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<mask> (; 25 June 1936 – 11 September 2019) was an Indonesian engineer and politician who was the third president of Indonesia from 1998 to 1999. Less than three months after his inauguration as the seventh vice president in March 1998, he succeeded Suharto who resigned after 31 years in office. His presidency is seen as a landmark and transition to the Reformation era. Upon becoming president, he liberalized Indonesia's press and political party laws, and held an early democratic election three years sooner than scheduled, which resulted in the end of his presidency. His 517-day presidency and 71-day vice presidency are the shortest in the country's history. Early life

<mask> was a native of Parepare, in South Sulawesi. He was of ethnic Gorontalese-Javanese descent from Kabila in Gorontalo and Yogyakarta.His parents, Alwi <mask> <mask>, an agriculturist of Gorontalese descent, and R. A. Tuti Marini Puspowardojo, a Javanese noblewoman from Yogyakarta, met while studying in Bogor. <mask>'s paternal family comes from Kabila, just to the east of the town of Gorontalo in northern Sulawesi. He was the fourth of eight children. <mask>'s father died when he was 14 years old. In 2018, the Gorontalo provincial government agreed to support the construction of the B.J. Habibie's Monument in front of the main gate of Djalaluddin Airport in Gorontalo Regency. In addition, it was proposed that State University of Gorontalo be renamed in honour of Habibie although, in the end, the suggestion was not adopted.Studies and career in Europe

<mask> went to Delft, the Netherlands, to study aviation and aerospace at the Technische Hogeschool Delft (Delft University of Technology), but for political reasons (the West New Guinea dispute between the Netherlands and Indonesia), he had to continue his study at the Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH Aachen University) in Aachen, Germany. In 1960, <mask> received an engineer's degree in Germany with the title Diplom-Ingenieur. He remained in Germany as a research assistant under Hans Ebner at the Lehrstuhl und Institut für Leichtbau, RWTH Aachen to conduct research for his doctoral degree. In 1962, <mask> returned to Indonesia for three months on sick leave. During this time, he was reacquainted with Hasri Ainun, the daughter of R. Mohamad <mask>i. Habibie had known Hasri Ainun in childhood, junior high school and in senior high school at SMA Kristen Dago (Dago Christian Senior High School), Bandung. The two married on 12 May 1962, returning to Germany shortly afterwards.<mask> and his wife settled in Aachen for a short period before moving to Oberforstbach. In May 1963 they had a son, Ilham <mask>. <mask> later found employment with the railway stock firm Waggonfabrik Talbot, where he became an advisor in designing train wagons. Due to his work with Makosh, the head of train construction offered his position to Habibie upon retirement three years later, but Habibie refused the position. In 1965, Habibie delivered his dissertation in aerospace engineering and received the grade of "very good," giving him the title Doktoringenieur (Dr.-Ing.). The same year, he accepted Hans Ebner's offer to continue his research on Thermoelastisitas and work toward his Habilitation, but he declined the offer to join RWTH as a professor. His thesis about light construction for supersonic or hypersonic states also attracted offers of employment from companies such as Boeing and Airbus, which Habibie again declined.<mask> did accept a position with Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm in Hamburg. There, he developed theories on thermodynamics, construction, and aerodynamics known as the Habibie Factor (thermodynamics), Habibie Theorem (construction), and Habibie Method (aerodynamics), respectively. He worked for Messerschmitt on the development of the Airbus A-300B aircraft. In 1974, he was promoted to vice president of the company. Career in Indonesia

In 1974, Suharto recruited <mask> to return to Indonesia as part of his drive to industrialize and develop the country. <mask> initially served as a special assistant to Ibnu Sutowo, chief executive officer of the state oil company Pertamina and Chair of Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (, BPPT). Two years later, <mask> was made CEO of the new state-owned enterprise Industri Pesawat Terbang Nurtanio (IPTN; Nurtanio Aircraft Industry), which in 1985 changed its name to Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara (Nusantara Aircraft Industry; also abbreviated as IPTN) and is known as Indonesian Aerospace (PT.Dirgantara Indonesia) since 2000). In 1978, he was appointed as State Minister of Research and Technology (, Menristek). He continued to play an important role in IPTN other "strategic" industries in this post. By the 1980s, IPTN had grown considerably, specializing in the manufacture of helicopters and small passenger planes. Under Habibie's leadership, IPTN became a manufacturer of aircraft including Puma helicopters and CASA planes. It pioneered a small passenger airplane, the N-250 Gatotkaca, in 1995, but the project was a commercial failure. In developing Indonesia's aviation industry, he adopted an approach called "Begin at the End and End at the Beginning".In this method, elements such as basic research became the last things upon which to focus, whilst actual manufacturing of the planes was placed as the first objective. By 1991, Habibie oversaw ten state-owned industries including ship- and train-building, steel, arms, communications, and energy. A 1993 estimate determined that the estimates used nearly $2 billion a year in state funding, although the government's opaque accounting practices meant that the size of the industries was not completely known. As minister, Habibie created the OFP (Overseas Fellowship Program), STMDP (Science Technology and Manpower Development Program) and STAID (Science and Technology for Industrial Development). These three programs provided scholarships to thousands of high school graduates to earn their bachelor's degrees in the STEM fields and for other technical professionals to continue their study for master's and doctorate program in the United States, Europe, Japan, and other countries. Habibie was, continuously, a member of six Indonesian cabinets for over 20 years. After his initial appointment in 1978, he served in another five cabinets (including the Development Reform Cabinet which, as president he formed after the resignation of Suharto in May 1998):
 1978–1983: State Minister of Research and Technology and Chair of Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology in the Third Development Cabinet
 1983–1988: State Minister of Research and Technology and Chair of Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology in the Fourth Development Cabinet
 1988–1993: State Minister of Research and Technology and Chair of Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology in the Fifth Development Cabinet
 1993–1998: State Minister of Research and Technology and Chair of Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology in the Sixth Development Cabinet
 1998: Vice president in the Seventh Development Cabinet
 1998–1999: President in the Development Reform Cabinet

In Suharto's regime, as was expected of senior government executives, Habibie became a member of the Golkar organisation.Suharto appointed him as deputy daily coordinator for the chairman of the executive board in 1992, and the following year he became the daily coordinator. While serving in cabinet, <mask> was also elected as the first Chair of the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI) in 1990. This modernist Muslim organization provided him with a political base, linked to but independent of the Suharto administration. Vice presidency

In January 1998, after accepting nomination for a seventh term as president, Suharto announced the selection criteria for the nomination of a vice president. Suharto did not mention <mask> by name, but his suggestion that the next vice president should have a mastery of science and technology made it obvious he had <mask> in mind. In that year, in the midst of the Asian Financial Crisis, this suggestion was received badly, causing the rupiah to fall. Despite this, <mask> was elected as vice president in March 1998.Presidency

On 21 May 1998, just two months into <mask>'s vice presidency, Suharto announced his resignation. <mask>, as the Constitution says, succeeded him as president. The following day, <mask> announced the Development Reform Cabinet, which removed some of the most controversial ministers in Suharto's last cabinet while maintaining others - with no major figures from the opposition. Within days of his appointment, he asked his relatives to resign from government positions, promised an early election, repealed some legislation, and ordered the release of political prisoners. East Timor
<mask> was opposed to East Timorese Independence but did offer East Timor special autonomy. Timorese independence forces led by the National Council of Timorese Resistance had been calling for a referendum in the territory for some time. Its chief diplomat, <mask> Horta, proposed a transitional period of autonomy leading up to a referendum.In late 1998, <mask>, the Prime Minister of Australia, sent a letter to Habibie suggesting that Indonesia defuse the East Timorese issue by providing autonomy to be followed by the promise of a referendum in the long run, following the method used by France to settle New Caledonian demands for independence. Wishing to avoid the impression that Indonesia ruled East Timor as a colony, Habibie surprised some by announcing that a referendum, offering a choice between special autonomy and independence, would be held immediately in East Timor. Leaders of the Indonesian armed forces (ABRI) were not consulted on this decision. On 30 August 1999, the referendum was held and the East Timorese people

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 overwhelmingly chose Independence. Subsequently, pro-Indonesia militias killed and displaced large numbers of people during the 1999 East Timorese crisis. On 10 September, General Wiranto allegedly threatened to stage a military coup if Habibie allowed in peacekeeping forces, causing Habibie to back down. On 12 September, however, Habibie accepted a UN-mandated peacekeeping force to halt violence.A UN administration followed and East Timor became independent in 2002. Suharto's corruption charge
The MPR Special Session in November 1998 decried the presence of corruption in Indonesia, focusing particularly on Suharto. In response to this, Habibie then appointed Andi Muhammad Ghalib as Attorney General. A tape of a telephone conversation between <mask> and Ghalib was made public. It raised concerns about the veracity of the investigation by suggesting that the interrogation of Suharto was intended only for public appearances. Under Habibie, the Indonesian government also began investigating and prosecuting Suharto's youngest son, Hutomo Mandala Putra (commonly known as Tommy Suharto). Ghalib charged Tommy in December 1998 in conjunction with the Goro scandal, where the government, under pressure from Tommy, allegedly gave him a desirable parcel and below-market loan for the construction of a Goro supermarket.However, Tommy was found innocent in the case after several key witnesses, including Habibie aide Rahardi Ramelan, changed their testimony and declared that the deal did not cause losses to the state. <mask>'s government stabilized the economy in the face of the Asian financial crisis and the chaos of the last few months of Suharto's presidency. <mask>'s government began to make conciliatory gestures towards Chinese-Indonesians who, because of their elite status, were targeted in the riots of 1998. In September 1998, Habibie issued a 'Presidential Instruction' forbidding use of the terms pribumi and non-pribumi to differentiate indigenous and non-indigenous Indonesians. In May 1999, <mask> directed that an ID card was sufficient proof of Indonesian citizenship, revoking the previous requirement for a 'Letter of Evidence of Republic of Indonesia Citizenship' (SBKRI). Additionally, he lifted restrictions on the teaching of Mandarin Chinese. Political reform
Under <mask>, Indonesia made significant changes to its political system that expanded competition and freedom of speech.Shortly after taking office, in June 1998, <mask>'s government lifted the Suharto-era restriction on political parties and ended censorship by dissolving the Information Ministry. He also quickly committed to holding democratic elections, albeit on an initially vague timetable. In December, he proposed political reform laws that were passed by the legislature and MPR. These laws set elections for December 1999, reduced the number of seats in parliament held by the military, and barred political activity by civil servants. However, political opponents criticized <mask> for allowing the military to retain some seats in parliament, and taking little action on other military and judicial reforms. <mask>'s government also passed laws which granted significant autonomy to regional governments, namely at the regency and city level. The laws resulted in indirect elections for mayors and regents, and allowed local legislatures to hold said executives accountable, though it was not implemented until after his presidency.End of presidency
Although he had been viewed as leading a transitional government, <mask> seemed determined to continue as president. He was initially unclear about whether he would seek a full term as president when he announced parliamentary elections in June 1998. <mask> faced opposition from many within the government party, Golkar; in July 1998, he struggled to win control of Golkar by appointing Akbar Tandjung as chair of the party, but was ultimately able to defeat a rival camp including former Vice President Try Sutrisno, Defence Minister Edi Sudrajat, Siswono Yudhohusodo, and Sarwono Kusumaatmadja. <mask> began to lose support from Akbar Tandjung and a faction in Golkar, composed of both reformers and hardliners, that wanted to oust him. In March 1999, Golkar put forth five presidential nominees: <mask>, Tandjung, Wiranto, Hamengkubuwono X, and Ginandjar Kartasasmita. In May 1999, after extensive lobbying, Golkar announced that <mask> would be their presidential candidate, but a large faction in the party remained loyal to Tandjung and opposed to Habibie. His political credibility was tarnished by the exposure of the 1999 Bank Bali scandal, in which banking funds were funneled to members of <mask>'s re-election team.At the 1999 MPR General Session in October, <mask> delivered an accountability speech. MPR members then began voting to decide if they would accept or reject his speech. <mask> attempted to win the support of the military by offering the vice-presidency to General Wiranto, but his offer was declined. Tandjung's Golkar faction broke ranks and voted against him, and his accountability speech was rejected by 355 votes to 322, and <mask> withdrew his nomination as president. He was succeeded by Abdurrahman Wahid. Post-presidency, final years and death

After relinquishing the presidency, <mask> spent more time in Germany than in Indonesia, though he was active during Susilo <mask> Yudhoyono's presidency as a presidential adviser. During this time, he established the Habibie Centre, an independent think tank.In September 2006, he released a book called Detik-Detik Yang Menentukan: Jalan Panjang Indonesia Menuju Demokrasi (Decisive Moments: Indonesia's Long Road Towards Democracy). The book recalled the events of May 1998 which led to his rise to the presidency. In the book, he controversially accused Lieutenant General Prabowo Subianto, Suharto's son-in-law (at that time) and the Kostrad Commander, of planning a coup d'état against him in May 1998. In early September 2019, he was admitted to Gatot Soebroto Army Hospital, where he was undergoing treatments for heart problems, namely cardiomyopathy, and died on 11 September 2019. He became the first Indonesian President to be buried at the Kalibata Heroes Cemetery, next to his wife's grave. In response to his death, the Government of Indonesia announced a three-day national mourning period starting on 12 September, and announced that the Indonesian flag is to be flown at half-staff during the period. On 12 September 2019, video was released showing East Timor's former President, Xanana Gusmão, visiting Habibie in hospital on 22 July 2019.Gusmão is shown talking briefly to <mask> while crying, then kissing <mask> on the forehead and lowering his face to <mask>'s chest, with the other holding his head. A wreath in Gusmão's name was at the funeral, with a sign reading: "Profound Condolences – With heartfelt sympathy for the loss of Big Brother President B.J<mask> – Timorese people will remember you forever – Rest in Peace - Xanana Gusmão". Family

Habibie was married to Hasri Ainun <mask>, a medical doctor, from 12 May 1962 until her death on 22 May 2010. Their wedding was held in Javanese and Gorontalese culture. The couple had two sons, Ilham <mask> and Thareq Kemal <mask>. B. J<mask>'s brother, <mask> Effendi <mask>, was Indonesian ambassador to the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.After his wife's death, <mask> published a book titled Habibie & Ainun which recounts his relationship with Hasri Ainun from their courtship until her death. The book was adapted into a film of the same name which was released on 20 December 2012. Honours, decorations, and distinctions
<mask> received several honorary degrees for his contributions in the fields of technology and science, e.g. he was awarded an Honorary DSc degree from the Cranfield Institute of Technology (United Kingdom) and Dr.h.c. degrees from Chungbuk National University and Hankuk University of Foreign Studies (South Korea) for his services to aircraft technology. In 2010, Habibie was honored with an Honorary PhD degree in Technology by the University of Indonesia for his contribution to science in practice as a technocrat. <mask> was appointed a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng) in 1990.In 1993, he was awarded an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society (HonFRAeS). He was also named an honorary member of several professional bodies, including:

Timor-Leste named a bridge and park in Dili after Habibie shortly before his death. In the first installment of Habibie & Ainun (2012) and its prequels, Rudy Habibie (2016) and  (2019), <mask> is portrayed by Reza Rahadian, while <mask> Azriel and <mask> <mask> Simbolon portrayed <mask> during his childhood, and teenage years in Rudy Habibie respectively. In the movie Di Balik 98, <mask> was portrayed by Agus Kuncoro. Notes

Bibliography
 Anwar, Dewi Fortuna. "The Habibie presidency: Catapulting towards reform." in Soeharto's new order and its legacy (2010): 99+ online.Davidson, <mask>. Indonesia: Twenty Years of Democracy ( Cambridge University Press, 2018. Ford, Michele. "Continuity and change in Indonesian labour relations in the Habibie interregnum." Asian Journal of Social Science 28.2 (2000): 59–88. <mask>, Vishnu. "One Step Forward, Two Steps Back: The Retrogression of Governance Reform and Anti-corruption Measure in Indonesia 1999–2001." Jurnal Politik 6, no.1 (2020): 123–148. In Indonesian

External links

 The Habibie Center, an NGO founded by Habibie

1936 births
2019 deaths
Indonesian Muslims
Politicians from South Sulawesi
Bandung Institute of Technology alumni
Javanese people
Presidents of Indonesia
Vice presidents of Indonesia
Suharto family and associates
<mask>ddin
RWTH Aachen University alumni
Golkar politicians
German people of Indonesian descent
Naturalized citizens of Germany
Articles containing video clips
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<mask> (born 12 September 1984) is a retired English mixed martial artist who is best known for his nine-fight stint in the Ultimate Fighting Championship. <mask> was sentenced to thirteen years in prison for heroin trafficking in 2013. He was released in 2019. Mixed martial arts career

Background
Coming from an amateur boxer family, <mask> grew up in boxing gyms and got in a lot of altercations in his youth. He was expelled from school and never completed his education. <mask> started out his mixed martial arts career in Liverpool, England at the Wolfslair MMA academy which was once home to The Ultimate Fighter 3 winner Michael Bisping. However, he  later moved across town to Team Kaobon, home of former UFC lightweight Terry Etim and retired UFC lightweight <mask>.Ultimate Fighting Championship

He made his UFC debut at UFC 80: Rapid Fire, where he won a decision victory over his opponent <mask>. <mask> and Taylor were both awarded $35,000 as a bonus for Fight of the Night. The fight was ranked #100 on UFC's Ultimate 100 Greatest Fights. <mask> was scheduled to fight Jonathan Goulet at UFC 85, but Goulet pulled out citing a lack of preparation. Before another opponent was found, <mask> himself had to withdraw from the event after injuring his right hand during training. <mask> was defeated by Marcus Davis via submission at UFC 89. <mask> defeated Troy Mandaloniz at UFC 95.<mask> battered Mandaloniz from top position throughout the fight. He opened cuts above both of Mandaloniz's eyes with elbows and punches. The judges scored the fight (30–27, 30–27, 30–28) for a unanimous decision for <mask>. After the fight with Mandaloniz, <mask> announced he was moving from welterweight to lightweight. <mask> said he wanted to make the drop after leaving the division on a winning note. <mask> fought Rolando Delgado at UFC 99 in Cologne, Germany. This was his first fight at lightweight.<mask> defeated Roli after going all three rounds giving <mask> the unanimous decision victory. <mask> lost his fight against Dennis Siver at UFC 105 after having his ribs injured by a spinning back kick and getting hit by punches from Siver. This was his first fight under Team Kaobon. <mask> revealed afterwards that his ribs had already been damaged going into the fight, a by-product of the notoriously hard-contact sparring sessions at Kaobon. <mask> then looked to bounce back, against Matt Veach on the UFC 112 card in Abu Dhabi. At 3:41 of the second round, <mask> pulled off a guillotine choke submission and was victorious. This was then intended to be followed up with a fight against Jacob Volkmann at the UFC 116 prelims, on 3 July.However, the fight was moved on 1 August, to the UFC Live: Jones vs. Matyushenko card due to visa issues forcing him out of the 116 card. Volkmann went on to defeat <mask> via unanimous decision (all judges scoring the bout 30–27). <mask> was expected to face Gabe Ruediger on 20 November 2010, at UFC 123. However, Ruediger was forced out of the bout with a groin injury. Ruediger was replaced by TUF 12 competitor TJ O'Brien. After initially struggling to hit O'Brien's chin, due to the height disadvantage, <mask> was able to connect and dropped O'Brien with a combination. Later in the second round, <mask> secured a crucifix and hit O'Brien with multiple elbows, resulting in a TKO stoppage.<mask> was expected to face Sam Stout on 5 February 2011, at UFC 126, but Stout was forced from the bout with an injury and replaced by Donald Cerrone. <mask> lost to Cerrone via submission due to a rear-naked choke. Although he lost, the performance earned him and Cerrone Fight of the Night honors. In the aftermath of his loss to Cerrone, <mask> was released from the promotion, leaving the company with a 5-4 record. Post UFC
<mask> was expected to face Afakasi Sione at UCMMA 21 in England on 25 June. However, due to an injury <mask> had to withdraw from the bout. <mask> was expected to fight at Legacy FC 9 on 16 December 2011 against Jeff Rexroad.However, <mask> pulled out of the fight due to visa issues and has been replaced by Efrain Escudero, However, Efrain was resigned to the UFC, causing him to withdraw from the bout. Super Fight League
<mask>, along with Xavier Foupa-Pokam and Lena Ovchynnikova signed a four-fight contract with the Super Fight League. He made his debut for them at SFL 2 against WEC and Strikeforce veteran Ryan Healy. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. UCMMA
There has been an ongoing feud between <mask> and Richard Griffin over the last few weeks which has resulted in them being booked to fight at UCMMA 31. They were having a disagreement over a fight that Richard Griffin and Ross Pointon had in the Dominican Republic that was recently posted on the UCMMA Facebook page. <mask> stated that he thought Griffin was lucky in his fight with Pointon and that "The Real Deal" would win that match-up 9 times out of ten.Griffin felt disrespected and fired back with some insults of his own, which including jabs at <mask> being dropped by the UFC. Both men then called for a fight in the cage to settle the matter, in which Dave O’Donnell decided to approach both men to arrange the fight. <mask> and Griffin settled this feud on 1 December with <mask> winning via guillotine choke in the second round. Post-conviction career
Having been active at the gym and studying nutrition during his prison sentence, <mask> returned to the regional mixed martial arts competition at Probellum 1: Liverpool on 7 March 2020. <mask> faced Simone Bottino, winning the bout in the second round via technical knockout. In February 2021, <mask> announced his retirement from the sport. Personal life

<mask> had his first child, a daughter named Phoebe in June 2008.Drug trafficking conviction
In May 2013, <mask> was found guilty of heroin trafficking in the United Kingdom and was sentenced to 13 years in prison. However, <mask> was put on work release in 2017 and had completed his sentence and thus released in May 2019. During his work release, <mask> started a healthy eating restaurant in Liverpool. Championships and accomplishments
Ultimate Fighting Championship
Fight of the Night (Two times) vs. <mask> and Donald Cerrone.

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William Michael Griffin Jr. (born January 28, 1968), better known by his stage name <mask> (), is an American rapper and record producer. One half of golden age hip hop duo Eric B. & Rakim, he is widely regarded as one of the most influential and most skilled MCs of all time. <mask> is considered a transformational figure in hip hop for raising the bar for MC technique higher than it had ever been. <mask> helped to pioneer the use of internal rhymes and multisyllabic rhymes, and he was among the first to demonstrate the possibilities of sitting down to write intricately crafted lyrics packed with clever word choices and metaphors rather than the more improvisational styles and simpler rhyme patterns that predominated before him. <mask> is also credited with creating the overall shift from the more simplistic old school flows to more complex flows. Rapper Kool Moe Dee explained that before <mask>, the term 'flow' wasn't widely used – "<mask> is basically the inventor of flow.We were not even using the word flow until <mask> came along. It was called rhyming, it was called cadence, but it wasn't called flow. <mask> created flow!" <mask> released four albums with DJ Eric B.: Paid in Full, Follow the Leader, Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em and Don't Sweat the Technique. He has released three solo albums: The 18th Letter, The Master and The Seventh Seal. Paid in Full was named the greatest hip hop album of all time by MTV in 2006, while <mask> himself was ranked No. 4 on MTV's list of the Greatest MCs of All Time.Steve Huey of AllMusic stated that "<mask> is near-universally acknowledged as one of the greatest MCs – perhaps the greatest – of all time within the hip-hop community". The editors of About.com ranked him No. 2 on their list of the 'Top 50 MCs of Our Time (1987–2007)'. In 2012, The Source ranked him No. 1 on their list of the "Top 50 Lyricists of All Time". Early life
<mask> is the nephew of the late American R&B singer and actress Ruth Brown. He grew up in Wyandanch on Long Island, and wrote his first rhyme at seven years old, about the famous cartoon character Mickey Mouse.He initially aspired to be a professional football player, and played quarterback in high school. However, after being introduced to local DJ Eric B. by his friend Alvin Toney, he began writing lyrics to fit Eric's instrumentals and chose instead to focus on a career in music. <mask>, then known as Kid Wizard, made his first recordings live at Wyandanch High School in the year 1985. <mask> was initially introduced to the Nation of Islam in 1986; he later joined The Nation of Gods and Earths (also known as the 5 Percent Nation) and adopted the name <mask> Allah. He also chose to use “<mask> Allah” as his stage name, although it was most often shortened to simply “Rakim”. Career

Pairing with Eric B. (1985–1992)

First meeting in 1985, Eric B. and <mask> went on to release four studio albums before their separation in 1992.The duo were described by journalist Tom Terrell of NPR as "the most influential DJ/MC combo in contemporary pop music period", while the editors of About.com ranked them as No. 4 on their list of the 10 Greatest Hip-Hop Duos of All-Time. They were nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2011, although they did not make the final selection. 1986–87: Beginnings and classic debut

After <mask> responded to Eric B. 's search for "New York's top MC", Eric B. 's friend and roommate Marley Marl allowed them to use his home studio. The first tracks they recorded—"Eric B.Is President" and "My Melody"—were released as a single/b-side on the independent Zakia Records in 1986. After Def Jam Recordings founder Russell Simmons heard the single, the duo were signed to Island Records and began recording the album in Manhattan's Power Play Studios in early 1987. On July 7, 1987, the duo released their debut album, Paid in Full, on the Island-subsidiary label 4th & B'way Records. The album peaked at No. 58 on the Billboard 200 chart and produced five singles: "Eric B. Is President", "I Ain't No Joke", "I Know You Got Soul", "Move the Crowd", and "Paid in Full". 1988–89: Sophomore peak

While its singles attained moderate success, the album performed better on music charts than Eric B.<mask>'s debut album and reached number 22 on the U.S. Billboard Pop Albums chart. It has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments in excess of 500,000 copies in the United States. Released during the hip hop's "golden age", Follow the Leader was well received by critics and has since been recognized by music writers as one of the most groundbreaking and influential hip hop albums of all time. American author William Jelani Cobb wrote of the album's significance, "On the heels of Paid in Full, Eric B. & Rakim delivered a full clip of album titled Follow the Leader in 1988. Featuring a broader spectrum of sounds than the James Brown samples that had defined the initial release, Follow the Leader saw <mask> at his most lyrically fierce, issuing deft and death threats on such tracks as 'Microphone Fiend,' 'Lyrics of Fury,' and the nearly felonious 'No Competition.'The release marked the high point in the collaboration between the two and prefaced the long slide they faced in the 1990s." 1990–92: Final albums and dissolution
Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em, released in 1990, was Eric B. & Rakim's third album. This album saw the duo's sound develop further, with <mask> adopting a deeper, more aggressive tone of voice, as well as more mature and serious subject matter. Musically, the production ranges from smoother soulful tracks such as "In the Ghetto" to the hard-edged assault of the title track. Though it could not support singles as popular as the duo's previous albums, it is considered by many to be the duo's most coherent album. It is one of the few albums to have received a "five-mic" rating from The Source.In 1998, the album was selected as one of The Sources 100 Best Rap Albums. The back cover features a dedication to the memories of <mask>'s father William and producer Paul C., who had worked on many of the album's tracks before his murder in July 1989. His protégé Large Professor completed his work. Neither receive credit in the album's notes. In 1992, Eric B & Rakim released their fourth and final album, Don't Sweat the Technique. The title track was a minor radio hit. "Casualties of War" was also released as a single."Know the Ledge" first appeared in the film Juice under the title "Juice (Know the Ledge)". However, Eric B. refused to sign MCA's release contract, fearful that <mask> would abandon him. This led to a long, complicated court battle involving the two musicians and MCA. The legal wrangling eventually led to the duo dissolving completely. Solo career (1993–present)

1993–2003: Legal issues, solo debut and Aftermath stint

After his breaking up his partnership with Eric B. in early-1993, <mask> kept a low profile, only making one notable appearance on the soundtrack to the 1993 film Gunmen. A reshuffling in MCA caused <mask> to be dropped from the label in 1994. As <mask> continued to struggle with legal problems, he secured a deal with Universal Records and began recording his solo debut album The 18th Letter in 1996.In November 1997, the album The 18th Letter was released. Expectations were high for <mask>, as the album debuted at #4 on the Billboard 200 and went certified Gold by the RIAA. In June 1999, <mask> appeared on three tracks of "The Seduction of Claude Debussy" by Art of Noise. AllMusic's Keith Farley notes that "the album charts the artistic use of sampled breakbeats -- pioneered by the Art of Noise themselves -- with nods to '80s hip-hop plus their '90s equivalent, drum'n'bass." In November 1999, <mask> released The Master, which received good reviews but sold poorly. <mask> was signed to Dr. Dre's Aftermath Entertainment record label in 2000, for work on an album tentatively titled Oh, My God. The album underwent numerous changes in artistic direction and personnel and was delayed several times.While working on the album, <mask> made guest appearances on four Aftermath projects, including the hit single "Addictive" by Truth Hurts and its remix (which featured a different <mask> verse from the main version), the Dr. Dre-produced "The Watcher Part 2" by Jay-Z, and Eminem's 8 Mile soundtrack album with the track "R.A.K.I.M". However, <mask> left the label in 2003 and Oh, My God was indefinitely shelved. After <mask> eventually left Aftermath Entertainment, he stated that the reason he departed the label was because of creative differences with Dr. Dre. <mask> used a metaphorical example that Dr. Dre wanted <mask> to write about killing someone, while <mask> wanted to write about the resurrection of someone. 2007–09: The Seventh Seal

<mask> retreated to his Connecticut estate to work leisurely on music. Not having released an album since 1999, he eschewed touring in favor of infrequent gigs. <mask> was able to retain the tracks he had made with Dr. Dre and, in 2006, announced that he would release a new studio album, The Seventh Seal.The album was delayed into 2009; instead, he followed up with a live album, The Archive: Live, Lost & Found, in 2008. In an interview with Billboard in 2007, when asked about story behind

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 The Seventh Seals title, <mask> said,

In another interview with Billboard in 2009, he stated,

The Seventh Seal was released on November 17, 2009, after several delays on <mask>'s own Ra Records, TVM, and SMC Recordings and distributed through Fontana and Universal Music Group. Considered a comeback album after a ten-year gap between releases, the album features the two singles: "Holy Are You", which was released on July 14, 2009, and "Walk These Streets" which was released on October 7, 2009. It features production from several renowned hip hop artists, including Nottz, J. Wells, Needlz, Jake One, and Nick Wiz. The album sold 12,000 copies in the United States by November 22, 2009, according to SoundScan. Upon its release, The Seventh Seal received generally mixed or average reviews from most music critics; it holds an aggregate score of 59/100 at Metacritic.2011–present: fourth studio album
In 2011, <mask> performed Paid in Full in its entirety at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City, in honor of the album's 25th anniversary. He was backed by The Roots. In 2012, <mask> announced that he and Eric B. would release a 25th anniversary edition of their 1987 album Paid in Full, which would contain new tracks recorded by Eric B. & <mask>, by the end of 2012; <mask> announced he would release a new solo album by the end of 2012. He performed at the annual Roots' Picnic in Philadelphia in June. In an interview with The Detroit Free Press he announced he was in the studio with Pharrell Williams working on a new album set to be released in 2013, saying the first single will be released before the end of the year. On September 24, 2013, he released a collaborative single with DMX entitled "Don't Call Me".In 2014, <mask> is featured on the collaborative single with American rock band Linkin Park, titled "Guilty All the Same". The song was released on March 6, 2014, under Warner Bros. Records, as the first single from their sixth studio album, titled The Hunting Party. He contributed his rap vocals during the bridge for the main version of the song; however, he is not featured on the radio edit of the song. The song was officially released on March 7, 2014, for digital download. On April 27, 2015, <mask> announced he was working on a new album and planned to release it in the middle or end of 2015. He said "This is one of those albums where I can have fun. My last album, The Seventh Seal, was somewhat of a conscious album.I wanted to make a statement on that album." In late-June 2018, a new song, King's Paradise, was released on the Luke Cage season 2 soundtrack. <mask> performed the song for the first time on NPR's Tiny Desk Concerts series along with former A Tribe Called Quest member Ali Shaheed Muhammad and producer Adrian Younge. Reunion with Eric B. (2016–present)
On October 20, 2016, it was announced via Twitter that <mask> had reunited with Eric B. after 23 years. The duo teased a potential reunion tour the next morning, hosting a poll for the fans to give their opinion on what city Eric B. & <mask> should start the tour.Four locations were the potential candidates: New York City, Las Vegas, London, and Australia. Since the announcement of the reunion, fans have speculated if the two will drop a new studio album in the near future. Artistry
<mask>'s rhyming deviated from the simple rhyme patterns of early 1980s hip hop. His free-rhythm style ignored bar lines and had earned comparisons to jazz pianist Thelonious Monk. The New York Times Ben Ratliff wrote that <mask>'s "unblustery rapping developed the form beyond the flat-footed rhythms of schoolyard rhymes". While many rappers developed their technique through improvisation, <mask> was one of the first to demonstrate advantages of a writerly style, as with for instance his pioneering use of internal rhymes and multisyllabic rhymes. Unlike previous rappers such as LL Cool J, KRS-One, and Run-D.M.C., who delivered their vocals with high energy, <mask> employed a relaxed, stoic delivery.According to MTV, "We'd been used to MCs like Run and DMC, Chuck D and KRS-One leaping on the mic shouting with energy and irreverence, but <mask> took a methodical approach to his microphone fiending. He had a slow flow, and every line was blunt, mesmeric." <mask>'s relaxed delivery results from his jazz influences; he had played the saxophone and was a John Coltrane fan. Artists and critics often credit <mask> with creating the overall shift from the more simplistic old school flows to more complex flows. Kool Moe Dee says, "any emcee that came after 1986 had to study <mask> just to know what to be able to do. [...] <mask>, in 1986, gave us flow and that was the rhyme style from 1986 to 1994. [...] From that point on, anybody emceeing was forced to focus on their flow."Kool Moe Dee explains that before <mask>, the term 'flow' wasn't widely used – "<mask> is basically the inventor of flow. We were not even using the word flow until <mask> came along. It was called rhyming, it was called cadence, but it wasn't called flow. <mask> created flow!" He adds that while <mask> upgraded and popularized the focus on flow, "he didn't invent the word". <mask>'s subject matter often covered his own rapping skills and lyrical superiority over other rappers. AllMusic editor Steve Huey comments that "the majority of his lyrics concern his own skills and his Islamic faith."He also notes <mask> for his "complex internal rhymes, compounding, literate imagery, velvet-smooth flow, and unpredictable, off-the-beat rhythms." Pitchfork writer Jess Harvell described his rapping as "authoritative, burnished, [and] possessing an unflappable sense of rhythm". Legacy
Paid in Full was released during the period that became known as golden age hip hop. Alex Ogg considered it the duo's magnum opus in his book The Men Behind Def Jam. <mask>'s rapping set a blueprint for future rappers and helped secure East Coast hip hop's reputation for innovative lyrical technique. William Jelani Cobb stated in his book To the Break of Dawn that his rapping had "stepped outside" of the preceding era of old school hip hop and that while the vocabulary and lyrical dexterity of newer rappers had improved, it was "nowhere near what <mask> introduced to the genre". The New York Times Dimitri Ehrlich, who described the album as "an artistic and commercial benchmark", credited <mask> for helping "give birth to a musical genre" and leading "a quiet musical revolution, introducing a soft-spoken rapping style".Allmusic's Steve Huey declared Paid in Full one of hip hop's most influential albums and "essential listening" for those interested in the genre's "basic musical foundations". MTV ranked it at number one in "The Greatest Hip-Hop Albums of All Time", stating it raised the standards of hip hop "both sonically and poetically" and described it as "captivating, profound, innovative and instantly influential". The album is broken down track-by-track by <mask> in Brian Coleman's book Check the Technique. Rolling Stone magazine listed it at number 227 on "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", calling it "Ice-grilled, laid-back, diamond-sharp: <mask> is a front-runner in the race for Best Rapper Ever, and this album is a big reason why." Similarly, Blender magazine included the album in its "500 CDs You Must Own Before You Die". Time magazine listed it as one of the eighteen albums of the 1980s in its "All-TIME 100" albums; editor Alan Light acknowledged the record for changing the "sound, flow, and potential" of hip hop and that if <mask> is "the greatest MC of all time, as many argue, this album is the evidence". Jess Harvell of Pitchfork complimented <mask> for an "endless display of pure skill" and described the album as "laidback and funky", but believed it contained "too much filler to get a free 'classic' pass".Pitchfork placed Paid in Full at number fifty-two in its "Top 100 Albums of the 1980s"; editor Sam Chennault wrote that <mask> inspired a generation of MCs and "defined what it meant to be a hip-hop lyricist". The rappers who have used the unique rapping style employed by <mask> and attribute it as inspiration include GZA, Ghostface Killah, and Raekwon (from the Wu-Tang Clan), Tupac, Nas, Kool G. Rap, Jay-Z, The Notorious B.I.G., Eminem, 50 Cent, and many more. On July 11, 1995, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album platinum. As of December 1997, it has sold over a million copies. Discography

Studio albums
The 18th Letter (1997)
The Master (1999)
The Seventh Seal (2009)

as Eric B. & <mask>
Paid in Full (1987)
Follow the Leader (1988)
Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (1990)
Don't Sweat the Technique (1992)

References

Sources

 Cobb, William Jelani (2006). To the Break of Dawn: A Freestyle on the Hip Hop Aesthetic.New York University Press. . External links

<mask> on Myspace

1968 births
Living people
African-American male rappers
African-American songwriters
Aftermath Entertainment artists
East Coast hip hop musicians
Five percenters
Island Records artists
MCA Records artists
People from Wyandanch, New York
Rappers from New York (state)
Songwriters from New York (state)
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people
American male

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<mask> (Caltagirone, September 4, 1903 – December 24, 1982) was an Italian Christian Democrat politician and the President of the Regional Government of Sicily from 1958 to 1960. Sicilian deputy
<mask> was a landowner from Caltagirone and sat in the Sicilian regional parliament since 1947 for the Christian Democrat Party (DC) in the political current of Mario Scelba. He was the Regional Minister for Public Works and for Agriculture in the regional governments of Franco Restivo (1949-1955), Giuseppe Alessi (1955-1956) and Giuseppe La Loggia (1956-1958). He was a reliable party loyalist up to the time former Italian Premier Amintore Fanfani began to bring in bright young men from Rome into Sicily's Christian Democratic organization. Outraged by this infringement on Sicilian autonomy and threat to Sicilian patronage, <mask> became the gullible protagonist of Sicilian autonomy. After the regional elections of 1955, <mask>, supported by the left and dissident Christian democrats, surprisingly had won the vote for head of the regional government against the outgoing president Restivo. However, the DC did not give its consent and after 37 minutes <mask> was forced to renounce the appointment.He became vice-president under Giuseppe Alessi. It would be a prelude for the years to come. Regional president
In October 1958, <mask> formed an atypical coalition government that was supported by Communists, Monarchists, Neo-Fascists and dissident Christian Democrats, breaking the power monopoly of the DC, that had ruled Sicily since 1947. Despite the expulsion of <mask> and his followers from the party, he continued to head the Sicilian regional government. The expelled members formed a new party, the Social Christian Sicilian Union (Unione Siciliana Cristiano Sociale, USCS), in December 1958. He competed in the regional elections in June 1959 under the slogan "Sicily for the Sicilians. Down with the mainland."The Christian Democrat party establishment appealed to the Vatican to counter <mask>. Armed with a papal decree banning Catholics to vote for any candidate allied with Communists, Sicily's Cardinal Ernesto Ruffini sent Catholic Action groups from door to door to campaign against <mask>. In the US, the Hearst press implored its Italian-American readers to send anti-<mask> letters and telegrams to Sicily; advising the use of night-rate cables. The New York Journal American pleaded: "Even $2.75 is a small price for preserving democracy." "They have called me a Trojan horse," <mask> said. "But I am not that. I am a pure-blooded Sicilian horse, a noble animal.I am an anti-Communist leading only a rebellion against the injustices of Rome." After the indecisive regional elections in June 1959 in which the UCSC gained 10 per cent of the votes, <mask> again succeeded in forming a majority coalition with the aid of Christian Democratic defectors. Downfall
<mask> was under constant pressure from the Vatican and the Christian Democratic national government led by Antonio Segni, and spent most of his time trying to defend his two-vote majority in Sicily's regional Assembly. In February 1960, <mask> resigned, after a regional deputy revealed that he was approached to change allegiance for a substantial amount of money by one of <mask>'s top aides, the Communist Ludovico Corrao. The nation's anti-Communist press and politicians seized the occasion to remove the Italian Communists from their one real foothold in Italy. "An unheard-of attempt at corruption," Milan's Corriere della Sera headlined. The Communist maintained a bewildered silence.Rome's pro-Communist newspaper Paese Sera claimed that <mask> was the victim of a Mafia plot. Mafia backing? On the contrary, rumours about Mafia backing of <mask>'s government were confirmed in the 1980s by several Mafia turncoats (pentiti), such as Tommaso Buscetta and Antonio Calderone. Both the Mafia clan in Catania and the Cosa Nostra-backed entrepreneur Costanzo campaigned for <mask>. The Salvo cousins supported the <mask> government as well as the old Mafia families of Greco and Bontade. The Operation Milazzo, as it was called, was something of a clientelist “coup”, according to scholar René Seindal. The Christian Democrats lost control of the region's resources and the various parts of <mask>'s coalition strengthened their negotiating position towards the Christian Democrats.The Salvos, for instance, gained control over the private concession for collecting taxes in Sicily with extremely favourable conditions. To consolidate the privilege, the Salvos unscrupulously withdrew their support for Milazzo to ally themselves with the mainstream Christian Democrats which tried to regain control of the region to maintain their cliental power base. From then until the mid-1980s the Salvos were among the most powerful businessmen in the economic, political and social life of Sicily – until they were prosecuted by Palermo's Antimafia pool that included Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino. They controlled the Christian Democratic party branch in the Province of Trapani that guaranteed them great influence over the regional decision making of the DC. After initially supporting <mask>, the Mafia was not opposed to the fall of his government as well – and Mafia boss Francesco Paolo Bontade and later his son Stefano Bontade sustained a close relationship with the Salvo cousins, which allowed them access to regional politics. History of 'Milazzoism'
In Sicily on October 30, 1958 the regional deputy Silvio <mask> of DC was elected president of the Sicilian Region with the votes, in the Sicilian Regional Assembly, of the parties of the right and the left, against the official candidate of his party, Giuseppe La Loggia, indicated by the national leaders of the DC, then led by Amintore Fanfani. Silvio <mask>, exponent of the most extensive autonomism, was at odds with the strongly centralizing direction given to the organization of DC by Fanfani, then also President of the, while the position of the President of the Republic Gronchi

The first milazzo junta
The first junta milazzo was attended together by representatives of the PCI and the MSI, allies "in the name of the superior interests of the Sicilians", said the regional secretary of the PCI Emanuele Macaluso (who had been given the green light by Palmiro Togliatti) and the group leader at the ARS of the MSI Dino Grammatico, with the consent of Giorgio Almirante.Silvio <mask> was immediately expelled from DC, then created with a group of regional deputies a new political party, the Sicilian Christian Social Union (USCS). Dino Grammatico in his memoirs defined that first phase of milazzismo as a "Sicilian Revolt",

The Church's opposition
The Catholic Church was strongly criticized with the operation and in April 1959 the Holy Office renewed the excommunication to the Communists extending it to those, such as the Milazzo movement, who allied with them and a few months later, on the eve of the regional elections, the Sicilian episcopate expressly invited not to vote for the USCS. Milazzo second junta and crisis
Milazzo, after the June 1959 regional elections, where his movement won 10 ARS deputies, formed a second junta on August 12, 1959, in which the MSI did not enter, which returned to opposition, along with DC. This second junta had a varied support around the USCS, the left, the monarchists, the top of Sicindustria, then led by Domenico La Cavera,who had already broken with Confindustria, up to exponents close to the Mafia. The ideologues at that stage were Ludovico Corrao and the national deputy Francesco Pignatone. This brief second term at the head of the Milazzo Region, came into crisis due to a scandal, with an attempt at corruption organized by two deputies, one of the PCI (Vincenzo Marraro) and one of the USCS (Ludovico Corrao), denounced by a DC deputy, Carmelo Santalco, who were promised 100 million to vote in favor of the junta, a conversation that he recorded. The crisis ended in February 1960, when a member of his movement, Benedetto Majorana della Nicchiara, was persuaded by D.C. majors to accept the office of president of the region, in a majority of Christian Democrats, liberals and monarchists, with the external support of the MSI.<mask> also resigned as a regional deputy in 1962. The USCS disbanded after the 1963 regional election, where it did not win a seat. References

 Paoli, Letizia (2003). Mafia Brotherhoods: Organized Crime, Italian Style, New York: Oxford University Press
 Seindal, René (1998). Mafia: Money and Politics in Sicily, 1950-1997, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press

External links
  Il governo Milazzo
  Profilo Deputato Milazzo Silvio, Assemblea Regionale Siciliana

1903 births
1982 deaths
Presidents of Sicily
People from Caltagirone
Christian Democracy (Italy) politicians
20th-century Italian politicians
Politicians from the Province of Catania

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<mask> (born July 15, 1961) is an American actor, producer, director, and activist. He is the recipient of such accolades as an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a British Academy Film Award, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards. After making his film debut in Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), <mask> went on to earn a reputation for intensive character study work for films such as Bird; Good Morning, Vietnam; The Crying Game; Platoon; Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai;  The Great Debaters; The Butler; Arrival; and Respect. He has also appeared in blockbusters such as Panic Room, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story as Saw Gerrera and Black Panther as Zuri. For his portrayal of Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in the British historical drama film The Last King of Scotland (2006), Whitaker won the Academy Award for Best Actor. <mask> made his directorial debut with the television film Strapped (1993), and directed the films Waiting to Exhale (1995), Hope Floats (1998), and First Daughter (2004). Apart from his film career, <mask> is also known for his humanitarian work and activism.In 2011, he was inducted as a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador, was later promoted to Special Envoy for Peace and Reconciliation, and serves as the CEO of Whitaker Peace and Development Initiative (WPDI), a non-profit outreach program. Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on July 15, 1961, in Longview, Texas, the son of Laura Francis (née Smith), a special education teacher who put herself through college and earned two master's degrees while raising her children, and <mask><mask> Jr., an insurance salesman. A DNA test has shown that his mother had Akan ancestry, while his father was of Igbo descent. When Whitaker was in elementary school, his family moved to Carson, California. He has two younger brothers, Kenn and Damon, and an older sister, Deborah. His first role as an actor was the lead in Dylan Thomas's play Under Milk Wood. Whitaker attended Palisades Charter High School, where he played on the football team and sang in the choir, graduating in 1979.He entered California State Polytechnic University, Pomona on a football scholarship, but a back injury made him change his major to music (singing). He toured England with the Cal Poly Chamber Singers in 1980. While still at Cal Poly, he briefly changed his major to drama. He later transferred to the Thornton School of Music at the University of Southern California to study opera as a tenor and was subsequently accepted into the university's Drama Conservatory. He graduated from USC with a BFA in acting in 1982. He was pursuing a degree in "The Core of Conflict: Studies in Peace and Reconciliation" at New York University's Gallatin School of Individualized Study in 2004. Whitaker later took a post-graduate course at Drama Studio London.Career

Film work

<mask> has a long history of working with well-regarded film directors and actors. In his first onscreen performance of note, he had a supporting role playing a high school football player in the 1982 film version of Cameron Crowe's coming-of-age teen-retrospective Fast Times at Ridgemont High. In 1986, he appeared in Martin Scorsese's The Color of Money and Oliver Stone's Platoon. The following year, he co-starred in the comedy Good Morning, Vietnam alongside Robin Williams. In 1988, <mask> appeared in the film Bloodsport and had his first lead role starring as musician Charlie "Bird" Parker in Clint Eastwood's Bird. To prepare himself for the part, he sequestered himself in a loft with only a bed, couch, and saxophone, having also conducted extensive research and taken alto sax lessons. His performance, which has been called "transcendent", earned him the Best Actor award at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival and a Golden Globe nomination.<mask> continued to work with a number of well-known directors throughout the 1990s. He starred in the 1990 film Downtown and was cast in the pivotal role of Jody, a captive British soldier in the 1992 film The Crying Game, for which he used an English accent. Todd McCarthy of Variety described <mask>'s performance as "big-hearted", "hugely emotional", and "simply terrific". He was a member of the cast that won the first ever National Board of Review Award for Best Acting by an Ensemble for Robert Altman's film, Prêt-à-Porter, in 1994. In 1995, he gave a "characteristically emotional performance" in Wayne Wang and Paul Auster's Smoke, and appeared in the low budget film Species. In 1996, he played the role of a good-natured man in Phenomenon, alongside John Travolta and Robert Duvall, which earned him a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actor – Drama, and was also nominated for NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture. <mask> played a serene, pigeon-raising, bushido-following, mob hit man in Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai, a 1999 film written and directed by Jim Jarmusch.Many consider this to have been a "definitive role" for <mask>. In a manner similar to his preparation for Bird, he again immersed himself in his character's world—he studied Eastern philosophy and meditated for long hours "to hone his inner spiritual hitman". Jarmusch has told interviewers that he developed the title character with Whitaker in mind; The New York Times review of the film observed that "[I]t's hard to think of another actor who could play a cold-blooded killer with such warmth and humanity." <mask> next appeared in what has been called one of the worst films ever made, the 2000 production of Battlefield Earth, based on the novel of the same name by L. Ron Hubbard. The film was widely criticized as a notorious commercial and critical disaster. However, Whitaker's performance was lauded by the film's director, Roger Christian, who commented that, "Everybody's going to be very surprised" by Whitaker, who "found this huge voice and laugh." Battlefield Earth won seven Razzie Awards.<mask> later expressed his regret for participating in the film. In 2001, <mask> had a small, uncredited role in the Wong Kar-wai-directed The Follow, one of five short films produced by BMW that year to promote its cars. He co-starred in Joel Schumacher's 2002 thriller, Phone Booth, with Kiefer Sutherland and Colin Farrell. That year, he also co-starred with Jodie Foster in Panic Room. His performance as the film's "bad guy" was described as "a subtle chemistry of aggression and empathy". <mask>'s 2006 portrayal of Idi Amin in the film The Last King of Scotland earned him positive reviews by critics as well as multiple awards and honors. To portray the dictator, Whitaker gained 50 pounds, learned to play the accordion, and immersed himself in research.He read books about Amin, watched news and documentary footage featuring Amin, and spent time in Uganda meeting with Amin's friends, relatives, generals, and victims; he also learned Swahili and mastered Amin's East African accent. His performance earned him the Academy Award for Best Actor, making him the fourth black actor in history to do so, joining the ranks of Sidney Poitier, Denzel Washington, and Jamie Foxx. In his acceptance speech, Whitaker said: “When I first started acting, it was because of my desire to connect to everyone, to that thing inside each of us, that light that I believe exists in all of us. Because acting for me is about believing in that connection; and it's a connection so strong, it's a connection so deep that we feel it and through our combined belief we can create a new reality.” For that same role, he was also recognized with the British Academy Film Award, Golden Globe Award, National Board of Review Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, and accolades from the Broadcast Film Critics Association, London Film Critics’ Circle Award, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, National Society of Film Critics, and New York Film Critics Circle among others. In 2007, <mask> played Dr. James Farmer Sr. in The Great Debaters, for which he received an Image Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor. In 2008, <mask> appeared in three films, first as a business man known only as Happiness, who likes butterflies, in the film The Air I Breathe. He also portrayed a rogue police captain in Street Kings, and a heroic tourist in Vantage Point.In 2013, after a small career slump where he starred in a few straight-to-video films, <mask> has enjoyed a career resurgence, having played the lead role in Lee Daniels' The Butler, which has become one of his greatest critical and commercial successes to date. <mask> won the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture for that film. <mask> also starred in the film Black Nativity and co-starred in 2013's The Last Stand, playing an FBI agent chasing an escaped drug cartel leader. <mask> played Saw Gerrera in the 2016 film Rogue One: A Star Wars Story. 2016 also saw <mask> portray Colonel Weber in Arrival, which was followed by his portrayal of Archbishop Desmond Tutu in 2017's The Forgiven. For his portrayal of Zuri in 2018's Black Panther, <mask> shared in the SAG Award for Best Ensemble. In 2020, <mask> starred as Jeronicus Jangle in the Netflix Christmas musical Jingle Jangle: A Christmas Journey.He appeared as Reverend C.L. Franklin, the father of Aretha Franklin (played by Jennifer Hudson) in the film Respect. and is set to appear alongside Tom Hardy in Havoc. In 2022, <mask> will portray boxing trainer Doc Broadus in Heart of a Lion . Television work
After completing several films in the early 1980s, <mask> gained additional roles in multiple television shows. On the series, Diff'rent Strokes, he played a bully in the 1985 episode "Bully for Arnold". That same year, <mask> also played the part of a comic book salesman in the Amazing Stories episode "Gather Ye Acorns".He appeared in the first and second parts of North and South in 1985 and 1986. Throughout the 1990s, <mask> mainly had roles in television films which aired on HBO, including Criminal Justice, The Enemy Within, and Witness Protection. From 2002 to 2003, <mask> was the host and narrator of 44 new episodes of the Rod Serling classic, The Twilight Zone, which lasted one season on UPN. After working in several film roles, he returned to television in 2006 when he joined the cast of FX's police serial The Shield, as Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh, who was determined to prove that the lead character, Vic Mackey, is a dirty cop. As opposed to his previous character work, <mask> stated that he merely had to draw on his childhood years growing up in South Central Los Angeles for the role. He received rave reviews for his performance—Variety called it a "crackling-good guest stint"—and he reprised the role in the show's 2007 season. In the fall of 2006, <mask> started a multi-episode story arc on ER as Curtis Ames, a man who comes into the ER with a cough, but quickly faces the long-term consequences of a paralyzing stroke; he sues, then takes out his anger on Dr. Luka Kovač, who he blames for the strokes.<mask> received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for his performance in the series. Also in 2006, <mask> appeared in T.I. 's music video "Live in the Sky" alongside Jamie Foxx. <mask> was cast in the Criminal Minds spin-off, Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior, that was subsequently cancelled by CBS on May 17, 2011. In December 2016, it was announced that <mask> would reprise his role as Saw Gerrera from Rogue One for the Star Wars Rebels animated series. In 2017 and 2018, <mask> had an eleven-episode arc on Empire, which saw him reunited with Lee Daniels after their work together on The Butler. Since 2019, <mask> has been starring as Bumpy Johnson in Godfather of Harlem, a series on EPIX which explores the intersection between the criminal underworld and civil rights movement in the 1960s.<mask> is set to appear in an episode of Extrapolations, an Apple TV anthology series that focuses on climate change. <mask> made his Broadway debut in 2016 in a revival of Eugene O'Neill's play Hughie at the Booth Theatre, directed by Michael Grandage.<ref>"Gambling on O'Neill: <mask> Makes His Broadway Debut in Hughie" by Michael Paulson, The New York Times, February 3, 2016</ref>

 Producing and directing

<mask> branched out into producing and directing in the 1990s. He co-produced and co-starred in A Rage in Harlem in 1991. He made his directorial debut with a grim film about inner-city gun violence, Strapped, for HBO in 1993 – and won the International Critics' Award at the Toronto International Film Festival. In 1995, he directed his first theatrical feature, Waiting to Exhale, which was based on the Terry McMillan

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 novel of the same name. Roger Ebert observed that the tone of the film resembled <mask>'s own acting style: "measured, serene, confident". Whitaker also directed co-star Whitney Houston's music video of the movie's theme song, "Exhale (Shoop Shoop)".<mask> continued his directing career with the 1998 romantic comedy, Hope Floats, starring Sandra Bullock and Harry Connick, Jr., which he also executive produced. He directed Katie Holmes in the romantic comedy, First Daughter in 2004, while also serving as an executive producer on the film; he had previously co-starred with Holmes in Phone Booth in 2002. He gained experience as the executive producer of several made-for-television movies, most notably the 2002 Emmy-award-winning Door to Door, starring William H. Macy. He produced these projects through his production company, Spirit Dance Entertainment, which he shut down in 2005 to concentrate on his acting career. <mask>'s current company, Significant Productions, is devoted to creating opportunities for underrepresented narratives and storytellers by championing films and television shows starring people of color, alongside diversified representation behind the camera. <mask> and his partner Nina Yang Bongiovi produced Ryan Coogler's directorial debut Fruitvale Station, which won the Grand Jury Prize and the Audience Award for U.S. dramatic film at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, and won Prize of The Future at Cannes. They also launched the career of Chloe Zhao, with Songs My Brothers Taught Me (2015).Other producing highlights have included ‘Repentance’ (2014), Dope (2015), Roxanne Roxanne (2018)  and Sorry to Bother You (2018). In 2021, the company's latest film, Passing, will debut on Netflix. Significant Productions also produced a documentary that was shot in the hospice at Angola prison in Louisiana,  'Serving Life’ (2011), which was produced for Oprah Winfrey as the first commission for OWN and Oprah's Doc Club. They produced A Kid From Coney Island, a documentary about basketball star Stephon Marbury. In 2020, Significant produced By Whatever Means Necessary: The Times of Godfather of Harlem. Other media

<mask> worked closely with Babyface as the executive producer to the soundtrack for Waiting to Exhale, which Whitaker directed. The album received a total of eleven Grammy nominations in 1997, including Album of the Year and Song of the Year for "Exhale (Shoop Shoop)".Three songs were nominated for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. It won the Grammy for Best R&B Song for "Exhale (Shoop Shoop)," written by Babyface. <mask> served as Executive Soundtrack Producer on the soundtrack for Hope Floats, which he directed. Best known for Garth Brooks’ rendition of “To Make You Feel My Love,” the album went double-platinum and was Grammy nominated. <mask> also served as Executive Music Producer and co-wrote eight songs for the soundtrack to First Daughter, which he directed. Under Frank Cooper, he served as the creator and producer of DEWmocracy.com, an interactive video game, short film, and website that allowed people to select a new flavor of Mountain Dew. This campaign turned into the most successful launch of a soft drink in Mountain Dew's history.<mask> appears in the Jamie Foxx featuring T-Pain 2008 music video, "Blame It". He also appears in the music video "In the Dark" by Bring Me the Horizon, released on October 21, 2019.; and his voice and likeness were used for Saw Gerrera in the 2019 video game Star Wars: Jedi Fallen Order. JuntoBox films
Whitaker has played an active role as co-chair of JuntoBox Films since his initial involvement as co-chair with the collaborative film studio starting in March 2012. JuntoBox was developed as a social-media platform for filmmakers and fans to share ideas to create films and then collaborate to make them. Since <mask> joined as co-chair, five projects have been greenlit for production. Honors and accolades

In addition to the numerous awards Whitaker won for his performance in The Last King of Scotland, he has also received several other honors. In 2005, the Deauville (France) Festival of American Film paid tribute to him.In September 2006, the 10th Annual Hollywood Film Festival presented him with its "Hollywood Actor of the Year Award," calling him "one of Hollywood's most accomplished actors". <mask> received the Capri Legend Award in 2006, from the Capri Hollywood International Film Festival. He was honored at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival 2007, where he received the American Riviera Award. On April 16, 2007, <mask> was the recipient of the 2,335th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the motion pictures industry at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard. In 2004, <mask> received an Honorary Doctorate from the North Carolina School of the Arts. In 2007, he received the Cinema for Peace Award for his ongoing advocacy for child soldiers and his work with inner-city youths. Whitaker then received the honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters from Xavier University of Louisiana in 2009 at the 82nd Commencement Ceremony.In 2009, he also received an Honorary Degree from Manhattanville College, where he delivered the commencement address. In 2012, in recognition of his contributions to the values embodied by the UN, he received the United Nations Correspondents Association's Advocate of the Year Award. In 2013, <mask> received the Chevalier de l’ordre des Arts et des Lettres from France's Minister of Culture, in recognition of his work serving those affected by conflicts and violence. That year, he was also named a Martin Luther King, Jr. Fellow by Boston University. <mask> was the keynote speaker at Miami University's commencement in 2014. He received the honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters from California State University, Dominguez Hills on May 16, 2015.In 2016, <mask> received the Humanitarian Award from the World Childhood Foundation. In 2017, <mask> earned the Crystal Award at the World Economic Forum in Davos. That year, he also received the 4GameChanger Of The Year Award. He received the honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts from University of Southern California on May 11, 2018, at the 135th Commencement Ceremony. He received the Medal of Peace from the University of San Diego's Kroc School of Peace Studies in 2018, and received an Honorary Fellowship from SOAS University of London that same year. In 2019, he was also among the recipients of the 2019 Kennedy Center Award for the Human Spirit. In 2021, USC awarded him the Robert Redford Award for Engaged Artists.That year, he was also promoted to Commander of France's Order of Arts and Letters. In 2021, Whitaker also received an honorary German Sustainability Award. His 2022 began by being awarded with the International Peace Honors Prize. Activism
 Charity work
Over the past decade, Whitaker has spent much of his time dedicated to humanitarian work. These pursuits were partially motivated by a core lesson his mother taught him: “You don’t have to believe what I believe, but you have to believe in something,” which Whitaker has discussed giving structure to much of his life. He founded the Whitaker Peace & Development Initiative (WPDI), a non-governmental organization, in 2012. WPDI implements peace-building programs in conflict affected communities throughout the world, which are focused on training youths in conflict resolution and developing businesses in areas of conflict.WPDI's programs are currently operating throughout Africa, Mexico, and the United States. Whitaker was inducted as a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for Peace and Reconciliation, in a ceremony at UNESCO headquarters on June 21, 2011. As Goodwill Ambassador, Whitaker worked with UNESCO to support and develop initiatives that empower youths and keep them from entering or remaining in cycles of violence. At the induction ceremony, U.S. Ambassador to UNESCO David Killion described Whitaker as a "perfect choice as a Goodwill Ambassador... he has exemplified compassion in every area of his life, with humility and grace. He does this because it's the right thing to do." Following his increased work in conflict-impacted regions, <mask> was then promoted to a UNESCO Special Envoy for Peace and Reconciliation, and was a member of President Obama's Committee on the Arts and the Humanities.He previously served on President Obama's Urban Policy Committee and started collaborating with the Office of the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict as an Advocate for Children Affected by War, a topic on which he was invited to speak before the UN Security Council in September 2014. Whitaker worked with elementary schools through the Turnaround Arts organization. Additionally, he is on the steering committee for the UN's work with the Reintegration of Child Soldiers after having served as an Advocate for Children Affected by War, and is an Advocate for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. He is also a supporter and public advocate for Hope North, a boarding school and vocational training center in northern Uganda for escaped child soldiers, orphans, and other young victims of the country's civil war. Above all, Whitaker believes that ordinary people can and must come together to change the world. In his own words, “Even a seemingly small action can cause ripples that make an enormous impact.”

 Politics
In politics, Whitaker supported and spoke on behalf of Senator Barack Obama in his 2008 presidential campaign. On April 6, 2009, he was given a chieftaincy title in Imo State, Nigeria.<mask>, who was named a chief among the Igbo community of Nkwerre, was given the title Nwannedinamba of Nkwerre, which means A Brother in a Foreign Land. <mask> co-founded the International Institute for Peace (IIP) at Rutgers University in Newark, New Jersey, where he is also a senior research scholar. Launched during the international Newark Peace Education Summit, IIP's mission is to develop programs and strategic partnerships to address issues such as increasing citizen security through community-building; the role of women and spiritual and religious leaders in peacebuilding; the impact of climate change; and the reduction of poverty. IIP operates under the auspices of UNESCO. Personal life
In 1996, <mask> married actress Keisha Nash, whom he met on the set of Blown Away''. They have four children: two daughters together (Sonnet and True), and his son (Ocean Alexander) and her daughter (Autumn) from their previous relationships. In December 2018, <mask> filed for divorce from Nash, citing irreconcilable differences.Whitaker studies yoga, has a black belt in kenpō and is a vegetarian. He also trains in eskrima, originally under Dan Inosanto and currently with Joe Jackson. In 2021, it was announced that he had joined NBA Africa as a minority owner and strategic investor. Whitaker's left eye ptosis has been called "intriguing" by some critics and gives him "a sleepy, contemplative look". Whitaker has explained that the condition is hereditary and that he has considered having surgery to correct it, not for cosmetic reasons but because it affects his vision. His ancestry has been traced to Nkwerre in Imo State of Nigeria, where he was made an honorary titled chief on April 5, 2009. Filmography

References

External links

1961 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
African-American film directors
African-American male actors
Alumni of the Drama Studio London
African-American film producers
Film producers from Texas
American male film actors
American male television actors
American people of Akan descent
American people of Ghanaian descent
American people of Igbo descent
Best Actor Academy Award winners
Best Actor BAFTA Award winners
Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners
Businesspeople from Los Angeles
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona alumni
Emmy Award winners
Film directors from Texas
Living people
Male actors from Los Angeles
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Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from Longview, Texas
People with ptosis (eyelid)
USC School of Dramatic Arts alumni
Film producers from California
New York University Gallatin School of Individualized Study alumni
UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors
Film directors from Los Angeles
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American

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<mask> (born December 9, 1947 in Budapest) is a Hungarian mathematician working in the topic of combinatorics, and one of the most prominent mathematics educators of Hungary, best known for his mathematics camps for gifted students. He is a winner of the Széchenyi Prize. Paul Erdős's favorite "child", he discovered theorems at the age of 16. Since 2002, he has worked at the Rényi Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences; earlier he was at the Eötvös Loránd University, at the Departments of Mathematical Analysis, Computer Science. Biography
He was born in Budapest, Hungary on December 9, 1947. His father was a chemist, his mother a mathematics teacher. He was a child prodigy.While still in elementary school, the educator Rózsa Péter, friend of his mother introduced him to Paul Erdős, who invited him
for lunch in a restaurant, and bombarded him with mathematical questions. Pósa finished the problems sooner than his soup, which impressed Erdős, who himself had been a child prodigy, and who supported young talents with much care and competence. That is how Pósa’s first paper was born, co-authored with Erdős (hence his Erdős number is 1). He went to the first special mathematics class of the country at Fazekas Mihály Secondary School from 1962 to 1966, where his classmates included Miklós Laczkovich, László Lovász, , Zsolt Baranyai, István Berkes, Katalin Vesztergombi, Péter Major. He won the first prize on the International Mathematical Olympiad in 1966 (Bulgaria) and second prize in 1965 (Germany). He started his Mathematics studies at ELTE University in 1966, and graduated in 1971. From 1971 to 1982 he worked at the Department of Mathematical Analysis at ELTE University, and he obtained a doctorate in 1983 with his dissertation about Hamiltonian circuits of random graphs.From 1984 to 2002 he worked at the Department of Computer Science at ELTE University, and since 2002 he has been a member of the Rényi Mathematical Institute. Despite his significant results in mathematical research, he stopped research and devoted himself fully to Mathematics Education. Erdős, who preferred him among all his protégés, expressed his regret that Pósa had stopped research with the typical Erdős style phrase "Pósa is dead." Mathematics education

He started teaching mathematics very early. He tutored his secondary school classmates, and during his first year at university he started teaching extracurricular courses at his former secondary school. His students at that time included: László Babai, György Elekes, Péter Komjáth, Imre Z. Ruzsa. At the beginning of the 1970s he got involved with the school reform movement called complex teaching of mathematics led by Tamás Varga.Pósa worked on the reform of secondary mathematics teaching, while he taught at Radnóti Miklós Secondary School from 1976 to 1980. From 1982 to 1989 he was a member of the Research Group on Mathematics Education led by János Surányi. From 1982 to 1991 he had two experimental
classes at Eötvös József Secondary School. His teaching materials written at that time were tested in several classes, and based on these he and colleagues have written a textbook series for the four years of secondary school. Nevertheless, Pósa is best known for finding and teaching gifted students. Since 1988 he has been organizing his own week-end maths camps. There are several groups of 20-35 students, and each group has two or three camps a year.In a camp, students mostly work in groups of
2-4, but there are also plenary sessions where they discuss solutions, and sum up important thoughts. Students work on problems carefully built on each other. There are several topics running parallelly, and one topic spans several camps. The emphasis is on thinking, proving, and the connection between seemingly distant ideas. The camps are also an important scene of teacher training, as prospective teachers observe and help in the camps. Mathematical research
 He gave sufficient conditions for the existence of Hamiltonian circuit. He proved that a random graph on n vertices with cn log n edges almost surely contains a Hamiltonian circuit, thus affirming a conjecture of Erdős and Rényi (also proved by A. D. Korshunov).The result  was later improved by Komlós and Szemerédi. With Erdős he proved the Erdős–Pósa theorem. Prizes, awards
 Prize for Children Support („Gyermekekért” díj), 1989
 Beke Manó Prize I. degree by Bolyai János Mathematical Society, 1994
 Officer’s Cross Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary, 1998
 Charles Simonyi Scholarship, 2000
 MOL prize for Gifted Education (“Tehetséggondozásért” díj), 2008
 Széchenyi Prize, 2011

Publications

 Pósa <mask>: A prímszámok egy tulajdonságáról, Matematikai Lapok, 11 (1960), 124-128. P. Erdős, L. Pósa: On the maximal number of disjoint circuits of a graph, Publ. Math. Debrecen, 9 (1962), 3-13. L. Pósa: A theorem concerning Hamilton lines, MTA Mat.Kut. Int. Közl. 7 (1962), 225-226. L. Pósa: On the circuits of finite graphs, MTA Mat. Kut. Int.Közl. 8 (1964), 355-361. P. Erdős, L. Pósa: On independent circuits contained in a graph, Can. J. Math. 17 (1965), 347-352. P. Erdős, A. W. Goodman, L. Pósa: The representation of a graph by set intersection, Can.J. Math. 18 (1966), 106-112. P. Erdős, A. Hajnal, L. Pósa: Strong embeddings of graphs into colored graphs, Infinite and finite sets (Colloq. Keszthely 1973; dedicated to P. Erdős on his 60th birthday), Vol. I. Colloq. Math.Soc. J. Bolyai, Vol. 10, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1975, 585-595. L. Pósa: Hamiltonian circuits in random graphs, Discrete Mathematics, 14 (1976), 359-364. <mask> <mask>: Véletlen gráfok Hamilton körei, egyetemi doktori értekezés, Budapest, 1982. <mask> <mask>: Beszélgetés az új felvételi rendszer tervéről, Köznevelés, XXXV (1979) (20), 7-8. <mask> <mask>: Variációk egy témára, Matematika-tanárképzés – matematikatanár-továbbképzés, 3 (1995), 41-59.Textbooks
 Pósa <mask>: Analízis I. Differenciálszámítás, 11. o., Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 2000
 Pósa <mask>: Analízis I. Differenciálszámítás. Tanári útmutató, 11. o., Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 2000
 Pósa <mask>: Analízis II. - Integrálszámítás, Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft. Pósa <mask>: Analízis II. Integrálszámítás (tanári útmutató), Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft. Pósa Lajos: Összefoglalás. Algebra.Megoldások, Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 1999
 Pósa Lajos: Összefoglalás. Algebra, függvények, Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 1999
 Pósa Lajos: Sorozatok 11.-12. o. Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 1998
 Pósa Lajos: Sorozatok. Tanári útmutató 11.-12. o., Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 1998
 Pósa Lajos: Vegyes feladatok 1. 7.-9. o., Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 1998
 Pósa Lajos: Vegyes feladatok 1. Tanári útmutató 9. o., Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft., 1998
 Pósa Lajos: Hatványozás kiterjesztése és logaritmus-feladatsorok, Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft. Pósa Lajos: Hatványozás kiterjesztése és logaritmus-megoldások, végeredmények, Műszaki Könyvkiadó Kft. Pósa Lajos: Vegyes feladatok tanári útmutató 1. osztály (2. kiadás, Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1999.)Pósa Lajos: Vegyes feladatok 2. - Tanári útmutató (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2000.) Pósa Lajos: Vektorok és koordinátageometria - Feladatsorok (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest)
 Pósa Lajos: Vektorok és koordinátageometria - Megoldások, végeredmények (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest)
 Pósa Lajos: Vektorok és koordináta geometria - Tanári útmutató (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2000.) Pósa Lajos: Összefoglalás - Matematika, elmélet, feladatok (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest)
 Pósa Lajos: Összefoglalás - Matematika, megoldások (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest)
 Pósa Lajos - Halmos Mária - Gábos Adél: Kombinatorika (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1998.) Gábos Adél - Halmos Mária - Pósa Lajos: Kombinatorika - Tanári útmutató (Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2000.) References

 Ross Honsberger: "The story of Louis Pósa", in:Mathematical Gems, The Mathematical Association of America, 1973. An article on Pósa, in the Hungarian daily Népszabadság

See also

 Pósa theorem (1962).Erdős–Pósa theorem (1965). 20th-century Hungarian mathematicians
21st-century Hungarian mathematicians
Combinatorialists
1947 births
Living people
Officer's Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (civil)
International Mathematical Olympiad participants

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<mask>,  (22 November 19025 November 1990), was the penultimate Governor of the colony of Southern Rhodesia (1959–1969) who served through, and opposed, the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965. Early history

<mask> was born on 22 November 1902 in England, the third son of The Hon. <mask>, later created, in 1923, The 1st Baron Hunsdon of Hunsdon. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He moved to Southern Rhodesia in 1928, buying a farm at Nyamandhlovu, near Bulawayo. He became active in farming administration and helped found the National Farmers Union. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly at the general election of 1948 as a United Party member, representing the constituency of Wankie, serving one term before standing down in 1954.As Governor of Southern Rhodesia

In 1959, Queen Elizabeth II appointed <mask> as Governor of Southern Rhodesia and appointed him a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) in 1960. The Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) by the Rhodesian Front government (under Prime Minister Ian Smith) in November 1965 placed <mask> in a very difficult position. He was intensely loyal to Rhodesia, and was a close friend of Ian Smith, but he was also equally loyal to his office as the Queen's viceroy. While understanding what had made Smith's government declare the UDI, <mask> decided that final legality rested with the Crown, not Smith and his government. By the time Smith and Deputy Prime Minister Clifford Dupont called on Governor <mask> after the UDI was signed, Whitehall had directed <mask> to use his reserve power to dismiss Smith and his entire cabinet from office. <mask> complied with the order without hesitation. He declared that by issuing the UDI, Smith and his government had committed an act of treason.However, Smith and his ministers simply ignored the dismissal, advising <mask> that "in view of the new [Rhodesian] constitution…, he no longer has any executive powers in Rhodesia"—and therefore, his power to sack them no longer existed. Under siege

Several high-ranking officers of the Rhodesian military went to Governor <mask> earlier in the day, made a statement of loyalty to him, and asked <mask> to issue a warrant so that they could arrest Smith and Dupont. However, <mask> knew that the bulk of the officer corps, as well as the rank and file of the Rhodesian military, were solidly behind Smith's government and that such a move would lead to a coup d'état. <mask> announced that despite the UDI, he had no intention of resigning his office or leaving Rhodesia, and that therefore, he would remain in Government House in Salisbury as the sole legal representative of Queen Elizabeth II. With few exceptions, the international community continued to recognise him as the Queen's sole legitimate representative in the area—and thus, the only lawful authority in what London maintained was still the colony of Southern Rhodesia. In response, Smith declared that Government House was only "temporarily occupied" by <mask> "in a personal capacity", and would be occupied by Dupont once it became available. This action led to four years of harassment and petty afflictions by the Rhodesian government, resulting in making <mask> and his wife virtually prisoners in Government House, by cutting off his telephone, electricity and water.It also took away his ceremonial guard and official cars, and sent him bills for the rent of Government House, which he refused to pay. However, his supporters set up a Governor's Fund to pay for the upkeep of the building, and with the assistance of a small staff, led by John Pestell, he managed to remain defiant. While <mask> continued to occupy Government House, Dupont and his wife held official receptions at Governor's Lodge in the Salisbury suburb of Highlands. This had previously been used by <mask> when Southern Rhodesia was part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. During this time, Government House had been the residence of the Governor-General of the Federation. In 1967, on the second anniversary of UDI, <mask> declared that his visitors' book would be open to all those who wished to show their loyalty to The Queen, while Dupont, in response, announced that the visitors' book at his office, on the same street, would be open to all those who wished to show their support for UDI. In June 1969, <mask> resigned after Smith's government held and won a referendum that year making Rhodesia a republic.He remained in Rhodesia and lived the rest of his life on his farm. Throughout the 1970s he was known for supporting the cause of African nationalism, which brought him into conflict with the government of Ian Smith. Later he was appointed to Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council and was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) by Queen Elizabeth II. After independence in 1980 he decided to "stay on" and took up Zimbabwean citizenship. He stayed on his farm where he had been living since 1970 until 1983 when he moved to Harare in 1983 where he lived until his death in 1990. <mask> died in Harare on 5 November 1990, with his funeral held at the Cathedral of St Mary and All Saints, Harare. In 2004 a memorial to <mask> by Lettering and Sculpture Limited was unveiled in St Paul's Cathedral in London.Marriage
On 17 January 1934, <mask> married Molly Peel Nelson (b. 13 July 1912, Johannesburg) in Bulawayo, and they had five sons together. <mask> (Lady <mask> from 1960), was appointed as a Commander of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (CStJ) in 1960, and a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 1969. Following <mask>' death in 1990, <mask> moved to England and died on 20 January 1997 in Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Honours

References

1902 births
1990 deaths
Politicians from London
British emigrants to Rhodesia
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Members of the Legislative Assembly of Southern Rhodesia
Governors-General of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
Governors of Southern Rhodesia
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights of the Order of St John
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Eton College
Rhodesian farmers
Zimbabwean people of English descent
Rhodesian politicians
Zimbabwean farmers
Younger sons of barons
Humphrey

masks:
Sir Humphrey Vicary Gibbs
Gibbs
Herbert Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
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Gibbs
Molly Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Molly Gibbs