Protein-peptide interactions play a fundamental role in facilitating many cellular processes, but remain underexplored experimentally and difficult to model computationally. Here, we present PepNN-Struct and PepNN-Seq, structure and sequence-based approaches for the prediction of peptide binding sites on a protein given the sequence of a peptide ligand. A main difficulty for the prediction of peptide-protein interactions is the flexibility of peptides and their tendency to undergo conformational changes upon binding. To account for this behaviour, we developed a novel reciprocal attention module that simultaneously updates the encodings of peptide and protein residues and explicitly enforces the symmetry in the updates, allowing for information flow and reflecting the biochemical reality of conformational changes in the peptide. PepNN additionally makes use of modern graph neural network layers that are effective at learning representations of molecular structure. Finally, to compensate for the scarcity of peptide-protein complex structural information, we make use of available protein-protein complex and protein sequence information through a series of transfer learning steps. PepNN-Struct achieves state-of-the-art performance on the task of identifying peptide binding sites, with a ROC AUC of 0.893 and an MCC of 0.483 on an independent test set. Beyond prediction of binding sites on proteins with a known peptide ligand, we also show that the developed models make reasonable peptide-agnostic predictions, allowing for the identification of novel peptide binding proteins.
PepNN: a deep attention model for the identification of peptide binding sites