A hallmark of COVID-19 is a hyperinflammatory state that is associated with severity. Various anti-inflammatory therapeutics have shown mixed efficacy in treating COVID-19, and the mechanisms by which hyperinflammation occurs are not well understood. Previous research indicated that monocytes, a key innate immune cell, undergo metabolic reprogramming and produce inflammatory cytokines when stimulated with SARS-CoV-2. We hypothesized that binding by the viral spike protein mediates this effect, and that drugs which regulate immunometabolism could inhibit the inflammatory response in monocytes. Monocytes stimulated with recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein subunit 1 showed a dose-dependent increase in glycolytic metabolism that was associated with production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α. This response was dependent on hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, as chetomin inhibited glycolysis and cytokine production. Inhibition of glycolytic metabolism by 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) or glucose deprivation also inhibited the glycolytic response, and 2-DG strongly suppressed cytokine production. Glucose-deprived monocytes rescued cytokine production by upregulating oxidative phosphorylation, an effect which was not present in 2-DG-treated monocytes due to the known effect of 2-DG on suppressing mitochondrial metabolism. Finally, pre-treatment of monocytes with metformin strongly suppressed spike protein-mediated cytokine production in monocytes, and abrogated glycolytic and mitochondrial metabolism. Likewise, metformin pre-treatment blocked cytokine induction by SARS-CoV-2 strain WA1/2020 in direct infection experiments in monocytes. In summary, the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein induces a pro-inflammatory immunometabolic response in monocytes that can be suppressed by metformin, and metformin likewise suppresses inflammatory responses to live SARS-CoV-2. This has potential implications for the treatment of hyperinflammation during COVID-19.
Metformin Suppresses Monocyte Immunometabolic Activation by SARS-CoV-2 and Spike Protein Subunit 1