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फुटबॉल रणनीतियों का विश्लेषण
Collective movement analysis reveals coordination tactics of team ...
The aim of our study was to analyze collective patterns in the motion of football players to reveal the underlying coordination among players within teams as ...
team sports
Collective behavior is a hallmark of every living system and utilizing methods from statistical physics (such as correlation functions) could aid in our understanding of their underlying rules. We analyzed five football (soccer) matches as this game provides a unique but yet mostly unexplored example to study a system of collective cooperation and competition. The aim of our study was to analyze the collective motion patterns exhibited by football players to unfold the underlying coordination among them in order to understand collective strategies associated with team performance. By analyzing pairwise relationships among all the players using spatio-temporal correlation functions we reveal that there exist identifiable collective dynamics that characterize winning and losing teams. Using our metric we find clear and robust differences between the players, indicating a difference in their behavior and their interactions. And this enables us to assign a unique behavioral pattern - a ‘fingerprint’ - for each individual and for each team. Furthermore, we reveal there exists a relationship between the market value of the players and the metrics introduced here, suggesting that these metrics could potentially serve as valuable performance indicators in the future, with applications ranging from talent identification to player scouting. In a broader context <anchor>team sports</anchor> could open up new directions for quantitative analyses of human collective behavior.
Team Sport - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
# Team Sport

A 'team sport' is defined as a type of sport where individuals work together towards a common goal, relying on high levels of teamwork, coordination, and cognitive processing to achieve success.

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## Perspectives on Team Cognition and Team Sports

### Introduction: teams, team cognition, and sports

Sports are an important aspect of almost every culture and something with which most people identify. Sports have also helped to define what most people consider a team. Like sports, teams permeate society. A team is more than a collection of individuals. Dyer (1984; Salas, Cooke, & Rosen, 2008, p. 541) defines a team as a “social entity composed of members with high task interdependency and share valued common goals.” This definition is fairly standard, though there have been a number of variations on the theme. Most notably, Salas, Dickinson, Converse, and Tannenbaum (1992, p. 4) define a team as “a distinguishable set of two or more people who interact dynamically, interdependently, and adaptively toward a common and valued goal/object/mission, who have each been assigned specific roles or functions to perform, and who have a limited life span of membership.” Often, teams and groups are discussed interchangeably. Although teams and groups have many of the same characteristics, they are different. A team is a special type of group with members who have interdependent and heterogeneous roles and responsibilities (Cooke, Salas, Kiekel, & Bell, 2004). Each member on a team has a specific and different role on the team, with each role necessary to accomplish the task. Whereas for a group, members may have the same roles or their roles are never defined. Also, members of a group can work side-by-side without interacting. Interaction among team members is central to the definition of team.

There are many reasons that teams can be found in many different contexts including healthcare, emergency crisis management, and command and control. Possibly, the most impactful reason is that teams are effective and productive. Assuming that the team adequately works together, they are able to bring together many resources to approach problems in a more efficient manner than is a single individual.

Yet, even though teams are used in many contexts, when asked to describe a team, many turn to the domain of sports. This is because sports teams are extremely popular, familiar, and abundant in society. Over the years, team sports have become incredibly popular due the growth of football (both North American and European), basketball, baseball, and hockey. These different sports are connected through the concept of teamwork.

Teamwork is critical to the success of sports teams. Team members must work together (the activity of sport) toward a common goal (overcoming the other team and winning the game). If a team fails to exhibit high levels of teamwork, then their performance will most likely suffer. Although it is easy to say that a team must exhibit good teamwork to function as an effective team, articulating the essential aspects of teamwork on the field is much more difficult.

Team sports are clearly dependent on the physical activities of individuals. However, there is significant cognitive processing required to execute those activities in a skilled manner and to coordinate those activities with those of teammates. Therefore, effective teamwork is dependent on types of activities: physical action and cognitive processing. These two activities are interrelated and must act in concert at both an individual and team level. Team sports consist of multiple layers of both individual and team physical and cognitive activities. Although team sports are bounded by teamwork, they are still inherently composed of individuals. Because of this, individuals must coordinate their own individual physical movement in concert with their cognition.

An example of the physical/cognitive interaction at an individual level in sports is demonstrated when an individual basketball team member is bouncing the basketball up and down. The team member must physically move his or her hand and arm to bounce the ball while cognitively processing where and how fast to bounce the ball. As the interaction of physical coordination and cognitive processing is occurring at an individual level, it is also occurring at a team level. The relationship and interaction of physical coordination and cognitive processing becomes even more complicated at the team level due to team-level situational variables. Now, the individual team member must continue to individually bounce the basketball, but also access the multiple aspects of teamwork. Cognitively, the player must now process what his/her teammates are doing and what the opponents are doing as well. This information is then processed and physical action may take place in response. Thus, at a team level, the basketball player is maintaining his or her individual actions, but also now reacting physically and cognitively to the team environment. The interaction between physical and cognitive activities at the team level or team cognition drives teamwork.

Team cognition is defined here as cognitive activity that occurs at a team level (Cooke, Gorman, Myers, & Duran, 2013). Team cognition is what allows a team member to pass a soccer ball to an open teammate who then scores. Team cognition is a rich research area that has been studied in many contexts and through multiple different research streams such as shared mental models (Mohammed, Ferzandi, & Hamilton, 2010), situation awareness (Gorman, Cooke, & Winner, 2006), training (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001), stress (Cannon-Bowers & Salas, 1998), and temporal limitations (Mohammed, Hamilton, & Lim, 2009). Over time, the overarching finding is that team cognition is critically linked to team performance (Salas et al., 2008).

Team cognition has historically been studied from two perspectives. The first perspective, shared knowledge, is the more common perspective for understanding team cognition. Traditionally, researchers who study team cognition as shared knowledge have viewed teams from an information-processing perspective in which there are inputs to the team, processes that occur on the team, and outputs (Hinsz, Tindale, & Vollrath, 1997). This perspective has tended to focus on the inputs of team cognition, often measured in terms of the knowledge of individual team members. Based on the way knowledge is measured, it is defined as being relatively static and not adapting to environmental change. The focus is on how knowledge compares across team members with knowledge similarity typically being the target for effective teamwork. This perspective has resulted in the construct of a shared mental model (Mohammed et al., 2010). Traditionally, shared mental models portray knowledge as being static and team cognition resulting from the sharing of individual knowledge.

Though this perspective of team cognition is valuable, there are conceptual and methodological gaps. More specifically, this perspective does not account for the cognitive processing that occurs at a team level. It also does not account for the dynamic nature of many environments (like team sports) that require concomitant dynamic cognition. The authors of this chapter prescribe to an ecological perspective of team cognition. Although, shared knowledge can be important for team effectiveness, our view is that the cognitive interaction (communication, coordination) that is taking place at the team level is even more critical. That cognition is dynamic, meaning that it is constantly changing and evolving in response to the environment in which it occurs. We feel that this perspective is particularly valuable for studying team cognition within the context of sports. Team sports are extremely dynamic and rely heavily on interactions among teammates, two features that are addressed within the ecological perspective to studying team cognition.

The theory of interactive team cognition (ITC), an ecological theory, holds that team cognition occurs at the team level through team member interactions and is dynamic. Furthermore, the theory states that the interaction that occurs during teamwork is team cognition. Aspects of team interaction, such as communication and coordination, are examples of team-level cognitive processing (Cooke et al., 2013). This means that team cognition can be studied by observing team communication and coordination. Methodologies of analyzing team communication and coordination have been developed, which facilitate the expansion of the concept of team cognition beyond teamwork or taskwork knowledge (as the shared knowledge perspective implies). ITC is a means to study team cognition that could be very valuable in the sports context. The theory will be reviewed in more detail later in the chapter, and specifically in the context of team sports.

In the remaining sections of this chapter, we review the shared knowledge perspective, paying particular attention to the construct of the shared mental model that exemplifies how team cognition has been studied. We will also explore and describe work that has focused on sports and the shared mental model construct. Next, we discuss the ecological perspective, highlighting the theory of ITC in depth. We then review literature focused on ecological dynamics found within the sport community. This is recent work that is not traditionally considered within the domain of team cognition, but that is consistent with ITC. Once the different perspectives have been fully reviewed, we then present a discussion on how these perspectives of team cognition relate to the sports context. In response, we suggest an integrative perspective. This is a perspective that takes aspects from both the shared knowledge and ITC perspectives and applies them to studying team cognition of team sports. Each perspective that we mention and outline in this paper has specific benefits to the sports context, so an integrative perspective might be what is necessary to understand team cognition within the team sports context.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128036341000066

## Teamwork in youth sport

### Introduction

Participation in team sport has the potential to provide youth with opportunities to develop a range of competencies including social skills, which can contribute to an array of positive outcomes throughout one’s life (see Chapter 13 of this volume). For example, team sport can provide an avenue for adolescents to learn how to work well with other members of their team—a skill that is likely to be of use to nearly all individuals at some point in their lives (e.g., school, workplace). Interestingly, however, research on the construct of teamwork has only recently begun to receive attention within the context of sport (McEwan & Beauchamp, 2014). In contrast, an extensive number of studies have been dedicated to understanding the nature of teamwork in several other team contexts, such as healthcare, military, academia, and business settings. In fact, an entire recent issue of the American Psychological Association journal, American Psychologist, was devoted to “the science of teamwork” (McDaniel, Salas, & Kazak, 2018). A clear message can be gleaned from this vast compilation of research: teams whose members work well together are more likely to be successful compared to those that do not. Thus, as (1) sport provides a context for adolescents to learn how to work effectively with other individuals and (2) teamwork is critical to team success, it would appear that this construct is worth examining within youth sport.

In this chapter, we discuss some of the research that has been conducted on teamwork in youth sport. The chapter is comprised of four main sections. We first provide a definition of teamwork and describe the various behaviors that comprise this multidimensional construct. Second, we detail some of the preliminary research that suggests teamwork is an important variable within the context of youth sport. The bulk of the chapter is then devoted to the third section, wherein we describe some of the evidence-based strategies that coaches and applied sport psychology consultants can utilize to enhance the extent to which team members work effectively together. Finally, we provide some considerations for future research that could advance the literature on teamwork in youth sport beyond its current state.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128163368000111

## Group Dynamics in Sport

### 2Definition of a Sport Team

In 1998, Carron and Hausenblas defined a sport team as follows:

This definition incorporates the significant attributes of a group highlighted previously by other scholars. One attribute is that the members of the group have a common identity. Although having their unique names, uniforms, coaches, and support groups indicates a separate identity for every team, it is equally important that members accept that identity, share it, and consider themselves to be part of the group. The goals and objectives of sport teams may vary across levels of competition (e.g., winning in pursuit of excellence, learning and having fun in pursuit of pleasure). Another significant attribute is that the group members share a common fate. When a team loses, everyone on the team loses. When a team is disqualified for rule violations committed by some members, all members suffer. Members of a sport team, in sharing a common goal and fate, also have a common understanding of the way in which the team is structured, the manner and mode of communications within the team (including the technical terminology associated with the sport, e.g., what do “screening” in basketball and “stealing” in baseball mean?), and the terms used in the special plays unique to the team. Members also recognize that they are interdependent on each other to achieve the team goals. Given these attributes, members tend to develop a liking for each other (i.e., the interpersonal attraction).

#### 2.1Unique Attributes of Sport Teams as Groups

Sport teams differ from other conventional groups in several respects. One unique attribute of a sport team is the constant roster size as specified by the rules of the game and/or the league (e.g., 12 members on a volleyball team, with 6 players on the court at any one time). It is also possible that a league, or a group of teams in a sport, may jointly decide to reduce the maximum roster size for financial reasons or other exigencies.

Another unique attribute is that most activities of the groups are stipulated and controlled by the rules of the game. For example, only certain positions are permitted to advance the ball in football, use of hands is forbidden in soccer except by the goalkeeper, and holding the ball is not allowed in volleyball. Thus, teams in a given sport are similar in their inputs, their throughput processes are based on shared technology, and their expected outputs are identical.

The league to which a sport team belongs can also regulate the processes to a considerable extent. For example, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) stipulates the maximum number of athletic scholarships permissible for an intercollegiate athletic team. It also regulates when a team can start practicing and how many games it can play. In addition, it specifies the scholastic requirements for athletes to be a part of the team. The list goes on, but the point is that sport teams are distinct from other forms of groups due to these extensive external controls over internal processes.

Another important attribute that sets sport teams apart from traditional groups is the presence of clear standards of effort and performance. Members of a sport team recognize that all of them should report to the practice sessions, follow the instructions of the coaches, and work strenuously during every session. It is also clearly understood that during competitions, all players should put forth their best efforts and coordinate their activities in pursuit of victory. In interacting with each other on both task and social spheres, members of a sport team establish and commit themselves to these norms of effort and productivity. In general, these features contribute to the sense of “groupness” among members of a sport team.

Another distinguishing feature of sport teams is the simultaneous presence of competition among the members of the team (particularly in team sports) and the need for cooperation to achieve team success. For instance, because only 5 members of a basketball team can be on the floor at any one time, the team’s 12 members compete with each other for starting status and/or playing time. At the same time, they cooperate with each other in coordinating their activities for performance success. Successful coaches are those who encourage competition among their players so that each one will try harder to be better than the other players and, at the same time, foster cooperation and coordination among them.

#### 2.2Purposes of Participation in Sport

One criterion for classifying sport teams is the purpose of participation in sport. In 1964, Keating distinguished between “athletics” and “sport.” Sport is derived from the French word desporter, meaning a diversionary activity seeking pleasure for both participants. Athletics, derived from the Greek words athlos (i.e., a contest), athlon (i.e., a prize), and athlein (i.e., to contend for a prize), is essentially a competitive activity. In sport, the pleasure and fun can be maximized with a spirit of moderation and generosity. In contrast, athletics is characterized by a spirit of dedication, sacrifice, and intensity. Because the term “athletics” refers to one form of sport, namely track and field in the international context, Keating’s other labels—“pursuit of pleasure” and “pursuit of excellence”—are used to denote these two distinct domains. This distinction parallels the one between recreational sport and competitive sport. Within the preceding broader classification, distinctions among youth sports, adult sports, scholastic and collegiate sports, community sports, and professional sports are also commonly made.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0126574103008072

## Sports, Economics of

### Abstract

Professional team sports have a peculiar economic dimension. One of the main differences between the organization of professional team sport and the market is that in a competitive market firm chooses its level of output to maximize profit. In contrast, sport clubs are limited in their output by the league, which determines the membership and number of clubs and the number of games played in a season. Another peculiar fact is that team owners in US professional team sports have a more profit-maximization goal and European club owners are more interested in win maximization, which results in big financial losses. This results in a different approach and use of measurements. In the closed leagues of the US is uncertainty of outcome (UOO) and competitive balance, the solid fundament of sport economic analyses, which resulted in the introduction of cross-subsidizations such as revenue sharing, salary caps, and drafting systems. In historical times was there also a reserve clause for transferring players between clubs, but this was forbidden by law in both continents and free agency was introduced. In the open leagues of Europe is UOO less important and are most of the fans focused on some major teams who have to compete for the championship. Cross-subsidization is not a main issue and in most countries is their only a collective sale of broadcasting rights.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080970868710257

## Teamwork in youth sport

### Abstract

Most people will be part of teams at several points throughout their lives. For those teams to be successful, members need to work well with one another. Participation in team sport provides a valuable opportunity for adolescents to learn about the power of teamwork and to develop their own teamwork skills, which will serve them well in other contexts (e.g., the workplace). In this chapter, we discuss the research on teamwork in sport. This includes the conceptual underpinnings and corresponding measurement of the construct, the evidence highlighting its importance within youth settings, as well as the various strategies that can be employed to improve the extent to which teammates work effectively together. The chapter concludes with potential avenues of future work that will help progress this area of research forward.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128163368000111

## Sports, Economics of

### The Peculiar Economics of Professional Team Sports

Professional team sports can be analyzed from an economic perspective in which labor (mainly players), capital, and land (stadiums and other facilities) are combined by clubs that supply teams to produce a saleable product – the game or contest. To obtain revenue to pay for inputs it is necessary to exclude nonpaying spectators, hence the universal use of stadiums and a traditional suspicion of live broadcasting of sports. For teams to cover their costs each must be guaranteed a minimum number of home games for which tickets can be sold, which suggests ‘league’ or round-robin tournaments rather than knock-out competitions. As an organizational structure leagues comprise sets of individual clubs, which fall within the broader governance structures. Another difference between the organization of professional team sport and the market is that in a competitive market firm chooses its level of output to maximize profit. In contrast, sport clubs are limited in their output by the league, which determines the membership and number of clubs and the number of games played in a season. The league is a cartel with clubs acting as firms and can be seen as a violation of antitrust laws (Sherman Act (1890) and Clayton Act (1914)). Despite these legal frameworks, there has been little government intervention in sport markets.

There is potential division of interests between league and club because of the existence of the externalities in production. The first publication about economics of professional team sport were articles of Rottenberg (1956) and Neale (1964) about the players' labor market in baseball and the peculiar economics of professional sport in the US. In Europe, came a reaction of Sloane (1971) who noticed the existence of a different professional team sport model in Europe. Those articles created a massive spin-off of research and publication to understand and optimize the professional team sports and their leagues. In the US are most of the interesting questions on the economics of sport related to professional team sport. This results in a focus on the industrial organization of sports in the major leagues (National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), and National Hockey League (NHL)) and government subsidies on professional sport.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080970868710257

## Territoriality

### 4.2Home Field Advantages

Sports teams play better on their home fields than away. This has been found in football, baseball, hockey, basketball, and soccer. Team members are more familiar with the home field and its idiosyncrasies; are adapted to local weather, lighting, and wind conditions; have local fans cheering for them; can live at home; and are less debilitated by travel. A team will work and play hard an entire season to gain home field advantage for playoff games. Sports owners encourage place identification on the part of both team members and fans, defining the issue in terms of team spirit and fan loyalty.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0126574103007005

## Sports, Economics of

### 1Introduction

Sport is organized among individuals and among teams, and is professional or amateur. Most of the interesting questions on the economics of sport relate to professional team sport, which is the focus here. Over their histories, and until very recently, in some leagues, players have been restricted from moving between clubs within a league. Club owners have claimed that reservation of players or the imposition of transfer fees was necessary to maintain financial soundness of small clubs and to preserve competitive balance within leagues. In this article, pay and performance under player reservation and under free agency are evaluated, along with issues relating to competitive balance. Under player reservation, player pay is less than the players' contribution to club incremental revenue. Under free agency, the players, ultimately, receive all of the incremental revenue. It is shown that the intrateam salary structure, with its wide pay differential between starting and backup players, is rational and wealth-maximizing. Competitive balance is value-maximizing, also. The effect of free agency, revenue-sharing among clubs, team salary caps, and syndicate ownership on competitive balance are evaluated.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767023032

## Sex differences in injury rates in team-sport athletes: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis

### Highlights

•

Male team sport players have more overall, upper extremity, hip/groin, thigh and foot injuries than female players.

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Female team sport players have more anterior cruciate ligament injuries but do not differ significantly from males in the concussion, ankle sprain, Achilles tendon rates.

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Sex appears to be no general risk factor but should be considered in interaction with the type of sport.

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Non-football team sports were underrepresented in this meta-analysis indicating the need of further injury surveillance studies including elite athletes of both sexes.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254621000545

## Group Dynamics in Sport

### 2.2Purposes of Participation in Sport

One criterion for classifying sport teams is the purpose of participation in sport. In 1964, Keating distinguished between “athletics” and “sport.” Sport is derived from the French word desporter, meaning a diversionary activity seeking pleasure for both participants. Athletics, derived from the Greek words athlos (i.e., a contest), athlon (i.e., a prize), and athlein (i.e., to contend for a prize), is essentially a competitive activity. In sport, the pleasure and fun can be maximized with a spirit of moderation and generosity. In contrast, athletics is characterized by a spirit of dedication, sacrifice, and intensity. Because the term “athletics” refers to one form of sport, namely track and field in the international context, Keating’s other labels—“pursuit of pleasure” and “pursuit of excellence”—are used to denote these two distinct domains. This distinction parallels the one between recreational sport and competitive sport. Within the preceding broader classification, distinctions among youth sports, adult sports, scholastic and collegiate sports, community sports, and professional sports are also commonly made.

Read more

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0126574103008072

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