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<mask>, Sr. (November 12, 1917 – March 15, 2003), was the grandson of brewer <mask> and president of Coors Brewing Company. Birth and education
<mask> was born in 1917 to Alice May Kistler (1885–1970) and <mask> II. His siblings include <mask> III and <mask>. He graduated from Cornell University in 1939 with a degree in chemical engineering, staying to earn a master's degree in 1940. His brother <mask> III and cousin <mask> were his classmates, and all three were members of Kappa Alpha Society and Quill and Dagger society. Marriage
He married Edith Holland "Holly" Hanson (<mask>) (1920–2009) in 1941 and had five sons, <mask> "Joe Jr." (1942–2016),,  Jeffrey "Jeff", Peter "Pete" (born 1946), Grover and John. He divorced Holly in 1987 after 46 years of marriage.His son Jeff described him as an adulterer and a sinner. He married Anne Elizabeth Drotning in 1988. Sons of Joe and Holly
 <mask> Jr. (1942-2016) began college at the University of North Carolina, but transferred to North Carolina State University, where he earned a B.Sc. in mathematics in 1964. His marriage at age 19 to Gail Fambrough, and avoidance of Cornell University, caused a schism in the family, and he was not offered employment at any of the Coors companies upon graduation from NCSU. Joe Jr. worked as a stockbroker in Denver until 1967, when he joined Frontier Airlines as a programmer in data processing. He left Frontier in 1969 to work for a school district in San Diego as a systems analyst.In 1972, he chose to return home and reconcile with his father. The reconciliation came slowly, but Joe Jr. was hired by Coors Porcelain Co. in the data processing department. He was transferred to the Wilbanks subsidiary in Oregon in 1977, where he became president in 1980. Although his relationship with his father remained icy, Joe Jr. returned to Golden in 1984 to replace a retiring VP and be groomed to succeed the ailing Derald Whiting as president of Porcelain. Joe Jr. was appointed to the Colorado School of Mines (CSM) Board of Trustees by Gov. Roy Romer 1991-9. The softball field and an annual golf outing at CSM are named in his honor.Long after his 2000 retirement from CoorsTek, Joe Jr. ran for Congress as a Republican in Colorado's 7th congressional district against his longtime neighbor, Democratic incumbent Ed Perlmutter in 2012. Perlmutter was re-elected, but remained friends with Coors until Joe's death from a stroke in 2016.,
 Jeffrey Holland <mask> (born 1945), developer of Coors Light beer, was named president of Adolph Coors Co. in 1985 and later as president of 1993 Coors spin-off ACX Technologies, Inc. Jeff became the chairman and president of ACX subsidiary Graphic Packaging Corp. in 1997. He retired as vice-chairman from GPC in 2007, and resigned from its Board of Directors in 2016. Jeff and wife Lis Lennert Coors' children include son Timothy. Peter Hanson <mask> (born 1946) earned a B.Sc. in industrial engineering at Cornell University in 1969 and an M.B.A. at the University of Denver in 1970. He was hired by Adolph Coors Co. in 1971, and was named President of the Brewing Division in 1985, reporting to his brother Jeff.Pete was named Chairman of both Adolph Coors Company and its largest subsidiary, Coors Brewing Company, in 2002. He has also served as vice-chairman of Molson Coors Brewing Company and chairman of MillerCoors. Pete and wife Marilyn's six children include daughter Christien <mask> Ficeli and son Peter J. <mask>. William Grover <mask> (born 1951) is chief scientist and a member of the Board of Directors at CoorsTek Membrane Sciences AS in Oslo, Norway. He earned a bachelor's degree at Stanford University and an M.Sc. in 1996 and Ph.D. in materials science at CSM in 2001. Like his older brother Joe Jr., Grover became estranged from his father circa 1971, but reconciled two years later when he needed income.In addition to CoorsTek, Grover has been an executive at Adolph Coors Co. in Washington, DC, and Microlithics Corp. in Golden. Grover's wife is Sylvia. John Kistler <mask> (born 1956) began his career as a quality control technician at the Coors brewery when he was 17. His goal was to work his way up through the brewery, where he led the customer satisfaction division in 1988. He earned a B.Sc. in chemical engineering at Mines in 1977—the first of 14 Coors family members to graduate from CSM—an M.Sc. at the University of Texas in biochemistry, and a Ph.D. in brewing science at the Technical University of Munich in 1986.The 1992 ACX spin-off sent John, then 36, to a small operation in ACX. In 1996, he was assigned to manage the $17M investment in Golden Genesis, which was sold for $30M to Kyocera in 1999. John was appointed president of Coors Ceramics Co. in 1998 and chairman (succeeding Joe Jr.) in 2000 when the company was renamed CoorsTek. He retired from CoorsTek in 2020. John and wife Sharna's ten children include son Jonathan. Joe Sr. and Holly had 28 grandchildren, and 24 great grandchildren at the time of Holly's death in 2009. Grandchildren Holly, Brad, Doug, Timothy, Michael, Andrew and Jonathan are all employees of CoorsTek.Brewing career
After graduation, he began work in the  Coors Porcelain Co., the porcelain business that helped the company survive Prohibition. With his brother <mask> (whose desks were located only one foot apart), <mask> refined the cold-filtered beer manufacturing system and began America's first large-scale recycling program by offering one-cent returns on Coors aluminum cans. He served one term as a regent of the University of Colorado from 1967 to 1972 and attempted to quell what he considered to be campus radicalism during the Vietnam War. He served as president of Coors from 1977 to 1985 and as chief operating officer from 1980 to 1988. His leadership helped expand Coors beer distribution from 11 Western states in the 1970s to the entire country by the early 1990s. Politics

Coors was perhaps best known for his conservative politics and his support of Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan, whom he first met in Palm Springs, California in 1967. His brother <mask> once described him as "a little bit right of Attila the Hun".A founding member of the conservative Washington Heritage Foundation think tank in 1973 along with Paul Weyrich and Edwin Feulner (which formulated many of Reagan's campaign ideas), Coors provided $250,000 to cover its first year budget, and $300,000/year thereafter. He was also involved with the founding of the Free Congress Foundation and the Council for National Policy, as well as Television News Inc., a syndicated news service for television stations. He was a member of Ronald Reagan's Kitchen Cabinet after helping finance Reagan's political career as governor of California and U.S. president, and was later nominated by Reagan to sit on the board of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Brewery Workers Local 366 in Golden, Colorado struck the Coors plant in August 1977. Coors continued brewery operations and replaced the striking workers who stayed out. The new workers voted to decertify the union in December 1978, officially ending the strike. The strike and decertification caused a 10-year boycott of Coors by the AFL-CIO.In the aftermath of the strike Coors required new employees to take lie detector tests, which were discontinued in August 1986. In 1977 after a regional agreement prevented the movement of toxic aluminum waste from aluminum can production across adjacent state borders, Coors set up the Mountain States Legal Foundation, headed by local lawyer James G. Watt to fight the environmental constraints in the courts. Watt later became U.S. Secretary of the Interior, and appointed local attorney Anne Gorsuch as head of the Environmental Protection Agency to dismantle toxic waste disposal laws, causing an outcry that got her sacked by Reagan after 22 months, after which Watt was forced to resign for politically-insensitive remarks. Coors was also known to have privately donated $65,000 to buy a light cargo plane for the Contras' effort in Nicaragua during Reagan's presidency. That donation went through  National Security Council adviser Oliver North. Death
Coors died in Rancho Mirage, California, in 2003 after a three-month battle with lymphatic cancer. References

 Beetz, Kirk H. (2007)."<mask>, <mask>, Sr. ('Joe')." The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives. Charles Scribner's Sons. Retrieved January 9, 2013 from HighBeam Research

1917 births
2003 deaths
People from Golden, Colorado
People from Rancho Mirage, California
Coors family
Phillips Exeter Academy alumni
Cornell University College of Engineering alumni
The Heritage Foundation
Deaths from lymphoma
Deaths from cancer in California
Colorado Republicans
California Republicans

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<mask> ( , ; born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, ; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and the only woman to win the Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win the Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. Her husband, <mask>, was a co-winner on her first Nobel Prize, making them the first ever married couple to win the Nobel Prize and launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in 1906, the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris. She was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work.In 1895 she married the French physicist <mask>, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity"—a term she coined. In 1906 <mask> died in a Paris street accident. <mask> won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms by the use of radioactive isotopes. In 1920 she founded the Curie Institute in Paris, and in 1932 the Curie Institute in Warsaw; both remain major centres of medical research. During World War I she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals. While a French citizen, <mask> <mask>, who used both surnames, never lost her sense of Polish identity.She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland. She named the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her native country. <mask> died in 1934, aged 66, at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anemia from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I. In addition to her Nobel Prizes, she has received numerous other honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in Paris' Panthéon, and Poland declared 2011 the Year of <mask>e during the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous biographical works, where she is also known as Madame Curie. Life

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Congress Poland in the Russian Empire, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski. The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia),  (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863–65). This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life. Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been principal of the Lublin primary school attended by Bolesław Prus, who became a leading figure in Polish literature. Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home and instructed his children in its use. He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house. Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born.She died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder. Maria's father was an atheist; her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic. When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next, she attended a gymnasium for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring. Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as Floating University), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later. In connection with this, Maria took a position as governess: first as a home tutor in Warsaw; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father. While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician. His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them. Maria's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska that had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute, which she had founded in 1932.At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist—invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds. She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again. All that time she continued to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself. In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw. She continued working as a governess and remained there till late 1891. She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890–91) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. Life in Paris
In late 1891, she left Poland for France. In Paris, Maria (or <mask>, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the University of Paris, where she enrolled in late 1891. She subsisted on her meagre resources, keeping herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the clothes she had. She focused so hard on her studies that she sometimes forgot to eat. Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Gabriel Lippmann.Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894. Skłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry. That same year, <mask> entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together. <mask> was an instructor at The City of Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris). They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access. Though Curie did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work. Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another.Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Curie, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French. Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family. She was still labouring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism in academia. A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph.D. At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School. A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery". On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux; neither wanted a religious service.Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit. They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, <mask> had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend. New elements

In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.She used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge. Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible. In 1897, her daughter Irène was born.To support her family, Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to ESPCI. The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments. Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite). Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active.She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium. She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive. <mask> was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her. She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity (and even

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 a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication.Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann. Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin. At that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium." She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible." On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tonnes of the ore. In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element they named "polonium", in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires (Russian, Austrian, and Prussian).On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named "radium", from the Latin word for "ray". In the course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity". To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form. Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore. Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization.From a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal. She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days. Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells. In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris. In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death. In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris.That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to. Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium. The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business. Nobel Prizes

In December 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded <mask>, <mask>, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel." At first the committee had intended to honour only <mask> and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, <mask>'s name was added to the nomination. <mask>e was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize. Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905.The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant. Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory. Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906. In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève. She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland. On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, fracturing his skull and killing him instantly.Curie was devastated by her husband's death. On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and offer it to <mask>. She accepted it, hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris. Curie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris. The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute.Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute. In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie. Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences failed, by one or two votes, to elect her to membership in the Academy. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph. It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy. Despite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish. During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press as a foreigner and atheist.Her daughter later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes. In 1911 it was revealed that Curie was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of <mask>'s, a married man who was estranged from his wife. This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker. When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo. International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This award was "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element."Because of the negative publicity due to her affair with Langevin, the chair of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance at the official ceremony for her Nobel Prize in Chemistry, citing her questionable moral standing. Curie replied that she would be present at the ceremony, because “the prize has been given to her for her discovery of polonium and radium” and that “there is no relation between her scientific work and the facts of her private life”. She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country. Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government to support the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine. A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912, she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton.She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months. In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie. She was appointed Director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, founded in 1914. She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919. World War I

During World War I, Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible. She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons, including to obviate amputations when in fact limbs could be saved.After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, auxiliary generators, and developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies"). She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914. Assisted at first by a military doctor and her 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war. Later, she began training other women as aides. In 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation", a colourless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon, to be used for sterilizing infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one-gram supply. It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period. In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government. Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them. She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money. She said:I am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns.This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost. She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause. After the war, she summarized her wartime experiences in a book, Radiology in War (1919). Postwar years
In 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur (1822–95).In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Mrs. William Brown Meloney,

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Pierre Curie


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 after interviewing Curie, created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip. In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States, and the First Lady praised her as an example of a professional achiever who was also a supportive wife. Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused. In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine. She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia. Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and her son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-<mask>.Eventually it became one of the world's four major radioactivity-research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner. In August 1922 <mask> became a member of the League of Nations' newly created International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. She sat on the committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations' scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, and Henri Bergson. In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled Pierre Curie. In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw's Radium Institute. Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director. These distractions from her scientific labours, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work.In 1930 she was elected to the International Atomic Weights Committee, on which she served until her death. In 1931, Curie was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. Death

Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934. A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died aged 66 at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute-Savoie, from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation, causing damage to her bone marrow. The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark. Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war.In fact, when Curie's body was exhumed in 1995, the French Office de Protection contre les Rayonnements Ionisants (ORPI) "concluded that she could not have been exposed to lethal levels of radium while she was alive". They pointed out that radium poses a risk only if it is ingested, and speculated that her illness was more likely to have been due to her use of radiography during the First World War. She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre. Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Paris Panthéon. Their remains were sealed in a lead lining because of the radioactivity. She became the second woman to be interred at the  Panthéon (after Sophie Berthelot) and the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits. Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle.Even her cookbooks are highly radioactive. Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing. In her last year, she worked on a book, Radioactivity, which was published posthumously in 1935. Legacy

The physical and societal aspects of the Curies' work contributed to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Cornell University professor  Williams observes:

If Curie's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman. This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud's Marie Curie: A Life, which emphasizes Curie's role as a feminist precursor.She was known for her honesty and moderate lifestyle. Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep. She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates. In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.Honours and tributes

As one of the most famous scientists, <mask>e has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture. In 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon, Paris. In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist, she was voted the "most inspirational woman in science". Curie received 25.1 percent of all votes cast, nearly twice as many as second-place Rosalind Franklin (14.2 per cent). On the centenary of her second Nobel Prize, Poland declared 2011 the Year of <mask>e; and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry. An artistic installation celebrating "Madame Curie" filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego's Museum of Contemporary Art. On 7 November, Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle.On 10 December, the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of <mask>'s second Nobel Prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden. <mask> was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Awards that she received include:
 Nobel Prize in Physics (1903, with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel)
 Davy Medal (1903, with Pierre)
 Matteucci Medal (1904, with Pierre)
 Actonian Prize (1907)
 Elliott Cresson Medal (1909)
 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)
 Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society (1921)

She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world. In Poland, she received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic (1912), Poznań University (1922), Kraków's Jagiellonian University (1924), and the Warsaw Polytechnic (1926). In 1920 she became the first female member of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. In 1921, in the U.S., she was awarded membership in the Iota Sigma Pi women scientists' society. In 1924, she became an Honorary Member of the Polish Chemical Society.<mask>'s 1898 publication with her husband and their collaborator Gustave Bémont of their discovery of radium and polonium was honoured by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris in 2015. Entities that have been named in her honour include:

 The curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, <mask>owska-Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her. In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies. Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her.The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her. A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCC) is named in her honour. In 2011, a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula River was named in her honour. In January 2020, Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite; ÑuSat 8, also known as <mask>, was named in her honour. The Marie-Curie station, a planned underground Réseau express métropolitain (REM) station in the borough of Saint-Laurent in Montreal is named in her honour. A nearby road, Avenue Marie Curie, is also named in her honour. Several institutions presently bear her name, including the two Curie institutes which she founded: the Maria Sklodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology in Warsaw, and the Institut Curie in Paris.The Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, in Lublin, was founded in 1944; and the Pierre and Marie Curie University (also known as Paris VI) was France's pre-eminent science university, which would later merge to form the Sorbonne University. In Britain, the Marie Curie charity was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill.
Two museums are devoted to <mask>e. In 1967, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum was established in Warsaw's "New Town", at her birthplace on ulica Freta (Freta Street). Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie, open since 1992. Curie's likeness has appeared on banknotes, stamps and coins around the world. She was featured on the Polish late-1980s 20,000-złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500-franc note, before the franc was replaced by the euro. Curie-themed postage stamps from Mali, the Republic of Togo, Zambia, and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of <mask> Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder.Her likeness or name has appeared on several artistic works. In 1935, Michalina Mościcka, wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki, unveiled a statue of <mask>e before Warsaw's Radium Institute; during the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation, the monument was damaged by gunfire; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal. Her name is included on the Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations, erected in Hamburg, Germany in 1936. In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Medallion, featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room. In 2011, on the centenary of <mask>'s second Nobel Prize, an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace. It depicted an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanated the elements that she would discover as an adult: polonium and radium. In popular culture
Numerous biographies are devoted to her, including:
 Ève Curie (<mask>e's daughter), Madame Curie, 1938.Françoise Giroud, <mask>e: A Life, 1987. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of <mask>e, 2005. Lauren Redniss, Radioactive: <mask> and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout, 2011, adapted into the 2019 British film. <mask>e has been the subject of a number of films:
 1943: Madame Curie, a U.S. Oscar-nominated film by Mervyn LeRoy starring Greer Garson. 1997: Les Palmes de M. Schutz, a French film adapted from a play of the same title, and directed by Claude Pinoteau. <mask> is played by Isabelle Huppert. 2016: <mask>e: The Courage of Knowledge, a European co-production by <mask> starring Karolina Gruszka.2019: Radioactive, a British film by Marjane Satrapi starring Rosamund Pike. Curie is the subject of the 2013 play, False Assumptions, by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life. Curie has also been portrayed by <mask> Frontczak in her play, Manya: The Living History of <mask>, a one-woman show which by 2014 had been performed in 30 U.S. states and nine countries. See also

 Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg, who sponsored <mask>'s visit to the US
 Eusapia Palladino: Spiritualist medium whose Paris séances were attended by an intrigued Pierre Curie and a skeptical <mask>e
 <mask>e Medal
 Genius, television series depicting Einstein's life
 List of female Nobel laureates
 List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize
 List of multiple discoveries (1898 discovery of thorium radioactivity)
 List of Poles (Chemistry)
 List of Poles (Physics)
 List of Polish Nobel laureates
 Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum, Warsaw, Poland
 <mask> Gargoyle (1988), at University of Oregon
 Poles
 Timeline of women in science
 Treatise on Radioactivity, by <mask>e
 Women in chemistry

Notes

References

Further reading

Nonfiction

  translated by Lydia Davis. Fiction
  A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, and his Salpêtrière patient "Blanche" (<mask>). The English translation was published in

masks:
Curie
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curie
Marie Curie
Mariekod
Marie
Marie Curi
Susan Marie
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Noëlle
Susan Marie
Marie Curie
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Wittman


texts:
<mask> (born Margaret Hall or  Hale, May 1847 – March 20, 1919) was an Anglo-American dancer and contralto singer active on burlesque and vaudeville stages during the latter decades of the 19th century. She began by performing juvenile rôles in Manchester, made her debut on the London stage at 20 and a year later New York as a member of the British Blondes which introduced Victorian burlesque to America, where for a few years she would find phenomenal success before her career settled into a long steady decline. The critic Richard Grant White once described <mask>'s singing as vocal velvet and her arms as the lost arms of the Venus de Milo. <mask> had studied singing with Manuel García at the Royal Academy of Music in London. Early life and career
<mask> was born in England and began her acting career at an early age playing principle boy parts at the Princess Theatre, Manchester. She made her London debut, not too many years later, on November 15, 1867, at the Queen's Theatre in Wigan's The First Night playing Rose, the intended debutant. In late June, 1868 she appeared at the Queen's Theatre in another Wigan play, Time and the Hour, of which one London critic said, “It is by no means good, and by no means bad.”

British Blondes

Later in that year she accompanied Lydia Thompson to New York as a member of her British Blondes, opening at Wood's Museum (Broadway at 30th Street) on September 28, in the burlesque of "Ixion, or the Man at the Wheel".In the piece <mask> plays the goddess Venus who is seduced by King Ixion (Thompson). Ixion had a combined run of 102 matinee and evening performances before closing on December 26, 1868. The following February <mask> began a long run at Niblo's Garden in Forty Thieves, Thompson's burlesque of  Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves. At the Union Square Theatre (then the Grand Theatre Tammany) in August 1869 she played the central rôle Florizel in The Queen of Hearts, or Harlequin; the Knave of Hearts, that Stole the Tarts, and the Old Woman Who Lived in the Shoe, a production that at least one New York Herald critic considered as foolish as its title. In October 1869 it was reported in the press that Markham's investments had made her a fortune on Wall Street. During this time she was earning upwards to $150 per week, at a time when an experienced actor might expect $50 for a week on the boards. On October 28, 1870, <mask> was seriously injured in a carriage accident in New York on Harlem Street, such that at least one newspaper reported her dead.Eleven days earlier she had opened with Thompson at Wood's Theatre in a burlesque of the Wallace opera Lurline and after a relatively short recuperation she chose to join the cast of the Niblo's December revival of The Black Crook' playing what would turn out to be her signature rôle. The Black CrookThe Black Crook, a musical about an English ne'er do well who discovers his noble birth and decides to reform, was first produced in America at Niblo's Theatre in 1866 with a run in excess of 300 performances. <mask> later became so identified with her characterization of the fairy queen Stalacta, that afterwards some chroniclers erroneously listed her among the original 1866 cast. The revival ran for 122 performances and would return several more times to New York and in tours of the country. During this time, it was not uncommon for Markham to receive after a performance bouquets of flowers festooned with jewelry from her male admirers.The Black Crook, which featured actresses in flesh colored silk tights, has been credited with starting in 1866 what James Lauren Ford called “the great era of the leg show. A criticism of such shows in 1870 by Wilbur F. Storey, editor of the Chicago Times, led to the following incident. Lydia Thompson’s troupe of "British Blondes" was playing an engagement at McVicker’s Theatre.It was the first so-called "leg" show to appear in Chicago. Mr. Storey had heard rumors of the alleged indecency of the performance and he sent one of his reporters to see the show and write his impressions. Mr. Storey also indited a few lines for the editorial page that fairly sizzled. The "rongst" was printed in the Times February 24, 1870. That evening at five o’clock while Mr. Storey was on his way home from the office he was waylaid at Wabash avenue and Peck Court by Miss Thompson, Miss Markham and Mr. Henderson, manager of the "British Blondes." The editor was walking with his head down, as was his custom, when suddenly he was confronted by the trio. Mrs. Thompson drew short whip which was concealed in the folds of her skirt and began to rain blows down upon the head and shoulders of Mr. Storey.Unaware of the cause of the assault, Mr. Storey kept shouting: "What do you mean? What do you mean?" He raised his hands to ward off the blows and at this juncture Miss <mask> snatched the whip from Miss Thompson. She also belabored the editor until pedestrians came to his rescue. Burnettsville News, April 24, 1919

The three were arrested and later pled guilty to assault with <mask> receiving a $150 fine and Thompson and Henderson penalized $200 apiece. <mask>, with the help of Richard Grant White, published The Life of Pauline Markham in 1871. In 1872 <mask> appeared at Wood’s Museum with Belle Howitt in burlesque productions of Who Cried for the Rain, Red Riding Hood, The Three Musketeers and others, including several shows she had previously performed in with Thompson’s "British Blondes".The next year she toured with her own company in a piece described a fairy burlesque of the Golden Butterfly. That fall she returned to Niblo's Theatre to revive her rôle in The Black Crook. Randolph M. McMahon

In late November 1873 it was reported <mask> had eloped with Randolph M. McMahon, a former Southern Civil War officer with a reported rank ranging anywhere from Colonel to Major General. A few days earlier <mask> failed to appear for that night's performance of The Black Crook at Niblo's Theatre. It was later discovered the couple had skipped town to avoid detectives searching for McMahon over an extravagant unpaid hotel bill. <mask> would later say of McMahon that he was abusive and controlling to the point that he would only allow her twenty-five cents to spend on meals. According to sporadic news accounts the two remained together for at least five years with McMahon as her manager.Dramatic, Musical, & c. North American and United States Gazette, (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), February 26, 1873; Issue 31,699; col. C

In May 1874 <mask> was reported singing for private circles in New Orleans and by the summer of 1875, back in London at the Haymarket Theatre supporting Charles Wyndham in a play entitled Brighton.She played in Dancing Dolls, a variety show at the Globe Theatre in August 1876, before returning to America the next year to tour with Adah Richmond's Burlesque Company. That fall she appeared on the legitimate stage in Boston at Howard's Athenaeum as Fanny Vanderbilt in The Charity Ball and later in a production of Robin Hood''. In February 1878 the press linked Markham to scandal involving a former governor of South Carolina and the issuing of fraudulent bonds. Markham denied any involvement with the scheme or that she was acquainted with any of the men mentioned in the papers as members of the South Carolina ring, telling her interviewer that they are not the kind of persons she permits herself to associate with. The following year <mask>'s company toured the west presenting H. M. S. Pinafore. Sadie Marcus, later in life the common-law wife of gambler and lawman Wyatt Earp, claimed that she was a member of the troupe, but no corroborating evidence has been found to support her claim. Her name was never included among those on the Markham troupe's rolls in 1879.Randolph Murray

She married again in 1883 to Randolph Murray, an actor-manager, late of the British Army. A scandal arose shortly thereafter when the press discovered Murray had not ended an 1880 marriage before he wed <mask>. He claimed he was drunk at the time and that his bride deserted him a week later. Murray walked with a limp said to have been caused by a minié ball still embedded in his leg dating back to his service in India. His acting career in America began in the early 1870s at the Cleveland Academy of Music as W. C. Davenport. <mask> and Murray would perform together in a number of legitimate stage performances during their marriage. She divorced him in 1891, reportedly on the grounds of infidelity.Later years
Over the first ten years of her career <mask> was thought to have earned $250,000 and received some $100,000 in gifts. Her later career would still achieve some highs, but also a number of lows with more than one of her shows collapsing in mid tour and an incident involving a tour manager who disappeared with the troupe's funds. After her second marriage she eventually slipped into poverty with newspaper accounts of her working as a scrub woman and sometimes taking bit parts under an assumed name. If these accounts are true her poverty, at least in part, resulted from the broken leg she suffered around 1892 after falling through an open cellar door along a stretch of sidewalk in Louisville, Kentucky. Five years later she was awarded through a negligence lawsuit $5,000 from city of Louisville. In 1897 <mask> attempted a comeback in vaudeville that appears to have ended the following year at Tony Pastor's in dramatic skits with Catherine Dann. Adelard Gravel and final years

By 1900 she was married to Adelard Gravel, a Manhattan-based French-Canadian artist and printer that the press described as "moderately prosperous".In late 1905 <mask> was reported to be near death with pneumonia though later press clarified it to be a serious case of the measles. She lived on with her husband for another fourteen years, dying in New York at the age of 71. References

External links

 Photograph of <mask>
 <mask>ham photo gallery at NYP Library
<mask>ham: North American Theatre Online

British burlesque performers
1847 births
1919 deaths

masks:
Pauline Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Pauline Markham
Pauline Mark
Pauline Mark


texts:
Henri-<mask> (; 25 October 1767 – 8 December 1830), or simply <mask>, was a Swiss-French political thinker, activist and writer on political theory and religion. A committed republican from 1795, he backed the coup d'état of 18 Fructidor, (4 September 1797) and the following one on 18 brumaire, (9 November 1799). During the Consulat, in 1800 he became the leader of the Liberal Opposition. Having upset Napoleon and left France to go to Switzerland then to the Kingdom of Saxony, he nonetheless sided with Napoleon during the Hundred Days and became politically active again during the French Restoration. He was elected Député in 1818 and remained in post until his death in 1830. Head of the Liberal opposition, known as Indépendants, he was one of the most notable orators of the Chamber of Deputies of France, as a proponent of the parliamentary system. During the July Revolution, he was a supporter of Louis Philippe I ascending the throne.Besides his numerous essays on political and religious themes, <mask> also wrote on romantic love. His autobiographical Le Cahier rouge (1807) gives an account of his love for Madame de Staël, whose protégé and collaborator he became, especially in the Coppet circle, and a successful novella, Adolphe (1816), are good exemples of his work on this topic. He was a fervent classical liberal of the early 19th century. He refined the concept of liberty, defining it as a condition of existence that allowed the individual to turn away interference from the state or society. His ideas influenced the Trienio Liberal movement in Spain, the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, the Greek War of Independence, the November uprising in Poland, the Belgian Revolution, and liberalism in Brazil and Mexico. Biography
Henri-<mask> was born in Lausanne to the <mask> de Rebecque family, descendants of French Huguenots who had fled from Artois to Switzerland during the French Wars of Religion in the 16th century. His father, <mask> de Rebecque, served as a high-ranking officer in the Dutch States Army, like his grandfather, his uncle and his cousin Jean Victor <mask> Rebecque.When <mask>'s mother, Henriette-Pauline de Chandieu-Villars, died soon after his birth, both his grandmothers took care of him. Private tutors educated him in Brussels (1779) and in the Netherlands (1780). While at the Protestant University of Erlangen (1783), he gained access to the court of Duchess Sophie Caroline Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He had to leave after an affair with a girl, and moved to the University of Edinburgh. There he lived at the home of Andrew Duncan and was befriended by James Mackintosh and Malcolm Laing. When he left the city, he promised to pay back his gambling debts. In 1787, he returned to continental Europe, travelling on horseback through Scotland and England.In those years European nobility, with their prerogatives, come under heavy attack from those, like <mask>, who were influenced by Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality. <mask>'s family criticized him for leaving out part of his last name. In Paris, at the home of Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard he became acquainted with Isabelle de Charriere, a 46-year-old Dutch woman of letters, who later helped publish Rousseau's Confessions, and who knew his uncle David-Louis <mask> de Rebecque extremely well by virtue of a 15-year correspondence. While he stayed at her home in Colombier Switzerland, together they wrote an epistolary novel. She acted as a maternal mentor to him until <mask>'s appointment to the court of Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel that required him to move north. He left the court when the War of the First Coalition began in 1792. In Braunschweig, he married Wilhelmina von Cramm, but she divorced him in 1793.In September 1794, he met and became interested in the famous and wealthy already married Germaine de Staël, herself brought up on the principles of Rousseau. They both admired Jean Lambert Tallien and Talleyrand. Their intellectual collaboration between 1795 and 1811 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of the time. Paris

After the Reign of Terror in France (1793–1794), <mask> became an advocate of bicameralism and of an assembly like the Parliament of Great Britain. In revolutionary France this strand of political thought resulted in the Constitution of the Year III, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. In 1799, after 18 Brumaire, <mask> was reluctantly appointed, on the insistence of Abbe Sieyes, by Napoleon Bonaparte to the Tribunat, despite grave reservations on the latter's part. Eventually, in 1802, the first consul confirmed in his doubts, forced <mask> to withdraw because of the tenor of his speeches and his close connection with Mme de Staël.<mask> became acquainted with Julie Talma, the salonnière wife of actor François-Joseph Talma, who wrote many letters to him of compelling human interest. In 1800, the Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise, an attempt to assassinate Napoleon, failed. In 1803, at a time when Britain and France were at peace, Jean Gabriel Peltier, while living in England, argued that Napoleon should be assassinated. The lawyer James Mackintosh defended the French refugee, Peltier against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul of France. Mackintosh's speech was widely published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël. She was forced to leave Paris as a result. De Staël, disappointed by French rationalism, became interested in German romanticism.She and <mask> set out for Prussia and Saxony and travelled with her two children to Weimar. Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel welcomed them the day after their arrival. In Weimar they met Friedrich von Schiller. Due to illness Johann Wolfgang Goethe at first hesitated. In Berlin, they met August Wilhelm Schlegel, and his brother, Friedrich Schlegel. <mask> left de Staël in Leipzig and in 1806 lived in Rouen and Meulan, where he started work on his novel Adolphe. In 1808, he secretly married Caroline von Hardenberg, a woman who had been divorced twice, (she was related to Novalis and to Karl August von Hardenberg).He  moved back to Paris in 1814, where the French Restoration took place and Louis XVIII had become king. As a member of the Council of State, <mask> proposed a constitutional monarchy. He became friends with Madame Récamier while he fell out with Germaine de Staël, who had asked him to pay back his gambling debts when their daughter, Albertine, married Victor de Broglie. During the Hundred Days of Napoleon, who had become more liberal, <mask> fled to the Vendée, but returned when he was invited several times to the Tuileries to set up changes for the Charter of 1815. After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), <mask> moved to London with his wife. In 1817, the year when Madame de Staël died, he was back in Paris and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, the lower legislative house of the Restoration-era government. One of its most eloquent orators, he became a leader of the parliamentary bloc first known as the Independents and later as "liberals".He became an opponent of Charles X of France during the Restoration
between 1815 and 1830. In 1822, Goethe praised <mask> in the following terms:

I spent many instructive evenings with <mask>. Whoever recollects what this excellent man accomplished in [later] years, and with what zeal he advanced without wavering along the path which, once chosen, was forever followed, realizes what noble aspirations, as yet undeveloped, were fermenting within him. In 1830, King Louis Philippe I gave <mask> a large sum of money to help him pay off his debts, and appointed him to the Conseil d'Etat. <mask> is said to have fathered Albertine de Staël-Holstein (1797–1838), who later married Victor de Broglie (1785–1870). <mask> died in Paris on 8 December 1830 and was buried in the Père Lachaise cemetery. Political philosophy

Ancient and modern freedom
One of the first thinkers to go by the name of "liberal", <mask> looked to Britain rather than to ancient Rome for a practical model of freedom in a large mercantile society.He drew a distinction between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns". The Liberty of the Ancients was a participatory republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to influence politics directly through debates and votes in the public assembly. To support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-society of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving the citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous male societies, in which they could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs. The Liberty of the Moderns, in contrast, was based on the possession of civil liberties, the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states, and also the inevitable result of having created a mercantile society in which there were no slaves but almost everybody had to earn a living through work.Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from daily political involvement. Critique of the French Revolution
He criticised several aspects of the French Revolution, and the failures of the social and political upheaval. He stated how the French attempted to apply ancient republican liberties to a modern state. <mask> realized that freedom meant drawing a line between a person's private life and that of state interference. He praised the noble spirit of regenerating the state. However, he stated that it was naïve for writers to believe that two thousand years had not brought some changes in the customs and needs of the people. The dynamics of the state had changed.Ancient populations paled in comparison to the size of modern countries. He even argued that with a large population, man had no role in government regardless of its form or type. <mask> emphasised how citizens in ancient states found more satisfaction in the public sphere and less in their private lives whereas modern people favoured their private life. <mask>'s repeated denunciation of despotism pervaded his critique of French political philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Abbé de Mably. These writers, influential in the French Revolution, according to <mask>, mistook authority for liberty and approved any means of extending the action of the state. Alleged reformers used the model of public force of the Ancien Régime, and organised the most absolute despotism in the name of the Republic. He continually condemned despotism, citing the contradiction of a liberty derived from despotism, and the vacuous nature of this ideology.Furthermore, he pointed out the detrimental nature of the Reign of Terror, as an inexplicable delirium. In François Furet's words, <mask>'s "entire political thought" revolved around this question, namely the problem of how to justify the Terror. <mask> understood the revolutionaries' disastrous over-investment in the political sphere. The French revolutionaries such as the Sans-culottes were the primary force in the streets. They promoted constant vigilance in public. <mask> pointed out how despite the most obscure life, the quietest existence, the most unknown name, it offered no protection during the Reign of Terror. The pervasive mob mentality deterred many right thinking people and helped to usher in despots such as Napoleon.Commerce preferable to war
Moreover, <mask> believed that, in the modern world, commerce was superior to war. He attacked Napoleon's belligerence, on the grounds that it was illiberal and no longer suited to modern commercial social organization. Ancient Liberty tended to rely on war, whereas a state organized on the principles of Modern Liberty would tend to be at peace with all other peaceful nations. <mask> believed that if liberty were to be salvaged from the aftermath of the Revolution, then the chimera of Ancient Liberty had to be reconciled with the practical to achieve Modern Liberty. England, since the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the United Kingdom after 1707, had demonstrated the practicality of Modern Liberty and Britain was a

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 constitutional monarchy. <mask> concluded that constitutional monarchy was better suited than republicanism to maintaining Modern Liberty. He was instrumental in drafting the "Acte Additional" of 1815, which transformed Napoleon's restored rule into a modern constitutional monarchy.This was only to last for "One Hundred Days" before Napoleon was defeated, but <mask>'s work nevertheless provided a means of reconciling monarchy with liberty. Indeed, the French Constitution (or Charter) of 1830 could be seen as a practical implementation of many of <mask>'s ideas: a hereditary monarchy existing alongside an elected Chamber of Deputies and a senatorial Chamber of Peers, with the executive power vested in responsible ministers. Thus, although often ignored in France, because of his Anglo-Saxon sympathies, <mask> succeeded in contributing in a profound (albeit indirect) way to French constitutional traditions. Constitutional monarchy
Secondly, <mask> developed a new theory of constitutional monarchy, in which royal power was intended to be a neutral power, protecting, balancing and restraining the excesses of the other active powers (the executive, legislature, and judiciary). This was an advance on the prevailing theory in the English-speaking world, which, following the opinion of William Blackstone, the 18th-century English jurist, had regarded the King as head of the executive branch. In <mask>'s scheme, the executive power would be entrusted to a Council of Ministers (or Cabinet) who, although appointed by the King, were ultimately accountable to Parliament. In making this clear theoretical distinction between the powers of the King (as head of state) and the ministers (as Executive), <mask> was responding to the political reality which had become apparent in Britain for more than a century: that is, the ministers, and not the King, are responsible actors, and the King "reigns but does not rule".This was important for the development of parliamentary government in France and elsewhere. The King was not to be a powerless cipher in <mask>'s scheme. He would have many powers, including the power to make judicial appointments, to dissolve the Chamber and call new elections, to appoint the peers, and to dismiss ministers – but he would not be able to govern, make policy, or direct the administration, since that would be the task of the responsible ministers. This theory was literally applied in Portugal (1822) and Brazil (1824), where the King/Emperor was explicitly given "Moderating Powers" rather than executive power. Elsewhere (for example, the 1848 "Statuto albertino" of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which later became the basis of the Italian constitution from 1861) the executive power was notionally vested in the King, but was exercised only by the responsible ministers. He advocated the separation of powers as a basis for a liberal State, but unlike Montesquieu and most of the liberal thinkers, he advocated five powers instead of three. They were:

 the Monarch or Moderator,
 the Executive,
 the Representative Power of Opinion,
 the Representative Power of Tradition and
 the Judiciary.Thus the Moderating Power was a monarch, a type of judge, who was not part of government, but served as a neutral power to the government, the Executive Power was vested in the ministers that the monarch appointed and they were, collectively, the head of government, the Representative Powers were a separation of the Monstesquieu's Legislative power, with the Representative Power of Opinion being an elected body to represent the opinion of the citizenry and the Representative Power of Tradition was a hereditary House of Peers and the judiciary was similar to the Montesquieu's Judicial Power. <mask>'s other concerns included a "new type of federalism": a serious attempt to decentralize French government through the devolution of powers to elected municipal councils. This proposal reached fruition in 1831, when elected municipal councils (albeit on a narrow franchise) were created. Comparative religion
Aside from his political and literary output, <mask> spent forty years working on religion and religious feeling. His publications demonstrate his desire to grasp this social phenomenon inherent to human nature, which, in whatever forms it may present, is always a search for perfectibility. If its manifestations become rigid, splitting becomes inevitable. Thus, however religious feeling may present, it needs to adapt and evolve.<mask> is adamant that political authority should not meddle in the religious beliefs of the citizenry, even to defend them. In his view it is up to each person to decide where to seek their consolation, moral compass or faith. External authority cannot act upon someone's convictions, it can only act upon their interests. He also condemns a religion that is commonly regarded as utilitarian, since it degrades authentic religious feeling. He considers that it was necessary for polytheism to decline in line with human progress. The more humans progress in their understanding, the more beneficial the effects of theism. Belief in a god has itself evolved.Christianity, especially protestantism is, he argues, its most tolerant form and an indicator of intellectual, moral and spiritual evolution. Novels
<mask> published only one novel during his lifetime, Adolphe (1816), the story of a young, indecisive man's disastrous love affair with an older mistress. A first-person novel in the sentimentalist tradition, Adolphe examines the thoughts of the young man as he falls in and out of love with Ellenore, a woman of uncertain virtue. <mask> began the novel as an autobiographical tale of two loves, but decided that the reading public would object to serial passions. The love affair depicted in the finished version of the novel is thought to be based on <mask>'s affair with Anna Lindsay, who describes the affair in her correspondence (published in the Revue des Deux Mondes, December 1930 – January 1931). The book has been compared to Chateaubriand's René or Mme de Stael's Corinne. As a young man, <mask> became acquainted with a literary friend of his uncle, David-Louis <mask> de Rebecque.She was Isabelle de Charrière, a Dutch woman of letters with whom he jointly wrote an epistolary novel, under the title, Les Lettres d'Arsillé fils, Sophie Durfé et autres. Legacy
The importance of <mask>'s writings on the liberty of the ancients and of that of his time has dominated understanding of his work, as has his critique of the French Revolution. The British philosopher and historian of ideas, Sir Isaiah Berlin has acknowledged his debt to <mask>. <mask>'s wider literary and cultural writings (most importantly the novella Adolphe and his extensive history of comparative religion) emphasised the importance of self-sacrifice and effect of human emotions as a basis for social living. Thus, while he pleaded for individual liberty as vital for individual and moral development and appropriate for modernity, he felt that egoism and self-interest were not part of a true definition of individual liberty. Emotional authenticity and fellow-feeling were critical. In this, his moral and religious thought was strongly influenced by the moral writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and German thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, whom he read in reference to his religious history.1824–1831) (on ancient religion)
 Appel aux Nations chrétiennes en faveur des Grecs. (1825)
 Mélanges de littérature et de politique (1829)
 Du polythéisme romain considéré dans ses rapports avec la philosophie grecque et la religion chrétienne (1833)
 Correspondance de Benjamin <mask> et d'Anna Lindsay – L'Inconnue d'Adolphe, publiée par la baronne Constant de Rebecque. (Plon, 1933). Novels
 Dennis Wood, Isabelle de Charrière et <mask>. À propos d'une découverte récente. [Sur Les Lettres d'Arsillé fils, Sophie Durfé et autres, roman écrit par <mask> et Madame de Charrière.] In : Studies on Voltaire and the eighteenth century; 215.(Oxford, Voltaire Foundation, 1982), . Adolphe (1816)}quotes

Autobiographical writings
 Le Cahier rouge (1807), published posthumously (1907)
 Cécile (écrit vers 1809), published posthumously (1951)

Letters
 Lettre à M. Odillon-Barrot, avocat en la Cour de cassation, sur l'affaire de Wilfrid Regnault, condamné à mort (1818 puis publié chez P. Plancher en 1819)
 Deuxième lettre à M. Odillon-Barrot, avocat en la Cour de cassation, sur l'affaire de Wilfrid Regnault, condamné à mort (1818 puis publié chez P. Plancher en 1819)
 De l'appel en calomnie de M. le marquis de Blosseville, contre Wilfrid-Regnault (1818 puis publié chez P. Plancher en 1819)
 Correspondance Isabelle de Charrière et <mask> (1787–1805), Éd. Jean-Daniel Candaux. Paris, Desjonquères, 1996
 Renée Weingarten, Germaine de Staël & <mask>. A dual Biography, Yale, 2008. Lettres à Madame Récamier (1807–1830), Edition critique par Ephraïm Harpaz, Paris, Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1977. Intimate Diary
 Journaux intimes, Édition de Jean-Marie Roulin, Éd.Gallimard, collection folio classique n°6382, Paris, 2017. See also
 Contributions to liberal theory
 Institut Constant de Rebecque, a Swiss free-market, classical liberal and libertarian think tank named after <mask>. References

Further reading
 Biancamaria Fontana, <mask> and the Post-Revolutionary Mind (1991. Yale U.P., New Haven – London)
 Carpenter, Catrine. "<mask>'s religious politics" History of European Ideas 35#4 (2009), 503–509. <mask>, <mask>. Constant: Political Writings (Cambridge UP, 1988).Dodge, Guy Howard. <mask>'s Philosophy of Liberalism: A Study in Politics & Religion (1980) 195pp. Gauchet, Marcel. "Constant," in A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution, ed. François Furet and Mona Ozouf (1989), p. 924. Pitt, A. "The Religion of the Moderns: Freedom and Authenticity in <mask>'s De la Religion", in History of Political Thought; 21#1 (2000), 67–87.Rosenblatt, Helena, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Constant, (2009. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
 Steven, Vincent, K. "<mask>, the French Revolution, and the Origins of French Romantic Liberalism",  French Historical Studies; 23:4 (2000 Fall), pp. 607–637 in Project MUSE
 Vincent, K. Steven. <mask> and the Birth of French Liberalism (Springer, 2011) online. Wood, Dennis. <mask>: A Biography (1993).Other languages
 Mauro Barberis, <mask>. Rivoluzione, costituzione, progresso (1988. Il Mulino, Bologna)
 Paul Bastid, <mask> et sa doctrine, I–II (1966. Colin, Paris)
 Pierre Deguise, <mask> méconnu. Le livre De la religion, avec des documents inédits (1966. Droz, Genève)
 Stefano De Luca, Il pensiero politico di <mask> (1993. Laterza, Roma-Bari)
 Béatrice Fink (dir.), <mask> : philosophe, historien, romancier et homme d'État (actes du colloque de l'université du Maryland, octobre 1989), Lausanne, Institut Benjamin Constant ; Paris, J. Touzot, 1991, 186 p.
 Luca Fezzi, Il rimpianto di Roma. 'Res publica', libertà 'neoromane' e <mask>, agli inizi del terzo millennio (2012, Firenze, Le Monnier)
 François Furet, "La Révolution sans la Terreur? Le débat des historiens du XIXe siècle", in Le Débat pp. 13, 41. (1981)
 Henri Guillemin, <mask>, muscadin, Paris, Gallimard, 1958
 Kurt Kloocke, <mask>. Une biographie intellectuelle (1984. Droz, Genève)
 Giovanni Paoletti, <mask> et les Anciens.Politique, réligion, histoire (2006. Champion, Paris)
 Tzvetan Todorov, <mask>: la passion democratique (1997. Hachette, Paris)

External links

 Institut Benjamin Constant homepage
 Rebecq liberal
 Intellectual portrait of B. C. by Emile Faguet (in French)
 The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns (1816)
 Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments
  Lecture on ancient and modern liberty contains a readable version for contemporary students

1767 births
1830 deaths
People from Lausanne
Swiss Protestants
French Protestants
Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration
Members of the 1st Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Swiss writers in French
Swiss psychological fiction writers
Swiss classical liberals
Swiss philosophers
18th-century philosophers
19th-century philosophers
18th-century French writers
18th-century French male writers
19th-century French novelists
Political philosophers
French classical liberals
French male novelists
French psychological fiction writers
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Coppet group
Philhellenes in the Greek War of Independence
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Liberal Party (Bourbon

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<mask> (1 September 1923 – 8 June 2009) was one of the most popular Indian Urdu, Hindi playwrights, a theatre director, poet and actor. He was the writer of plays such as, Agra Bazar (1954) and Charandas Chor (1975). A pioneer in Urdu and Hindi theatre, he was most known for his work with Chhattisgarhi tribals, at the Naya Theatre, a theatre company he founded in 1959 in Bhopal. He went on to include indigenous performance forms such as nacha, to create not only a new theatrical language, but also milestones such as Charandas Chor, Gaon ka Naam Sasural, Mor Naam Damad and Kamdeo ka Apna Basant Ritu ka Sapna. For him, true "theatre of the people" existed in the villages, which he strived to bring to the urban "educated", employing both folk performers as actors alongside urban actors. He died on 8 June 2009 at Bhopal after a three-week-long illness. Upon his death, he was the last of pioneering actor-managers in Indian theatre, which included Sisir Bhaduri, Utpal Dutt and Prithviraj Kapoor, and often he managed plays with a mammoth cast, such as Charandas Chor, which included an orchestra of 72 people on stage and Agra Bazaar, with 52 people.During his lifetime he won several national and international awards, including the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1969, Jawarharlal Nehru Fellowship in 1979, Padma Shri in 1983, Kalidas Samman 1990, Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship in 1996, and the Padma Bhushan in 2002. Apart from that he had also been nominated to become a member of the Upper House of Indian Parliament, the Rajya Sabha (1972–1978). His play Charandas Chor (Charandas, The Thief) won him the Fringe Firsts Award at Edinburgh International Drama Festival in 1982, and in 2007, it was included in the Hindustan Times' list of 'India's 60 Best works since Independence which said : "an innovative dramaturgy equally impelled by Brecht and folk idioms, <mask> Tanvir seduces across language barriers in this his all-time biggest hit about a Robin Hood-style thief." Biography

Early life
He was born in Raipur, Chhattisgarh (erstwhile Madhya Pradesh) to Hafiz Ahmed Khan, who hailed from Peshawar. He passed his matriculation from Laurie Municipal High School, Raipur, and later completed his B.A. from Morris College, Nagpur in 1944. Thereafter he studied M.A.for a year at Aligarh Muslim University . Early in life, he started writing poetry using his pen name Takhallus. Soon after, he assumed his name, <mask> <mask>. Career

In 1945, he moved to Bombay, and joined All India Radio (AIR) Bombay as a producer. While in Bombay, he wrote songs for Urdu and Hindi films and even acted in a few of them. He also joined the Progressive Writers' Association (PWA) and became an integral part of Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA) as an actor. Later, when most of the prominent IPTA members were imprisoned for opposing the British rule, he was asked to take over the organisation.In 1954, he moved to New Delhi, and worked with Qudsia Zaidi's Hindustani Theatre, and also worked with Children's theatre, where he authored many plays. Later in the same year, he produced his first significant play Agra Bazar based on the works and times of the plebeian 18th-century Urdu poet, Nazir Akbarabadi, an older poet in the generation of Mirza Ghalib. For this play he brought together local residents and folk artistes from Okhla village in Delhi and students of Jamia Millia Islamia creating a palette never seen before in Indian theatre. Additionally, the play was not staged in a confined space, rather a bazaar, a marketplace. After this, he continued to work with non-trained actors and folk artistes like the folk artists of Chhattisgarh. Stay in Europe
In 1955, when he was in his 30s, Habib moved to England. There, he trained in Acting at Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts (RADA) (1955) and in Direction at Bristol Old Vic Theatre School (1956).For the next two years, he travelled through Europe, watching various theatre activities. One of the highlights of this period, was his eight-month stay in Berlin in 1956, during which he got to see several plays of Bertolt Brecht, produced by Berliner Ensemble, just a few months after Brecht's death. This proved to have a lasting influence on him, as in the coming years, he started using local idioms in his plays, to express trans-cultural tales and ideologies. This, over the years, gave rise to a "theatre of roots", which was marked by an utter simplicity in style, presentation and technique, yet remaining eloquent and powerfully experiential. Return to India
A deeply inspired <mask> returned to India in 1958 and took to directing full-time. He produced Mitti ki Gaadi a post-London play, based on Shudraka's Sanskrit work, Mrichakatika. It became his first important production in Chhattisgarhi.This was the result of the work he had been doing since his return – working with six folk actors from Chhattisgarh. He went on to found "Naya Theatre", a theatre company in 1959. In his exploratory phase, i.e. 1970–73, he broke free from one more theatre restriction – he no longer made the folk artistes, who had been performing in all his plays, speak Hindi. Instead, the artistes switched to Chhattisgarhi, a local language they were more accustomed to. Later, he even started experimenting with "Pandavani", a folk singing style from the region and temple rituals. This made his plays stand out amidst the gamut of plays which still employed traditional theatre techniques like blocking movements or fixing lights on paper.Spontaneity and improvisation became the hallmark of his new theatre style, where the folk artistes were allowed greater freedom of expression. His next venture with Chhattisgarhi Nach style, saw another breakthrough in 1972, with a staging of the play titled Gaon Ka Naam Sasural, Mor Naam Damaad. This was based on a comic folk tale, where an old man falls in love with a young woman, who eventually elopes with another young man. By the time he produced his seminal play, Charandas Chor in 1975, the technique became popular. This play immediately established a whole new idiom in modern India theatre; whose highlight was Nach – a chorus that provided commentary through song. He also brought in Govind Ram Nirmalkar, a noted Nacha artist who would later go on to win Padma Shri and Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards, to play the lead role. Later, he collaborated with Shyam Benegal, when he adapted the play to a feature-length film, by the same name, starring Smita Patil and Lalu Ram.He was awarded the prestigious  Jawarharlal Nehru Fellowship in 1979 for research on Relevance of Tribal Performing Arts and their Adaptability to A changing Environment. In 1980, he directed the play Moti Ram ka Satyagraha for Janam (Jan Natya Manch) on the request of Safdar Hashmi. During his career, <mask> has acted in over nine feature films, including Richard Attenborough's film, Gandhi (1982), Black and White and in a yet-to-be-released film on the Bhopal gas tragedy. His first brush with controversy came about in the 1990s, with his production of a traditional Chhattisgarhi play about religious hypocrisy, Ponga Pandit. The play was based on a folk tale and had been created by Chhattisgarhi theatre artists in the 1930s. Though he had been producing it since the sixties, in the changed social climate after the Babri Masjid demolition, the play caused quite an uproar amongst Hindu fundamentalists, especially the Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS), whose supporters disrupted many of its shows, and even emptied the auditoriums, yet he continued to show it all over. His Chhattisgarhi folk troupe, surprised again, with his rendition of Asghar Wajahat's Jisne Lahore Nahin Dekhya in 1992.Then in 1993 came Kamdeo Ka Apna Basant Ritu Ka Sapna, <mask>'s Hindi adaptation of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. In 1995, he was invited to the United States by the Chicago Actors Ensemble, where he wrote his only English language play, The Broken Bridge. In 2002, he directed Zahareeli Hawa, a translation of Bhopal by the Canadian-Indian playwright Rahul Varma, based on the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. During his illustrious career he brought works from all genres to stage, from ancient Sanskrit works by Shudraka, Bhasa, Vishakhadatta and Bhavabhuti; to European classics by Shakespeare, Molière and Goldoni; modern masters Brecht, Garcia, Lorca, Gorky, and Oscar Wilde; Tagore, Asghar Wajahat, Shankar Shesh, Safdar Hashmi, Rahul Varma, stories by Premchand, Stefan Zweig and Vijaydan Detha, apart from an array of Chhattisgarhi folk tales. Legacy
In 2010, at the 12th Bharat Rang Mahotsav, the annual theatre festival of National School of Drama, Delhi, a tribute exhibition dedicated to life, works and theatre of <mask> <mask> and B.V. Karanth was displayed. The 13th Bharat Rang Mahotsav opened with an Assamese adaptation of his classic play Charandas Chor, directed by Anup Hazarika, a NSD graduate. Awards
He was the recipient of

 Sangeet Natak Akademy Award(1969),
 Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship(1979),
 Padma Shri (1983),
 Padma Bhushan(2002),

among other national and international awards during his lifetime.Plays
 Agra Bazar (1954)
 Shatranj Ke Mohrey (1954)
 Lala Shoharat Rai (1954)
 Mitti Ki Gaadi (1958)
 Gaon Ke Naon Sasural, Mor Naon Damand (1973)
 Charandas Chor (1975)
 Uttar Ram Charitra (1977)
 Bahadur Kalarin (1978)
 Ponga Pandit (1960s)
 Ek Aurat Hypathia Bhi Thee (1980s)
 Jis Lahore Nai Dekhya (1990)
 Kamdeo ka Apna Basant Ritu ka Sapna (1993)
 The Broken Bridge (1995)
 Zahreeli Hawa (2002)
 Raj Rakt (2006)
 Kartoos (?) Dekh Rahe Hai Nyan
 Hirma Ki Amar Kahani
 He also came up with his own versions of Basant Retu ka Sapna, Shajapur ki Shanti Bai, Mitti ki Gari and Mudrarakhsas. Filmography

 Rahi (1952) - Ramu
 Foot Path (1953)
 Charandas Chor (1975) (lyrics and script)
 Staying On (1980) (TV) - Dr. Mitra
 Gandhi (1982) - Indian barrister
 Man-Eaters of Kumaon (1986) (TV) - Bahadur
 Yeh Woh Manzil To Nahin (1987) - Akhtar Baig
 Hero Hiralal (1988)
 Prahaar: The Final Attack (1991) - Joe D'Souza, father of Peter D'Souza
 The Burning Season (1993) - Raja Sahib
 Sardar (1993)
 Mangal Pandey: The Rising (2005) - Bahadur Shah Zafar
 Black & White (2008) - Quazi Saab (final film role)

Bibliography
 Rang Habib – Critical Appreciation of Habib Tanveer's Works, Written by Shri B. R. Bhargava, Published by National School of Drama, 2006
 Charandas Chor. Tr. by Anjum Katyal. Seagull Books, 1996. Use of Music and Dance in Contemporary Dramatic Performances
 The Buddhist Theatre of Tibet
 The Living Tale of Hirma: Hirma Ki Amar Kahani.Calcutta, Seagull Books, 2005. Janam comes of Age by <mask> <mask>, 1988 Theatre of the streets: the Jana Natya Manch experience, by Arjun Ghosh, Jana Naṭya Mancha, edited by Sudhanva Deshpande. Published by Jana Natya Manch, 2007
 Gaon ke Naon Theatre, Mor Naon Habib (documentary film), dirs. Sanjay Maharishi and Sudhanva Deshpande, 2005
 One Day in the Life of Ponga Pandit (documentary film), dirs. Sanjay Maharishi and Sudhanva Deshpande, 2005
 Tanvir ka safarnama (documentary film), dir. Ranjan Kamath. 2008

Further reading
 On the Theatre of Habib Tanvir The Dramatic touch of difference: theatre, own and foreign, by Erika Fischer-Lichte, Josephine Riley, Michael Gissenwehrer.Published by Gunter Narr Verlag, 1990 Page 221-233

See also
 Theatre in India

References

External links
 <mask> <mask>: Making of a Legend, Samar, 2001
 Super trouper : <mask> <mask>

 Remembering <mask> <mask> and his play Agra Bazar
  Rahul Varma's Tribute to Habib <mask>
  Rahul Varma's newest play mentored by <mask> <mask>
 <mask> Tanvir materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)

1923 births
2009 deaths
Indian Muslims
Indian male dramatists and playwrights
Indian theatre directors
Indian male film actors
Indian male stage actors
Indian People's Theatre Association people
Male actors from Chhattisgarh
People from Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Aligarh Muslim University alumni
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
Alumni of Bristol Old Vic Theatre School
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship
Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Hindi theatre
Hindi dramatists and playwrights
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Jawaharlal Nehru Fellows
Dramatists and playwrights from Chhattisgarh
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian male actors
Poets from Chhattisgarh

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