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<mask> or Hastiin Dághaaʼ (ca. 1820–1871) was a  Navajo political and spiritual leader. Background
His name means "little bearded one" in Spanish (barbón = bearded and -cito = diminutive). He also was known as Hástiin Dághá ("Man with the Whiskers"), ,  ("The Orator"), and  ("Blessing Speaker"). <mask> was born into the Ma'íí deeshgíízhiníí (Coyote Pass People) clan at Cañon de Chelly in 1820 and was a brother to Delgadito. Political career
He was a signatory of several treaties between the United States and Navajos, including the Doniphan Treaty of 1846 (Also known as the Bear Springs Treaty), which was an attempt to establish peace between the Navajo and Americans during the Mexican War. This treaty proved to be unsuccessful, as not all of the Navajo leaders signed it.This would later lead to armed rebellion against the United States where <mask> worked together with another Navajo, Manuelito, in order to try and stop the forced relocation of Navajo tribe members to Bosque Redondo. <mask> was the Head Chief of the Navajo when the Bosque Redondo Treaty of 1868 was signed. This treaty contained articles which would end hostilities between the United States and the Navajo people, as well as allowing them to return to their ancestral land at Cañon de Chelly in Arizona and having a reservation established there. The impact of this aspect of the treaty was the end of the Long Walk of the Navajo which had claimed the lives of thousands of Navajo people. Of all the Navajos of his time, <mask> is probably most responsible for the long-term success of the Navajo culture and relations with non-Navajos. As well as being established as a skillful negotiator and leader of the Navajo people. Shortly after the enactment of the Bosque Redando Treaty, <mask> died in 1871 at Cañon de Chelly.Barboncito was also known as “The Orator” and “Blessing Speaker”, and did not participate in skirmishes amongst the Navajo and White people. In the 1850s, Barboncito was considered a mediator between the two conflicting groups, and proposed peace between them in order to prevent escalating warfare. Despite this, problems reigned on between the White people and the Navajo people. Navajos and whites fought over the grazing lands of Canyon Bonito near Fort Defiance, located in what is now the eastern part of the state of Arizona. The Navajos had let their horses graze in these pastures for centuries, but the newcomers also wanted the lands for their horses. In 1860, U.S. soldiers slaughtered a number of Navajo horses, leading the Navajos to raid army herds in order to replenish their losses. The White attack on Navajo horses forced Barboncito to take action.<mask> led one-thousand men to Fort Defiance. <mask>’s great efforts nearly won the Navajo the fort, but he and his team of warriors were driven off by the US Army into the Chuska Mountains, but there the United States’ forces could not withstand the Navajo hit-and-run attacks. Stalemated, American Indians and whites sat down at a peace council once again. <mask>, Manuelito, Delgadito, Armijo, Herrero Grande, and 17 other chiefs met Colonel Edward R. S. Canby at Fort Fauntleroy, 35 miles south of Fort Defiance. They all agreed to the terms of a treaty in 1861. For a time, the Navajos and the whites tried to forge the bonds of friendship. Despite the treaty, an undercurrent of distrust caused conflict between the two groups to continue.The United States led an extensive campaign to "burn-and-imprison" the Navajos, administered by Colonel Christopher "Kit" Carson and Ute mercenaries, historic enemies of the Navajos. Barboncito made peaceful overtures to General James H. Carleton, Carson's commanding officer, in 1862, but the assault against the Navajo people dragged on. Carson destroyed fields, orchards, and hogans—an earth-covered Navajo dwelling—and he confiscated cattle from the Continental Divide to the Colorado River. Though only 78 of the 12,000 Navajo people were killed, Carson's efforts crushed the Navajo spirit. By 1864, he had devastated Cañon de Chelly, hacking down thousands of peach trees and obliterating acres of corn fields. Eventually, a shortage of food and supplies forced the Navajos to surrender their sacred stronghold. In 1864 <mask> was captured in his hometown of Cañon de Chelly by troops under the command of Colonel Christopher “Kit” Carson.After experiencing the terrible conditions under Colonel Christopher “Kit” Carson, <mask> escaped with about 500 followers in June 1865. That same year, the "Long Walk" began, in which 8,000 Navajo people — two-thirds of the entire tribe — were escorted by 2,400 soldiers across 300 miles to Bosque Redondo, New Mexico. Almost 200 of the Indians died en route. The remaining 4,000 Navajos escaped west with Manuelito, who eventually surrendered in 1866 (two months before Barboncito). <mask> was the last Navajo leader to be captured and led to Bosque Redondo. Once he found conditions there worse than imagined, he escaped and returned to Cañon de Chelly, but he was recaptured. In 1868, <mask>, Manuelito, and a delegation of chiefs traveled to Washington, D.C., after General Carleton had been transferred from Fort Sumner at Bosque Redondo and could no longer inflict his policies on the Navajo.<mask> was granted great status by the whites—more authority than would have been accorded him by tribal custom. He played a leading role in negotiations with General William T. Sherman and Colonel Samuel F. Tappan, telling them that the creator of the Navajo people had warned the tribe never to go east of the Rio Grande River. However, the US government was not inclined to return all their land to the Navajos. Sherman provided <mask> and the other chiefs with three choices: go east to Indian Territory, relocate in New Mexico and be governed by the laws of that territory, or return to a diminished portion of their original lands. The Navajos chose the last option. On June 1, 1868, the Navajo leaders, including <mask>, signed the Treaty of Bosque Redondo with the U.S. government. As reprinted in Wilcombe Washburn's American Indian and the United States: A Documentary History, the agreement begins: "From this day forward all war between the parties to this agreement shall forever cease."He is thought to have been buried with a handwritten copy of the treaty. Death and legacy
Barboncito was a gifted negotiator, as well as talented ceremonial singer. Shortly after the Bosque Redondo treaty was enacted, Barboncito died in 1871, at the age of 50 in his home village at Cañon de Chelly. References

External links
 Barboncito
 Barboncito by Harrison Lapahie

Navajo leaders
1820 births
1871 deaths
19th-century Native Americans

masks: Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito Barboncito


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<mask>, better known as Sheikh <mask> () was a 19th-century Somali political/religious leader, a social reformer, merchant and a jurist that was instrumental in the modern foundation of Hargeisa. He hailed from the Yunis Nuh division of the wider Sacad Muuse Habr Awal Isaaq clan. His tomb is now a venerated Sufi shrine in the city. Biography

Early life
Born into a wealthy mercantile family in Berbera, Madar was sponsored by his father to study religion for 20 years in Harar. Harar was the centre of Islamic learning in the Horn, and a very familiar city for his Habr Awal clan which controlled the lucrative caravan trade stretching to Berbera with strong ties with the Emirate of Harar. Upon the completion of his studies Sheikh Kabir Khalil one of the three top ulema in Harar advised him to establish a Qadiriyya tariqa commune in present-day Hargeisa. Move to Hargeisa

In the mid 19th century Hargeisa and the surrounding region was a hotbed of clan strife with raids being made on caravans attempting to pass through.Madar alongside other Sufi sheikhs established the Jama'a Weyn or the big congregation in Hargeisa. The new congregation adhered to the 900 year old Qadiriyya order established by renowned Shaykh Abdul Qadir Gilani and introduced new practices that would put Hargeisa on the trajectory to becoming the largest Somali city in Somaliland and the second largest Somali inhabited city to date. Hargeisa and its environs had suitable soil and ample water supply for agriculture yet the pastoralists had not been taking advantage of this fact. Madar alongside the other leaders of Jam'a Weyn introduced the cultivation of sorghum and the new construction of permanent housing and creating his grand mosque in 1883. The Sheikh was also responsible for leading the communal prayers supplicating to Allah for rain in a ritual known as roobdoon. Sheikh <mask> and Isaaq Sultan Deria Hassan met outside Hargeisa in 1870 to discuss issues regarding the new town and agreed that poaching and tree cutting in the vicinity should be banned. The Saad Musa branch of the Habr Awal began to settle in Hargeisa under the watch of Madar and the Sultan Deria and eagerly took up the new farming methods.The Jama'a formed a nucleus that attracted other pastoralists to come and settle in the burgeoning town. As well, clan conflicts were mitigated as the new community had managed to unify on a shared religious identity rather than aligning strictly on traditional clan basis. With the Sheikh succeeding in the task delegated to him by his master Sheikh Kabir. Religious leaders in the Jama'a took it upon themselves to place the disabled in the region under their care. Berbera debates
In Berbera the established Qadiriyya tariqa would soon be challenged by a new tariqa. The most prominent Sheikh of the Salihiyya order was Mahmud Abdalla Hassan who arrived in Berbera in 1895 and constructed his own masjid and began propagating. He was strongly against khat and chewing tobacco, both of which the Qadiriyya had permitted.Amongst other disputes he would come to debate the leading Qadiriyya sheikhs of Berbera including Aw Gaas and Xaaji Ibrahim Xirsi. Sheikh <mask> the leader of Somali Qadiriyya was invited to participate in 1897 and after rigorous discussion, the Qadiriyya tariqa had proved victorious and Mahmud Abdalla Hassan had been refuted. British authorities took note of the disturbance and turmoil and he was thus expelled from the city. The divisions were deep and both sides had accused the other of heresy, Mahmud Abdalla Hassan would go on to form the Dervish movement based on Salihiyya just two years after the debates partly in rebuke of the Qadiriyya status quo. Influence & anti Ethiopian efforts

As a respected elder and influential peacemaker Sheikh <mask> held considerable sway over the Habr Awal clan and this leverage was recognized by the British Parliament in the face of the Salihiyya Dervish Movement which had severely disrupted the trade of British Somaliland. The protectorate was required to raise its own revenues to cover expenses and trade being halted or crippled was a massive blow to stability in the region. In the 1901 Parliamentary Sessional Report <mask>'s influence is discussed
Sheikh Matter the head of the religious community here is entirely on the side of law and order and exerts considerable influence over the Habr Awal tribes in this direction, one and all of whom are opposed to the Mullah's faction

Reports are now current that the Mullah will move towards Odweina.At Hargaisa Sheikh Mattar is collecting the Aidagalleh and Habr Awal tribes to oppose his advances in that direction. Sheikh can command a sufficient following to safeguard Hargaisa, and I should say that the Mullah will not attempt to penetrate so far west. As well, the quickly expanding Ethiopian Empire had taken large swathes of new territory around the turn of the century and tribes just outside the protectorate were cowed to pay tribute to General Ras Makonnen. His forces threatened Hargeisa itself and coerced tribes to leave British protection. Sheikh <mask> alongside other traditional leaders organized the scouting alongside protectorate authorities to gain advanced warning of potentially devastating attack. Fortunately, Makonnen was checked and the raid did not materialize. Legacy

Following <mask>'s death in 1918 his son Yusuf followed in his footsteps and became a respected Sheikh in his own right.However, His other son Ali Sh <mask> Ahmed chose to become an entrepreneur and become a successful and wealthy entrepreneur with the blessing of his father Sheikh <mask>. At a later years. <mask> <mask>'s son Sh Yussuf <mask> Madar later become the 2nd Chairman of SNM and was a scholar and teacher and the first Foreign Minister of Somaliland. Sh Yusuf's son Ibrahim Yusuf <mask>]], also a Sheikh, would go on to be the lead mediator in the grass roots reconciliation process of the northern clans following the Somali Civil War at the Borama Conference. Ibrahim ensured adequate clan representation to truly create a lasting peace in Somaliland. Hargeisa has grown to become a vibrant cultural hub and is the current capital of Somaliland. The eponymously named neighborhood of Sheikh Madar today in Hargeisa is one of the oldest in the city and the site of the original jama'a falls in the area.Sheikh Madar's introductions and reforms left behind a lasting effect that continuous into the present day. He introduced permanent settlements, reforming nomadic life based on following after the rains and pastures, Second he brought together members of various clans in an affiliation of brotherhood and directed his followers toward agriculture, changing the culture of nomadic pastoralism and as well as the culture based on single clan loyalty. The impact of Sheikh Madar's introduction of agriculture can be seen in the agricultural firms in the area west of Hargeisa, Gabiley and Borama districts. See also
 Sheikh Ibrahim Sheikh <mask> Madar's grandson and former Guurti leader
Kabir Khalil Sheikh Madar's teacher
Sultan Deria Hassan, Grand Sultan of the Isaaq clan
Harald George Carlos Swayne British officer & author of Seventeen Trips to Somaliland who photographed Sheikh Madar
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan leader of the Dervish movement and prominent Salihiyya Sheikh who was opposed to Qadiriyya and debated Madar
Hargeisa the setting of most of Madar's adult life
Sheikh Uways Al-Barawi leading Qadiriyya scholar from Barawa and fiercely anti-Salihiyya, architect of the Benadir revolt
Harar the city where he studied and became versed in religion

References

Somalian religious leaders
Somalian Muslims
19th-century Somalian people
20th-century Somalian people
1825 births
1918 deaths
Isaaq Sultanate

masks:
Madar Ahmed Shirwac
Madar
Madar
Madar
Madar
Madar
Madar
Madar
Madar
Madar
Ali Sheikh
Madar
Ali Sheikh
Madar
Yusuf Sheikh


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<mask> (born January 29, 1952) is an American writer and illustrator who has worked in diverse areas, from comic strips and toy design to advertising and editorial art. Early life
<mask> was born in New Haven, Connecticut. He attended Cooper Union School of Art but left in his third year, when, with the help of Larry Hama and Neal Adams, he began to get work in the comic book industry. Career

Comics
He penciled stories for DC’s horror line and assisted on Little Orphan Annie for Tex Blaisdell, who took over the strip after the death of Harold Gray. In December 1973, Ralph Reese introduced Kirchner to Wally Wood, for whom he worked as assistant for several years. In the mid-1970s, Kirchner wrote and illustrated the surrealistic comic strip Dope Rider  for High Times. For Heavy Metal he did an equally surrealistic monthly strip, the bus (1979–85).These strips were collected in a book published by Ballantine in 1987. A new edition has been released in 2012 by French publisher Tanibis. <mask> also wrote and illustrated occasional short features for Heavy Metal and Epic Illustrated. Most of them were collected in the book Realms (Catalan Communications, 1987). In 1981, through his brother <mask>, a Zen Buddhist monk, <mask> met the Zen practitioner and author Janwillem van de Wetering. Together they produced a graphic detective novel, Murder by Remote Control (Ballantine, 1986). In 1983–84, Kirchner did the licensing art and in-pack comic books for the Robo Force robot toy line from CBS Toys.From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, he wrote and drew comics features for He-Man, GoBots, ThunderCats, G.I. Joe and Power Rangers magazines, published by Telepictures (later Welsh Publications). He illustrated a surreal cartoon for VQ Magazine and the long-running Jack B. Quick feature in Sports Illustrated for Kids. <mask> stopped doing comics from the mid-90s to early 2010s. Between 2013 and 2015 he drew new episodes of the bus which have been published in various magazines in US and in Europe. He also relaunched Dope Rider for High Times.He is currently doing a comic strip, Hieronymus & Bosch, which is featured in the comics section of the Adult Swim website. He drew a four-page autobiographical story for The Boston Globe 2015 Boomers Issue. Illustration

In the 1970s and early 1980s, Kirchner did several dozen covers for the pornographic magazine Screw. He regularly did illustrations for The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and other publications. Toy design
In 1981, he co-designed a line of military action figures, the Eagle Force, for the Mego Corporation. Kirchner freelanced regularly for Tyco Toys, working on the Dino-Riders, Crash Dummies, and Spy-Tech toy lines, for which he wrote the back stories, did design work, wrote and drew in-pack comics and scripted for animation. Non fiction Books
He illustrated Col. Jeff Cooper's To Ride, Shoot Straight and Speak the Truth, as well as seven subsequent books for the noted firearms authority and big game hunter.<mask> wrote three pop-culture books for Rhino Entertainment. The first, Forgotten Fads and Fabulous Flops, inspired an episode of The History Channel's Modern Marvels, "Failed Inventions", in which Kirchner is featured. He has published five books with Paladin Press: The Deadliest Men, Dueling With the Sword and Pistol, Jim Cirillo's Tales of the Stakeout Squad, More of the Deadliest Men Who Ever Lived, and Bowie Knife Fights, Fighters, and Fighting Techniques. Advertising
From 1996 to 2002, <mask> held the post of senior art director at Jordan, McGrath, Case & Taylor (later Arnold New York). <mask> and his creative partner, writer Andrew Cahill, created a campaign for Zest body wash featuring football's Craig "Ironhead" Heyward. In 2002, Kirchner returned to freelance illustration, working primarily in advertising. Personal life
Kirchner lives in Connecticut with his wife, Sandy Rabinowitz, an illustrator specializing in equine art.They have three adult children. Bibliography

Comics
 Murder by Remote Control with Janwillem van de Wetering  (Ballantine, 1986, Dover, 2016 (reissue ed.)) Realms (Catalan Communications, 1987)
 The Bus (Ballantine, 1987; Tanibis, 2012 (reissue ed.)) The Big Book of Losers: Pathetic but True Tales of the World's Most Titanic Failures (DC Comics, 1997)
 The Bus 2 (Tanibis, 2015)
 Awaiting the Collapse: Selected Works 1974 - 2014 (Tanibis, 2017)
 Hieronymus & Bosch (Tanibis, 2018)
 Dope Rider: A Fistful of Delirium (Tanibis, 2021)

Non fiction
 Forgotten Fads and Fabulous Flops: An Amazing Collection of Goofy Stuff That Seemed Like a Good Idea at the Time (Rhino, 1995)
 Everything You Know is Wrong (Rhino, 1995)
 Oops!

masks:
Paul Kirchner
Paul Kirchner
Paul Kirchner
Thomas Kirchner
Paul Kirchner
Paul Kirchner
Kirchner
Kirchner
Kirchner


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<mask> (born March 26, 1973) is an American computer scientist and Internet entrepreneur. He is best known as one of the co-founders of Google, along with Sergey Brin. <mask> was the chief executive officer of Google from 1997 until August 2001 (stepping down in favor of Eric Schmidt) then from April 2011 until July 2015 when he moved to become CEO of  Alphabet Inc. (created to deliver "major advancements" as Google's parent company), a post he held until December 4, 2019. He remains an Alphabet board member, employee, and controlling shareholder. Creating Google built a significant amount of wealth. According to Bloomberg Billionaires Index, as of February 2022, <mask> has a net worth of approximately $123 billion, making him the fifth-wealthiest person in the world. <mask> is the co-creator and namesake of PageRank, a search ranking algorithm for Google.He received the Marconi Prize in 2004 with co-writer Brin. Early life and education
<mask> was born on March 26, 1973, in Lansing, Michigan. His mother is Jewish; his maternal grandfather later immigrated to Israel, though <mask>'s household growing up was secular. His father, Carl Victor <mask>., earned a PhD in computer science from the University of Michigan. BBC reporter Will Smale described him as a "pioneer in computer science and artificial intelligence". <mask>'s father was a computer science professor at Michigan State University and his mother Gloria was an instructor in computer programming at Lyman Briggs College at the same institution. During an interview, <mask> recalled his childhood home "was usually a mess, with computers, science, and technology magazines and Popular Science magazines all over the place", an environment in which he immersed himself.<mask> was an avid reader during his youth, writing in his 2013 Google founders letter: "I remember spending a huge amount of time pouring [sic] over books and magazines". According to writer Nicholas Carlson, the combined influence of <mask>'s home atmosphere and his attentive parents "fostered creativity and invention". <mask> also played instruments and studied music composition while growing up. His parents sent him to music summer camp — Interlochen Arts Camp at Interlochen, Michigan, and <mask> has mentioned that his musical education inspired his impatience and obsession with speed in computing. "In some sense, I feel like music training led to the high-speed legacy of Google for me". In an interview <mask> said that "In music, you're very cognizant of time. Time is like the primary thing" and that "If you think about it from a music point of view, if you're a percussionist, you hit something, it's got to happen in milliseconds, fractions of a second".<mask> was first attracted to computers when he was six years old, as he was able to "play with the stuff lying around"—first-generation personal computers—that had been left by his mother and father. He became the "first kid in his elementary school to turn in an assignment from a word processor". His older brother also taught him to take things apart and before long he was taking "everything in his house apart to see how it worked". He said that "from a very early age, I also realized I wanted to invent things. So I became interested in technology and business. Probably from when I was 12, I knew I was going to start a company eventually." Education
<mask> attended the Okemos Montessori School (now called Montessori Radmoor) in Okemos, Michigan, from ages 2 to 7 (1975 to 1979).He attended East Lansing High School graduating in 1991. In summer school, he attended Interlochen Center for the Arts playing flute but mainly saxophone for two summers. <mask> holds a Bachelor of Science in computer engineering from the University of Michigan, with honors and a Master of Science in computer science from Stanford University. While at the University of Michigan, <mask> created an inkjet printer made of Lego bricks (literally a line plotter), after he thought it possible to print large posters cheaply with the use of inkjet cartridges—<mask> reverse-engineered the ink cartridge, and built the electronics and mechanics to drive it. <mask> served as the president of the Beta Epsilon chapter of the Eta Kappa Nu honor society, and was a member of the 1993 "Maize & Blue" University of Michigan Solar Car team. As an undergraduate at the University of Michigan, he proposed that the school replace its bus system with a personal rapid transit system, which is essentially a driverless monorail with separate cars for every passenger. He also developed a business plan for a company that would use software to build a music synthesizer during this time.PhD studies and research
After enrolling in a computer science PhD program at Stanford University, <mask> was in search of a dissertation theme and considered exploring the mathematical properties of the World Wide Web, understanding its link structure as a huge graph. His supervisor, Terry Winograd, encouraged him to pursue the idea, and <mask> recalled in 2008 that it was the best advice he had ever received. He also considered doing research on telepresence and self-driving cars during this time. <mask> focused on the problem of finding out which web pages linked to a given page, considering the number and nature of such backlinks as valuable information for that page. The role of citations in academic publishing would also become pertinent for the research. Sergey Brin, a fellow Stanford PhD student, would soon join Page's research project, nicknamed "BackRub." Together, the pair authored a research paper titled "The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine" , which became one of the most downloaded scientific documents in the history of the Internet at the time.John Battelle, co-founder of Wired magazine, wrote that Page had reasoned that the:

... entire Web was loosely based on the premise of citation—after all, what is a link but a citation? If he could devise a method to count and qualify each backlink on the Web, as <mask> puts it "the Web would become a more valuable place." Battelle further described how <mask> and Brin began working together on the project:

At the time <mask> conceived of BackRub, the Web comprised an estimated 10 million documents, with an untold number of links between them. The computing resources required to crawl such a beast were well beyond the usual bounds of a student project. Unaware of exactly what he was getting into, <mask> began building out his crawler. The idea's complexity and scale lured Brin to the job. A polymath who had jumped from project to project without settling on a thesis topic, he found the premise behind BackRub fascinating."I talked to lots of research groups" around the school, Brin recalls, "and this was the most exciting project, both because it tackled the Web, which represents human knowledge, and because I liked <mask>." Search engine development
To convert the backlink data gathered by BackRub's web crawler into a measure of importance for a given web page, Brin and <mask> developed the PageRank algorithm, and realized that it could be used to build a search engine far superior to existing ones. The algorithm relied on a new technology that analyzed the relevance of the backlinks that connected one web page to another. Combining their ideas, the pair began utilizing <mask>'s dormitory room as a machine laboratory, and extracted spare parts from inexpensive computers to create a device that they used to connect the now nascent search engine with Stanford's broadband campus network. After filling <mask>'s room with equipment, they then converted Brin's dorm room into an office and programming center, where they tested their new search engine designs on the Web. The rapid growth of their project caused Stanford's computing infrastructure to experience problems. <mask> and Brin used the former's basic HTML programming skills to set up a simple search page for users, as they did not have a web page developer to create anything visually elaborate.They also began using any computer part they could find to assemble the necessary computing power to handle searches by multiple users. As their search engine grew in popularity among Stanford users, it required additional servers to process the queries. In August 1996, the initial version of Google, still on the Stanford University website, was made available to Internet users. By early 1997, the BackRub page described the state as follows:

BackRub already exhibited the rudimentary functions and characteristics of a search engine: a query input was entered and it provided a list of backlinks ranked by importance. <mask> recalled: "We realized that we had a querying tool. It gave you a good overall ranking of pages and ordering of follow-up pages." <mask> said that in mid-1998 they finally realized the further potential of their project: "Pretty soon, we had 10,000 searches a day.And we figured, maybe this is real." <mask> and Brin's vision has been compared to that of Johannes Gutenberg, the inventor of modern printing:
In 1440, Johannes Gutenberg introduced Europe to the mechanical printing press, printing Bibles for mass consumption. The technology allowed for books and manuscripts – originally replicated by hand – to be printed at a much faster rate, thus spreading knowledge and helping to usher in the European Renaissance ... Google has done a similar job. The comparison was also noted by the authors of The Google Story: "Not since Gutenberg ... has any new invention empowered individuals, and transformed access to information, as profoundly as Google." Also, not long after the two "cooked up their new engine for web searches, they began thinking about information that was at the time beyond the web" such as digitizing books and expanding health information. Google

1998–2010

Founding
Mark Malseed wrote in a 2003 feature story:Soliciting funds from faculty members, family and friends, Brin and Page scraped together enough to buy some servers and rent that famous garage in Menlo Park. ... [soon after], Sun Microsystems co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim wrote a $100,000 cheque to "Google, Inc." The only problem was, "Google, Inc." did not yet exist—the company hadn't yet been incorporated.For two weeks, as they handled the paperwork, the young men had nowhere to deposit the money.In 1998, Brin and Page incorporated Google, Inc. with the initial domain name of "Googol", derived from a number that consists of one followed by one hundred zeros—representing the vast amount of data that the search engine was intended to explore. Following inception, <mask> appointed himself as CEO, while Brin, named Google's co-founder, served as Google's president. Writer Nicholas Carlson wrote in 2014:The pair's mission was "to organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful." With a US$1-million loan from friends and family, the inaugural team moved into a Mountain View office by the start of 2000. In 1999, Page experimented with smaller servers so Google could fit more into each square meter of the third-party warehouses the company rented for their servers. This eventually led to a search engine that ran much faster than Google's competitors at the time. By June 2000, Google had indexed one billion Internet URLs (Uniform Resource Locators), making it the most comprehensive search engine on the Web at the time.The company cited NEC Research Institute data in its June 26 press release, stating that "there are more than 1 billion web pages online today", with Google "providing access to 560 million full-text indexed web pages and 500 million partially indexed URLs." Early management style
During his first tenure as CEO, <mask> embarked on an attempt to fire all of Google's project managers in 2001. <mask>'s plan involved all of Google's engineers reporting to a VP of engineering, who would then report directly to him—<mask> explained that he didn't like non-engineers supervising engineers due to their limited technical knowledge. <mask> even documented his management tenets for his team to use as a reference:
 Don't delegate: Do everything you can yourself to make things go faster. Don't get in the way if you're not adding value. Let the people doing the work talk to each other while you go do something else. Don't be a bureaucrat.Ideas are more important than age. Just because someone is junior doesn't mean they don't deserve respect and cooperation. The worst thing you can do is stop someone from doing something by saying, "No. Period." If you say no, you have to help them find a better way to get it done. Even though <mask>'s new model was unsustainable and led to disgruntlement among the affected employees, his issue with engineers being managed by non-engineering staff gained traction. <mask> also believed that the faster Google's search engine returned answers, the more it would be used.He fretted over milliseconds and pushed his engineers—from those who developed algorithms to those who built data centers—to think about lag times. He also pushed for keeping Google's home page famously sparse in its design because it would help the search results load faster. 2001–2011

Changes in management and expansion
Before Silicon Valley's two most prominent investors, Kleiner Perkins and Sequoia Capital, agreed to invest a combined total of $50 million in Google, they applied pressure on <mask> to step down as CEO so that a more experienced leader could build a "world-class management team." <mask> eventually became amenable to the idea after meeting with other technology CEOs, including Steve Jobs and Intel's Andrew Grove. Eric Schmidt, who had been hired as Chairman of Google in March 2001, left his full-time position as the CEO of Novell to take the same role at Google in August of the same year, and <mask> moved aside to assume the President of Products role. Under Schmidt's leadership, Google underwent a period of major growth and expansion, which included its initial public offering (IPO) on August 20, 2004. He always acted in consultation with <mask> and Brin when he embarked on initiatives such as the hiring of an executive team and the creation of a sales force management system.<mask> remained the boss at Google in the eyes of the employees, as he gave final approval on all new hires, and it was <mask> who provided the signature for the IPO, the latter making him a billionaire at the age of 30. <mask> led the acquisition of Android for $50 million in 2005 to fulfill his ambition to place handheld computers in the possession of consumers so that they could access Google anywhere. The purchase was made without Schmidt's knowledge, but the CEO was not perturbed by the relatively small acquisition. <mask> became passionate about Android and spent large amounts of time with Android CEO and cofounder Andy Rubin. By September 2008, T-Mobile launched the G1, the first phone using Android software and, by 2010, 17.2% of the handset market consisted of Android sales, overtaking Apple for the first time. Android became the world's most popular mobile operating system shortly afterward. Assumption of CEO position at Google
Following a January 2011 announcement, <mask> officially became the chief executive of Google on April 4, 2011, while Schmidt stepped down to become executive chairman.By this time, Google had over $180 billion market capitalization and more than 24,000 employees. Reporter Max Nisen, described the decade prior to <mask>'s second appointment as Google's CEO as <mask>'s "lost decade" saying that while he exerted significant influence at Google via product development and other operations, he became increasingly disconnected and less responsive over time. Schmidt announced the end of his tenure as CEO on January 20, 2011, jokingly tweeting on Twitter: "Adult-supervision no longer needed." 2011–2013
As Google's new CEO, <mask>'s two key goals were the development of greater autonomy for the executives overseeing the most important divisions, and higher levels of collaboration, communication, and unity among the teams. Then <mask> also formed what the media called the "L-Team", a group of senior vice-presidents who reported directly to him and worked near his office for a portion of the working week. Additionally, he reorganized the company's senior management, placing a CEO-like manager at the top of Google's most important product divisions, including YouTube, AdWords, and Google Search. Following a more cohesive team environment, <mask> declared a new "zero tolerance for fighting" policy that contrasted with his approach during the early days of Google, when he would use his harsh and intense arguments with Brin as an exemplar for senior management.<mask> had changed his thinking during his time away from the CEO role, as he eventually concluded that ambitious goals required a harmonious team dynamic. As part of <mask>'s collaborative rejuvenation process, Google's products and applications were consolidated and underwent an aesthetic overhaul. Changes and consolidation process
At least 70 of Google's products, features and services were eventually shut down by March 2013, while the appearance and nature of the remaining ones were unified. Jon Wiley, lead designer of Google Search at the time, codenamed <mask>'s redesign overhaul, which officially commenced on April 4, 2011, "Project Kennedy", based on <mask>'s use of the term "moonshots" to describe ambitious projects in a January 2013 Wired interview. An initiative named "Kanna" previously attempted to create a uniform design aesthetic for Google's range of products, but it was too difficult at that point in the company's history for one team to drive such change. Matias Duarte, senior director of the Android user experience when "Kennedy" started, explained in 2013 that "Google passionately cares about design." <mask> proceeded to consult with the Google Creative Lab design team, based in New York City, to find an answer to his question of what a "cohesive vision" of Google might look like.The eventual results of "Kennedy" which were progressively rolled out from June 2011 until January 2013, were described by The Verge technology publication as focused upon "refinement, white space, cleanliness, elasticity, usefulness, and most of all simplicity." The final products were aligned with Page's aim for a consistent suite of products that can "move fast",  and "Kennedy" was called a "design revolution" by Duarte. Page's "UXA" (user/graphics interface) design team then emerged from the

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 "Kennedy" project, tasked with "designing and developing a true UI framework that transforms Google's application software into a beautiful, mature, accessible and consistent platform for its users." Unspoken of in public, the small UXA unit was designed to ensure that "Kennedy" became an "institution." Acquisition strategy and new products
When acquiring products and companies for Google, <mask> asked whether the business acquisition passed the toothbrush test as an initial qualifier, asking the question "Is it something you will use once or twice a day, and does it make your life better?". This approach looked for usefulness above profitability, and long-term potential over near-term financial gain, which has been noted as rare in business acquiring processes. With Facebook's influence rapidly expanding during the start of <mask>'s second tenure, he finally responded to the intensive competition with Google's own social network, Google+, in mid-2011.After several delays, the social network was released through a very limited field test and was led by Vic Gundotra, Google's then senior vice president of social. In August 2011, Page announced that Google would spend $12.5 billion to acquire Motorola Mobility. The purchase was primarily motivated by Google's need to secure patents to protect Android from lawsuits by companies including Apple Inc. <mask> wrote on Google's official blog on August 15, 2011, that "companies including Microsoft and Apple are banding together in anti-competitive patent attacks on Android. The United States Department of Justice had to intervene in the results of one recent patent auction to 'protect competition and innovation in the open source software community' ... Our acquisition of Motorola will increase competition by strengthening Google's patent portfolio, which will enable us to better protect Android from anti-competitive threats from Microsoft, Apple and other companies". In 2014, Page sold Motorola Mobility for $2.9 billion to Personal Computer maker, Lenovo which represented a loss in value of $9.5 billion over two years. Page also ventured into hardware and Google unveiled the Chromebook in May 2012.The hardware product was a laptop that ran on a Google operating system, Chrome OS. 2013–2015
In January 2013, <mask> participated in a rare interview with Wired, in which writer Steven Levy discussed <mask>'s "10X" mentality—Google employees are expected to create products and services that are at least 10 times better than those of its competitors—in the introductory blurb. Astro Teller, the head of Google X, explained to Levy that 10X is "just core to who he [<mask>] is", while <mask>'s "focus is on where the next 10X will come from." In his interview with Levy, <mask> referred to the success of YouTube and Android as examples of "crazy" ideas that investors were not initially interested in, saying: "If you're not doing some things that are crazy, then you're doing the wrong things." <mask> also stated he was "very happy" with the status of Google+, and discussed concerns over the Internet concerning the SOPA bill and an International Telecommunication Union proposal that had been recently introduced:... I do think the Internet's under much greater attack than it has been in the past. Governments are now afraid of the Internet because of the Middle East stuff, and so they're a little more willing to listen to what I see as a lot of commercial interests that just want to make money by restricting people's freedoms.But they've also seen a tremendous user reaction, like the backlash against SOPA. I think that governments fight users' freedoms at their peril.At the May 2013 I/O developers conference in San Francisco, <mask> delivered a keynote address and said "We're at maybe 1% of what is possible. Despite the faster change, we're still moving slow relative to the opportunities we have. I think a lot of that is because of the negativity ... Every story I read is Google vs someone else. That's boring. We should be focusing on building the things that don't exist" and that he was "sad the Web isn't advancing as fast as it should be", citing a perceived focus on negativity and zero-sum games among some in the technology sector as a cause. In response to an audience question, <mask> noted an issue that Google had been experiencing with Microsoft, whereby the latter made its Outlook program interoperable with Google but did not allow for backward compatibility—he referred to Microsoft's practice as "milking off".During the question-and-answer section of his keynote, <mask> expressed interest in Burning Man, which Brin had previously praised—it was a motivating factor for the latter during Schmidt's hiring process, as Brin liked that Schmidt had attended the week-long annual event. In September 2013, <mask> launched the independent Calico initiative, a R&D project in the field of biotechnology. Google announced that Calico seeks to innovate and make improvements in the field of human health, and appointed Art Levinson, chairman of Apple's board and former CEO of Genentech, to be the new division's CEO. <mask>'s official statement read: "Illness and aging affect all our families. With some longer term, moonshot thinking around healthcare and biotechnology, I believe we can improve millions of lives." <mask> participated in a March 2014 TedX conference that was held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The presentation was scripted by <mask>'s chief PR executive Rachel Whetstone, and Google's CMO Lorraine Twohill, and a demonstration of an artificially intelligent computer program was displayed on a large screen.<mask> responded to a question about corporations, noting that corporations largely get a "bad rap", which he stated was because they were probably doing the same incremental things they were doing "50 or 20 years ago". He went on to juxtapose that kind of incremental approach to his vision of Google counteracting calcification through driving technology innovation at a high rate. <mask> mentioned Elon Musk and SpaceX:He [Musk] wants to go to Mars to back up humanity. That's a worthy goal. We have a lot of employees at Google who've become pretty wealthy. You're working because you want to change the world and make it better ... I'd like for us to help out more than we are.<mask> also mentioned Nikola Tesla with regard to invention and commercialization:Invention is not enough.[Nikola] Tesla invented the electric power we use, but he struggled to get it out to people. [You have to] combine both things ... invention and innovation focus, plus ... a company that can really commercialize things and get them to people.<mask> announced a major management restructure in October 2014 so that he would no longer need to be responsible for day-to-day product-related decision making. In a memo, <mask> said that Google's core businesses would be able to progress in a typical manner, while he could focus on the next generation of ambitious projects, including Google X initiatives; access and energy, including Google Fiber; smart-home automation through Nest Labs; and biotechnology innovations under Calico. <mask> maintained that he would continue as the unofficial "chief product officer". Subsequent to the announcement, the executives in charge of Google's core products reported to then Google Senior Vice President Sundar Pichai, who reported directly to <mask>. In a November 2014 interview, <mask> stated that he prioritized the maintenance of his "deep knowledge" of Google's products and breadth of projects, as it had been a key motivating factor for team members. About his then role as the company's CEO, <mask> said: "I think my job as CEO—I feel like it's always to be pushing people ahead."On August 10, 2015, <mask> announced on Google's official blog that Google had restructured into a number of subsidiaries of a new holding company known as Alphabet Inc with <mask> becoming CEO of Alphabet Inc and Sundar Pichai assuming the position of CEO of Google Inc. In his announcement, <mask> described the planned holding company as follows:Alphabet is mostly a collection of companies. The largest of which, of course, is Google. This newer Google is a bit slimmed down, with the companies that are pretty far afield of our main Internet products contained in Alphabet instead. ... Fundamentally, we believe this allows us more management scale, as we can run things independently that aren't very related.As well as explaining the origin of the company's name:We liked the name Alphabet because it means a collection of letters that represent language, one of humanity's most important innovations, and is the core of how we index with Google search! We also like that it means alpha‑bet (Alpha is investment return above benchmark), which we strive for!<mask> wrote that the motivation behind the reorganization is to make Google "cleaner and more accountable."He also wrote that there was a desire to improve "the transparency and oversight of what we're doing" and to allow greater control of unrelated companies previously within the Google ecosystem. <mask> has not been on any press conferences since 2015 and has not presented at product launches or earnings calls since 2013. The Bloomberg Businessweek termed the reorganization into Alphabet a clever retirement plan allowing <mask> to retain control over Google, at the same time relinquishing all responsibilities over it. Executives at Alphabet describe <mask> as a "futurist", highly detached from day-to-day business dealings, and more focused on moon-shot projects. While some managers of Alphabet companies speak of <mask> as intensely involved, others say that his rare office check-ins are "akin to a royal visit" . 2019
On December 3, 2019, <mask> announced that he will step down from the position of Alphabet CEO and would be replaced by Google CEO Sundar Pichai. Pichai will also continue as Google CEO.Page and Google co-founder and Alphabet president Sergey Brin announced the change in a joint blog post, "With Alphabet now well-established, and Google and the Other Bets operating effectively as independent companies, it's the natural time to simplify our management structure. We’ve never been ones to hold on to management roles when we think there's a better way to run the company. And Alphabet and Google no longer need two CEOs and a President." Other interests
<mask> is an investor in Tesla Motors. He has invested in renewable energy technology, and with the help of Google.org, Google's philanthropic arm, promotes the adoption of plug-in hybrid electric cars and other alternative energy investments. He is also a strategic backer in the Opener startup which is developing aerial vehicles for consumer travel. <mask> is also interested in the socio-economic effects of advanced intelligent systems and how advanced digital technologies can be used to create abundance (as described in Peter Diamandis' book), provide for people's needs, shorten the workweek, and mitigate the potential detrimental effects of technological unemployment.<mask> also helped to set up Singularity University, a transhumanist think-tank. Google is one of the institution's corporate founders and still funds scholarships at Singularity University. Personal life
On February 18, 2005, <mask> bought a  Spanish Colonial Revival architecture house in Palo Alto, California, designed by American artistic polymath Pedro Joseph de Lemos, a former curator of the Stanford Art Museum and founder of the Carmel Art Institute, after the historic building had been on the market for years with an asking price of US$7.95 million. A two-story stucco archway spans the driveway and the home features intricate stucco work, as well as stone and tile in California Arts and Crafts movement style built to resemble de Lemos's family's castle in Spain. The Pedro de Lemos House was constructed between 1931 and 1941 by de Lemos. It is also on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, <mask> married Lucinda Southworth on Necker Island, the Caribbean island owned by Richard Branson.Southworth is a research scientist and the sister of actress and model Carrie Southworth. <mask> and Southworth have two children, born in 2009 and 2011. In 2009, <mask> began purchasing properties and tearing down homes adjacent to his home in Palo Alto to make room for a large ecohouse. The existing buildings were "deconstructed" and the materials donated for reuse. The ecohouse was designed to "minimize the impact on the environment." <mask> worked with an arborist to replace some trees that were in poor health with others that used less water to maintain. <mask> also applied for Green Point Certification, with points given for use of recycled and low or no-VOC (volatile organic compound) materials and for a roof garden with solar panels.The house's exterior features zinc cladding and plenty of windows, including a wall of sliding-glass doors in the rear. It includes eco-friendly elements such as permeable paving in the parking court and a pervious path through the trees on the property. The 6,000-square-foot (560m²) house also observes other green home design features such as organic architecture building materials and low volatile organic compound paint. In 2011, <mask> bought the $45-million 193-foot (59m) superyacht Senses. Later on, <mask> announced on his Google+ profile in May 2013 that his right vocal cord is paralyzed from a cold that he contracted the previous summer, while his left cord was paralyzed in 1999. <mask> explained that he has been suffering from a vocal cord issue for 14 years, and, as of his May 2013 post, doctors were unable to identify the exact cause. The Google+ post also revealed that <mask> had made a large donation to a vocal-cord nerve-function research program at the Voice Health Institute in Boston.An anonymous source stated that the donation exceeded $20 million. In October 2013, Business Insider reported that <mask>'s paralyzed vocal cords are caused by an autoimmune disease called Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and prevented him from undertaking Google quarterly earnings conference calls for an indefinite period. In November 2014, <mask>'s family foundation, the Carl Victor Page Memorial Fund, reportedly holding assets in excess of a billion dollars at the end of 2013, gave $15 million to aid the effort against the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. <mask> wrote on his Google+ page that "My wife and I just donated $15 million ... Our hearts go out to everyone affected." In August 2021 it was revealed that <mask> holds a New Zealand resident's visa and had traveled to the country on a medivac flight from Fiji for his son's treatment in New Zealand, despite New Zealand promulgating an act not to allow any outsiders while facing critical moment due to worsened situation across the country due to pandemic. The flight took place on January 12, 2021. <mask> had been living in Fiji with his family during the duration of the COVID-19 pandemic.He also has Greek citizenship. Awards and accolades

1998–2009
 PC Magazine has praised Google as among the Top 100 Web Sites and Search Engines (1998) and awarded Google the Technical Excellence Award for Innovation in Web Application Development in 1999. In 2000, Google earned a Webby Award, a People's Voice Award for technical achievement, and in 2001, was awarded Outstanding Search Service, Best Image Search Engine, Best Design, Most Webmaster Friendly Search Engine, and Best Search Feature at the Search Engine Watch Awards. In 2002, <mask> was named a World Economic Forum Global Leader for Tomorrow and along with Brin, was named by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)'s Technology Review publication as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35, as part of its yearly TR100 listing (changed to "TR35"  after 2005). In 2003, both <mask> and Brin received an MBA from IE Business School, in an honorary capacity, "for embodying the entrepreneurial spirit and lending momentum to the creation of new businesses." In 2004, they received the Marconi Foundation's prize and were elected Fellows of the Marconi Foundation at Columbia University. In announcing their selection, John Jay Iselin, the Foundation's president, congratulated the two men for "their invention that has fundamentally changed the way information is retrieved today."In 2004, <mask> and Brin received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. <mask> and Brin were also Award Recipients and National Finalists for the EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award in 2003. Also in 2004, X PRIZE chose <mask> as a trustee of their board and he was elected to the National Academy of Engineering. In 2005, Brin and <mask> were elected Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2008 <mask> received the Communication Award from Prince Felipe at the Prince of Asturias Awards on behalf of Google. 2009–present
 In 2009, <mask> received an honorary doctorate from the University of Michigan during a graduation commencement ceremony. In 2011, he was ranked 24th on the Forbes list of billionaires, and as the 11th richest person in the U.S.In 2015, Page's "Powerful People"  profile on the Forbes site states that Google is "the most influential company of the digital era". As of July 2014, the Bloomberg Billionaires Index lists <mask> as the 17th richest man in the world, with an estimated net worth of $32.7 billion. At the completion of 2014, Fortune magazine named <mask> its "Businessperson of the Year", declaring him "the world's most daring CEO". In October 2015, <mask> was named number one on the Forbes "America's Most Popular Chief Executives" list, as voted by Google's employees. In August 2017, <mask> was awarded honorary citizenship of Agrigento, Italy. References

External links

 <mask> at Bloomberg L.P.
 <mask> on Forbes

1973 births
American billionaires
American computer businesspeople
American computer scientists
American corporate directors
American technology chief executives
American technology company founders
Businesspeople from Michigan
Businesspeople in information technology
Businesspeople in software
Directors of Google
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Google employees
Internet pioneers
Life extensionists
Living people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
People from Palo Alto, California
People from East Lansing, Michigan
Stanford University School of Engineering alumni
University of Michigan College of Engineering alumni
Webby Award winners
Alphabet Inc.

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<mask>, 4th Baron <mask> (1626 – 5 January 1684) was an English peer and victim of the Popish Plot. Petre was the eldest son of <mask>, third Baron Petre (1599–1638), and Mary (1603–1685), daughter of Anthony-Maria Browne, second Viscount Montagu, who had been arrested in connection with the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. Petre was openly a Roman Catholic. A  political storm broke in 1678, when Titus Oates alleged, with the support of Lord Shaftesbury, that Petre was involved in the mythical  Popish Plot to murder Charles II, was part of a conspiracy to reimpose the Catholic faith on England, and that he had been appointed by the Jesuits as lieutenant-general of a Catholic army of invasion. Petre was arrested and charged with high treason, together with four other Roman Catholic peers, Lord Arundel of Wardour, the Earl of Powis, Lord Stafford, and Lord Bellasyse. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London and entered a plea of not guilty, but no trial was ever held. In November 1678, Charles II gave the royal assent to the  second Test Act  which removed  all Catholic peers, including Petre, from the House of Lords.However, the paucity of evidence to substantiate the charge of high treason, and the weakening of the Whigs in 1681–82, lessened the chances of Petre being convicted, and he continued to be held without trial. In August, 1683, Petre predicted that he would be "cleared by about next spring", but then his health broke down. In December, Lady Petre petitioned Charles II unsuccessfully to release her husband on medical grounds. Expecting death, Petre wrote a final declaration to defend the Roman Catholics against the 'Popish Plot' charges. He died on 5 January 1683/84. Biography

<mask> was the eldest son of <mask>, 3rd Baron Petre (1599–1638)  and his wife Mary Browne, and the nephew of <mask>, the translator of Ribadeneira. He was only eleven years old when his father died, and this made him a ward of the King.He spent his childhood in the care of Spencer Compton, 2nd Earl of Northampton. The family's finances were under strain, as the First English Civil War broke out. <mask>, the young Lord Petre, was royalist fighting for in Warwickshire. His estates were seized by the Commonwealth, and in 1644 Sir Henry Vane the Younger moved in the House of Commons an ordinance for raising £3,000 out of Lord Petre's estate for the recruiting of Colonel Harvey's regiment of horse. Civil War

The estates in Essex and London were initially sequestered for delinquency and recusancy; Petre was cleared of the charge of delinquency in February 1647; he received one third of his estates back, the Commonwealth put different stewards in charge to see that the rents were rightly divided, one third going to Petre and two thirds to the Parliament. The estate was leased at the time to Chaloner Chute for £1,300, and there were many difficulties in apportioning the obligatory payments. Lord Petre, however, managed to get a larger share than his one third, and in 1647 the local court reported that he holds courts at Ingatestone privately and made many thousands of pounds.As the war progressed, he lost two thirds of his Devon lands. Petre resorted to many tactics to use to the full the lands that he retained, to cover his capital losses, and to postpone or to ease his payments to his dependants. Other members of the family fought for Charles I and met with misfortune in consequence. Peter Whetcombe does not appear to have given complete satisfaction as steward, for in 1650 Lord Petre had Peter Whetcombe and others summoned for cutting and carrying away timber from his estate. To which they pleaded in defence Parliament's order for raising £3,000 by sale of his wood (perhaps the ordinance for funding Colonel Harvey's regiment of horse was never fulfilled). Whetcombe further pleaded that he had only cut and sold decayed timber and undergrowth. Arthur Barnardiston was appointed, and shortly after Mr. Richard Greaves, of Lincoln's Inn held the office, and was directed to keep court on Lord Petre's estate.Nevertheless, by 1651, Petre's liabilities, with sequestration, were twenty times his income, and although the liabilities were not all due immediately, the fourth lord was under pressure that was not manageable. In 1652, it was necessary for him to sell part of his inheritance. The alternative to the sale of his estates was to renounce his Catholic faith. He chose this alternative, and in May 1652, he took the Oath of Abjuration before the Lord Mayor of London, John Kendrick. By this act of apostasy, Petre recovered his estates, but it is clear from his last letter, written in the Tower to Charles II shortly before his death, that he died a Catholic. No composition fine was imposed, and the sequestration  of his estates was lifted on 29 June 1652. This act opened the road to recovery, and Petre, at times with the assistance of trustees, successfully recovered the family's finances.By December 1658, the principal of the debt was down to £12,150, while annual interest on the debt was £2,708. In 1655, Lord Petre reports himself ill and lame, and begs that he may be examined about his affairs at his own lodgings, which was granted. He was one of the Royalist ‘cavaliers’ imprisoned at Oxford in 1655, but until well advanced in life did nothing to attract public notices. In 1658, he was in custody, and seeking passes for himself and his servant to France, or beyond the seas. In 1659 Bulstrode Whitlock wrote to Colonel Fagge and other militia commissioners of the county of Sussex: "Concerning Lord Petre, Council have received such satisfaction from various well-tried friends that you may liberate him if he will pass his honour to Colonel Fagge to live peaceably, and not abet anything to the prejudice of Parliament." Marriage

His first wife, Elizabeth Savage, (d. 1665) was the daughter of John Savage, 2nd Earl Rivers and his first wife Catherine Parker. She was a notorious spendthrift who was less than scrupulous about paying her debts.In his diary, Samuel Pepys, who was acting as agent for his relative  <mask>, a chandler who  was attempting to recover a debt he was owed by Lady Petre, makes no secret of his opinion of her "a drunken jade", and a "lewd woman",  though he admitted that she was  handsome and high-spirited. She could also be notably vindictive, as <mask> found to his cost when  she brought a counterclaim against him and had him imprisoned for default. Pepys tried to mediate but found her implacable, saying that she would have her revenge even if it meant going to Hell. It was said that her husband found her impossible to live with: Pepys himself saw them quarreling  in public. Lady Petre died in July 1665. Although by then she was separated from her husband, she was buried in Lord Petre's family vault. <mask> was living quietly in that retirement forced upon Catholics, ostracized from all influence, but as a devout Roman Catholic he involuntarily drew upon himself the attention of the perjurer Titus Oates and fame was thrust upon him at the time of the imaginary "Popish Plot".Popish  Plot

In 1678 Oates swore in his deposition before Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey that he had seen ‘Lord Petre receive a commission as lieutenant-general of the Popish Army destined for the invasion of England from the hands of Father  d'Oliva (i.e. Giovanni Paolo Oliva),  the  General of the Jesuits.' The country was in ferment at once, and the wildest excitement prevailed. To a certain substratum of truth (for example all the priests he named did exist and he knew some of them personally, and Oliva was the Jesuit Superior  General), Titus Oates added many lies, making it exceedingly difficult to separate the guilty from the innocent, and many persons were unjustly condemned and punished. He repeated these statements, before the House of Commons in October 1678, and the House promptly sent for Lord Chief Justice <mask>, and instructed him to issue warrants for the apprehension of all the persons mentioned in Oates’s information. <mask> was arrested with four other Roman Catholic lords – Powis, Belasyse, Arundel and Stafford – who were similarly accused of being destined for high office under the Jesuitical regime, Petre was committed to the Tower on 28 October 1678. Some of those who, it was claimed, had been accessory to the plot, were tried and either executed or acquitted, but some were kept in confinement for years without trial.Lord Petre was one of these. The commons exhibited articles against him in April 1679. For a short time, he had as fellow prisoner Mr. Samuel Pepys, who had been accused of being a Papist, and of selling Navy information to the French. John Evelyn writes in his Diary. Yet, in spite of repeated demands for a trial by the prisoners’ friends, and of the clamour of the partisans of Oates on the other hand, no further steps were taken until 23 June 1680, when  the Earl of Castlemaine, who had subsequently been committed, was tried and acquitted. A few months later Viscount Stafford was tried, condemned and executed; but the patrons of the plot derived no benefit from his death, and nothing was said of the trial of the other ‘popish lords’, though the government took no steps to release them. What  saved Petre  and the other peers  from the scaffold was the death of the informer  <mask> in August 1680.Under English law two eyewitnesses were required to prove an act of treason, and unfair though the Plot trials generally were, the judges were scrupulous in observing this rule. Other than Titus Oates there was no remaining witness against Petre  and no strong witness against the other three. Their confinement does not appear to have been very rigorous. Nevertheless, Petre, who was already an old man, suffered greatly in health, and when, in the autumn 1683, he felt that he had not long to live, he drew up a pathetic letter to the king. In this he says:

This letter was printed, and provoked some Protestant ‘observations’, which were in turn severely criticised in ‘a pair of spectacles for Mr. Observer; or remarks upon the phanatical observations on my Lord Petre’s letter’ possibly from the prolific pen of Roger L'Estrange. Lord Petre was fortunate in so far that he did not lose his head, but he protested his innocence in vain; it was remembered against him that undoubtedly foreign Papists had frequented Ingatestone Hall. It was useless to expect a Stuart to remember and feel any gratitude for the fact that Lord Petre had suffered and fought on the Royalist side so few years ago.Even the discovery in 1683 of the Rye House Plot (called in the register by Rector Ewer ‘the Phanatic Plot’), to assassinate Charles and James and set the Duke of Monmouth  on the throne, failed to create revulsion of feeling in Lord Petre's favour, and he was doomed to remain in confinement. Death

Baron <mask> died before anything was done. His death occurred on 5 January 1684. He did not die in vain, for at once the English public compassion forced the issue with regard to all the prisoners for the supposed plot. A writ of habeas corpus on 12 February 1684 was issued and the judges of the King's Bench declared that these men should long ago have been admitted to bail. The death of Petre did much to awaken fair-minded men to the iniquitous disabilities under which Catholics were suffering, and no Catholic suffered death for his religion after his death. <mask>re was buried among his ancestors at Ingatestone on 10 January 1684 laid in the old family vault, his coffin resting on that of his distinguished ancestor, Sir <mask>re.There is no monument or slab placed in the church to his memory, probably because he left no son, and only one daughter, Mary, by his second wife, Bridget (1652–1695), daughter of John Pincheon of Writtle. Mary, who was born in Covent Garden on 25 March 1679, married on 14 April 1696, George Heneage of Hainton in Lincolnshire, and died on 4 June 1704. From "Catholic Martyrs of Essex" (B. Foley 1950), "This martyr died in prison, a confessor, if not a martyr for the Faith, and his death aroused such an outcry and so much compassion that it was instrumental in virtually putting an end to open persecution." There are four portraits of <mask>; it is strange that he should have felt himself able to afford such extravagance. With the fines and estate sequestrations of the Commonwealth, his financial position was precarious and it is said that much of the original furniture of Ingatestone Hall had to be disposed of at that time. His aged mother survived him just a year, and was buried on 17 January 1685, on the north side of the then new south chancel, and not in the vault with her husband and son. No pictures of the fourth baron's wife or of his mother are known to exist.References

Sources

<mask>, <mask>, fourth Baron Petre (1625/6–1684), nobleman and victim of the Popish Plot by John Callow in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
Kidd, Charles, and <mask>, David (editors): Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage 1990 edition, New York, St Martin's Press, 1990,

Kenyon, J.P. The Popish Plot  Phoenix Press Reissue 2000
Diary of Samuel Pepys
Diary of John Evelyn
Mosley, Charles, editor Burke's Peerage  107th Edition Delaware 2003

1626 births
1684 deaths
<mask>tims of the Popish Plot
People from Covent Garden
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<mask> of Saxe-Meiningen (<mask>; 13 August 1792 – 2 December 1849) was Queen of the United Kingdom and Hanover from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837 as the wife of King William IV. <mask> was the daughter of George I, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and Luise Eleonore of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. Adelaide, the capital city of South Australia, is named after her. Early life

<mask> was born on 13 August 1792 at Meiningen, Thuringia, Germany, the eldest child of George I, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. Her mother was Luise Eleonore, daughter of Christian Albrecht, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. She was baptised at the castle chapel on 19 August and was titled Princess <mask> of Saxe-Meiningen, Duchess in Saxony with the style Serene Highness. Her godparents numbered twenty-one, including her mother, the Holy Roman Empress, the Queen of Naples and Sicily, the Crown Princess of Saxony, the Duchess of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg, the Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, the Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, and the Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld.Saxe-Meiningen was a small state, covering about . It was the most liberal German state and, unlike its neighbours, permitted a free press and criticism of the ruler. At the time, no statute existed which barred a female ruling over the small duchy and it was not until the birth of her brother, Bernhard, in 1800, that the law of primogeniture was introduced. Marriage
By the end of 1811, King George III was incapacitated and, although he was still king in name, his heir-apparent and eldest son, Prince George, was regent. On 6 November 1817 the Prince Regent's only child, Princess Charlotte, died in childbirth. Princess Charlotte was second in line to the throne: had she outlived her father and grandfather, she would have become queen. With her death, the King was left with twelve children and no legitimate grandchildren.The Prince Regent was estranged from his wife, who was 49 years old, thus there was little likelihood that he would have any further legitimate children. To secure the line of succession, Prince William, Duke of Clarence, and the other sons of George III sought quick marriages with the intent of producing offspring who could inherit the throne. William already had ten children by the popular actress Dorothea Jordan, but, being illegitimate, they were barred from the succession. Considerable allowances were likely to be voted by Parliament to any royal duke who married, and this acted as a further incentive for William to marry. Adelaide was a princess from an unimportant German state. However, William had a limited choice of available princesses, and, after deals with other candidates fell through, a marriage to <mask> was arranged. The allowance proposed was slashed by Parliament, and the outraged Duke considered calling off the marriage.However, <mask> seemed the ideal candidate: amiable, home-loving, and willing to accept William's illegitimate children as part of the family. The arrangement was settled and William wrote to his eldest son, "She is doomed, poor dear innocent young creature, to be my wife." <mask>'s dowry was set at 20,000 florins, with additional three separate annuities being promised by her future husband, the English regent, and the state of Saxe-Meiningen. <mask> married William in a double wedding with William's brother, Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, and his bride Victoria, Dowager Princess of Leiningen, on 11 July 1818, at Kew Palace in Surrey, England. They had only met for the first time a week earlier on 4 July at Grillon's Hotel in Bond Street. Neither William nor <mask> had been married before, and William was 27 years her senior. Despite these unromantic circumstances, the couple settled amicably in Hanover (where the cost of living was much lower than in England), and by all accounts were devoted to each other throughout their marriage.<mask> improved William's behaviour; he drank less, swore less, and became more tactful. Observers thought them parsimonious, and their lifestyle simple, even boring. William eventually accepted the reduced increase in his allowance voted by Parliament. On the Continent, <mask> became pregnant, but in her seventh month of pregnancy, she caught pleurisy and gave birth prematurely on 27 March 1819 at the Fürstenhof Palace in Hanover. Her daughter, Charlotte Augusta Louise, lived only a few hours. Another pregnancy in the same year caused William to move the household to England so his future heir would be born on British soil; however, <mask> miscarried at Calais or Dunkirk during the journey on 5 September 1819. Back in London, they moved into Clarence House, but preferred to stay at Bushy House near Hampton Court, where William had already lived with Dorothea Jordan.She became pregnant again, and a second daughter, Elizabeth Georgiana <mask>, was born on 10 December 1820 at St James's Palace. Elizabeth seemed strong but died less than three months old on 4 March 1821 of "inflammation in the Bowels". Ultimately, William and <mask> had no surviving children. Twin boys were stillborn on 8 April 1822 at Bushy Park and a possible brief pregnancy may have occurred within the same year. Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent came to be acknowledged as William's heir presumptive, as <mask> had no further pregnancies. While there were rumours of pregnancies well into William's reign (dismissed by the King as "damned stuff"), they seem to have been without basis. Queen consort

At the time of their marriage, William was not heir-presumptive to the throne, but became so when his brother Frederick, Duke of York, died childless in 1827.Given the small likelihood of his older brothers producing heirs, and William's relative youth and good health, it had long been considered extremely likely that he would become king in due course. In 1830, on the death of his elder brother, George IV, William acceded to the throne. One of King William's first acts was to confer the Rangership of Bushy Park (for 33 years held by himself) on Queen <mask>. This act allowed <mask> to remain at Bushy House for her lifetime. William and <mask> were crowned on 8 September 1831 at Westminster Abbey. <mask> was deeply religious and took the service very seriously. William despised the ceremony and acted throughout, it is presumed deliberately, as if he was "a character in a comic opera", making a mockery of what he thought to be a ridiculous charade.<mask>, alone among those attending received praise for her "dignity, repose and characteristic grace". <mask> was beloved by the British people for her piety, modesty, charity, and her tragic childbirth history. A large portion of her household income was given to charitable causes. She also treated the young Princess Victoria of Kent (William's heir presumptive and later Queen Victoria) with kindness, despite her inability to produce an heir and the open hostility between her husband and Victoria's mother, the Dowager Duchess of Kent. She refused to have women of questionable virtue attend her Court. The Clerk of the Privy Council, Charles Greville, wrote, "The Queen is a prude and refuses to have the ladies come décolletées to her parties. George the 4th, who liked ample expanses of that kind, would not let them be covered."<mask> attempted, perhaps unsuccessfully, to influence the King politically. She never spoke about politics in public; however, she was strongly Tory. It is unclear how much of William's attitudes during the passage of the Reform Act 1832 were due to her influence. The Press, the public, and courtiers assumed that she was agitating behind the scenes against reform, but she was careful to be non-committal in public. As a result of her alleged partiality, she became unpopular with reformers. False rumours circulated that she was having an affair with her Lord Chamberlain, the Tory Lord Howe, but almost everyone at court knew that <mask> was inflexibly pious and was always faithful to her husband. The Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, had Lord Howe removed from Adelaide's household.Attempts to reinstate him after the Reform Bill had passed were not successful, as Lord Grey and Lord Howe could not agree as to how independent Howe could be of the government. In October 1834, a great fire destroyed much of the Palace of Westminster, which <mask> considered divine retribution for the vagaries of reform. When the King dismissed the Whig ministry of Lord Melbourne, The Times newspaper blamed the Queen's influence, though she seems to have had very little to do with it. Influenced by her similarly reactionary brother-in-law, the Duke of Cumberland, she did write to the King against reform of the Church of Ireland. Both William and <mask> were fond of their niece, Princess Victoria of Kent, and wanted her to be closer to them. Their efforts were frustrated by Victoria's mother, the Duchess of Kent. The Duchess refused to acknowledge <mask>'s precedence, left letters from <mask> unanswered, and commandeered space in the royal stables and apartments for her use.The King, aggrieved at what he took to be disrespect from the Duchess to his wife, bluntly announced in the presence of <mask>, the Duchess, Victoria, and many guests, that the Duchess was "incompetent to act with propriety", that he had been "grossly and continually insulted by that person", and that he hoped to have the satisfaction of living beyond Victoria's age of majority so that the Duchess of Kent would never be regent. Everyone was aghast at the vehemence of the speech, and all three ladies were deeply upset. The breach between the Duchess and the King and Queen was never fully healed, but Victoria always viewed both of them with kindness. Queen dowager

Queen <mask> was dangerously ill in April 1837, at around the same time that she was present at her mother's deathbed in Meiningen, but she recovered. By June, it became evident that the King was fatally ill himself. <mask> stayed beside William's deathbed devotedly, not going to bed herself for more than ten days. William IV died from heart failure in the early hours of the morning of 20 June 1837 at Windsor Castle, where he was buried.Victoria was proclaimed as queen, but subject to the rights of any issue that might be born to <mask> on the remotely possible chance that she was pregnant. The first queen dowager in over a century (Charles II's widow, Catherine of Braganza, had died in 1705, and Mary of Modena, wife of the deposed James II, died in 1718), <mask> survived her husband by twelve years. In early October 1838, for health reasons, <mask> travelled to Malta aboard HMS Hastings, stopping at Gibraltar on the way, and staying on Malta for three months. Lacking a Protestant church on Malta, the queen dowager paid for the construction of St Paul's Pro-Cathedral in Valletta. In the summer of 1844, she paid her last visit to her native country, visiting Altenstein Palace and Meiningen. Queen <mask> had been given the use of Marlborough House, Pall Mall in 1831, and held it until her death in 1849. She also had the use of Bushy House and Bushy Park at Hampton Court.Suffering from chronic illness, <mask> often moved her place of residence in a vain search for health, staying at the country houses of various British aristocracy. She became a tenant of William Ward and took up residence at the latter's newly purchased house, Witley Court in Worcestershire, from 1842 until 1846. While at Witley Court, she had two chaplains – Rev. John Ryle Wood, Canon of Worcester and Rev. Thomas Pearson, Rector of Great Witley. She financed the first village school in Great Witley. From 1846 to 1848, she rented Cassiobury House from Lord Essex.During her time there, she played host to Victoria and Albert. Within three years, <mask> had moved on again, renting Bentley Priory in Stanmore from Lord Abercorn. Semi-invalid by 1847, <mask> was advised to try the climate of Madeira for the winter that year, for her health. She donated money to the poor of the island and paid for the construction of a road from Ribeiro Seco to Camara de Lobos. Queen <mask>'s last public appearance was to lay the foundation stone of the church of St John the Evangelist, Great Stanmore. She gave the font and when the church was completed after her death, the east window was dedicated to her memory. She died during the reign of her niece Queen Victoria on 2 December 1849 of natural causes at Bentley Priory in Middlesex.She was buried at St. George's Chapel, Windsor. She wrote instructions for her funeral during an illness in 1841 at Sudbury Hall:
I die in all humility … we are alike before the throne of God, and I request therefore that my mortal remains be conveyed to the grave without pomp or state … to have as private and quiet a funeral as possible. I particularly desire not to be laid out in state … I die in peace and wish to be carried to the fount in peace, and free from the vanities and pomp of this world. Legacy

Queen Adelaide's name is probably best remembered in the Australian state of South Australia, founded during the brief reign of William IV. In 1836, the capital city of Adelaide was named after her. The Queen Adelaide Club for women is still active, and a bronze statue of Queen Adelaide stands in the foyer of the Town Hall. The Queen Adelaide Society was inaugurated in Adelaide in 1981 by the late Dorothy Howie with the twin objectives of promoting public awareness of Queen Adelaide and to provide an annual donation to a South Australian children's charity.There is a village named Queen Adelaide in Cambridgeshire, which takes its name from one of the many public houses named after her. There are Adelaide Streets, Adelaide Avenues, and Adelaide Roads throughout the former empire. There is also Adelaide Hospital (now the Adelaide and Meath Hospital, Tallaght) in Dublin, and an Adelaide railway station in Belfast. Australia has two Adelaide Rivers, in the Northern Territory and Tasmania, and an Adelaide Reef in Queensland. The town of Adelaide (originally Fort Adelaide) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, as well as Sir Benjamin D'Urban's short-lived colony in the same area, Queen Adelaide Province. Queen's Park, Brighton is also named in her honour, as is Adelheidsdorf in Lower Saxony, Germany. The Citadel in Port Louis, capital of the Republic of Mauritius, is named Fort Adelaide, the building having been started during the reign of William in 1834.In 1832 Adelaide Township was surveyed in what became the western part of Middlesex County in Ontario (now part of the municipality of the Township of Adelaide-Metcalfe). There is a small group of islands in southern Chile named Queen Adelaide Archipelago and Adelaide Island in the British Antarctic Territory. In honour of the Queen's many visits, several places in Leicestershire were named after Queen <mask>. They include Queen Street in Measham and the Queen Adelaide Inn (now demolished) in Appleby Magna. There is also the Queen Adelaide Oak in Bradgate Park (once home to Lady Jane Grey), under which Queen <mask> had picnicked on venison and crayfish from the estate. Asteroid 525 Adelaide is also named in her honour. In 1849 there was a cholera epidemic in the East End of London.The following year, Queen <mask>'s dispensary opened in Warner Place, Bethnal Green. It moved to William Street in 1866 and by 1899 was handling 10,000 medical and dental patients a year. In 1963, the funds that had set up the dispensary became Queen <mask>'s charity, which still operates today. Queen Victoria's firstborn child, <mask> Mary Louise, took her second name from her great-aunt, who was also the child's godmother. Cultural depictions

Queen <mask> was played by Harriet Walter in the 2009 film The Young Victoria, as a kindly but practical counsellor to the inexperienced queen. Delena Kidd portrayed her in the 2001 television serial Victoria & Albert. Honours
 : Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836

Arms

The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are impaled with her father's arms as Duke of Saxe-Meiningen.As the Duchess of Clarence, she used the arms of her husband (the royal arms with a label of three points Argent, the centre point bearing a cross Gules, the outer points each bearing an anchor Azure) impaled with those of her father, the whole surmounted by a coronet of a child of the sovereign. Issue

Ancestry

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

External links

 Biography

 Queen Adelaide Society (City of Adelaide, South Australia)

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1792 births
1849 deaths
18th-century German people
19th-century German people
18th-century German women
19th-century German women
19th-century British people
19th-century British women
British royal consorts
Wives of British princes
House of Hanover
Hanoverian royal consorts
Hanoverian princesses by marriage
House of Saxe-Meiningen
Duchesses of Brunswick-Lüneburg
People from Meiningen
Princesses of Saxe-Meiningen
William IV of the United Kingdom
Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel

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