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<mask> ( ; full name: <mask>us; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was the fifth Roman emperor and the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his suicide in 68. He was adopted by the Roman emperor Claudius at the age of 13 and succeeded him to the throne. <mask> seems to have been popular with the members of his Praetorian Guard, and with lower-class commoners in Rome and the provinces, but was deeply resented by the Roman aristocracy. Most contemporary sources describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent and debauched. After being declared a public enemy by the Roman Senate, he committed suicide aged 30. <mask> was born at Antium in AD 37, the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, a great-granddaughter of the emperor Augustus. When <mask> was two years old, his father died.His mother married the emperor Claudius, who eventually adopted <mask> as his heir; when Claudius died in 54, <mask> became emperor, with the support firstly of the Praetorian Guard, and then of the Senate. In the early years of his reign <mask> was advised and guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, and his praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, but he soon sought to rule independently, and to rid himself of restraining influences. His power struggle with his mother was eventually resolved when he had her murdered. Roman sources also implicate <mask> in the deaths of his wife Claudia Octavia – supposedly so that he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and of his foster-brother Britannicus. Most Roman sources present <mask> as sexually dissolute. He is said to have "married" a freedman Pythagoras, acting the part of bride at the ceremony. After Poppaea's death in unclear circumstances, <mask> in short succession married an aristocratic woman Statilia Messalina and another freedman, Sporus, whom he had castrated.<mask>'s practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, trade, and culture. He ordered the construction of amphitheaters, promoted athletic games and contests, and made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer. This scandalised his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were usually the domain of slaves, public entertainers and infamous persons. The provision of such entertainments made <mask> popular among lower-class citizens, but his performances undermined the Imperial dignity. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, and were much resented. During <mask>'s reign, the general Corbulo fought the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, and made peace with the hostile Parthian Empire. The Roman general Suetonius Paulinus quashed a major revolt in Britain led by the Iceni's queen Boudica.The Bosporan Kingdom was briefly annexed to the empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Roman senator Vindex rebelled, with support from the eventual Roman emperor Galba, <mask> was declared a public enemy and condemned to death in absentia. He fled Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 he committed suicide. His death sparked a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed that the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by <mask> to clear land for his planned  "Golden House".Tacitus claims that <mask> seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice but by personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the reliability of the ancient sources on <mask>'s tyrannical acts, considering his popularity among the Roman commoners. In the eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular legend arose that <mask> had not died and would return. After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "<mask> reborn" in order to gain popular support. Early life

<mask> was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December 37ADin Antium (modern Anzio). He was an only-child, the son of the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. His mother Agrippina was the sister of the third Roman emperor Caligula.<mask> was also the great-great grandson of former emperor Augustus (descended from Augustus' only daughter, Julia). The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of <mask>'s ancestors, wrote that emperor Augustus had reproached <mask>'s grandfather for his unseemly enjoyment of violent gladiator games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that <mask>'s father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and theater performances to a degree not befitting their position". Suetonius also mentions that when <mask>'s father Domitius was congratulated by his friends for the birth of his son, he replied that any child born to him and Agrippina would have a detestable nature and become a public danger. Domitius died in 40 AD. A few years before his father's death, his father was involved in a serious political scandal. His mother and his two surviving sisters, Agrippina and Julia Livilla, were exiled to a remote island in the Mediterranean Sea.His mother was said to have been exiled for plotting to overthrow the emperor Caligula. <mask>'s inheritance was taken from him, and he was sent to live with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida the Younger, the mother of later emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina. After Caligula's death, Claudius became the new Roman Emperor. <mask>'s mother married Claudius in 49AD, becoming his fourth wife. By February, 49 AD, his mother had persuaded Claudius to adopt her son <mask>. After <mask>'s adoption by the emperor, "Claudius" became part of his name: <mask>laudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption.Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making." However, David Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, <mask>'s step-brother Britannicus was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s. <mask> formally entered public life as an adult in 51AD at approximately 14 years old. When he turned 16, <mask> married Claudius' daughter (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Between the years 51AD and 53AD, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities, including the Ilians; the Apameans (requesting a five-year tax reprieve after an earthquake); and the northern colony of Bologna, after their settlement had suffered a devastating fire. Claudius died in 54AD; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has written that "Claudius' death in 54AD has usually been regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina due to signs that Claudius was showing a renewed affection for his natural son".He also notes that among ancient sources, the Roman historian Josephus was uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as a rumor. Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor by his servant Halotus. Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctor Xenophon to administer poison, in the event that the Emperor survived. Suetonius differs in some details, but also implicates Halotus and Agrippina. Like Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered by Agrippina instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does not mention mushrooms at all.Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted by all modern scholars. Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to replace them with tutors that she had selected. She was also able to convince Claudius to replace two prefects of the Praetorian Guard (who were suspected of supporting Claudius' son) with Afranius Burrus (<mask>'s future guide). Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to her, <mask> was subsequently able to assume power without incident. Reign (54–68 AD)
Most of what we know about <mask>'s reign comes from three ancient writers: Tacitus, Suetonius, and Greek historian Cassius Dio. According to these ancient historians, <mask>'s construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under <mask> left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined". Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is likely that <mask>'s spending came in the form of public-works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles.Early reign

<mask> became emperor in 54 AD, aged sixteen years. This made him the youngest sole emperor until Elagabalus, who became emperor aged 14 in 218. As Pharaoh of Egypt, <mask> adopted the royal titulary Autokrator <mask>n Heqaheqau Meryasetptah Tjemaahuikhasut Wernakhtubaqet Heqaheqau Setepennenu Merur ('Emperor <mask>, Ruler of rulers, chosen by Ptah, beloved of Isis, the sturdy-armed one who struck the foreign lands, victorious for Egypt, ruler of rulers, chosen of Nun who loves him'). <mask>'s tutor, Seneca, prepared <mask>'s first speech before the Senate. During this speech, <mask> spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime". H.H. Scullard writes that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators."His respect of the Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the Roman Senate. Scullard writes that <mask>'s mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that <mask> had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, a great grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest coins that <mask> issued during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's obverse side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two lictors during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the Vestalis Maxima. In AD55, <mask> removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with <mask>: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in <mask>—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence."Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him. <mask>, who was having an affair with Acte, exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia. Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of <mask>'s personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to <mask> as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like <mask>'s failed initiative to abolish all taxes in 58AD. Scholars generally credit <mask>'s advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, <mask> panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis. Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim.A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan. Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities. After the affair of Lucius Pedanius Secundus who was murdered by a desperate slave, <mask> allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities. Residences
Outside of Rome, <mask> had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Rome he built 3 artificial lakes with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa. He stayed at the Villa of Nero at Olympia, Greece, during his participation at the Olympic Games of 67 AD.Matricide
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that <mask>'s reasons for killing his mother in 59AD are "not fully understood". According to Tacitus, the source of conflict between <mask> and his mother was <mask>'s affair with Poppaea Sabina. In Histories Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later work Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when the affair began. In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed <mask>'s affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife Octavia. Anthony Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [<mask>] over the brink". A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as <mask> did not marry Poppaea until 62AD. Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see no plausible explanation for <mask>'s conduct and also incidentally [served] to show that <mask>, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."According to Suetonius, <mask> had his former freedman Anicetus arrange a shipwreck; Agrippina survived the wreck, swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide. Decline
Modern scholars believe that <mask>'s reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, <mask> promoted the exploration of the Nile river sources with a successful expedition. After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire. However, <mask>'s "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death. Miriam T. Griffins suggests that <mask>'s decline began as early as 55AD with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "<mask> lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death. Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for <mask>'s conduct".He began to build a new palace, the Domus Transitoria, from about AD 60. It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc. In 62AD, <mask>'s adviser Burrus died. That same year <mask> called for the first treason trial of his reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus. He also executed his rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in <mask>'s relationship with the Roman Senate. Malitz writes that "<mask> abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."After Burrus' death,

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 <mask> appointed two new Praetorian Prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire. According to Tacitus, <mask> divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her. After public protests over Octavia's exile, <mask> accused her of adultery with Anicetus and she was executed. In 64AD during the Saturnalia, <mask> married Pythagoras, a freedman. Great Fire of Rome

The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant's shops on the slope of the Aventine overlooking the Circus Maximus, or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds.Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings and temples on the Aventine, Palatine and Caelian hills. The fire burned for over seven days;then it subsided, and then it started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's fourteen districts and severely damaged seven more. Some Romans thought the fire an accident; the merchant shops where it probably started were timber-framed, they sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed that it was arson, committed on <mask>'s behalf. The accounts by Pliny the Elder, Suetonius and Cassius Dio suggest several  possible  reasons for <mask>'s alleged arson, including his creation of a real-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that <mask> started the fire to clear the site for his planned, palatial Golden House.This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Colossus of <mask>, sited more or less where the Colosseum would eventually be built. Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that <mask> sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned. The popular legend that <mask> played the fiddle while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of Flavian propaganda [...] which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule". Tacitus suspends judgment on <mask>'s responsibility for the fire; he found that <mask> was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds. After the fire, <mask> opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, <mask> accused Christians of starting the fire. According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, <mask> was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty. Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads. <mask> also built himself a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, <mask>'s government increased taxation. In particular heavy tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire. To meet at least a proportion of the costs, <mask> devalued the Roman currency, increasing inflationary pressure for the first time in the Empire's history.Later years
In 65AD, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against <mask> with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the Republic. The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to <mask>'s secretary, Epaphroditus. As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Lucan, the poet. <mask>'s previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide as by this point he had fallen out of favor with <mask>. <mask> was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65AD, before she could have his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.<mask> went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous state funeral, divine honors, and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not known where. In 67, <mask> married Sporus, a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. <mask> had him castrated, tried to make a woman out of him, and married him in a dowry and bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea. Revolt of Vindex and Galba and <mask>'s death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against <mask>'s tax policies.Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion. In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to <mask>. At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide. However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against <mask>, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him. While <mask> had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a "public enemy". The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba.In response, <mask> fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, <mask> abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" <mask> then toyed with the idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in <mask>'s writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum. <mask> returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers.Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the Tiber. Returning, <mask> sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, located  outside the city. Travelling in disguise, <mask> and four loyal freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus, reached the villa, where <mask> ordered them to dig a grave for him.At this time <mask> learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy. <mask> prepared himself for suicide, pacing up and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist dies in me"). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove <mask> to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task. When one of the horsemen entered and saw that <mask> was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save <mask>'s life were unsuccessful. <mask>'s final words were "Too late!This is fidelity!" He died on 9 June 68, the anniversary of the death of his first wife Claudia Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it is unclear whether <mask> took his own life. With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended. Chaos would ensue in the year of the Four Emperors. After <mask>

According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of <mask>. Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment.Tacitus mentions that <mask>'s death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper class. The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of <mask>", on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to <mask>, but had been bribed to overthrow him. Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that <mask>'s death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character" and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them". Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed <mask>'s death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia". <mask>'s name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal". Many portraits of <mask> were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive.This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see damnatio memoriae). Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of <mask> long after his death. Damaged portraits of <mask>, often with hammer-blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the United Kingdom (see damnatio memoriae). The civil war during the year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as <mask> and those before him could. Galba began his short reign with the execution of many of <mask>'s allies. One such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of Emperor Caligula.Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of <mask> and resembled him somewhat in temperament. It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as <mask> himself. Otho used "<mask>" as a surname and reerected many statues to <mask>. Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for <mask> complete with songs written by <mask>. After <mask>'s death in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.This belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. The legend of <mask>'s return lasted for hundreds of years after <mask>'s death. Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422. At least three Nero impostors emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius. After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. Sometime during the reign of Titus (79–81), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like <mask> but he, too, was killed.Twenty years after <mask>'s death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up, and the matter almost came to war. Military conflicts

Boudica's uprising

In Britannia (Britain) in 59AD, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client king of Rome during Claudius' reign, had died. The client state arrangement was unlikely to survive following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King (leaving control of the Iceni to his daughters) was denied. When the roman procurator Catus Decianus scourged the former King Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped her daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the Celtic Trinovantes tribe and their uprising became the most significant provincial rebellion of the 1st centuryAD.Under Queen Boudica, the towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a substantial body of Roman legion infantry were eliminated. The governor of the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces and defeated the Britons. Although order was restored for some time, <mask> considered abandoning the province. Julius Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised <mask> to replace Paulinus who continued to punish the population even after the rebellion was over. <mask> decided to adopt a more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus. Peace with Parthia

<mask> began preparing for war in the early years of his reign, after the Parthian king Vologeses set his brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne. Around 57AD and 58AD Domitius Corbulo and his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian capital Artaxata.Tigranes was chosen to replace Tiridates on the Armenian throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, <mask> had to send further legions to defend Armenia and Syria from Parthia. The Roman victory came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt with they were able to devote resources to the Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus surrendered under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman and Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was under Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived in 63 AD to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces for an invasion but was met by this Parthian delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king of Armenia, only if he agreed to receive his diadem from <mask>.A coronation ceremony was held in Italy 66AD. Dio reports that Tiridates said "I have come to you, my God, worshiping you as Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to <mask> in the East including "The New Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, friendly relations

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 were established between Rome and the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was temporarily renamed Neroneia. First Jewish War

In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension. In 67, <mask> dispatched Vespasian to restore order.This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after <mask>'s death. This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Pursuits

<mask> studied poetry, music, painting and sculpture. He both sang and played the cithara (a type of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education for the Roman elite, but <mask>'s devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for a Roman of his class. Ancient sources were critical of <mask>'s emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described <mask> as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that he was "carried away by a craze for popularity...since he was acclaimed as the equal of Apollo in music and of the Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well."In 67 AD <mask> participated in the Olympics. He had bribed organizers to postpone the games for a year so he could participate, and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. <mask> won every contest in which he was a competitor. During the games <mask> sang and played his lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, despite being thrown from the chariot and leaving the race. He was crowned on the basis that he would have won if he had completed the race. After he died a year later, his name was removed from the list of winners.Champlin writes that though <mask>'s participation "effectively stifled true competition, [<mask>] seems to have been oblivious of reality." <mask> established the Neronian games in 60AD. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included "music" "gymnastic" and "questrian" contents. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held in the Saepta area of the Campus Martius. Historiography
The history of <mask>'s reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with <mask>. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of <mask>. The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on <mask> written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on <mask> that are now lost. There were also pro-<mask> histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds <mask> was praised. The bulk of what is known of <mask> comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper classes. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on <mask> over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after <mask>'s death. These sources contradict one another on a number of events in <mask>'s life including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina, and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of <mask>.Cassius Dio
Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of <mask>. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk. Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with <mask> and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:

Epictetus
Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slave to <mask>'s scribe Epaphroditos.He makes a few passing negative comments on <mask>'s character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes <mask> as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man. Josephus
The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling <mask> a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against <mask>. Of other historians, he said:

Lucan
Although more of a poet than historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one of the kindest accounts of <mask>'s rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under <mask> in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow <mask> and was executed. Philostratus
Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. 172–250) spoke of <mask> in the Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5).Although he has a generally bad or dim view of <mask>, he speaks of others' positive reception of <mask> in the East. Pliny the Elder
The history of <mask> by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to <mask> in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of <mask> and calls him an "enemy of mankind". Plutarch
Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions <mask> indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well as in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders that <mask>'s soul be transferred to a more offensive species. <mask> is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better. Seneca the Younger
It is not surprising that Seneca (c. 4 BC–65 AD), <mask>'s teacher and advisor, writes very well of <mask>.Suetonius

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. By this account, <mask> raped the vestal virgin Rubria. Tacitus

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of <mask>, despite being incomplete after the year 66AD. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:

Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after <mask>'s death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to <mask>'s rivals.Realising that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true. Girolamo Cardano
In 1562 Girolamo Cardano published in Basel his Encomium Neronis, which was one of the first historical references of the Modern era to portray <mask> in a positive light. In Jewish and Christian tradition

Jewish tradition
At the end of 66AD, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, <mask> went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).<mask> became terrified, believing that God wanted the Second Temple to be destroyed, but that he would punish the one to carry it out. <mask> said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution. Vespasian was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess lived in the time of the Mishnah, and was a prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhba rebellion against Roman rule. Rabbi Meir was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the third generation (139–163). According to the Talmud, his father was a descendant of <mask> who had converted to Judaism. His wife Bruriah is one of the few women cited in the Gemara.He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned sage in the Mishnah. Roman and Greek sources nowhere report <mask>'s alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism. There is also no record of <mask> having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months. Christian tradition

Non-Christian historian Tacitus describes <mask> extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64. Suetonius also mentions <mask> punishing Christians, though he does so because they are "given to a new and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with the fire. Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to call <mask> the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records.There you will find that <mask> was the first that persecuted this doctrine." Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that <mask> "first persecuted the servants of God". as does Sulpicius Severus. However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit"). These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2). Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul
The first text to suggest that <mask> ordered the execution of an apostle is a letter by Clement to the Corinthians traditionally dated to around AD 96.The apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century, says, "the slayer of his mother, who himself (even) this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands"; this is interpreted as referring to <mask>. Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first to write explicitly that Paul was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the reign of <mask>. He states that <mask>'s persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that <mask> did not give any specific orders. However, several other accounts going back to the 1st century have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and travelling to Hispania, before facing trial in Rome again prior to his death. Peter is first said to have been crucified specifically upside-down in Rome during <mask>'s reign (but not by <mask>) in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200). The account ends with Paul still alive and <mask> abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians.By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that <mask> killed Peter and Paul. Antichrist

The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speak of <mask> returning and bringing destruction. Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others, fueled the belief that <mask> would return as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that <mask> "suddenly disappeared, and even the burial place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this. In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed that Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist.Although he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed <mask> was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,' he alluded to <mask>, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist." Some modern biblical scholars such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford Study Bible and Harper Collins Study Bible, contend that the number 666 in the Book of Revelation is a code for <mask>, a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries. The statement concerns Revelation 17:1-18, "the longest explanatory passage in Revelation", which predicts the destruction of Rome by work of an "eighth emperor"  who was also one of the "seven kings" of the most extended and powerful empire ever known in the human history: according to this lecture, Babylon the Great is identified with Rome which has poured the blood of saints and martyrs (verse 6) and subsequently become the seat of the Vatican State, reigning over all the kings existing on Earth. See also
 <mask> in popular culture
 List of Roman emperors

Notes

References

Bibliography

Primary sources
 Tacitus, Histories, I–IV (c. 105)
 Tacitus, Annals, XIII–XVI (c. 117)
 Josephus, War of the Jews, Books II–VI (c. 94)
 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XX (c. 94)
 Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 61–63 (c. 229)
 Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba (c. 110)
 Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius Tyana, Books 4–5, (c. 220)
 Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, the Life of <mask> (c. 121)

Secondary sources
 Benario, Herbert W. <mask> at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Cronin, Vincent. Nero.London: Stacey International, 2010 (). Grant, Michael. <mask>. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 (). Griffin, Miriam T. <mask>: The End of a Dynasty. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1985 (hardcover, ); London / New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, ). Holland, Richard.Nero: The Man Behind the Myth. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000 (paperback ). Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 4, La vie de Poppée, femme de Néron, pp. 97–120 (). Warmington, Brian Herbert. Nero: Reality and Legend.London: Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, ); New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, ); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, ). (Russian) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky "The Pisonian Conspiracy" (Заговор Пизона) docudrama based on Tacitus Annals 15 and other sources. Failed conspiracy against <mask> led to tragic death of 26-year-old Great Roman poet Lucan and his famous uncle Seneca, executed by order of <mask>. Moscow, Wagrius plus, 2008. <mask>: The Actor-Emperor
 Nero entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
 <mask> basic data & select quotes posted by Romans On Line
 The Life and Times of Nero By Carlo Maria Franzero (BTM format). <mask>'s depiction in Tacitus' Annals
 <mask> Claudius Drusus Germanicus entry in the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. External links

 International Society for Neronian Studies
 <mask>, Roman Emperor, Encyclopædia Britannica online
 The Roman Empire in the First Century: <mask>, PBS.org
 <mask> (37 AD – 68 AD), BBC.co.uk
 Emperor <mask>: Facts & Biography, Live Science online
 Roman Emperor <mask>: Rethinking <mask>, National Geographic online
 PBS: Secrets of the Dead-documentary "The Nero Files – Cause for a Cold Case Investigation?"37 births
68 deaths
1st-century Roman emperors
Ancient Roman adoptees
Ancient Romans who committed suicide
Children of Claudius
Claudii <mask>nes
Domitii Ahenobarbi
Ancient LGBT people
LGBT royalty
LGBT heads of state
Matricides
People from Anzio
People of the Year of the Four Emperors
Anti-Christian sentiment in Europe
Persecution of Christians
Poppaea Sabina
Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae
Roman-era Olympic competitors
Roman pharaohs
Roman philhellenes
Talmud

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<mask> (born 1944) is an Irish retired hurling coach and former player who enjoyed a successful career as a full-back and as a centre-back with the Wexford senior team. Born in Donard, County Wexford, <mask> was introduced to hurling in his youth. He enjoyed All-Ireland success at colleges level with St. Peter's College while simultaneously enjoying championship successes at underage levels with the Rathnure club. A three-time Leinster medal winner with the Rathnure senior team, <mask> also won nine championship medals. <mask> made his debut on the inter-county scene when he first linked up with the Wexford minor team. After little success in this grade, he later won an All-Ireland medal with the under-21 team. <mask> made his senior debut during the 1962–63 league.He went on to play a key role for Wexford in defence during a successful era, and won one All-Ireland medal, three Leinster medals and one National Hurling League medal. An All-Ireland runner-up on two occasions, <mask> captained the team to All-Ireland victory in 1968. As a member of the Leinster inter-provincial team, <mask> won three Railway Cup medals. Throughout his inter-county career he made 20 championship appearances. <mask> retired from inter-county hurling following the conclusion of the 1972 championship. <mask>'s brothers – Pat, John, Jimmy and Martin – also played with distinction at all levels with Wexford. Regarded as one of the greatest players of all-time, <mask> was named as the Texaco Hurler of the Year in 1968.He was also chosen as one of the 125 greatest hurlers of all time in a 2009 poll. In retirement from playing <mask> became involved in team management and coaching at all levels with Rathnure. Playing career

College

During his schooling at St. Peter's College, <mask> established himself as a key member of the senior hurling team. In 1962 he won a Leinster medal following a 4–3 to 1–4 defeat of Kilkenny CBS. On 6 May 1962 St. Peter's faced Ennis CBS in the All-Ireland decider. A 4–11 to 2–4 victory gave <mask> an All-Ireland medal. Club

Quigley was only seventeen years-old when he won his first championship medal at senior level following a defeat of St. Aidan's Enniscorthy.After a period of decline he won a second championship medal in 1967. In 1971 <mask> added a third championship medal to his collection as Rathnure defeated Enniscorthy District to take the title. He later won a Leinster medal as Rathnure defeated a disappointing Bennettsbridge by 2–12 to 1–8. On 14 May 1972 Rathnure faced Blackrock of Cork in the All-Ireland decider. <mask> top scored for Rathnure with 2–4 as they fought back from being 12 points in arrears, however, Pat Moylan's goal secured a 5–13 to 6–9 victory for Blackrock. Rathnure retained the title in 1972 following a 1–17 to 1–8 defeat of Rapparees before making it three-in-a-row in 1973 with a 2–7 to 1–7 defeat of Buffers Alley. <mask> subsequently secured a second Leinster medal following a 1–18 to 2–9 defeat of St. Rynagh's.On 17 March 1974 Rathnure faced old rivals Blackrock in the All-Ireland final. A tour de force by <mask> saw him score 3–6 in a 3–11 to 2–14 draw. The replay on 28 April 1974 was also a close affair. As Rathnure looked to be heading for victory, Éamonn O'Donoghue and Donie Collins scored two late goals to secure a 3–8 to 1–9 victory for Blackrock. <mask> won a sixth championship medal in 1974 as his 1–3 helped Rathnure to a 2–8 to 1–5 defeat of Oulart-the Ballagh and fourth successive title. In 1977 <mask> won a seventh championship medal as Buffers Alley were accounted for in the decider. He later claimed a third Leinster medal as Fenians were defeated by 0–16 to 1–10 in the provincial decider.On 27 March 1978 Rathnure faced St. Finbarr's of Cork in the All-Ireland final. Rathnure had an 0–8 to 0–1 half-time lead thanks to a gale-force wind, however, Barry Wiley scored the equaliser for St. Finbarr's with just ten minutes left to play. A Jimmy Barry-Murphy goal from a rebound sealed the title and resulted in a third All-Ireland final defeat for <mask>. <mask> finished off his club career by winning back-to-back championship medals in 1979 and 1980 following defeats of Faythe Harriers and Buffers Alley respectively. Inter-county

<mask> first enjoyed success as the full-back on the inaugural Wexford under-21 team. He won his first Leinster medal in 1964 as Laois were defeated by 4–7 to 2–2. On 4 October 1964 Wexford faced Tipperary in the All-Ireland final.A tally of 2–2 for Babs Keating helped Tipperary to an easy 8–9 to 3–1 victory. Wexford retained the provincial under-21 title in 1965 with <mask> winning a second Leinster medal. The subsequent All-Ireland final was a repeat of the previous year with Tipperary providing the opposition once again. A 3–7 to 1–4 victory gave <mask> an All-Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship medal. After making his senior debut during the 1962–63 league, <mask> was added to the Wexford panel for the subsequent championship. He remained an unused substitute during their Leinster semi-final exit at the hands of Kilkenny. <mask> made his senior championship debut at full-back in a 5–9 to 4–8 Leinster semi-final defeat by Kilkenny on 5 July 1964.In 1965 <mask> won his first Leinster medal following a narrow 2–11 to 3–7 defeat of reigning champions Kilkenny. Tipperary were Wexford's opponents in the subsequent All-Ireland final on 5 September 1965, however, the game failed to live up to the two classic games between the two sides in 1960 and 1962. Victory went to Tipperary on that occasion by 2–16 to 0–10, courtesy of a brace of goals by Seán McLoughlin. <mask> claimed his first national title in 1967 when a 3–10 to 1–9 defeat of Kilkenny gave him a National Hurling League medal. <mask> was appointed captain of the team in 1968 and he quickly collected a second Leinster medal following a 3–13 to 4–9 defeat of reigning provincial and All-Ireland champions Kilkenny. This victory allowed Wexford to advance to an All-Ireland final against Tipperary, the outstanding team of the decade, on 1 September 1968. All was going to plan for Tipperary as they took a 1–11 to 1–3 lead at half-time.In one of the great All-Ireland comebacks, Tony Doran got Wexford back on track with a goal six minutes after the interval. Three more goals followed from Paul Lynch, Jack Berry and Doran again. Late goals from Michael "Babs" Keating and Seán McLoughlin for Tipperary failed to stem the tide as Wexford secured a remarkable 5–8 to 3–12 victory. The victory gave <mask> his sole All-Ireland medal while he also had the honour of lifting the Liam MacCarthy Cup. After surrendering their championship titles in 1969, Wexford regrouped the following year. A 4–16 to 3–14 defeat of old rivals Kilkenny in the very first 80-minute championship game gave <mask> a third Leinster medal. Wexford subsequently faced Cork in the All-Ireland decider on 6 September 1970.A record 64-point scoreline and eleven goals were produced in a sometimes ill-tempered and disappointing contest. Tony Doran top scored for Wexford with two goals, however, the day belonged to Eddie O'Brien who scored a hat-trick of goals for Cork from his hand. A remarkable 6–21 to 5–10 score line gave Cork the victory. <mask> retired from inter-county hurling following the conclusion of the 1972 championship. Inter-provincial

<mask> also lined out with Leinster in the inter-provincial series of games and enjoyed much success. In 1964 he was at full-back as Leinster faced Munster in the decider. A 3–7 to 2–9 victory gave him a Railway Cup medal.After being off the team for a few seasons, <mask> won a second Railway Cup medal in 1967 following a 2–14 to 3–5 defeat of Munster once again. After several years of Munster dominance, Leinster bounced back in 1971. A 2–17 to 2–12 defeat of Munster gave <mask> his third Railway Cup medal. Honours

Rathnure
Leinster Senior Club Hurling Championship (3): 1971, 1973, 1977
Wexford Senior Club Hurling Championship (9): 1961, 1967, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1977, 1979, 1980

Wexford
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship (1): 1968 (c)
Leinster Senior Hurling Championship (3): 1965, 1968 (c), 1970
National Hurling League (1): 1966–67
All-Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship (1): 1965
Leinster Under-21 Hurling Championship (2): 1964, 1965

Leinster
Railway Cup (7): 1964, 1967, 1971

References

1944 births
Living people
Rathnure hurlers
Wexford inter-county hurlers
Leinster inter-provincial hurlers
Hurling selectors
Hurling managers
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship winners

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<mask> (born February 9, 1968), known professionally as <mask>, and nicknamed "La Reina de Corazones" (The Queen of Hearts) is a Mexican musician, singer, composer, and actress. With more than 20 million albums sold throughout her career, and winner of a Latin Grammy, she is one of the most successful  Mexican female singers. She is the daughter of actress Silvia Pinal and singer <mask>. Early life and career
<mask> was born February 9, 1968 in Mexico City, to her mother’s third marriage. <mask> has three siblings: two older half-sisters, actress Sylvia Pasquel and Viridiana Alatriste. Her younger brother, <mask> is her only sibling from the same father and mother. Her first song Bye Mamá, a song dedicated to her mom was the start to her career in 1988.In 1990s, she released several of her biggest albums like Eternamente Bella, Flor de Piel, as well as Libre which launched with a signed contract to BMG Ariola. Her success placed her in being nominated to a Grammy, Latin Grammy, and her albums to be labeled Gold and Platinum. With all her success, she has been labeled to be La Reina del Rock, and one of the most successful female artists of Mexico. Throughout her career, she has had success throughout Mexico and the United States. She has done duets with Franco De Vita, Mario Domm, Fonseca, and the most known Gloria Trevi. Her along with Trevi had several duets together and did the Versus Tour together from 2017-2018. She served as judge of the second season of Va Por Ti.She also served as coach of La Voz...México. On July 5, 2018, Telemundo announced <mask> <mask> as a coach on La Voz (U.S.). <mask> joined Luis Fonsi, Carlos Vives and Wisin as coaches on the Spanish-language version of NBC singing-competition The Voice. In 2020, Amazon announced her starring role in the Amazon Prime series "El juego de las llaves". Personal life
<mask> Guzman grew up in the entertainment world having two superstars as her parents. She had her fair share of being bullied but managed to pull through. At age 14, the death of her older sister Viridiana Alatriste, who died in a car crash, was one of the saddest moments in her life.After her sister's passing she became quite rebellious and enjoyed life to the fullest. She routinely sneaked out of her house to join the vibrant night life of Mexico City. During those times, <mask> met Kenny Aviles from the band Kenny y Los Electricos who became her rock mother/mentor. It was then that she came to realize she belonged on the stage. <mask> <mask> has had several relationships throughout her life. Her first public relationship was with Erik Rubin which did not last long due to conflict with Mexican singer Paulina Rubio over him. She later started a relationship with Pablo Moctezuma, a businessman with whom <mask> has a daughter, Frída Sofía, born March 1992.She and Moctezuma later separated. <mask> married American businessman Farrell Goodman in 1998. The marriage was destroyed right after, when Goodman was arrested due to carrying narcotics in an airport in Germany. Her last public relationship to date was a little after her divorce from Goodman, with Gerardo Gómez de la Borbolla. They initially had a great relationship but things ended after she suffered a miscarriage and fell into a deep depression, during which time he also wanted to be part of her work team as well as launching a singing career of his own. <mask> revealed years later that she ended up having an abortion from a second pregnancy with him. In 2007 she was diagnosed with breast cancer and was able to survive due to early detection.In 2009 <mask> almost died a few months after she had butt enhancement injections from unlicensed estheticians. She was injected with polymers which caused infections and for several years she has had over 30 surgical procedures to remove them from her body. Since 2020 <mask> and her daughter Frída Sofía have been estranged. In 2021 Frída Sofía caused a huge scandal by asserting that <mask>'s father Enrique had sexually molested her since she was 5. Guzmán has sided fully with her father, who denies the accusations and has stated she hopes this will be solved soon enough.

masks:
Gabriela Alejandra Guzmán Pinal
Alejandra Guzmán
Enrique Guzmán
Gabriela Alejandra Guzmán Pinal
Guzmán
Luis Enrique Guzmán
Alejandra
Guzmán
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<mask>, 7th Viscount FitzWilliam (1 August 1745 – 4 February 1816) of Mount Merrion, Dublin, Ireland, and of FitzWilliam House in the parish of Richmond in Surrey, England, was a nobleman in the Peerage of Ireland who was a benefactor and musical antiquarian who founded the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, England, with a bequest of his library and art collection. He was also a significant urban developer in the City of Dublin. He served as a Member of Parliament for Wilton in Wiltshire, England (not precluded by his Irish peerage), from 1790 until his death. Origins
<mask> was baptised on 22 August 1745. He was the eldest son and heir of <mask>, 6th Viscount FitzWilliam (1711-1776) by his wife Catherine Decker, a daughter and co-heiress of Sir Matthew Decker, 1st Baronet (1679-1749) of Richmond, Surrey, England, a wealthy Dutch-born merchant, by his wife Henrietta Watkins. Early origins
The Irish FitzWilliam family appears to have been un-related to the prominent English FitzWilliam Family, Earls FitzWilliam, but is however said in some sources to have split off from the English FitzWilliams during the reign of King <mask> (1154-1189) when a member of that family accompanied the king's son Prince John to Ireland, following his appointment as Chief Governor of Ireland. The coats of arms of the two families, adopted at the start of the age of heraldry c.1200-1215, are however apparently identical: Lozengy argent and gules.Career
He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge in England, and received an MA in 1764. He succeeded to his father's title in 1776 and was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1789. He was elected as the second Member of Parliament for Wilton in Wiltshire from 1790 to 1806. Residences
Although he made frequent visits to Mount Merrion House, south of Dublin, <mask> lived mainly at FitzWilliam House in the parish of Richmond, Surrey, to the west of London, where he formed his large art collection. He bequeathed it to his heir George Herbert, 11th Earl of Pembroke, who renamed it "Pembroke House" and the site is now represented by "Pembroke Villas" 5 pairs of large semi-detached Victorian villas on the north eastern side of Richmond Green. FitzWilliam had inherited the estate from his mother Catherine Decker. John Macky in his Journey through England (1722 to 1723), described the Decker estate at Richmond as follows:
The longest, largest, and highest Hedge of Holly I ever saw, is in this garden, with several other Hedges of Ever-Greens, Visto’s cut through Woods, Grotto’s with Fountains, a fine Canal running up from the River.His Duckery, which is an oval Pond brick’d round, and his pretty Summer-House by it to drink a Bottle, his Stove-Houses, which are always kept in an equal heat for his Citrons, and other Indian Plants, with Gardeners brought from foreign Countries to manage them, are very curious and entertaining. The house is also very large a-la-modern, and neatly furnished after the Dutch way. <mask> in his General treatise of husbandry and gardening for the month of July (1723) described the estate as follows:
Tis not long since I was Eye-witness to several fruited Pine Apples at Sir Matthew Decker’s, at Richmond, about Forty in number; some ripening, and others in a promising condition; the least of which Fruit was above four Inches long, and some were as large as any I have seen brought from the West-Indies: I measured one near seven inches long in pure fruit, and near thirteen Inches about… I proceed to give an Account of the method now practis’d at Sir Matthew Decker’s at Richmond, for the production of this excellent Fruit, which Mr Henry Telende his judicious Gardener has render’d so easy and intelligible, that I hope to see the Ananas flourish for the future in many of our English Gardens, to see the honour of the Artist, and the Satisfaction and Pleasure of those who can afford to eat them. Urban development
He developed part of south-east Dublin in the Georgian style. This included:
An Act to enclose the centre of Merrion Square in 1791;
The design of Fitzwilliam Square from 1789, laid out in 1792;
A new Roman Catholic church at Booterstown in 1812 called the Church of the Assumption;
An Act to enclose the centre of Fitzwilliam Square in 1813. Mistress
Fitzwilliam never married but in the late 1980s it was discovered that starting in 1784 he had a six-year romance with a 15-year-old French Opera dancer from Paris, Marie Anne Bernard (born 1769), known to him by her stage-name Zacharie. The relationship was brought to light when a collection of 299 of her letters sent to Fitzwilliam were found amongst his papers at Wilton House in Wiltshire, the seat of the Herbert family, Earls of Pembroke, descendants of his cousin and heir George Herbert, 11th Earl of Pembroke.The letters make it clear that he fathered three illegitimate children by Zacharie, namely a daughter who died in infancy and two sons, Bily (whose existence is untraceable) and Fitz, who together with his own wife and children later moved to Richmond, Surrey, close to his natural father, who provided for him in his will. Zacharie's last letter is dated December 1790, during the French Revolution, and details of her future life are unknown. Death and succession
He died unmarried and without legitimate progeny on 4 February 1816, in Bond Street, Mayfair, London, having a few months previously fallen off a ladder in his library when he broke a knee. He was buried at St Mary Magdalene's Church, Richmond, where survives his inscribed monument, now affixed to an outside wall. His titles devolved by law successively on his younger brothers, namely John FitzWilliam, 8th Viscount FitzWilliam (1752–1830) and then to Thomas FitzWilliam, 9th Viscount FitzWilliam (1755–1833), following whose death without issue in 1833 they became extinct. He bequeathed his large Irish estates to George Herbert, 11th Earl of Pembroke (1759-1827), his first cousin's son, and his art collection and library to the University of Cambridge, together with funds to house them, which became the Fitzwilliam Museum. See also
 Viscount FitzWilliam

References

Sources

1745 births
1816 deaths
18th-century Irish people
19th-century Irish people
Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British MPs 1790–1796
British MPs 1796–1800
People from Mount Merrion
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
UK MPs 1801–1802
UK MPs 1802–1806
FitzWilliam, V7
Viscounts in the Peerage of Ireland
Irish art collectors
Irish antiquarians
Irish businesspeople in real estate
Museum founders
People associated with the Fitzwilliam Museum
Philanthropists from Dublin (city)
Irish patrons of music
Irish patrons of literature

masks:
Richard FitzWilliam
Richard FiWiam
Richard FitzWiam
Richard II
Richard FitzWilliam
Richard Bradley


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<mask> (born December 29, 1960, in San Francisco, California) is an American author, of  several autobiographical and self-help books. His 1995 memoir of childhood abuse, A Child Called "It", was listed on The New York Times Bestseller List for several years, and in 5 years had sold at least 1.6 million copies. The book has also been a source of controversy for Pelzer, with accusations of several events being fabricated coming from both family members and journalists. Biography
<mask> was born in San Francisco, California the second of five boys. He grew up in Daly City, California. He is the son of <mask> (1929-1992) and San Francisco fireman <mask> (1923-1980). Pelzer's books describe the abuse he suffered for several years of childhood, including continual mistreatment and beatings by his mother, who he said thought of it as a game.His teachers stepped in on March 5, 1973, when 12-year-old <mask> was placed in foster care. At age 18 he joined the U.S. Air Force in 1979 and served in the Gulf War. In the 1980s <mask> married his first wife Patsy (a pseudonym), with whom he had a son. In 1996 he carried a torch in the 1996 Summer Olympics torch relay. <mask> and Patsy divorced and many years later he married his second wife, Marsha, who was his editor. Abuse
His book A Child Called "It" describes from his viewpoint the severe abuse he suffered as a child. He writes how his mother was physically and emotionally abusive towards him from ages 4 to 12.He describes how his mom starved him, forced him to drink ammonia, stabbed him in the stomach, burned his arm on a gas stove, and forced him to eat his own vomit. He mentioned that his father was not active in resolving or stopping the conflicts between Pelzer and his alcoholic mother. He was sent to a foster family at age 12 in 1973. In the book he refers to his relatives by pseudonyms. One of <mask>'s brothers, Richard B<mask>, published his own autobiography, A Brother's Journey, that detailed his experiences. Paraphrased, Pelzer said in the afterword of his book that his objectives for his story was to show how a parent can become abusive and how the human spirit can triumph and survive. Books
<mask>'s first book, A Child Called "It" was published in 1995 and describes the abuse Pelzer suffered in his childhood.His second book, The Lost Boy: A Foster Child's Search for the Love of a Family was published shortly after in 1997. The book covered <mask>'s teen years. The third book in his series, A Man Named Dave: A Story of Triumph and Forgiveness was about <mask>'s experiences as an adult and how he forgave his father. In 2001 he wrote Help Yourself: Finding Hope, Courage, And Happiness which was a self-help book. When discussing his seventh book Moving Forward he said, "My message has always been about resilience". Reception of A Child Called "It"
His first book, A Child Called "It," was successful and garnered interest. It was listed on The New York Times Bestseller List for several years and in five years had sold at least 1.6 million copies.<mask> was  invited to television shows such as The Montel Williams Show and The Oprah Winfrey Show to give interviews after the book was published. In a 2001 news article Orion UK Publishing's Trevor Dolby said, "We get 10 letters a day from people saying the first book mirrors their own childhood, which is very depressing." One reader was quoted: "(The book) made me see that I wasn't the only one out there...that had this...in their life. That there's people who do understand." Writer David Plotz criticized Pelzer in an article he wrote for Slate. In the article Plotz says that because Pelzer's parents are dead it is hard to question them. Awards
A Child Called "It" has received the following accolades:

 2010 Popular Paperbacks for Young Adults
 2002 Popular Paperbacks for Young Adults

Challenges
According to the American Library Association, A Child Called "It" has been frequently banned and challenged in the United States.The book landed the 36th spot on the list of the top books challenged between 2010 and 2019. Controversy
In a 2002 The New York Times article by Pat Jordan the author questioned the reliability of <mask>'s recollections. He said that "Pelzer has an exquisite recall of his abuse, but almost no recall of anything that would authenticate that abuse", such as any details about his mother. Two members of his family, his maternal grandmother and brother, have disputed his book. One of his younger brothers, Stephen, denies that any abuse took place, and says that he thinks David was placed in foster care because "he started a fire and was caught shoplifting". However, his other brother, <mask>, is author of the book A Brother's Journey, which affirms much of what David has said and describes his own abuse when David was finally removed from the home. In regard to this, <mask> has said that Stephen is "'semi-retarded, he has Bell's palsy.He worshipped my mum. He misses her terribly because she protected him." Due to the criticism from The New York Times article <mask> does not give interviews often. In an article in The Boston Globe, <mask>'s grandmother said she believed <mask> had been abused but not as severely as he described. She also said she didn't believe his brother Richard was abused. It was revealed, however, that <mask>'s grandmother did not live in the same state as his brothers and family and was not in contact with them when the abuse happened. An article in The Guardian notes that gaps in the background narrative "makes the foreground harder to trust".The author writes, "My own hunch is that, substantially, he's telling the truth ... But there is a definite feeling of exaggeration in the later two books..." The author then states the same feeling Plotz also covered in his article, that she feels Pelzer is profiting from his abuse and minimizing the seriousness of the crime by making the writing "entertaining". Current life
Pelzer spends his time giving lectures across the country. He is also a volunteer. Work
A Child Called It (1995)
The Lost Boy: A Foster Child's Search for the Love of a Family (1997)
A Man Named Dave: A Story of Triumph and Forgiveness (2000)
Help Yourself (2000)
The Privilege of Youth (2004)
Help Yourself for Teens (2005)
Moving Forward (2009)

See also
Richard B. Pelzer

References

External links
 <mask>'s Official Website
 An interview with <mask>zer
 Audio interview with <mask> at Oprah.com

American memoirists
American self-help writers
United States Air Force airmen
1960 births
Living people
Writers from the San Francisco Bay Area
People from Daly City, California
Nautilus Book Award winners

masks:
David James Pelzer
Pelzer
Catherine Roerva Christen Pelzer
Stephen Joseph Pelzer
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. Pelzer
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Dave Pelzer


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<mask> (born September 30, 1957) is an American writer, journalist, and contributing editor at Writer's Digest magazine. She is a former correspondent for the Sarasota Herald-Tribune and author of two series of crime novels, including her Rita Farmer Mystery Series, originally published by St. Martin's Press Minotaur and Lillian Byrd Crime Series, originally published by Alyson Books. She has also published a stand-alone novel, Crimes in a Second Language, under her personal imprint, Spruce Park Press. Crimes in a Second Language was awarded the Silver Medal for General Fiction in the Florida Book Awards 2017. Her nonfiction works include You've Got a Book in You: A Stress-Free Guide to Writing the Book of Your Dreams, published by Writer's Digest Books, articles, short stories, poems, and essays for magazines and books. She also serves as a coach and mentor for new and aspiring writers and offers keynote speeches and presents workshops at writer's conferences around North America. Early life
<mask> was born on September 30, 1957, in Wyandotte, Michigan.She was raised in Detroit and attended Michigan State University and Wayne State University, graduating with degrees in English and composition theory. She is a member of the Mystery Writers of America, Novelists, Inc., and American Mensa. Professional background
In 1992, <mask> began serving a two-year term on the editorial board of Moving Out literary journal, in which she also submitted the short story "Beautiful" in 1987, and "Cleva" in 1989. In 2006, she began writing features for Writer's Digest magazine. She became a contributing editor in 2009, specializing in the art and craft of fiction. She worked as a freelance correspondent for the Sarasota Herald-Tribune in 2011. Also, <mask> taught creative writing at Sarasota’s Ringling College of Art and Design in 2017 and 2018.Rita Farmer Mystery Series
In May 2008, she launched the Rita Farmer Mystery Series with The Actress. The main character, Rita Farmer, is a single mother and struggling Hollywood actress who is recruited to secretly coach the unsympathetic defendant in a high-profile murder trial. The Extra, second in the Rita Farmer Mystery Series was published by St. Martin's Press Minotaur in June 2009. Rita, dressed in a police uniform as an extra on a movie shoot, is pulled into a real crime scene. When Rita and her boyfriend, George Rowe, try to help Amaryllis B. Cubitt, the director of an urban mission, they move deeper into mystery and danger. <mask> moves the action from Los Angeles to Washington's Olympic Peninsula in On Location, published by Minotaur in August 2010. Rita's sister Gina, working as a film location scout in the forests of the Pacific Northwest, goes missing, and Rita has no choice but to follow.Foul weather meets foul play as Rita and her stalwart friends risk their lives for the sake of truth—and love. Lillian Byrd Crime Series
The Lillian Byrd Crime Series is a six-novel series, originally published by Alyson Books (New York), beginning with Holy Hell in 2002. The series focuses on lesbian culture, mystery, and love. The second book in the series, Damn Straight, won a 2003 Lambda Literary Award. Lucky Stiff and Easy Street followed in 2004 and 2005. The main character, Lillian Byrd, is a reporter turned sleuth whose quest for true love takes her into dangerous places. The series, set mostly in the Detroit, Michigan area, is noted for its off-kilter characters and wry humor.The fifth novel in the series, Left Field, was published in 2014 by Spruce Park Press. It received a Golden Crown Literary Society award in 2015. The sixth in the series, Tight Race, was published in 2022 by Spruce Park Press. Crimes in a Second Language
In 2017, <mask> published Crimes in a Second Language, a departure from her series work. The novel, set in contemporary Los Angeles, features a white retired schoolteacher who befriends a young Mexican-American housecleaner. Their story line intersects with the film business and industrial espionage, and explores questions of friendship and literacy. In April 2018 Crimes in a Second Language was awarded the silver medal in the Florida Book Award general fiction category.Public speaking
In addition to her writing, <mask> serves as a keynote speaker and presents workshops at writer's conferences and retreats around North America. Published works

Fiction
Rita Farmer Mystery Series
 <mask>, <mask> (2008). The Actress, St. Martin's Minotaur, 336 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2009). The Extra, St. Martin's Minotaur, 400 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2010). On Location, St. Martin's Minotaur, 384 pages.Lillian Byrd Crime Series
 <mask>, <mask> (2002). Holy Hell, Alyson Books, 270 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2003). Damn Straight, Alyson Books, 272 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2004). Lucky Stiff, Alyson Books, 243 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2005).Easy Street, Alyson Books, 229 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2014), Left Field, Spruce Park Press, 269 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2022), Tight Race, Spruce Park Press, 298 pages. Other Novels
 <mask>, <mask> (2017), Crimes in a Second Language, Spruce Park Press, 266 pages. Short Story Collections
 <mask>, <mask> (2015). I am Calico Jones: Four Short Stories, Spruce Park Press, 76 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2018).Go-Go Day: Four Literary Tales with a Dash of Dark, Spruce Park Press, 73 pages. Short Stories
 <mask>, <mask> (1987). "Beautiful", Moving Out, vol. 13
 <mask>, <mask> (1989). "Cleva", Moving Out, vol. 14
 <mask>, <mask>; and Valerie Reed (editor, 2003). "For Faye", A Woman's Touch, Alyson Books
 <mask>, <mask>; and Angela Brown (editor, 2004)."Play Money", Best Lesbian Love Stories 2004, Alyson Books
 <mask>, <mask>; and Lake, Lori L. and Tara Young (editors, 2006). "I am Calico Jones", Romance for Life, Intaglio Publications
 <mask>, <mask>; and Lake, Lori L. and Jessie Chandler (editors, 2014). "Untold Riches", Lesbians on the Loose: Crime Writers on the Lam, Launch Point Press
 <mask>, <mask>; (2015). I am Calico Jones: Four Short Stories, Spruce Park Press
 <mask>, <mask>; (2016), "Go-Go Day", Scene Magazine, August 2016

Nonfiction
 <mask>, <mask>; and Ned Thomas (2007). Port Angeles Symphony Orchestra: Seventy-Five Years of Music on the Strait, Port Angeles Symphony Orchestra
 <mask>, <mask> (contributor, 2010); and Editors of Writer's Digest. The Complete Handbook Of Novel Writing: Everything You Need to Know About Creating & Selling Your Work, Writer's Digest Books, 528 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor, 2012); and Editors of Writer's Digest.Crafting Novels & Short Stories: The Complete Guide to Writing Great Fiction, Writer's Digest Books, 368 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor); and Chuck Sambuchino, (editor, 2012). 2013 Guide to Literary Agents, Writer's Digest Books, 364 pages. <mask>, <mask> (2013). You've Got a Book in You: A Stress-Free Guide to Writing the Book of Your Dreams, Writer's Digest Books, 282 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor); and Rachel Randall, (editor, 2014). 2015 Novel & Short Story Writer's Market , Writer's Digest Books, 580 pages.<mask>, <mask> (contributor); and Chuck Sambuchino, (editor, 2014). 2015 Guide to Literary Agents, Writer's Digest Books, 363 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor, 2016); and Editors of Writer's Digest Books. Creating Characters: The Complete Guide to Populating Your Fiction, Writer's Digest Books, 342 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor, 2016); and Editors of Writer's Digest Books. Crafting Dynamic Dialogue: The Complete Guide to Speaking, Conversing, Arguing, and Thinking in Fiction (Creative Writing Essentials), Writer's Digest Books, 296 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor, 2017); and Editors of Writer's Digest.The Complete Handbook Of Novel Writing: Everything You Need to Know About Creating & Selling Your Work, Writer's Digest Books, 528 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor 2019); and Amy Jones, (editor, 2019). 2020 Novel & Short Story Writer's Market , Writer's Digest Books, 512 pages. <mask>, <mask> (contributor 2021); and Lee Child, (editor, 2021) and Laurie R. King (editor 2021). How to Write a Mystery: A Handbook from Mystery Writers of America, Scribner, 336 pages. Poetry
 The Smudge literary journal – Spring 1978, Summer 1978, Winter 1978–79

Articles
 "Store Wars", LOGOS: Journal of the World Book Community, vol. 13, issue 2, 2002
 "Start Me Up!1, Spring 2017
 "Fiction Lab", Writer's Digest, September 2017
 "Should You Go There?

masks:
Elizabeth Sims
Elizabeth Sims
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Elizabeth
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