Human T cells are distinguished on the basis of T cell receptor structure. The major populations, including CD4+ and CD8+ subsets, express a receptor composed of alpha and beta chains. A smaller subset expresses T cell receptor made from gamma and delta chains. Gamma delta (“GD”) T cells make up 3-10% circulating lymphocytes, and Vδ2+ subset makes up 75% of GD T cells in blood. Vδ2+ cells recognize non-peptide epitopes and do not require antigen presentation by major histocompatibility complexes (“MHC”) or human leukocyte antigen (“HLA”). The majority of Vδ2+ T cells also express a Vγ9 chain and are stimulated by exposure to 5-carbon pyrophosphate compounds that are intermediates in mevalonate and non-mevalonate sterol/isoprenoid synthesis pathways. The response to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (5-carbon) is universal among healthy human beings.
Another subset of GD T cells, Vδ1+, make up a much smaller percentage of the T cells circulating in the blood, but Vδ+1 cells are commonly found in the epithelial mucosa and the skin.
In general, GD T cells have several functions, including killing tumor cells and pathogen-infected cells. Stimulation through their unique T cell receptor (“TCRs”) composed of two glycoprotein chains, γ and δ, improves the capacity for cellular cytotoxicity, cytokine secretion and other effector functions. The TCRs of GD T cells have unique specificities and the cells themselves occur in high clonal frequencies, thus allowing rapid innate-like responses to tumors and pathogens.
Aminobisphosphonate drugs (“ABPs”) and other inhibitors of farnesyl diphosphate synthase (“FDPS”), which are downstream from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (“IPP”) in the mevalonate pathway (see, for e.g., FIG. 1), have been used to treat various diseases, including cancers, specifically those involving bone metastasis. ABPs include trade names such as Zometa® (Novartis) and Fosamax® (Merck).
ABPs have also been used to stimulate GD T cells. This may be because when FDPS is inhibited in myeloid cells, IPP begins to accumulate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (“GGPP”), a downstream product of FDPS that suppresses activation of the inflammasome pathway, is reduced. The reduction in GGPP removes an inhibitor of the caspase-dependent inflammasome pathway and allows secretion of mature cytokines including interleukin-beta and interleukin-18, the latter being especially important for gamma delta T cell activation.
Thus, when FDPS is blocked, the increased IPP and decreased GGPP combine to activate Vδ2+ T cells. Vδ2+ cells activated by IPP or ABPs will proliferate rapidly, express a number of cytokines and chemokines, and can function to cytotoxically destroy tumor cells or cells infected with pathogenic microorganisms.
However, ABPs are associated with inflammation and osteonecrosis, as well as having poor bioavailability due to their chemistry. Likewise, IPP has a very short half-life and is difficult to synthesize. Both types of compounds require systemic administration in an individual. Accordingly, both ABPs in general, and IPP specifically, leave a great deal to be desired for therapeutic purposes.