel, 1833.
Bourget, Paul, Cosmopolis (1893), Paris, Lemerre, 1893.
Charnacé, Guy de, Le Baron Vampire, Paris, E. Dentu, 1885.
Daudet, Alphonse, Les Rois en exil (1879), New York, Elibron, 2006.
Dickens, Charles, Oliver Twist (1837), London, Penguin, 1994.
Eliot, George, Daniel Deronda (1876), London, Penguin, 1995.
Freytag, Gustav, Soll und Haben (1855), Köln, Anaconda, 2009.
Gerard, Dorothea, Recha (1890), Memphis, General Books, 2012.
Goncourt, Edmond et Jules de, (1867), Manette Salomon, Paris,
    Charpentier, 1896.
Gutzkow, Karl, Die Kurstauben (1864), Berlin and Weimar, Aufbau
    Verlag, 1963.
Hauff, Wilhelm, Jud Süß (1827), München, Winkler, 1981.
Jensen, Wilhelm, Die Juden von Cölln (1869), Köln, Kiepenheuer und
    Witsch, 2008.
Lathers, Marie, Bodies of Art: French Literary Realism and the Artist’s
    Model, Lincoln and London, University of Nebraska Press, 2001.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, La Pensée sauvage (1962), Engl. Tr. The Savage
    Mind, Chicago, the University of Chicago Press, 1966.
Maccoby, Hyam, Judas Iscariot and the Myth of the Jewish Evil. London,
    Peter Halban, 1992.
Nerval, Gérard de, Œuvres, Paris, Gallimard, 1960-61.
Polenz, Wilhelm von, Der Büttnerbauer (1895), Bautzen, Lusatia, 1994.
Raabe, Wilhelm, Der Hungerpastor (1864), Berlin and Hamburg,
    Deutsche Buchgemeinschaft, undated.
Raabe, Wilhelm, Frau Salome (1875), Göttingen, Vandenhoeck and
    Ruprecht, 1962.



                                                                             17
Catherine J. Bartlett, Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess and the Jewish Villain



Rürup, Reinhard, “Jewish Emancipation and Bourgeois Society”, Leo
    Baeck Institute Year Book (1969) 14 (1): 67-91.
Saar, Ferdinand von, Seligmann Hirsch (1889), Bremen, Carl
    Schünemann, 1958.
Said, Edward, Orientalism (1978), London, Penguin, 1985.
Sasson, Sarah Juliette, Longing to Belong: the Parvenu in Nineteenth-
    Century French and German Literature, New York, Palgrave
    Macmillan, 2012.
Scott, Walter, Ivanhoe (1820), London, Penguin, 1994.
Smith, Horace, Zillah; a Tale of the Holy City, London, Henry Colburn,
    1828.
Trollope, Anthony, The Way We Live Now (1875), Oxford, Oxford
    University Press, 1991.
Zantop, Susanne, Colonial Fantasies: Conquest, Family and Nation in
    Precolonial Germany 1770-1870, Durham, Duke University Press,
    1997.
Zola, Émile, L’Argent (1891), Paris, Livre de Poche, 1979..



                                        The author
        Catherine J. Bartlett

Catherine has studied German and Norwegian at Paris IV-Sorbonne in
France. She recently submitted her PhD in Comparative Literature
(cotutelle University of Kent, Great Britain, and University of
Strasbourg, France) on ‘Representations of the Character of the Jew in
the nineteenth-century French, German and English novel, and the
Jewish Response’. She has taught French at the University of the West
of England and at the University of Bath. At present, she teaches
French at the University of Surrey.

        Email: catherine.bartlett@sky.com




18
                                      Between, vol. VII, n.13 (Maggio/May 2017)




                             The paper
Date sent: 31/01/2017
Date accepted: 15/04/2017
Date published: 31/05/2017



                   How to quote this paper
Bartlett, Catherine, “Belonging and Longing of the Beautiful Jewess
and the Jewish Villain in the Nineteenth-Century German, English and
French Novel”, Longing and Belonging/ Désir et Appartenance, Eds.
Massimo Fusillo, Brigitte Le Juez, Beatrice Seligardi, Between, VII.13
(2017), http://www.betweenjournal.it/




                                                                            19
