texts:
 of full employment would be the aim of post-war governments, and that this would provide the basis for the welfare state. Immediately on its release, it sold hundreds of thousands of copies. All major parties committed themselves to fulfilling this aim, but most historians say that Attlee's Labour Party were seen by the electorate as the party most likely to follow it through. Labour campaigned on the theme of "Let Us Face the Future", positioning themselves as the party best placed to rebuild Britain following the war, and were widely viewed as having run a strong and positive campaign, while the Conservative campaign centred entirely around Churchill. Despite opinion polls indicating a strong Labour lead, opinion polls were then viewed as a novelty which had not proven their worth, and most commentators expected that Churchill's prestige and status as a "war hero" would ensure a comfortable Conservative victory.Before polling day, The Manchester Guardian surmised that "the chances of Labour sweeping the country and obtaining a clear majority ... are pretty remote". The News of the World predicted a working Conservative majority, while in Glasgow a pundit forecast the result as Conservatives 360, Labour 220, Others 60. Churchill, however, made some costly errors during the campaign. In particular, his suggestion during one radio broadcast that a future Labour Government would require "some form of a gestapo" to implement their policies was widely regarded as being in very bad taste, and massively backfired. When the results of the election were announced on 26 July, they came as a surprise to most, including Attlee himself. Labour had won power by a huge landslide, winning 47.7 per cent of the vote to the Conservatives' 36 per cent. This gave them 393 seats in the House of Commons, a working majority of 146.This was the first time in history that the Labour Party had won a majority in Parliament. When Attlee went to see King George VI at Buckingham Palace to be appointed Prime Minister, the notoriously laconic Attlee and the famously tongue-tied King stood in silence; Attlee finally volunteered the remark, "I've won the election". The King replied "I know. I heard it on the Six O'Clock News". As Prime Minister, Attlee appointed Hugh Dalton as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary, and Herbert Morrison as Deputy Prime Minister, with overall responsibility for nationalisation. Additionally, Stafford Cripps was made President of the Board of Trade, Aneurin Bevan became Minister of Health, and Ellen Wilkinson, the only woman to serve in Attlee's cabinet, was appointed Minister of Education. The Attlee government proved itself to be a radical, reforming government.From 1945 to 1948, over 200 public Acts of Parliament were passed, with eight major pieces of legislation placed on the statute book in 1946 alone. Domestic policy
Francis (1995) argues there was consensus both in the Labour's national executive committee and at party conferences on a definition of socialism that stressed moral improvement as well as material improvement. The Attlee government was committed to rebuilding British society as an ethical commonwealth, using public ownership and controls to abolish extremes of wealth and poverty. Labour's ideology contrasted sharply with the contemporary Conservative Party's defence of individualism, inherited privileges, and income inequality. On 5 July 1948, <mask>e replied to a letter dated 22 June from James Murray and ten other MPs who raised concerns about West Indians who arrived on board the . As for the prime minister himself, he was not much focused on economic policy, letting others handle the issues. Health

Attlee's Health Minister, Aneurin Bevan, fought hard against the general disapproval of the medical establishment, including the British Medical Association, by creating the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948.This was a publicly funded healthcare system, which offered treatment free of charge for all at the point of use. Reflecting pent-up demand that had long existed for medical services, the NHS treated some 8 and a half million dental patients and dispensed more than 5 million pairs of spectacles during its first year of operation. Welfare
The government set about implementing the wartime plans of Liberal William Beveridge for the creation of a "cradle to grave" welfare state. It set in place an entirely new system of social security. Among the most important pieces of legislation was the National Insurance Act 1946, in which people in work were required to pay a flat rate of national insurance. In return, they (and the wives of male contributors) were eligible for a wide range of benefits, including pensions, sickness benefit, unemployment benefit, and funeral benefit. Various other pieces of legislation provided for child benefit and support for people with no other source of income.In 1949, unemployment, sickness and maternity benefits were exempted from tax. Housing
The New Towns Act 1946 set up development corporations to construct new towns, while the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 instructed county councils to prepare development plans and also provided compulsory purchase powers. The Attlee government also extended the powers of local authorities to requisition houses and parts of houses, and made the acquisition of land less difficult than before. The Housing (Scotland) Act 1949 provided grants of 75 per cent (87.5 per cent in the Highlands and Islands) towards modernisation costs payable by Treasury to local authorities. In 1949, local authorities were empowered to provide people suffering from poor health with public housing at subsidised rents. To assist home ownership, the limit on the amount of money that people could borrow from their local authority to purchase or build a home was raised from £800 to £1,500 in 1945, and to £5,000 in 1949. Under the National Assistance Act 1948 local authorities had a duty "to provide emergency temporary accommodation for families which become homeless through no fault of their own".A large house-building programme was carried out with the intention of providing millions of people with high-quality homes. The Housing (Financial and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1946 increased Treasury subsidies for the construction of local authority housing in England and Wales. Four out of five houses constructed under Labour were council properties built to more generous specifications than before the Second World War, and subsidies kept down council rents. Altogether, these policies provided public-sector housing with its biggest-ever boost up until that point, while low-wage earners particularly benefited from these developments. Although the Attlee government failed to meet its targets, primarily due to economic constraints, over a million new homes were built between 1945 and 1951 (a significant achievement under the circumstances) which ensured that decent, affordable housing was available to many low-income families for the first time ever. Women and children
A number of reforms were embarked upon to improve conditions for women and children. In 1946, universal family allowances were introduced to provide financial support to households for raising children.These benefits had been legislated for the previous year by Churchill's Family Allowances Act 1945, and was the first measure pushed through parliament by <mask>'s government. Conservatives would later criticise Labour for having been "too hasty" in introducing family allowances. A Married Women (Restraint Upon Anticipation) Act was passed in 1949 "to equalise, to render inoperative any restrictions upon anticipation or alienation attached to the enjoyment of property by a woman", while the Married Women (Maintenance) Act 1949 was enacted with the intention of improving the adequacy and duration of financial benefits for married women. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 1950 amended the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 to bring prostitutes within the law and safeguard them from abduction and abuse. The Criminal Justice Act 1948 restricted imprisonment for juveniles and brought improvements to the probation and remand centres systems, while the passage of the Justices of the Peace Act 1949 led to extensive reforms of magistrates' courts. The Attlee government also abolished the marriage bar in the Civil Service, thereby enabling married women to work in that institution. In 1946 the government set up a National Institute of Houseworkers as a means of providing a social democratic variety of domestic service.By late 1946, agreed standards of training were established, which was followed by the opening of a training headquarters and the opening of an additional nine training centres in Wales, Scotland, and then throughout Great Britain. The National Health Service Act 1946 indicated that domestic help should be provided for households where that help is required "owing to the presence of any person who is ill, lying-in, an expectant mother, mentally defective, aged or a child not over compulsory school age". 'Home help' therefore included the provision of home-helps for nursing and expectant mothers and for mothers with children under the age of five, and by 1952 some 20,000 women were engaged in this service. Planning and development
Development rights were nationalised while the government attempted to take all development profits for the State. Strong planning authorities were set up to control land use, and issued manuals of guidance which stressed the importance of safeguarding agricultural land. A chain of regional offices was set up within its planning ministry to provide a strong lead in regional development policies. Comprehensive Development Areas (CDAs), a designation under the Town and Country Planning Act 1947, allowed local authorities to acquire property in the designated areas using powers of compulsory purchase in order to re-plan and develop urban areas suffering from urban blight or war damage.Workers' rights
Various measures were carried out to improve conditions in the workplace. Entitlement to sick leave was greatly extended, and sick pay schemes were introduced for local authority administrative, professional and technical workers in 1946 and for various categories of manual workers in 1948. Worker's compensation was also significantly improved. The Fair Wages Resolution of 1946 required any contractor working on a public project to at least match the pay rates and other employment conditions set in the appropriate collective agreement. In 1946, purchase tax was removed completely from kitchen fittings and crockery, while the rate was reduced on various gardening items. The Fire Services Act 1947 introduced a new pension scheme for fire-fighters, while the Electricity Act 1947 introduced better retirement benefits for workers in that industry. A Workers' Compensation (Supplementation) Act was passed in 1948 that introduced benefits for workers with certain asbestos-related diseases which had occurred before 1948.The Merchant Shipping Act 1948 and the Merchant Shipping (Safety Convention) Act 1949 were passed to improve conditions for seamen. The Shops Act 1950 consolidated previous legislation which provided that no one could be employed in a shop for more than six hours without having a break for at least 20 minutes. The legislation also required a lunch break of at least 45 minutes for anyone who worked between 11:30 am and 2:30 pm and a half-hour tea break for anyone working between 4 pm and 7 pm. The government also strengthened a Fair Wages Resolution, with a clause that required all employers getting government contracts to recognise the rights of their workers to join trade unions. The Trade Disputes and Trade Unions Act 1927 was repealed, and the Dock Labour Scheme was introduced in 1947 to put an end to the casual system of hiring labour in the docks. This scheme gave registered dockers the legal right to minimum work and decent conditions. Through the National Dock Labour Board (on which trade unions and employers had equal representation) the unions acquired control over recruitment and dismissal.Registered dockers laid off by employers within the Scheme had the right either to be taken on by another, or to generous compensation. All dockers were registered under the Dock Labour Scheme, giving them a legal right to minimum work, holidays and sick pay. Wages for members of the police force were significantly increased. The introduction of a Miner's Charter in 1946 instituted a five-day work week for miners and a standardised day wage structure, and in 1948 a Colliery Workers Supplementary Scheme was approved, providing supplementary allowances to disabled coal-workers and their dependants. In 1948, a pension scheme was set up to provide pension benefits for employees of the new NHS, as well as their dependants. Under the Coal Industry Nationalisation (Superannuation) Regulations 1950, a pension scheme for mineworkers was established. Improvements were also made in farmworkers' wages, and the Agricultural Wages Board in 1948 not only safeguarded wage levels, but also ensured that workers were provided with accommodation.A number of regulations aimed at safeguarding the health and safety of people at work were also introduced during Attlee's time in office. Regulations issued in February 1946 applied to factories involved with "manufacturing briquettes or blocks of fuel consisting of coal, coal dust, coke or slurry with pitch as a binding substance", and concerned "dust and ventilation, washing facilities and clothing accommodation, medical supervision and examination, skin and eye protection and messrooms". Nationalisation
<mask>'s government also carried out their manifesto commitment for nationalisation of basic industries and public utilities. The Bank of England and civil aviation were nationalised in 1946. Coal mining, the railways, road haulage, canals and Cable and Wireless were nationalised in 1947, and electricity and gas followed in 1948. The steel industry was nationalised in 1951. By 1951 about 20 per cent of the British economy had been taken into public ownership.Nationalisation failed to provide workers with a greater say in the running of the industries in which they worked. It did, however, bring about significant material gains for workers in the form of higher wages, reduced working hours, and improvements in working conditions, especially in regards to safety. As historian Eric Shaw noted of the years following nationalisation, the electricity and gas supply companies became "impressive models of public enterprise" in terms of efficiency, and the National Coal Board was not only profitable, but working conditions for miners had significantly improved as well. Within a few years of nationalisation, a number of progressive measures had been carried out which did much to improve conditions in the mines, including better pay, a five-day working week, a national safety scheme (with proper standards at all the collieries), a ban on boys under the age of 16 going underground, the introduction of training for newcomers before going down to the coalface, and the making of pithead baths into a standard facility. The newly established National Coal Board offered sick pay and holiday pay to miners. As noted by Martin Francis:
Union leaders saw nationalisation as a means to pursue a more advantageous position within a framework of continued conflict, rather than as an opportunity to replace the old adversarial form of industrial relations. Moreover, most workers in nationalised industries exhibited an essentially instrumentalist attitude, favouring public ownership because it secured job security and improved wages rather than because it promised the creation of a new set of socialist relationships in the workplace.Agriculture
The Attlee government placed strong emphasis on improving the quality of life in rural areas, benefiting both farmers and other consumers. Security of tenure for farmers was introduced, while consumers were protected by food subsidies and the redistributive effects of deficiency payments. Between 1945 and 1951, the quality of rural life was improved by improvements in gas, electricity, and water services, as well as in leisure and public amenities. In addition, the 1947 Transport Act improved provision of rural bus services, while the Agriculture Act 1947 established a more generous subsidy system for farmers. Legislation was also passed in 1947 and 1948 which established a permanent Agricultural Wages Board to fix minimum wages for agricultural workers. Attlee's government made it possible for farm workers to borrow up to 90 per cent of the cost of building their own houses, and received a subsidy of £15 a year for 40 years towards that cost. Grants were also made to meet up to half the cost of supplying water to farm buildings and fields, the government met half the cost of bracken eradication and lime spreading, and grants were paid for bringing hill farming land into use that had previously been considered unfit for farming purposes.In 1946, the National Agricultural Advisory Service was set up to supply agricultural advice and information. The Hill Farming Act 1946 introduced for upland areas a system of grants for buildings, land improvement, and infrastructural improvements such as roads and electrification. The act also continued a system of headage payments for hill sheep and cattle that had been introduced during the war. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1948 enabled (in effect) tenant farmers to have lifelong tenancies and made provision for compensation in the event of cessations of tenancies. In addition, the Livestock Rearing Act 1951 extended the provisions of the 1946 Hill Farming Act to the upland store cattle and sheep sector. At a time of world food shortages, it was vital that farmers produced the maximum possible quantities. The government encouraged farmers via subsidies for modernisation, while the

masks:
Clement Attle
Attlee
Attlee


type: original

texts:
 National Agricultural Advisory Service provided expertise and price guarantees.As a result of the Attlee government's initiatives in agriculture, there was a 20 per cent increase in output between 1947 and 1952, while Britain adopted one of the most mechanised and efficient farming industries in the world. Education
The Attlee government ensured provisions of the Education Act 1944 were fully implemented, with free secondary education becoming a right for the first time. Fees in state grammar schools were eliminated, while new, modern secondary schools were constructed. The school leaving age was raised to 15 in 1947, an accomplishment helped brought into fruition by initiatives such as the HORSA ("Huts Operation for Raising the School-leaving Age") scheme and the S.F.O.R.S.A. (furniture) scheme. University scholarships were introduced to ensure that no one who was qualified "should be deprived of a university education for financial reasons," while a large school building programme was organised. A rapid increase in the number of trained teachers took place, and the number of new school places was increased.Increased Treasury funds were made available for education, particularly for upgrading school buildings suffering from years of neglect and war damage. Prefabricated classrooms were built and 928 new primary schools were constructed between 1945 and 1950. The provision of free school meals was expanded, and opportunities for university entrants were increased. State scholarships to universities were increased, and the government adopted a policy of supplementing university scholarships awards to a level sufficient to cover fees plus maintenance. Many thousands of ex-servicemen were assisted to go through college who could never have contemplated it before the war. Free milk was also made available to all schoolchildren for the first time. In addition, spending on technical education rose, and the number of nursery schools was increased.Salaries for teachers were also improved, and funds were allocated towards improving existing schools. In 1947 the Arts Council of Great Britain was set up to encourage the arts. The Ministry of Education was established under the 1944 Act, and free County Colleges were set up for the compulsory part-time instruction of teenagers between the ages of 15 and 18 who were not in full-time education. An Emergency Training Scheme was also introduced which turned out an extra 25,000 teachers in 1945–1951. In 1947, Regional Advisory Councils were set up to bring together industry and education to find out the needs of young workers "and advise on the provision required, and to secure reasonable economy of provision". That same year, thirteen Area Training Organisations were set up in England and one in Wales to coordinate teacher training. Attlee's government, however, failed to introduce the comprehensive education for which many socialists had hoped.This reform was eventually carried out by Harold Wilson's government. During its time in office, the <mask> government increased spending on education by over 50 per cent, from £6.5 billion to £10 billion. Economy

The most significant problem facing Attlee and his ministers remained the economy, as the war effort had left Britain nearly bankrupt. The war had cost Britain about a quarter of her national wealth. Overseas investments had been used up to pay for the war. The transition to a peacetime economy, and the maintaining of strategic military commitments abroad led to continuous and severe problems with the balance of trade. This resulted in strict rationing of food and other essential goods continuing in the post war period to force a reduction in consumption in an effort to limit imports, boost exports, and stabilise the Pound Sterling so that Britain could trade its way out of its financial state.The abrupt end of the American Lend-Lease programme in August 1945 almost caused a crisis. Some relief was provided by the Anglo-American loan, negotiated in December 1945. The conditions attached to the loan included making the pound fully convertible to the US dollar. When this was introduced in July 1947, it led to a currency crisis and convertibility had to be suspended after just five weeks. The UK benefited from the American Marshall Aid program in 1948, and the economic situation improved significantly. Another balance of payments crisis in 1949 forced Chancellor of the Exchequer, Stafford Cripps, into devaluation of the pound. Despite these problems, one of the main achievements of Attlee's government was the maintenance of near full employment.The government maintained most of the wartime controls over the economy, including control over the allocation of materials and manpower, and unemployment rarely rose above 500,000, or 3 per cent of the total workforce. Labour shortages proved a more frequent problem. The inflation rate was also kept low during his term. The rate of unemployment rarely rose above 2 per cent during Attlee's time in office, whilst there was no hard-core of long-term unemployed. Both production and productivity rose as a result of new equipment, while the average working week was shortened. The government was less successful in housing, which was the responsibility of Aneurin Bevan. The government had a target to build 400,000 new houses a year to replace those which had been destroyed in the war, but shortages of materials and manpower meant that less than half this number were built.Nevertheless, millions of people were rehoused as a result of the <mask> government's housing policies. Between August 1945 and December 1951, 1,016,349 new homes were completed in England, Scotland, and Wales. When the <mask> government was voted out of office in 1951, the economy had been improved compared to 1945. The period from 1946 to 1951 saw continuous full employment and steadily rising living standards, which increased by about 10 per cent each year. During that same period, the economy grew by 3 per cent a year, and by 1951 the UK had "the best economic performance in Europe, while output per person was increasing faster than in the United States". Careful planning after 1945 also ensured that demobilisation was carried out without having a negative impact upon economic recovery, and that unemployment stayed at very low levels. In addition, the number of motor cars on the roads rose from 3 million to 5 million from 1945 to 1951, and seaside holidays were taken by far more people than ever before.A Monopolies and Restrictive Practices (Inquiry and Control) Act was passed in 1948, which allowed for investigations of restrictive practices and monopolies. Energy
1947 proved a particularly difficult year for the government; an exceptionally cold winter that year caused coal mines to freeze and cease production, creating widespread power cuts and food shortages. The Minister of Fuel and Power, Emanuel Shinwell was widely blamed for failing to ensure adequate coal stocks, and soon resigned from his post. The Conservatives capitalised on the crisis with the slogan 'Starve with Strachey and shiver with Shinwell' (referring to the Minister of Food John Strachey). The crisis led to an unsuccessful plot by Hugh Dalton to replace Attlee as Prime Minister with Ernest Bevin. Later that year Stafford Cripps tried to persuade Attlee to stand aside for Bevin. These plots petered out after Bevin refused to cooperate.Later that year, Hugh Dalton resigned as Chancellor after inadvertently leaking details of the budget to a journalist. He was replaced by Cripps. Foreign policy

Europe and the Cold War

In foreign affairs, the Attlee government was concerned with four main issues; post-war Europe, the onset of the Cold War, the establishment of the United Nations, and decolonisation. The first two were closely related, and Attlee was assisted by Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin. Attlee also attended the later stages of the Potsdam Conference, where he negotiated with President Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin. In the immediate aftermath of the war, the Government faced the challenge of managing relations with Britain's former war-time ally, Stalin and the Soviet Union. Ernest Bevin was a passionate anti-communist, based largely on his experience of fighting communist influence in the trade union movement.Bevin's initial approach to the USSR as Foreign Secretary was "wary and suspicious, but not automatically hostile". Attlee himself sought warm relations with Stalin. He put his trust in the United Nations, rejected notions that the Soviet Union was bent on world conquest, and warned that treating Moscow as an enemy would turn it into one. This put Attlee at sword's point with his foreign minister, the Foreign Office, and the military who all saw the Soviets as a growing threat to Britain's role in the Middle East. Suddenly in January 1947, Attlee reversed his position and agreed with Bevin on a hard-line anti-Soviet policy. In an early "good-will" gesture that was later heavily criticised, the Attlee government allowed the Soviets to purchase, under the terms of a 1946 UK-USSR Trade Agreement, a total of 25 Rolls-Royce Nene jet engines in September 1947 and March 1948. The agreement included an agreement not to use them for military purposes.The price was fixed under a commercial contract; a total of 55 jet engines were sold to the USSR in 1947. However, the Cold War intensified during this period and the Soviets, who at the time were well behind the West in jet technology, reverse-engineered the Nene and installed their own version in the MiG-15 interceptor. This was used to good effect against US-UK forces in the subsequent Korean War, as well as in several later MiG models. After Stalin took political control of most of Eastern Europe, and began to subvert other governments in the Balkans, Attlee's and Bevin's worst fears of Soviet intentions were realised. The <mask> government then became instrumental in the creation of the successful NATO defence alliance to protect Western Europe against any Soviet expansion. In a crucial contribution to the economic stability of post-war Europe, Attlee's Cabinet was instrumental in promoting the American Marshall Plan for the economic recovery of Europe. He called it, one of the "most bold, enlightened and good-natured acts in the history of nations".A group of Labour MPs, organised under the banner of "Keep Left" urged the government to steer a middle way between the two emerging superpowers, and advocated the creation of a "third force" of European powers to stand between the US and USSR. However, deteriorating relations between Britain and the USSR, as well as Britain's economic reliance on America following the Marshall Plan, steered policy towards supporting the US. In January 1947, fear of both Soviet and American nuclear intentions led to a secret meeting of the Cabinet, where the decision was made to press ahead with the development of Britain's independent nuclear deterrent, an issue which later caused a split in the Labour Party. Britain's first successful nuclear test, however, did not occur until 1952, one year after Attlee had left office. The London dock strike of July 1949, led by Communists, was suppressed when the Attlee government sent in 13,000 Army troops and passed special legislation to promptly end the strike. His response reveals Attlee's growing concern that Soviet expansionism, supported by the British Communist Party, was a genuine threat to national security, and that the docks were highly vulnerable to sabotage ordered by Moscow. He noted that the strike was caused not by local grievances, but to help communist unions who were on strike in Canada.Attlee agreed with MI5 that he faced "a very present menace". Decolonisation
Decolonisation was never a major election issue but Attlee gave the matter a great deal of attention and was the chief leader in beginning the process of decolonisation of the British Empire. China and Hong Kong
In August 1948, the Chinese Communists' victories caused Attlee to begin preparing for a Communist takeover of China. It kept open consulates in Communist-controlled areas and rejected the Chinese Nationalists' requests that British citizens assist in the defence of Shanghai. By December, the government concluded that although British property in China would likely be nationalised, British traders would benefit in the long run from a stable, industrialising Communist China. Retaining Hong Kong was especially important to him; although the Chinese Communists promised to not interfere with its rule, Britain reinforced the Hong Kong Garrison during 1949. When the victorious Chinese Communists government declared on 1 October 1949 that it would exchange diplomats with any country that ended relations with the Chinese Nationalists, Britain became the first western country to formally recognise the People's Republic of China in January 1950.In 1954, a Labour Party delegation including Attlee visited China at the invitation of then Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai. Attlee became the first high-ranking western politician to meet Mao Zedong. India and Pakistan
Attlee orchestrated the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947. Attlee in 1928–1934 had been a member of the Indian Statutory Commission (otherwise known as the Simon Commission). He became the Labour Party expert on India and by 1934 was committed to granting India the same independent dominion status that Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa had recently been given. He faced strong resistance from the die-hard Conservative imperialists, led by Churchill, who opposed both independence and efforts led by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to set up a system of limited local control by Indians themselves. Attlee and the Labour leadership were sympathetic to the Congress movement led by Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and Pakistan movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.During the Second World War, <mask> was in charge of Indian affairs. He set up the Cripps Mission in 1942, which tried and failed to bring the factions together. When the Congress called for passive resistance in the "Quit India" movement of 1942–1945, it was Attlee who ordered the arrest and internment for the duration of tens of thousands of Congress leaders and crushed the revolt. Labour's election Manifesto in 1945 called for "the advancement of India to responsible self-government", but did not mention independence. In 1942 the British Raj tried to enlist all major political parties in support of the war effort. Congress, led by Nehru and Gandhi, demanded immediate independence and full control by Congress of all of India. That demand was rejected by the British, and Congress opposed the war effort with its "Quit India campaign".The Raj immediately responded in 1942 by imprisoning the major national, regional and local Congress leaders for the duration. Attlee did not object. By contrast, the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and also the Sikh community, strongly supported the war effort. They greatly enlarged their membership and won favour from London for their decision. Attlee retained a fondness for Congress and until 1946, accepted their thesis that they were a non-religious party that accepted Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and everyone else. The Muslim league insisted that it was the only true representative of all of the Muslims of India, and by 1946 Attlee had come to agree with them. With violence escalating in India after the war, but with British financial power at a low ebb, large-scale military involvement was impossible.Viceroy Wavell said he needed a further seven army divisions to prevent communal violence if independence negotiations failed. No divisions were available; independence was the only option. Given the demands of the Muslim league, independence implied a partition that set off heavily Muslim Pakistan from the main portion of India. After becoming Prime Minister in 1945 Attlee originally planned to give India Dominion status in 1948, but in the event the Labour government gave full independence to India and Pakistan in 1947. Historian Andrew Roberts says the independence of India was a "national humiliation" but it was necessitated by urgent financial, administrative, strategic and political needs. Churchill in 1940–1945 had tightened the hold on India and imprisoned the Congress leadership, with Attlee's approval. Labour had looked forward to making it a fully independent dominion like Canada or Australia.Many of the Congress leaders in the India had studied in England, and were highly regarded as fellow idealistic socialists by Labour leaders. <mask> was the Labour expert on India and took special charge of decolonisation. Attlee found that Churchill's viceroy, Field Marshal Wavell, was too imperialistic, too keen on military solutions, and too neglectful of Indian political alignments. The new Viceroy was Lord Mountbatten, the dashing war hero and a cousin of the King. The boundary between the newly created states of Pakistan and India involved the widespread resettlement of millions of Muslims and Hindus (and many Sikhs). Extreme violence ensued when Punjab and Bengal provinces were split. Historian Yasmin Khan estimates that between a half-million and a million men, women and children were killed.Gandhi himself was assassinated by a Hindu activist in January 1948. Attlee also sponsored the peaceful transition to independence in 1948 of Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Palestine

One of the most urgent problems facing Attlee concerned the future of the British mandate in Palestine, which had become too troublesome and expensive to handle. British policies in Palestine were perceived by the Zionist movement and the Truman administration to be pro-Arab and anti-Jewish, and Britain soon found itself unable to maintain public order in the face of a Jewish insurgency and a civil war. In response to the increasingly unpopular mandate, Attlee ordered the evacuation of all British

masks: Attlee Attlee Attlee Attlee Attlee Attlee


texts:
 military personnel and handed over the issue to the United Nations, a decision which was widely supported by the general public in Britain. African colonies
The government's policies with regard to the other colonies, particularly those in Africa, focused on keeping them as strategic Cold War assets while modernising their economies. The Labour Party had long attracted aspiring leaders from Africa and had developed elaborate plans before the war.Implementing them overnight with an empty treasury proved too challenging. A major military base was built in Kenya, and the African colonies came under an unprecedented degree of direct control from London. Development schemes were implemented to help solve Britain's post-war balance of payments crisis and raise African living standards. This "new colonialism" worked slowly and had failures such as the Tanganyika groundnut scheme. 1950 election

The 1950 election gave Labour a massively reduced majority of five seats compared to the triple-digit majority of 1945. Although re-elected, the result was seen by Attlee as very disappointing, and was widely attributed to the effects of post-war austerity denting Labour's appeal to middle-class voters. With such a small majority leaving him dependent on a small number of MPs to govern, Attlee's second term was much tamer than his first.Some major reforms were nevertheless passed, particularly regarding industry in urban areas and regulations to limit air and water pollution. 1951 election
By 1951, the <mask> government was exhausted, with several of its most senior ministers ailing or ageing, and with a lack of new ideas. Attlee's record for settling internal differences in the Labour Party fell in April 1951, when there was a damaging split over an austerity Budget brought in by the Chancellor, Hugh Gaitskell, to pay for the cost of Britain's participation in the Korean War. Aneurin Bevan resigned to protest against the new charges for "teeth and spectacles" in the National Health Service introduced by that Budget, and was joined in this action by several senior ministers, including the future Prime Minister Harold Wilson, then the President of the Board of Trade. Thus escalated a battle between the left and right wings of the Party that continues today. Finding it increasingly impossible to govern, Attlee's only chance was to call a snap election in October 1951, in the hope of achieving a more workable majority and to regain authority. The gamble failed: Labour narrowly lost to the Conservative Party, despite winning considerably more votes (achieving the largest Labour vote in electoral history).Attlee tendered his resignation as Prime Minister the following day, after six years and three months in office. Return to opposition
Following the defeat in 1951, Attlee continued to lead the party as Leader of the Opposition. His last four years as leader were, however, widely seen as one of the Labour Party's weaker periods. The period was dominated by infighting between the Labour Party's right wing, led by Hugh Gaitskell, and its left, led by Aneurin Bevan. Many Labour MPs felt that Attlee should have retired after the 1951 election and allowed a younger man to lead the party. Bevan openly called for him to stand down in the summer of 1954. One of his main reasons for staying on as leader was to frustrate the leadership ambitions of Herbert Morrison, whom Attlee disliked for both political and personal reasons.At one time, Attlee had favoured Aneurin Bevan to succeed him as leader, but this became problematic after Bevan almost irrevocably split the party. In an interview with the News Chronicle columnist Percy Cudlipp in mid-September 1955, Attlee made clear his own thinking together with his preference for the leadership succession, stating:

Attlee, now aged 72, contested the 1955 general election against Anthony Eden, which saw Labour lose 18 seats, and the Conservatives increase their majority. He retired as Leader of the Labour Party on 7 December 1955, having led the party for twenty years, and on 14 December Hugh Gaitskell was elected as his replacement. Retirement
He subsequently retired from the House of Commons and was elevated to the peerage as <mask> and Viscount Prestwood on 16 December 1955, taking his seat in the House of Lords on 25 January. He believed Eden had been forced into taking a strong stand on the Suez Crisis by his backbenchers. In 1958, he was, along with numerous notables, to establish the Homosexual Law Reform Society. The society campaigned for the decriminalisation of homosexual acts in private by consenting adults, a reform which was voted through Parliament nine years later.In May 1961, he travelled to Washington, D.C. to meet with President Kennedy. In 1962, he spoke twice in the House of Lords against the British government's application for the UK to join the European Economic Community ("Common Market"). In his second speech delivered in November, Attlee claimed that Britain had a separate parliamentary tradition from the Continental European countries that composed the EEC. He also claimed that if Britain was a member, EEC rules would prevent the British government from planning the economy and that Britain's traditional policy had been outward looking rather than Continental. He attended Winston Churchill's funeral in January 1965. He was elderly and frail by that time, and had to remain seated in the freezing cold as the coffin was carried, having tired himself out by standing at the rehearsal the previous day. He lived to see the Labour Party return to power under Harold Wilson in 1964, but also to see his old constituency of Walthamstow West fall to the Conservatives in a by-election in September 1967.Death
Attlee died peacefully in his sleep of pneumonia, at the age of 84 at Westminster Hospital on 8 October 1967. Two thousand people attended his funeral in November, including the then-Prime Minister Harold Wilson and the Duke of Kent, representing the Queen. He was cremated and his ashes were buried at Westminster Abbey. Upon his death, the title passed to his son Martin Richard <mask>, 2nd Earl <mask> (1927–1991). It is now held by <mask>'s grandson John Richard <mask>, 3rd Earl Attlee. The third earl (a member of the Conservative Party) retained his seat in the Lords as one of the hereditary peers to remain under an amendment to Labour's House of Lords Act 1999. Attlee's estate was sworn for probate purposes at a value of £7,295, (equivalent to £ in ) a relatively modest sum for so prominent a figure, and only a fraction of the £75,394 in his father's estate when he died in 1908.Legacy

The quotation about Attlee, "A modest man, but then he has so much to be modest about", is commonly ascribed to Churchill—though Churchill denied saying it, and respected Attlee's service in the War cabinet. Attlee's modesty and quiet manner hid a great deal that has only come to light with historical reappraisal. Attlee himself is said to have responded to critics with a limerick: "There were few who thought him a starter, Many who thought themselves smarter. But he ended PM, CH and OM, an Earl and a Knight of the Garter". The journalist and broadcaster Anthony Howard called him "the greatest Prime Minister of the 20th century". His leadership style of consensual government, acting as a chairman rather than a president, won him much praise from historians and politicians alike. Christopher Soames, the British Ambassador to France during the Conservative government of Edward Heath and cabinet minister under Margaret Thatcher, remarked that "Mrs Thatcher was not really running a team.Every time you have a Prime Minister who wants to make all the decisions, it mainly leads to bad results. Attlee didn't. That's why he was so damn good". Thatcher herself wrote in her 1995 memoirs, which charted her beginnings in Grantham to her victory at the 1979 general election, that she admired Attlee, writing: "Of <mask>e, however, I was an admirer. He was a serious man and a patriot. Quite contrary to the general tendency of politicians in the 1990s, he was all substance and no show". Attlee's government presided over the successful transition from a wartime economy to peacetime, tackling problems of demobilisation, shortages of foreign currency, and adverse deficits in trade balances and government expenditure.Further domestic policies that he brought about included the creation of the National Health Service and the post-war Welfare State, which became key to the reconstruction of post-war Britain. Attlee and his ministers did much to transform the UK into a more prosperous and egalitarian society during their time in office with reductions in poverty and a rise in the general economic security of the population. In foreign affairs, he did much to assist with the post-war economic recovery of Europe. He proved a loyal ally of the US at the onset of the Cold War. Due to his style of leadership, it was not he, but Ernest Bevin who masterminded foreign policy. It was Attlee's government that decided Britain should have an independent nuclear weapons programme, and work on it began in 1947. Bevin, Attlee's Foreign Secretary, famously stated that "We've got to have it [nuclear weapons] and it's got to have a bloody Union Jack on it".The first operational British nuclear bomb was not detonated until October 1952, about one year after Attlee had left office. Independent British atomic research was prompted partly by the US McMahon Act, which nullified wartime expectations of postwar US–UK collaboration in nuclear research, and prohibited Americans from communicating nuclear technology even to allied countries. British atomic bomb research was kept secret even from some members of Attlee's own cabinet, whose loyalty or discretion seemed uncertain. Although a socialist, Attlee still believed in the British Empire of his youth. He thought of it as an institution that was a power for good in the world. Nevertheless, he saw that a large part of it needed to be self-governing. Using the Dominions of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand as a model, he continued the transformation of the empire into the modern-day British Commonwealth.His greatest achievement, surpassing many of these, was perhaps the establishment of a political and economic consensus about the governance of Britain that all three major parties subscribed to for three decades, fixing the arena of political discourse until the late-1970s. In 2004, he was voted the most successful British Prime Minister of the 20th century by a poll of 139 academics organised by Ipsos MORI. A blue plaque unveiled in 1979 commemorates Attlee at 17 Monkhams Avenue, in Woodford Green in the London borough of Redbridge. Attlee was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1947. Attlee was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of Queen Mary College on 15 December 1948. Statues of <mask>e

On 30 November 1988, a bronze statue of <mask>e was unveiled by Harold Wilson (the next Labour Prime Minister after Attlee) outside Limehouse Library in Attlee's former constituency. By then Wilson was the last surviving member of Attlee's cabinet, and the unveiling of the statue would be one of the last public appearances by Wilson, who was by that point in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease; he died at the age of 79 in May 1995.Limehouse Library was closed in 2003, after which the statue was vandalised. The council surrounded it with protective hoarding for four years, before eventually removing it for repair and recasting in 2009. The restored statue was unveiled by Peter Mandelson in April 2011, in its new position less than a mile away at the Queen Mary University of London's Mile End campus. There is also a statue of <mask>e in the Houses of Parliament that was erected, instead of a bust, by parliamentary vote in 1979. The sculptor was Ivor Roberts-Jones. Honours

Arms

Religious views
Although one of his brothers became a clergyman and one of his sisters a missionary, Attlee himself is usually regarded as an agnostic. In an interview he described himself as "incapable of religious feeling", saying that he believed in "the ethics of Christianity" but not "the mumbo-jumbo".When asked whether he was an agnostic, Attlee replied "I don't know". Francis Williams' A Prime Minister Remembers, based on interviews with Attlee, was published in 1961. Attlee's other publications

 The Social Worker (1920)
 Metropolitan Borough Councils Their Constitution, Powers and Duties – Fabian Tract No 190 (1920)
 The Town Councillor (1925)
 The Will and the Way to Socialism (1935)
 The Labour Party in Perspective (1937)
 Collective Security Under the United Nations (1958)
 Empire into Commonwealth (1961)

Further reading

Biographical

 Beckett, Francis. Clem <mask> (1998) – updated and revised and expanded edition, Clem <mask>: Labour's Great Reformer (2015)
 Bew, John. Citizen Clem: A Biography of Attlee, (London: 2016, British edition); <mask>: The Man Who Made Modern Britain (New York: Oxford U.P. 2017, U.S. edition). Burridge, Trevor.<mask>: A Political Biography, (1985), scholarly
 Cohen, David. Churchill & Attlee: The Unlikely Allies who Won the War (Biteback Publishing, 2018), popular. Crowcroft, Robert. Attlee's War: World War II and the Making of a Labour Leader (IB Tauris, 2011). Harris, Kenneth. Attlee (1982), scholarly authorised biography. Howell, David.Attlee (2006)
 Jago, Michael. <mask>: The Inevitable Prime Minister (2014)
 Pearce, Robert. <mask> (1997), 206pp
 Thomas-Symonds, Nicklaus. Attlee: A Life in Politics (IB Tauris, 2010). Whiting, R. C. "<mask>, <mask>, first <mask> (1883–1967)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 accessed 12 June 2013 doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/30498

Biographies of his cabinet and associates

 Rosen, Greg. ed. Dictionary of Labour Biography.(Politicos Publishing, 2002);
 Morgan, Kenneth O. Labour people: leaders and lieutenants, Hardie to Kinnock (1987). Scholarly studies

 Addison, Paul. No Turning Back: The Peaceful Revolutions of Post-War Britain (2011) excerpt and text search
 , detailed coverage of nationalisation, welfare state and planning. Crowcroft, Robert, and Kevin Theakston. "The Fall of the Attlee Government, 1951." in Timothy Heppell and Kevin Theakston, eds. How Labour Governments Fall (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013).PP 61–82. Francis, Martin. Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: building a new Britain (Manchester University Press, 1997). Golant, W. "The Emergence of <mask> as Leader of the Parliamentary Labour Party in 1935." Historical Journal 13#2 (1970): 318–332. in JSTOR

 Jackson, Ben. "Citizen and Subject: <mask>’s Socialism."History Workshop Journal (2018). Vol. 86 pp 291–298. online. Jeffreys, Kevin. "The Attlee Years, 1935–1955." The Labour Party.Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2000. 68–86. Kynaston, David. Austerity Britain, 1945–1951 (2008). Mioni, Michele. "The Attlee government and welfare state reforms in post-war Italian Socialism (1945–51): Between universalism and class policies." Labor History 57#2 (2016): 277–297.DOI:10.1080/0023656X.2015.1116811
 Morgan, Kenneth O. Labour in Power 1945–1951 (1984), 564 pp. Ovendale, R. ed., The foreign policy of the British Labour governments, 1945–51 (1984) ·
 Pugh, Martin. Speak for Britain! : A New History of the Labour Party (2011) excerpt and text search

 Swift, John. Labour in Crisis: <mask>tlee & the Labour Party in Opposition, 1931–1940 (2001)
 Tomlinson, Jim. Democratic Socialism and Economic Policy: The Attlee Years, 1945–1951 (2002) Excerpt and text search
 Weiler, Peter."British Labour and the cold war: the foreign policy of the Labour governments, 1945–1951." Journal of British Studies 26#1 (1987): 54–82. in JSTOR

External links

<mask> – Thanksgiving Speech 1950 – UK Parliament Living Heritage
 More about <mask>e on the Downing Street website. Annotated bibliography for <mask>e from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

Drawing of <mask>e in the UK Parliamentary Collections

1883 births
1967 deaths
20th-century English politicians
20th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Academics of Ruskin College
Academics of the London School of Economics
Alumni of University College, Oxford
Alumni of the Inns of Court School of Law
Association footballers not categorized by position
British Army personnel of World War I
British Empire in World War II
British Secretaries of State for Dominion Affairs
British Secretaries of State
British socialists
British Zionists
British people of World War II
British social democrats
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
Deaths from pneumonia in England
Deputy Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom
Clement
English agnostics
English footballers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fleet Town F.C. players
Foreign Office personnel of World War II
Knights of the Garter
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Party (UK) hereditary peers
Labour Party prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Leaders of the Labour Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Lord Presidents of the Council
Lords Privy Seal
Mayors of places in Greater London
Members of Stepney Metropolitan Borough Council
Members of the Fabian Society
Members of the Order of Merit
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Ministers in the Attlee governments, 1945–1951
Ministers in the Churchill wartime government, 1940–1945
National Council for Civil Liberties people
People educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College
People from Putney
People of the Cold War
South Lancashire Regiment officers
UK MPs 1922–1923
UK MPs 1923–1924
UK MPs 1924–1929
UK MPs 1929–1931
UK MPs 1931–1935
UK MPs 1935–1945
UK MPs 1945–1950
UK MPs 1950–1951
UK MPs 1951–1955
UK MPs 1955–1959
UK MPs who were granted peerages
United Kingdom Postmasters General
United Kingdom home front during World War II
World War II political leaders
Peers created by Elizabeth II
Members of the Inner

masks:
Attlee
Earl Attlee
Attlee
Attlee
Clement Attlee
Attlee
Clement Attle
Clement Attle
Clement Attle
Clement Attle
Attlee
Attlee
Clement Attlee
Clement Attlee
Clement Attlee
Attlee
Attlee
Clement Richard
Earl Attlee
CR Attlee
Clement Attlee
Clement At
Clement Attlee
Clement Attle
Clement Attle
Clement Attle


texts:
<mask> OBE (née Phipps; 10 February 1910 – 30 November 1979) was an English diseuse, singer, actress and writer. She was known for the songs and monologues she wrote and performed, at first in revues and later in her solo shows. She never appeared as a stage actress, but had roles, mostly comic, in many films, including Miss Gossage in The Happiest Days of Your Life (1950) and Police Sergeant Ruby Gates in the St Trinian's series (from 1954). She was a well-known broadcaster on radio and television. As a writer, she was the first radio critic for The Observer, contributed to Punch and published a volume of memoirs. Born to an affluent Anglo-American family, <mask> had abandoned early hopes of becoming an actress when she was invited to perform a comic monologue in a West End revue in 1939. Its success led to a career as an entertainer, giving her creations in theatres in five continents between 1940 and 1969.Life and career

Early years
Born in Montpelier Square, Knightsbridge, London, Grenfell was the daughter of an American socialite, Nora Langhorne (1889–1955), one of five daughters of Chiswell Langhorne, an American railway millionaire, and of the architect Paul Phipps (1880–1953), the grandson of Charles Paul Phipps and a second cousin of the diseuse Ruth Draper, in whose professional footsteps she followed. The Phipps family were wealthy clothiers, whose success allowed them to join the gentry of their native Wiltshire. Nancy Astor was one of her maternal aunts; Grenfell often visited her at the Astors’ home of Cliveden and lived in a cottage on the estate, a mile from the main house, in the early years of her marriage. <mask> had an upper middle-class London childhood. Among her friends was Virginia Graham, with whom she kept up a lifelong correspondence, and who wrote Grenfell's biography in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Grenfell attended the Francis Holland School in central London, and the Claremont Fan Court School, in Esher, Surrey. She then went to a finishing school in Paris at the age of 17, After this she enrolled at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London, but found the hard work of learning the craft of acting less glamorous than she had imagined and left after a single term.She supposed at the time that this "was the finish of my dreams of becoming an actress". In May 1928 she was presented as a débutante at Buckingham Palace. In 1927 she had met Reginald Pascoe <mask> (1903–1993), a mining executive and later a lieutenant colonel in the King's Royal Rifle Corps. They were married two years later at St Margaret's, Westminster and remained together until her death nearly 50 years later. They were a devoted couple: <mask> looked after his wife's financial and business affairs, and his encouragement gave her strong support. After she became a celebrity she unobtrusively made sure that he was never seen as a mere adjunct to her. They were unable to have children of their own.First professional years
In the late 1930s <mask> contributed verses to Punch and helped to entertain her aunt's guests at Cliveden. After one lunch, J. L. Garvin, the editor of The Observer, engaged her as the paper's first radio critic. At an informal supper given by the BBC producer Stephen Potter in January 1939, she agreed to his request to entertain her fellow guests with a monologue of her own devising. This was "Useful and Acceptable Gifts", in which she played a gauche lecturer at a meeting of the Women's Institute. The impresario Herbert Farjeon was among the guests and he invited her to perform the piece in his forthcoming revue at the Little Theatre, London. She was an immediate success, winning glowing notices. The Stage judged her "outstanding... this clever diseuse successfully catches the naif manner of an amateur speaker lecturing on 'useful and acceptable gifts', and gives us a neat and satirical impersonation of an American mother listening to her small daughter reciting Shelley's 'Ode to a Skylark'".The Tatler found her two monologues "quite the best items in the programme". The Sketch devoted a full page to photographs of her in her different characters. The Bystander thought that Grenfell challenged the celebrated Ruth Draper "on her own pitch... carry[ing] off the acting honours of this gay and intelligent entertainment." During the Second World War Grenfell wrote for and appeared in three more West End revues: Diversion and Diversion No. 2 at Wyndham's Theatre in 1940 and 1941, and Light and Shade at the Ambassadors in 1942. In early 1942 she met the composer Richard Addinsell. Together they wrote many successful songs including "I'm Going to See You Today" and "Turn Back the Clock", which, in the words of the biographer Janie Hampton, "aptly caught the public mood".In 1941 Grenfell appeared in her first film role, as the American mother in Carol Reed's short documentary A Letter from Home. She made three more films during the war. For BBC radio, together with Potter, she wrote and starred in an occasional radio series called How to …, which ran intermittently from 1943 until 1962 offering humorous advice on how (and how not) to do things. In 1943 she made her only attempt at acting in a stage play: she resigned from the cast of a West End production of the American comedy Junior Miss after the first three days of rehearsal, finding that onstage she could only perform looking straight at an audience, and could not "act sideways", although she found some film acting roles "fun to do". In the later years of the war Grenfell toured in the UK for ENSA, sometimes with Addinsell accompanying her at the piano. In late 1943 the head of ENSA, Basil Dean, invited the two to tour troop camps and hospitals in North Africa, the Middle East and elsewhere. Addinsell's health was too fragile to permit him to accept, and Grenfell recruited Viola Tunnard, later better known as a close colleague of Benjamin Britten.In 1944 and 1945 they performed in Algeria, Malta, Sicily, Italy, Iran, Iraq, India, and Egypt. Post-war
Back in London <mask> wrote the song "Du Maurier" (music by Addinsell) and the monologue "Travelling Broadens the Mind", both of which she performed in Noël Coward's first post-war revue, Sigh No More (1945). Coward had been a family friend since Grenfell was a girl. At first he had viewed her transition from amateur to professional with some doubt, Within a few years he had come to recognise her professionalism, her skill as a performer ("good in all she does on the stage") and the quality of her monologues, even if "she shouldn't write lyrics." In addition to her own two numbers, she sang Coward's comic catalogue of domestic disasters "That is the End of the News", "disguised as a schoolgirl with pigtails, all my make-up off, a shiny face and a terrible grin." After the 1947 revue Tuppence Coloured, Grenfell developed new sketches including the first of her six Nursery School monologues, with the harassed teacher's recurring cry to one of her unseen charges, "George – don't do that...." In the 1951 revue Penny Plain she performed her "Joyful Noise" (music by Donald Swann), a parody of an amateur choir ("And some of us cannot sing much, And some can't sing at all, But how we love our outings to the Royal Albert Hall"). After this, Grenfell and Tunnard made another tour entertaining British troops in North Africa.<mask> Requests the Pleasure (1954) was her first more or less solo West End show (there were three dancers providing interludes between Grenfell's numbers). The Stage commented that any doubts that Grenfell could sustain a solo evening were quickly dispelled:

After two provincial tours and a year in London she took the show to Broadway, where it had a sell-out eight-week run. For this show there was a pit band of eight players directed by William Blezard. In later shows Grenfell simplified the format further, dispensing with dancers and band, and being accompanied only by Blezard at the piano. During the 1950s and 1960s Grenfell appeared in films in roles including Miss Gossage in The Happiest Days of Your Life (1950), Police Sergeant Ruby Gates in  the St Trinian's series, Mrs Barham in The Americanization of Emily and Hortense Astor in The Yellow Rolls Royce. Away from the theatre, Grenfell served as a member of the influential Pilkington Committee on Broadcasting from 1960 to 1962, and was president of the Society of Women Broadcasters and Writers. The rest of <mask>'s stage career was in a series of solo shows in London and on tour.Between 1957 and 1970 she gave her show <mask> in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, Switzerland and the United States, as well as around Britain and in the West End. Her last live performance was at Windsor Castle for the Queen's Waterloo Dinner in 1973. Last years and legacy
Soon after the Windsor Castle show <mask> was taken ill with an eye condition, which was subsequently diagnosed as cancer. As a convinced Christian Scientist (like her aunt Nancy), she was averse to doctors and hospitals. Her husband did not share her beliefs and prevailed on her to undergo treatment. The eye had to be removed and replaced with a glass one. After this <mask> did not return to the stage, but gave talks for charitable organisations and appeared frequently on the BBC television programme Face the Music.In October 1979 she became seriously ill and died a month later, on 30 November 1979, just before her golden wedding anniversary. She was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 4 December and her ashes scattered there. On 7 February 1980 a memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey. <mask> was created an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1946 for her war work. It was confirmed after her death that she would have been made a Dame Commander (DBE) in the 1980 New Year Honours List. In 1998, the Royal Mail memorialised <mask> with her image on a postage stamp as part of a series of stamps celebrating five comedians, drawn by Gerald Scarfe. <mask>'s widower, <mask>, died in Chelsea, London, in 1993, aged 89.In 2002 her friend Janie Hampton published a biography, <mask>. Maureen Lipman has often toured with the one-woman show Re: Joyce!, which she co-wrote with James Roose-Evans. In it she recreates some of Grenfell's best-known sketches. Lipman also presented the radio programme Choice Grenfell, compiled from Grenfell's writings. Roose-Evans also edited Darling Ma, a 1997 collection of Grenfell's letters to her mother.

masks:
Joyce Irene Grenfell
Grenfell
Joyce Phipps
Grenfell
Reggie Grenfell
Grenfell
Grenfell
Joyce Grenfell
Grenfell
Joyce Grenfell
Grenfell
Grenfell
Grenfell
Grenfell
Grenfell
Reggie Grenfell
Joyce Grenfell


texts:
<mask> (born August 3, 1934) is an American folk musician, collector of folk songs, and educator. He co-founded the Old Town School of Folk Music in Chicago, Illinois. As a performer, he has recorded for several labels, including Folkways Records. He was a member of the folk group The Weavers in the early 1960s, and appeared at the first Newport Folk Festival in 1959. He was the house musician – playing guitar and other folk instruments – for Chicago's Gate of Horn, the nation's first folk music nightclub. After many years of teaching, playing, and singing in California he married a third time, and with his wife relocated to Atlanta, where he performs on banjo, guitar (many styles, including jazz), ukulele, voice, and other instruments and co-founded the Frank Hamilton School in 2015. Early days
<mask> was an only child.His father, <mask> <mask>, died before his son's birth; he had been a California socialist philosopher, genius street-corner orator, and mentor to Jack London. His mother, Judith Bley Strawn <mask>, then married Phil Street, who had been a good friend of <mask>'s father; he encouraged his stepson's songwriting. That marriage ended when <mask> was 12, and he never saw Street again. Classical music was what <mask>, aka Strawn-<mask>, first heard: he listened as his mother taught classical piano in their Los Angeles home. His mother – who changed her name from Gladys Antoinette to Judith after seeing the actress Judith Anderson perform – supplemented her income as a dance accompanist. As a teenager <mask> developed an interest in the labor movement, playing jazz trombone with Local 47 at Club 47, and also with the Los Angeles City College jazz band. He was especially influenced by Louis Armstrong and Charlie Parker, and learning guitar, studying jazz guitar with Sam Surace.He began learning and collecting folk songs, with a special interest in the music of the American South; he spent much of the late 1940s and early 1950s traveling there, performing in bars and on street corners. He returned to Los Angeles in 1953, and with Jack Elliott and Guy Carawan formed The Dusty Road Boys, who toured the Midwest. At Will Geer's artist colony in Topanga, California. he played with Woody Guthrie; he also met Bess Lomax Hawes there, absorbing her teaching methods. Chicago Old Town School of Folk Music
In 1956, at the Gate of Horn folksong nightclub in Oak Park, Illinois, <mask> met Win Stracke, who took an interest in his teaching career. In Dawn Greening's dining room in Oak Park, <mask> began teaching a group of 15 instrumentalists. In 1957 <mask>, Stracke and Greening recruited teachers and an organizer, rented a space, and founded the Old Town School of Folk Music.<mask> taught guitar and banjo and served as unofficial dean. Several hundred prospective students, performers, and educators attended the first session, and famous singers and folklorists – without compensation – began performing during the Second Half. Among them were Pete Seeger, Odetta, Studs Terkel, Doc Watson, Mahalia Jackson, Bill Monroe, the Weavers, and Jean Ritchie. Second Half, which follows the class lessons, is essential to the Old Town School method: both teachers and students sing and play together at their own level, and especially talented men and women are invited to perform. The School continues to promote the spontaneity, playful joyousness, improvisation, personal relationships, and progressive ideals which are hallmarks of <mask>'s teaching. Atlanta years
After decades of living in California, in 1985 <mask> married Mary Susan Doyle Smith; she became a supportive stepmother to his son Evan from an earlier marriage. Mary worked for Delta Airlines, and <mask> relocated with her to Atlanta.She accompanied him on guitar, banjo, ukulele, and autoharp, and she also taught guitar. The occasion for the founding of the Frank Hamilton Folk School was Mary's sudden death in 2014. Bob Bakert, a friend of <mask>'s, volunteered to serve as Master of Ceremonies for the memorial concert for her, at Steve's Live Music in Sandy Springs. Concerned for <mask>'s well-being, and having heard of his interest in starting a second folk music school in Atlanta, Bakert suggested helping him achieve that goal; <mask> responded positively. Together, they co-founded the Frank Hamilton School in the fall of 2015 in Atlanta, but the school soon outgrew its first location; this had also occurred in Chicago. Shelley Satonin-Hershkovits was the Executive Director of the School at Oakhurst Baptist Church in Decatur until 2021. Under the current leadership of <mask> and Maura Hill Nicholson the school now meets in eight-week sessions at the Gillespie Building at Decatur Legacy Park.Nicholson teaches fiddle and various other classes, and <mask> rotates teaching several classes including advanced guitar, ukulele, swing, and music theory. Discography

VOCAL
 "Folk Festival at Newport" Vol 3, Vanguard Records VRS 9063 and VDS 2054 stereo
 "A Folksinger's Folksinger" Concertdisc Records M-1054
 "<mask> Sings Folk Songs" Folkways Records FA-2437
 "Long Lonesome Home," 1999
 "Music From the Newport Folk Festival" Folkways Records FA-2431
 "Nonesuch and Other Folksongs" (with Pete Seeger) Folkways Records FA-2439
 "The Twelve String Story" Horizon Records (subsidiary A and M Records)
 "The Weavers Reunion at Carnegie Hall" 1963, Vanguards Records VRS-9139, VSD-2150 stereo
 "The World of Frank and Valuch" Phillips Records PHS-600-058

masks:
Frank Hamilton
Hamilton
Frank Strawn
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Frank
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Hamilton
Frank
Frank
Hamilton
Hamilton
Frank
Frank Hamilton


texts:
ACCOMPANIST and STUDIO MUSICIAN
 "The Art of the Five-String Banjo" Riverside Records 12-815 (OP) Reissued –
 "Folk Festival at Newport" VRS 9062 Vol. 1, accompanying Martha Schlamme;                                                         "
 "Folk Festival at Newport" Vol. 3, accompanying Barard Dane
 "Folk Festival at Newport" VRS 9063 and VSD 2054, accompanying Lynn Gold
 "Golden Guitars" Rod McKuen, Stereo Sound Records SA-2
 "Hearty and Hellish" Tradition Records, accompanying Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem
 "Martha Schlamme at the Gate of Horn" Vanguard Records
 "Railroad Bill and Other Folk Songs" Elecktra Records, accompanying Walter Raim, producer
 "Won’t You Be My Friend" Activity Records, Educational Activities Inc., AR-544 accompanying Marcia Berman and Patty Zeitlin
Nonesuch and Other Folk Tunes for Harmonica, Flute, Recorder, Mandolin, Guitar, Banjo, 12-String Guitar, and Voices, Frank Hamilton and Pete Seeger, Folkways Records, 1959. Frank Hamilton Sings Folk Songs, Folkways Records 1962. FW02437. The Folk Singer's Folk Singer, Sound in the Room Records
The World of Frank & Valucha, Frank Hamilton and Valucha deCastro, Philips Records, 1962

Filmography
"Silent Running" for Peter Schikele
"Wild Rovers" for Jerry Goldsmith
"Homecoming" (TV special) for Jerry Goldsmith
"Subterraneans" (MGM) for Andre Previn
"America" (TV special) for Gerry Fried
"Glidden Tour" (documentary) for Win Stracke
"A Time Out of War" 1952, Academy Award Winner for short subject for Dennis and Terry Sanders
"Sunshine" (TV special) for Bob Bain and John Denver
"The Surfers" American Educational Films, 1964
"Survival" (TV documentary special) for Nelson Riddle
"Transportation" (Educational film) for Churchill Films, 1964
Industrial films for Standard Oil and other clients, Chicago (1957–1962)

Composer of popular songs
"And We Were Strangers" with Ernie Sheldon, Almo Publishing, ASCAP, sung by Patty Duke (on the Patty Duke TV show)                                                                                *"Baby Blue", United Artists Publishing BM
"Baby What I Mean" with Ernie Sheldon, United Artists Publishing, BMI
"The Drifters" performed by  …… : No.60 on Billboard Hot 100
"I Feel It" with Ernie Sheldon, Almo Publishing ASCAP performed by Peggy Lee : No. 1979–1980: Private classes in guitar, five-string banjo, mandolin, music theory, sight-reading and ear-training, Tarzana
1976–1978: Guitar instructor and teacher of folk music at University of California, Santa Barbara (Extension Div.) 1976–1978: Instructor of Jazz Guitar Workshop at Santa Barbara City College (Continuing Education Div.) in Santa Barbara
1975–1978: Private studio instructor of music theory, sight-reading, ear-training, guitar and related stringed instruments at Westwood Musical Instruments, West Los Angeles
1973–1975: Music instructor of music theory, sight-reading, ear-training, guitar and related stringed instruments at the Music Nook, Pacific Palisades
1970–1973: Principal private studio instructor of music theory, sight-reading, ear-training, guitar and related stringed instruments at Barney Kessel's Music World in Hollywood; 1963–1969: Guitar instructor and teacher of folk music at UCLA (Extension Div.) in West Los Angeles

ILLINOIS
1957–1963: Vice President, co-founder and director of teaching at The Old Town School of Folk Music in Chicago

CALIFORNIA
1950–1959: Seminar leader in folk music for USC at summer sessions in Idyllwild

RHODE ISLAND
1959: Seminar leader in folk music at The Newport Folk Music Festival at Freebody Park

MASSACHUSETTS
1957: Workshop leader in folk music at the Pinewoods Folk Music Camp in Buzzards Bay

References

External links
Old Town School History with <mask> Retrieved March 20, 2014
Frank Hamilton School Retrieved November 22, 2018
 Retrieved March 20, 2014
 Retrieved November 22, 2018

American folk musicians
American folk singers
American male singer-songwriters
American banjoists
American folk-song collectors
Fast Folk artists
Singers from Chicago
Folk musicians from Chicago
Old Town School of Folk musicians
Living people
The Weavers members
1934 births
Singer-songwriters from


texts:
<mask>  (; 3 July 1924 – 22 August 2016), often known as S. R<mask>, was a Singaporean politician who served as the sixth President of Singapore between 1999 and 2011. Having been elected in uncontested elections in both 1999 and 2005 presidential election, <mask> is Singapore's longest-serving president. In 2009, <mask> surpassed <mask> to become Singapore's longest-serving president. He was reportedly considering re-election, but announced on 2 July 2011 that he would not run for re-election. <mask> suffered a stroke on 31 July 2016 and was taken to Singapore General Hospital's Intensive Care Unit. He died in hospital on 22 August, aged 92. Early life
<mask>, who was of Tamil Indian descent, was born in Singapore on 3 July 1924.He spent his childhood with his parents, V. <mask> and Abirami, and two older brothers in Muar, Johor, in a house overlooking the sea. <mask> would eventually be one of seven siblings; his three older brothers died in childhood. His father had been posted to the Malayan town as a lawyer's clerk for a firm that serviced rubber plantations, but the Great Depression and rubber slump of the 1930s sent the family's fortunes crashing. <mask>'s father accrued debts and eventually committed suicide when <mask> was eight. Returning to Singapore, <mask> received his primary education in Anglo-Chinese Primary School and Rangoon Road morning School, and his secondary education at Victoria School. However, he was expelled from school twice and, after quarrelling with his mother, ran away from home at the age of 16. During the Japanese occupation of Singapore, <mask> learned Japanese and worked for the Japanese civilian police as a translator.After the war, whilst working, he completed his secondary education through a correspondence course with Wolsey Hall, Oxford, and entered the University of Malaya (then in Singapore), where he became the secretary of the University Socialist Club in his second year of university. He graduated in 1954 with a Diploma in Social Studies (Distinction). He earned a diploma from the University of Malaya in Singapore in 1954. This was followed by a long career in the Singapore Civil Service, which he joined in 1955. Between 1962 and 1966 he was seconded to the National Trades Union Congress, and then worked in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Home Affairs. He was with the Security and Intelligence Division of the Defence Ministry when the Laju incident happened in 1974, and was among the government officers who agreed to accompany terrorists who had bombed petroleum tanks to Kuwait to secure the release of civilian hostages and ensure the terrorists' safe passage. He served as First Permanent Secretary of the Foreign Ministry from 1979 to 1982.<mask> left the Civil Service in 1982 to take up the executive chairmanship of the Straits Times Press; he also held directorships in other companies. Between 1988 and 1996 he served as Singapore's High Commissioner to Malaysia and Ambassador to the United States, before his 12-year term as President of the Republic from 1999 to 2011. Following retirement, <mask> turned to writing and also became a Distinguished Senior Fellow at the School of Social Sciences of Singapore Management University (SMU), and at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. He died in 2016 and was accorded a state funeral by the Government. Among the awards and honours <mask> received were the renamed of Singapore University of Social Sciences (SUSS) School of Human Development and Social Services to S R Nathan School of Human Development (NSHD) in 2018, Bintang Bakti Masyarakat (Public Service Star) in 1964, the Pingat Pentadbiran Awam (Perak) (Public Administration Medal, Silver) in 1967, the Pingat Pentadbiran Awam (Meritorious Service Medal) in 1975, and the Darjah Utama Temasek (Order of Temasek) (First Class) in 2013; and honorary degrees from the National University of Singapore and SMU. Civil service career

<mask> began his career in the Singapore Civil Service as a medical social worker in 1955. He was appointed Seamen's Welfare Officer the following year.In 1962, he was seconded to the Labour Research Unit of the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC), first as assistant director and later as director of the Labour Research Unit until January 1966. <mask> negotiated Singapore's membership of the Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Organisation. He later served as a member of the NTUC's Board of Trustees from 1983 to April 1988. In February 1966, <mask> was transferred to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He served as Assistant Secretary and rose to be Deputy Secretary before being appointed Deputy Secretary of the Ministry of Home Affairs in January 1971. On 6 August of the same year, <mask> moved to the Ministry of Defence where he was Director of the Security and Intelligence Division (SID). In the Laju incident on 31 January 1974, members of the terrorist Japanese Red Army and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine bombed petroleum tanks on Pulau Bukom off the coast of Singapore; <mask> was among a group of government officers who volunteered to be held hostage by the JRA and flown to Kuwait to secure the release of civilian hostages and ensure the terrorists' safe passage.For his bravery, in August 1974 he was awarded the Pingat Jasa Gemilang (Meritorious Service Medal). In February 1979, <mask> returned to the Foreign Ministry and became its First Permanent Secretary until February 1982, when he left to become the Executive Chairman of the newspaper company the Straits Times Press. The appointment was viewed dimly by journalists who felt that the Government was trying to limit freedom of the press; they wore black armbands in protest. According to <mask> in a 2010 interview, " When they saw I was not doing what they expected me to do, they began to have confidence." At various times between 1982 and 1988, <mask> also held directorships of several other companies, including the Singapore Mint, The Straits Times Press (London), Singapore Press Holdings and Marshall Cavendish. He held a directorship in the Singapore International Media between September 1996 and August 1999. He was Chairman of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Singapore, a ship-repairing and engineering joint venture with the Mitsubishi Group of Japan, from 1973 to 1986.From 1983 to April 1988, <mask> was Chairman of the Hindu Endowments Board. He was a founding member of the Singapore Indian Development Association (SINDA), and its term trustee until August 1999. In April 1988 <mask> was appointed Singapore's High Commissioner to Malaysia, and in July 1990 he became Ambassador to the United States, serving until June 1996. On his return, <mask> was made an Ambassador-at-Large and was concurrently Director of the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies at the Nanyang Technological University. He resigned as ambassador and director of the institute on 17 August 1999 to become a candidate in the 1999 Singapore presidential election. Presidency

During the 1999 presidential election, as two other prospective candidates were found to be constitutionally ineligible, <mask> was elected unopposed as president and commander-in-chief on 18 August 1999. His candidacy was supported by Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew and former President Wee Kim Wee.<mask> succeeded the fifth President of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, and was sworn in on 1 September 1999. <mask> launched the annual President's Challenge charity fundraising initiative in 2000. Continued in 2012 by his successor, President Tony Tan Keng Yam, as of 2016 about S$160 million had been raised by the movement. For the 2005 presidential election, the Presidential Elections Committee (PEC) declared <mask> as the only eligible candidate on 13 August, rejecting three other applications based on constitutional criteria. Thus, <mask> was elected unopposed for a second term on 17 August 2005. He was sworn in for a second term of office on 1 September 2005, and as of 2016, is the only person who has served two terms as president. On 21 January 2009, <mask> approved in principle the Government's request to draw $4.9 billion from the nation's past financial reserves to fund the Government's Resilience Package consisting of two schemes aimed at preserving jobs and businesses during the financial downturn: the Jobs Credit scheme, which provided employers with financial assistance to pay employees' salaries; and the Special Risk-Sharing Initiative, which helped mid-sized companies to obtain credit.This was the first time the President's discretionary powers had been exercised for this purpose. The President's formal approval of the drawdown was subsequently signified in two notifications dated 13 March 2009. Retirement

On 1 July 2011, <mask> announced that he would not be seeking a third term in office as president. He cited his age as one of the reasons, as he did not believe he could undertake indefinitely the heavy responsibilities and physical demands of the position of head of state at 87. He left office on 1 September that same year and was succeeded by Tony Tan. A few weeks later, on 19 September, his book An Unexpected Journey: Path to the Presidency was launched by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong. At the same time, the S. R. Nathan Educational Upliftment Fund was inaugurated to provide bursaries, scholarships and other forms of financial assistance to needy Institute of Technical Education, polytechnic and university students.As President, <mask> had been the patron of Singapore Management University from 2000 to 2011, and after completing his term of office he became a Distinguished Senior Fellow of the SMU School of Social Sciences. Additionally, he was also a patron of the Singapore University of Social Sciences from 2006 to 2011. He held a similar position at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. He was also the first patron of the Inter-Religious Organisation from 2012 till his death. Personal life
On 15 December 1958, <mask> married Urmila Nandey (born 1929) and had one son and one daughter. Death and funeral
<mask> suffered a stroke on the morning of 31 July 2016 and was taken to Singapore General Hospital's Intensive Care Unit. He died in hospital on 22 August that year at 9:48 pm SST, aged 92.He was survived by his wife Urmila Nandey (known as Umi), their daughter Juthika and son Osith, three grandchildren, and his sister <mask>. As a mark of respect, the Government directed that the National Flag would fly at half-mast from all government buildings from 23 to 26 August. <mask>'s body lay in state at Parliament House on 25 August to enable members of the public to pay their respects. On 26 August, a state funeral was held to honour <mask>. His body was conveyed by a ceremonial 25-pounder gun carriage from Parliament House to the University Cultural Centre of the National University of Singapore (NUS). The state funeral procession passed by landmarks of significance to his life, including City Hall, where he had attended three National Day Parades; The Fullerton Hotel Singapore, formerly the Fullerton Building which had housed the Marine Department where he had worked; and NTUC Centre, recalling <mask>'s time in the labour movement. Speakers who delivered eulogies at the state funeral included Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong and Ambassadors-at-Large Tommy Koh and Gopinath Pillai.The music played at the ceremony included the song "Thanjavooru Mannu Eduthu" ("The Sands of Thanjavur") from the Tamil film Porkkaalam (Golden Age, 1997), about a dollmaker who moulds a doll of a beautiful lady with sand, clay and water from different lands, and eventually gives life to the doll. It was <mask>'s favourite song as he saw it as a metaphor for Singapore's multiracial heritage. The state funeral was followed by a private cremation at Mandai Crematorium. Legacy
In 2018, Singapore University of Social Sciences (SUSS) School of Human Development and Social Services was renamed the S R Nathan School of Human Development (NSHD) in honor of Singapore's sixth president, Mr S. R<mask> to recognise his advocacy of social and community causes when he was patron of SUSS. Awards and honours
In addition to the Pingat Jasa Gemilang (Meritorious Service Medal) he was awarded in 1975 for his actions during the Laju incident, <mask> was conferred the Bintang Bakti Masyarakat (Public Service Star) in 1964 and the Pingat Pentadbiran Awam (Perak) (Public Administration Medal, Silver) in 1967. On 8 August 2013, <mask> was conferred the Darjah Utama Temasek (Order of Temasek) (First Class). On 2006 he was conferred with Order of the Bath.<mask>, who had been chancellor of NUS from 1999 to 2011 during his presidency, was conferred an Eminent Alumni award by the university in 2007, and an honorary Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) on 5 July 2012. SMU also conferred on him an honorary D.Litt. on 14 July 2014. In 2015, the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences of NUS gave him its Distinguished Arts and Social Sciences Alumni Award for lifetime achievement. <mask> was the Singapore Scout Association's Chief Scout when he was president. He received the Asia-Pacific Regional Distinguished Scout Award in 2005, and the Association's Distinguished Service Award (Gold) in 2010.<mask>'s achievements were also recognised abroad. During a state visit to Bahrain on 22 November 2010 he was given the Al-Khalifa Order, and while on a state visit to Mauritius in June 2011 he was conferred an honorary Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree by the University of Mauritius for his contributions to education and culture. In 2012, the Government of India conferred the Pravasi Bharatiya Samman (Overseas Indian Award) to <mask> in recognition of his contribution in building closer links between Singapore and India. Selected works
 . .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

References

Further reading
 .
 . External links

 Official website of The Istana and the President of the Republic of Singapore
 Official website of the President's Challenge

1924 births
2016 deaths
Ambassadors of Singapore to the United States
Anglo-Chinese School alumni
High Commissioners of Singapore to Malaysia
National University of Singapore alumni
Presidents of Singapore
Recipients of the Bintang Bakti Masyarakat
Recipients of the Darjah Utama Temasek
Recipients of the Pingat Jasa Gemilang
Recipients of the Pingat Pentadbiran Awam
Recipients of Pravasi Bharatiya Samman
Singapore Management University alumni
Singaporean Tamil politicians
Singaporean Hindus
Singaporean people of Tamil descent
Singaporean politicians of Indian descent
University of Malaya alumni
Victoria School, Singapore alumni

masks:
Sellapan Ramanathan
. Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Benjamin Sheares
Nathan
Nathan
Sellapan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Sundari
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
. Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan
Nathan