title: Fault Tolerance Patterns Mining in Dynamic Databases

text: Mining of frequent patterns in database has been studied for several years. However, real-world data tends to be dirty and frequent pattern mining which extracts patterns that are absolutely matched is not enough. An approach, called frequent fault-tolerant pattern (FT-pattern) mining, is more suitable for extracting interesting information from real-world data that may be polluted by noise. Previous research on frequent fault-tolerant pattern mining has been widely studied. However, all of the researches focus on static database. In this paper, we propose an efficient framework to analyze the frequent FT-patterns mining in dynamic database. To avoid re-scanning the whole database, beside of keeping the fault-tolerance pattern, we will also keep the potential fault-tolerance pattern that has higher possibility of becoming a fault-tolerance pattern. The experimental results show that by re-using the existing pattern that had been generated, the proposed algorithms are highly efficient in terms of execution time and maximum memory usage for mining fault-tolerance frequent pattern in dynamic database compare to FFM algorithm.


title: South and East Asian Insurance Market Growth and Development

text: Recent economic research, notably by King and Levine (1993a, 1993b), Levine and Zervos (1998), Levine (1999), Levine, et al. (2000), and Beck, et al. (2000), indicates that financial services and its various components, including insurance and banking, have substantial potential for spreading positive externalities throughout the commercial sector of an economy. Such benefits can stem from improved access to capital by firms, better allocation of capital to investment projects, greater risk management, and enhanced portfolio diversification and liquidity for individual investors. While existing economic research shows the development of financial services is generally important for economic growth, a number of previous studies by Outreville (1990) and Ward and Zurbruegg (2000) provide empirical evidence that insurance market development in its own right can promote economic development. The importance of the insurance industry to the wider economy is seen to stem from the relative size of the insurance industry to GDP in many developed economies, the transfer of risks, and the scale of insurance companies’ financial intermediary functions.


title: Legal and Moral Reflections on Modern Biotechnology in Use & Misuse

text: It is an established truth that science serves humanity by developing new and useful technologies, discovering new phenomena, forwarding knowledge and understanding. ‘Science seeks certainty … and tells us what we can do… but it is for the law to tell [science] whether and how to do’, even if it is in a climate of uncertainties. As a natural phenomenon, scientists tend to concentrate on the beneficial uses of scientific research, but each of them should also concentrate on the potential destructive misuses, in as far as is known, assumed or reasonably predicted. Considering the fast accumulation of sophisticated scientific and biotechnological information, it is upon the scientist and his community to inform and warn the public about the potential destructive misuses of biotechnological research and findings. It is instrumental for the public to be aware of the risks posed by certain dangerous biological agents that are used, manipulated or developed in the course of biotechnological research. The public must be aware of and be reminded that certain biological agents can be used as biological lethal weapons for mass-destruction, or misused for deliberately inflicting infectious diseases. This can be done either by directly spreading common pathogens or by indirectly contaminating food-products, water resources, crops, animal food and feed, etc. It is known that certain lethal biological agents can be transformed into more lethal forms or may even be specifically engineered as such. It is upon the public at large, in applying its collective moral conscience, guided by relevant knowledge and information, to choose what scientific research and advanced technologies should be furthered, banned, or temporarily withheld. It is to be emphasized that the international community has already long ago expressed its determination ‘to exclude completely the possibility of bacteriological (biological) agents and toxins being used as weapons…[it being] repugnant to the conscience of mankind’.


title: 8 Infectieziekten

text: In dit hoofdstuk wordt beoogd de belangrijkste nieuwe ontwikkelingen waarvan de huisarts moet kennisnemen, te bespreken. Voor specifieke therapie wordt verwezen naar hoofdstuk 25 Antimicrobiële therapie waaraan wij ook hebben bijgedragen.


title: Tissue Culture Models

text: The use of tissue cultures as a research tool to investigate the pathophysiological bases of diseases has become essential in the current ag of molecular biomedical research. Although it will always be necessary to translate and validate the observations seen in vitro to the patient or animal, the ability to investigate the role(s) of individual variables free from confounders is paramount toward increasing our understanding of the physiology and their role in disease. Additionally, it is not feasible to conduct certain research in humans because of ethical constraints, yet investigators may still be interested in the physiological response in human tissues; in vitro characterization of human tissue is an acceptable choice. Tissue culture techniques have been utilized extensively to investigate questions pertaining to physiology and disease. The isolation and propagation of human epithelial cells has allowed investigators to begin to characterize the interactions and reactions that occur in response to various stimuli. Moreover, the culture of other human tissue has allowed researchers to investigate pathological cascades as well as other physiological responses. Combining cultured endothelial cells and leukocytes together in vitro under laminar flow conditions has helped elucidate the critical interactions that occur in rolling and emigration of leukocytes during the inflammatory response. Cultured embryonic stem cells that had been subjected to various growth conditions have advanced our understanding of cellular differentiation and growth.


title: Influence of Gender on Outcome of Severe Sepsis

text: Whether gender influences the outcome of severe sepsis remains a matter of debate. Because many confounding variables may affect observed associations between gender and mortality, high-quality statistical analyses are essential to carefully adjust the two groups of patients. About 55% to 65% of patients with sepsis have chronic co-morbidities associated with immune dysfunction (e.g., chronic renal failure, diabetes mellitus, human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] infection, and alcohol abuse), which increase the susceptibility to sepsis [1]. Genetic polymorphisms that affect the susceptibility to infection and/or the severity of the systemic response to infection [2] may lead to variability among individuals and between males and females [3]. Access to healthcare, another determinant of the incidence and outcome of sepsis, varies according to age, ethnic group, and gender, although a recent study conducted in the USA found only relatively small quality-of-care differences between males and females or across income groups compared to the gap for each subgroup between observed and desirable quality of health care [4]. Here, we review the data on the existence of, and reasons for, associations between gender and outcome of severe sepsis (Fig. 1).


title: Human Security: A South American Perspective

text: For over a decade, human security has been in the global and hemispheric agenda. During this time it became a central concept within the United Nations system.


title: Wie schützt das Immunsystem bei Infektionen?

text: Der Vielfalt der Erreger und ihres Verhaltens muss die Immunantwort angepasst sein, um ein Optimum in der Balance zwischen wirksamer Abwehr und unvermeidlichem Begleitschaden für den Organismus zu erzielen. Es sind folglich verschiedene Qualitäten der Immunantwort notwendig, wobei das Habitat der Infektionserregerdie optimale Abwehrstrategie bestimmt.


title: Influenza

text: Influenza is a highly contagious, acute respiratory illness afflicting humans. Although influenza epidemics occur frequently, their severity varies (1). Not until 1933, when the first human influenza virus was isolated, was it possible to define with certainty which pandemics were caused by influenza viruses. In general, influenza A viruses are more pathogenic than are influenza B viruses. Influenza A virus is a zoonotic infection, and more than 100 types of influenza A viruses infect most species of birds, pigs, horses, dogs, and seals. It is believed that the 1918–1919 pandemic originated from a virulent strain of H1N1 from pigs and birds.


title: The Role of Other Bacteria, Fungi, and Viruses in Bronchiectasis

text: Bronchiectasis, a heterogeneous disease, is characterized by a vicious cycle of airway infection and inflammation that results in structural damage to the airways and the surrounding lung parenchyma [1]. Many microorganisms have been associated with bronchiectasis, both as a complication of the anatomic abnormalities and possibly as a cause of the structural disease as well [2, 3]. Diverse polymicrobial communities are present in the airways of patients with bronchiectasis [4]. Studies using standard microbiologic culture techniques have demonstrated the presence of bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens in the lungs of bronchiectasis patients both when the patient is clinically stable and when there is an exacerbation of disease [2, 5]. Newer molecular techniques have broadened our understanding of the microbiome in bronchiectasis patients [4, 6]. Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been repeatedly shown to be a problematic pathogen in patients with bronchiectasis and is associated with a worse prognosis [7, 8]. Multiple epidemiologic reports have shown that approximately 20–35% of patients worldwide with bronchiectasis are chronically infected with P. aeruginosa [2, 9, 10]. Several antibiotic trials have been published where the main target of therapy is Pseudomonas aeruginosa [11–17]. (See Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-61452-6_11 for a full review of P. aeruginosa infections associated with bronchiectasis.) Another problematic group of pathogens, nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), is a common infecting organism in bronchiectasis, particularly in the United States and in parts of Asia [2, 18]. NTM infection is fully discussed in Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-61452-6_13. In this chapter, we will review the role of bacterial pathogens other than P. aeruginosa and the impact of fungal and viral infections in bronchiectasis patients. (See Table 13.1.)


title: Import- en reizigersziekten

text: Import- en reizigersziekten zijn ziekten die zich specifiek voordoen bij reizigers en die in Nederland niet (meer) endemisch zijn. Infecties vormen een belangrijk onderdeel van de import- en reizigersgeneeskunde en zijn meestal gerelateerd aan de (sub)tropen, waar (parasitologische) infecties prominent vertegenwoordigd zijn. Morbiditeit bij reizigers wordt vooral veroorzaakt door infecties, terwijl de belangrijkste doodsoorzaak in deze groep het gevolg is van ongelukken en trauma’s. Groeiend reizigersverkeer en migratie van bevolkingsgroepen door oorlogen of andere oorzaken dragen bij tot de verspreiding van infecties in soms epidemische vorm; zo kunnen nieuwe infecties of resistente vormen van reeds aanwezige infecties in een bepaald gebied worden geïntroduceerd. ELEKTRONISCH AANVULLEND MATERIAAL: De online versie van dit hoofdstuk (doi:10.1007/978-90-368-1117-0_19) bevat aanvullend materiaal, dat beschikbaar is voor geautoriseerde gebruikers.


title: Coronaviridae: Infectious Bronchitis Virus

text: The abstract is published online only. If you did not include a short abstract for the online version when you submitted the manuscript, the first paragraph or the first 10 lines of the chapter will be displayed here. If possible, please provide us with an informative abstract. Avian infectious bronchitis virus is the prototype of the gammacoronavirus, which is responsible for highly contagious disease in chicken. It continues to be one of the most common diseases in chicken and probably endemic in all countries that raise chicken. The virus infection causes considerable economic losses in both commercial meat- and egg-type birds. The virus tropism includes respiratory tract, proventriculus, cecal tonsils, oviduct and kidney. Infections mainly cause respiratory distress in young chickens. In broiler chicken,the virus causes respiratory distress but some strains produce interstitial nephritis while others cause proventriculitis. In laying hens, the virus causes considerable decrease in egg production and quality. Antigen detection and the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) are commonly used methods for rapid virus diagnosis. RT-PCR and direct gene sequence of the S1 gene or restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) are used for virus genotyping. The control strategy against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is conducted by live attenuated vaccine. To date, more than 65 genotypes and variants are characterized worldwide with poor cross protection. In addition, recombination could increase the variety of strains since live attenuated IBV vaccine viruses may recombine with virulent wild-type strains, and the resultant viruses have caused outbreaks of respiratory disease and production problems in chicken flocks.


title: Theories of Carcinogenesis

text: The oldest description of human cancer, referring to eight cases of tumors of the breast, was found in the Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus, written around 3000–1500 BC. The oldest specimens of human cancers were detected in the remains of a female skull dating back to the Bronze Age (1900–1600 BC), and in fossilized bones of ancient Egypt. The mummified skeletal remains of Peruvian Incas, dating about 2,400 years ago, contained lesions suggestive of malignant melanoma. The term “cancer” goes back to Hippocrates (460–370 BC), who named a group of diseases καρκινοσ and καρκινομα, the ancient Greek word for crab. It is a metaphor for the hard center and spiny projections of the tumors he studied. Cancer is the Latin word for crab and its use has been traced back to Galen (AD 129–199). A snapshot of theories of carcinogenesis, devised in the course of the last two centuries, reflects the progress of insight from the cellular level via biochemistry to an understanding of damaging influences and oncogenes, and to a more wholistic approach in the regulatory theory. It shows the relative success of reductionism as well as the current need to put the insights of various research endeavors into broader paradigmatic contexts.


title: Dogs and Transmission of Infection to Man, “Respected Member of the Family?”

text: Numerous reviews on dog zonoses address long-lasting lists of zoonotic infections, observed worldwide or very specifically in certain regions only. Here we describe the average family dog in the Western hemisphere owned by an average family without sufficient knowledge about potential hazards their pet might transmit to family members. This chapter is based on semi quantitative risk analysis in order to rank potential health risk transmitted from family dogs to human. Surprisingly every day risk is different from the generally expected potential risk according to traditional ranking of hazards (zoonoses) in dogs in general. Attention is given to human behavior regarding the family dog and responsible dog ownership. Modern trends include pet travel or pet import from endemic to non-endemic areas, without sufficient knowledge amongst pet owners or public health institutes. Of great value is information provided by ESCCAP (www.esccap.org) with information for European countries (veterinarians and pet-owners) on prevalences and prevention of parasitic infections in dogs and cats in the major languages of Europe. Eventually attention is paid to new trends in dog feed such as feeding bones and raw meat. This may have serious consequences for the spread of ordinary zoonoses like Salmonella and parasitic infections not only between dogs, but also to family members. A last point of attention is the prevention of attracting wild life zoonoses via dogs to family members (eg. Echinococcus multilocularis and Baylisascaris spp.). Authorities responsible for public health should be encouraged to pay more attention, not only in providing more regulations, but primary in enforcement of existing rules and stimulating responsible pet-ownership. Companion animal veterinarians and (local) public health authorities, including physicians, should contribute equally in zoonoses prevention programs (‘One health’ approach).


title: Directly Identify Unexpected Instances in the Test Set by Entropy Maximization

text: In real applications, a few unexpected examples unavoidably exist in the process of classification, not belonging to any known class. How to classify these unexpected ones is attracting more and more attention. However, traditional classification techniques can’t classify correctly unexpected instances, because the trained classifier has no knowledge about these. In this paper, we propose a novel entropy-based method to the problem. Finally, the experiments show that the proposed method outperforms previous work in the literature.


Sarcophaga spp.


title: Natural Products from Sponges

text: The sponge is one of the oldest multicellular invertebrates in the world. Marine sponges represent one of the extant metazoans of 700–800 million years. They are classified in four major classes: Calcarea, Demospongiae, Hexactinellida, and Homoscleromorpha. Among them, three genera, namely, Haliclona, Petrosia, and Discodemia have been identified to be the richest source of biologically active compounds. So far, 15,000 species have been described, and among them, more than 6000 species are found in marine and freshwater systems throughout tropical, temperate, and polar regions. More than 5000 different compounds have been isolated and structurally characterized to date, contributing to about 30% of all marine natural products. The chemical diversity of sponge products is high with compounds classified as alkaloids, terpenoids, peptides, polyketides, steroids, and macrolides, which integrate a wide range of biological activities, including antibacterial, anticancer, antifungal, anti-HIV, anti-inflammatory, and antimalarial. There is an open debate whether all natural products isolated from sponges are produced by sponges or are in fact derived from microorganisms that are inhaled though filter-feeding or that live within the sponges. Apart from their origin and chemoecological functions, sponge-derived metabolites are also of considerable interest in drug development. Therefore, development of recombinant microorganisms engineered for efficient production of sponge-derived products is a promising strategy that deserves further attention in future investigations in order to address the limitations regarding sustainable supply of marine drugs.


title: Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics of Infectious Diseases

text: This chapter does not attempt to provide a comprehensive catalogue of the various methods of analysis and technologies used to characterize pathogens (molecular epidemiology). Rather it argues why molecular epidemiology should not be conceived without an extensive use of the concepts of population genetics and evolutionary biology. Moreover, it stresses that characterizing pathogens should open up to evaluating the impact of pathogens’ genetic diversity on their relevant medical properties (downstream studies). Lastly, it presents the foreseeable future developments in this field, which has been upset by the exponential development of megatechnologies (massive sequencing, postgenomic studies, and bioinformatics).


title: Emergence of New Tickborne Infections

text: Several tickborne infectious diseases such as Lyme borreliosis, ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and others have been expanding to new endemic regions in the world for over a decade. Moreover, new pathogens transmitted by ticks have recently been recognized in animals and humans from diverse regions of the globe, widely separated in distance. These include new phleboviruses of the Bunyaviridae family, exemplified by severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus [SFTSV] recognized in China in 2010, and the Heartland virus, a closely related but distinct virus, presenting with similar clinical features and discovered in Missouri in 2012. Other newly recognized tickborne infections include a novel spirochete of the relapsing fever group, Borrelia miyamotoi, first reported to cause human infection in Russia in 2011 and subsequently discovered to cause clinical disease in the Netherlands, Japan, and the United States, with transmission by the black-legged deer tick Ixodes scapularis. In Europe a new tickborne disease, neoehrlichiosis caused by Candidatus neoehrlichia mikurensis belonging to the Anaplasmataceae family, has been described recently. Furthermore, new tickborne rickettsial infections continue to be recognized in Europe such as tickborne lymphadenopathy identified in 1997 and caused by Rickettsia slovaca. Novel tickborne infectious diseases will continue to emerge worldwide for the foreseeable future and be a challenge to the health of human populations. Innovative methods of prevention for a broad variety of tick-transmitted diseases are needed, and one approach is to develop a universal tick vaccine that can be given to animal hosts or humans.


title: 6 Lagere luchtwegen

text: Bronchiën zijn vertakkingen van de luchtpijp die samen een soort ‘boom’ in de longen vormen. Bronchiën horen bij de lagere luchtwegen. De allerkleinste bronchiën gaan over in het longweefsel zelf, de longblaasjes.


title: Biomedical Waste

text: Biomedical waste comprises of all liquid and solid wastes generated from medical establishments and activities involving biological materials. Besides health care, the relevant activities include clinical research, research involving animals, animal farms, dead animals, and others. The generation of biomedical waste is not restricted to specific activity or organisations. It can originate from homes during dialysis and using insulin injections, animal health activities in rural areas, butchering of sick animals in butcher houses, medical shops, use of sanitary napkins and ear buds, use of diapers, and air ports when passengers through away restricted medicines without prescription.


title: Global Warming and Trans-Boundary Movement of Waterborne Microbial Pathogens

text: Potential ramifications of climate change, as they relate to waterborne pathogens (primarily viruses, bacterial and parasitic protozoa), are the focus of this chapter. It seems clear that climate change will impact on waterborne pathogens in various ways (Rose et al. 2001), pertinent to transboundary issues are: (1) increases in intense storm events (increasing sewage/animal waste flows into waterways/aquifers) (Charron et al. 2004; Schijven and de Roda Husman 2005; Yang and Goodrich 2009; De Toffol et al. 2009; Richardson et al. 2009); (2) warmer surface water temperatures or salinity changes (for increased autochthonous pathogen growth) (Niemi et al. 2004; Koelle et al. 2005; Lebarbenchon et al. 2008); and (3) changes in food production, as most obvious in animal diseases (Lightner et al. 1997; Rapoport and Shimshony 1997), but also of concern with zoonoses and from changes in social behavior (Schwab et al. 1998; Nancarrow et al. 2008; CDC 2009a). When considering trans-boundary effects on waterborne pathogens, it is therefore the flow of pathogens in surface water (fresh and marine) and in groundwater, as well as in the varying ways water is used/reused in association with human activities (e.g., food production) that are the trans-boundary issues discussed in this chapter (examples in Table 5.1). Changes in infectious and vector-borne diseases associated with rising sea levels, losses of habitat, international travel etc. are not addressed in this chapter.


Disease And Welfare


title: Comfort Energetics: Thermal Comfort Under Energy Constraints

text: This chapter represents an energy-conscious approach to understanding thermal comfort. With the environmental variable of T, MRT, RH and wind v as its structure, it begins with a psychrometric analysis where the roles of temperature and humidity are denominated in PMV votes and the power needed to improve those votes. The role of humidity is critically reviewed with a case made for challenging the accepted norms an optimum RH range. Finally the efficacy of moving air is analysed in the different ways it can be employed.


title: The Discovery and Development of Daclatasvir: An Inhibitor of the Hepatitis C Virus NS5A Replication Complex

text: The discovery of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS5A replication inhibitor daclatasvir (1) had its origins in a phenotypic screening lead. However, during the optimization campaign, it was observed that some members of the chemotype underwent a radical dimerization under the assay conditions. This redirected the effort to focus on palindromic molecules, a species subsequently shown to complement the dimeric nature of the NS5A protein. The most challenging aspect of the discovery program was extending antiviral activity to encompass GT-1a virus which was accomplished only after the development of extensive structure-activity relationships. In clinical trials, oral administration of daclatasvir (1) produced a profound effect on viral load with onset that was more rapid than had been seen previously with either NS3 protease or NS5B polymerase inhibitors. A groundbreaking clinical trial that combined daclatasvir (1) with the protease inhibitor asunaprevir (52) established that a chronic HCV infection could be cured with small molecule therapy in the absence of immune stimulation, setting the stage for approval of this regimen for the treatment of GT-1b-infected subjects by the Japanese health authorities on July 4, 2014.


title: Genomics, Other “Omic” Technologies, Personalized Medicine, and Additional Biotechnology-Related Techniques

text: The products resulting for biotechnologies continue to grow at an exponential rate, and the expectations are that an even greater percentage of drug development will be in the area of the biologics. In 2011, worldwide there were over 800 new biotech drugs and treatments in development including 23 antisense, 64 cell therapy, 50 gene therapy, 300 monoclonal antibodies, 78 recombinant proteins, and 298 vaccines (PhRMA 2012). Pharmaceutical biotechnology techniques are at the core of most methodologies used today for drug discovery and development of both biologics and small molecules. While recombinant DNA technology and hybridoma techniques were the major methods utilized in pharmaceutical biotechnology through most of its historical timeline, our ever-widening understanding of human cellular function and disease processes and a wealth of additional and innovative biotechnologies have been, and will continue to be, developed in order to harvest the information found in the human genome. These technological advances will provide a better understanding of the relationship between genetics and biological function, unravel the underlying causes of disease, explore the association of genomic variation and drug response, enhance pharmaceutical research, and fuel the discovery and development of new and novel biopharmaceuticals. These revolutionary technologies and additional biotechnology-related techniques are improving the very competitive and costly process of drug development of new medicinal agents, diagnostics, and medical devices. Some of the technologies and techniques described in this chapter are both well established and commonly used applications of biotechnology producing potential therapeutic products now in development including clinical trials. New techniques are emerging at a rapid and unprecedented pace and their full impact on the future of molecular medicine has yet to be imagined.


title: Radiological Terrorism

text: Radiological terrorism is the use of radioactive material to cause human casualties, environmental destruction and maximum disruption, panic and fear (1) in the general population for political purposes. Since the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945, with 150,000 casualties and 75,000 fatalities (2), people have feared nuclear explosives more than any other weapons of mass destruction, because of the ability of these weapons to cause immediate devastation and trauma, and because radiation, undetected by human senses, can cause ongoing morbidity and mortality, including cancer, years after exposure (3).


title: Advanced Pathology Techniques for Detecting Emerging Infectious Disease Pathogens

text: Detection and surveillance for emerging and reemerging pathogens need a multidisciplinary approach. The intertwining complexity of these pathogens with their diverse tissue tropisms, direct effects on host cells, multiphasic immunological responses, and additional influence of superimposed secondary agents is beyond the expertise of a single discipline in modern medicine. A combined evaluation of patient’s history, clinical manifestations, and physical examination may suggest a list of differential diagnosis, but it is often insufficient to determine the specific infectious etiology. Laboratory methods are essential to identify an etiologic agent from testing clinical samples, such as blood, serum, nasopharyngeal swab, etc. These methods, including traditional microbiological techniques, conventional immunological assays, and modern molecular methods, remain the mainstay in today’s practice of clinical microbiology and infectious disease medicine. Nevertheless, there are technical and logistic issues associated with these methods, and the test results often lack a clinicopathologic correlation that can confound the interpretation of their clinical significance. For example, microbiological culture may fail to grow a causative organism, while the organism isolated by the laboratory in vitro may arise from contamination and does not represent the actual infective agent in vivo.


title: YEAH: One Story of Inspiration and Success

text: Nineteen years ago, I could not have imagined that I would end up founding Australia’s first youth-focused HIV/AIDS prevention organization. Nineteen years ago, when I was 8 years old, my connection with HIV/AIDS began; my Mom, divorced and raising me as a single parent, was diagnosed HIV-positive (herein HIV+). It was the mid-1980s and the Australian social climate surrounding AIDS was one laden with fear. During that time, Australia’s profound early response to what would become the worldwide HIV/AIDS pandemic was taking form.


title: Pneumonien

text: Die heute gebräuchlichen Definitionen der unterschiedlichen Formen der Pneumonie haben nicht nur eine begrifflich ordnende Funktion, sondern bezeichnen jeweils spezifische ätiopathogenetische, diagnostische und therapeutische Konzepte. Es kommt ihnen somit ein klinisch handlungsanweisender Wert zu.


title: Acute Otitis Media and Acute Coalescent Mastoiditis

text: Acute otitis media is a frequent manifestation of otitis media, mainly during the early childhood. The multifactorial pathogenesis and risk factors are exposed along with its most microbiological agents. The clinical manifestations and their differential diagnoses are presented. General concepts and different actual guidelines of the treatment are described, also the efficient preventive measures are proposed. The second main issue of this chapter is to deal with the complications of acute otitis media, especially the acute coalescent mastoiditis, that is the most common suppurative complication of AOM. The pathogenesis of coalescent acute mastoiditis, its epidemiology, risk factors and the microbiological agents are presented. The clinical features and differential diagnosis are described, as the specific imaging findings. Complications of acute coalescent mastoiditis are typically the subperiosteal abscess, due to the cortical bony necrosis of the mastoid and its septa, or the intracranial spread of the infection (meningitis, intracranial abscesses and venous sinus thrombosis). The general concept of management is exposed, with emphasis on the antimicrobial treatment and the different surgical options.


title: Imaging of ICU Patients

text: Imaging in intensive care unit (ICU) is integral to patient management. The portable chest radiograph is the most commonly requested imaging examination in ICU, and, despite its limitations, it significantly contributes to the decision-making process. Multidetector CT (MDCT) is reserved for relatively complex and challenging clinical scenarios. Bedside ultrasound is emerging as a promising imaging modality as it does not subject the patients to risks and resources involved in the transportation of these patients to the CT facility. Ultrasound is an effective modality to triage patients and is being increasingly incorporated into the emergency and intensive care management algorithms.


title: Thrombocytopenia in the Intensive Care Unit

text: The evaluation and management of thrombocytopenia is a daily challenge for clinicians in the intensive care unit (ICU). Thrombocytopenia is incredibly common, present in upwards of 60% of ICU patients. Additionally, thrombocytopenia in the critically ill is rarely caused by a single etiology. Several causes of thrombocytopenia in the ICU including heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura demand urgent recognition and intervention. This chapter provides a general overview of thrombocytopenia in the ICU and highlights important diagnostic and management considerations for some of the most common etiologies.


title: Reconstructing k-Reticulated Phylogenetic Network from a Set of Gene Trees

text: The time complexity of existing algorithms for reconstructing a level-x phylogenetic network increases exponentially in x. In this paper, we propose a new classification of phylogenetic networks called k-reticulated network. A k-reticulated network can model all level-k networks and some level-x networks with x > k. We design algorithms for reconstructing k-reticulated network (k = 1 or 2) with minimum number of hybrid nodes from a set of m binary trees, each with n leaves in O(mn (2)) time. The implication is that some level-x networks with x > k can now be reconstructed in a faster way. We implemented our algorithm (ARTNET) and compared it with CMPT. We show that ARTNET outperforms CMPT in terms of running time and accuracy. We also consider the case when there does not exist a 2-reticulated network for the input trees. We present an algorithm computing a maximum subset of the species set so that a new set of subtrees can be combined into a 2-reticulated network.


title: Isotope-Aided Methods for Biological NMR Spectroscopy: Past, Present, and Future

text: This chapter starts by providing a historical background of our research endeavors over the past half-century to develop various isotope-aided methods in biological NMR spectroscopy, since innovations bloom only on the rich ground cultivated by previous investigators. We then focused on the stereo-array isotope-labeling (SAIL) method, one of our recent accomplishments, which culminates the isotope-aided NMR technologies for structural studies of proteins from various aspects: accurate structural determinations of large proteins, elaboration for automated structural determination, highly efficient and versatile residue-selective methyl labeling with newly developed auxotrophic E. coli strains, large-amplitude slow-breathing motion (LASBM) as revealed by the aromatic ring flipping of the residues in ligand-binding interfaces, and applications of the deuterium-induced (13)C-NMR isotope shift to investigate the hydrogen exchange phenomena of side-chain polar groups. Meanwhile, the expected role of NMR spectroscopy has been rapidly shifting from structure determinations to dynamics studies of biologically interesting targets, such as membrane proteins and larger protein complexes. The dynamic aspects of protein–protein and protein–ligand interactions are closely related to their biological functions and can be efficiently studied by using proteins residue selectively labeled with amino acids bearing optimized labeling patterns, prepared by cellular expression. We are absolutely confident that biological NMR spectroscopy will continually develop with further innovations of isotope-labeling technologies in the coming era, featuring ultrahigh field spectrometers beyond 1 GHz.


title: Recombinant Turkey Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Protein Expressed in Escherichia coli

text: Expression and purification of turkey coronavirus (TCoV) nucleocapsid (N) protein from a prokaryotic expression system as histidine-tagged fusion protein are presented in this chapter. Expression of histidine-tagged fusion N protein with a molecular mass of 57 kDa is induced with isopropyl β-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG). The expressed N protein inclusion body is extracted and purified by chromatography on nickel-agarose column to near homogeneity. The protein recovery can be 10 mg from 100 ml of bacterial culture. The purified N protein is a superior source of TCoV antigen for antibody-capture ELISA for detection of antibodies to TCoV.


Tubulointerstitielle Erkrankungen


title: Indoor Air Pollution and Its Control in China

text: ABSTRACT: The status of indoor air pollution and its control in China are reviewed by introducing the pollution characteristics of major indoor air pollutants, the strategies and measures adopted to control indoor air pollution, as well as the major problems existing in the current indoor air pollution control. Although indoor pollution of formaldehyde and benzene has been effectively alleviated in recent years in China, indoor pollution of toluene and xylenes is still serious. Besides, studies show that indoor pollution of particulate matter (PM), biological pollutants, and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) might also be serious in China. The establishment and implementation of indoor air quality (IAQ)-related regulations and standards, the research on indoor air pollution and its control, and the development of indoor environmental monitoring and cleaning industry have played significant roles in preventing and controlling indoor air pollution in China. However, problems such as lack of mandatory standards for IAQ, lack of regulation and labeling of pollutant emissions from indoor decorating and refurbishing materials, lack of an effective performance evaluation system for air cleaning products, and lack of proper maintenance of air cleaners remain to be solved for further improvement of IAQ. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: [Image: see text]


title: Nationale Sicherheit und der sich wandelnde Gegenstand der öffentlichen Gesundheit

text: Im November 2005 gab die Busch-Regierung eine 7,1 Milliarde teure Pandemie- Vorsorge-Strategie bekannt, die der US-Gesundheitsminister als den solidesten Vorschlag bezeichnete, der je zur Unterstützung der öffentlichen Gesundheit gemacht wurde (Leavitt 2005). Der Maßnahmenkatalog umfasste die Finanzierung von Programmen, die die Entwicklung von Krankheiten überwachen sollten, die Vorratshaltung von antiviralen Wirkstoffen sowie die Erforschung neuer Methoden der Impfstoffgewinnung. Die Einzelheiten dieser Planung wurden innerhalb der Public Health-Community scharf kritisiert. Moniert wurde die ihrer Ansicht nach zu starke Betonung pharmazeutischer Interventionen bei gleichzeitig zu geringer Beachtung der Bedarfe der Gesundheitsbehörden auf nationaler wie auf der Ebene der einzelnen Bundesstaaten. In einigen Punkten bestand jedoch Einigkeit: Erstens war man sich einig, dass die Strategien im Umgang mit Pandemien eine dringende Angelegenheit sei, zweitens, dass die USA bislang nicht annähernd genügend auf ein derartiges Ereignis vorbereitet seien, und drittens, dass – egal, ob es eine Pandemie geben würde oder nicht – die vorbereitenden Maßnahmen sie zugleich für diverse andere Bedrohungslagen wappnen würde oder wie es ein Mitglied des US-Senats beschrieb: „Selbst wenn wir von einer Grippe-Pandemie verschont bleiben, wird die Arbeit, die wir heute leisten, in einem nationalen Notfall, der eines Tages eintreffen könnte, hilfreich sein“ (US Senate 2006a).


title: Connections to Support Learning About Science

text: This chapter discusses the need for greater levels of scientific literacy in contemporary society. It identifies three major curriculum thrusts that collectively inform scientific literacy – learning science, learning about science, and doing science – with a principal focus on learning about science, often referred to as nature of science (NoS). Particular emphasis is given to the importance of the language of science, the values, norms and traditions of scientists, and the reality of contemporary practice. The remainder of the chapter discusses direct and indirect connections with scientists and the impact of these on developing understanding about science. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the possibilities and pitfalls of such connections.


title: A Heuristic Approach to Future Disasters and Crises: New, Old, and In-Between Types

text: Disasters and crises have been part of the human experience since people started living in groups. Through the centuries, however, new hazards and risks have emerged that have added to the possibilities of new disasters and crises arising from them. Only a very small fraction of risks and hazards actually lead to a disaster or crisis, but they are usually a necessary condition for such surfacing. New types have emerged while older ones have not disappeared. The development of synthetic chemicals in the 19th century and nuclear power in the 20th century created the risk of toxic chemical disasters and crises from radioactive fallouts. Ancient disasters such as floods and earthquakes remain with us today. This chapter raises the question of whether we are at another important historical juncture with the emergence of a new distinctive class of disasters and crises not seen before.


title: European Trends in Science Communication

text: This chapter reports on current trends in science communication in Europe in the light of several recent studies by the European Commission. The author investigates why the European public’s scientific knowledge, as measured by the surveys, has increased substantially over the past few years. He then reviews coverage of science in the European media and analyses the relationships between European scientists and journalists and recent trends in reportage. Noting that it has become harder to gain public acceptance of scientific and technological innovations in Europe, the author argues that the science–society dialogue is insufficiently developed because a genuine communication culture is lacking in the science and technology sector. This lack may hamper the advancement of the sector.


title: Litigations for HIV Related Complications

text: In 1992, a 27-year-old male with same sex exposure requested human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) testing anonymously at a walk-in clinic. He was advised that the test (HIV serology) was positive and he requested a repeat test (anonymously) 1 month later, which was also reported as being positive. About 2 years later, he was assessed by a general practitioner for symptoms of depression and continued medical care. At that time, investigations revealed a CD4 T-cell count of about 700 cells/uL. Sometime in 1996 a repeat blood test revealed a CD4 cell count just <500 cells/uL. No consultation to an infectious diseases specialist or HIV clinic was made. The GP(general practitioner) then initiated a regimen consisting of didanosine, lamivudine, and saquinavir for HIV infection. At that time, testing for HIV viral load was not generally available to the medical community, but became procurable in 1997. Initially, the patient tolerated the regimen well and over the next 3 years his CD4 cell count was maintained above 600–700 cells/uL and the HIV viral load remained undetectable (<50 copies). However, the patient started to show morphologic changes of moderate facial and peripheral lipoatrophy, developed mild sensory peripheral neuropathy, and increased liver enzymes attributable to fatty liver, and elevations of the fasting serum glucose. In the summer of 2000, although the CD4 cell count remained stable, the HIV viral load was reported as being over 7,000 copies/uL. At this time, the patient was referred to a university hospital HIV clinic.


title: RFID in Healthcare – Current Trends and the Future

text: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) enables automatic identification of objects using radio waves. The identified objects can be in and out of the line of sight and there is no need for physical contact with them. RFID technology is deployed in a wide range of industries such as supply chain management, inventory control, farming (to track animals), e-Passports, the tracking of humans (in prisons and hospitals) and in healthcare [1]. The three key elements of an RFID system are the tags, readers and the backend server. Tags are devices physically attached to objects and readers (wired or mobile) recognize the presence of objects in its range.


title: The Infections Causing Acute Respiratory Failure in Elderly Patients

text: The immune system of older individuals declines with advancing age (“immunosenescence”) increasing susceptibility to infection, as well as to an increased risk of a worse outcome. Severe community-acquired pneumonia and acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD) are causes of acute respiratory failure (ARF) in elderly patients. Non-invasive mechanical ventilation (NIV) is effective in the treatment of patients with ARF, above all in case of AECOPD.


title: Mammalia: Chiroptera: Immunology of Bats

text: Bats are a large and diverse group comprising approximately 20% of all living mammalian species. They are the only mammals capable of powered flight and have many unique characteristics, including long lifespans, echolocation, and hibernation, and play key roles in insect control, pollination, and seed dispersal. The role of bats as natural reservoirs of a variety of high-profile viruses that are highly pathogenic in other susceptible species yet cause no clinical disease in bats has led to a resurgence of interest in their immune systems. Equally compelling is the urgency to understand the immune mechanisms responsible for the susceptibility of bats to the fungus responsible for white syndrome, which threatens to wipe out a number of species of North American bats. In this chapter we review the current knowledge in the field of bat immunology, focusing on recent highlights and the need for further investigations in this area.


title: Guidelines for Health Organizations: European Perspectives and Experience in Pandemics

text: In Europe, the rate of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) use in intensive care units (ICUs) is about 35 % for ventilated patients and higher (roughly 60 %) in respiratory ICUs or emergency departments. In North America, this form of ventilation is begun most often in emergency departments (EDs), most patients being transferred to the ICU or step-down units in hospitals with such facilities. This low rate of use in some hospitals is related to scarce knowledge on or experience with this technique, insufficient technical equipment, and inadequate funding. Despite these limitations, NIV is increasingly being used outside traditional and respiratory ICUs, including EDs, postsurgical recovery rooms, cardiology, neurology, and oncology wards, and palliative care units.


title: Negative Pressure Noninvasive Ventilation (NPNIV): History, Rationale, and Application

text: Man has recognized the vital role of breathing since antiquity, beginning with archeological findings depicting inhalation therapy using herbs, oils, and other substances since 6000 BC. Man has taken the automaticity of breathing for granted, expecting its adequacy for all activities whether awake or asleep. Dickinson W. Richards, MD, Nobel Laureate, said in 1962: “Breathing is that essential physiologic function that is straddled between the conscious & the unconscious and subject to both.” The understanding of the components of this critical physiologic function that starts at birth, and must be continuous and widely adaptable to support all levels of physical, metabolic, and functional needs, has evolved slowly over the millennia by many brilliant scientists from a combination of keen observation, imagination, daring experimentation, trial and error, and necessity, while overcoming dogma, religious inhibitions, and politics. It is this gradual chronologic process, still evolving, which guides what we do for patients today.


Schnupfen


title: Lipidmediatoren und ihre Rolle bei Entzündungen und Allergien

text: Lipidmediatoren sind als lokal agierende Lipide nach dem Eindringen eines Krankheitserregers oder nach Gewebsverletzung im Zusammenspiel mit Interleukinen und Chemokinen zunächst für die sinnvollen proinflammatorischen Prozesse wie Calor, Rubor, Dolor, Tumor verantwortlich. Nach erfolgreich abgewehrter Infektion sind es wieder Lipidmediatoren, die mithelfen, die unschädlich gemachten Viren und Bakterien sowie nekrotisches Material aus dem Gewebe zu eliminieren, die Entzündungsreaktion zu stoppen und geschädigtes oder zerstörtes Gewebe zu regenerieren. Mit den Lipidmediatoren hat die Evolution wunderbare molekulare Netzwerke für kontrollierte Immunantworten auf Infektionen und Verletzungen geschaffen, die perfekt koordiniert zu einer Restitutio ad integrum führen und die die Homöostase im Gewebe wiederherstellen. Lange Zeit konzentrierte man sich auf die wissenschaftliche Beobachtung der entzündungsauslösenden Wirkung der Prostaglandine und Leukotriene. In letzter Zeit fokussiert die Forschung jedoch immer mehr auch die antiinflammatorischen und entzündungsauflösenden, schützenden und die Regeneration mediierenden Effekte der Lipidmediatoren, weil diese vor der Pathogenese von chronischen Erkrankungen, wie zum Beispiel Allergien, schützen können.


title: Disease Protection in Sea Coast (and Inland) Cities: Problems in Dense Populations with Shantytowns/Slums

text: As discussed earlier in this book, there are sea coast cities worldwide that are at risk from floods, storm surges, and extreme weather conditions such as wind-driven high category hurricanes (typhoons, monsoons), or drought and heat waves, plus along Pacific Ocean coasts, earthquakes and tsunamis. A municipality and its public health services have to be prepared to adapt to their preparations to deal with what contemporary experiences and history reveal are the most likely physical hazards and diseases to impact it. The two main preparatives are first to be able to care for the injured during a hazard event at well-staffed and supplied hospitals and medical clinics or field hospitals. The second is to fill the basic needs of affected populations with clean water, food, shelter, toilets, waste collection, and if necessary power restoration. These primary responses will help to reduce the chance of an onset and spread of disease. It is important to activate search and rescue teams help citizens isolated or trapped by the event that did not or could not evacuate such as in the case of extreme weather and flooding. In addition, where there have been deaths, bodies should be recovered and interred as soon as possible in order to prevent sickness that might originate from them. For instances of collapsed structures with people trapped inside, equipment that can move debris and rescue people or recover the deceased is necessary as would be the case for less common strong earthquakes as well as some extreme storm events. What was just described may be a good template to follow, but in reality, many sea coast cities in developing and less developed countries do not have the resources to cope with severe hazards that might impact them. Here, the World Health Organization and developed nations, large and small, have sent in personnel, supplies, and equipment to help an impacted sea coast city (or inland city) in the past and will surely continue to do so in the future.


title: Chemical Sensors and Measurement

text: Chemical sensors have been widely used in the biomedical field. With the rapid development of microelectronics and microprocessing technology, chemical sensors have grown to be more and more miniaturized and integrated. Combined with new information processing technology, intelligent chemical sensor arrays such as e-Nose and e-Tongue have been developed. Meanwhile, microfluidic chips enable continuous monitoring of chemical substances in living organisms.


title: Neutral Evolution

text: Neutral evolution is the default process of the genome changes. This is because our world is finite and the randomness is important when we consider history of a finite world. The random nature of DNA propagation is discussed using branching process, coalescent process, Markov process, and diffusion process. Expected evolutionary patterns under neutrality are then discussed on fixation probability, rate of evolution, and amount of DNA variation kept in population. We then discuss various features of neutral evolution starting from evolutionary rates, synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions, junk DNA, and pseudogenes.


title: Approaches on H5N1 Avian Influenza Spreading in Relation with Human Health Risk

text: Recent experiences with highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza have given the world its first advance warning that another influenza pandemic may be imminent. Given the serious consequences of past pandemics, this advance warning has stimulated a search for ways to prevent such an event from occurring through preparedness, rapid response and containment. The rapid response and containment strategy aims to stop, or at least slow the spread of pandemic influenza at the source of its emergence in order to minimize global morbidity and mortality.


title: Role of Proteases in Lung Disease: A Brief Overview

text: Proteases play an important role in health and disease of the lung. In the normal lungs, proteases maintain their homeostatic functions that regulate processes like its regeneration and repair. Dysregulation of proteases–antiproteases balance is crucial in the manifestation of different types of lung diseases. Chronic inflammatory lung pathologies are associated with a marked increase in protease activities. Thus, in addition to protease activities, inhibition of anti-proteolytic control mechanisms are also important for effective microbial infection and inflammation in the lung. Herein, we briefly summarize the role of different proteases and to some extent antiproteases in regulating a variety of lung diseases.


title: Membrane-Anchored Serine Proteases: Host Cell Factors in Proteolytic Activation of Viral Glycoproteins

text: Over one third of all known proteolytic enzymes are serine proteases. Among these, the trypsin-like serine proteases comprise one of the best characterized subfamilies due to their essential roles in blood coagulation, food digestion, fibrinolysis, or immunity. Trypsin-like serine proteases possess primary substrate specificity for basic amino acids. Most of the well-characterized trypsin-like proteases such as trypsin, plasmin, or urokinase are soluble proteases that are secreted into the extracellular environment. At the turn of the millennium, a number of novel trypsin-like serine proteases have been identified that are anchored in the cell membrane, either by a transmembrane domain at the N- or C-terminus or via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linkage. Meanwhile more than 20 membrane-anchored serine proteases (MASPs) have been identified in human and mouse, and some of them have emerged as key regulators of mammalian development and homeostasis. Thus, the MASP corin and TMPRSS6/matriptase-2 have been demonstrated to be the activators of the atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and key regulator of hepcidin expression, respectively. Furthermore, MASPs have been recognized as host cell factors activating respiratory viruses including influenza virus as well as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronaviruses. In particular, transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2) has been shown to be essential for proteolytic activation and consequently spread and pathogenesis of a number of influenza A viruses in mice and as a factor associated with severe influenza virus infection in humans. This review gives an overview on the physiological functions of the fascinating and rapidly evolving group of MASPs and a summary of the current knowledge on their role in proteolytic activation of viral fusion proteins.


title: Coronaviruses

text: Coronaviruses of humans were first identified more than 60 years ago from individuals with respiratory infections, mainly mild. Two different viruses, 229E and OC43 were initially recognized. Because of difficulty in isolating them using standard techniques, many of the early studies of their occurrence were seroepidemiologic. They were confirmed to be worldwide in distribution, and, in the North Temperate Zone, mainly occurring in the winter season. With the development of the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, two additional distinct viruses have been identified, HKU1 and NL63. The four viruses have now been recognized as important in the etiology of common respiratory infections, second only to the rhinoviruses. In 2002, a previously unrecognized betacoronavirus emerged from a zoonotic reservoir in Southern China and spread during the following year to several major cities of the world. The resulting illness was termed Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) because of its potential lethality. More than 8,000 probable cases were reported during 2003, mainly from Hong Kong and mainland China, producing social and economic disruption in those areas affected. A constant feature of the outbreak was the importance of nosocomial spread. In spite of an estimated basic reproductive number higher than influenza, the outbreak was ended, in large part because of control of in-hospital transmission. In 2012, another betacoronavirus has emerged in the Arabian peninsula which is producing a somewhat similar illness, termed Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), also marked by extensive nosocomial transmission. The outcome of this emergence is currently unknown.


Schwarze Piedra


title: Immune Measures in Behavioral Medicine Research: Procedures and Implications

text: Immune system activity is heavily influenced by the central nervous system. These interactions provide us the means to study mind–body interactions and how they affect health. In general, measures of immune system activity can be divided into two categories: those that are evident in the circulation and those that need to be elicited. For example, leukocytes can be collected from the circulation, counted, and their function accessed in cell culture. To test the ability of the immune system to respond to an experimental challenge more directly, studies involving wound healing, or involving the response to an infectious agent, can be performed. The purpose of this chapter is briefly to describe immune assays that are commonly employed in behavioral medicine research, including a rationale for their use as well as a brief description of the methodology. This chapter also describes previous studies in which circulatory and elicited immune measures have been studied in human subjects experiencing different psychological stressors, with an emphasis on studies involving medical students experiencing academic stress and caregivers of a spouse with Alzheimer’s disease. Finally, the chapter discusses the important role that the employment of animal models can play in studies of stress and health and in defining how nervous system activity can influence the immune response.


title: Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis

text: Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) is a highly prevalent disease associated with significant direct and indirect costs. It is paramount that a practitioner can distinguish between acute viral rhinosinusitis and ABRS to avoid unnecessary antibiotic usage. It is also important to understand that establishing a diagnosis of ABRS does not necessitate the prescribing of antibiotics, unless the ABRS patient presents with severe or worsening symptoms or an ABRS complication. Complications include extension of infection to the orbit and central nervous system. Injudicious use of antibiotics imparts societal costs in terms of financial expense as well as contributing to higher levels of bacterial resistance. This chapter reviews the epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of ABRS.


title: Viral-Bacterial Interactions in Childhood Respiratory Tract Infections

text: Acute respiratory infection (ARI) is an important cause of childhood morbidity and mortality worldwide. ARIs are caused primarily by viruses and bacteria that are often co-detected in respiratory specimens. Although viral-bacterial co-infections are frequently reported in children with ARI, their clinical significance and the mechanisms leading to ARI are not well understood. The respiratory tract is a reservoir of a diverse community of microorganisms, including both commensals and potential pathogens and there is growing evidence that the interactions between viruses and bacteria play a key role in the development of ARI. A better understanding of the interactions between viruses and bacteria in the respiratory tract may enhance insight into the pathogenesis of ARI, and potentially reveal new prevention and treatment strategies. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge on viruses, bacteria and viral-bacterial interactions in childhood ARI and the possible mechanisms by which these interactions may lead to disease.


title: 6 Uitvoering en organisatie van de publieke gezondheidszorg

text: Onder publieke gezondheidszorg verstaan wij het bevorderen van de volksgezondheid en van gelijke kansen op gezondheid, door collectieve interventies gericht op gezondheidsbescherming, gezondheidsbevordering en ziektepreventie. Onder deze Nederlandse variant op de Engelse definitie van public health (zie paragraaf 1.1.2) vallen in ons land verschillende activiteiten en organisaties, waaronder ook grote delen van de jeugdgezondheidszorg en de bedrijfsgezondheidszorg, die respectievelijk in hoofdstuk 7 en 8 worden besproken. In dit hoofdstuk zullen we het begrip publieke gezondheidszorg echter in engere zin opvatten, als benaming voor een aantal gemeentelijke en landelijke organisaties die zich (voornamelijk) met preventie bezighouden.


title: Coronavirus Genome Replication

text: Viruses belonging to the family Coronaviridae are unique among RNA viruses because of the unusually large size of their genome, which is of messenger- or positive- or plus-sense. It is ∼30,000 bases or 2–3 times larger than the genomes of most other RNA viruses. Coronaviruses belong to the order Nidovirales, the other three families being the Arteriviridae, Toroviridae and Roniviridae. (For a review of classification and evolutionary relatedness of Nidovirales see Gorbalenya et al. 2006.) This grouping is based on the arrangement and relatedness of open reading frames within their genomes and on the presence in infected cells of multiple subgenomic mRNAs that form a 3'-co-terminal, nested set with the genome. Among the Nidovirales, coronaviruses (and toroviruses) are unique in their possession of a helical nucleocapsid, which is unusual for plus-stranded but not minus-stranded RNA viruses; plus-stranded RNA-containing plant viruses in the Closteroviridae and in the Tobamovirus genus also possess helical capsids. Coronaviruses are very successful and have infected many species of animals, including bats, birds (poultry) and mammals, such as humans and livestock. Coronavirus species are classified into three groups, which were based originally on cross-reacting antibodies and more recently on nucleotide sequence relatedness (Gonzalez et al. 2003). There have been several reviews of coronaviruses published recently and the reader is referred to them for more extensive references (Enjuanes et al. 2006; Masters 2006; Pasternak et al. 2006; Sawicki and Sawicki 2005; Sawicki et al. 2007; Ziebuhr 2005).


title: Blut und Blutprodukte

text: Die Blutgruppe richtet sich nach der Antigeneigenschaft der Erythrozyten. Die Blutgruppenantigene A und B des AB0-Systems befinden sich an der Erythrozytenoberfläche. Das Antigen 0 gibt es nicht, man spricht allenfalls vom Merkmal H.


title: IPR Issues and High Quality Genetic Testing

text: – Patents for genes and genetic tests – Patent thickets and refusal to license – Facilitating access to patents – Research exemption, licensing, patent pools, clearing houses – Compulsory licenses – BRCA saga


title: Ethics

text: The following chapter will focus on ethics. Pertinent questions, answers, and rationale will be reviewed. Answers for this chapter can be found beginning on page 162.


title: Pulmonary Delivery of Plasmid DNA for Disease Prevention and Therapy

text: For gene delivery to the lung, the challenges are high, but successful treatment of cystic fibrosis or achieving immunity against the global infectious diseases provide an allure that cannot be ignored. This chapter summarizes and reviews nonviral DNA delivery for both gene therapy and DNA vaccination in the lung. Aerosolization of DNA is evaluated, and the stability during this process is discussed. Carriers for DNA are then discussed including lipoplexes and polyplexes, with a particular focus on systems that achieve good transfection and minimize potential toxicity. Then principles of DNA vaccination are introduced, and the advantages of pulmonary vaccination are discussed. Finally, the transport of plasmid DNA vaccines into the lungs is reviewed.


title: Experimental Design for Gene Expression Analysis: Answers Are Easy, Is Asking the Right Question Difficult?

text: More and more, array platforms are being used to assess gene expression in a wide range of biological and clinical models. Technologies using arrays have proven to be reliable and affordable for most of the scientific community worldwide. By typing microarrays or proteomics into a search engine such as PubMed, thousands of references can be viewed. Nevertheless, almost everyone in life science research has a story to tell about array experiments that were expensive, did not generate reproducible data, or generated meaningless data. Because considerable resources are required for any experiment using arrays, it is desirable to evaluate the best method and the best design to ask a certain question. Multiple levels of technical problems, such as sample preparation, array spotting, signal acquisition, dye intensity bias, normalization, or sample-contamination, can generate inconsistent results or misleading conclusions. Technical recommendations that offer alternatives and solutions for the most common problems have been discussed extensively in previous work. Less often discussed is the experimental design. A poor design can make array data analysis difficult, even if there are no technical problems. This chapter focuses on experimental design choices in terms of controls such as replicates and comparisons for microarray and proteomics. It also covers data validation and provides examples of studies using diverse experimental designs. The overall emphasis is on design efficiency. Though perhaps obvious, we also emphasize that design choices should be made so that biological questions are answered by clear data analysis.


title: Future Directions

text: There are many areas ripe for research in the area of kidney development. With the current advances in technology available to image and examine the developing kidney along with transgenic animal technology, many new strategies can be employed to answer old questions as well as devising new ones. In the following sections, we consider a few very recent areas of interest in the field of renal development.


title: Molecular tools in drug research — translational medicine

text: The advent of high-throughput and increasingly sensitive research techniques in molecular biology in the last 20 years has altered fundamentally our understanding of molecular biology. The unraveling of the human genome has provided unprecedented insights into the molecular pathophysiology of diseases. DNA sequencing techniques allowed collecting huge amounts of genetic information, revealing genetic variation and variable expression of genes pinpointing to the molecular level of diseases. In parallel, analytical methods for evaluating large sets of proteins become available facilitating studies on the functional relevance of transient or stable expression of these molecules for a disease phenotype. These novel molecular techniques are nowadays at the heart of modern drug research as they allow identifying and validating novel molecular targets of disease, drug screening as well as the discovery of biomarkers for predicting and monitoring response to drug therapy.


title: The Role of Nuclear Matrix Attachment Regions in Plants

text: Regions of DNA that bind to the nuclear matrix, or nucleoskeleton, are known as Matrix Attachment Regions (MARs). MARs are thought to play an important role in higher-order structure and chromatin organization within the nucleus. MARs are also thought to act as boundaries of chromosomal domains that act to separate regions of gene-rich, decondensed euchromatin from highly repetitive, condensed heterochromatin. Herein I will present evidence that MARs do indeed act as domain boundaries and can prevent the spread of silencing into active genes. Many fundamental questions remain unanswered about how MARs function in the nucleus. New findings in epigenetics indicate that MARs may also play an important role in the organization of genes and the eventual transport of their mRNAs through the nuclear pore.


title: Proteolytic Processing of Filovirus Glycoproteins

text: Filoviruses (Marburg virus and Ebola virus) have a single envelope glycoprotein (GP) that initiates infection. GP is a class I fusion protein that forms trimeric spikes composed of heterodimers of the subunits GP1 and GP2. GP1 and GP2 are derived from the precursor pre-GP by furin cleavage during exocytosis. GP1 contains a receptor-binding core topped by a glycan cap and a heavily glycosylated mucin-like domain, while GP2 contains a fusion loop and a membrane anchor. After entering cells by macropinocytosis, the glycan cap and the mucin-like domain are removed from GP1 by endosomal cathepsins B and L exposing the binding site for the Niemann-Pick C1 receptor. It appears that there is no strict requirement for specific proteases involved in GP processing. Thus, furin is not indispensible for GP1-2 cleavage, and GP1 may be trimmed not only by cathepsins B and L but also by other endosomal proteases. Two soluble glycoproteins of Ebola virus are also processed by host proteases. A significant amount of GP1,2 is cleaved by the metalloprotease TACE and shed from the surface of infected cells (GP1,2 delta). The secreted protein sGP is derived from the precursor pre-sGP by furin cleavage.


title: Systemic Transitional Fluidity

text: This chapter traces the trajectory along which the international system became unipolar and how the post-Cold War ‘sole superpower’ sought to rationalise and perpetuate its hegemonic status. It introduces the theoretical frameworks applied in the study and reviews the literature on the erosion of primacy, the processes of power-shift and power-diffusion, and a progressive deepening of Sino-US mutual distrust as the two powers changed from tacit allies to ‘near-peer-rivals’. Chinese perspectives on changing measures of ‘comprehensive national power’ defining competitive positions of major actors within the system, and Beijing’s emphasis on historical experience as a fountainhead of wisdom for managing China’s modern challenges offer insights into evolving Chinese thinking. Dramatic economic turbulence and its strategic consequences for US primacy and Sino-US relations provide the backdrop against which Barack Obama assumed office.


title: Bioactive Products from Fungi

text: Fungi are amazing producers of natural products. They are crucial to the health and the well-being of people throughout the world. They are excellent producers of hydrolytic enzymes, biofuels, organic acids, polysaccharides, and secondary metabolites such as antibiotics, anticancer drugs, hypocholesterolemic agents, immunosuppressants, and others. This chapter centers on these fungal products, especially valuable secondary metabolites, the discovery of which goes back eighty-seven years when penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming.


title: Acute and Chronic Health Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Unfinished Agenda

text: The concept of a “Double Burden of Disease” conceived in the second half of the last century has by now turned into a success story in sub-Saharan Africa. It has been instrumental in creating the regional and global political momentum to address the “unfinished agenda of infectious diseases” and to fight against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria in a concerted and sustainably financed action. An estimated three million children under the age of five have been saved from malaria, and the incidence of new HIV cases in sub-Saharan Africa has fallen by more than half between 2001 and 2012. The concept also created an awareness of the rising epidemic of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in this part of the world. It is too early to predict whether or not this success in the area of infectious disease will repeat itself in the domain of non-communicable diseases. There are some obstacles to overcome. The countries of SSA have to integrate the two separately conceived policies and their different funding into one and to avoid competition in resource allocation between the two areas. They need to develop integrated strategies that begin in the primary health care sector and finally they need to define strategies on how to engage constructively with the private sector.


title: General Information

text: Many bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi and prions may cause serious infections and lead to the isolation of those who are infected from those who are susceptible. Isolation may be done in single rooms or in special isolation units. A modern isolate for patients with infections comprises (1) a sluice with a good space for dressing and undressing of personal protective equipment (PPE) and for hand hygiene, (2) a large patient room and (3) a bathroom/disinfection room with own decontaminator or autoclave and with separate entrance from the patient’s room. Isolates for airborne and droplet-transmitted infections have in addition a defined negative air pressure and hepafiltered exhaust. In all isolates, doors must be closed in such a way that contaminants do not escape the isolate. A modern isolate for patients with impaired immune defence is similar to the infection isolates, with following exceptions: usually no need for decontaminator, hepafiltered clean air into the room and with a defined positive air pressure. A positive pressure isolate should never be used for patients with infections, and a negative pressure isolate should never be used for patients with impaired immune defence, except if the patient also has an infection that needs isolation.


title: The Role of T Cell Epitopes in Coronavirus Infection

text: Multiple MHV-specific CD4 and CD8 T cell epitopes have been identified in C57Bl/6 and BALB/c mice. In particular, at least two CD8 T cell epitopes are recognized in C57Bl/6 mice. In one model of MHV persistence, mutations are detected in the immunodominant CD8 T cell epitope recognized in this strain. These mutations contribute to virus persistence and to the development of more severe clinical disease.


title: Cell-Autonomous (Cell-Intrinsic) Stress Responses

text: In this chapter, the role of cell-intrinsic stress responses is examined which include autophagic processes, the oxidative stress response, the heat shock response, the unfolded proteins response, and the DNA damage response. Autophagy (macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy) is a self-digestive process in response to environmental stress to eukaryotic cells, by which cytoplasmic components are delivered to the lysosome for recycling and degradation. The oxidative stress response is directed against any oxidative stress and is mediated by antioxidative defense systems including antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, detoxifying enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase, and energy-dependent efflux pumps. The heat shock response is induced upon exposure of cells to any stress condition and characterized by emission of heat shock proteins which operate as DAMPs to maintain and restore homeostasis. The unfolded protein response is induced by any stress of the endoplasmic reticulum that is perceived by three sensor molecules. Under remediable endoplasmic reticulum stress conditions, the sensors trigger signalling pathways to resolve this stress. However, in severe irremediable endoplasmic reticulum stress, the unfolded protein response may lead to pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic responses resulting in regulated cell death. Finally, the DNA damage response is induced by any DNA damage that occurs in a variety of exogenous and endogenous conditions. When successful, this stress response leads to DNA repair and is associated with the emission of various DAMPs which contribute to restoration of homeostasis. When unsuccessful, the DNA damage response, like the unsuccessful unfolded protein response, can result in regulated cell death, either in form of apoptosis or necrosis. Together, the ultimate goal of all the stress responses is to maintain cellular homeostasis and ensure cell integrity. When they fail, the incidence of regulated cell death is frequently observed.


DSM in China: In Touch with Evolving Needs in the Specialty Chemicals Market


Biological conservation and parasitism


title: The Human Virome

text: In this chapter we discuss changing approaches to viral discovery and human health, summarize the current understanding of the human-associated viral community, and review contemporary methods in viral metagenomics. The virome is the community of viruses that populate an organism or ecosystem at any given time. This includes the “core” set of commensal viruses that do not give rise to clinical symptoms or viremia, combined with any acute or persistent infections that may be present. Recent technological advances enable us to sequence viral genomes without culturing or cloning. These methods permit not only the discovery of a wider range of viral pathogens, but also a broader assessment of the human virome in the absence of clinically recognized disease. A new focus in contemporary virology is the natural viral community of the human body. This will provide a background for recognition of emerging and previously unrecognized viruses. It should be possible to detect viral infection before the emergence of symptoms, which will have significant implications for health-care delivery.


title: 3 Pathofysiologie van de longen

text: De ademhaling omvat alle processen die betrokken zijn bij de opname van zuurstof en de afgifte van koolzuur. Deze gaswisseling is van doorslaggevende betekenis voor alle metabole gebeurtenissen in het lichaam.


title: Stevens Johnson Syndrome – “Steven Who? And Why I Should Care About His Johnson?”

text: Diagnosing rashes in the emergency department can be challenging. If the rash is extensive and targetoid, include Stevens-Johnson Syndrome (SJS) on your differential and be sure to obtain a thorough history to identify possible offending agents. Additionally, prioritize supportive care and obtaining a dermatology/burn consult to coordinate appropriate care.


title: Alemtuzumab

text: Alemtuzumab (Campath(®), MabCampath(®), Genzyme) is an IgG1k anti-CD52 humanized monoclonal antibody (mAb) that was first licensed in March 2001 by FDA. EMEA granted its approval in July 2001 and Health Canada in November 2005. The initial indication was limited to B-CLL previously treated and resistant to alkylating agents. Starting from 2007, alemtuzumab was approved also as first-line therapy of B-CLL. So far, it has been experienced in over 60 countries. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/978-88-470-5313-7_7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.


title: Vaccinia Virus-Based Reverse Genetics for Feline Coronaviruses

text: For decades, the genetic modification of coronavirus genomes and the generation of recombinant coronaviruses have been hampered mostly due to the extraordinary large size of the coronaviral genome. The very first reverse genetic system for feline coronaviruses (FCoVs) was established in the early 2000s; the respective approach exclusively enabled the manipulation of the 3′-third of the viral genome. Later on, vaccinia virus- and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based systems have been developed. Both systems have the advantage that the entire FCoV genome is amenable for mutagenesis. The main focus of this chapter is the vaccinia virus-based reverse genetic system for FCoVs. Here we present protocols for (1) the generation of a full-length cDNA clone, (2) the manipulation of the FCoV genome, and (3) the rescue of recombinant FCoVs.


title: Paving the Road for Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosome Therapy in Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia and Pulmonary Hypertension

text: Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a chronic neonatal lung disease characterized by inflammation and arrest of alveolarization. Its common sequela, pulmonary hypertension (PH), presents with elevated pulmonary vascular resistance associated with remodeling of the pulmonary arterioles. Despite notable advancements in neonatal medicine, there is a severe lack of curative treatments to help manage the progressive nature of these diseases. Numerous studies in preclinical models of BPD and PH have demonstrated that therapies based on mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) can resolve pulmonary inflammation and ameliorate the severity of disease. Recent evidence suggests that novel, cell-free approaches based on MSC-derived exosomes (MEx) might represent a compelling therapeutic alternative offering major advantages over treatments based on MSC transplantation. Here, we will discuss the development of MSC-based therapies, stressing the centrality of paracrine action as the actual vector of MSC therapeutic functionality, focusing on MEx. We will briefly present our current understanding of the biogenesis and secretion of MEx, and discuss potential mechanisms by which they afford such beneficial effects, including immunomodulation and restoration of homeostasis in diseased states. We will also review ongoing clinical trials using MSCs as treatment for BPD that pave the way for bringing cell-free, MEx-based therapeutics from the bench to the NICU setting.


title: Setting the Ventilator in the NICU

text: Success in providing respiratory support to the neonate requires a clear understanding of the context in which it is being applied. Perhaps more than for any other age group, the array of different situations in which ventilation is applied to the newborn infant is extremely broad, with in each case different pathophysiological disturbances and often the need to use a specific approach to apply ventilation optimally. Table 42.1 provides a list of the more common situations in which conventional ventilation is used in the neonate and includes some considerations regarding ventilator settings for each situation. For each situation, a suggested mode of ventilation is indicated, along with target ranges for positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and tidal volume (V (T)). Further discussion of the physiological rationale and available evidence for ventilator settings is set out below.


Inflammatory and Infectious Disorders


Trachom


title: Influenza A (H1N1)

text: In March 2009, an outbreak of human-infected swine influenza occurred in Mexico, with reports of deaths. Soon afterward, such cases were reported worldwide, namely, a pandemic outbreak. The prevailing disease is then defined as an acute respiratory infectious disease caused by swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus, a new variant of influenza virus. Its viral strains contain gene segments of three types of influenza viruses, namely swine influenza virus, avian influenza virus and human influenza virus. And the virus is mainly transmitted among humans via direct and indirect contact or respiratory tract.


title: Medikamentenprofile – alphabetisch nach Substanzname

text: In diesem Kapitel werden 184 onkologische Medikamente in alphabetischer Reihenfolge beschrieben. Zu jedem Medikament finden sich strukturierte, für die Pflege wichtige Angaben, bspw. zu Auflösung und Verdünnung, zu Verabreichung, zu Lagerung, zu Maßnahmen bei Extravasation, zu unerwünschten Wirkungen sowie für die Patienten nützliche Informationen.


title: Network Analysis of Comorbidities: Case Study of HIV/AIDS in Taiwan

text: Comorbidities are the presence of one or more additional disorders or diseases co-occurring with a primary disease or disorder. The purpose of this study is to identify diseases that co-occur with HIV/AIDS and analyze the gender differences. Data was collected from 536 HIV/AIDS admission medical records out of 1,377,469 admission medical records from 1997 to 2010 in Taiwan. In this study, the comorbidity relationships are presented in the phenotypic disease network (PDN), and φ-correlation is used to measure the distance between two diseases on the network. The results show that there is a high correlation in the following pairs/triad of diseases: human immunodeficiency virus infection with specified conditions (042) and pneumocystosis pneumonia (1363), human immunodeficiency virus infection with specified malignant neoplasms (0422) and kaposi’s sarcoma of other specified sites (1768), human immunodeficiency virus acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and unspecified (0429) and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (0463), and lastly, human immunodeficiency virus infection with specified infections (0420), meningoencephalitis due to toxoplasmosis (1300), and human immunodeficiency virus infection specified infections causing other specified infections (0421).


title: The Impact of Community Structure of Social Contact Network on Epidemic Outbreak and Effectiveness of Non-pharmaceutical Interventions

text: The topology structure of social contacts network has a big impact on dynamic patterns of epidemic spreading and effectiveness of non-pharmaceutical interventions. Corresponding to individuals’ behavioral or functional units, people are commonly organized in small communities, meaning that most of social contacts networks tend to display community structure property. Through empirical investigation and Monte-Carlo simulation on a big H1N1 outbreak in a Chinese university campus, this paper explores the impact of community structure property of social contacts network on epidemic spreading and effectiveness of interventions. A stochastic model based on social contacts networks among students is constructed to simulate this outbreak, revealing that epidemic outbreaks commonly occur in local community. Moreover, effectiveness of three quarantine-based interventions is quantitatively studied by our proposed model, finding that community structure of social networks determines the effects these measures.


title: The Burden of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases in Developing Countries

text: Worldwide, developed and developing countries are facing the double burden of communicable and 10.1007/978-0-387-78665-0_6205. However, developing countries are more exposed and more vulnerable due to a multitude of factors, including geographic, demographic and socio-economic factors. Noncommunicable diseases like cardio-vascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and mental disorders are affecting developing countries with an increasing trend. In parallel, 10.1007/978-0-387-78665-0_5343 such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, acute respiratory infections and diarrheal disease are causing high mortality rates especially in low and middle income countries. Other diseases like the so-called neglected diseases are exclusively afflicting developing countries. Low-income countries are particularly affected by lymphatic filariasis, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, Buruli ulcer, cholera, cysticercosis, dracunculiasis, foodborne trematode infections, hydatidosis, soil-transmitted helminthiasis (ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm diseases), trachoma, sleeping sickness, onchocerciasis, Chagas disease, dengue and others. Beyond the high mortality and morbidity rates caused by communicable and/or noncommunicable diseases in developing countries, the global burden includes economic losses due to care for diseases and disabilities but also as a lack of productivity. More generally, communicable and noncommunicable diseases are impeding human development in developing countries by their negative impact on education, income and life expectancy and other health indicators. In sub-Saharan African countries, devastating consequences are already strikingly apparent in terms of life expectancy and 10.1007/978-0-387-78665-0_5839 (HDI) in general. A large part of the burden caused by noncommunicable diseases like cardio vascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, obesity and others can be avoided by preventive measures, early diagnosis and detection and mainly by controlling risk factors such as smoking, alcohol, diet, and physical inactivity. Similarly, the impact of communicable diseases can be alleviated by efficient strategies, including affordability of treatments, development of new vaccines and medicines, improvement of environmental conditions and general incentives and sensitization.


title: Toxoplasma gondii

text: Toxoplasma gondii


title: Computational Tools: RNA Interference in Fungal Therapeutics

text: There is steady rise in the number of immunocompromised population due to increased use of potent immunosuppression therapies. This is associated with increased risk of acquiring fungal opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients which account for high morbidity and mortality rates, if left untreated. The conventional antifungal drugs to treat fungal diseases (mycoses) are increasingly becoming inadequate due to observed varied susceptibility of fungi and their recurrent resistance. RNA interference (RNAi), sequence-specific gene silencing, is emerging as a promising new therapeutic approach. This chapter discusses various aspects of RNAi, viz., the fundamental RNAi machinery present in fungi, in silico siRNA features, designing guidelines and tools, siRNA delivery, and validation of gene knockdown for therapeutics against mycoses. Target gene identification is a crucial step in designing of gene-specific siRNA in addition to efficient delivery strategies to bring about effective inhibition of fungi. Subsequently, designed siRNA can be delivered effectively in vitro either by soaking fungi with siRNA or by transforming inverted repeat transgene containing plasmid into fungi, which ultimately generates siRNA(s). Finally, fungal inhibition can be verified at the RNA and protein levels by blotting techniques, fluorescence imaging, and biochemical assays. Despite challenges, several such in vitro studies have spawned optimism around RNAi as a revolutionary new class of therapeutics against mycoses. But, pharmacokinetic parameters need to be evaluated from in vivo studies and clinical trials to recognize RNAi as a novel treatment approach for mycoses.


title: The Role of Context for Crisis Management Cycle

text: This chapter establishes the major role of the sense making and situation-understanding process in crisis management, and outlines the importance of the contextualisation of information in this process. As a result of a wider analysis of past crisis-management feedback, we define the term crisis and propose a crisis-management cycle, along with a set of decision support activities. From a system point of view, crisis management functionalities are structured along three crucial steps: information gathering, situation understanding, and decision making. For each step, the processes involved are described and for each one some relevant techniques are proposed to implement the processes. For the information-gathering step, the use of ontology allows the building and structuring of a coherent situation model. The initial overall picture of the situation, obtained by some on-line information extraction and fusion, is then consolidated in the situation understanding step to provide meaningful real-time situation awareness. This provides the essential base to derive the final decision-making step. In the decision phase, the context has a dual impact on the decision-making process; the context first constrains the resolution of the resource allocation problem, but it also contributes to discriminate between several resource allocation solutions. It is thus shown that each step of the crisis management process relies on the availability and quality of the crisis context, and that this in-time contextualisation is required to enhance the overall process of crisis management. To summarise, this chapter highlights the key role of situation understanding for crisis management and reveals the crucial necessity of in-time contextualisation at each step of the crisis management process.


title: Development of Nano-Antimicrobial Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications

text: Around the globe, there is a great concern about controlling growth of pathogenic microorganisms for the prevention of infectious diseases. Moreover, the greater incidences of cross contamination and overuse of drugs has contributed towards the development of drug resistant microbial strains making conditions even worse. Hospital acquired infections pose one of the leading complications associated with implantation of any biomaterial after surgery and critical care. In this regard, developing non-conventional antimicrobial agents which would prevent the aforementioned causes is under the quest. The rapid development in nanoscience and nanotechnology has shown promising potential for developing novel biocidal agents that would integrate with a biomaterial to prevent bacterial colonization and biofilm formation. Metals with inherent antimicrobial properties such as silver, copper, zinc at nano scale constitute a special class of antimicrobials which have broad spectrum antimicrobial nature and pose minimum toxicity to humans. Hence, novel biomaterials that inhibit microbial growth would be of great significance to eliminate medical device/instruments associated infections. This chapter comprises the state-of-art advancements in the development of nano-antimicrobial biomaterials for biomedical applications. Several strategies have been targeted to satisfy few important concern such as enhanced long term antimicrobial activity and stability, minimize leaching of antimicrobial material and promote reuse. The proposed strategies to develop new hybrid antimicrobial biomaterials would offer a potent antibacterial solution in healthcare sector such as wound healing applications, tissue scaffolds, medical implants, surgical devices and instruments.


title: Electroporation-Mediated DNA Vaccination

text: There are many positive attributes to DNA vaccination that make it a conceptually desirable platform. In clinical studies, however, standard DNA injection alone generally induces low levels of transgene-specific immunity when compared to other vaccine approaches. In order to boost the immunogenicity of this platform, next-generation DNA vaccines require additional techniques such as the administration of electroporation. This new method involves the generation of a brief electric field in tissue around a local injection site that results in the transient poration, or permeabilization, of the cellular membranes. As a result, antigen-specific immune responses are greatly enhanced and are likely due to increased DNA uptake and antigen expression. Thus, electroporation-mediated DNA vaccination represents a promising new strategy for the elicitation of strong immune responses directed against the expressed antigen(s) and not the vector, and ongoing studies are currently underway to optimize the working parameters of this technique. Here, we review the uses of this technology in conjunction with vaccination and suggest future directions for its further exploration.