6 Early Human Civilizations | HISTORY
These ancient complex societies, starting with Mesopotamia, formed cultural and technological advances, several of which are still present today ...
ancient Egyptians
The <anchor>ancient Egyptians</anchor> also left a legacy of monumental writing and mathematics systems. The cubit, a measure of length roughly the span of a forearm, was key to designing the pyramids and other structures. They developed the 24-hour day and 365-day calendar during this time. And they established the hieroglyphic pictorial writing system, followed by the hieroglyphic system that used ink on papyrus paper. The civilization came to an end in 332 B.C. when it was conquered by Alexander the Great.
Ancient Egypt: Civilization, Empire & Culture | HISTORY
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# Ancient Egypt

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: October 14, 2009

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SphinxSphinx, Giza, Egypt, 2007. The Sphinx of Giza, representing a creature with the body of a lion and head of a human, dating from c. 2500 BC and representing the Pharoah Khafre, Egypt. Artist Ethel Davies. (Photo by EMD/Then and Now Images/Heritage Images via Getty ImagesEMD/Then and Now Images/Heritage Images via Getty Images

## Table of Contents

Ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world for almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs that have only recently been deciphered. The picture that emerges is of a culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the accomplishment of its architecture or the richness of its religious traditions.

Building Egypt's Largest Pyramids

## Predynastic Period (c. 5000-3100 B.C.)

Few written records or artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization.

Neolithic (late Stone Age) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death).

Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established near the Fertile Crescent, an area home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty.

## Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)

King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital would grow into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period.

In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.

## Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)





The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis. Egyptian pyramid-building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that it took 100,000 men 20 years to build it. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).

During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to its considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixth dynasties, the king’s wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of the growing influence of the nobility and the priesthood that grew up around the sun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty’s King Pepy II, who ruled for some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.

## First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 B.C.)

On the heels of the Old Kingdom’s collapse, the seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C., when the central authority completely dissolved, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.

From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nine and 10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.

## Middle Kingdom: 12th Dynasty (c. 2055-1786 B.C.)

After the last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the throne passed to his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of dynasty 12. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old Kingdom. The 12th dynasty kings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each successor co-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.

Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its rich supply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom also built diplomatic and trade relations with Syria, Palestine and other countries; undertook building projects including military fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.

## Second Intermediate Period (c. 1786-1567 B.C.)

The 13th dynasty marked the beginning of another unsettled period in Egyptian history, during which a rapid succession of kings failed to consolidate power. As a consequence, during the Second Intermediate Period Egypt was divided into several spheres of influence. The official royal court and seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th), centered on the city of Xois in the Nile delta, seems to have existed at the same time as the 13th.

Around 1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage of Egypt’s instability to take control. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty adopted and continued many of the existing Egyptian traditions in government as well as culture. They ruled concurrently with the line of native Theban rulers of the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The 16th dynasty is variously believed to be Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict eventually flared between the two groups, and the Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 B.C., driving them out of Egypt.







## New Kingdom (c. 1567-1085 B.C.)

Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited. During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and began military campaigns in Palestine, clashing with other powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went on to establish the world’s first great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom was notable for the role of royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her young stepson (he later became Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero), but rose to wield all the powers of a pharaoh.

The controversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertook a religious revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton (“servant of the Aton”), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kings named Ramses) saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and an impressive amount of building, including great temples and cities. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt possibly occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).

All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to rest in deep, rock-cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922. The splendid mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), was also relatively well preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost its provinces in Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions (notably by the Libyans), while its wealth was being steadily but inevitably depleted.

## Third Intermediate Period (c. 1085-664 B.C.)

The next 400 years–known as the Third Intermediate Period–saw important changes in Egyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs gave way to the resurgence of local officials, while foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for themselves and left a lasting imprint on Egypt’s population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20th dynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous during this period and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.

In the eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers out of local governors and officials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.







## From the Late Period to Alexander’s Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)

Beginning with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt for less than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt became part of the Persian Empire. Persian rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) ruled the country largely under the same terms as native Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt’s religious cults and undertook the building and restoration of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increased uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C., beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (dynasties 28-30).

In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving their empire under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander’s general Ptolemy and continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and the Roman Empire’s provinces (including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islam would do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.

## Photo Galleries

The Pyramids of Giza

Perhaps the most recognizable symbol of ancient Egypt, these massive structures were built for three generations of pharaohs—Khufu (aka Cheops), Khafre and Menkaure—during the Old Kingdom (2575-2130 B.C.). It’s still unknown exactly how the Egyptian Pyramids were constructed, though the ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that 100,000 men labored for some 20 years to create the largest, the Great Pyramid, for Khufu. Over the centuries, looters broke in and removed many of their treasures; by the first modern excavation in 1880, archaeologists could only guess at the riches they had had once contained.

Khufu's Ship

The Giza pyramid complex, located on the outskirts of modern Cairo, contains other marvels, including the Sphinx, a massive statue of a lion with the pharaoh Khafre’s head. In 1954, archaeologists stumbled on a nearly intact ship, measuring some 140 feet long, buried in pieces at the base of the Great Pyramid. Inscribed with the name of the pharaoh Khufu, it was apparently buried along with other grave goods; it was later excavated and went on display at the specially constructed Solar Boat Museum, just a few meters from where it was found.

King Tut's Tomb

The long-lost tomb of the 18th-dynasty boy pharaoh, Tutankhamen, was rediscovered by archaeologist Howard Carter in 1922. Located in the Valley of the Kings on the west bank of the Nile, Tut’s tomb had been covered by debris for some 3,000 years, protecting it from looters. Braving rumors of a curse, Carter’s team opened a tomb filled with treasures—notably Tut’s mummy, wearing a splendid gold death mask—that provided evidence of the most lavish period of Egyptian history.

Rosetta Stone

In 1798, near the Egyptian town of Rashid (Rosetta), officers in Napoleon Bonaparte’s army spotted a black granite slab with writing on one side. Dated to 196 B.C., the Rosetta Stone is believed to have been created in Memphis, on behalf of the pharaoh Ptolemy V, affirming his right to rule over Egypt. Inscribed in three languages—hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek—its translation in 1822 provided the key to understanding Egyptian hieroglyphs for the first time, shedding new light on the entire history of ancient Egypt. It has been in British possession since the end of the Napoleonic Wars, though Egypt has long requested its return.

Tomb of the Silver Pharaoh

At the outset of World War II, the French Egyptologist Pierre Montet was excavating near the New Kingdom capital of Tanis when he stumbled on a treasure-filled tomb rivaling that of King Tut. Inside, the little-known 21st-Dynasty pharaoh Psusennes I had been buried in an exquisitely detailed coffin made of solid silver, wearing a spectacular gold burial mask. The splendor of the Silver Pharaoh’s tomb raised new questions for historians, as it indicated a level of wealth and power historians had assumed pharaohs did not possess by the time Psusennes ruled Egypt, around 3,000 years ago.

Queen Hatshepsut’s Mummy

After Queen Hatshepsut died around 1458 B.C., her stepson and successor, Thutmose III, had much of the evidence of her reign erased. Little was known about Egypt’s first great female leader until the late 19th century, when archaeologists decoded the hieroglyphics on her temple at Deir el Bahri in Luxor. When Howard Carter found Hatshepsut’s sarcophagus in 1903, it was empty, like most of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings. But another tomb unearthed in the temple contained two coffins, one identified as that of Hatshepsut’s wet nurse. In 2007, the remains in the other coffin were identified as Hatshepsut herself, after scientists matched a molar found in a jar with the queen’s embalmed organs to a space in the mummy’s jaw. Hatshepsut’s mummy is now housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Valley of the Golden Mummies

In the mid-1990s, a team of archaeologists uncovered a vast necropolis near Bawit, south of Cairo. An initial excavation yielded 105 mummies, some adorned with gilded masks and chest plates, others buried more simply in terracotta, plaster or linen coverings. Dubbed the “Valley of the Golden Mummies,” the ancient cemetery has since yielded hundreds of other mummies, representing various social classes; experts believe it may contain as many as 10,000 mummies in all.

Ramses II’s Mummy

Born around 1302 B.C., the 19th-dynasty pharaoh Ramses II ruled for more than six decades, ordering the construction of so many massive monuments (such as the Temples at Abu Simbel) that he ensured his legacy as ancient Egypt’s most powerful pharaoh. His tomb, originally placed in the Valley of the Kings, was later moved to avoid the threat of looting; in 1881, archaeologists discovered his mummy among many others stored in a secret cache at Deir el-Bahri. Placed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the mummy was famously issued a passport in the 1970s, when it began deteriorating quickly and had to be transported to Paris for examination and treatment for a fungal infection.

Temples at Abu Simbel

By far the most ambitious building project undertaken during the reign of Ramses II were these two stone temples, carved into a mountainside near what is now the Egyptian-Sudanese border circa 1244 B.C. At the entrance to the larger temple sat four huge statues of the pharaoh, while inside, a network of chambers were built in such a way that on two days each year, the sunlight could illuminate another statue of Ramses inside. Long abandoned, the temple remained buried in sand until 1817, when the Italian archaeologist (and former circus strongman) Giovanni Belzoni uncovered its entrance. In the 1960s, the entire temple complex was dismantled and rebuilt on higher ground, to make way for the construction of the Aswan High Dam.

Bastet

In 2010, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities announced that archaeologists had discovered the remains of a 2,200-year-old temple under the streets of modern-day Alexandria. Dedicated to Bastet, the Egyptian goddess who took the shape of a cat, the temple was built by Queen Berenice II, wife of Ptolemy III, Egypt’s pharaoh from 246–222 B.C. Cats were revered animals (and common house pets) in ancient Egypt; some 600 cat statues were found inside the temple, suggesting their veneration continued even during the Greek-speaking Ptolemaic dynasty, which ruled Egypt from the arrival of Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. to the suicide of Egypt’s last ruler, Cleopatra, in A.D. 30.

1 / 10: Ratnakorn Piyasirisorost/Getty Images

Step Pyramid

Said to be the world's oldest masonry monument structure, the unique pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara was built around 2630 B.C. for King Djoserat of the third dynasty. This Step Pyramid was the highest building of its time at 204 feet tall.

Red Pyramid

It would not be until the fourth dynasty that ancient Egyptians started building the first smooth-sided pyramids. The Red Pyramid, named for the reddish hue of its limestones, was the first of the iconic smooth-sided pyramids. It was built for the burial of the first king of the fourth dynasty, Sneferu (2613-2589 B.C.) in Dahshur, Egypt.

Great Sphinx

The Great Sphinx of Giza gazes out from in front of the Pyramid of Khafre.

Great Sphinx

The Great Sphinx was built during the reign of fourth dynasty King Khafre to serve as a portrait statue of the pharaoh.

1 / 4: Foxie aka Ashes/Getty Images

King Tut's tomb

Conservation work being conducted on the wall paintings of King Tut's burial chamber in spring 2016.

King Tut's tomb

The restoration focused on combating the wear and tear sustained through decades of tourist activity, and protecting it from further decay and deterioration.

King Tut's tomb

Before the restoration, he flood of humid air and carbon dioxide into what had been a closed space for thousands of years had caused mysterious brown spots to spread across the walls.

King Tut's tomb

The north wall of the burial chamber depicts three separate scenes, ordered from right to left. In the first, Ay, Tutankhamen’s successor, performs the “opening of the mouth” ceremony on Tutankhamen, who is depicted as Osiris, lord of the underworld. In the middle scene, Tutankhamen, dressed in the costume of the living king, is welcomed into the realm of the gods by the goddess Nut. On the left, Tutankhamen, followed by his ka (spirit twin), is embraced by Osiris.

King Tut's tomb

East wall of the tomb’s burial chamber. Tutankhamen’s mummy is shown, lying in a shrine mounted on a sledge, being drawn by twelve men in five groups. The men wear white mourning bands over their brows. The last pair, distinguished by their shaven heads and different dress, are the two viziers of Upper and Lower Egypt.

King Tut's tomb

The burial chamber’s west wall depicts an extract from the Book of Amduat or “What is in the Underworld”. The upper register depicts the solar barque preceded by five deities. In compartments below are twelve baboon-deities, representing the twelve hours of the night through which the sun travels before its rebirth at dawn.

King Tut's tomb

The new visitor viewing platform in the Tomb of Tutankhamen.

1 / 7: J. Paul Getty Trust



## HISTORY Vault: Ancient History

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HISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. All articles are regularly reviewed and updated by the HISTORY.com team. Articles with the “HISTORY.com Editors” byline have been written or edited by the HISTORY.com editors, including Amanda Onion, Missy Sullivan, Matt Mullen and Christian Zapata.

## Citation Information

Article TitleAncient Egypt

Website NameHISTORY

Date AccessedSeptember 12, 2024

PublisherA&E Television Networks

Last UpdatedApril 24, 2023

Original Published DateOctober 14, 2009

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