Volumetric thermal gratings were created in liquid and gaseous media and were used to efficiently deflect laser beams. In gaseous media, a low-input energy requirement and high switching efficiency make this type of switch a good candidate for a practical device. The switch is scalable to large apertures and has low insertion loss.
The beam propagation method (BPM) was used to study a 4/spl times/4 active switch with electro-optical effects in a titanium diffused lithium niobate (LiNbO/sub 3/:Ti) based directional coupler, and the results were used to develop the design. This design is capable of de-multiplexing wavelengths from two groups, 1100 nm to 1300 nm and 1500 nm to 1600 nm.
Berzelius failed to make use of Faraday's electrochemical laws in his laborious determination of equivalent weights.