Birch Aquarium at Scripps
Splash! CafÃ© by The French Gourmet is located right by the entrance to Birch Aquarium at Scripps. Public transportation to Birch Aquarium is available and guests can receive up to 3 hours of free parking. To avoid the largest crowds, Birch Aquarium recommends visiting at 9:00 am or after 2:00 pm for a quieter experience. Most visitors spend between 2-3 hours exploring the exhibits at the aquarium.


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From its unforgettable view of the Pacific Ocean to its memorable marine life exhibits, Birch Aquarium at Scripps is a must-see for every landlubber. Learn about living coral reefs, watch baby seahorses play and listen to whale song.


Birch Aquarium at Scripps
From its unforgettable view of the Pacific Ocean to its memorable marine life exhibits, Birch Aquarium at Scripps is a must-see for every San Diego landlubber. Learn about living coral reefs, watch baby seahorses play, listen to whale songs, and even pet sea stars.


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ABOUT THE BEERS CRITERIA In 1991 gerontologist Dr. Mark H. Beers developed a list of potentially avoidable, high-risk medications to be avoided in the elderly, based on the literature and consensus from a panel of experts. This list was subsequently updated in 1997, 2001, and most recently in 2003.


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ABOUT THE BEERS CRITERIA In 1991 gerontologist Dr. Mark H. Beers developed a list of potentially avoidable, high-risk medications to be avoided in the elderly, based on the literature and consensus from a panel of experts.


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1 The Beers criteria or âBeers listâ is now in its fourth permutation. 2 The latest version is intended for use by clinicians in outpatient as well as inpatient settings to improve the care of patients age 65 years and older.


Beers revised: Drugs not to use in older adults
In 1991, Mark Beers, MD, and colleagues published criteria listing âpotentially inappropriate medicationsâ for older patients. Updates to these criteria were subsequently published in 1997, 2003, and earlier this year in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.


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The revised Beers criteria list 34 potentially inappropriate medications and classes to avoid in older adults. New additions to the criteria include megestrol, glyburide, and sliding-scale insulin. Specific recommendations and rationales are summarized in Table 1.


Medical management and pharmacology updateUse of the Beers criteria to identify potentially inappropriate drug use by community-dwelling older dental patients
The Beers criteria identifying potentially inappropriate drugs with a high risk for AEs were developed to address these issues and have been widely adopted to identify drugs that should be avoided in this population. A number of these drugs may be chronically taken by older adults seeking dental care.


Beers Criteria Medication List
Potentially Inappropriate Medications for the ElderlyAccording to the Revised Beers Criteria (2012). The American Geriatric Society has updated the Beers Criteria list based on evidence-based recommendations. The updated report was published in the Journal of the American Geriatric Society.


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The revised Beers criteria list 34 potentially inappropriate medications and classes to avoid in older adults. New additions to the criteria include megestrol, glyburide, and sliding-scale insulin.


Medical management and pharmacology updateUse of the Beers criteria to identify potentially inappropriate drug use by community-dwelling older dental patients
The Beers criteria identifying potentially inappropriate drugs with a high risk for AEs were developed to address these issues and have been widely adopted to identify drugs that should be avoided in this population.


Beers revised: Drugs not to use in older adults
Medications to avoid. The revised Beers criteria list 34 potentially inappropriate medications and classes to avoid in older adults. New additions to the criteria include megestrol, glyburide, and sliding-scale insulin. Specific recommendations and rationales are summarized in Table 1.


How to Build a Content Marketing Strategy
As a result, companies and clients alike are seeking to understand how certain forms of link building can be translated into longer-term content marketing campaigns. The purpose of this post is to help you develop a framework on how to start building a content marketing strategy for your or your client's site.


How to Build a Content Marketing Strategy
Below are some examples of companies that have created phenomenal pieces of content. Hopefully this provides ample motivation to take your site/client's site to the level! 1. Kickstarter: Best of 2012: An inspirational take on 2012. 2. BuzzFeed lists: Heartwarming content that is easily shareable.


How to Build a Content Marketing Strategy
According to a Content Marketing Institute (CMI) 2013 Survey, 86% of B2C (business to consumer) companies are planning to keep or increase their current content marketing spending this year. 54% of B2B (business to business) companies are planning to increase their content marketing spending in 2013.


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This abstraction is important: If Information Architecture helps us say âwhereâ content lives, Content Strategy tells us decide âwhenâ it lives. The combination, in due course, helps us as well as our clients understand âwhyâ itâs there in the first place.


Content strategy
Content strategy refers to the planning, development, and management of contentâwritten or in other media. The term is particularly common in web development since the late 1990s.


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âContent strategy plans for the creation, publication, and governance of useful, usable content,â says Kristina Halvorson, author of the book. âIt plots an achievable roadmap for individuals and organizations to create and maintain content that audiences will actually care about.


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So if I had to guess, Lou knows quite a bit about Content Strategyâeven though he might not identify someone well-versed in itâbecause Content Strategy is part and parcel to the publishing world.


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In this article, weâll take a brief look at Content Strategy âthat odd amalgamation of digital publishing, information architecture and editorial process that adds up to something infinitely greater than the sum of its parts.


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Content strategy helps us plan for valuable, viable content. We begin with publishing. To manage the digital workflow required to maintain an ever-increasing amount of content, publishers employ whatâs (aptly) known as a content management system (CMS) . Itâs what we use behind the scenes at UX Booth.


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Totally agree with each of your points to consider when planning to write content as your marketing strategy. The step 1 was pretty impressive and one must emphasize on that by taking enough time for researching the company as that is the crux on what you're going to plant a tree called your Content.


1 Introduction to orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant family1.2 What is an orchid ?1.3 Structure of orchid flowers1.4 How orchids grow in nature1.5 A bit of orchid history1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclature1.7 Propagation of orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant familyIn the plant family flowering plants form a group called Angiosperms. In this group there are lineages:â¢ Amborellaceae: includes just one shrub that, according to the National Geographic (July 2002) âmay be the closest living relative to the first flowering plantâ.â¢ Nymphaeaceae which includes the water lilies.â¢ Illiciaceae which includes the star anises.â¢ Magnoliids, which of course includes Magnolias, avocado and black pepper,â¢ Monocots which with 65,000 species (1/4 of all flowering plants), are recognizable because they have just one seed leaf (single cotyledon). This group includes all grasses (corn, rice, wheat,...), palm trees (which are giant herbs) and flowers such as lilies and orchids. Orchids by themselves account for nearly 25,000 species.â¢ And, finally, Eudicots (formerly dicots because of their two seed leaves), the largest group of angiosperms with 170,000 species, many of which are woody plants.Most of this information is from the above mentioned National Geographic issue.1.2 What is an orchid?What distinguishes orchids from other flowering plants is the combination of three elements:â¢ their pollen (called âpollinariumâ, plural = pollina) which is formed into a mass (usually 2 masses),â¢ stamens and pistils are joined together in a structure called a âcolumnâ,â¢ their seeds are very small (there may be up to 3 million in a seed capsule), they do not contain endosperm and have no organized embryo.1.3 Structure of orchid flowersOrchid flowers consist of:â¢ the pedicel (the stem of the flower which includes the ovary),â¢ the sepals,â¢ the petals,â¢ the column.Sepals and petals are in threes.The three sepals consist of the dorsal sepal and two lateral sepals.The three petals consist of two petals and a modified one called the labellum, or more commonly, the lip.1.4 How orchids grow in natureBesides these morphological differences most orchids differ from other plants by the way they grow in nature.Most orchids are epiphytes, that is they grow attached on other plants (usually trees). They are not parasites, that is they do not take anything away from the plant they grow on, they merely use the other plant (tree) for support.Some orchids are lithophytes, that is they grow on rocks.Some other some are semiterrestrial, that is they grow on the ground, on decomposing plant material (not quite soil).And finally, a small number of orchids are true terrestrial, meaning they grow in soil like most plants.1.5 - A bit of orchid historyConfucius, the Chinese philosopher, grew orchids in the fifth century BC and wrote a poem about them.Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and scientist, mentions orchids in his âEssay on Plantsâ published around 300 BCDioscorides, a Greek botanist, physician and pharmacologist mentioned orchids in his work âDe Materia Medicaâ ( âOf Medical Matersâ) published around 60 AD This work remained a reference manual till the Middle Age (1,400 - 1,500 AD).Orchids, in those times, were believed to have medicinal properties, one of them being an aphrodisiac.And about 2,000 years ago Greeks gave orchids the name âorkhisâ which means testicle, because of the form of their pseudobulbs (pseudo = Greek for âfalseâ).In more recent times, the first record of orchids in cultivation dates back to 1731 in England. Philip Miller mentioned several orchids in his second edition of âDictionary of Gardeningâ (1768).Records of the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens show that Epidendrum cochleatum flowered for the first time in cultivation in 1787. Ten years later 15 orchid species were cultivated at Kew.Cultivation of orchids started in earnest in the 19th century. At that time orchids were brought to Europe by companies or individuals who financed collecting expeditions. They commissioned professional collectors who traveled for months all over the world in search of showy new species. Like treasure hunters these expensive enterprises were often shrouded in secrecy and it was not unusual for them to spread misleading information about the locations where new orchids were found.New exotic orchids were most often sold at Protheros & Morris & Stevens Sales Rooms in London, fetching extravagant prices.At that time very little was known about the cultivation of orchids and their survival rate was dismal.Through experimentation and by gathering more information on the growing conditions of orchids in their natural habitat, knowledge was slowly being developed and by 1851 B. S. Williams published the first edition of âThe Orchid Growerâs Manualâ.By the end of the 19th century there was enough experience and knowledge about the growing conditions of orchids that many orchids survived and bloomed in Englandâs greenhouses.Today there is a wealth of knowledge about growing orchids and modern propagation methods have driven prices to affordable levels. Affordable prices, the fascination exercised by their captivating beauty and their diversity has made them increasingly popular houseplants.1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclatureThe International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (I.C.B.N.) and the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants (I.C.N.C.P.) govern the naming of orchids.The I.C.B.N. has standardized classification of plants and imposed the following endings:â¢ family â¢ tribe â¢ subtribe: aceae.: eae.: inae. Example: Orchidaceae Example: Vandeae. Example:  Sarcanthinae.Below the subtribe are the genera (singular = genus). Examples: Cattleya, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, ...Note: all of the above have their first letter capitalized.Within the genera are the names identifying individual plants. Example: Phalaenopsis a mabilis or Phalaenopsis E ver S pring.Names of species are not capitalized: Phalaenopsis amabilis designates a species,i.e. a naturally occurring plant. Names of hybrids (man made crosses) are always capitalized as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring.Finally, within a group of individual plants they may be variations which, for example, may be noted Phalaenopsis amabilis var. formosana.Variety is often abbreviated as âvar.â and is usually reserved for species. For hybrids, varieties will be identified by adding to the name one or several words placed in single quotes as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring âLightâ.All new plants (species and hybrids) are registered with the Royal Horticultural Society of London.The name of orchids is decided by the discover for new species or by the first person who registers a new hybrid.Until a new hybrid is registered it will be identified by the name of itâs parents, separated by an X. For example: Phalaenopsis amabilis x Phalaenopsis violacea or Phalaenopsis (amabilis x violacea) or Phalaenopsis amabilis x violacea or, in abbreviated form, Phal. amabilis x violacea.1.7 Propagation of orchidsThere are several ways to propagate orchids.Propagation from seed or sexual propagationPollen is used to pollinate a flower. When the seed pod matures (which may take several months), the tiny seeds can be sowed.Not all seed pods will contain seeds as one or the other parent may be sterile.The encapsulated seeds are in a sterile environment as long as the seed pod is closed. It will eventually crack open at a certain time, in which case the tiny seeds will have to be decontaminated before sowing them.Most people prefer to work with a âgreen podâ. That is a seed pod that has matured but is collected before it starts to open.The seed pot is externally disinfected to kill any germs, spores, contaminants, ... that may be on itâs surface then it is cut open with a disinfected tool (scalpel,...).Then the seed masses are sown into a flask which contains a nutrient solution (the flask and its contents were previously sterilized in an autoclave). This flask is called a âmother flaskâ.This whole operation has to be performed in a sterile environment. Commercial growers will use an apparatus called a laminar flow hood (see page 36 of An Introduction to Orchids South Florida Orchid SocietyThe nutrients solutions contain minerals, sugars, charcoal, sometimes banana extracts or coconut milk, ... Agar (a substance like gelatin) is added to make the solution more or less solid.The flask is sealed, marked / labeled and placed in a growth chamber / room where light is relatively limited and temperatures are relatively constant.After several weeks to several months the tiny seeds will germinate. When they have they will have to be transferred to several other flasks in an operation called âreplatingâ. This is necessary because the mother flask may contain from several hundred to several thousand seeds which now need room to grow.The replated flask may still contain a hundred to several hundred plantlets, which is way too many plants for the limited space of the flask.Again after several months the plantlets will be replated and they may need a third replate (some growers replate 4 times !) until they are in their final flask which may contain from 10 to 40 plantlets.As for the mother flasks, all the replate flasks contain growing media which is different from the germination media. The new replating flasks with their nutrients where sterilized in an autoclave and the flasks to be replated where externally decontaminated. The replating operations are done in the sterile environment of a laminar flow hood.Plants resulting from sexual propagation may look like the mother plant or like the father or a combination of both or they may have characteristics of ancestors. In other words they may display very diverse traits.Among these siblings one or several may be significantly more appealing or different than the others. Whoever possess this plant may recognize its uniqueness by adding a variety name to its name. The variety name is placed in single quotes as in Phal. Ever Spring âLightâ or Phal. Ever Spring âCardinalâ or whatever the owner fancies to name the variety. Only that plant and itâs tissue or stem propagated progeny are entitled to bear the variety name.Tissue cultureAs its name suggest tissue culture is done by using plant tissue, mostly the minuscule center of a new growth. A lot of experiments have been made trying to do tissue culture out of leafs, roots,... but so far the most successful method uses tissue from a new growth.The tissue is excised (cut), its outer layers are removed till the active center of developing cells, the meristem, is reached. Then this tiny mass of cells (it can be less than 1 millimeter in diameter) is cut into 20 or so parts, immersed into a flask with growing solution without agar, so the solution stays liquid. This media for this solution is usually called âmultiplicationâ formula.The flasks or tubes are placed on an agitator (an apparatus than either slowly rotates or tilts to the left then to the right. The constant movement of the agitator allows the lumps of cells to develop and increase in mass but prevents them from forming roots or leaves.Once the lumps have sufficiently increased in size they are further cut into small lumps, placed into flasks or tubes and on the agitator. In this process the original 20 tiny masses may now be 400. At the next subdivision we may have 8,000.This process continues until the desired number of lumps has been achieved.Then the developed lumps are replated into flasks as is done for germinated seeds. From there on the process is the same as for seeds.As in seed propagation all these operations require external disinfecting, and working in sterile conditions.Plants developed from tissue culture, are called mericlones. They usually are very close in appearance (plant and flowers) to the plant from which the original tissue was taken and they are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the plant from which the original tissue was excised. So when you see a plant with a name like Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ it means this plant was propagated through tissue culture, using tissue from Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ.Stem propagation.In this technique a flower stem is used for propagation. If we propagated Phalaenopsis in this manner we would be looking for a flower stem with just the first flower open or with up to half the flowers open.Flower buds nearer the base of the flower stem open first. Below them there will be a number of undeveloped buds, which we usually refer to as ânodesâ.The flower stem is removed from the plant and is externally decontaminated.The stem is cut about 1 inch above and below the node, then dipped in decontamination solution for 15 to 20 minutes.Then the protective sheath over the node is removed and about 1/8 of an inch is further removed from both ends of the stem (above and below the node).The cutting is inserted in the media solution which is in a tube or jar or flask which was previously sterilized through autoclaving.If the operation is successful we may get up to 4 plantlets per node.Obviously this technique only produces a few plants from a flower stem of the original plant. We may get 10 to 15 stem propagated plants as opposed to the thousands we may get through tissue culture.Because of the limited yield and the labor intensive procedure stem propagated plants tend to be much more expensive than plants propagated through seed or tissue culture.On the other hand, unless some abhorrent mutation occurs, these plants will be exactly like the plant they were propagated from.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the original tissue was excised.As with seed propagation and tissue culture all these operations must be conducted in a sterile environment.Internode propagationThis technique is similar to the stem propagation but instead of using a flower stem as the start up point we use a growth. It is often used with Dendrobiums.A growth is removed from the plant and is cut in between nodes. The edges are dipped in a fungicide and then either inserted or laid on sphagnum moss kept moist.If the operation is successful we may get 1plantlet per node, but usually much less than that as many nodes will not develop a plantlet.Still the technique does not require any sophisticated equipment, is inexpensive and can be done practically by anyone.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth was removed.Divisions & back bulbsSome orchids grow by developing new growth from the base of the plant. After several years they may have 5, 6, 10 or more growths. We may subdivide such plants to get two or three out of the original one.Often the older growth or old pseudobulbs of these plants do not do anything but if we remove them and plant them separately they will generate new growth.Again as for the previous methods where plants were propagated by using tissue, or the fower tem, plants resulting from divisions and backbulbs are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth or back bulbs were removed. The resulting plants will be identical to the plant we divided or from which we removed the pseudobulb (s).KeikisSome orchids, mostly Dendrobiums, are notorious for producing keikis which is the Hawaiian word for âbabiesâ.Occasionally Phalaenopsis will also produce keikis. Some, usually species, do it because it is programmed into their genes, others do it when they are exposed to high temperatures while they are developing a flower stem.Keikis will develop leaves first. Eventually they will develop roots. When roots have reached about an inch in length we can remove the keiki from the mother plant and plant it in its own container.Keikis will be identical to the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Top cutsFinally, some plants, mostly vandaceous orchids, tend to grow very tall. Heights of 4, 5, 6 feet or more are not unusual, making them difficult to handle. These also tend to develop new roots along their stem, in between leaves. These can be divided bycutting off the top portion of the plant as long as this top portion has at least 2 pairs or roots attached to it.The remaining (bottom) part of the plant will often respond to this attack by sending out new shoots from its base.Top cuts are of course the same as the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Back to top
some other some are semiterrestrial that is they grow on the ground on decomposing plant material not quite soil and finally a small number of orchids are true terrestrial meaning they grow in soil like most plants


1 Introduction to orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant family1.2 What is an orchid ?1.3 Structure of orchid flowers1.4 How orchids grow in nature1.5 A bit of orchid history1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclature1.7 Propagation of orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant familyIn the plant family flowering plants form a group called Angiosperms. In this group there are lineages:â¢ Amborellaceae: includes just one shrub that, according to the National Geographic (July 2002) âmay be the closest living relative to the first flowering plantâ.â¢ Nymphaeaceae which includes the water lilies.â¢ Illiciaceae which includes the star anises.â¢ Magnoliids, which of course includes Magnolias, avocado and black pepper,â¢ Monocots which with 65,000 species (1/4 of all flowering plants), are recognizable because they have just one seed leaf (single cotyledon). This group includes all grasses (corn, rice, wheat,...), palm trees (which are giant herbs) and flowers such as lilies and orchids. Orchids by themselves account for nearly 25,000 species.â¢ And, finally, Eudicots (formerly dicots because of their two seed leaves), the largest group of angiosperms with 170,000 species, many of which are woody plants.Most of this information is from the above mentioned National Geographic issue.1.2 What is an orchid?What distinguishes orchids from other flowering plants is the combination of three elements:â¢ their pollen (called âpollinariumâ, plural = pollina) which is formed into a mass (usually 2 masses),â¢ stamens and pistils are joined together in a structure called a âcolumnâ,â¢ their seeds are very small (there may be up to 3 million in a seed capsule), they do not contain endosperm and have no organized embryo.1.3 Structure of orchid flowersOrchid flowers consist of:â¢ the pedicel (the stem of the flower which includes the ovary),â¢ the sepals,â¢ the petals,â¢ the column.Sepals and petals are in threes.The three sepals consist of the dorsal sepal and two lateral sepals.The three petals consist of two petals and a modified one called the labellum, or more commonly, the lip.1.4 How orchids grow in natureBesides these morphological differences most orchids differ from other plants by the way they grow in nature.Most orchids are epiphytes, that is they grow attached on other plants (usually trees). They are not parasites, that is they do not take anything away from the plant they grow on, they merely use the other plant (tree) for support.Some orchids are lithophytes, that is they grow on rocks.Some other some are semiterrestrial, that is they grow on the ground, on decomposing plant material (not quite soil).And finally, a small number of orchids are true terrestrial, meaning they grow in soil like most plants.1.5 - A bit of orchid historyConfucius, the Chinese philosopher, grew orchids in the fifth century BC and wrote a poem about them.Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and scientist, mentions orchids in his âEssay on Plantsâ published around 300 BCDioscorides, a Greek botanist, physician and pharmacologist mentioned orchids in his work âDe Materia Medicaâ ( âOf Medical Matersâ) published around 60 AD This work remained a reference manual till the Middle Age (1,400 - 1,500 AD).Orchids, in those times, were believed to have medicinal properties, one of them being an aphrodisiac.And about 2,000 years ago Greeks gave orchids the name âorkhisâ which means testicle, because of the form of their pseudobulbs (pseudo = Greek for âfalseâ).In more recent times, the first record of orchids in cultivation dates back to 1731 in England. Philip Miller mentioned several orchids in his second edition of âDictionary of Gardeningâ (1768).Records of the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens show that Epidendrum cochleatum flowered for the first time in cultivation in 1787. Ten years later 15 orchid species were cultivated at Kew.Cultivation of orchids started in earnest in the 19th century. At that time orchids were brought to Europe by companies or individuals who financed collecting expeditions. They commissioned professional collectors who traveled for months all over the world in search of showy new species. Like treasure hunters these expensive enterprises were often shrouded in secrecy and it was not unusual for them to spread misleading information about the locations where new orchids were found.New exotic orchids were most often sold at Protheros & Morris & Stevens Sales Rooms in London, fetching extravagant prices.At that time very little was known about the cultivation of orchids and their survival rate was dismal.Through experimentation and by gathering more information on the growing conditions of orchids in their natural habitat, knowledge was slowly being developed and by 1851 B. S. Williams published the first edition of âThe Orchid Growerâs Manualâ.By the end of the 19th century there was enough experience and knowledge about the growing conditions of orchids that many orchids survived and bloomed in Englandâs greenhouses.Today there is a wealth of knowledge about growing orchids and modern propagation methods have driven prices to affordable levels. Affordable prices, the fascination exercised by their captivating beauty and their diversity has made them increasingly popular houseplants.1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclatureThe International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (I.C.B.N.) and the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants (I.C.N.C.P.) govern the naming of orchids.The I.C.B.N. has standardized classification of plants and imposed the following endings:â¢ family â¢ tribe â¢ subtribe: aceae.: eae.: inae. Example: Orchidaceae Example: Vandeae. Example:  Sarcanthinae.Below the subtribe are the genera (singular = genus). Examples: Cattleya, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, ...Note: all of the above have their first letter capitalized.Within the genera are the names identifying individual plants. Example: Phalaenopsis a mabilis or Phalaenopsis E ver S pring.Names of species are not capitalized: Phalaenopsis amabilis designates a species,i.e. a naturally occurring plant. Names of hybrids (man made crosses) are always capitalized as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring.Finally, within a group of individual plants they may be variations which, for example, may be noted Phalaenopsis amabilis var. formosana.Variety is often abbreviated as âvar.â and is usually reserved for species. For hybrids, varieties will be identified by adding to the name one or several words placed in single quotes as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring âLightâ.All new plants (species and hybrids) are registered with the Royal Horticultural Society of London.The name of orchids is decided by the discover for new species or by the first person who registers a new hybrid.Until a new hybrid is registered it will be identified by the name of itâs parents, separated by an X. For example: Phalaenopsis amabilis x Phalaenopsis violacea or Phalaenopsis (amabilis x violacea) or Phalaenopsis amabilis x violacea or, in abbreviated form, Phal. amabilis x violacea.1.7 Propagation of orchidsThere are several ways to propagate orchids.Propagation from seed or sexual propagationPollen is used to pollinate a flower. When the seed pod matures (which may take several months), the tiny seeds can be sowed.Not all seed pods will contain seeds as one or the other parent may be sterile.The encapsulated seeds are in a sterile environment as long as the seed pod is closed. It will eventually crack open at a certain time, in which case the tiny seeds will have to be decontaminated before sowing them.Most people prefer to work with a âgreen podâ. That is a seed pod that has matured but is collected before it starts to open.The seed pot is externally disinfected to kill any germs, spores, contaminants, ... that may be on itâs surface then it is cut open with a disinfected tool (scalpel,...).Then the seed masses are sown into a flask which contains a nutrient solution (the flask and its contents were previously sterilized in an autoclave). This flask is called a âmother flaskâ.This whole operation has to be performed in a sterile environment. Commercial growers will use an apparatus called a laminar flow hood (see page 36 of An Introduction to Orchids South Florida Orchid SocietyThe nutrients solutions contain minerals, sugars, charcoal, sometimes banana extracts or coconut milk, ... Agar (a substance like gelatin) is added to make the solution more or less solid.The flask is sealed, marked / labeled and placed in a growth chamber / room where light is relatively limited and temperatures are relatively constant.After several weeks to several months the tiny seeds will germinate. When they have they will have to be transferred to several other flasks in an operation called âreplatingâ. This is necessary because the mother flask may contain from several hundred to several thousand seeds which now need room to grow.The replated flask may still contain a hundred to several hundred plantlets, which is way too many plants for the limited space of the flask.Again after several months the plantlets will be replated and they may need a third replate (some growers replate 4 times !) until they are in their final flask which may contain from 10 to 40 plantlets.As for the mother flasks, all the replate flasks contain growing media which is different from the germination media. The new replating flasks with their nutrients where sterilized in an autoclave and the flasks to be replated where externally decontaminated. The replating operations are done in the sterile environment of a laminar flow hood.Plants resulting from sexual propagation may look like the mother plant or like the father or a combination of both or they may have characteristics of ancestors. In other words they may display very diverse traits.Among these siblings one or several may be significantly more appealing or different than the others. Whoever possess this plant may recognize its uniqueness by adding a variety name to its name. The variety name is placed in single quotes as in Phal. Ever Spring âLightâ or Phal. Ever Spring âCardinalâ or whatever the owner fancies to name the variety. Only that plant and itâs tissue or stem propagated progeny are entitled to bear the variety name.Tissue cultureAs its name suggest tissue culture is done by using plant tissue, mostly the minuscule center of a new growth. A lot of experiments have been made trying to do tissue culture out of leafs, roots,... but so far the most successful method uses tissue from a new growth.The tissue is excised (cut), its outer layers are removed till the active center of developing cells, the meristem, is reached. Then this tiny mass of cells (it can be less than 1 millimeter in diameter) is cut into 20 or so parts, immersed into a flask with growing solution without agar, so the solution stays liquid. This media for this solution is usually called âmultiplicationâ formula.The flasks or tubes are placed on an agitator (an apparatus than either slowly rotates or tilts to the left then to the right. The constant movement of the agitator allows the lumps of cells to develop and increase in mass but prevents them from forming roots or leaves.Once the lumps have sufficiently increased in size they are further cut into small lumps, placed into flasks or tubes and on the agitator. In this process the original 20 tiny masses may now be 400. At the next subdivision we may have 8,000.This process continues until the desired number of lumps has been achieved.Then the developed lumps are replated into flasks as is done for germinated seeds. From there on the process is the same as for seeds.As in seed propagation all these operations require external disinfecting, and working in sterile conditions.Plants developed from tissue culture, are called mericlones. They usually are very close in appearance (plant and flowers) to the plant from which the original tissue was taken and they are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the plant from which the original tissue was excised. So when you see a plant with a name like Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ it means this plant was propagated through tissue culture, using tissue from Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ.Stem propagation.In this technique a flower stem is used for propagation. If we propagated Phalaenopsis in this manner we would be looking for a flower stem with just the first flower open or with up to half the flowers open.Flower buds nearer the base of the flower stem open first. Below them there will be a number of undeveloped buds, which we usually refer to as ânodesâ.The flower stem is removed from the plant and is externally decontaminated.The stem is cut about 1 inch above and below the node, then dipped in decontamination solution for 15 to 20 minutes.Then the protective sheath over the node is removed and about 1/8 of an inch is further removed from both ends of the stem (above and below the node).The cutting is inserted in the media solution which is in a tube or jar or flask which was previously sterilized through autoclaving.If the operation is successful we may get up to 4 plantlets per node.Obviously this technique only produces a few plants from a flower stem of the original plant. We may get 10 to 15 stem propagated plants as opposed to the thousands we may get through tissue culture.Because of the limited yield and the labor intensive procedure stem propagated plants tend to be much more expensive than plants propagated through seed or tissue culture.On the other hand, unless some abhorrent mutation occurs, these plants will be exactly like the plant they were propagated from.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the original tissue was excised.As with seed propagation and tissue culture all these operations must be conducted in a sterile environment.Internode propagationThis technique is similar to the stem propagation but instead of using a flower stem as the start up point we use a growth. It is often used with Dendrobiums.A growth is removed from the plant and is cut in between nodes. The edges are dipped in a fungicide and then either inserted or laid on sphagnum moss kept moist.If the operation is successful we may get 1plantlet per node, but usually much less than that as many nodes will not develop a plantlet.Still the technique does not require any sophisticated equipment, is inexpensive and can be done practically by anyone.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth was removed.Divisions & back bulbsSome orchids grow by developing new growth from the base of the plant. After several years they may have 5, 6, 10 or more growths. We may subdivide such plants to get two or three out of the original one.Often the older growth or old pseudobulbs of these plants do not do anything but if we remove them and plant them separately they will generate new growth.Again as for the previous methods where plants were propagated by using tissue, or the fower tem, plants resulting from divisions and backbulbs are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth or back bulbs were removed. The resulting plants will be identical to the plant we divided or from which we removed the pseudobulb (s).KeikisSome orchids, mostly Dendrobiums, are notorious for producing keikis which is the Hawaiian word for âbabiesâ.Occasionally Phalaenopsis will also produce keikis. Some, usually species, do it because it is programmed into their genes, others do it when they are exposed to high temperatures while they are developing a flower stem.Keikis will develop leaves first. Eventually they will develop roots. When roots have reached about an inch in length we can remove the keiki from the mother plant and plant it in its own container.Keikis will be identical to the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Top cutsFinally, some plants, mostly vandaceous orchids, tend to grow very tall. Heights of 4, 5, 6 feet or more are not unusual, making them difficult to handle. These also tend to develop new roots along their stem, in between leaves. These can be divided bycutting off the top portion of the plant as long as this top portion has at least 2 pairs or roots attached to it.The remaining (bottom) part of the plant will often respond to this attack by sending out new shoots from its base.Top cuts are of course the same as the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Back to top
dioscorides a greek botanist physician and pharmacologist mentioned orchids in his work de materia medica of medical maters published around 60 ad this work remained a reference manual till the middle age 1400 1500 ad


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the most passionate and therefore the strangest group of plant people are the orchid people this condition has been wonderfully chronicled in a new book by eric hansen called orchid fever a horticultural tale of love lust and lunacy published this year by pantheon books


1 Introduction to orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant family1.2 What is an orchid ?1.3 Structure of orchid flowers1.4 How orchids grow in nature1.5 A bit of orchid history1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclature1.7 Propagation of orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant familyIn the plant family flowering plants form a group called Angiosperms. In this group there are lineages:â¢ Amborellaceae: includes just one shrub that, according to the National Geographic (July 2002) âmay be the closest living relative to the first flowering plantâ.â¢ Nymphaeaceae which includes the water lilies.â¢ Illiciaceae which includes the star anises.â¢ Magnoliids, which of course includes Magnolias, avocado and black pepper,â¢ Monocots which with 65,000 species (1/4 of all flowering plants), are recognizable because they have just one seed leaf (single cotyledon). This group includes all grasses (corn, rice, wheat,...), palm trees (which are giant herbs) and flowers such as lilies and orchids. Orchids by themselves account for nearly 25,000 species.â¢ And, finally, Eudicots (formerly dicots because of their two seed leaves), the largest group of angiosperms with 170,000 species, many of which are woody plants.Most of this information is from the above mentioned National Geographic issue.1.2 What is an orchid?What distinguishes orchids from other flowering plants is the combination of three elements:â¢ their pollen (called âpollinariumâ, plural = pollina) which is formed into a mass (usually 2 masses),â¢ stamens and pistils are joined together in a structure called a âcolumnâ,â¢ their seeds are very small (there may be up to 3 million in a seed capsule), they do not contain endosperm and have no organized embryo.1.3 Structure of orchid flowersOrchid flowers consist of:â¢ the pedicel (the stem of the flower which includes the ovary),â¢ the sepals,â¢ the petals,â¢ the column.Sepals and petals are in threes.The three sepals consist of the dorsal sepal and two lateral sepals.The three petals consist of two petals and a modified one called the labellum, or more commonly, the lip.1.4 How orchids grow in natureBesides these morphological differences most orchids differ from other plants by the way they grow in nature.Most orchids are epiphytes, that is they grow attached on other plants (usually trees). They are not parasites, that is they do not take anything away from the plant they grow on, they merely use the other plant (tree) for support.Some orchids are lithophytes, that is they grow on rocks.Some other some are semiterrestrial, that is they grow on the ground, on decomposing plant material (not quite soil).And finally, a small number of orchids are true terrestrial, meaning they grow in soil like most plants.1.5 - A bit of orchid historyConfucius, the Chinese philosopher, grew orchids in the fifth century BC and wrote a poem about them.Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and scientist, mentions orchids in his âEssay on Plantsâ published around 300 BCDioscorides, a Greek botanist, physician and pharmacologist mentioned orchids in his work âDe Materia Medicaâ ( âOf Medical Matersâ) published around 60 AD This work remained a reference manual till the Middle Age (1,400 - 1,500 AD).Orchids, in those times, were believed to have medicinal properties, one of them being an aphrodisiac.And about 2,000 years ago Greeks gave orchids the name âorkhisâ which means testicle, because of the form of their pseudobulbs (pseudo = Greek for âfalseâ).In more recent times, the first record of orchids in cultivation dates back to 1731 in England. Philip Miller mentioned several orchids in his second edition of âDictionary of Gardeningâ (1768).Records of the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens show that Epidendrum cochleatum flowered for the first time in cultivation in 1787. Ten years later 15 orchid species were cultivated at Kew.Cultivation of orchids started in earnest in the 19th century. At that time orchids were brought to Europe by companies or individuals who financed collecting expeditions. They commissioned professional collectors who traveled for months all over the world in search of showy new species. Like treasure hunters these expensive enterprises were often shrouded in secrecy and it was not unusual for them to spread misleading information about the locations where new orchids were found.New exotic orchids were most often sold at Protheros & Morris & Stevens Sales Rooms in London, fetching extravagant prices.At that time very little was known about the cultivation of orchids and their survival rate was dismal.Through experimentation and by gathering more information on the growing conditions of orchids in their natural habitat, knowledge was slowly being developed and by 1851 B. S. Williams published the first edition of âThe Orchid Growerâs Manualâ.By the end of the 19th century there was enough experience and knowledge about the growing conditions of orchids that many orchids survived and bloomed in Englandâs greenhouses.Today there is a wealth of knowledge about growing orchids and modern propagation methods have driven prices to affordable levels. Affordable prices, the fascination exercised by their captivating beauty and their diversity has made them increasingly popular houseplants.1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclatureThe International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (I.C.B.N.) and the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants (I.C.N.C.P.) govern the naming of orchids.The I.C.B.N. has standardized classification of plants and imposed the following endings:â¢ family â¢ tribe â¢ subtribe: aceae.: eae.: inae. Example: Orchidaceae Example: Vandeae. Example:  Sarcanthinae.Below the subtribe are the genera (singular = genus). Examples: Cattleya, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, ...Note: all of the above have their first letter capitalized.Within the genera are the names identifying individual plants. Example: Phalaenopsis a mabilis or Phalaenopsis E ver S pring.Names of species are not capitalized: Phalaenopsis amabilis designates a species,i.e. a naturally occurring plant. Names of hybrids (man made crosses) are always capitalized as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring.Finally, within a group of individual plants they may be variations which, for example, may be noted Phalaenopsis amabilis var. formosana.Variety is often abbreviated as âvar.â and is usually reserved for species. For hybrids, varieties will be identified by adding to the name one or several words placed in single quotes as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring âLightâ.All new plants (species and hybrids) are registered with the Royal Horticultural Society of London.The name of orchids is decided by the discover for new species or by the first person who registers a new hybrid.Until a new hybrid is registered it will be identified by the name of itâs parents, separated by an X. For example: Phalaenopsis amabilis x Phalaenopsis violacea or Phalaenopsis (amabilis x violacea) or Phalaenopsis amabilis x violacea or, in abbreviated form, Phal. amabilis x violacea.1.7 Propagation of orchidsThere are several ways to propagate orchids.Propagation from seed or sexual propagationPollen is used to pollinate a flower. When the seed pod matures (which may take several months), the tiny seeds can be sowed.Not all seed pods will contain seeds as one or the other parent may be sterile.The encapsulated seeds are in a sterile environment as long as the seed pod is closed. It will eventually crack open at a certain time, in which case the tiny seeds will have to be decontaminated before sowing them.Most people prefer to work with a âgreen podâ. That is a seed pod that has matured but is collected before it starts to open.The seed pot is externally disinfected to kill any germs, spores, contaminants, ... that may be on itâs surface then it is cut open with a disinfected tool (scalpel,...).Then the seed masses are sown into a flask which contains a nutrient solution (the flask and its contents were previously sterilized in an autoclave). This flask is called a âmother flaskâ.This whole operation has to be performed in a sterile environment. Commercial growers will use an apparatus called a laminar flow hood (see page 36 of An Introduction to Orchids South Florida Orchid SocietyThe nutrients solutions contain minerals, sugars, charcoal, sometimes banana extracts or coconut milk, ... Agar (a substance like gelatin) is added to make the solution more or less solid.The flask is sealed, marked / labeled and placed in a growth chamber / room where light is relatively limited and temperatures are relatively constant.After several weeks to several months the tiny seeds will germinate. When they have they will have to be transferred to several other flasks in an operation called âreplatingâ. This is necessary because the mother flask may contain from several hundred to several thousand seeds which now need room to grow.The replated flask may still contain a hundred to several hundred plantlets, which is way too many plants for the limited space of the flask.Again after several months the plantlets will be replated and they may need a third replate (some growers replate 4 times !) until they are in their final flask which may contain from 10 to 40 plantlets.As for the mother flasks, all the replate flasks contain growing media which is different from the germination media. The new replating flasks with their nutrients where sterilized in an autoclave and the flasks to be replated where externally decontaminated. The replating operations are done in the sterile environment of a laminar flow hood.Plants resulting from sexual propagation may look like the mother plant or like the father or a combination of both or they may have characteristics of ancestors. In other words they may display very diverse traits.Among these siblings one or several may be significantly more appealing or different than the others. Whoever possess this plant may recognize its uniqueness by adding a variety name to its name. The variety name is placed in single quotes as in Phal. Ever Spring âLightâ or Phal. Ever Spring âCardinalâ or whatever the owner fancies to name the variety. Only that plant and itâs tissue or stem propagated progeny are entitled to bear the variety name.Tissue cultureAs its name suggest tissue culture is done by using plant tissue, mostly the minuscule center of a new growth. A lot of experiments have been made trying to do tissue culture out of leafs, roots,... but so far the most successful method uses tissue from a new growth.The tissue is excised (cut), its outer layers are removed till the active center of developing cells, the meristem, is reached. Then this tiny mass of cells (it can be less than 1 millimeter in diameter) is cut into 20 or so parts, immersed into a flask with growing solution without agar, so the solution stays liquid. This media for this solution is usually called âmultiplicationâ formula.The flasks or tubes are placed on an agitator (an apparatus than either slowly rotates or tilts to the left then to the right. The constant movement of the agitator allows the lumps of cells to develop and increase in mass but prevents them from forming roots or leaves.Once the lumps have sufficiently increased in size they are further cut into small lumps, placed into flasks or tubes and on the agitator. In this process the original 20 tiny masses may now be 400. At the next subdivision we may have 8,000.This process continues until the desired number of lumps has been achieved.Then the developed lumps are replated into flasks as is done for germinated seeds. From there on the process is the same as for seeds.As in seed propagation all these operations require external disinfecting, and working in sterile conditions.Plants developed from tissue culture, are called mericlones. They usually are very close in appearance (plant and flowers) to the plant from which the original tissue was taken and they are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the plant from which the original tissue was excised. So when you see a plant with a name like Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ it means this plant was propagated through tissue culture, using tissue from Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ.Stem propagation.In this technique a flower stem is used for propagation. If we propagated Phalaenopsis in this manner we would be looking for a flower stem with just the first flower open or with up to half the flowers open.Flower buds nearer the base of the flower stem open first. Below them there will be a number of undeveloped buds, which we usually refer to as ânodesâ.The flower stem is removed from the plant and is externally decontaminated.The stem is cut about 1 inch above and below the node, then dipped in decontamination solution for 15 to 20 minutes.Then the protective sheath over the node is removed and about 1/8 of an inch is further removed from both ends of the stem (above and below the node).The cutting is inserted in the media solution which is in a tube or jar or flask which was previously sterilized through autoclaving.If the operation is successful we may get up to 4 plantlets per node.Obviously this technique only produces a few plants from a flower stem of the original plant. We may get 10 to 15 stem propagated plants as opposed to the thousands we may get through tissue culture.Because of the limited yield and the labor intensive procedure stem propagated plants tend to be much more expensive than plants propagated through seed or tissue culture.On the other hand, unless some abhorrent mutation occurs, these plants will be exactly like the plant they were propagated from.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the original tissue was excised.As with seed propagation and tissue culture all these operations must be conducted in a sterile environment.Internode propagationThis technique is similar to the stem propagation but instead of using a flower stem as the start up point we use a growth. It is often used with Dendrobiums.A growth is removed from the plant and is cut in between nodes. The edges are dipped in a fungicide and then either inserted or laid on sphagnum moss kept moist.If the operation is successful we may get 1plantlet per node, but usually much less than that as many nodes will not develop a plantlet.Still the technique does not require any sophisticated equipment, is inexpensive and can be done practically by anyone.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth was removed.Divisions & back bulbsSome orchids grow by developing new growth from the base of the plant. After several years they may have 5, 6, 10 or more growths. We may subdivide such plants to get two or three out of the original one.Often the older growth or old pseudobulbs of these plants do not do anything but if we remove them and plant them separately they will generate new growth.Again as for the previous methods where plants were propagated by using tissue, or the fower tem, plants resulting from divisions and backbulbs are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth or back bulbs were removed. The resulting plants will be identical to the plant we divided or from which we removed the pseudobulb (s).KeikisSome orchids, mostly Dendrobiums, are notorious for producing keikis which is the Hawaiian word for âbabiesâ.Occasionally Phalaenopsis will also produce keikis. Some, usually species, do it because it is programmed into their genes, others do it when they are exposed to high temperatures while they are developing a flower stem.Keikis will develop leaves first. Eventually they will develop roots. When roots have reached about an inch in length we can remove the keiki from the mother plant and plant it in its own container.Keikis will be identical to the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Top cutsFinally, some plants, mostly vandaceous orchids, tend to grow very tall. Heights of 4, 5, 6 feet or more are not unusual, making them difficult to handle. These also tend to develop new roots along their stem, in between leaves. These can be divided bycutting off the top portion of the plant as long as this top portion has at least 2 pairs or roots attached to it.The remaining (bottom) part of the plant will often respond to this attack by sending out new shoots from its base.Top cuts are of course the same as the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Back to top
most orchids are epiphytes that is they grow attached on other plants usually trees they are not parasites that is they do not take anything away from the plant they grow on they merely use the other plant tree for support some orchids are lithophytes that is they grow on rocks some other some are semiterrestrial that is they grow on the ground on decomposing plant material not quite soil and finally a small number of orchids are true terrestrial meaning they grow in soil like most plants


Plant of the Week
latin paphiopedilum hybrids people with a deep passion for their plant group often strike those who lack that intense feeling as somewhat strange the most passionate and therefore the strangest group of plant people are the orchid people the psychoanalyst would probably classify their fervor as a severe obsessive compulsive disorder but to orchid people its simply called orchid fever


Plant of the Week
from the center whorl of leaves the flower scape emerges with from one to three flowers that may be as much as 5 inches across the flowers have an erect hood at the top a pair of arching petals like a handlebar moustache and then an inflated slipper like pouch at the base


1 Introduction to orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant family1.2 What is an orchid ?1.3 Structure of orchid flowers1.4 How orchids grow in nature1.5 A bit of orchid history1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclature1.7 Propagation of orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant familyIn the plant family flowering plants form a group called Angiosperms. In this group there are lineages:â¢ Amborellaceae: includes just one shrub that, according to the National Geographic (July 2002) âmay be the closest living relative to the first flowering plantâ.â¢ Nymphaeaceae which includes the water lilies.â¢ Illiciaceae which includes the star anises.â¢ Magnoliids, which of course includes Magnolias, avocado and black pepper,â¢ Monocots which with 65,000 species (1/4 of all flowering plants), are recognizable because they have just one seed leaf (single cotyledon). This group includes all grasses (corn, rice, wheat,...), palm trees (which are giant herbs) and flowers such as lilies and orchids. Orchids by themselves account for nearly 25,000 species.â¢ And, finally, Eudicots (formerly dicots because of their two seed leaves), the largest group of angiosperms with 170,000 species, many of which are woody plants.Most of this information is from the above mentioned National Geographic issue.1.2 What is an orchid?What distinguishes orchids from other flowering plants is the combination of three elements:â¢ their pollen (called âpollinariumâ, plural = pollina) which is formed into a mass (usually 2 masses),â¢ stamens and pistils are joined together in a structure called a âcolumnâ,â¢ their seeds are very small (there may be up to 3 million in a seed capsule), they do not contain endosperm and have no organized embryo.1.3 Structure of orchid flowersOrchid flowers consist of:â¢ the pedicel (the stem of the flower which includes the ovary),â¢ the sepals,â¢ the petals,â¢ the column.Sepals and petals are in threes.The three sepals consist of the dorsal sepal and two lateral sepals.The three petals consist of two petals and a modified one called the labellum, or more commonly, the lip.1.4 How orchids grow in natureBesides these morphological differences most orchids differ from other plants by the way they grow in nature.Most orchids are epiphytes, that is they grow attached on other plants (usually trees). They are not parasites, that is they do not take anything away from the plant they grow on, they merely use the other plant (tree) for support.Some orchids are lithophytes, that is they grow on rocks.Some other some are semiterrestrial, that is they grow on the ground, on decomposing plant material (not quite soil).And finally, a small number of orchids are true terrestrial, meaning they grow in soil like most plants.1.5 - A bit of orchid historyConfucius, the Chinese philosopher, grew orchids in the fifth century BC and wrote a poem about them.Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and scientist, mentions orchids in his âEssay on Plantsâ published around 300 BCDioscorides, a Greek botanist, physician and pharmacologist mentioned orchids in his work âDe Materia Medicaâ ( âOf Medical Matersâ) published around 60 AD This work remained a reference manual till the Middle Age (1,400 - 1,500 AD).Orchids, in those times, were believed to have medicinal properties, one of them being an aphrodisiac.And about 2,000 years ago Greeks gave orchids the name âorkhisâ which means testicle, because of the form of their pseudobulbs (pseudo = Greek for âfalseâ).In more recent times, the first record of orchids in cultivation dates back to 1731 in England. Philip Miller mentioned several orchids in his second edition of âDictionary of Gardeningâ (1768).Records of the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens show that Epidendrum cochleatum flowered for the first time in cultivation in 1787. Ten years later 15 orchid species were cultivated at Kew.Cultivation of orchids started in earnest in the 19th century. At that time orchids were brought to Europe by companies or individuals who financed collecting expeditions. They commissioned professional collectors who traveled for months all over the world in search of showy new species. Like treasure hunters these expensive enterprises were often shrouded in secrecy and it was not unusual for them to spread misleading information about the locations where new orchids were found.New exotic orchids were most often sold at Protheros & Morris & Stevens Sales Rooms in London, fetching extravagant prices.At that time very little was known about the cultivation of orchids and their survival rate was dismal.Through experimentation and by gathering more information on the growing conditions of orchids in their natural habitat, knowledge was slowly being developed and by 1851 B. S. Williams published the first edition of âThe Orchid Growerâs Manualâ.By the end of the 19th century there was enough experience and knowledge about the growing conditions of orchids that many orchids survived and bloomed in Englandâs greenhouses.Today there is a wealth of knowledge about growing orchids and modern propagation methods have driven prices to affordable levels. Affordable prices, the fascination exercised by their captivating beauty and their diversity has made them increasingly popular houseplants.1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclatureThe International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (I.C.B.N.) and the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants (I.C.N.C.P.) govern the naming of orchids.The I.C.B.N. has standardized classification of plants and imposed the following endings:â¢ family â¢ tribe â¢ subtribe: aceae.: eae.: inae. Example: Orchidaceae Example: Vandeae. Example:  Sarcanthinae.Below the subtribe are the genera (singular = genus). Examples: Cattleya, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, ...Note: all of the above have their first letter capitalized.Within the genera are the names identifying individual plants. Example: Phalaenopsis a mabilis or Phalaenopsis E ver S pring.Names of species are not capitalized: Phalaenopsis amabilis designates a species,i.e. a naturally occurring plant. Names of hybrids (man made crosses) are always capitalized as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring.Finally, within a group of individual plants they may be variations which, for example, may be noted Phalaenopsis amabilis var. formosana.Variety is often abbreviated as âvar.â and is usually reserved for species. For hybrids, varieties will be identified by adding to the name one or several words placed in single quotes as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring âLightâ.All new plants (species and hybrids) are registered with the Royal Horticultural Society of London.The name of orchids is decided by the discover for new species or by the first person who registers a new hybrid.Until a new hybrid is registered it will be identified by the name of itâs parents, separated by an X. For example: Phalaenopsis amabilis x Phalaenopsis violacea or Phalaenopsis (amabilis x violacea) or Phalaenopsis amabilis x violacea or, in abbreviated form, Phal. amabilis x violacea.1.7 Propagation of orchidsThere are several ways to propagate orchids.Propagation from seed or sexual propagationPollen is used to pollinate a flower. When the seed pod matures (which may take several months), the tiny seeds can be sowed.Not all seed pods will contain seeds as one or the other parent may be sterile.The encapsulated seeds are in a sterile environment as long as the seed pod is closed. It will eventually crack open at a certain time, in which case the tiny seeds will have to be decontaminated before sowing them.Most people prefer to work with a âgreen podâ. That is a seed pod that has matured but is collected before it starts to open.The seed pot is externally disinfected to kill any germs, spores, contaminants, ... that may be on itâs surface then it is cut open with a disinfected tool (scalpel,...).Then the seed masses are sown into a flask which contains a nutrient solution (the flask and its contents were previously sterilized in an autoclave). This flask is called a âmother flaskâ.This whole operation has to be performed in a sterile environment. Commercial growers will use an apparatus called a laminar flow hood (see page 36 of An Introduction to Orchids South Florida Orchid SocietyThe nutrients solutions contain minerals, sugars, charcoal, sometimes banana extracts or coconut milk, ... Agar (a substance like gelatin) is added to make the solution more or less solid.The flask is sealed, marked / labeled and placed in a growth chamber / room where light is relatively limited and temperatures are relatively constant.After several weeks to several months the tiny seeds will germinate. When they have they will have to be transferred to several other flasks in an operation called âreplatingâ. This is necessary because the mother flask may contain from several hundred to several thousand seeds which now need room to grow.The replated flask may still contain a hundred to several hundred plantlets, which is way too many plants for the limited space of the flask.Again after several months the plantlets will be replated and they may need a third replate (some growers replate 4 times !) until they are in their final flask which may contain from 10 to 40 plantlets.As for the mother flasks, all the replate flasks contain growing media which is different from the germination media. The new replating flasks with their nutrients where sterilized in an autoclave and the flasks to be replated where externally decontaminated. The replating operations are done in the sterile environment of a laminar flow hood.Plants resulting from sexual propagation may look like the mother plant or like the father or a combination of both or they may have characteristics of ancestors. In other words they may display very diverse traits.Among these siblings one or several may be significantly more appealing or different than the others. Whoever possess this plant may recognize its uniqueness by adding a variety name to its name. The variety name is placed in single quotes as in Phal. Ever Spring âLightâ or Phal. Ever Spring âCardinalâ or whatever the owner fancies to name the variety. Only that plant and itâs tissue or stem propagated progeny are entitled to bear the variety name.Tissue cultureAs its name suggest tissue culture is done by using plant tissue, mostly the minuscule center of a new growth. A lot of experiments have been made trying to do tissue culture out of leafs, roots,... but so far the most successful method uses tissue from a new growth.The tissue is excised (cut), its outer layers are removed till the active center of developing cells, the meristem, is reached. Then this tiny mass of cells (it can be less than 1 millimeter in diameter) is cut into 20 or so parts, immersed into a flask with growing solution without agar, so the solution stays liquid. This media for this solution is usually called âmultiplicationâ formula.The flasks or tubes are placed on an agitator (an apparatus than either slowly rotates or tilts to the left then to the right. The constant movement of the agitator allows the lumps of cells to develop and increase in mass but prevents them from forming roots or leaves.Once the lumps have sufficiently increased in size they are further cut into small lumps, placed into flasks or tubes and on the agitator. In this process the original 20 tiny masses may now be 400. At the next subdivision we may have 8,000.This process continues until the desired number of lumps has been achieved.Then the developed lumps are replated into flasks as is done for germinated seeds. From there on the process is the same as for seeds.As in seed propagation all these operations require external disinfecting, and working in sterile conditions.Plants developed from tissue culture, are called mericlones. They usually are very close in appearance (plant and flowers) to the plant from which the original tissue was taken and they are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the plant from which the original tissue was excised. So when you see a plant with a name like Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ it means this plant was propagated through tissue culture, using tissue from Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ.Stem propagation.In this technique a flower stem is used for propagation. If we propagated Phalaenopsis in this manner we would be looking for a flower stem with just the first flower open or with up to half the flowers open.Flower buds nearer the base of the flower stem open first. Below them there will be a number of undeveloped buds, which we usually refer to as ânodesâ.The flower stem is removed from the plant and is externally decontaminated.The stem is cut about 1 inch above and below the node, then dipped in decontamination solution for 15 to 20 minutes.Then the protective sheath over the node is removed and about 1/8 of an inch is further removed from both ends of the stem (above and below the node).The cutting is inserted in the media solution which is in a tube or jar or flask which was previously sterilized through autoclaving.If the operation is successful we may get up to 4 plantlets per node.Obviously this technique only produces a few plants from a flower stem of the original plant. We may get 10 to 15 stem propagated plants as opposed to the thousands we may get through tissue culture.Because of the limited yield and the labor intensive procedure stem propagated plants tend to be much more expensive than plants propagated through seed or tissue culture.On the other hand, unless some abhorrent mutation occurs, these plants will be exactly like the plant they were propagated from.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the original tissue was excised.As with seed propagation and tissue culture all these operations must be conducted in a sterile environment.Internode propagationThis technique is similar to the stem propagation but instead of using a flower stem as the start up point we use a growth. It is often used with Dendrobiums.A growth is removed from the plant and is cut in between nodes. The edges are dipped in a fungicide and then either inserted or laid on sphagnum moss kept moist.If the operation is successful we may get 1plantlet per node, but usually much less than that as many nodes will not develop a plantlet.Still the technique does not require any sophisticated equipment, is inexpensive and can be done practically by anyone.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth was removed.Divisions & back bulbsSome orchids grow by developing new growth from the base of the plant. After several years they may have 5, 6, 10 or more growths. We may subdivide such plants to get two or three out of the original one.Often the older growth or old pseudobulbs of these plants do not do anything but if we remove them and plant them separately they will generate new growth.Again as for the previous methods where plants were propagated by using tissue, or the fower tem, plants resulting from divisions and backbulbs are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth or back bulbs were removed. The resulting plants will be identical to the plant we divided or from which we removed the pseudobulb (s).KeikisSome orchids, mostly Dendrobiums, are notorious for producing keikis which is the Hawaiian word for âbabiesâ.Occasionally Phalaenopsis will also produce keikis. Some, usually species, do it because it is programmed into their genes, others do it when they are exposed to high temperatures while they are developing a flower stem.Keikis will develop leaves first. Eventually they will develop roots. When roots have reached about an inch in length we can remove the keiki from the mother plant and plant it in its own container.Keikis will be identical to the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Top cutsFinally, some plants, mostly vandaceous orchids, tend to grow very tall. Heights of 4, 5, 6 feet or more are not unusual, making them difficult to handle. These also tend to develop new roots along their stem, in between leaves. These can be divided bycutting off the top portion of the plant as long as this top portion has at least 2 pairs or roots attached to it.The remaining (bottom) part of the plant will often respond to this attack by sending out new shoots from its base.Top cuts are of course the same as the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Back to top
orchids in those times were believed to have medicinal properties one of them being an aphrodisiac and about 2000 years ago greeks gave orchids the name orkhis which means testicle because of the form of their pseudobulbs pseudo greek for false


1 Introduction to orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant family1.2 What is an orchid ?1.3 Structure of orchid flowers1.4 How orchids grow in nature1.5 A bit of orchid history1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclature1.7 Propagation of orchids1.1 Orchids in the plant familyIn the plant family flowering plants form a group called Angiosperms. In this group there are lineages:â¢ Amborellaceae: includes just one shrub that, according to the National Geographic (July 2002) âmay be the closest living relative to the first flowering plantâ.â¢ Nymphaeaceae which includes the water lilies.â¢ Illiciaceae which includes the star anises.â¢ Magnoliids, which of course includes Magnolias, avocado and black pepper,â¢ Monocots which with 65,000 species (1/4 of all flowering plants), are recognizable because they have just one seed leaf (single cotyledon). This group includes all grasses (corn, rice, wheat,...), palm trees (which are giant herbs) and flowers such as lilies and orchids. Orchids by themselves account for nearly 25,000 species.â¢ And, finally, Eudicots (formerly dicots because of their two seed leaves), the largest group of angiosperms with 170,000 species, many of which are woody plants.Most of this information is from the above mentioned National Geographic issue.1.2 What is an orchid?What distinguishes orchids from other flowering plants is the combination of three elements:â¢ their pollen (called âpollinariumâ, plural = pollina) which is formed into a mass (usually 2 masses),â¢ stamens and pistils are joined together in a structure called a âcolumnâ,â¢ their seeds are very small (there may be up to 3 million in a seed capsule), they do not contain endosperm and have no organized embryo.1.3 Structure of orchid flowersOrchid flowers consist of:â¢ the pedicel (the stem of the flower which includes the ovary),â¢ the sepals,â¢ the petals,â¢ the column.Sepals and petals are in threes.The three sepals consist of the dorsal sepal and two lateral sepals.The three petals consist of two petals and a modified one called the labellum, or more commonly, the lip.1.4 How orchids grow in natureBesides these morphological differences most orchids differ from other plants by the way they grow in nature.Most orchids are epiphytes, that is they grow attached on other plants (usually trees). They are not parasites, that is they do not take anything away from the plant they grow on, they merely use the other plant (tree) for support.Some orchids are lithophytes, that is they grow on rocks.Some other some are semiterrestrial, that is they grow on the ground, on decomposing plant material (not quite soil).And finally, a small number of orchids are true terrestrial, meaning they grow in soil like most plants.1.5 - A bit of orchid historyConfucius, the Chinese philosopher, grew orchids in the fifth century BC and wrote a poem about them.Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and scientist, mentions orchids in his âEssay on Plantsâ published around 300 BCDioscorides, a Greek botanist, physician and pharmacologist mentioned orchids in his work âDe Materia Medicaâ ( âOf Medical Matersâ) published around 60 AD This work remained a reference manual till the Middle Age (1,400 - 1,500 AD).Orchids, in those times, were believed to have medicinal properties, one of them being an aphrodisiac.And about 2,000 years ago Greeks gave orchids the name âorkhisâ which means testicle, because of the form of their pseudobulbs (pseudo = Greek for âfalseâ).In more recent times, the first record of orchids in cultivation dates back to 1731 in England. Philip Miller mentioned several orchids in his second edition of âDictionary of Gardeningâ (1768).Records of the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens show that Epidendrum cochleatum flowered for the first time in cultivation in 1787. Ten years later 15 orchid species were cultivated at Kew.Cultivation of orchids started in earnest in the 19th century. At that time orchids were brought to Europe by companies or individuals who financed collecting expeditions. They commissioned professional collectors who traveled for months all over the world in search of showy new species. Like treasure hunters these expensive enterprises were often shrouded in secrecy and it was not unusual for them to spread misleading information about the locations where new orchids were found.New exotic orchids were most often sold at Protheros & Morris & Stevens Sales Rooms in London, fetching extravagant prices.At that time very little was known about the cultivation of orchids and their survival rate was dismal.Through experimentation and by gathering more information on the growing conditions of orchids in their natural habitat, knowledge was slowly being developed and by 1851 B. S. Williams published the first edition of âThe Orchid Growerâs Manualâ.By the end of the 19th century there was enough experience and knowledge about the growing conditions of orchids that many orchids survived and bloomed in Englandâs greenhouses.Today there is a wealth of knowledge about growing orchids and modern propagation methods have driven prices to affordable levels. Affordable prices, the fascination exercised by their captivating beauty and their diversity has made them increasingly popular houseplants.1.6 Taxonomy / nomenclatureThe International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (I.C.B.N.) and the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants (I.C.N.C.P.) govern the naming of orchids.The I.C.B.N. has standardized classification of plants and imposed the following endings:â¢ family â¢ tribe â¢ subtribe: aceae.: eae.: inae. Example: Orchidaceae Example: Vandeae. Example:  Sarcanthinae.Below the subtribe are the genera (singular = genus). Examples: Cattleya, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, ...Note: all of the above have their first letter capitalized.Within the genera are the names identifying individual plants. Example: Phalaenopsis a mabilis or Phalaenopsis E ver S pring.Names of species are not capitalized: Phalaenopsis amabilis designates a species,i.e. a naturally occurring plant. Names of hybrids (man made crosses) are always capitalized as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring.Finally, within a group of individual plants they may be variations which, for example, may be noted Phalaenopsis amabilis var. formosana.Variety is often abbreviated as âvar.â and is usually reserved for species. For hybrids, varieties will be identified by adding to the name one or several words placed in single quotes as in Phalaenopsis Ever Spring âLightâ.All new plants (species and hybrids) are registered with the Royal Horticultural Society of London.The name of orchids is decided by the discover for new species or by the first person who registers a new hybrid.Until a new hybrid is registered it will be identified by the name of itâs parents, separated by an X. For example: Phalaenopsis amabilis x Phalaenopsis violacea or Phalaenopsis (amabilis x violacea) or Phalaenopsis amabilis x violacea or, in abbreviated form, Phal. amabilis x violacea.1.7 Propagation of orchidsThere are several ways to propagate orchids.Propagation from seed or sexual propagationPollen is used to pollinate a flower. When the seed pod matures (which may take several months), the tiny seeds can be sowed.Not all seed pods will contain seeds as one or the other parent may be sterile.The encapsulated seeds are in a sterile environment as long as the seed pod is closed. It will eventually crack open at a certain time, in which case the tiny seeds will have to be decontaminated before sowing them.Most people prefer to work with a âgreen podâ. That is a seed pod that has matured but is collected before it starts to open.The seed pot is externally disinfected to kill any germs, spores, contaminants, ... that may be on itâs surface then it is cut open with a disinfected tool (scalpel,...).Then the seed masses are sown into a flask which contains a nutrient solution (the flask and its contents were previously sterilized in an autoclave). This flask is called a âmother flaskâ.This whole operation has to be performed in a sterile environment. Commercial growers will use an apparatus called a laminar flow hood (see page 36 of An Introduction to Orchids South Florida Orchid SocietyThe nutrients solutions contain minerals, sugars, charcoal, sometimes banana extracts or coconut milk, ... Agar (a substance like gelatin) is added to make the solution more or less solid.The flask is sealed, marked / labeled and placed in a growth chamber / room where light is relatively limited and temperatures are relatively constant.After several weeks to several months the tiny seeds will germinate. When they have they will have to be transferred to several other flasks in an operation called âreplatingâ. This is necessary because the mother flask may contain from several hundred to several thousand seeds which now need room to grow.The replated flask may still contain a hundred to several hundred plantlets, which is way too many plants for the limited space of the flask.Again after several months the plantlets will be replated and they may need a third replate (some growers replate 4 times !) until they are in their final flask which may contain from 10 to 40 plantlets.As for the mother flasks, all the replate flasks contain growing media which is different from the germination media. The new replating flasks with their nutrients where sterilized in an autoclave and the flasks to be replated where externally decontaminated. The replating operations are done in the sterile environment of a laminar flow hood.Plants resulting from sexual propagation may look like the mother plant or like the father or a combination of both or they may have characteristics of ancestors. In other words they may display very diverse traits.Among these siblings one or several may be significantly more appealing or different than the others. Whoever possess this plant may recognize its uniqueness by adding a variety name to its name. The variety name is placed in single quotes as in Phal. Ever Spring âLightâ or Phal. Ever Spring âCardinalâ or whatever the owner fancies to name the variety. Only that plant and itâs tissue or stem propagated progeny are entitled to bear the variety name.Tissue cultureAs its name suggest tissue culture is done by using plant tissue, mostly the minuscule center of a new growth. A lot of experiments have been made trying to do tissue culture out of leafs, roots,... but so far the most successful method uses tissue from a new growth.The tissue is excised (cut), its outer layers are removed till the active center of developing cells, the meristem, is reached. Then this tiny mass of cells (it can be less than 1 millimeter in diameter) is cut into 20 or so parts, immersed into a flask with growing solution without agar, so the solution stays liquid. This media for this solution is usually called âmultiplicationâ formula.The flasks or tubes are placed on an agitator (an apparatus than either slowly rotates or tilts to the left then to the right. The constant movement of the agitator allows the lumps of cells to develop and increase in mass but prevents them from forming roots or leaves.Once the lumps have sufficiently increased in size they are further cut into small lumps, placed into flasks or tubes and on the agitator. In this process the original 20 tiny masses may now be 400. At the next subdivision we may have 8,000.This process continues until the desired number of lumps has been achieved.Then the developed lumps are replated into flasks as is done for germinated seeds. From there on the process is the same as for seeds.As in seed propagation all these operations require external disinfecting, and working in sterile conditions.Plants developed from tissue culture, are called mericlones. They usually are very close in appearance (plant and flowers) to the plant from which the original tissue was taken and they are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the plant from which the original tissue was excised. So when you see a plant with a name like Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ it means this plant was propagated through tissue culture, using tissue from Cattleya Irene Finney âZâ.Stem propagation.In this technique a flower stem is used for propagation. If we propagated Phalaenopsis in this manner we would be looking for a flower stem with just the first flower open or with up to half the flowers open.Flower buds nearer the base of the flower stem open first. Below them there will be a number of undeveloped buds, which we usually refer to as ânodesâ.The flower stem is removed from the plant and is externally decontaminated.The stem is cut about 1 inch above and below the node, then dipped in decontamination solution for 15 to 20 minutes.Then the protective sheath over the node is removed and about 1/8 of an inch is further removed from both ends of the stem (above and below the node).The cutting is inserted in the media solution which is in a tube or jar or flask which was previously sterilized through autoclaving.If the operation is successful we may get up to 4 plantlets per node.Obviously this technique only produces a few plants from a flower stem of the original plant. We may get 10 to 15 stem propagated plants as opposed to the thousands we may get through tissue culture.Because of the limited yield and the labor intensive procedure stem propagated plants tend to be much more expensive than plants propagated through seed or tissue culture.On the other hand, unless some abhorrent mutation occurs, these plants will be exactly like the plant they were propagated from.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the original tissue was excised.As with seed propagation and tissue culture all these operations must be conducted in a sterile environment.Internode propagationThis technique is similar to the stem propagation but instead of using a flower stem as the start up point we use a growth. It is often used with Dendrobiums.A growth is removed from the plant and is cut in between nodes. The edges are dipped in a fungicide and then either inserted or laid on sphagnum moss kept moist.If the operation is successful we may get 1plantlet per node, but usually much less than that as many nodes will not develop a plantlet.Still the technique does not require any sophisticated equipment, is inexpensive and can be done practically by anyone.These plants too are entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth was removed.Divisions & back bulbsSome orchids grow by developing new growth from the base of the plant. After several years they may have 5, 6, 10 or more growths. We may subdivide such plants to get two or three out of the original one.Often the older growth or old pseudobulbs of these plants do not do anything but if we remove them and plant them separately they will generate new growth.Again as for the previous methods where plants were propagated by using tissue, or the fower tem, plants resulting from divisions and backbulbs are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name as the original plant from which the growth or back bulbs were removed. The resulting plants will be identical to the plant we divided or from which we removed the pseudobulb (s).KeikisSome orchids, mostly Dendrobiums, are notorious for producing keikis which is the Hawaiian word for âbabiesâ.Occasionally Phalaenopsis will also produce keikis. Some, usually species, do it because it is programmed into their genes, others do it when they are exposed to high temperatures while they are developing a flower stem.Keikis will develop leaves first. Eventually they will develop roots. When roots have reached about an inch in length we can remove the keiki from the mother plant and plant it in its own container.Keikis will be identical to the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Top cutsFinally, some plants, mostly vandaceous orchids, tend to grow very tall. Heights of 4, 5, 6 feet or more are not unusual, making them difficult to handle. These also tend to develop new roots along their stem, in between leaves. These can be divided bycutting off the top portion of the plant as long as this top portion has at least 2 pairs or roots attached to it.The remaining (bottom) part of the plant will often respond to this attack by sending out new shoots from its base.Top cuts are of course the same as the plant they were removed from and are also entitled to be recognized by the same variety name, if any, as the plant from which they originated.Back to top
orchids in those times were believed to have medicinal properties one of them being an aphrodisiac and about 2000 years ago greeks gave orchids the name orkhis which means testicle because of the form of their pseudobulbs pseudo greek for false in more recent times the first record of orchids in cultivation dates back to 1731 in england