texts:
 by merchants and ultimately by consumers.<mask> joked that the landed gentry resembled hogs, which squealed loudly whenever anyone laid hands on him. By contrast, he said, merchants were like sheep, and yielded their wool without complaint. The joke backfired in 1733 when he was defeated in a major battle to impose excise taxes on wine and tobacco. To reduce the threat of smuggling, the tax was to be collected not at ports but at warehouses. This new proposal, however, was extremely unpopular and aroused the opposition of the nation's merchants. <mask> agreed to withdraw the bill before Parliament voted on it, but he dismissed the politicians who had dared to oppose it in the first place. Thus, <mask> lost a considerable element of his Whig Party to the Opposition.After the general elections of 1734, <mask>'s supporters still formed a majority in the House of Commons although they were less numerous than before. He maintained both his parliamentary supremacy and his popularity in Norfolk, his home county. In May 1734, he presented a new silver mace "weighing 168 ounces, gilt and finely exchased, to the city of Norwich – on the cup part of it are Sir <mask>'s arms, and the arms of the city; it was first carried before Mayor Philip Meadows Esq. on the 29th of May". However, despite these great occasions, <mask>'s broader popularity had begun to wane. In 1736 an increase in the tax on gin inspired riots in London. The even more serious Porteous riots broke out in Edinburgh after the King pardoned a captain of the guard (John Porteous) who had commanded his troops to shoot a group of protesters.Though these events diminished <mask>'s popularity, they failed to shake his majority in Parliament. <mask>'s domination over the House of Commons was highlighted by the ease with which he secured the rejection of Sir John Barnard's plan to reduce the interest on the national debt. <mask> was also able to persuade Parliament to pass the Licensing Act of 1737 under which London theatres were regulated. The Act revealed a disdain for Swift, Pope, Fielding, and other literary figures who had attacked his government in their works. While the "country party" attacked <mask> relentlessly, he subsidised writers and lesser-known journalists such as William Arnall and Bishop Benjamin Hoadly as well as two men he named to the role of poet laureate, Laurence Eusden and Colley Cibber. They defended <mask> from the charge of evil political corruption by arguing that corruption is the universal human condition. Furthermore, they argued, political divisiveness was also universal and inevitable because of selfish passions that were integral to human nature.Arnall argued that government must be strong enough to control conflict, and in that regard <mask> was quite successful. This style of "court" political rhetoric continued through the 18th century. Decline

The year 1737 saw the death of <mask>'s close friend Queen Caroline. Though her death did not end his personal influence with George II, who had grown loyal to the Prime Minister during the preceding years, <mask>'s domination of government continued to decline. His opponents acquired a vocal leader in the Prince of Wales who was estranged from his father, the King. Several young politicians including William Pitt the Elder and George Grenville formed a faction known as the "Patriot Boys" and joined the Prince of Wales in opposition. <mask>'s failure to maintain a policy of avoiding military conflict eventually led to his fall from power.Under the Treaty of Seville (1729), Great Britain agreed not to trade with the Spanish colonies in North America. Spain claimed the right to board and search British vessels to ensure compliance with this provision. Disputes, however, broke out over trade with the West Indies. <mask> attempted to prevent war but was opposed by the King, the House of Commons, and by a faction in his own Cabinet. In 1739 <mask> abandoned all efforts to stop the conflict and commenced the War of Jenkins' Ear (so called because <mask>, a Welsh mariner, claimed that a Spaniard inspecting his vessel had severed his ear). <mask>'s influence continued to dramatically decline even after the war began. In the 1741 general election his supporters secured an increase in votes in constituencies that were decided by mass electorates but failed to win in many pocket boroughs (constituencies subject to the informal but strong influence of patrons).In general the government made gains in England and Wales but this was not enough to overturn the reverses of the 1734 election and further losses in Cornwall where many constituencies were obedient to the will of the Prince of Wales (who was also Duke of Cornwall). These constituencies returned members of parliament hostile to the Prime Minister. Similarly, the influence of the Duke of Argyll secured the election of members opposed to <mask> in some parts of Scotland. <mask>'s new majority was difficult to determine because of the uncertain loyalties of many new members, but contemporaries and historians estimated it as low as fourteen to eighteen. In the new Parliament, many Whigs thought the aging Prime Minister incapable of leading the military campaign. Moreover, his majority was not as strong as it had formerly been, his detractors—such as William Pulteney, earl of Bath, and Lord Perceval—being approximately as numerous as his supporters. Behind these political enemies were opposition Whigs, Tories and Jacobites.<mask> was alleged to have presided over an immense increase in corruption and to have enriched himself enormously whilst in office. Parliamentary committees were formed to investigate these charges. In 1742 when the House of Commons was prepared to determine the validity of a by-election in Chippenham, <mask> and others agreed to treat the issue as a motion of no confidence. As <mask> was defeated on the vote, he agreed to resign from the Government. The news of the naval disaster against Spain in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias also prompted the end of his political career. King George II wept on his resignation and begged to see him frequently. As part of his resignation the King agreed to elevate him to the House of Lords as the Earl of Orford, Viscount Walpole and Baron Walpole of Houghton in the County of Norfolk, this occurred on 6 February 1742.Five days later he formally relinquished the seals of office. Although no longer First Lord of the Treasury, <mask> remained politically involved as an advisor. His former colleagues were still pleased to see him, perhaps in part because he retained the king's favour. After his resignation, his main political roles were to support the government by means of advice, to dole out some patronage and to speak on the ministry's behalf in the Lords. Later life
Lord Orford was succeeded as prime minister by Lord Wilmington in an administration whose true head was Lord Carteret. A committee was created to inquire into <mask>'s ministry but no substantial evidence of wrongdoing or corruption was discovered. Though no longer a member of the Cabinet, Orford continued to maintain personal influence with George II and was often dubbed the "Minister behind the Curtain" for this advice and influence.In 1744 he managed to secure the dismissal of Carteret and the appointment of Henry Pelham whom he regarded as a political protégé. He advised Pelham to make use of his seat in the Commons to serve as a bridge between the King and Parliament, just as <mask> had done. During this time, <mask> also made two interventions in the Lords. The first was in January 1744 in the debate on Hanoverian troops being kept in British pay. <mask> prevented them from losing the troops. In his second intervention, <mask>, with fear of a Jacobite-inspired invasion in February 1744, made a speech on the situation. Frederick, Prince of Wales, usually hostile to <mask>, warmly received him at his court the next day, most likely because his father's throne, and the future of the whole Hanoverian dynasty, was at risk from the Stuart Pretender.Along with his political interests in his last years, <mask> enjoyed the pleasures of the hunt. Back at his recently rebuilt country seat in Houghton, Norfolk, such pastimes were denied him due to "dismal weather". He also enjoyed the beauties of the countryside. His art collection gave him particular pleasure. He had spent much money in the 1720s and 1730s in building up a collection of Old Masters from all over Europe. <mask> also concerned himself with estate matters. His health, never good, deteriorated rapidly toward the end of 1744; Orford died in London in 1745, aged 68 years; he was buried in the parish church of St Martin in Houghton, Norfolk.His earldom passed to his eldest son <mask> who was in turn succeeded by his only son George. Upon the death of the third Earl, the earldom was inherited by the first Earl's younger son <mask>, who is now remembered for his many thousands of insightful letters, published in 48 volumes by Yale University Press. Legacy

<mask> exercised a tremendous influence on the politics of his day. The Tories became a minor, insignificant faction, and the Whigs became a dominant and largely unopposed party. His influence on the development of the uncodified constitution of Great Britain was less momentous even though he is regarded as Great Britain's first prime minister. He relied primarily on the favour of the King rather than on the support of the House of Commons. His power stemmed from his personal influence instead of the influence of his office.Most of his immediate successors were, comparatively speaking, extremely weak; it would take several decades more for the premiership to develop into the most powerful and most important office in the country. <mask>'s strategy of keeping Great Britain at peace contributed greatly to the country's prosperity. <mask> also managed to secure the position of the Hanoverian Dynasty, and effectively countervailed Jacobitism. The Jacobite threat ended, soon after <mask>'s term ended, with the defeat of the rebellion of 1745. Later in the century, the Whig MP Edmund Burke "admitted him into the whig pantheon". Burke wrote:

Lord Chesterfield expressed scepticism as to whether "an impartial Character of Sr <mask>, will or can be transmitted to Posterity, for he governed this Kingdom so long that the various passions of Mankind mingled, and in a manner incorporated themselves, with every thing that was said or writt concerning him. Never was Man more flattered nor more abused, and his long power, was probably the chief cause of both".Chesterfield claimed he was "much acquainted with him both in his publick and his private life":

10 Downing Street represents another part of <mask>'s legacy. George II offered this home to <mask> as a personal gift in 1732, but <mask> accepted it only as the official residence of the First Lord of the Treasury, taking up his residence there on 22 September 1735. His immediate successors did not always reside in Number 10 (preferring their larger private residences) but the home has nevertheless become established as the official residence of the prime minister (in his or her capacity as First Lord of the Treasury). <mask> has attracted attention from heterodox economists as a pioneer of protectionist policies, in the form of tariffs and subsidies to woollen manufacturers. As a result, the industry became Britain's primary export, enabling the country to import the raw materials and food that fueled the industrial revolution. <mask> is immortalised in St Stephen's Hall, where he and other notable Parliamentarians look on at visitors to Parliament. <mask> built Houghton Hall in Norfolk as his country seat.He also left behind a collection of art which he had assembled during his career. His grandson, the 3rd Earl of Orford, sold many of the works in this collection to the Russian Empress Catherine II in 1779. This collection—then regarded as one of the finest in Europe—now lies in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. In 2013 the Hermitage loaned the collection to Houghton for display following the original William Kent hanging plan, recently discovered at Houghton. The nursery rhyme "Who Killed Cock Robin?" may allude to the fall of <mask>, who carried the popular nickname "Cock Robin". (Contemporaries satirised the <mask> regime as the "Robinocracy" or as the "Robinarchy").In the United States, the towns of Walpole, Massachusetts (founded in 1724), and Orford, New Hampshire (incorporated in 1761), take their respective names from Sir <mask>, Earl of Orford. Walpole Street in Wolverhampton is named after Sir <mask>. Walpole Island, named for Sir <mask>, comprises an island and an Indian reserve in southwestern Ontario, Canada, on the border between Ontario and Michigan. It lies at the mouth of the St. Clair River on Lake St. Clair, approximately thirty miles (50 km) northeast of Detroit, Michigan, and of Windsor, Ontario. Family

Catherine Shorter
On 30 July 1700, <mask> married Catherine, daughter of John Shorter of Bybrook in Ashford, Kent. She was described as "a woman of exquisite beauty and accomplished manners". Her £20,000 dowry was, according to her brother-in-law Horatio <mask>, spent on the wedding, christenings and jewels.Together they had two daughters and three sons:

 <mask>, who married Margaret Rolle (17 January 1709 – 13 January 1781), later the 15th Baroness Clinton, in 1724. They had one son, George, who died unmarried. Katherine, who died unmarried and without issue
 Mary, who married George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley, on 14 September 1723. They had sons and daughters. She died at Aix-en-Provence in 1731, and was buried at Malpas, Cheshire. Edward, who died unmarried but had four illegitimate children with Dorothy Clement, three of whom were daughters. Laura, the eldest, married Bishop Frederick Keppel.The second daughter, <mask> (d. 1807), married, firstly, James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave and, secondly, Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh, King George III's brother. His son, Edward, born in 1737, died in 1771 without issue. The youngest daughter, Charlotte, was wife of Lionel Tollemache, 5th Earl of Dysart. Horace, who died unmarried and without issue

<mask>'s first wife Catherine died on 20 August 1737 and was buried in Henry VII Chapel, Westminster Abbey. Maria Skerritt
Prior to the death of his first wife, <mask> took on a mistress, Maria, daughter of Thomas Skerrett (died 1734; an Irish merchant living in Dover Street, London). She was a fashionable socialite of wit and beauty, with an independent fortune of £30,000. <mask> had married her by March 1738.They had been living openly together in Richmond Park and Houghton Hall before 1728. Maria had borne him a daughter, also called Maria, who was no longer illegitimate after her parents' marriage and, as the daughter of an Earl, became Lady <mask>. In 1746, this daughter married Colonel Charles Churchill of Chalfont (1720–1812), illegitimate son of General Charles Churchill, and became the housekeeper of Windsor Castle. Their daughter Mary became the second wife of Charles Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan, and had issue. His second wife died following a miscarriage on 4 June 1739. <mask> considered her "indispensable to his happiness", and her loss plunged him into a "deplorable and comfortless condition", which ended in a severe illness. See also
Baron Delamere
List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Marquess of Cholmondeley

Notes

References

Sources

.Hoppit, Julian. A Land of Liberty? England 1689–1727 (2000)
  cover "Robin's Reign". Leadam, Isaac Saunders. Sir <mask> – A Short Biography (1899) 60pp  online

  O'Gorman, Frank. The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (1997)
 Speck, W.A. Stability and Strife: England 1714–1760 (1977)

Further reading

 Blick, Andrew, and George Jones.At Power's Elbow: Aides to the Prime Minister from <mask> to David Cameron (Biteback Publishing, 2013)
 Dickinson, Harry T. (1972) "<mask> and his critics," History Today (3 June 1972), Vol. 22 Issue 6, pp 410–419 online. Hartop, Christopher (2014), Sir <mask>'s Silver, London: Silver Society,

 Holmes, Geoffrey, and Daniel Szechi. The age of oligarchy: pre-industrial Britain 1722-1783 (1993) excerpt; "The Age of Walpole" pp 3–88
 Marshall, Dorothy. Eighteenth Century England, 1714–1784 (2nd ed. 1974), pp 101–191, political narrative

 Plumb, J. H. "Sir <mask>" History Today (Oct 1951) 1#10  pp 9–16
; the standard scholarly biography; vol. 1:  Sir <mask>: The Making of a Statesman (1956) to 1722; vol 2: Sir <mask>, The King's Minister (1960) ends in 1734; vol 3 was never finished;  1972 reprint combined vol 1 and vol 2 as Sir <mask>

 Williams, Basil.The Whig Supremacy 1714–1760 (1939; 2nd ed. 1962) online edition; pp 180–212; covers his ministry 1721–42
 Williams, Basil. "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask>" English Historical Review 15#58 (Apr. 1900), pp. 251–276 in JSTOR
"The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 15#59 (July 1900), pp. 479–494 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 59#60 (Oct. 1900), pp. 665–698 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask>" English Historical Review 16#61 (Jan. 1901), pp.67–83 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 16#62 (Apr. 1901), pp. 308–327 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 16#53 (July 1901), pp. 439–451 in JSTOR

Primary sources
 Coxe,

masks:
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Robert
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Horace Walpole
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Maria Walpole
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type: original

texts:
<mask>Fred<mask> is an American chemist and attorney who served as a Supervisory Special Agent in the Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory from 1986 to 1998. Concerned about problems he saw among agents, he went public as a whistleblower to bring attention to procedural errors and misconduct by agents. The FBI agreed to 40 reforms to improve the forensic reliability of its testing. Biography

<mask> served as an intelligence specialist at the Americal base in Đức Phổ, Vietnam during the early 1970s. He was tasked with reviewing seized documents and destroying any that had no military value. Working with translator Sergeant Nguyen Trung Hieu and following his advice, he saved two diaries written by Dr. Đặng Thùy Trâm, a civilian woman doctor working for North Vietnam. He kept them for 35 years, with the intention of eventually returning them to Trâm's family, if possible.FBI career
Dr<mask> received a Ph.D. in chemistry from Duke University, and a J.D. from Georgetown University. He joined the FBI in 1982 and served as a Supervisory Special Agent in the FBI crime lab from 1986-1998. While he was employed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, the FBI officially rated Dr. <mask> as the leading national and international expert in the science of explosives and explosives residue. Concerned about a number of issues that he observed and by the behavior of agents in the laboratory, he began to investigate their procedures. He eventually uncovered and reported what he thought were cases of scientific misconduct, alleging that the agents were biased toward the prosecution. In the OIG's report of <mask>'s allegations, it was concluded that,"most of <mask> allegations were not substantiated," and that Dr. <mask> had, "common sense and judgement to serve as forensics examiner.The FBI crime lab finally agreed to forty major reforms, including undergoing an accreditation process. During this period, to protect himself in administrative proceedings, <mask> hired Kohn, Kohn & Colapinto, a Washington, D.C. law firm specializing in defending whistleblowers. Post-FBI years
Dr. <mask> currently serves as the Executive Director of the Forensic Justice Project (FJP). The FJP was formed in 1998 as a project of the National Whistleblower Center, a non-profit 501(c)3 organization. The goal of the FJP is to lead a national effort to accomplish the following:
 Review cases to make sure that innocent people have not been wrongfully convicted through the misuse of forensic science;
 Provide expert testimony in cases in order to assure that forensic science is not misused in civil and criminal prosecutions impacting on the public interest or the rights of individuals;
 Offer objective scientific evaluations of forensic evidence;
 Publish and distribute information necessary for an objective analysis of the quality and objectivity of forensic science and crime laboratories nationwide. Dr. <mask> practices criminal law in Bethel, North Carolina. He was elected to the commission of the town of Bethel.The Diaries
In March 2005, he and his brother Robert (also a Vietnam War veteran) brought the Đặng Thùy Trâm diaries to a conference on the Vietnam War at Texas Tech University. There, they met photographer Ted Engelmann (also a Vietnam veteran), who offered to look for the family during his trip to Vietnam the next month. With the assistance of Đỗ Xuân Anh, a staff member in the Hanoi Quaker office, Engelmann was able to locate Trâm’s mother, Doãn Ngọc Trâm. He obtained connections to the rest of her family. In July 2005, Trâm’s diaries were published in Vietnamese under the title Nhật ký Đặng Thùy Trâm (Đặng Thùy Trâm’s Diary), which quickly became a bestseller. In less than a year, the volume sold more than 300,000 copies, and comparisons were drawn between Trâm’s writings and that of Anne Frank. In August 2005, Fred and <mask> traveled to Hanoi, Vietnam, to meet Trâm’s family.In October of the same year, the Vietnamese family came to Lubbock, Texas, to view the diaries, which are archived at Texas Tech University's Vietnam Archive. They visited <mask> and his family in his home state of North Carolina. The diaries have been translated into English and published in September 2007. The book includes photographs of Đặng during high school and with her family. Additional translations have been made and the book has been published in at least sixteen different languages. In 2009 a film about Đặng Thùy Trâm by Vietnamese director Đặng Nhật Minh, entitled Đừng Đốt (Do Not Burn It), was released. Legacy
During his military service in Vietnam, <mask> saved Dr. Đặng Thùy Trâm's diaries, which were first published in 2005 and are the basis for the 2009 film Đừng Đốt (Do Not Burn It).In addition, as noted above, he investigated, uncovered and reported scientific misconduct which forced the FBI crime lab to agree to forty major reforms, including undergoing an accreditation process. References

Further reading
Tainting Evidence: Inside the Scandals at the FBI Crime Lab, by John F. Kelly and Phillip K. Wearne
Tainting Evidence: Inside the Scandals at the FBI Crime Lab  Prologue, New York Times Web

External links
 National Whistleblower Center
 Forensic Justice Project
<mask>' testimony at the World Trade Center Bombing Trial
"Dismal Science: When the F.B.I. 's crime lab makes a mistake, two journalists contend, it's a beaut", by David Johnston, New York Times review of Tainting  Evidence (September 27, 1998)
"Tainting Evidence: Inside the Scandals at the FBI Crime Lab, by John F. Kelly and Phillip K. Wearne", Crime Magazine review
  Introduction about Whitehurst by National Whistleblower Center Chairman Stephen M. Kohn, Esq. before the U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, May 13, 2007

Living people
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Duke University alumni
North Carolina lawyers
American whistleblowers
Year of birth missing (living people)

masks:
Frederic "
" Whitehurst
Vietnam Whitehurst
. Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
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Robert Whitehurst
Fred Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst


texts:
Pelagius (; 354-418) was a British monk and theologian, his theological system is known as Pelagianism, which emphasized human choice in salvation. Pelagius and his followers abhorred the moral standards of Christians in Rome, which he blamed on the view of divine grace. Pelagius was accused of heresy at the synod of Jerusalem in 415 and his doctrines were harshly criticized by Augustine of Hippo, especially the Pelagian views about humankind's good nature and individual responsibility for choosing ascetism. Pelagius especially stressed the freedom of human will. Very little is known about the personal life and the career of Pelagius. Beginnings
Pelagius was active between about 390 and 418. He is said by his contemporaries, such as Augustine of Hippo, Prosper of Aquitaine, Marius Mercator, and Paul Orosius, to have been of Celtic British origin.Jerome apparently thought that Pelagius was Irish, suggesting that he was "stuffed with Irish porridge" (Scotorum pultibus praegravatus). He was tall in stature and portly in appearance. Pelagius was also highly educated, spoke and wrote Latin and Greek with great fluency, and was well versed in theology. His name has traditionally been understood as a Graecized form (from pélagos, "sea") of the Welsh name Morgan ("sea-born"), or another Celtic equivalent. Pelagius became better known around 380 when he moved to Rome. There he enjoyed a reputation of austerity; he also corresponded with St. Paulinus of Nola. Pelagius became concerned about the moral laxity of society.He blamed this laxity on the theology of divine grace preached by Augustine, among others. He began to teach a very strict, rigid moralism, emphasizing a natural, innate human ability to attain salvation. Twenty-five years after the fact, Augustine related that Pelagius had reacted strongly to Augustine's Confessions (397–401) the statement "Give what you command and command what you will", as he believed that it undermined human responsibility. However, this incident's historicity is questioned by scholars. When Alaric sacked Rome in 410, Pelagius and his follower Caelestius fled to Carthage, where he continued his work. Opponents

Augustine of Hippo
Pelagianism quickly spread, especially around Carthage. Augustine wrote "De peccatorum meritis et remissione libri III" (Three Books on the Merits and Forgiveness of Sins) in 412, and "De spiritu et littera" (On the Spirit and the Letter) in 414.When in 414 disquieting rumours arrived from Sicily and the so-called "Definitiones Caelestii", said to be the work of Caelestius, were sent to him, he at once (414 or 415) published the rejoinder, "De perfectione justitiae hominis." In these, he strongly affirmed the existence of original sin, the need for infant baptism, the impossibility of a sinless life without Christ, and the necessity of Christ's grace. Augustine stands as an important source on the life and theology of Pelagius, and wrote about him extensively. Jerome
<mask> soon left for Palestine, befriending the bishop there. Jerome, who also lived there, became involved as well. Pelagius had criticized his commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians. Jerome wrote against Pelagius in his "Letter to Ctesiphon" and "Dialogus contra Pelagianos".With Jerome at the time was Orosius, a visiting pupil of Augustine, who had similar views on the dangers of Pelagianism. Together, they publicly condemned Pelagius. Bishop John of Jerusalem, a personal friend of Pelagius, called a council in July 415. Church sources claim Orosius' lack of fluency in Greek rendered him unconvincing and John's Eastern background made him more willing to accept that humans did not have inherent sinfulness, yet the council rendered no verdict and passed the controversy to the Latin Church because Pelagius, Jerome, and Orosius were all Latin. Diospolis
A few months later in December of 415, another synod in Diospolis (Lydda) under the bishop of Cæsarea was called by two deposed bishops who came to the Holy Land. However, neither bishop attended for unrelated reasons and Orosius had left after consultation with Bishop John. Pelagius explained to the synod that he did believe God was necessary for salvation because every human is created by God.He also claimed that many works of Celestius did not represent his own views. He showed letters of recommendation by other authoritative figures including Augustine himself, who for all their disagreements, thought highly of Pelagius' character. The Synod of Diospolis therefore concluded: "Now since we have received satisfaction in respect of the charges brought against the monk Pelagius in his presence and since he gives his assent to sound doctrines but condemns and anathematises those contrary to the faith of the Church, we adjudge him to belong to the communion of the Catholic Church." Teachings
Manichaeism stressed that the spirit was God-created, while material substance was corrupt and evil. Theologian Gerald Bonner felt that part of Pelagius' analysis was an over-reaction to Manicheanism. Pelagius held that everything created by God was good, therefore, he could not see how God had made humans fallen creatures. (Augustine's teaching on the Fall of Adam was not a settled doctrine at the time the Augustinian/Pelagian dispute began.)The Pelagians accused Augustine of bringing Manichaeian theology into the Christian church, which Augustine himself denied. The view that mankind can avoid sinning, and that humans can freely choose to obey God's commandments, stands at the core of Pelagian teaching. Pelagius stressed human autonomy and freedom of the will. An illustration of Pelagius' views on man's "moral ability" not to sin can be found in his "Letter to Demetrias". For Pelagius, "grace" consisted of the gift of free will, the Law of Moses, and the teachings of Jesus. According to Augustine, Pelagians saw baptism of infants as useless because they had no sin. Celestius, who was a disciple of Pelagius also denied original sin and the necessity of infant baptism for salvation.Pope Zosimus
Seeking to undo his condemnation, Pelagius wrote a letter and statement of belief to Pope Zosimus, Innocent I's successor, arguing that he was orthodox. In these he articulated his beliefs so as not to contradict what the synods condemned. Zosimus was persuaded by Celestius to reopen the case, but opposition from the African bishops and Emperor Honorius forced Zosimus to condemn and excommunicate Celestius and Pelagius in 418. Pelagianism was condemned at the Council of Carthage in 418. Augustine, shocked that Pelagius and Celestius were not denounced as heretics, had called the Council of Carthage in 418 and stated nine beliefs of the Church that Pelagianism denied:

 Death came from sin, not man's physical nature. Infants must be baptized to be cleansed from original sin. Justifying grace covers past sins and helps avoid future sins.The grace of Christ imparts strength and will to act out God's commandments. No good works can come without God's grace. We confess we are sinners because it is true, not from humility. The saints ask for forgiveness for their own sins. The saints also confess to be sinners because they are. Children dying without baptism are excluded from both the kingdom of heaven and eternal life. Death and later
After his condemnation, Pelagius was expelled from Jerusalem, and Saint Cyril of Alexandria allowed him to settle in Egypt.He is not heard of thereafter. His death did not end his teachings, although those who followed him may have modified those teachings. Because little information remains with regard to Pelagius' actual teachings, some of his doctrines possibly were subject to revision and suppression by his enemies (followers of Augustine and the Church leadership as a whole at that time). Pelagius and Caelestius were declared heretics by the First Council of Ephesus in 431. Belief in Pelagianism and Semipelagianism was common for the next few centuries, especially in Britain, the Holy Land, and North Africa. St Germanus visited Britain to combat Pelagianism in or around AD 429. In Wales, Saint David was credited with convening the Synod of Brefi and the Synod of Victory against the followers of Pelagius in the sixth century.Evaluation
Because of the fifth-century condemnations of him, Pelagius became known as "a heresiarch of the deepest dye". Evaluation of him changed after the publication of a 1943 biography by Georges de Plinval and more recent scholars have viewed him as an orthodox Christian theologian who was a victim of denunciation. His Pauline commentaries were popular during the Middle Ages but frequently claimed to be the work of other authors. An objective view of Pelagius and his effect is difficult. His name has been used as an epithet for centuries by both Protestants and Catholics, and he has had few defenders. The very early church denounced his ideas and the Reformation accused Roman Catholics of adhering to his beliefs and condemned both Pelagius and the Catholic Church. Modern scholarship suggests that Pelagius did not take the more extreme positions later associated with his followers.Ronald Hutton describes him as "a first-rate theologian". The theologian Carol Harrison commented that Pelagius presented "a radically different alternative to Western understandings of the human person, human responsibility and freedom, ethics and the nature of salvation" which might have come about if Augustine had not been victorious in the Pelagian controversy. According to Harrison, "Pelagianism represents an attempt to safeguard God's justice, to preserve the integrity of human nature as created by God, and of human beings' obligation, responsibility and ability to attain a life of perfect righteousness." However, this is at the expense of downplaying human frailty and presenting "the operation of divine grace as being merely external". According to the scholar Rebecca Weaver, "what most distinguished Pelagius was his conviction of an unrestricted freedom of choice, given by God and immune to alteration by sin or circumstance." In 1956, John Ferguson wrote:

Writings
Pelagius wrote: De fide Trinitatis libri III ("On Faith in the Trinity: Three Books"), Eclogarum ex divinis Scripturis liber primus ("Excerpts out of Divine Scriptures: Book One"), and Commentarii in epistolas S. Pauli ("Commentary on the Epistles of Saint Paul"). Unfortunately, most of his work survives only in the quotations of his opponents.Only in the past century have works attributable to Pelagius been identified as such. Other writings include On Nature, parts of which are quoted in Augustine's On Nature and Grace, and Defense of the Freedom of the Will, quoted in Augustine's On the Grace of Christ. Also surviving are his letter to Demetrias, along with fragments of other letters, and the written statement of faith which was received by Pope Zosimus. See also
 Julian of Eclanum

References

Sources

Further reading
Translations
 Pelagius's Commentary on St Paul's Epistle to the Romans (translated with introduction and notes by Theodore de Bruyn), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993
 Pelagius's Expositions of the Thirteen Epistles of St. Paul (edited by A. Souter) Texts and Studies; 9, 3 vols. in 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922–1931 1: Introduction 2: Text – 3: Pseudo-Jerome interpolations

Other works

 Bonner, Ali, The Myth of Pelagianism, Oxford University Press, 2018. Brinley Rees, Pelagius A Reluctant Heretic, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 1988.Brinley Rees (ed. ), Pelagius: Life and Letters, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge:1989, 1991. Translation of 18 letters, including Epistle to Demetrias, and minor treatises attributed at various times to Pelagius or his followers. Nelson, Eric, The Theology of Liberalism: Political Philosophy and the Justice of God, Harvard University Press, 2019
 Robert Van de Weyer (ed. ), The Letters of Pelagius: Celtic Soul Friend, Little Gidding books, Evesham: Arthur James, 1995. Pelagius, Epistula ad Demetriadem. Brief an Demetrias'', Einleitung, Edition und Übersetzung von Gisbert Greshake, [Fontes Christiani], Band 65, Herder, Freiburg, 2015
 Squires, Stuart.The Pelagian Controversy: An Introduction to the Enemies of Grace and the Conspiracy of Lost Souls. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2019. Yamada, N. (2020). Pelagius' View of Ideal Christian Women in his Letters, Scrinium, 1-22. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/18177565-00160A17

External links

The Patristics in English Project provides English translations of several of Pelagius's writings. "Pelagius: To Demetrias", an analysis of the letter and a brief biography by Deacon Geoffrey Ó Riada. 418 deaths
4th-century births
5th-century Christians
5th-century Latin writers
5th-century philosophers
Ascetics
Founders of religions
Latin letter writers
People declared heretics by the first seven ecumenical councils
Romano-British Christians
Pelagians


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<mask> (; June 26, 1887 – December 13, 1970) was a leading American-Israeli Zionist, one of the leading proponents of Yad Vashem, editor of Yiddishe Kempfer, and a leading figure in the Farband and Histadrut campaigns, and president of the Labor Zionist Organization of America. Early life
<mask> was born into a poor family in the Hassidic village of Kurenitz, near Vilnius (then in Russia), the son of a peddler. His parents were Vigdor Chait and Sara, nee Levin. Most of the family later immigrated to the United States and changed their surname to <mask>. <mask>, one of the leaders of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, wrote in his memoirs that <mask> was his relative. When <mask> was 15, he began to feel the first stirrings of Zionism. He became seriously interested in this fledgling ideology in August 1903 when he heard Theodor Herzl speak in Vilnius.Emigration to United States
In 1904, aged 16, <mask> arrived in the USA, where he initially worked in a sweatshop in New York's garment district for $2 per week. It was there that he learned to put together sleeves and cuffs for men's shirts. Later, he graduated to piece work. But his heart was not in the job. While <mask> had been propelled by an uncle towards the garment district, his father and older brother had gone into the scrap business. When his brother realized that there was no future for Zuckerman in the rag trade, he decided to set him up in an enterprise of his own and put a down payment on a candy store in his name. Zuckerman was not a success, and the candy store closed down after only nine months.In the meantime, it had become a popular venue for ideologists who gathered there to vent their Zionist fervour. They all belonged to transplanted Pinsk and Vilnius branches of Poale Zion as did <mask> himself. As his relationship with the candy store was drawing to a close, <mask> was elected a delegate to the founding convention of Poale Zion of America that took place on May 1, 1905. This was the beginning of his career as a servant of his people. As a key member of the Labor Zionist Movement of America, he was both a formulator of policy and one of its major exponents. Passionately committed to social welfare, <mask> dreamt of uniting it with Zionism. The Poale Zion movement enabled him to do so.He was executive director of the People's Relief Committee from 1915 to 1924 when it disbanded, and accompanied Herbert Hoover and investment banker Herbert Lehman to Poland to bring food and clothing to survivors of World War I. During that war, <mask> helped to organize the Jewish Legion and was also instrumental in setting up the American Jewish Congress. He was also the editor of Yiddishe Kempfer, and a leading figure in the Farband and Histadrut campaigns. In later years, he was elected Poale Zion representative to the Executive of the Jewish Agency in America and to the Executive of the World Jewish Congress. He was also president of the Labor Zionist Organization of America. A gifted writer and speaker, as well as an editor and journalist, he was one of the chief spokesman for the American Poale Zion around the world. Aliyah to Palestine
When the family came to Palestine in 1925, it was with the intention of settling permanently, but his daughter Avivah fell ill, a factor which forced the family to return to New York, where she could be properly treated.It was not until 1932 that the Zuckermans finally made aliyah, and Avivah who had been studying at Hunter College in New York enrolled at the Hebrew University, becoming one of its first students of bacteriology. While his wife and daughters remained in Palestine, <mask> <mask>'s many activities as an emissary precluded him from residing in Israel until his retirement in 1956. After the <mask>s moved to Jerusalem, where their daughter Nomi attended the Gymnasia Rehavia, their house became a meeting place for all the leading figures of the Zionist Movement. Golda Meir had to return to America with her two children because her daughter Sara had kidney trouble for which suitable treatment was not available in Palestine. Her husband, Morris Meyerson, stayed behind, and moved in with the Zuckermans. Return to United States
In August 1939, on the eve of Hitler's invasion of Poland, both <mask> and <mask> were delegates to the 21st Zionist Congress in Geneva. They took Nomi with them.The Congress plenum decided that given the circumstances, the Zuckermans were of more value to the Zionist movement operating from America, than from Jerusalem. So they returned to New York, taking Nomi with them. Nomi spent the major part of the war years studying - first at Columbia University, then at the Tyler School of Fine Arts before returning to Jerusalem with her parents at the end of 1945. Yad Vashem
The idea of establishing a memorial in Palestine for Jewish victims of the Nazi Holocaust was conceived during World War II, as a response to reports of the mass murder of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries. Yad Vashem was first proposed in September 1942, at a board meeting of the Jewish National Fund, by Mordecai Shenhavi, a member of Kibbutz Mishmar Ha'emek. In August 1945, the plan was discussed in greater detail at a Zionist meeting in London where it was decided to set up a provisional board of Zionist leaders with David Remez as chairman, Shlomo Zalman Shragai, <mask> <mask>, and Shenhavi. In February 1946, Yad Vashem opened an office in Jerusalem and a branch office in Tel Aviv and in June that year, convened its first plenary session.In July 1947, the First Conference on Holocaust Research was held at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, where further plans were made for Yad Vashem. However, the outbreak in May 1948 of the War of Independence, brought almost all Yad Vashem operations to a standstill for two years. Later life
<mask> died in Jerusalem on 13 December 1970. Personal life
He married Nina Avrunin (born in Kiev). She was also a prominent Zionist. Their daughter Avivah <mask> was a gifted, prize-winning poet, Haganah activist and later a world-renowned Hebrew University professor of parasitology. Their daughter Nomi <mask> is a noted artist, poet and translator.References

Sources
 <mask> <mask>'s 1930 US passport, and a biography

1887 births
1970 deaths
American Zionists
Writers on Zionism
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Politicians from Vilnius
Jewish activists
Jewish socialists
Jews of the Russian Empire
American Jewish Congress
American emigrants to Israel
Yad Vashem people
Labor Zionists
Zionists of the Russian Empire
Jewish American journalists
American editors

masks:
Baruch Zuckerman
Baruch
Zuckerman
Yitzhak Zuckerman
Baruch Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Baruch
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Baruch
Nina Zuckerman
Baruch
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Zuckerman
Baruch
Zuckerman


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Countess <mask> (30 November 1916 – 13 October 2007),  called Dédée and Postman, was a member of the Belgian Resistance during the Second World War. She organised and led the Comet Line (Le Réseau Comète) to assist Allied soldiers and airmen to escape from Nazi-occupied Belgium. The airmen were survivors of military airplanes shot down over Belgium or other European countries. Between August 1941 and December 1942, she escorted 118 people, including more than 80 airmen, from Belgium to neutral Spain from where they were transported to the United Kingdom. Arrested by the Nazis in January 1943, she was incarcerated for the remainder of World War II. After the war, she worked in leper hospitals in Africa. <mask> was the recipient of the George Medal from the United Kingdom and the Medal of Freedom with golden palms from the United States and many other medals for her work during World War II.In 1985 she was made a countess by the king of Belgium. Her exploits were described in or inspired several books, movies, and television shows. Early life

<mask> or Dédée <mask> was born in Schaerbeek in Belgium, then under German occupation during the First World War. She was the younger daughter of Frédéric <mask>, the headmaster of a primary school and Alice Decarpentrie. Edith Cavell, a British nurse shot in the Tir national in Schaerbeek in 1915 for assisting troops to escape from occupied Belgium to the neutral Netherlands, was a heroine in her youth. She trained as a nurse and became a commercial artist in Malmedy. Her nursing endeavours were inspired by Cavell.She was 23 years old when the Germans invaded and occupied Belgium. De Jongh was described by a British airman she helped as a "frail young girl who appears twenty years [old], very pretty, pleasant, kind, cheerful, and simple. She seems to have the carelessness of a young student who would go on vacation after passing her exams". Later, a British colonel would call her a
"pure heroine of legend". Origin of the Comet Line

After German troops invaded and occupied Belgium in May 1940, De Jongh moved to Brussels, where she became a Red Cross volunteer, ministering to captured Allied troops. In Brussels at that time, hiding in safe houses, were many British soldiers, those left behind at Dunkirk and escapees from those captured at Saint-Valery-en-Caux. De Jongh organised a series of safe houses for these soldiers, while also procuring civilian clothes so they would not be identified as well as false ID papers.Visiting the sick and wounded soldiers enabled her to make links with this network of safe-house keepers who were trying to work out ways to get the soldiers back to Britain. In spring 1941, <mask> Bliqui, Arnold Deppè, and <mask> <mask> organised a group of friends to help Allied soldiers and airmen escape occupied Belgium and return to Great Britain. This was the origin of what became known as the Comet Line, the largest of the escape and evasion lines in World War II. They initially called themselves the DDDs after their last names. De Bliqui was arrested in April 1941 and later executed after the group was infiltrated by Prosper Dezitter, a Belgian collaborator with the Germans. In June 1941, Deppé journeyed from Belgium to southwestern France where he had once lived to look for the means to smuggle Allied soldiers, downed airmen, and other people vulnerable to capture by the Germans out of Belgium. Deppé made contact with Elvire <mask> and her family and arranged for their help in getting people across the border.De Greef became known as "Tante Go" ("Auntie Go"). <mask> and Deppé, assisted by the <mask>reefs, attempted their first crossing of the Spanish border in July 1941 with ten Belgians and "Miss Richards," supposedly an English woman but actually a Belgian secret agent named <mask> Dupuich. After they successfully crossed the Pyrenees mountains on the Franco-Spanish border, <mask> and Deppé left their charges to fend for themselves and returned to Belgium. The ten Belgians and "Miss Richards" were arrested by Spanish police. Three Belgian soldiers among them were turned over to the Germans in France. From this experience, <mask>h realised that in future exfiltrations they must establish a relationship with the British Consulate in Bilbao to ensure the safety in Spain of the people they escorted out of occupied Belgian and France. In August, Deppé and <mask>h escorted another group of people, <mask>h taking a longer, more rural, and safer route with three men, including a British soldier, and Deppé a shorter, more dangerous route with six men.An informer betrayed Deppé and his party and they were arrested by the Germans. Deppé was imprisoned for the remainder of the war. De Jongh arrived safely at the <mask>f house in Anglet and crossed into Spain with a Basque smuggler as a guide. She appeared in the British consulate in Bilbao with a British soldier (James Cromar from Aberdeen) and two Belgian volunteers (Merchiers and Sterckmans), having travelled mostly by train from Brussels to Bayonne and then on foot over the Pyrenees through the Basque Country. The British diplomats were initially sceptical of <mask>h. It seemed unlikely to them that this young woman with three soldiers in tow had travelled from German-occupied Belgium, through occupied France, and over the Pyrenees to Spain, a straight-line distance of some  (and much further by the roundabout route they had taken). De Jongh promised to exfiltrate additional British soldiers and airmen if the British would pay the Comet Line's expenses which were 6,000 Belgian Francs and 1,400 Spanish Pesetas (the sum of the two currencies amounting to the equivalent of $2,000 in 2018 U.S. dollars) for each Allied airmen or soldier exfiltrated.After three weeks of doubt, suspicion that she was a German agent, and indecision by British authorities in Spain and England, the British agreed to her terms. Except for financial assistance, <mask>h turned down all other British offers of advice and assistance. She rejected efforts by the British and the Belgian government in exile to control or direct the Comet Line. Exfiltrating Allied airmen

The arrest of Arnold Deppé in August 1941 introduced a note of caution into the Comet Line. <mask> <mask> decided that Belgium was unsafe and thereafter worked and lived in Paris and Valenciennes, a French city on the border with Belgium. Her father Fernand took over some of her leadership duties in Belgium. In France, <mask>h received airmen from Brussels, cared for them in safe houses, escorted them by railroad to Bayonne or nearby cities near the Spanish border, and trekked with them across the Pyrenees to Spain.She escorted one group of three airmen in October 1941, another group of three in November, and two groups totaling 11 men in December 1941. That level of activity continued in 1942. Once she had successfully crossed the border, <mask>h turned her charges over to the British who would drive them to Gibraltar where they would be flown back to Great Britain. While the airmen proceeded onward, <mask>h met in San Sebastián with British diplomat Michael Creswell, ("Monday"), who gave her money for the Comet Line's expenses plus messages to take back to France. While returning to Paris she reinforced the system of safe houses and helpers along the route and paid necessary expenses, although most members of Comet Line never received any compensation for their expenses. Estimates of the number of times that <mask>h successfully escorted downed airmen across the border into Spain in 1941 and 1942 vary from 16 to 24 round trips. The number of persons, mostly airmen, she escorted successfully is about 118.Captured

Comet Line members and their families took great risks. The escape lines became more dangerous after November 1942, when southern France was occupied by the Germans and the whole of France came under direct Nazi rule. During the war members of the Comet Line were betrayed and  hundreds were arrested by the Geheime Feldpolizei and the Abwehr and were executed or deported to German prisons and concentration camps. In January 1943, <mask>h led three British airmen south by train from Paris to Saint-Jean-de-Luz. From the railway station they walked in rain for two hours to the village of Urrugne, in the French Basque country – the last stop on the escape line before the walk over the Pyrenees. With the airmen and <mask>h was her favorite Basque guide Florentino Goikoetxea, a smuggler wanted by the police on both sides of the border. They arrived at the safe house belonging to Frantxia Usandizanga, a Basque woman, intending to continue to the border,  distant.However, the river Bidasoa on the border was in flood and it would be too dangerous to attempt to cross. Goikoetxea went to another house to spend the night and <mask>h and the three airmen spent the night at Usandizanga's house. They next morning, 15 January 1943, <mask>h, the three airmen, and Usandizanga were arrested in the house by ten German soldiers. They had been betrayed, probably by a farm worker named Donato whom <mask>h knew but did not trust. De Jongh was sent first to Fresnes prison in Paris and eventually to Ravensbrück concentration camp and Mauthausen. She was interrogated 19 times by the Abwehr and twice by the Gestapo. Although she admitted being the leader of the Comet Line to protect her father who was under suspicion, the Germans did not believe that this slight, young woman was more than a minor helper in the Comet Line.Their underestimation of <mask>h's importance in the Comet Line probably saved her life. Later, while she was a prisoner in Ravensbrück, the Gestapo realized who she was and searched for her, but she eluded them by hiding her identify. In <mask>'s absence and under new leadership, the Comet Line continued to function and helped more than 700 Allied soldiers reach safety during the war. Although <mask>h survived in the concentration camps, she became gravely ill and undernourished by the time she was released by the advancing Allies in April 1945. Many of her colleagues died in captivity. Her father, Frédéric <mask> was arrested in Paris on 7 June 1943 and executed on 28 March 1944. The three airmen arrested with her survived the war in prisoner-of-war camps.Usandizanga was beaten to death in Ravensbrück by a guard shortly before the camp's liberation in April 1945. Goikoetxea continued to be the preferred Comet Line guide until wounded and captured by the Germans (but rescued by the <mask>f family) shortly before France was liberated by the Allies in 1944. Later life
Post-war, De Jongh finished her nursing studies and worked in leprosariums, first in the Belgian Congo, then in Cameroon, next in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. and finally in Senegal. While <mask>h was working in Ethiopia, her mother was on her deathbed in Belgium and, in a measure of respect to her, the Royal Air Force made an unscheduled stop in Addis Ababa to take her to Belgium and later returned her to Ethiopia. In 1959, while working at a leper colony in Coquilhatville, she met English novelist Graham Greene. Greene recorded her candid account of her war experiences in his journal which was published in 1961.In In Search of a Character: Two African Journals, Greene wrote that he asked her why she had come to the Congo; she replied, "Because from the age of fifteen I wanted to cure lepers. If I had delayed any longer it would have been too late." In poor health she eventually returned to Belgium with her colleague, Thérèse <mask>. For her wartime efforts, she was awarded the United States Medal of Freedom with golden palms, the British George Medal on 13 February 1946, and became a Chevalier of the French Légion d'honneur. She also became a Chevalier of the Order of Leopold, received the Belgian Croix de Guerre/Oorlogskruis with palm, and was granted the honorary rank of lieutenant-colonel in the Belgian Army. In 1985, she was made a Countess in the Belgian nobility by King Baudouin. Death

The Countess <mask>h died on 13 October 2007, aged 90, at the Cliniques universitaires Saint-Luc, Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Brussels.Her funeral service was held at the La Cambre Abbey, Ixelles, Brussels, and she was interred in the crypt of her parents at the Schaerbeek Cemetery. See also

 The Nightingale (2015) a historical fiction novel inspired by <mask>h's WW II experiences, written by Kristin Hannah. The Postwoman (2018) an historical fiction novel based on the story of <mask> <mask>'s life, written by Michael Kenneth Smith. Secret Army, a BBC television series is based on Comet Line operations in Belgium. Airey Neave of MI9 was responsible for supporting the Comet Line. His biography of <mask>h is titled The Little Cyclone. Notes

References

Further reading

Filmography

 The Last Passage, Lurre Telleria et Enara Goikoetxea, Moztu filmak & Amo films, 2010

External links

 Houston Chronicle: Countess who helped WWII pilots escape Nazis dies
 Andree <mask>, known as <mask>e tells Shirin Wheeler the story of the Comet Line

1916 births
2007 deaths
People from Schaerbeek
Belgian countesses
Belgian nurses
Belgian resistance members
Recipients of the George Medal
Recipients of the Medal of Freedom
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Belgian humanitarians
Women humanitarians
Women in World War II
Night and Fog program
Burials at Schaerbeek Cemetery
Belgian expatriates in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Female resistance members of World War II
Ravensbrück concentration camp survivors
Red Cross personnel

masks:
Andrée Eugie Adrienne de Jongh
De Jongh
Andrée
de Jongh
de Jongh
Henri de
Andrée
de Jongh
de Greef
De Jongh
de G
Frederique
de Jongh
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Gree
de Jong
de Jong
Andrée
de Jongh
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jong
de Jongh
de Jong
de Jongh
de Gree
de Jong
de Wael
de Jong
de Jong
Andrée
de Jongh
de Jong
De Jongh
Dede


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<mask> (29 September 1907  – 4 May 1977 pen name: <mask>) was a Swiss physician and medical writer, politician, and activist against miscarriages of justice. Life

Early years
<mask> was born to <mask> (1873-1934) and Maria Hunziker (1875-1947). His brothers include the writer Peter and composer Heinrich. His grandfather was the folklorist <mask>. A minister's son, <mask> studied theology in Germany, changing to medicine at University of Basel just before completing his degree. After his promotion with his uncle <mask>r in 1941, <mask> published, under the pseudonym “<mask>” (following the surname of his great-grandfather Christophe Moehrlen), an autobiographical novella about his life as a bachelor. The novella describes his philosophical change of direction towards a monist view of love and happiness, inspired by natural science; remarkably is its heartedness in times of war.In the following years, <mask> published a series on neopositivist medical thought. He was especially interested in psychosomatic medicine and music psychology. For example, according to him, “swing music is restful” because the brain becomes fatigued when it is worked too hard, as in acquiring knowledge of new facts. Both students and business men can benefit by such music … the best way to rest the brain after such fatigue is to “regress” to more basic or primitive forms of thought and feeling. During World War II, he worked for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration in Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia, as well as a physician at the Swiss border. After the war he wrote for medical journals and was an instructor in psychophysiology at the Volkshochschule (Folk high school) in Bern. In 1945, he opened his first a family medical practice in Bern.In order to get a venia legendi in History of Medicine and Medical Psychology (Psychosomatics), <mask> successively deposited, at the beginning of the 1950s, three post-doctoral theses at the Medical Faculty of the University of Berne:

 About the changes in the perception of the disease;
 Psychosomatics of laughter and crying (a philosophical-psychological and physiological work on the Freud's theory of humor);
 Schiller as physician: a contribution to psychosomatic medicine. <mask> was in contact with the medical historian Erich Hintzsche particularly because of his work Schiller as physician, and he participated in a seminar on medical history 1953 in Lugano. In a letter to Hintzsche, Henry E. Sigerist described <mask>'s review, published in 1955 as Volume 13 of the Berne contributions to the history of medicine and natural sciences, as “a very nice work … that is interesting even to literary historians.” The assessor Jakob Klaesi recommended to the Dean of the Faculty Bernhard Walthard to allow Sutermeister's habilitation allow for the government to issue <mask>'s habilitation as a lecturer in Medicine history and Psychosomatic medicine. Hintzsche, however, who decided jointly, rejected his habilitation. Politics

He joined the Ring of Independents political party and began his political career in the legislature of the Canton of Bern. From 1967 to 1971 he served as a member of the municipal executive, as well as director of the city's schools. As school director, he promoted comprehensive schools.Although he had a reputation as a progressive within his party, he also stirred some concern both inside and outside the party by fiercely criticizing The Little Red Schoolbook, an educational manifesto deriving from the 1968 student protest movement that urged students to reject societal norms. Der Spiegel quoted his warning to all educators: We will not permit our youth, who are today still healthy, and our freedom-based Western culture, to be undermined by such softening-up tactics, which are clearly controlled from the East, and made 'Ready for conquest' by Communism. and added that some schools banned the book; Radio Bern canceled a broadcast on it; and bookstores canceled orders; the city authorities determined that the book was not seditious, but with police assurance that they had the power to do so, banned it as posing a danger to minors. His actions revealed latent attitudinal and generational divisions within the party, and he was not re-elected in 1971. In 1972, he opened his new family medical practice in Basel. Activism against miscarriages of justice

In the 1960s, <mask> became interested in forensic pathology, and began to involve himself in investigating and attempting to right miscarriages of justice. He traveled widely and wrote analyses on false recognition, intimidation by prison inmates, uncritical acceptance of expert testimony, suggestibility and emotionalism in jurors and psychological errors by judges.His book Summa Iniuria, which treats hundreds of cases, is one of the most thorough German-language works in the field. He concerned himself particularly with the case of Pierre Jaccoud, whom he was convinced had been wrongly convicted of murdering Charles Zumbach based on faulty forensic work. At one point Pierre Hegg, the head of the police criminological laboratory, sued him for defamation. His efforts on behalf of Jaccoud made him a prominent and effective opponent of courtroom injustice, and he went so far as to assemble the funds to hire Horace Mastronardi and other lawyers to appeal Jaccoud's conviction. Despite his efforts, the case was never reopened. The criminal law expert Karl Peters puts <mask>'s Summa iniuria in the context of the earlier works of Erich Sello, Max Alsberg, Albert Hellwig, Max Hirschberg and Heinrich Jagusch and considers him as a "committed fighters for a constitutionally protected Criminal Justice". Bibliography

The bibliography of <mask> <mask> includes a fictional novel and around 150 scientific articles, essays and books, some of them Investigative journalism written by the Swiss writer <mask> <mask>, pen name <mask> (1907–1977).<mask> was a prolific writer on topics related to psychosomatic medicine, music psychology and history of medicine as well as contemporary Swiss society and cultural criticism, whom Karl Peters in 2008 declared "a fierce fighter for justice." <mask> is best remembered for his contradictory political as a both-left-and-rightwing libertarian-authoritarian presence in local media. Every line of work that he has written since 1942 seeming, directly or indirectly, in favour of a monist worldview. To that end, <mask> used his scientific writing to defend his political convictions, as shown in several book reviews. He first achieved acclaim with his non–fictional books from Psychologie und Weltanschauung (1944) to Schiller als Arzt (1955) and cemented his place in local history as one of the greatest Swiss pamphletists with the publication of Summa Iniuria: Ein Pitaval der Justizirrtümer shortly before his death. <mask> wrote non-fiction—including book reviews, editorials, and investigative journalism—for a variety of Swiss periodicals, mainly medical journals. He particularly wrote a book-length investigation of comprehensive schools in Switzerland and another of miscarriages of justice in the form of Summa Iniuria: Ein Pitaval der Justizirrtümer, a retrospective of criminal justice mainly in Switzerland and Germany.No attempts have been made until now to comprehensively collect the entirety of his miscellany. Books
<mask> composed one novel, Zwischen zwei Welten, which is autobiographical; it was inspired by his period working as a student during wartime; it records his experiences living and tramping in a town where he later finished his medical studies; the names are partially fictionalized:

  (Autobiographic novel, published under the pseudonym "<mask>"). 76 pages. Reprint by the Swiss National Library, Bern 2011, . Book reviews:
 Carl Heinrich in: Die Gefährten: Monatsschrift für Erkenntnis und Tat. Vol. 9–17, 1947, p. 69.Anton Schaller: Zwischen zwei Welten: Erinnerung an den Landesring oder was eine kleine Novelle bewirken kann Seniorweb.ch, 29 April 2012. Among his Non-fiction books are the writings of his Neopositivist period (1942–1945) which culminates in his article Der Neopositivismus als neue Einheitsweltanschauung (1945; see below):
 Nomen atque omen. Die Fortschritte der psychologischen Forschung und ihre weltanschauliche Tragweite (mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Neuroseproblems). Buchdruckerei W. Friedli, Bern 1942, 92 pages. 184 pages. (<mask>ber: today Hogrefe.) Book reviews of:
<mask> Oehlhey: Review of "Psychologie und Weltanschauung".In: "Aufbau: Kulturpolitische Monatsschrift." Berlin W 8. vol. 3, 1947, nr. 3, p. 282-283. Agostino Gemelli in: „Scientia“: rivista di scienza, Vol. 83, 1948, p. 119–120; and in: Archivio di psicologia, neurologia e psichiatria, 7, 1946, p. 227.
? in: Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie und Jugendkunde, Vol.45, 1944, p. 63.
? in: Universitas, Vol. 6, 1951, p. 383 (with a short biographic note). 140 pages. Der Alltag des Arztes. In: Ulrich Frey, <mask> <mask>, Werner Messerli (1910–1991): Der Arzt. Paul Haupt Verlag, Bern 1956, p. 20–31 (Gemeinnütziger Verein der Stadt Bern (Herausgeber): Die akademischen Berufe.Eine Schriftenreihe zur Erleichterung der Berufswahl. Vol. 3). *  Published by the Schuldirektion der Stadt Bern; 225 pages. The work is an exact reproduction with some extensions of the initial report Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer stadtbernischen Bildungspolitik mit dem Ziel einer inneren und äusseren Schulreform („Gesamtschule“) published in January 1971. (810 pages). Reprint: Swiss National Library, Bern 2011, .Book reviews:
Karl Peters in: Zeitschrift für die gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft. Vol. 26, “Band” 88, nr. 1, 1976, p. 993-995, ;
Klaus Volk in: Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform. Vol. 60, 1977, p. 388;
Wolfgang Lorenz in: Archiv für Kriminologie. Vol.160, nr. 3/4, 1977;
Otto Scrinzi in: Ärztliche Praxis: Die Zeitung des Arztes in Klinik und Praxis. 1976/1977. (523 pages). Reprint: Swiss National Library, Bern 2011, . Book reviews:
Rémy Droz in: Psychologie: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie und ihre Anwendungen, 35-36, 1976, p. 317;
? in: Psychotherapie und medizinische Psychologie, Vol.28, 1978, p. 180;
Otto Scrinzi in: Ärztliche Praxis: Die Zeitung des Arztes in Klinik und Praxis. Vol. 29, nr. 13, 12 February 1977;
? in: Psychiatrie, Neurologie und medizinische Psychologie, Volume 32, 1980, p. 122. Academic work
Doctoral dissertation:
 Das schweizerische Tuberkulosegesetz. Geschichte, Inhalt, Ausführung und Erfolg bis zur Gegenwart.Dissertation, Faculty of Medicine of the University of Basel. Benno Schwabe & Co., Basel 1941. At the University of Berne, <mask> presented subsequently three Habilitation theses, which were all rejected:

Articles
<mask> wrote

masks:
Hans Martin Sutermeister
Hans Moehrlen
Hans Martin
Freidrich Sutermeister
Otto Sutermeister
Hans Martin
Hans Hunzike
Sutermeister
Hans Moehrlen
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Hans Martin
Sutermeister
Hans Martin
Sutermeister
Hans Moehrlen
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Hans Moehrlen
Hans Hu
Hans Rudolf
Hans Martin
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister


texts:
 dozens of essays and book reviews. His insights into history of medicine, literature, and politics (defending in particular anti-fascist, liberal socialist, freethought and somehow anti-communist ideas) during the following years. Since his death, many essays have disappeared, with the first attempt at a comprehensive collection being this list. Some of his essays, mainly during his time as member of the Ring of Independents political party, took the form of pamphlets and were published and distributed (by himself) independently. The following list contains the articles which are both registered in PubMed and can be considered as outstanding because of their scope, theme range or length:

 Verstehende oder erklärende Psychologie?Buchdruckerei W. Friedli, Bern 1942 (12 pages). Alte und neue Logik. Neuere Ergebnisse der psychologischen Forschung und ihre Tragweite (mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Neuroseproblems). Buchdruckerei W. Friedli, Bern 1942 (19 pages). Neue Gesichtspunkte der medizinischen Psychologie. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. nr.45, 9 November 1944 (16 pages). Neue Gesichtspunkte in der Psychologie. In: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie und ihre Anwendungen. Vol. 2, nr. 4, 1944, p. 307–312. ‘Wünsche an die Welt von morgen’: Gedanken zu einer Umfrage .In: Schweizerische Hochschulzeitung. Vol. 19, nr. 1, 1945/46 (2 pages). Zum gegenwärtigen Stand der Kropfforschung. In: Ars Medici: Organ des praktischen Arztes. Vol.35, nr. 12, 1945, p. 666–673, . With Étienne Grandjean: Föhn und Föhnkrankheit. In: Ars medici: Organ des praktischen Arztes. Vol. 35, 1945, nr. ?, p. 494.Krankheit, Wetter und Klima. In: Die Gesundheit: Korrespondenzblatt der Krankenkasse für den Kanton Bern. 1945, p. 2–3. Zur Kontroverse ‘Abstrakt-Konkret’. In: Abstrakt, konkret: Bulletin der Galerie des Eaux Vives. Vol. 11, 1945 (2 pages).Der Neopositivismus als kommende ‘Einheitsweltanschauung’? In: Der Freidenker: Organ der Freigeistigen Vereinigung der Schweiz. Vol. 28, 1945, nr.8 and 9. Zur Geschichte des Psychogeniebegriffs. In: Gesundheit und Wohlfahrt. vol.7, 1945, p. 377–410. Zum heutigen Stand des Erkältungsproblems. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 34, nr. 52, 27 December 1945, p. 746–753, . Die Dermatologie in der Allgemeinpraxis.In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 35, nr. 11, 15 March 1946 (22 pages). Erfahrungen aus der Lagermedizin. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol.37, nr. 3, 22 January 1948, p. 44–51, . Über Speranskys ‘Neuralpathologie’ und ‘Neuraltherapie’. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 37, nr. 36, 9 September 1948, p. 670–673, .Zum Thema Mode und Medizin. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 37, nr. 46, 18 November 1948, p. 860–862, . Über Speranskys Krankheitslehre. Speranskys Neuralpathologie und Neuraltherapie.In: Ars Medici. Vol. 38, nr. 9, 1948, p. 554–562, . Über Speranskys Krankheitslehre. In: Schweizerische medizinische Wochenschrift. Vol.79, nr. 15, 16 April 1949, p. 345-348, . Über Rhythmusforschung in der Medizin. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 38, nr. 35, 1 September 1949, p. 743–750, .Nachwort zum Aufsatz über Speranskys Krankheitslehre. In: Medizinische Monatsschrift. Vol. 3, nr. 11, November 1949, p. 824, . Über Farben- und Musiktherapie. In: Gesundheit / Gesundheit und Wohlfahrt.Vol. 30, nr. 1, January 1950, p. 1, . Neue Gesichtspunkte in Medizin und Psychohygiene. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 39, nr.14, 6 April 1950, p. 297–302, . Film und Psychohygiene. In: Gesundheit und Wohlfahrt. Vol. 30, nr. 6, June 1950, p. 249–278, . Book review:
306.<mask>, H. Film und Psychohygiene. Movies and mental hygiene. In: Educational aspects and practical measures. In: The influence of the cinema on children and adolescents: An annotated international bibliography. Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, Nr. 31. Paris: UNESCO, 1961, p. 70.Über psychosomatische Medizin. In: Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift. Vol. 100, nr. 29–30, 12 August 1950, p. 493–496, . Über den heutigen Stand der Sexualforschung. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin.Vol. 39, nr. 37, 14 September 1950, p. 794–800, . Zur Psychologie des Kurpfuschers. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 39, nr.52, 28 December 1950, p. 1115–1122, . Reviev: Theodor Oettli: ‘’The quack problem; comments on points made by H. <mask>.’’ [Zum Kurpfuscherproblem; Gedanken zu den Ausfürhrungen von H. <mask>.] In: Praxis
Volume 40, Issue 6, 8 February 1951, Pages 121-122. Medizin und Presse. In: Der Bund, 1950. Musiktherapie.In: Universitas: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft, Kunst und Literatur. Vol. 6, nr. 3, 1951, p. 307–318. Der heutige Stand der ‚psychosomatischen Medizin‘. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol.40, nr. 38, 20 September 1951, p. 777–785, . Masse und Musik. In: Schweizerische Monatsschrift ‚Du‘. March 1952 (4 pages). Psychosomatik des Schmerzes (Der heutige Stand des Schmerzproblems). In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin.Vol. 41, nr. 32, 7 August 1952, p. 681–692, . Schiller als Arzt, sein Beitrag zur psychosomatischen Medizin. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin, Vol. 42, nr. 33, 13 August 1953, , .Mit Werner Bärtschi-Rochaix: Zur Pathopsychologie des Lachens. In: Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie und Psychiatrie. Vol. 74, nr. 1–2, 1954, p. 416–419, . Über die Fortschritte der ‘psychosomatischen’ Forschung. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin.Vol. 43, nr. 13, 1 April 1954, p. 269–279, . Zum heutigen Stand der Aphasienforschung. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 43, nr.41, 14. October 1954, p. 872–878, . In English. G. Ch. Lichtenberg und die Medizin. In: Münchner Medizinische Wochenschrift. Vol.97, nr. 39, 30 September 1955, p. 1288–1290, . Mit Werner Bärtschi-Rochaix: Zur Pathophysiologie des Lachens, zugleich ein Beitrag über licht-aktivierte Lachanfälle. In: Confinia Neurologica – Grenzgebiete der Neurologie. Vol. 15, nr. 1, 1955, p. 10–32, , .Über die Fortschritte der Sprachpsychologie und Sprachtherapie. In: Gesundheit und Wohlfahrt. 1955 (39 pages). Der heutige Stand der psychosomatischen Forschung. In: Ars Medici: Organ des praktischen Arztes. Vol. 45, nr.5 (pages 327–337) and nr.6 (pages 394–404). Film und Psychohygiene. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 44, nr. 15, 14 April 1955, p. 328–334, . Vom ärztlichen Ethos.In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 44, nr. 31, 4 August 1955, p. 708–711, . Das Rätsel um Robert Schumanns Krankheit. Ein Beitrag zum Genieproblem. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin.Vol. 48, nr. 51, 17 December 1959, p. 1177–1185, . Kriminalpsychologie und Medizin. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 49, nr.23, 9 June 1960, p. 580–588, . Book review:
Rudolf Koch: Buchbesprechung von Kriminalpsychologie und Medizin (1960). In: International Journal of Legal Medicine. Vol. 51, nr. 1, p. 130. Das Föhnproblem im Rahmen der modernen Meteoropathologie.Ein Beitrag zur Psychosomatik der Wetterfühligkeit. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol. 49, nr. 48, 1 December 1960, p. 1136–1142. Autohipnosis del espectador cinematográfico. In: Revista Latino-Americana de Hipnosis Clínica.1960, 1, p. 23-24. Zur Psychologie des Justizirrtums. In: Der Psychologe: Psychologische Monatsschrift. 1962. (The article includes a summary of the work Du und der Justizirrtum announced by Sutermeister (the later published Summa Iniuria: Ein Pitaval der Justizirrtümer.) Medizin im Schatten der Schlagworte. In: Therapie der Gegenwart: Monatsschrift für praktische Medizin.Vol. 102, nr. 10, October 1963, p. 1087–1097, . Psychosomatik des Musikerlebens. Prolegomena zur Musiktherapie. In: Acta Psychotherapeutica et Psychosomatica. Vol.12, nr. 2, 1964, p. 91–110, , . Der heutige Stand der psychosomatischen Medizin. In: Ars Medici. Vol. 54, nr. 7, 1964, p. 473–489.Justizirrtum um einen Mord. Zur Revision des Jaccoudprozesses. In: Beobachter. 1966. Dringliche Revision des schweizerischen Familienrechts betreffend Schutz der unehelichen Mutter und des unehelichen Kindes sowie betreffend Adoption. In: Praxis: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin. Vol.56, nr. 41, 12 October 1967, p. 1391–1394, . Zum Tag der Menschenrechte. Pamphlet, 10. December 1968. (In: <mask> <mask>: Summa Iniuria: Ein Pitaval der Justizirrtümer. Basel, 1976, p.659–660.) Dualismus: Psychoanalyse und Neuropsychiatrie. Der Versuch zu einer Synthese muß aus den Ansätzen kommen. In: Ärztliche Praxis: Die Zeitung des Arztes in Klinik und Praxis. Vol. 25, nr. 88, 3 November 1973, p. 3948.Brauchen wir ein Bundeskriminalamt? In: Ring (Magazine of the Ring of Independents). 1973. Die ‚Fristenlösung' und der Hippokrateseid. In: Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin “Praxis”. Vol. 63, nr.36, 10 September 1974, p. 1101–1103, . Schutz– und Erholungsregressionen. Psychotische Bildnerei als Wegweiser zu einer „Kunsttherapie“. In: Ärztliche Praxis: Die Zeitung des Arztes in Klinik und Praxis. Vol. 29, nr. 18, 1 March 1977, p. 844–846.Other cultural manifestation

As a member of the so–called bernese nonconformists, <mask> spoke in the Junkere 37 (sometimes called Speakers' Corner of Bern). Some fragments of these manifestations are traceable in the Nonkonformismus Archiv Fredi Lerch. While <mask> was not known for his aesthetic work, he did compose two “little waltz” and a poem:

 <mask> (pseudonym): Kleiner Walzer für Violine und Piano. 1949. Published by the Swiss National Library, 2011. <mask> (pseudonym): Kleiner Walzer für Klavier. 1949.Published by the Swiss National Library, 2011. Kleiner Walzer arranged for piano accordion is available free of charge, under Creative Commons, Sutermeister Heirs. Medizynischer Liebeskummer (frei nach Heine). Published in Der Schweizerische Beobachter between 1961 and 1971. Personal life
<mask> married Ingeborg Marie Schulzke, with whom he had three daughters. References

External links

 156 publications of <mask> <mask> at WorldCat
 <mask> Stalder. Kontroverse um kleines rotes Schülerbuch.With Manfred Wettler and <mask>r. Antenne, July 1, 1970 (Memoriav)
 Jakob Klaesi. Betrifft Habilitationsgesuch des Dr. med. H. M. Sutermeister. Letter to Bernhard Walthard. September 6, 1954. Franz Keller.Lieber „Trotzdem–Freund“ Sutermeister! Letter to the editor. Schweizerisches Sozialarchiv, Ar. 128.3, Dossier “Leserbriefe, an die Redaktionen geschickte Texte”. 1907 births
1977 deaths
People from Kulm District
Alliance of Independents politicians
Swiss medical writers
Swiss activists
Swiss general practitioners
Freethought
Civil rights activists
University of Basel alumni
Swiss male

masks:
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Hans Martin
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Sutermeister
Hans Möhrlen
Hans Möhrlen
Hans Martin
Hans Martin
Sutermeister
Hans Peter
Hans Mühlethale


texts:
<mask> (born July 17, 1966) is an American alternative rock musician and songwriter. A founding member of the groups Dinosaur Jr., Sebadoh and The Folk Implosion, <mask> is credited with helping to pioneer the lo-fi style of rock music in the late 1980s and early 1990s. His first band, which was formed in Amherst, Massachusetts, was Deep Wound. <mask> was born in Dayton, Ohio, and raised in Jackson, Michigan, and Westfield, Massachusetts. <mask> has released four solo albums, the latest of which is the May 28, 2021 release Reason to Live. Dinosaur Jr.

<mask> attended high school in Westfield, Massachusetts, where he met Scott Helland. The two formed the Massachusetts-based hardcore punk band Deep Wound.J Mascis joined the band after answering their ad for a "drummer wanted to play really fast". After becoming disillusioned with the constraints of hardcore, Deep Wound broke up in 1984. Mascis and <mask> reunited that year to form Dinosaur, later Dinosaur Jr. Mascis and <mask> had personality conflicts throughout Dinosaur Jr.'s early existence, and after the 1988 release of their third album, Bug, and the initial supporting tour, <mask> was kicked out of the band. In 2005, <mask> rejoined the band alongside the original drummer, Murph. Since then, the band has reissued its first three records, toured extensively worldwide and released five new records, Beyond, Farm, I Bet on Sky, Give a Glimpse of What Yer Not, and Sweep It Into Space . Sebadoh, Sentridoh and Folk Implosion

After his dismissal from Dinosaur Jr., <mask> turned his attention to his band Sebadoh, which he had formed earlier with multi-instrumentalist Eric Gaffney. The project featured low fidelity recording techniques and combined <mask>'s introspective, confessional songwriting with Gaffney's discordant noise collages.Bassist and songwriter Jason Loewenstein was added to the line-up in 1989. Sebadoh's early releases include The Freed Man (1989) and Weed Forestin' (1990), the latter of which was originally self-released under the name Sentridoh in 1987. Both albums were officially released by Homestead Records, as was the band's third album, Sebadoh III (1991), which helped establish the "lo-fi" subgenre and became a defining album of 90s indie rock. The band released several studio-recorded albums on Sub Pop Records throughout the 1990s. As Sebadoh grew in popularity and critical acclaim, <mask> continued work on the Sentridoh side project, which featured mostly home-recorded material similar to his output on the first three Sebadoh albums, but often recorded solo and with a less consistent sound quality. Sentridoh released a trio of cassette-only albums on Shrimper Records in the early 1990s, with the highlights later being collected on CD and vinyl compilations like Winning Losers: A Collection of Home Recordings 89–93 (1994) and Another Collection of Home Recordings (1994). In 1993, Sentridoh released a popular single for the song "Losercore," on the label Smells Like Records founded by Steve Shelley of the American rock band, Sonic Youth.<mask> has called it "the most finely executed of all my releases" thanks to Shelley, who "made sure this looked and sounded great." Numerous other Sentridoh releases on a variety of record labels followed, including releases on his own Loobiecore label. In 1994, <mask> formed the Folk Implosion with singer-songwriter John Davis. The band released several singles and EPs, and in 1995 reached the Top 40 with the song "Natural One", from the soundtrack to the film Kids by Larry Clark. It remains <mask>'s biggest commercial hit. After the release of Sebadoh's eighth album, The Sebadoh, in 1999, the band went on hiatus and its members went on to pursue other projects. <mask> continued to work with the Folk Implosion, releasing One Part Lullaby in 1999.<mask> took a break from the Folk Implosion in 2000 to collaborate on the album Subsonic 6 with Belgian musician, Rudy Trouvé. In 2003, <mask> released The New Folk Implosion featuring Imaad Wasif on guitar and Sebadoh drummer Russ Pollard on drums. The same year, he appeared as a musician in the film Laurel Canyon. In the spring of 2004, <mask> briefly reunited with Loewenstein for the "Turbo Acoustic" Sebadoh tour. During this tour, he also reunited with J Mascis for a performance of the song "Video Prick" with former Deep Wound vocalist Charlie Nakajima. This performance led to a full-fledged Dinosaur Jr. reunion in 2005, with original members <mask>, Mascis and Murph performing "The Lung" on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on April 15, 2005, and a show at Spaceland in Los Angeles the following night. The band then played well-received tours of the U.S. and Europe throughout the rest of the year, and in 2006 headed to Japan, Australia and New Zealand.In 2007, <mask> reunited with Loewenstein and Gaffney to perform the first Sebadoh shows with the "classic" lineup in 14 years. In June 2013, Sebadoh released their first new music in 14 years; the music was released as an EP precursor to their new album, "Defend Yourself," which was released in September 2013. Both of the new EP and LP albums were released through Joyful Noise Recordings. Other collaborations
 Released the instrumental split album Subsonic 6 (2000) with Belgian musician, Rudy Trouvé
 Sings on the track "Some" by Sharon Stoned, on the album License to Confuse (1995)
 Sings on the tracks "My Brother Moves" and "Everything You Know Is Wrong" by Production Club, from the album Follow Your Bliss (2003)
 Sings on the track "In the City in the Rain" by the 6ths on Wasps' Nests 6 6/6"
 Plays bass on the track "Strange Song" by Supreme Dicks, on the album The Unexamined Life (1993)

Solo work
<mask> released the first album under his own name, Emoh, in January 2005 on Merge Records. It featured long-time collaborators such as Sebadoh members Jason Loewenstein and Russ Pollard and <mask>'s sister <mask>, and featured a higher production value than many of his previous solo releases. Jason Crock of Pitchfork called it "the most consistently strong record he's released since The Folk Implosion's One Part Lullaby" and wrote that "even if much of it was recorded at home, Emoh'''s 14 unassuming folk songs sound like they were created in a professional setting." In November 2005, <mask> toured the Iberian Peninsula to promote the album.<mask> released his second solo album, Goodnight Unknown, in October 2009 on Merge. It was produced by Andrew Murdock and featured numerous guest musicians, including Imaad Wasif on guitar and Dale Crover of the Melvins and Murph on drums. <mask> toured the album in the U.S. in the fall of 2009, opening for Dinosaur Jr. and backed by The Missingmen of Mike Watt + the Missingmen. <mask>'s third solo album, Brace the Wave, was released on September 4, 2015 on Joyful Noise Recordings. It was recorded in six days with Justin Pizzoferrato, who also worked as a sound engineer for Dinosaur Jr. at Sonelab Studios in Massachusetts. The tracks from Brace the Wave feature <mask>'s ukulele playing. <mask> also took 100 original Polaroid selfies to accompany the VIP vinyl edition of the album.On October 28, 2016, <mask> released a 5 track EP entitled "Apocalypse Fetish" on Joyful Noise Recordings

In April 2021, it was announced that a solo album entitled Reason to Live would be released on May 28 via Joyful Noise. Personal life
<mask>'s first marriage was to Kathleen Billus, with whom he has two children, Hendrix and Hannelore. In May 2015, he married knitwear designer Adelle <mask>, with whom he has a daughter, Izetta. Radio and podcast appearances
<mask> appeared on WTF with Marc Maron on episode 448 released December 2, 2013. <mask> appeared on comedian Ken Reid's TV Guidance Counselor Podcast on September 18, 2015. He has also appeared on episode 71 of the Duncan Trussell Family Hour Podcast on June 24, 2013. Discography
See also Deep Wound, The Folk Implosion, Sebadoh discography

Albums

 Singles

 EPs

Live

Compilation

Featured in compilations

with Dinosaur JrDinosaur (1985)You're Living All Over Me (1987)Bug (1988)Beyond (2007)Farm (2009)I Bet on Sky (2012)Give a Glimpse of What Yer Not (2016)Sweep It Into Space (2021)

Tribute
(2012) Just Gimme <mask>'' (A Paperheart Tribute to)

References

External links
 <mask>'s website

 Official Sebadoh website
 <mask> interview at Prefixmag
 Interview with <mask> (via Talk Rock To Me) August 17, 2012

1966 births
American indie rock musicians
Living people
Guitarists from Massachusetts
Musicians from Dayton, Ohio
Mint Records artists
American rock bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Dinosaur Jr. members
Sebadoh members
The Folk Implosion members
Guitarists from Ohio
20th-century American guitarists
Joyful Noise Recordings artists
21st-century American guitarists
Noise Addict members
Merge Records artists
Shrimper Records artists
Sub Pop artists
City Slang artists
Domino Recording Company artists

masks:
Louis Knox Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Lou
Abby Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Barlow
Louise Burda
Barlow
Barlow
Lou Barlow
Lou Barlow
Lou Barlow
Lou Barlow