Internationaler Handel - ResearchGate
Unter außenwirtschaftlichen oder internationalen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen fasst man alle grenzüberschreitenden Güter- und Faktorbewegungen zusammen.
Internationaler Handel

Chapter

# Internationaler Handel

- March 2019

DOI: [10.1007/978-3-658-21777-8\_3](http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-21777-8_3)

- In book: Kompendium der Wirtschaftstheorie und Wirtschaftspolitik I (pp.371-455)

Authors:

[![Heinz-Dieter Smeets](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](scientific-contributions/Heinz-Dieter-Smeets-2130168870)

[Heinz-Dieter Smeets](scientific-contributions/Heinz-Dieter-Smeets-2130168870)

[Heinz-Dieter Smeets](scientific-contributions/Heinz-Dieter-Smeets-2130168870)

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## Abstract

Unter außenwirtschaftlichen oder internationalen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen fasst man alle grenzüberschreitenden Güter- und Faktorbewegungen zusammen. In Abhängigkeit von der Mobilität der Produktionsfaktoren und der Höhe der Translokationskosten (Transport-, Informationskosten, usw.) ergeben sich verschiedene Kombinationen, die wiederum den Rahmen verschiedener Teilgebiete internationaler Wirtschaftsbeziehungen widerspiegeln. So gehen zum Beispiel die Außenhandelstheorie und -politik, die im Mittelpunkt dieses Beitrags stehen, von vollkommener internationaler Faktorimmobilität aus, während Güter – zumindest teilweise – als international handelsfähig angenommen werden.

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## References (57)

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[The trade debate's unlevel playing field](publication/237231537_The_trade_debate's_unlevel_playing_field)

Article

Full-text available

- Jan 1999
- Cato J

- [![Ronald A. Cass](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Ronald A. Cass](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ronald-Cass-2)

Americans have a general understanding of trade. We understand that trade is good. We may not be exactly sure what ''free trade'' is, but we have a sense that it is mostly a good thing. Unfortunately, the instinctive appreciation that trade is beneficial is coupled with a woeful ignorance of why this is so. If you listen to politicians, you will quickly see that although trade is good, imports are bad. What's good about trade, so far as public discourse goes, is that it gives us the ability to export our goods to others. More exports, we are told, means more money. Jobs in ''export industries'' pay more than jobs in other parts of the economy. Exports drive the growth of our economy. But imports take bread out of Americans' mouths, take money out of the economy, pile up debts to other nations, and leave us dependent on others. Naturally, we have to permit some imports if we are to persuade others to admit our exports. But we must be on guard against the abuse of our goodwill by nations such as—the target here depends on when the discussion takes place—Japan or China or whatever nation we fear will just keep exporting to us until everything is made there and all we do here is flip burgers.

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[The Controversy Over Free Trade: The Gap Between Economists and the General Public](publication/5047252_The_Controversy_Over_Free_Trade_The_Gap_Between_Economists_and_the_General_Public)

Article

Full-text available

- Feb 2002
- FED RESERVE BANK ST

- [![Cletus Coughlin](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Cletus Coughlin](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cletus-Coughlin)

Despite economists’ nearly universal support of free trade, the general public in the United States has serious reservations about it. In this article, Cletus C. Coughlin examines the reasons for this difference of opinion and the primary suggestions for bridging this gap.> Economists stress that free trade allows and, in fact, forces a nation to maximize the (net) value of the goods and services produced within its borders. Similarly, free trade allows consumers to maximize the net benefits from the goods and services that they purchase and consume. In addition, free trade improves a nation’s growth prospects. Despite these benefits, the general public remains skeptical about free trade policies. Some opposition is due to a lack of understanding about the reasons for and the impact of international trade. Additional opposition arises because the general public differs from economists in how they weigh the costs and benefits of free trade policies and which issues trade negotiations should encompass. Implementing free trade policies imposes costs upon those incurring either job losses or wage reductions. Relative to economists, some opponents of free trade tend to weigh these costs more heavily than the benefits. In addition, some oppose free trade because of concerns that free trade contributes to the abuse of workers throughout the world and to environmental degradation.> To increase political support and to facilitate trade negotiations, Coughlin explores three increasingly controversial suggestions: increased education, policies to reduce the cost to those harmed by trade liberalization, and expansion of the issues covered in trade negotiations. Clearly, no easy answer exists for generating political support for one of the few issues that most economists agree upon—a nation’s economic well-being is best served by free trade.

[View](publication/5047252_The_Controversy_Over_Free_Trade_The_Gap_Between_Economists_and_the_General_Public)

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[The Economics of Trade Protection](publication/344904465_The_Economics_of_Trade_Protection)

Book

- Jun 1990

- [Neil Vousden](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Neil-Vousden-2182109221)

Over the past two decades there has been a gradual but fundamental change in the nature of trade protection. Even as international negotiation has succeeded in reducing tariffs to low levels, national governments have resorted to a range of increasingly intricate policies to protect their domestic industries from foreign competition. Direct quantitative restrictions on international trade have become particularly widespread. Such nontariff barriers often have very different effects from tariffs and require careful analysis in their own right. This book presents a systematic overview of the modern theory of trade protection. The material in the book divides naturally into four sections. The first section covers trade restrictions in competitive markets, the second trade restrictions and imperfect competition, the third the political economy of trade protection, and the fourth the theory of policy reform. The presentation makes extensive use of diagrams, with the more difficult mathematics included in six appendixes. This approach emphasises microeconomics and makes the book suitable for graduate and advanced undergraduate students in the social sciences who have taken one intermediate microeconomics course.

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[Internationale Wirtschaftsbeziehungen](publication/344076081_Internationale_Wirtschaftsbeziehungen)

Book

- Jan 2001

- [Gustav Dieckheuer](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Gustav-Dieckheuer-2180075566)

[View](publication/344076081_Internationale_Wirtschaftsbeziehungen)

[Trade Policy and Economic Welfare](publication/324371571_Trade_Policy_and_Economic_Welfare)

Article

- Mar 1976

- [J. N. Bhagwati](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/J-N-Bhagwati-2141131567)
- [W. M. Corden](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/W-M-Corden-2141092047)

[View](publication/324371571_Trade_Policy_and_Economic_Welfare)

[The Customs Union Issue.](publication/324282614_The_Customs_Union_Issue)

Article

- Aug 1951

- [P. T. Ellsworth](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/P-T-Ellsworth-2140936810)
- [Jacob Viner](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Jacob-Viner-2140931339)

[View](publication/324282614_The_Customs_Union_Issue)

[GATT und neue Welthandelsordnung: Globale und regionale Auswirkungen](publication/321644392_GATT_und_neue_Welthandelsordnung_Globale_und_regionale_Auswirkungen)

Book

- Jan 1996

- [![Michael Frenkel](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Michael Frenkel](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael-Frenkel)
- [Dieter Bender](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Dieter-Bender-2136128262)

[View](publication/321644392_GATT_und_neue_Welthandelsordnung_Globale_und_regionale_Auswirkungen)

[Current Issues in International Trade](publication/321545820_Current_Issues_in_International_Trade)

Book

- Jan 1996

- [David Greenaway](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/David-Greenaway-2135942415)

This revised and updated edition of this successful text takes into account developments since the first edition, which was published in 1985. It contains 9 specially commissioned essays by leading experts from around the world in the field of International Trade and looks at both the theoretical and policy issues of the subject. A new chapter has been added on Strategic Trade Policy and many of the other chapters have been extensively updated and rewritten.

[View](publication/321545820_Current_Issues_in_International_Trade)

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[Intra-Industry Trade and Adjustment: The European Experience](publication/321545287_Intra-Industry_Trade_and_Adjustment_The_European_Experience)

Book

- Jan 1999

- [Marius Brülhart](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Marius-Bruelhart-2135979863)
- [Robert C. Hine](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Robert-C-Hine-2135954073)

The book offers an authoritative overview of the topical issues surrounding intra-industry trade in Europe in the era of European economic integration. It brings together expert contributors from eight of the European Union member states. The theory of intra-industry trade is discussed and assessed through a comprehensive study of the patterns of trade in Europe and the individual member states over a thirty year period. This detailed empirical analysis allows conclusions to be drawn on issues including the impact of international trade on the domestic economy. The book arises from a major multinational programme co-ordinated from the University of Nottingham.

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[Außenwirtschaft](publication/321512681_Aussenwirtschaft)

Article

- Jan 2002

- [![Matthias Göcke](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Matthias Göcke](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Matthias-Goecke-2)
- [Thomas Köhler](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Thomas-Koehler-2013810180)

Die Bedeutung der Außenwirtschaftslehre wächst, je mehr die Globalisierung und damit der internationale Handel und Kapitalverkehr zunehmen. In diesem Lern- und Übungsbuch geht es darum, sich die notwendigen Kenntnisse von den internationalen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen aktiv zu erarbeiten. Dazu wird der relevante Stoff im Rahmen von Repetitorien knapp und deutlich zusammengefasst und dann anhand von Fragestellungen mit ausführlichen Musterlösungen aufbereitet. Modelltheoretische Zusammenhänge werden weitgehend in verbal-grafischer Form erläutert. Das Spektrum reicht von einführenden Aufgaben für das Breitenstudium bis hin zu anspruchsvolleren Themen aus dem Schwerpunktbereich. Aufgrund seiner Konzeption ist das Buch insbesondere für Selbstudium und Prüfungsvorbereitung geeignet.

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[Advanced International Trade: Theory and Evidence](publication/321274487_Advanced_International_Trade_Theory_and_Evidence)

Book

- Jan 2002

- [![Robert Feenstra](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Robert Feenstra](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert-Feenstra)

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[Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics](publication/315182238_Strategic_Trade_Policy_and_the_New_International_Economics)

Article

- Oct 1986
- FOREIGN AFF

- [William Diebold](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/William-Diebold-2124761848)
- [Paul R. Krugman](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Paul-R-Krugman-2124646089)

[View](publication/315182238_Strategic_Trade_Policy_and_the_New_International_Economics)

[Restructuring the GATT system](publication/313132652_Restructuring_the_GATT_system)

Article

- Jan 1991

- [Paul Streeten](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Paul-Streeten-2121661859)
- [John H. Jackson](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/John-H-Jackson-2121641713)

[View](publication/313132652_Restructuring_the_GATT_system)

[The Customs Union Issue](publication/313116693_The_Customs_Union_Issue)

Article

- Jan 1951

- [K. Martin](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/K-Martin-2121669734)
- [Jacob Viner](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Jacob-Viner-2121635727)

[View](publication/313116693_The_Customs_Union_Issue)

[Germany](publication/312905292_Germany)

Chapter

- Jan 1999

- [Heinz-Dieter Smeets](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Heinz-Dieter-Smeets-2121301860)

In the past 30 years the development of foreign trade in the Federal Republic of Germany1 has been marked by a steep rise in nominal exports and imports of goods and services. Only recently has this progression slowed down. For almost the whole of this period the trade balance showed a surplus, which reached its peak level in 1989. Subsequently the surplus decreased considerably due to German reunification, but it gradually recovered in the following years. The impressive and continuous increase of German foreign trade over time can be seen in Figure 8.1, which shows real exports and imports of goods. In 1960 the relation of foreign trade (export and import of goods) to GDP amounted to about 24 per cent. By 1990 this ratio rose to about 57 per cent reflecting Germany’s growing dependence on foreign trade. Since 1991, the ratio has fallen back to about 50 per cent. This reflects the effects of German unification since intra German trade has replaced trade with foreign countries.

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[The Emergence of the New Protectionism](publication/312765591_The_Emergence_of_the_New_Protectionism)

Chapter

- Jan 1983

- [David Greenaway](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/David-Greenaway-2121242707)

In Chapters 3 and 4 we examined the mechanics of tariff interventions. Such instruments are traditionally viewed as the principal method of intervention in international markets. In our review of post-war trade liberalisation in Chapter 5, however, we saw that where developed market economies (DMEs) are concerned, the tariff has become less important over the post-war period. Successive Rounds of GATT negotiations have resulted in average nominal tariffs being reduced to relatively low levels on manufactured goods.

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[International Trade and Economic Growth: Studies in Pure Theory](publication/275798947_International_Trade_and_Economic_Growth_Studies_in_Pure_Theory)

Article

- Jul 1959

- [R. Murray Havens](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-Murray-Havens-2072853195)
- [Harry G. Johnson](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Harry-G-Johnson-2072827579)

[View](publication/275798947_International_Trade_and_Economic_Growth_Studies_in_Pure_Theory)

[International Trade and Economic Growth: Studies in Pure Theory.](publication/274928266_International_Trade_and_Economic_Growth_Studies_in_Pure_Theory)

Article

- Sep 1963

- [A. J. Brown](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/A-J-Brown-2071438040)
- [H. G. Johnson](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/H-G-Johnson-2071440959)

[View](publication/274928266_International_Trade_and_Economic_Growth_Studies_in_Pure_Theory)

[Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics](publication/273082507_Strategic_Trade_Policy_and_the_New_International_Economics)

Article

- May 1988

- [![Sam Lanfranco](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Sam Lanfranco](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sam-Lanfranco)
- [Paul R. Krugman](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Paul-R-Krugman-2068284365)

[View](publication/273082507_Strategic_Trade_Policy_and_the_New_International_Economics)

[Trade Policy and Economic Welfare](publication/270346247_Trade_Policy_and_Economic_Welfare)

Article

- May 1976

- [![Alfred Steinherr](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Alfred Steinherr](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alfred-Steinherr)
- [W. M. Corden](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/W-M-Corden-2062149202)

[View](publication/270346247_Trade_Policy_and_Economic_Welfare)

[International Trade Policy: From Tariffs to the New Protectionism.](publication/270125100_International_Trade_Policy_From_Tariffs_to_the_New_Protectionism)

Article

- Dec 1984

- [F. V. Meyer](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/F-V-Meyer-2061649424)
- [![David Greenaway](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)David Greenaway](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Greenaway-2)

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[A free trade agreement between the EU and Japan—what is to be expected?](publication/269467934_A_free_trade_agreement_between_the_EU_and_Japan-what_is_to_be_expected)

Article

- Dec 2014

- [Dieter Smeets](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Dieter-Smeets-2272037942)

On their summit in May 2011, Japan and the EU decided to negotiate on a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA). Against this background, the study at hand analyzes PTAs between the EU and third countries by estimating gravity equations on a sector basis consisting of 1-digit SITC groups. On the one hand, it concludes that—except for trade in agricultural goods—PTAs increase bilateral trade above its normal level. On the other hand, that trade between the EU and Japan is undoubtedly too low with regard to distance and size. Therefore, a free trade agreement between the EU and Japan should have a considerable potential to prompt trade-creating effects that increase welfare in both countries. A necessary condition to exploit these gains is, however, not only to abolish tariffs but, more importantly, to reduce nontariff measures to trade.

[View](publication/269467934_A_free_trade_agreement_between_the_EU_and_Japan-what_is_to_be_expected)

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[An Essay on Trade and Transformation](publication/269453723_An_Essay_on_Trade_and_Transformation)

Article

- Mar 1965

- [Murray C. Kemp](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Murray-C-Kemp-2060337599)
- [S. B. Linder](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/S-B-Linder-2060335660)

[View](publication/269453723_An_Essay_on_Trade_and_Transformation)

[Import Competition and Response.](publication/266837640_Import_Competition_and_Response)

Article

- Jun 1983

- [![Peter Holmes](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Peter Holmes](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter-Holmes-2)
- [Jagdish N. Bhagwati](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Jagdish-N-Bhagwati-2056130298)
- [Louis Turner](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Louis-Turner-2056217439)
- [Neil McMullen](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Neil-McMullen-2056269432)

[View](publication/266837640_Import_Competition_and_Response)

[The Positive Theory of International Trade](publication/247317231_The_Positive_Theory_of_International_Trade)

Article

- Dec 1984
- Handbook Int Econ

- [Ronald W. Jones](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Ronald-W-Jones-2055237905)
- [![J. Peter Neary](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)J. Peter Neary](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/J-Neary)

The theory of international trade is one of the oldest subfields of economics. This chapter provides an overview of the present state of positive trade theory, concentrating on developments, at the same time it draws attention to the continuity in the development of the subject. It discusses the classical paradigm as a set of assumptions under which trade is limited to final commodities and markets are undistorted and characterized by constant returns to scale and perfect competition. Nowadays theories are motivated by certain key features of real-world trade: the vast exchange of raw materials and commodities that require further processing before being consumed, the large volume of intra-industry trade, and the importance of the size of markets. These extensions in analysis have been generally made without throwing away building blocks found in the earlier literature. Extensions of the simple models of production within the classical paradigm have broken out of the traditional two-by-two mold to analyze the importance of joint production, complementarity among factors, and general properties in higher dimensions. Earlier work on simpler trade models has proved of value in all these extensions.

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[Intra-Industry Trade: The Theory and Measurement of International Trade in Differentiated Products](publication/246519237_Intra-Industry_Trade_The_Theory_and_Measurement_of_International_Trade_in_Differentiated_Products)

Article

- Sep 1975

- [![Herbert Grubel](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Herbert Grubel](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Herbert-Grubel)
- [Peter J. Lloyd](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Peter-J-Lloyd-3241405)

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[The Theory of Customs Union](publication/243786141_The_Theory_of_Customs_Union)

Article

- Feb 1957

- [James E. Meade](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/James-E-Meade-2016766755)

[View](publication/243786141_The_Theory_of_Customs_Union)

[Political Economy of Trade Policy](publication/240202970_Political_Economy_of_Trade_Policy)

Article

- Dec 1995
- Handbook Int Econ

- [Dani Rodrik](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Dani-Rodrik-10196115)

This chapter discusses the political economy of trade policy. In principle, a political-economy model of trade policy must have four elements. Much of the trade theory is devoted to analyzing the consequences of trade policy for individuals who derive their incomes from different factors of production or sectors. First, it must contain a description of individual preferences over the domain of policy choices available to policymakers. Given an underlying economic model of the Heckscher–Ohlin or Ricardo–Viner type and the presumption that preferences for policy depend only on self-interest, individuals' policy rankings can be deuced on the basis of their factor endowments or sector-specific skills. Second, the model must contain a description of the way these individual preferences are aggregated and channeled, through pressure groups, political parties, or grass-roots movements, into political demands for a particular policy or another. This step involves a characterization of the modes of political organization, as well as of the forms that political influence takes. The chapter also reviews the choice among alternative trade policy instruments and elaborates the consequences of viewing trade policy from political-economy lenses.

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[Domestic Production and Foreign Trade: The American Capital Position Re-Examined](publication/239518630_Domestic_Production_and_Foreign_Trade_The_American_Capital_Position_Re-Examined)

Article

- Jan 1953
- Proc Am Phil Soc

- [Wassily W. Leontief](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Wassily-W-Leontief-2011802873)

[View](publication/239518630_Domestic_Production_and_Foreign_Trade_The_American_Capital_Position_Re-Examined)

[Restructuring the GATT System](publication/238323194_Restructuring_the_GATT_System)

Article

- Aug 1991
- FOREIGN AFF

- [Bradley J. McDonald](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Bradley-J-McDonald-2010690416)
- [John H. Jackson](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/John-H-Jackson-2010925968)

Part 1 The defective constitution of GATT: the history and perspective of GATT the GATT "constitution" trade negotiations - implications of the Uruguay round. Part 2 Perspectives on international economic institutions: the jurisprudence of a GATT "constitution" rule application and dispute settlement membership - selective or universal approach?. Part 3 A new constitution for world trade: reforming the GATT system.

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[The International Economy](publication/227389759_The_International_Economy)

Book

- Jan 1985

- [Peter B. Kenen](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Peter-B-Kenen-79562472)

This text is a rigorous introduction to international economics for upper-level undergraduates and above. The first half examines the causes and effects of international trade, how tariffs and other trade policies affect the gains from trade, and the ways in which governments try collectively to regulate those policies. The second half deals with monetary matters - the behavior of exchange rates, how trade and capital flows affect the functioning of monetary and fiscal policies, the causes and management of currency crises, and the new European Monetary Union (EMU). This fourth edition assesses the outcome of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, the work of the new World Trade Organization (WTO), and the challenges posed by regional trade blocs. It surveys recent theoretical work on currency crisis, examines recent crises in emerging-market countries and the role of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and appraises innovations in exchange-rate arrangements, including the EMU and the use of currency boards by emerging-market countries. A problem set follows each chapter.

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[The Economics of Trade Protection](publication/227388990_The_Economics_of_Trade_Protection)

Book

- May 1992

- [Neil Vousden](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Neil-Vousden-79980018)

Over the past two decades there has been a gradual but fundamental change in the nature of trade protection. Even as international negotiation has succeeded in reducing tariffs to low levels, national governments have resorted to a range of increasingly intricate policies to protect their domestic industries from foreign competition. Direct quantitative restrictions on international trade have become particularly widespread. Such nontariff barriers often have very different effects from tariffs and require careful analysis in their own right. This book presents a systematic overview of the modern theory of trade protection. The material in the book divides naturally into four sections. The first section covers trade restrictions in competitive markets, the second trade restrictions and imperfect competition, the third the political economy of trade protection, and the fourth the theory of policy reform. The presentation makes extensive use of diagrams, with the more difficult mathematics included in six appendixes. This approach emphasises microeconomics and makes the book suitable for graduate and advanced undergraduate students in the social sciences who have taken one intermediate microeconomics course.

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[The Monetary Approach to the Exchange Rate: Some Empirical Evidence](publication/227348285_The_Monetary_Approach_to_the_Exchange_Rate_Some_Empirical_Evidence)

Article

- Mar 1978
- IMF STAFF PAPERS

- [![John F. O. Bilson](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)John F. O. Bilson](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Bilson)

This paper examines the empirical validity of a simple monetary model of exchange rate determination. The model stresses that the exchange rate, which is the relative price of two monies, is determined by the relative supplies of, and demands for, the two monies, rather than by the condition for flow equilibrium in the balance of payments. It follows from this approach that the exchange rate is determined by the relative money supplies, the levels of real income, and the nominal interest rates in the two countries under consideration. The monetary model provides a useful tool for exchange rate analysis because it (a) clearly defines the role of speculation among the determinants of the exchange rate; (b) provides a workable definition of the equilibrium exchange rate; and (c) directly relates the equilibrium rate to the underlying instruments of monetary policy. The model is tested using data on the deutsche mark/pound rate during the current floating rate period. This particular rate was chosen because of the large variance in the variable stressed by the monetary approach. The empirical tests broadly support this approach, although the need for a more complete empirical model is evident. /// Cette Ã©tude examine la validitÃ© empirique d'un modÃ¨le monÃ©taire simple de la dÃ©termination du taux de change. Ce modÃ¨le fait ressortir que le taux de change, qui est le prix relatif de deux monnaies, est dÃ©terminÃ© par l'offre et la demande relatives des deux monnaies, plus que par la condition d'Ã©quilibre des flux dans la balance des paiements. Il dÃ©coule de cette thÃ©orie que le taux de change est dÃ©terminÃ© par l'offre de monnaie relative, le niveau du revenu rÃ©el et le taux d'intÃ©rÃªt nominal dans chacun des deux pays considÃ©rÃ©s. Le modÃ¨le monÃ©taire constitue un instrument utile pour l'analyse des taux de change en ce qu'il a) dÃ©finit clairement le rÃ´le de la spÃ©culation parmi les facteurs qui dÃ©terminent le taux de change, b) donne une dÃ©finition exploitable du taux de change d'Ã©quilibre, enfin c) Ã©tablit une relation directe entre le taux d'Ã©quilibre et les instruments de politique monÃ©taire sous-jacents. L'auteur teste le modÃ¨le pour les donnÃ©es sur le cours du deutsche mark par rapport Ã la livre pendant la pÃ©riode de flottement actuelle. Ce taux particulier a Ã©tÃ© choisi en raison de la variance Ã©levÃ©e de la variable mise en avant par la thÃ©orie monÃ©taire. Les essais empiriques corroborent largement cette thÃ©orie; il est nÃ©anmoins Ã©vident qu'un modÃ¨le empirique plus complet est nÃ©cessaire. /// En este trabajo se examina la validez empÃ­rica de un modelo monetario sencillo de determinaciÃ³n del tipo de cambio. El modelo subraya que el tipo de cambio, que es el precio relativo de dos monedas, estÃ¡ determinado por la oferta y la demanda relativas de ambas, y no por el equilibrio de flujos de la balanza de pagos. De este enfoque se deduce que el tipo de cambio estÃ¡ determinado por las ofertas monetarias relativas, los niveles de ingreso real y los tipos de interÃ©s nominales de los dos paÃ­ses analizados. El modelo monetario constituye un instrumento Ãºtil para el anÃ¡lisis del tipo de cambio porque: a) define claramente el papel de la especulaciÃ³n entre los determinantes del tipo de cambio; b) proporciona una definiciÃ³n operativa del tipo de cambio de equilibrio, y c) relaciona directamente el tipo de equilibrio con los instrumentos fundamentales de la polÃ­tica monetaria. En la verificaciÃ³n del modelo se utilizan datos sobre el tipo marco alemÃ¡n/libra esterlina durante el actual perÃ­odo de tipos flotantes. Este tipo se eligiÃ³ en razÃ³n de la amplia varianza de la variable subrayada por el enfoque monetario. Las pruebas empÃ­ricas respaldan en general este enfoque, aunque es evidente que se necesita un modelo empÃ­rico mÃ¡s completo.

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[Export Subsidies And International Market Share Rivalry](publication/222468457_Export_Subsidies_And_International_Market_Share_Rivalry)

Article

- Sep 1984
- J INT ECON

- [![James Brander](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)James Brander](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/James-Brander)
- [Barbara J. Spencer](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Barbara-J-Spencer-4212046)

Countries often perceive themselves as being in competition with each other for profitable international markets. In such a world export subsidies can appear as attractive policy tools because they improve the relative position of a domestic firm in noncooperative rivalries with foreign firms, enabling it to expand its market share and earn greater profits. In effect, subsidies change the initial conditions of the game that firms play. The terms of trade move against the subsidizing country, but its welfare can increase because, with imperfect competition, price exceeds the marginal cost of exports. International noncooperative equilibrium involves such subsidies by producing nations, even though they are jointly suboptimal.

[View](publication/222468457_Export_Subsidies_And_International_Market_Share_Rivalry)

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[The nonequivalence of tariffs, import quotas, and voluntary export restraints](publication/222340748_The_nonequivalence_of_tariffs_import_quotas_and_voluntary_export_restraints)

Article

- Nov 1978
- J INT ECON

- [![Wendy Takacs](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Wendy Takacs](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wendy-Takacs)

This paper compares the equilibrium levels of prices, imports, production and consumption under a tariff, an import quota, and a voluntary export restraint when each trade restriction is set so as to lead to the same quantity of imports. Competitive, domestic production monopoly, import monopoly, and export monopoly cases are examined. Voluntary export restraints are shown to have different effects than import quotas or tariffs, especially when some potential exporters remain outside the agreements.

[View](publication/222340748_The_nonequivalence_of_tariffs_import_quotas_and_voluntary_export_restraints)

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[The economics of trade protection / Neil Vousden](publication/44527403_The_economics_of_trade_protection_Neil_Vousden)

Article

- [Niel Vousden](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Niel-Vousden-967082)

Incluye bibliografía e índice

[View](publication/44527403_The_economics_of_trade_protection_Neil_Vousden)

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[Import Competition and Response](publication/37691560_Import_Competition_and_Response)

Article

- Jan 1982

- [Jagdish N. Bhagwati](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Jagdish-N-Bhagwati-3535625)

These papers, by a number of leading international-trade theorists, present

[View](publication/37691560_Import_Competition_and_Response)

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[Some Evidence on the Factor Content of West Germany's Foreign Trade](publication/24107652_Some_Evidence_on_the_Factor_Content_of_West_Germany's_Foreign_Trade)

Article

- Feb 1976

- [Robert M Stern](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Robert-M-Stern-3829402)

[View](publication/24107652_Some_Evidence_on_the_Factor_Content_of_West_Germany's_Foreign_Trade)

[Determination of trade flows and choice of trade partners: Reconciling the Heckscher-Ohlin and the Burenstam Linder models of international trade](publication/24066339_Determination_of_trade_flows_and_choice_of_trade_partners_Reconciling_the_Heckscher-Ohlin_and_the_Burenstam_Linder_models_of_international_trade)

Article

- Jun 1981

- [Ruth Arad](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Ruth-Arad-4383373)
- [![Seev Hirsch](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Seev Hirsch](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Seev-Hirsch-2)

This chapter examines empirical strategies that have been or could be used to evaluate the importance of agglomeration and trade models. This theoretical approach, widely known as “New Economic Geography” (NEG), emphasizes the interaction between transport costs and firm-level scale economies as a source of agglomeration. NEG focuses on forward and backward trade linkages as causes of observed spatial concentration of economic activity. We survey the existing literature, organizing the papers we discuss under the rubric of five interesting and testable hypotheses that emerge from NEG theory. We conclude the chapter with an overall assessment of the empirical support for NEG and suggest some directions for future research.

[View](publication/24066339_Determination_of_trade_flows_and_choice_of_trade_partners_Reconciling_the_Heckscher-Ohlin_and_the_Burenstam_Linder_models_of_international_trade)

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[Factor Proportions, Technology and West German Industry's International Trade Patterns](publication/24066163_Factor_Proportions_Technology_and_West_German_Industry's_International_Trade_Patterns)

Article

- Feb 1977

- [Frank Wolter](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Frank-Wolter-3936785)

Zusammenfassung Faktorproportionen, Technologie und internationale Arbeitsteilung: Der Fall der westdeutschen Industrie. — In der vorliegenden
Untersuchung wird die neo-Faktorproportionen-Hypothese und der neo-technologische Ansatz zur ErklÄrung der internationalen
Arbeitsteilung in vergleichbarer Weise auf die Struktur der WettbewerbsfÄhigkeit der westdeutschen Industrie und deren VerÄnderung
angewendet, um die Arbeitsteilung der Bundesrepublik im Handel mit der Welt insgesamt und im Handel mit den gro\\en weltwirtschaftlichen
Regionen zu erklÄren. Neben Humankapital, Sachkapital und Forschungs- und EntwicklungsintensitÄt werden RohstoffintensitÄt,
SkalenertrÄge und effektive Protektionsraten als Determinanten berücksichtigt. Es wird ein Testverfahren entwickelt und angewendet,
um zwischen den Hypothesen zu diskriminieren. Die Analyse zeigt, da\ die genannten Handelstheorien die interindustrielle Arbeitsteilung
der Bundesrepublik recht gut zu erklÄren vermögen, und zwar sowohl im Handel mit der Welt als auch im Handel mit den einzelnen
Regionen. Es ergibt sich, da\ die westdeutsche Wirtschaft neben der Erzeugung von rohstoff- und arbeitsintensiven Gütern tendenziell
komparative Nachteile auch in der Erzeugung von standardisierten (sachkapitalintensiven) Produkten aufweist und da\ die Nachteile
in diesen Produktionen im Zeitablauf zugenommen haben. Schlie\\lich zeigen sich signifikante Unterschiede im ErklÄrungsgehalt
der Hypothesen: Die Arbeitsteilung mit anderen Marktwirtschaften scheint tendenziell eher durch Faktoren, die dem neo-Faktorproportionen-Ansatz
zugrunde liegen, die Arbeitsteilung mit StaatshandelslÄndern eher durch technologische Faktoren bestimmt.

[View](publication/24066163_Factor_Proportions_Technology_and_West_German_Industry's_International_Trade_Patterns)

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[Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics](publication/23573588_Strategic_Trade_Policy_and_the_New_International_Economics)

Book

- Jan 1986

- [Paul R. Krugman](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Paul-R-Krugman-2080094354)

This volume of original essays brings the practical world of trade policy and of government and business strategy together with the world of academic trade theory. It focuses in particular on the impact of changes in the international trade environment and on how new developments and theory can guide our trade policy.

[View](publication/23573588_Strategic_Trade_Policy_and_the_New_International_Economics)

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[Tradable Services: Understanding the Scope and Impact of Services Outsourcing](publication/5112593_Tradable_Services_Understanding_the_Scope_and_Impact_of_Services_Outsourcing)

Article

- Oct 2005
- Brookings Trade Forum

- [![J. Bradford Jensen](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)J. Bradford Jensen](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/J-Jensen)
- [![Lori G. Kletzer](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Lori G. Kletzer](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lori-Kletzer)

We develop a new empirical approach to identify tradable service activities. Contrary to conventional views of service activities as nontradable, we find a significant number of service industries and occupations that appear tradable and substantial employment in these tradable activities. Workers employed in tradable service activities differ from those employed in tradable manufacturing and nontradable services. Workers in tradable service activities have higher skill levels and are paid higher wages than manufacturing workers or workers in nontradable service activities. In general, we find little evidence that tradable service activities have lower employment growth than other service activities. However, evidence suggests lower employment growth at the lowest end of the skill distribution. There is also evidence of higher worker displacement rates in tradable services. Workers displaced from tradable service activities are different from displaced manufacturing workers: Displaced tradable service workers have higher skills and higher predisplacement earnings than displaced manufacturing workers.

[View](publication/5112593_Tradable_Services_Understanding_the_Scope_and_Impact_of_Services_Outsourcing)

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[Increasing Returns, Monopolistic Competition, and International Trade](publication/4958392_Increasing_Returns_Monopolistic_Competition_and_International_Trade)

Article

- Nov 1979
- J INT ECON

- [Paul R. Krugman](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Paul-R-Krugman-66562207)

In this paper we examine the impact of membership in Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs) on trade between PTA members. Rather than considering the impact of PTA membership on the volume of trade we consider the impact of membership on the structure of trade. For a large sample of countries over the period 1962-2000 we find that membership in a PTA is associated with an increase in the extent of intra-industry trade. In addition, we find that the effect of PTA membership on IIT is larger when a PTA is formed between two developed countries.

[View](publication/4958392_Increasing_Returns_Monopolistic_Competition_and_International_Trade)

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[Scale Economies, Product Differentiation, and the Pattern of Trade](publication/4723097_Scale_Economies_Product_Differentiation_and_the_Pattern_of_Trade)

Article

- Feb 1980

- [Paul R. Krugman](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Paul-R-Krugman-66562207)

For some time now there has been con- siderable skepticism about the ability of comparative cost theory to explain the ac- tual pattern of international trade. Neither the extensive trade among the industrial countries, nor the prevalence in this trade of two-way exchanges of differentiated prod- ucts, make much sense in terms of standard theory. As a result, many people have con- cluded that a new framework for analyzing trade is needed.' The main elements of such a framework-economies of scale, the pos- sibility of product differentiation, and im- perfect competition-have been discussed by such authors as Bela Balassa, Herbert Grubel (1967,1970), and Irving Kravis, and have been "in the air" for many years. In this paper I present a simple formal analysis which incorporates these elements, and show how it can be used to shed some light on some issues which cannot be handled in more conventional models. These include, in particular, the causes of trade between economies with similar factor endowments, and the role of a large domestic market in encouraging exports. The basic model of this paper is one in which there are economies of scale in pro- duction and firms can costlessly differenti- ate their products. In this model, which is derived from recent work by Avinash Dixit and Joseph Stiglitz, equilibrium takes the form of Chamberlinian monopolistic com- petition: each firm has some monopoly power, but entry drives monopoly profits to zero. When two imperfectly competitive economies of this kind are allowed to trade, increasing returns produce trade and gains from trade even if the economies have iden- tical tastes, technology, and factor endow- ments. This basic model of trade is pre- sented in Section I. It is closely related to a model I have developed elsewhere; in this paper a somewhat more restrictive formula- tion of demand is used to make the analysis in later sections easier. The rest of the paper is concerned with two extensions of the basic model. In Sec- tion II, I examine the effect of transporta- tion costs, and show that countries with larger domestic markets will, other things equal, have higher wage rates. Section III then deals with "home market" effects on trade patterns. It provides a formal justifica- tion for the commonly made argument that countries will tend to export those goods for which they have relatively large domestic markets. This paper makes no pretense of general- ity. The models presented rely on extremely restrictive assumptions about cost and util- ity. Nonetheless, it is to be hoped that the paper provides some useful insights into those aspects of international trade which simply cannot be treated in our usual models.

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[Is Free Trade Passer](publication/4722665_Is_Free_Trade_Passer)

Article

- Nov 1987
- J ECON PERSPECT

- [Paul R. Krugman](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Paul-R-Krugman-66562207)

We develop and implement a collocation method to solve for an equilibrium in the dynamic legislative bargaining game of Duggan and Kalandrakis (2008). We formulate the collocation equations in a quasi-discrete version of the model, and we show that the collocation equations are locally Lipchitz continuous and directionally differentiable. In numerical experiments, we successfully implement a globally convergent variant of Broyden's method on a preconditioned version of the collocation equations, and the method economizes on computation cost by more than 50% compared to the value iteration method. We rely on a continuity property of the equilibrium set to obtain increasingly precise approximations of solutions to the continuum model. We showcase these techniques with an illustration of the dynamic core convergence theorem of Duggan and Kalandrakis (2008) in a nine-player, two-dimensional model with negative quadratic preferences.

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Internationaler Handel

- Dieter Bender

Hg., Palgrave Handbook of International Trade

- Daniel Bernhofen

Aktuelle Freihandelsverhandlungen

- Bundesministerium Für Wirtschaft Und Energie

The political economy of protectionism

- Robert Baldwin

CETA - Das europäisch-kanadische Wirtschafts- und Handelsabkommen

- Bundesministerium Für Wirtschaft Und Energie

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## Recommended publications

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Chapter

### [Die Abwälzung von Anpassungslasten des Arbeitsmarktes durch Politik](publication/315559523_Die_Abwalzung_von_Anpassungslasten_des_Arbeitsmarktes_durch_Politik)

January 1987

- [Bernhard Blanke](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Bernhard-Blanke-2003380462)
- ![Hubert Heinelt](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Hubert Heinelt](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hubert-Heinelt)
- [Carl-Wilhelm Macke](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Carl-Wilhelm-Macke-2108378769)

Auf mittlere Sicht wird man von einer jährlichen durchschnittlichen Arbeitslosenzahl von 2 Mio oder mehr ausgehen können. Jedenfalls deuten sämtliche Vorausberechnungen (Kühlewind 1985) darauf hin. Selbst wenn es nur 1 Mio wäre, bliebe das sozialpolitische Problem der Arbeitslosigkeit bestehen. Aus volkswirtschaftstheoretischer Sicht mag es zwar “nur” ein Definitionsproblem sein, ob eine ... \[Show full abstract\] Situation mit einer Arbeitslosenquote von 4% (l Mio bei 25 Mio Beschäftigten) noch als “Vollbeschäftigung” betrachtet wird, je nachdem, wie deren Ursache bestimmt wird; aus der Sicht der Sozialpolitik ist eine solche Quote mindestens unter dem Sozialstaatsgebot ein Handlungsproblem. Wenn es richtig ist, daß die langanhaltende Arbeitslosigkeit ihre Ursache in Wachstumsdefiziten hat (“wachstumsdefizitäre” oder “kapazitätsdefizitäre” Arbeitslosigkeit, vgl. Scharpf 1985, 170/176), d.h. selbst bei steigendem Wachstum mit Auslastung der Produktionskapazitäten und (möglicherweise) Schaffung neuer Arbeitsplätze immer noch ein erheblicher Überschuß an Arbeitskräfteangebot vorhanden sein wird, wird sich der Prozeß des ‘Aussiebens’ unter den Arbeitslosen fortsetzen. Mit anderen Worten: bei einem hohen Bestand an Arbeitslosen werden strukturelle Anpassungsprozesse (z.B. Umschulung, Mobilität) aus dem ‘Heer der Arbeitslosen’ jene aussieben, die noch anpassungsfähig sind, während diejenigen, die es nicht mehr sind, entweder auf Positionen des externen Arbeitsmarktes ‘fluktuieren’ (Kurzzeitbeschäftigung, Teilarbeitszeit) oder nicht mehr vermittelbar sein werden. Die Struktur des “Arbeitslosenbestandes” wird sich erheblich verändern.

[Read more](publication/315559523_Die_Abwalzung_von_Anpassungslasten_des_Arbeitsmarktes_durch_Politik)

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