Homo erectus - The Australian Museum
Fossils of these short and stocky humans, with their distinctive skull shape and large brow ridges, have mostly been found in China and Indonesia.
Homo erectus - The Australian Museum

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5. Homo erectus

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# _Homo erectus_

- Author(s)[Fran Dorey](https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/fran-dorey/)
- Updated16/10/20
- Read time2 minutes

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[Click to enlarge image](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-1200.57f9c1b.jpg)Toggle Caption

‘Peking Man’ Homo erectus skull. Discovered: Zhoukoudian, China. The original ‘Peking Man’ skull was reconstructed using a mixture of male and female fossils whereas the modern reconstruction by I. Tattersal and G. Sawyer combines fossil pieces from males only.
Image: Stuart Humphreys

© Australian Museum

[Fossils](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/a-timeline-of-fossil-discoveries/) of these short and stocky humans, with their distinctive [skull](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/human-evolution-skulls/) shape and large brow ridges, have mostly been found in China and Indonesia.

Debate abounds as to whether the Asian fossils and those from Africa should be classified together as _Homo erectus_ or if the African examples are different enough to be called [_Homo ergaster_](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-ergaster/). The information on this page refers specifically to Asian _Homo erectus_.

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### Background on Homo erectus discovery

#### _Homo erectus_ Age

_Homo erectus_ species lived between 100,000 and 1.6 million years ago, although some estimates extend this to between 35,000 and 1.8 million years ago.

#### Important fossil discoveries

After years of searching Indonesia for ‘the missing link’, Dutchman Eugene Dubois finally uncovered part of a skull in 1891 (known as ‘Java Man’). He believed this fossil belonged to an ancient and ‘upright’ human and so coined the species name _erectus_. Other scientists dismissed this interpretation, preferring to emphasise its ape-like qualities. Dubois’ opinion was validated when a series of similar fossils were uncovered in China during the 1920s and 1930s.

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[![Cast skull peking man](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-600.f8cb76e.jpg)](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-1600.224bc4b.jpg "Click to open in image gallery")

[![Homo Sapiens partial skull](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-600.9bc24c0.jpg)](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-1600.8fc0667.jpg "Click to open in image gallery")

[![Homo Sapiens skull](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-600.7396d48.jpg)](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-1600.009aa5e.jpg "Click to open in image gallery")

[![Homo Erectus Skull - Sangiran 17 Homo erectus angled view](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-600.1be91c6.jpg)](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-1600.6b5ed67.jpg "Click to open in image gallery")

[![Homo Erectus Skull](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-600.ec45171.jpg)](https://media.australian.museum/media/dd/images/Some_image.width-1600.1f8bb2b.jpg "Click to open in image gallery")

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#### Important _Homo erectus_ specimens

- Sangiran 17 – a 1.2 million-year-old skull discovered in 1969 in Sangiran, Indonesia. This adult male skull is the best preserved _Homo erectus_ skull from Java.
- Zhoukoudian 3 – a skullcap discovered in 1929 in Zhoukoudian, China. This adolescent’s skullcap was originally found in fragments. When the pieces were fitted together, they showed that this young individual had a brain size of 915 cubic centimetres.
- ‘Java Man’ or Trinil 2 – a skullcap discovered in 1891 by Eugene Dubois in Trinil, Indonesia. This fossil was nicknamed ‘Java Man’ because it was found on the island of Java. It is the ‘type specimen’ or official representative for the species.
- Sangiran 2 – a 1 million-year-old skullcap discovered in 1937 in Sangiran, Indonesia
- ‘Solo Man’ or Ngandong – a skull cap discovered in 1932 in Ngandong, Indonesia. Because its exact original location is unknown, published dates have ranged from 35,000 to 500,000 years old. ‘Solo Man’ shares similarities with earlier _Homo erectus_ specimens from Sangiran and is considered to be a late _Homo erectus_.
- ‘Mojokerto’ or Perning 1 – a juvenile skull discovered in 1936 in Mojokerto, Indonesia. Radiometric dates have suggested this child’s skull may be as old as 1.8 million years, which significantly increases the previous dates for _Homo erectus_ in Asia. However, this date is debated as the sediment sample taken for dating was taken about 60 years after the skull was collected and the two may have come from different levels.
- Zhoukoudian 5 – a partial skull discovered in Zhoukoudian, China. This skull was reconstructed from several pieces found in 1934, 1936 and 1966.
- ‘Peking Man’ discovered in Zhoukoudian, China. The original ‘Peking Man’ skull was reconstructed using a mixture of male and female fossils whereas the modern reconstruction by I. Tattersal and G. Sawyer combines fossil pieces from males only.
- Sangiran 4 – a 1.5 million-year-old upper jaw discovered in 1939 in Sangiran, Indonesia. The canine teeth were larger than those found in modern humans. This is one of the oldest specimens from Sangiran.
- Sangiran 1 – a 1.5 million-year-old partial lower jaw discovered in 1936 in Sangiran, Indonesia. This is the first human fossil discovered at Sangiran.

#### What the name _Homo erectus_ means

_Homo_, is a Latin word meaning ‘human’ or ‘man’ and is the genus or group name of this species.

The second word in this species’ scientific name is _erectus_. This name was selected to indicate that this species’ ability to stand and walk with an upright or erect stance.

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### Homo erectus Distribution

_Homo erectus_ is now one of the better known of our human relatives with over 40 specimens excavated from Java and many more from sites in China.

Sangiran on the island of Java, is the most important _Homo erectus_ site in Indonesia. The remains of over 80 individuals have been found here at a number of localities. The region was first occupied about 1.6 million years ago.

The site of Zhoukoudian, 40 kilometres south of Beijing in China, has yielded the largest number of _Homo erectus_ fossils from any one locality (about 50 individuals are represented by the remains). About 100,000 stone tool artefacts were also in the cave. These were mostly quartz and sandstone chopping tools and flakes. It was occupied between 200,000 and 750,000 years ago, although evidence suggests that occupation was sporadic rather than permanent. Hyenas and other animals also used the cave site.

Initial excavations between 1926 and 1937 yielded five skullcaps, various other skull fragments, 11 jaws and more than 140 teeth. Almost all of these fossils were lost in 1941 when the Japanese invaded China during World War II. Fortunately, accurate replicas of these fossils had been made. Additional Homo erectus fossils were excavated at Zhoukoudian after World War II and have also been excavated since from Chinese sites including Hexian, Lantian and Nanjing.

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### Homo erectus Relationships with other species

A growing number of scientists have redefined the species _Homo erectus_ so that it now contains only east Asian fossils. Many of the older African fossils formerly known as _Homo erectus_ have now been placed into a separate species, _Homo ergaster_ and this species is considered to be ancestral to _Homo erectus_. The redefined _Homo erectus_ is now generally believed to be a side branch on our family tree whereas _Homo ergaster_ is now viewed as one of our direct ancestors.

However, some scientists still support the view that all these specimens are _Homo erectus_ and that this species includes individuals that vary in their features and have a widespread distribution over both time and geographic location.

There is even debate about whether the two Asian _H.erectus_ populations represent the same species. Prior to the 1950s the fossils from Java were known as _Pithecanthropus erectus_ and those from China were called _Sinanthropus pekinensis_. Many early finds also had nicknames taken from the places they were found, such as ‘Peking Man’, ‘Java Man’, and ‘Solo Man’. In the 1950s they were all placed in the one species, _Homo erectus_, but some scientists still believe the specimens represent different species or subspecies and use the name _Homo pekinensis_ for the Chinese fossils.

Even if the populations in Indonesia and China were the same species, the idea is now being proposed that the populations were not connected, and that the Chinese population arrived later than the Indonesian and came from a different source. Initially, it was believed that the Asian _H.erectus_ originated with one group that dispersed from a single source in Africa.

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### Homo erectus Key physical features

This species had a robust skeleton that was generally similar to those of modern humans. However, the skulls of Homo erectus were quite different to those of modern humans.

#### Body size and shape

- the body (known only from the Chinese specimens) tended to be shorter and stockier than those of modern humans.

#### Brain

- showed an increase in size over earlier species and averaged about 1050 cubic centimetres
- structure of the brain was similar to that of modern humans

#### Skull

- face was large with a low, sloping forehead, a massive brow ridge and a broad, flat nose
- skull was broad and long with sharp angles at the rear, unlike the curve found in modern humans
- bones of the skull were very thick and formed a small central ridge, known as a midline keel, along the top of the skull

#### Jaws and teeth

- jaw was large and thick without a pointed chin
- molar teeth had large roots but were decreasing toward a more modern size

#### Limbs

- limbs were like those of modern humans although the bones were thicker, suggesting a physically demanding lifestyle.

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### Homo erectus Lifestyle

#### Culture

The oldest known stone tools used by _Homo erectus_ were made in China about one million years ago. These tools were simple choppers and flakes (Mode 1 technology). Tools gradually became smaller over time and came to include a greater variety of designs. More complex bifacial tools (Mode 2 technology) like those made by _Homo heidelbergensis_ people from Eurasia made a limited appearance in parts of northern China. This may indicate a brief period of contact between these different peoples.

Relatively few stone tools have been found in east Asia compared with western Asia, Africa and Europe but tools made from non-durable materials such as bamboo may have been manufactured instead.

Burnt stones and animal bones, charcoal and ash deposits indicate these people may have used fire about 500,000 years ago but it is difficult to prove whether this use was controlled.

#### Environment and diet

China underwent significant climatic changes during the period that Zhoukoudian was occupied. These changes included three cold glacial periods with harsh, winter temperatures. The cooling and drying that occurred in these glacial periods brought an expansion of open habitats, with grasslands and mixed steppes. These environments favoured large grazing animals, which would have been hunted by _Homo erectus_.

Java, on the other hand, had a warmer climate. Low sea levels about 1.6 million years ago (when this area was first occupied by _H.erectus_) may have seen Indonesia joined to mainland southeast Asia.

The remains of meals have been found at some _Homo erectus_ sites in China. These show that they ate large amounts of meat supplemented with plant foods and, in general, had a diet similar to that of early modern humans.

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### Also in this section

- [**_Australopithecus africanus_**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/australopithecus-africanus/)

- [**_Homo heidelbergensis_**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-heidelbergensis/)

- [**_Australopithecus garhi_**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/australopithecus-garhi/)

- [**Human Evolution - Tools**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/human-evolution-tools/)

- [**_Homo sapiens_ – modern humans**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-sapiens-modern-humans/)

- [**_Orrorin tugenensis_**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/orrorin-tugenensis/)

- [**Our ancestors’ fossils – ancient bones and footprints**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/our-ancestors-fossils-ancient-bones-and-footprints/)

- [**_Ardipithecus kadabba_**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/ardipithecus-kadabba/)

- [**_Homo naledi_**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-naledi/)

- [**How do we know what they looked like?**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/how-do-we-know-what-they-looked-like/)

- [**The Denisovans**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-denisovans/)

- [**The first migrations out of Africa**](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-first-migrations-out-of-africa/)


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[**Our ancestors’ fossils – ancient bones and footprints** \
\
Fossils are fascinating reminders of life in ancient times. They can also reveal an amazing amount of information. Fossils have, for example, helped us work out who some of our direct ancestors might be.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/our-ancestors-fossils-ancient-bones-and-footprints/)

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[**_Homo sapiens_ – modern humans** \
\
All people living today belong to the species Homo sapiens. We evolved only relatively recently but with complex culture and technology have been able to spread throughout the world and occupy a range of different environments.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-sapiens-modern-humans/)

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[**_Australopithecus africanus_** \
\
This species was the first of our pre-human ancestors to be discovered, but was initially rejected from our family tree because of its small brain. This opinion changed when new evidence showed this species had many features intermediate between apes and humans.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/australopithecus-africanus/)

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[**_Orrorin tugenensis_** \
\
A key specimen of the human story, its position on our family tree is highly debated. Is it the oldest known hominin or should it be placed on the tree before the human line split from the line leading to chimpanzees?\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/orrorin-tugenensis/)

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[**_Australopithecus garhi_** \
\
This hominin lived 2.5 million years and, although similar to other australopithecines, it displayed some surprising features.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/australopithecus-garhi/)

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[![](https://media.australian.museum/static/images/am_thumb_placeholder.b6604319ef34.png)\
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**_Kenyanthropus platyops_** \
\
The only species in this genus, this hominin lived about 3 million years ago. However, the species name is based on a distorted and fragmented skull and many debate its validity.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/kenyanthropus-platyops/)

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[**_Homo floresiensis_** \
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One of the most controversial and surprising hominin finds in a century.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-floresiensis/)

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[**Do we know how some early human ancestors died?** \
\
The bones of some ancient individuals can tell us how their owners died. Some individuals had diseases that can be seen from the structure of their bones or teeth. Some had physical injuries that produce unique types of damage.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/how-do-we-know-how-they-died/)

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[**1912 - Piltdown Man ‘discovered’ in England.** \
\
1912 - Piltdown Man ‘discovered’ in England.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/piltdown-man-skull/)

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[**_Paranthropus_ genus** \
\
The genus or group Paranthropus currently includes three species, P. boisei, P. robustus, and P. aethiopicus. They are collectively known as the ‘robusts’ because of their extremely large jaws and molar teeth. They are our distant ‘cousins’ rather than our direct relatives.\
\
Discover more](https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/paranthropus-species/)

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The Australian Museum respects and acknowledges the Gadigal people as the First Peoples and Traditional Custodians of the land and waterways on which the Museum stands.

Image credit: gadigal yilimung (shield) made by Uncle Charles Chicka Madden

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