Evaluative Affect Display Toward Male and Female Leaders of Task-Oriented Groups:
A laboratory study and a field study (N = 168) investigated evaluative affect display (EAD), that is nonverbal evaluative reactions, toward leaders in small, face-to-face groups. Butler and Geis had found that female leaders received more negative affect than did male leaders, whereas both groups were judged equally competent on rating scales. Study 1 replicated their findings with a more economic coding method and improved methodological control. Study 2 examined EAD in routine meetings of real teams in different organizational field settings. Results suggest that EAD is a reliably observable phenomenon in field and laboratory settings. Generally, more negative affect was displayed toward female leaders across contexts. By contrast, there was no preference for men over women in competence ratings on scales.
This paper empirically investigates whether the quantity deficit in the children of the mother’s preferred gender is compensated through their favorable treatment in terms of investment in schooling (what we call a compensating hypothesis) in an environment where schooling opportunities are limited. We use data from siblings in two rounds of the demographic and health surveys of Ethiopia for empirical analysis. Using the gender ratio of the mother’s own siblings and the birth of same sex twins as instruments for gender ratio gap, we estimate binary choice models with clustering for school attendance using generalized instrumental variable techniques with interactive instruments. Our empirical evidence appears to be consistent with the compensating hypothesis that the larger the excess of actual proportion of girls over the mother’s desired proportion, the smaller a girl’s chance of attending school and the bigger a boy’s chance of attending school will be.