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 the areas of Mongol-ruled China into ten routes according to the suggestion of Yelü Chucai.He also divided the empire into Beshbalik and Yanjing administration, while the headquarters in Karakorum directly dealt with Manchuria, Mongolia and Siberia. Late in his reign, Amu Darya administration was established. Turkestan was administered by Mahamud Yalavach, while Yelu Chucai administered North China from 1229 to 1240. <mask> appointed Shigi Khutugh chief judge in China. In Iran, <mask> appointed first Chin-temur, a Kara-kitai, and then Korguz, an Uyghur who proved to be honest administrator. Later, some of Yelu Chucai's duties were transferred to Mahamud Yalavach and taxes were handed over to Abd-ur-Rahman, who promised to double the annual payments of silver. The Ortoq or partner merchants lent Ögedei's money at exorbitant rates of interest to the peasants, though Ögedei banned considerably higher rates.Despite it proving profitable, many people fled their homes to avoid the tax collectors and their strong-arm gangs. <mask> had imperial princes tutored by the Christian scribe Qadaq and the Taoist priest Li Zhichang and built schools and an academy. <mask> <mask> also decreed to issue paper currency backed by silk reserves and founded a Department responsible for destroying old notes. Yelu Chucai protested to <mask> that his large-scale distribution of appanages in Iran, Western and North China, and Khorazm could lead to a disintegration of the Empire. <mask> thus decreed that the Mongol nobles could appoint overseers in the appanages, but the court would appoint other officials and collect taxes. The Khagan proclaimed the Great Yassa as an integral body of precedents, confirming the continuing validity of his father's commands and ordinances, while adding his own. <mask> codified rules of dress and conduct during the kurultais.Throughout the Empire, in 1234, he created postroad stations (Yam) with a permanent staff who would supply post riders' needs. Relay stations were set up every 25 miles and the yam staff supplied remounts to the envoys and served specified rations. The attached households were exempt from other taxes, but they had to pay a qubchuri tax to supply the goods. <mask> ordered Chagatai and Batu to control their yams separately. The Khagan prohibited the nobility from issuing paizas (tablets that gave the bearer authority to demand goods and services from civilian populations) and jarliqs. <mask> decreed that within decimal units one out of every 100 sheep of the well-off should be levied for the poor of the unit, and that one sheep and one mare from every herd should be forwarded to form a herd for the imperial table. Karakorum

From 1235–38 <mask> constructed a series of palaces and pavilions at stopping places in his annual nomadic route through central Mongolia.The first palace Wanangong was constructed by North Chinese artisans. The Emperor urged his relatives build residences nearby and settled the deported craftsmen from China near the site. The construction of the city, Karakorum (Хархорум), was finished in 1235, assigning different quarters to Islamic and North Chinese craftsmen, who competed to win <mask>'s favor. Earthen walls with 4 gates surrounded the city. Attached were private apartments, while in front of stood a giant stone tortoise bearing an engraved pillar, like those that were commonly used in East Asia. There was a castle with doors like the gates of the garden and a series of lakes where many water fowl gathered. <mask> erected several houses of worship for his Buddhist, Muslim, Taoist, and Christian followers.In the Chinese ward, there was a Confucian temple where Yelu Chucai used to create or regulate a calendar on the Chinese model. Character

<mask> was considered to be his father's favorite son, ever since his childhood. As an adult, he was known for his ability to sway doubters in any debate in which he was involved, simply by the force of his personality. He was a physically big, jovial, and charismatic man, who seemed mostly to be interested in enjoying good times. He was intelligent and steady in character. His charisma was partially credited for his success in keeping the Mongol Empire on the path that his father had set. The sudden death of Tolui in 1232 seems to have affected <mask> deeply.According to some sources, Tolui sacrificed his own life, accepting a poisoned drink in shamanist ritual in order to save <mask> who was suffering from illness. Other sources say <mask> orchestrated Tolui's death with the help of shamans who drugged the alcoholic Tolui. <mask> was well known for his alcoholism. Chagatai entrusted an official to watch his habit, but <mask> managed to drink anyway. It is commonly told that <mask> did so by vowing to reduce the number of cups he drank a day then having cups twice the size created for his personal use. When he died at dawn on 11 December 1241, after a late-night drinking bout with Abd-ur-Rahman, the people blamed the sister of Tolui's widow and Abd-ur-Rahman. The Mongol aristocrats recognized, however, that the Khagan's own lack of self-control had killed him.<mask> was also known to be a humble man, who did not believe himself to be a genius, and who was willing to listen to and use the great generals that his father left him, as well as those he himself found to be most capable. He was the Emperor (Khagan) but not a dictator. Like all Mongols at his time, he was raised and educated as a warrior from childhood, and as the son of Genghis <mask>, he was a part of his father's plan to establish a world empire. His military experience was notable for his willingness to listen to his generals and adapt to circumstances. He was a pragmatic person, much like his father, and looked at the end rather than the means. His steadiness of character and dependability were the traits that his father most valued, and that gained him the role of successor to his father, despite his two older brothers. However, Mongol and Persian chroniclers criticize <mask> for a crime he committed in 1237 which violated the laws of his father, Genghis <mask>, which forbade seizure, rape, kidnapping, bartering, or selling young girls, who were allowed to be married at a young age but could not engage in sexual activity until the age of sixteen.Mongol chronicles were vague about the nature of the crime, but Persian chroniclers indicated that after the Oirats did not send girls for <mask>'s harem, <mask> had four thousand Oirat girls above the age of seven stripped naked and raped by his soldiers repeatedly in full sight of the girls' relatives. Two of these girls died from the ordeal, and the remaining non-raped were divided up by soldiers, with some being sent to the royal harem, and others assigned to caravan hostels for sexual servitude, and others not deemed suitable for this were left present for anyone to carry them away or use them for any purposes deemed fit. <mask> seems not to have done this out of sexual depravity as such, but more to consolidate power over the Oirat. The above account, including the assumption that Mongol sources criticized the crime (still questionable), was described in Jack Weatherford's 2011 book The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire. Weatherford calls it "the most horrendous crime of his twelve-year reign and one of the worst Mongol atrocities recorded". A more recent book in Mongol historiography "Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire" (2018) by Anne F. Broadbridge links the "infamous alleged mass rape of Oirat girls" to <mask>'s requisitioning of girls from his uncle Temüge Otchigin's territories without Temüge's approval. Broadbridge notes however that "with all the evidence suppressed, this can only be a surmise".The History of the Yuan or Yuanshi (YS 2, 35) and Secret History of the Mongols (SHM 281) speak of a forceful requisitioning of women by <mask> from the "left wing" and "uncle Otchigin's domain" respectively but do not mention a rape (De Rachewiltz 2004). In the Secret History <mask> expresses remorse for his act stating "as to my second fault, to listen to the word of a woman without principle, and to have the girls of my uncle Otchigin's domain brought to me was surely a mistake" but De Rachewiltz notes that the entire paragraph listing four good deeds and four mistakes may be a posthumous assessment (De Rachewiltz 2004). The only account alleging a rape is in Chapter 32 of the Tarikh-i Jahangushay (History of the World Conqueror) written in 1252 by Juvayni (1226-1283). This entire chapter was later copied verbatim by Rashid Al-Din into his early 14th century Jami' Al-Tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles) albeit in a slightly abridged version. In Chapter 32 Juvayni starts by praising <mask> <mask> then proceeds to give 50 highly detailed anecdotes to illustrate <mask>'s "clemency, forgiveness, justice and generosity" followed by one anecdote to illustrate his "violence, severity, fury and awesomeness" which was the rape incident. This anecdote closes the chapter. The name of the tribe is unclear in two manuscripts of Juvayni but Manuscript D and Rashid-Al-Din give it as Oirat.Broadbridge and De Rachewiltz questioned the factual accuracy of this identification with the Oirats. The anecdotes are written in the style of a Persian tale. Juvaini notes the source of Anecdote 46 by saying "one of my friends of pleasing speech told me the following story". The anecdotes praising <mask> take a pronounced pro-Muslim, anti-Chinese stance. A number of anecdotes evince a tone of ridicule for <mask>'s lack of self-control. While the anecdotes may contain a kernel of truth some seem to be apocryphal legends originating from the community of Muslim merchants and should be approached with a degree of caution. Another Persian account was the mass sodomy against soldiers of the Jin Dynasty because "they jeered at the Mongols" and expressed "evil thoughts".This was quoted in Rashid-Al-Din and noted by Weatherford. Although this account could be exaggerated, it depicts the usage of rape as a weapon. According to Weatherford, <mask> violated every single law regarding the sexual intercourse, rape, kidnap, and selling of girls and women that Genghis <mask> had created. Death and aftermath
In the Tarikh-i Jahangushay claims <mask> died shortly after his lion-like hounds chased and tore to pieces a wolf he saved and released despite his having hoped God Almighty would spare his ill bowels if he released a living creature. This anecdote (Anecdote 47) contradicts the standard account of <mask>'s death from a late-night drinking bout with Abd-ur-Rahman. In the early 1230s, <mask> had nominated his son Kuchu as his heir; following Kuchu's death in 1236,  he named his grandson Shiremun as his heir. His preference was not binding on the Mongols., Güyük eventually succeeded him after the five-year regency of his widow Töregene Khatun.However, Batu, the Khan of the Golden Horde (also known as the Kipchak Khanate or the Ulus of Jochi) only nominally accepted Güyük, who died on the way to confront Batu. It was not until 1255, well into the reign of Möngke <mask>, that Batu felt secure enough to again prepare to invade Europe. He died before his plans could be implemented. When Kublai <mask> established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, he had <mask> <mask> placed on the official record as Taizong (). Wives, concubines, and children
Like his father Genghis <mask>, <mask> had many wives and sixty concubines: <mask> married first Boraqchin and then Töregene. Other wives included Möge Khatun (former concubine of Genghis <mask>) and Jachin Khatun. Principal wives:

 Boraqchin
 Töregene
 Güyük — the 3rd Great Khan of the Mongols
 Koden — the first Buddhist Mongol prince
 Köchü (died 1237) — during the campaign in Song China.Shiremün — appointed heir by <mask>. Boladchi
 Söse
 Qarachar
 Totaq
 Qashi — died during reign of <mask>. Kaidu (1235-1301)
 Möge Khatun
 Körügene

Concubines:

 Erkene
 Kadan
 Unknown concubine
 Melik — brought up by Danishmand Hajib. Ancestry

Memorial
Mongolian Airlines named its Boeing 737-800 EI-CSG Ogoodei Khan. See also
 House of Ögedei

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Amitai-Preiss, Reuven, The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1998
 Chambers, James, The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe
 Hildinger, Erik, Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700
 Morgan, David, The Mongols,
 Nicolle, David, The Mongol Warlords Brockhampton Press, 1998
 Reagan, Geoffry, The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles, Canopy Books, New York (1992)
 Saunders, J.J., The History of the Mongol Conquests, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1971,
 Sicker, Martin The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna, Praeger Publishers, 2000
 Soucek, Svatopluk, A History of Inner Asia, Cambridge, 2000

External links
 Medieval History: Mongol Invasion of Europe
 The Islamic World to 1600: The Golden Horde

Generals of the Mongol Empire
1180s births
1241 deaths
Great Khans of the Mongol Empire
13th-century Mongol rulers
13th-century Chinese monarchs
Year of birth uncertain
House of Ögedei
Tengrist

masks: Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Khan Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Khan Ögedei Khan Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Khan Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Khan Ögedei Ögedei Ögedei Khan Khan Ögedei Khan Khan Ögedei Ögedei Khan Ögedei Ögedei


type: original

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<mask> (born 20 October 1988) is an English footballer who plays as a central midfielder for Elgin City, on loan from Cove Rangers. <mask> has previously played for Shrewsbury Town, Stafford Rangers, Hednesford Town, Macclesfield Town, Inverness Caledonian Thistle and Ross County. Career
<mask> started his career as a trainee at Shrewsbury Town, before moving to Conference National club Stafford Rangers in August 2007. He made his debut for Stafford on 10 September, in the 3–0 away defeat in the Conference National to Stevenage Borough. He made a total of 31 appearances during the 2007–08 season. <mask> revealed he worked in a range of jobs while playing part-time, quoting: "When I was at Hednesford I had a job at Birmingham Midshires. I worked with mortgages then in administration before I moved into the collections department."Macclesfield Town
<mask> went on to join Northern Premier League Premier Division club Hednesford Town, before signing for League Two side Macclesfield Town in July 2009. He revealed he had offers from clubs in the Conference National, but wanted to play in the Football League. He made his debut for Macclesfield on 8 August, in the 0–0 away draw against Northampton Town in League Two. He scored his first goal in the Football League in the 2–2 draw against Morecambe on 22 August. Later that season, on 3 March 2010, Manager Keith Alexander died suddenly at home following the club's away match with Notts County. <mask> signed a two-year contract extension with Macclesfield in April 2010 and at the end of the season, he had made twenty-nine appearances, scoring once. The 2010/11 season, under new manager Gary Simpson – who had previously been Alexander's assistant at Lincoln City and Peterborough United, saw <mask> become a first team regular.He made forty appearances and scored five times. In August 2011, at the start of the 2011–12 season, <mask> attracted national news attention after scoring from close to the halfway line against Hereford United. Macclesfield went on to win the League Two match 4–0. Afterwards, <mask> conceded that he would never score another goal like it in his career. On 9 October 2011, he scored and provided an assist for George Donnelly during a 2–1 win over Aldershot. Later that month, the club opened contract extension negotiations with <mask>. On 25 November 2011, he received a straight red card – for the first time in his Macclesfield career – after a serious foul on Michael Hector in a 2–1 loss against Barnet.After the match, the club appealed his sending off. However, the FA rejected this appeal and confirmed a ban for three matches. In the early part of the season, <mask> had found some goalscoring form but this was halted when he sustained a fractured metatarsal during a 2–1 win over Port Vale. This injury kept him sidelined between December and March. Meanwhile, the club had slipped into a losing streak, which ultimately led to relegation and ended fifteen consecutive seasons in the Football League. As a result, Macclesfield undertook a severe cost-cutting exercise and released twenty-one players, with <mask> being the only incumbent player to be offered a new contract. During the subsequent negotiations, he reportedly attracted interest from other clubs 'wanting his signature'.Inverness Caledonian Thistle
After rejecting a new contract at Macclesfield Town, <mask> signed for Scottish Premier League club Inverness Caledonian Thistle in July 2012, on a one-year contract. His move to Scotland left manager Steve King upset, as it was ruled that there would be no compensation from Inverness. <mask> made his debut in the opening game of the season, a 2–2 draw against St Mirren. Three weeks later, he scored his first goals for his new club, netting twice – in only his second home appearance, during a 4–2 defeat by Celtic. He went on to score in the Highland derby and then notched another against Hibernian. Having established himself in the first team, playing in central midfield, <mask> signed a new contract with the club, in conjunction with Billy McKay, who had also agreed to an extension. He later commented that agreeing to the new one-year deal had been an easy decision to make.Another goal later in the campaign meant that <mask> finished his first season with Inverness with forty appearances and five goals. In the 2013–14 season, <mask> scored his first goal during the quarter-final of the League Cup. The goal proved to be the winner in the 2–1 win over Dundee United, sending the club into the semi-finals. He received his first red-card as an Inverness player when he was dismissed for a second bookable offence against Ross County on 1 January 2014. <mask> helped the club reach the League Cup final after scoring the winning penalty during the shoot-out against Hearts in the semi-final. After the match, he revealed that manager John Hughes had organised mock shoot-outs ahead of the game. He also disclosed that due to his previous occupation as a 'debt collector', his teammates had given him the nickname The Bailiff.In the final of the League Cup, <mask> expertly performed his role during the game, by effectively smothering Aberdeen in midfield. However, the match ended scoreless, and after extra-time, Inverness lost on penalties. Despite his team losing, he was named the 'Man-of-the-Match'. <mask> grudgingly accepted the award, explaining: "It's nice to get an award like that to show the kids when I'm older but it doesn't mean a great deal at the moment after the way we were beaten. And maybe I didn't deserve it. I'll take it, but it means nothing without a winner's medal to back it up." On 19 March 2014, <mask> signed a new two-year contract extension with Caley Thistle.Weeks after signing a new contract, <mask> scored his first league goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against St Mirren on 29 March 2014. <mask> went on to make forty-one appearances, scoring twice in all competitions. At the beginning of the 2014–15 season, <mask>'s impressive early performances led to him receiving the award of SPFL Player of the Month for August. Soon after, he collected four yellow cards in three matches which resulted in a one-match suspension, however he insisted he wasn't a dirty player. <mask> was then sent-off in the 67th minute, in a 1–0 loss against St Johnstone on 20 December 2014 and had to serve a two match ban. He made his first team return, coming on as a substitute for Aaron Doran in the 79th minute, in a 1–0 loss against St Mirren on 4 January 2015. <mask> then played 120 minutes, as Inverness beat Celtic 3–2 to reach their first ever Scottish Cup final.> After making the final, <mask> said he hoped Inverness could do themselves justice, saying that he would have been happy to have thrown away his League Cup final man of the match award, such was his disappointment that day.<mask> played as a centre-midfielder in the Scottish Cup Final, in a 2–1 win over Falkirk as Inverness won the Scottish Cup for the first time. After the match, <mask> expressed his delight at winning the trophy following the years he'd spent playing non-league in England. <mask> went on to make eighty-eight appearances in all competitions. Ross County
<mask> moved to Ross County in August 2017. Ross County got relegated from the Scottish Premiership that season finishing bottom of the table. The 2018–19 season <mask> was part of the team that won the Scottish Championship and Scottish Challenge Cup to get Ross County straight back to the Premiership. <mask> was released by County on 27 May 2021 along with nine other players.Cove Rangers
On 23 June 2021, <mask> signed a three-year contract with Scottish League One side Cove Rangers. In September 2021, <mask> then joined Scottish League Two side Elgin City on loan until January 2022. On 14 January 2022, the loan was extended for the remainder of the 2021–22 season. Career statistics

Honours

Club
Inverness Caledonian Thistle
Scottish Cup : 2014–15

Ross County
Scottish Championship: 2018–19
Scottish Challenge Cup: 2018–19

Individual
SPFL Player of the Month: August 2014

References

External links

1988 births
Living people
English footballers
Shrewsbury Town F.C. players
Stafford Rangers F.C. players
Hednesford Town F.C. players
Macclesfield Town F.C.players
National League (English football) players
English Football League players
Inverness Caledonian Thistle F.C. players
Cove Rangers F.C. players
Elgin City F.C. players
Footballers from Wolverhampton
Association football midfielders
Scottish Professional Football League players
Ross County F.C. players

masks:
Ross James Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
Draper
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texts:
<mask>, 9th Earl of March, (c. 1285–1369) was a prominent Scottish magnate during the reigns of Robert the Bruce and David II. Early years
The earldom, located in East Lothian, and known interchangeably by the names Dunbar and March (so-called Northumbrian or Scottish March), was one of the successor fiefs of Northumbria, an Anglo-Saxon Kingdom and later Earldom. The Dunbar family descended from one branch of ancient Earls of Northumbria, specifically from a branch which also had Scottish royal blood. He is said to have been aged 24 in 1309 at the death of his father, <mask>, 8th Earl of March, who had been one of the Competitors for the Crown of Scotland in 1291. The 8th Earl's wife, Marjory, daughter of Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan, was also descended from King Donald III. Bannockburn to Durham

After the Battle of Bannockburn, <mask> gave sanctuary and quarter to the English King Edward II at the fortress of Dunbar Castle, on the east coast of Scotland between Edinburgh and Berwick-upon-Tweed, and managed to effect the king's escape by means of a fishing boat whereby that monarch was transported back to England. The earl afterwards made his peace with his cousin Robert the Bruce, and was present at the parliament held at Ayr on 26 April 1315, when the succession to the Crown of Scotland was settled.In 1318 he assisted in retaking Berwick-upon-Tweed from the English, at which time he is noted as Sheriff of Lothian. In 1320 he was one of those nobles who signed the Declaration of Arbroath        sent to Pope John XXII asserting the independence of Scotland. Laing relates a charter of a Precept originally written in Norman-French by <mask> Dunbar, Earl of March, to Sir Robert Lauder of Quarrelwood, for heritable sasine of the reversion of the lands of Whitelaw within the Earldom of Dunbar, plus 10 livres yearly from the mill of Dunbar, and the farms and issues of the granter's said town (ville) of Dunbar, according to the terms of charters to the grantee. Dated at Berwick-upon-Tweed, 20 October 1324. Sometime after 1331 the Bishop of Durham complained to the Regency in Scotland that the village of Upsettlington, on the Scottish side of the River Tweed west of Norham, belonged to the See of Durham and not the Earl of Dunbar, who had seized it. The King of England now became involved also and it appears the lands were restored to the Bishop. In 1332 the Earl of Dunbar was appointed by the assembly of the estates (Parliament) at Perth, joint Guardian of the Crown, upon the death of the Regent, Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray.He opposed Edward Balliol in several battles and skirmishes following the Battle of Dupplin Moor. In January 1333 he was appointed Governor of Berwick Castle but was forced to surrender it following the Battle of Halidon Hill in July 1333. The <mask> of Dunbar and several others of the nobility paid fealty to King Edward. The Earl attended Edward Balliol at the parliament held at Edinburgh in February 1334 when they ceded to England Berwick, Dunbar, Roxburgh, and Edinburgh, as well as all the southern counties of Scotland. Earl <mask> had had his castle levelled to the ground, but Edward III of England now compelled him to rebuild the fortress at his own expense and garrisoned it with English troops. Dunbar castle was not restored to the Earl until 1338. In 1335 when King Edward III and Baliol had made another attack upon the Scots, the Earl cut off a body of archers on their return southward, and afterwards assisted John Randolph, 3rd Earl of Moray in defeating the Count of Namur at the Battle of Boroughmuir close to Edinburgh.In 1339 the Earl of Dunbar assisted the High Steward of Scotland, in the reduction of Perth, where he led the second division of the army. In 1340 he and the Earl of Sutherland were routed by Sir Thomas Grey and Sir Robert Manners, assisted by John Copeland and the English garrison of Roxburgh Castle, during border skirmishes. <mask>, Earl of Dunbar, had a Safe-Conduct dated 24 March 1342, from Westminster, in order to travel to England. <mask>, Earl of Dunbar, commanded the right of the Scottish army in the Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham. From this disaster the Earl escaped, with considerable losses, which included his wife's brother, John Randolph, 3rd Earl of Moray. In 1355 with William, Lord of Douglas and Sir William Ramsay of Dalhousie, the Earl of Dunbar again invaded Northumberland, and subsequently recovered Berwick-upon-Tweed, although not the castle. In 1357 he was one of the Scottish ambassadors who met at Berwick to discuss the liberation of King David, who had been taken prisoner at Neville's Cross.He was subsequently one of the hostages for David until the ransom was paid, although it would appear from Safe-Conducts that he was out and about thereafter. Following this his town of Dunbar was erected into a Royal Burgh. In 1366 he made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. In May 1367 he confirmed to the monks of Coldingham Priory by charter to the Prior and Convent of Durham, the church and manor of Edrom, and Nisbet, with the agreement of his wife. In June 1368 the King was advised by parliament at Scone to consult with the Earls of Dunbar and Douglas on the security of the Eastern marches. He was not present at the Coronation of King Robert II in 1371 so it is assumed that he died before then. Brown gives a year of death as 1368.If that is so it would probably be 1368/9. Marriage
<mask> is not as well remembered as his second wife Agnes Randolph, also known as Black Agnes of Dunbar who died just a few months before him. From her brothers she obtained by inheritance the Isle of Man, the Lordship of Annandale (which she brought to her marriage), and the feudal baronies of Morton and Tibbers in Nithsdale,  Mordington (where she is buried), Longformacus, and Duns, in Berwickshire; Mochrum in Galloway, Cumnock in Ayrshire, and Blantyre in Clydesdale. Notes

References
 Bain, Joseph, Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland, 1357–1509, Edinburgh, 1888, vol.iv, pps: xx - xxiv (Introduction) for further mention of her and relationships in the Dunbar family (with other references in the main sections of the volume). Burke, Sir Bernard, Ulster King of Arms, Burke's Dormant, Abeyant, Forfeited, and Extinct Peerages, London, 1883, p. 606. Dunbar, <mask>, <mask> of
Dunbar, <mask>, Earl of
Dunbar, <mask> of the Wars of Scottish Independence
Signatories to the Declaration of Arbroath
14th-century Scottish earls
Earls of March (Scotland)

masks:
Patrick de Dunbar
Patrick
Patrick de Dunbar
Patrick de
Earl
Patrick
Patrick
Patrick
Patrick Dunbar
Patrick March
Earl
Patrick March
Patrick People


texts:
<mask> (born January 3, 1949) is an American historian who currently holds the John J. and Rebecca Moores Chair of History and African American Studies at the University of Houston. Background
<mask> was raised in St. Louis, Missouri. After undergraduate education at Princeton University he received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and a J.D. from the University of California, Berkeley. Father of <mask>. <mask> holds the John J. and Rebecca Moores Chair of History and African American Studies at the University of Houston. <mask> is a frequent contributor to Political Affairs magazine.Writing
<mask> has published on W. E. B. Du Bois and has written books on neglected episodes of world history. He writes about topics he perceives as misrepresented struggles for justice, in particular communist struggles and struggles against imperialism, colonialism, fascism, racism and white supremacy. A Marxist, individuals whose lives his work has highlighted in their historical contexts have included the blacklisted Hollywood screenwriter John Howard Lawson, Ferdinand Smith (a Jamaican-born communist, sailor, labor leader, and co-founder of the National Maritime Union), and Lawrence Dennis, an African American fascist and racist who passed for white. While many of <mask>'s books use a celebrated, intriguing or politically engaged individual as a prism to inspect the historical forces of their times, <mask> has also produced broad canvas chronicles of infrequently examined periods and aspects of the history of white supremacy and imperialism such as the post-civil war involvement of the US ruling class—newly dispossessed of human chattels—with slavery in Brazil, which was not legally abolished until 1888, or the attempts by Japanese imperialists in the mid-20th century to appear as the leaders of a global war against white supremacy, thus allies and instruments of "liberation" for people of color oppressed by imperialism. Manning Marable has said: "<mask> is one of the most gifted and insightful historians on racial matters of his generation." Historiography in and for the radical tradition
At the Black Women and the Radical Tradition conference held at the Brooklyn College Graduate Center for Worker Education, in a session devoted to Shirley Graham Du Bois, he said:

In a speech given at an event marking the depositing of the Communist Party USA archives at the Tamiment Library at New York University, <mask> remarked at length on the writing of history, its importance, and what he perceives as the grievous proliferation of propagandistic historiography in the US:

In August 2014, The Real News posted a series of six interviews, Reality Asserts Itself conducted by Paul Jay with Horne.Works
 Black and Red: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War. SUNY Press (1986)
 Communist Front? The Civil Rights Congress, 1946-1956. Farleigh Dickinson University Press (1987)
 Black Liberation/Red Scare: Ben Davis and the Communist Party. University of Delaware Press (1994)
 Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising And The 1960s. Da Capo Press (1997)
 From the Barrel of a Gun: The United States and the War against Zimbabwe, 1965-1980.University of North Carolina Press (2000)
 Class Struggle in Hollywood, 1930-1950 : Moguls, Mobsters, Stars, Reds and Trade Unionists. University of Texas Press (2001)
 Race Woman: The Lives of Shirley Graham Du Bois. NYU Press (2002)

 Black and Brown: African Americans and the Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920. NYU Press (2005)
 The Final Victim of the Blacklist: John Howard Lawson, Dean of the Hollywood Ten. University of California Press (2006)
Cold War in a Hot Zone: The United States Confronts Labor and Independence Struggles in the British West Indies. Temple University Press (2007)
The White Pacific: U.S. Imperialism and Black Slavery in the South Seas After the Civil War.University of Hawaii Press (2007)
 The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade. NYU Press (2007)
 Blows Against the Empire: U.S. Imperialism in Crisis. International Publishers (2008)
 Red Seas: Ferdinand Smith and Radical Black Sailors in the United States and Jamaica. NYU Press (2009)
 Mau Mau in Harlem? : The U.S. and the Liberation of Kenya. Palgrave MacMillan (2009)
 The Color of Fascism: Lawrence Dennis, Racial Passing, and the Rise of Right-Wing Extremism in the United States.NYU Press (2009)
 W.E.B. Du Bois: A Biography. Greenwood Press (2009)
 The End of Empires: African Americans and India. Temple University Press (2009)
 Fighting in Paradise: Labor Unions, Racism, and Communists in the Making of Modern Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. (2011)
 Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation. NYU Press.(2013)
 Black Revolutionary: William Patterson & the Globalization of the African American Freedom Struggle. University of Illinois Press (2013)
 The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of America. NYU Press (2014)
 Race to Revolution: The U.S. and Cuba during Slavery and Jim Crow. Monthly Review Press (2014)
 Confronting Black Jacobins:  The U.S., the Haitian Revolution and the Origins of the Dominican Republic. Monthly Review Press (2015)
 Paul Robeson:  The Artist as Revolutionary. Pluto Press (2016)
 The Rise and Fall of the Associated Negro Press: Claude Albert Barnett's Pan-African News and the Jim Crow Paradox. University of Illinois Press (2017)
 Storming the Heavens:  African Americans and the Early Struggle for the Right to Fly.Black Classic Press (2017)
 Facing the Rising Sun:  African Americans, Japan the Rise of Afro-Asian Solidarity. NYU Press (2018)
 The Apocalypse of Settler Colonialism:  The Roots of Slavery, White Supremacy and Capitalism in Seventeenth Century North America and the Caribbean. Monthly Review Press (2018)
 Jazz and Justice: Racism and the Political Economy of the Music. Monthly Review Press (2019)
 White Supremacy Confronted: U.S. Imperialism and Anti-Communism vs. the Liberation of Southern Africa from Rhodes to Mandela. International Publishers (2019)
 The Dawning of the Apocalypse: The Roots of Slavery, White Supremacy, Settler Colonialism, and Capitalism in the Long Sixteenth Century. Monthly Review Press (2020)
 The Bittersweet Science: Racism, Racketeering, and the Political Economy of Boxing.International Publishers (2020)

Footnotes

External links

 University of Houston faculty page

 Recorded speeches and interviews

 On The Global Civil Rights Struggle at the conference, The Long Civil Rights Movement: Histories, Politics, Memories, given by the Southern Oral History Program, April 2–4, 2009 (Video)
 On Shirley Graham Du Bois at the Graduate Center for Worker Education at Brooklyn College (Video)
 On the Red Scare and the Hollywood Blacklist on NPR
 Horne challenges the mainstream narrative of US history (August 2014). Six-part discussion, The Real News (all TRNN segments)
 "Counter-Revolution of 1776": Was U.S. Independence War a Conservative Revolt in Favor of Slavery? on Democracy Now!, June 27, 2014
 The Summit of the Americas in the Context of US Imperialism (April 2015). "Scholar and activist <mask> traces modern-day US foreign policy in Latin America to its colonial roots." The Real News
 Police Killings Won't Stop Until U.S. Comes to Grips with its Racist Foundations The Real News. July 8, 2016.Historian: "You Can't Disconnect History of the 2nd Amendment From the History of White Supremacy" on Democracy Now!, July 12, 2016 (all DN! segments)
Appearances on On the Ground radio show

1949 births
Living people
African-American academics
African-American studies scholars
African-American writers
Historians of communism
American political writers
Marxist theorists
American Marxist historians
American male non-fiction writers
Anti-imperialism
Historians of colonialism
Labor historians
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Princeton University alumni
Columbia University alumni
UC Berkeley School of Law alumni

masks:
Gerald Horne
Gerald Horne
Flora Horne
Career Horne
Horne
Horne
Horne
Horne
Gerald Horne
Horne
Gerald Horne


texts:
<mask>  (born 16 June 1946) is a British art historian and former museum director. He was editor of the Burlington Magazine from 1981 to 1987, then Director of the National Gallery, London, from 1987 to 2002, Director of the British Museum from 2002 to 2015, and founding director of the Humboldt Forum in Berlin until 2018. Biography
<mask> was born in Glasgow to two medical doctors, Alexander and Anna MacGregor. He was educated at Glasgow Academy and then read modern languages at New College, Oxford, where he is now an honorary fellow. The period that followed was spent studying philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris (coinciding with the events of May 1968), and as a law student at Edinburgh University, where he received the Green Prize. Despite being called to the bar in 1972, MacGregor next decided to take an art history degree. The following year, on a Courtauld Institute (University of London) summer school in Bavaria, the Courtauld's director Anthony Blunt spotted MacGregor and persuaded him to take a master's degree under his supervision.Blunt later considered MacGregor "the most brilliant pupil he ever taught". From 1975 to 1981, MacGregor taught History of Art and Architecture at the University of Reading. He left to assume the editorship of The Burlington Magazine. He oversaw the transfer of the magazine from the Thomson Corporation to an independent not-for-profit company with charitable status. Directorship of the National Gallery
In 1987 <mask> became director of the National Gallery in London. During his directorship, MacGregor presented three BBC television series on art: Painting the World in 1995, Making Masterpieces, a behind-the-scenes tour of the National Gallery, in 1997 and Seeing Salvation, on the representation of Jesus in western art, in 2000. He declined the offer of a knighthood in 1999, the first director of the National Gallery to do so.Directorship of the British Museum
MacGregor was made director of the British Museum in August 2002, at a time when that institution was £5 million in deficit. He has been lauded for his "diplomatic" approach to the post, though MacGregor rejects this description, stating that "diplomat is conventionally taken to mean the promotion of the interests of a particular state and that is not what we are about at all". His tenure included exhibitions that were more provocative than the museum had previously shown and some told stories from perspectives that were less Eurocentric than previously, including a project about the Muslim Hajj. He sparked debate with his claim that the ancient Persian empire was greater than Ancient Greece. In 2010, MacGregor presented a series on BBC Radio 4 and the World Service entitled A History of the World in 100 Objects, based on one hundred artefacts held in the British Museum's collection. From September 2010 to January 2011 the British Museum lent the ancient Persian Cyrus Cylinder to an exhibition in Tehran, Iran. This was seen by at least a million visitors on the Museum's estimation, more than any loan exhibition to the United Kingdom had attracted since the Treasures of Tutankhamun exhibition in 1972.Holding tenure when the Acropolis Museum in Athens was completed, MacGregor followed previous Directors in arguing against returning the sculptures from the Parthenon (the "Elgin Marbles") to Greece. A poll in 2014 suggested that more British people (37%) supported the marbles' restoration to Greece than opposed it (23%). MacGregor stated that it is the British Museum's duty to "preserve the universality of the marbles, and to protect them from being appropriated as a nationalistic political symbol" and that "there is no legal system in Europe that would challenge the [British Museum's] legal title" to the works. The legal basis of various Ottoman documents, now lost, to which the British Museum has traditionally appealed in order to claim ownership of the sculptures is disputed. Under the directorship of MacGregor, the Museum rejected UNESCO mediation. In January 2008, MacGregor was appointed chairman of the World Collections programme, for training international curators at British museums. The exhibition The First Emperor, focussing on Qin Shi Huang and including a small number of his Terracotta Warriors, was mounted in 2008 in the British Museum Reading Room.That year <mask> was invited to succeed Philippe de Montebello as the Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. He declined the offer as the Metropolitan charges its visitors for entry and is thus "not a public institution". As of 2015, <mask> was paid a salary of between £190,000 and £194,999 by the British Museum, making him one of the 328 most highly paid people in the British public sector at that time. <mask> retired from the post in December 2015 and was succeeded in spring 2016 by Hartwig Fischer, till then the director of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden ("Dresden State Art Collections"). Directorship of the Humboldt Forum

On 8 April 2015, <mask> announced his retirement as Director of the British Museum. It was announced that <mask> would become founding director and head of the management committee of the Humboldt Forum in Berlin, and that he would make recommendations to the German government on how the future museum can draw on the resources of the Berlin collections to "become a place where different narratives of world cultures can be explored and debated". The three-member management committee also includes the co-directors, archaeologist Hermann Parzinger and art historian Horst Bredekamp.One of MacGregor's proposals is to make the museum admission-free, based on the model of the British Museum. In 2018, MacGregor left the post. Media projects
MacGregor has made many programmes for British television and radio. In the year 2000, he presented on television Seeing Salvation, about how Jesus had been depicted in famous paintings. More recently, he has made important contributions on BBC Radio 4, including A History of the World in 100 Objects and, in 2012, a series of fifteen-minute programmes after The World at One called Shakespeare's Restless World, discussing themes in the plays of William Shakespeare. In September 2014 UK domestic transmission started of his similarly formatted  series Germany: Memories of a Nation on BBC Radio 4, with a major supporting exhibition at the British Museum. This series did not limit itself to physical objects but places of memory, including for example the Forest.In 2017, MacGregor hosted a BBC Radio Four series Living with the Gods, on expressions of religious faith, liaising with Sabyasachi Mukherjee, Director of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai, on the presentation of world cultures. At the beginning of 2019, MacGregor presented a programme called "As Others See Us" on BBC Radio Four. This programme looked at how his own country (the United Kingdom) was seen by other countries around the world. In 2021, he gave a series of lectures at the “Chaire du Louvre” in Paris. Personal life
MacGregor was listed in The Independent's 2007 list of "most influential gay people" and was single . On 4 November 2010, MacGregor was appointed to the Order of Merit by Queen Elizabeth II. On 25 March 2013 MacGregor was appointed an Honorary Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) by the Governor-General of Australia Quentin Bryce, "for service to promoting Australia and Australian art in the United Kingdom".Awards
 2015 Friedrich-Gundolf-Preis from the Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung for A History of the World in 100 Objects and Germany: Memories of a Nation
 2015 Nayef Al-Rodhan Prize, from the British Academy for A History of the World in 100 Objects and Germany: Memories of a Nation

Publications

See also
 List of directors of the British Museum

References

External links

 Lecture "Identity Formation. The Role of Museums in the Creation and Inflection of National Narratives" at LMU Munich

 Collected news and commentary at The Guardian
 Collected news and commentary at The Independent
 A History of the World, BBC and The British Museum

1946 births
Living people
Academics of the University of Reading
Alumni of New College, Oxford
Alumni of the Courtauld Institute of Art
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
British expatriates in Germany
Directors of museums in the United Kingdom
Directors of the British Museum
Directors of the National Gallery, London
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Honorary Officers of the Order of Australia
British gay writers
LGBT historians
Members of the Faculty of Advocates
Members of the Order of Merit
People educated at the Glasgow Academy
People from Glasgow
Scottish art historians
Scottish curators
Honorary Fellows of the British Academy

masks:
Robert Neil MacGregor
Neil MacGgor
MacGregor
MacGregor
MacGregor
MacGregor
MacGregor
MacGregor


texts:
<mask> (born November 8, 1966) is a Canadian politician and academic serving as the 40th and current mayor of Vancouver since 2018. He previously was the member of Parliament (MP) for the riding of Burnaby—Douglas (2011–2015) and Burnaby South (2015–2018), serving in the House of Commons as a member of the New Democratic Party (NDP) caucus. In May 2018, <mask> announced his pending resignation from Parliament, in order to seek election as mayor of Vancouver as an independent candidate. In August 2018, he publicly released his letter to the Speaker of House, Geoff Regan, confirming his resignation, effective September 14, 2018. During the 2018 Vancouver municipal election, <mask> was declared the winner of the mayoral race by a margin of fewer than 1,000 votes over Ken Sim, the Non-Partisan Association (NPA) candidate. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1966 and raised in Wolfville, Nova Scotia. He earned his bachelor's degree in history from Acadia University.After moving to Burnaby, British Columbia, in 1988, <mask> played bass guitar for the pop music band State of Mind. In 1991, his band won three West Coast Music Awards. In 1995, <mask> received his master's degree in political science from Simon Fraser University, and a PhD in government from the London School of Economics in 2003. As an academic, <mask> has published research on citizen participation, democratic reform, and municipal governance. His books include Local Government in Canada. While serving as mayor, he is on leave from Simon Fraser University's School of Public Policy, where he teaches. <mask>'s wife Jeanette Ashe also teaches politics, at Douglas College.Federal politics

On March 28, 2004, <mask> won the nomination for the New Democratic Party for the federal riding of Vancouver Centre in a close three-way race. Although he lost in the 2004 general election by 4,230 votes, he increased the NDP's vote share in Vancouver Centre by 20 percentage points compared to the 2000 election. On February 25, 2011, <mask> secured the NDP nomination for the federal riding of Burnaby—Douglas in a first ballot victory. He won the riding in the 2011 general election with 44 percent of the vote, and was re-elected with 35 percent of the vote in 2015. 41st Parliament

In 2012, NDP Leader Thomas Mulcair appointed <mask> as official opposition critic for science and technology and as a member of the standing committee on industry, science and technology. In Parliament, he opposed the Conservative government's elimination of the long-form census and funding cuts for basic scientific research. He tabled legislation (Motion 453) to protect scientific integrity in government departments and end the muzzling of federal scientists.In 2013, <mask> introduced Bill C-558, The Parliamentary Science Officer Act. Following the elimination of Canada's National Science Advisor in 2008, the bill aimed to create an independent science watchdog tasked with providing Parliament with sound scientific information and ensuring decisions are informed by the best available evidence. Bill C-558 was endorsed by Evidence for Democracy, the Canadian Association of University Teachers, the Professional Institute of the Public Service of Canada, and the Centre for Science in the Public Interest. <mask> put forward a proposal (Motion 428) for the House of Commons to begin accepting petitions electronically as a means to engage more Canadians in the democratic process. It further proposed that short debates be triggered in Parliament if an online petition receives a significant number of signatures and is sponsored by at least five MPs. <mask>'s proposal was endorsed by Ed Broadbent, Preston Manning, and a number of civil society groups. Being opposed by Prime Minister Stephen Harper and his Conservative cabinet, Motion 428 passed the House of Commons by only two votes (142-140) on January 29, 2014.It was widely viewed as a "surprise win" for the official opposition. <mask> held public consultations with Burnaby residents on Kinder Morgan's proposal to build a new export-only, bitumen-based crude oil pipeline through his riding. <mask> became a vocal opponent of the project, citing community concerns over property expropriation, decreasing housing values, increased tanker traffic in the Burrard Inlet, the use of temporary foreign workers, and the lack of benefits for British Columbia. His constituency office helped local residents sign-up to participate in the National Energy Board's review of the project. In 2013, the Burnaby Newsleader named <mask> their "Newsmaker of the Year" for his community work on the Kinder Morgan pipeline. <mask> is an advocate for social housing and federal action to address BC's housing crisis. In 2014, he put forward a BC-specific affordable housing strategy (Motion 547) to recognize housing as a fundamental right, expand public investments in housing co-ops, maintain rent subsidies for low-income families, set targets for reducing and ending homelessness, and study the impact of investor speculation and housing vacancies on real estate prices.His motion was endorsed by the City of Burnaby. 42nd Parliament
He was re-elected in the new riding of Burnaby South in the 2015 election. Following the election, <mask> was re-appointed by Tom Mulcair as NDP critic for science. On December 4, 2015, Parliament launched its new website for accepting electronic petitions from Canadians. Under the new system, initiated by <mask>'s motion that passed before the election, the federal government has to respond within 45 days to online petitions if they are sponsored by one member of Parliament and receive at least 500 signatures. <mask> sponsored the first official e-petition in Canada on behalf of two local constituents. On December 9, 2015, <mask> was elected by his caucus colleagues as chair of the NDP's British Columbia caucus.In a statement, he vowed to support the NDP's newly elected MPs getting established in Parliament, strengthen engagement with stakeholders and constituents across the province, and hold the new Liberal government accountable for its election promises on affordable housing and pipeline reviews. 2018 contempt of court

On March 23, 2018, <mask> was arrested for civil contempt during a demonstration against the Kinder Morgan pipeline. Other members of the demonstration, including fellow member of Parliament Elizabeth May, were also arrested concerning the same incident. They were accused of violating a court order requiring those demonstrating to stay five metres back from company work sites, when they allegedly blocked the roadway. On April 9, 2018, Justice Kenneth Affleck of the British Columbia Supreme Court recommended that <mask> and the others arrested should be charged with criminal contempt in relation to the alleged incident. On April 16, 2018, it was reported that special prosecutors would be overseeing the charges against <mask> and May. On May 14, 2018, <mask> pleaded guilty to criminal contempt of court for his actions during the protest and was fined $500.As criminal contempt is a common law—not a Criminal Code—offence, <mask> does not have a criminal record. Vancouver municipal politics
<mask> announced on May 10, 2018, that he will be resigning from Parliament in order to run to be the mayor of Vancouver in the 2018 Vancouver municipal election. His resignation was effective September 14, 2018 (the last day he can file his paperwork to officially enter the mayoral race). Until his resignation became official on September 14, <mask> told CBC News he intended to continue to campaign for mayor and collect his MP salary, saying that there was "overlap" between both roles. On May 24, 2018, <mask> announced, if elected mayor, he would create a lobbyist registry and new conflict-of-interest rules for City Hall. <mask> won the mayoral election, with a margin of fewer than 1000 votes separating him from NPA candidate Ken Sim. <mask> is the first mayor of Vancouver to be unaffiliated with a municipal political party in over 30 years.Mayoral term

Housing
During the 2018 campaign, <mask> promised to address the housing crisis by approving the construction of more rental homes, co-ops, and market housing aimed at middle-income workers and families. He also promised to renew city-held leases to protect the city's current 6000 cooperative housing units. Since becoming mayor, <mask> has supported the Moderate Income Rental Housing Pilot Project (MIRHPP), which allows developers of secured market rental housing to add more units to their developments than the current zoning would allow as long as 20 percent of the units are permanently reserved for moderate income households. In August 2019, the federal Minister of Families, Children and Social Development, Jean-Yves Duclos, and <mask> announced a partnership where the federal government would provide $184million in low-interest loans and grants to fund the construction of 1,100 units of affordable housing on City-owned land. In November 2019, <mask>along with Vancouver City Councilvoted to increase the Empty Homes Tax rate from 1% to 1.25% for the 2020 fiscal year and approved future increases in 0.25% increments in 2021 and 2022. Opioid crisis
As promised during the 2018 campaign, <mask> created a Mayor’s Overdose Emergency Task Force to address the opioid crisis in Vancouver. The task force produced 31 recommendations, which were unanimously approved by Council for implementation in December 2018.An additional eight recommendations were unanimously approved in July 2019, as well as a Safe Supply Statement advocating for a regulated, safe supply of drugs to prevent deaths from drug poisoning. Transportation
During the 2018 campaign, <mask> expressed his support for extending the planned Broadway extension of the SkyTrain's Millennium Line to Arbutus all the way to the University of British Columbia (UBC). He said that 2020 is a "critical year" to secure federal and provincial funding for the project and, on January 29, 2020, signed a memorandum of understanding with the Musqueam Indian Band, the Squamish Nation, the Tsleil-Waututh Nation and UBC, agreeing to work with the other signatories to seek funding to build SkyTrain to UBC. Re-election announcement
In November 2019, <mask> announced that he plans to run for re-election in the 2022 municipal elections. Electoral record

References

External links

<mask> - NDP Website
<mask> - Mayoral Campaign Website

1966 births
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
New Democratic Party MPs
People from Halifax, Nova Scotia
Simon Fraser University alumni
People from Burnaby
Simon Fraser University faculty
Acadia University alumni
21st-century Canadian politicians
Mayors of Vancouver

masks:
Edward Charles Kennedy Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Kennedy Stewart
Kennedy Stewart


texts:
<mask> (15 October 1733 – 1812) was born in Maryland and fought during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War. He was reputed to be the father of Sequoyah the famous Cherokee by Wurteh Watts. Like his father <mask> (1706–1759), he served in Braddock's Expedition in 1755 and the Forbes Expedition in 1758. The outbreak of the American Revolution found him on the frontier. At first suspected of sympathizing with the British, he convinced the Americans of his loyalty. George Washington, a close friend of his father, authorized him to form <mask>'s Additional Continental Regiment in January 1777. <mask> probably participated in Light Horse Harry Lee's Paulus Hook Raid in 1779.He and his regiment were captured at the Siege of Charleston in May 1780. After the war, he took an American wife Judith Cary Bell (1750–1833) and the couple had four daughters, one of whom married Francis P. Blair. He is variously said to have died in 1796, 1812, or at the end of the War of 1812. He is confused with his uncle <mask> (1707–1780). He was a first cousin of Mordecai <mask>. French and Indian War
Born on 15 October 1733 in Baltimore, Province of Maryland, <mask>'s parents were <mask> (1706–1759) and Sarah Howard (b. 1711).The surname was sometimes rendered Guest. In 1753 his father made a remarkable trek through the wilderness with George Washington. By this time the 20-year-old <mask> was a trader living with the Overhill Cherokee near Echota. He and a partner Richard Pearis sold his father's goods to the Native Americans. Both men coveted the land at Long Island in the Holston River (now Kingsport, Tennessee) and soon fell out. Governor Robert Dinwiddie blamed the quarrel for the failure of the Cherokees to aid the British against the French. In 1755 <mask> accompanied Braddock's Expedition in 1755, serving as a lieutenant in his father's ranger company in Washington's colonial regiment.He continued his military service in 1756, protecting the frontier against raids by pro-French Indians. In 1757, <mask> received promotion to captain and was given responsibility for 200 Cherokees living in Virginia. He was credited with leading these native peoples as an auxiliary force during the successful Forbes Expedition of 1758. In 1760, <mask> accompanied Daniel Boone and other hunters on a trek to Abingdon, Virginia, then called Wolf Hill. The two then split up, with Boone going on to Long Island and <mask> traveling to Cumberland Gap. He was said to have sired Sequoyah in 1760 or 1761, but this is unlikely because the Anglo-Cherokee War was raging and <mask> was serving in Adam Stephen's colonial Virginia regiment against the Cherokees. This unit advanced as far as Long Island before peace was made between the two sides.American Revolutionary War

Samuel C. Williams believed that <mask> fathered Sequoyah around 1775 by his mother Wurteh Watts. Of a prominent clan, she was related to Old Tassel. Williams dismissed the story that Sequoyah's father was an itinerant German peddler by the name of Guess. He noted that Sequoyah went by George Guess, Guest, and <mask>, and that he finished the Cherokee alphabet in 1821 when he was about 40. This was much too young for a man born in 1761. Williams noted that a letter showed that in 1828, Sequoyah visited Gist relatives in Kentucky and was acknowledged as a family member. The year 1775 found <mask> living with the Overhill Cherokees.After a trip to West Florida, he returned to Cherokee country with Henry Stuart, the brother of John Stuart, the British agent to the southern tribes. At this time, the Stuarts and another agent Alexander Cameron were trying to get the white settlers on the Nolichucky and Watauga Rivers to move to West Florida. When the American Revolution broke out, the British agents desired to separate the American loyalist settlers from the rebels, so that the Indians could attack the rebels. They apparently hoped to enlist <mask> in the effort. Jarret Williams, a settler got back to Virginia with the news that <mask> was working with the British. In fact, <mask> was in the pay of Cameron at the time. For his part, <mask> warned the Cherokees not to start a war, but they began attacking the settlements anyway.In 1776, Virginia sent an expedition under William Christian against the Cherokees. He was enjoined to capture the Stuarts, Cameron, and <mask> as enemies. When the column reached the French Broad River, <mask> came into the Virginian camp under a flag of truce. On 15 October 1776, Christian reported to Governor Patrick Henry that some of the Virginia troops recalled <mask>'s exploits on the frontier in a good light, while most of the soldiers wanted to lynch him as a British spy. Christian thought <mask> was remorseful for becoming involved with the British agents, but did not entirely trust him. Nevertheless, he kept him from harm and <mask> later regained his popularity. <mask> maintained that it was impossible for him to escape so he appeared to go along with the enemy purpose, a story that was accepted by Governor Henry and the Virginia council in December.Washington appointed <mask> colonel in command of <mask>'s Additional Continental Regiment on 11 January 1777. The regiment was intended to be a light infantry unit. Four companies of southern frontier rangers would be enrolled. In addition, <mask> was to recruit 500 natives from the Cherokee and other tribes to serve as scouts. Aside from the military purpose, it was believed that enlisting the braves would bind the tribes in an alliance with the American cause. Only three companies were formed from Virginians and Marylanders. The regiment did not fight as a whole.Instead, the companies of Captains <mask> and Joseph Smith were attached to the 3rd Maryland Regiment while the company of Captain Samuel Lapsley served with the 12th Virginia Regiment. The three companies that comprised the regiment fought with the main army in the Philadelphia Campaign in the summer and fall of 1777 and at the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778. On 22 April 1779, Gist's Regiment absorbed Grayson's Additional Continental Regiment and Thruston's Additional Continental Regiment. The consolidated regiment reformed in the strength of eight companies. The unit was assigned to the 1st Virginia Brigade on 12 May. <mask> preferred charges against Light Horse Harry Lee after the latter's capture of British prisoners at the Battle of Paulus Hook on 19 August 1779. Brigadier General George Weedon, who evidently disagreed with the charges, called <mask> "the head of the Wrongheads".On 4 December, the regiment was ordered to march to Charleston, South Carolina. On 6 April 1780, William Woodford's contingent of 750 Virginia Continentals arrived, having marched . <mask> and his regiment were captured on 12 May 1780 at the Siege of Charleston. He retired from the army on 1 January 1783. <mask> received 7,000 acres in Kentucky for his services in the war. He moved there in 1793 and built an estate called Canewood. At that time he was described as six feet tall and "stout-framed", with a dark complexion.Williams believed that he died around the end of the War of 1812. Historian Francis B. Heitman asserted that <mask> died in 1796. Family
<mask> had two brothers, <mask>, who was born on 2 September 1729 and died at the Battle of King's Mountain in 1780, and <mask>, who moved to Kentucky after the American Revolutionary War. Heitman states that it was <mask> Jr., an ensign in his father's regiment, who died at King's Mountain. His father had two brothers. <mask> is sometimes confused with his uncle <mask>. In 1783, <mask> married Judith Cary Bell and the couple had four daughters, Eliza Violet, Sarah Howard, Anne Cary, and Maria.Eliza married Francis Preston Blair and was the mother of Montgomery Blair who served in Abraham Lincoln's cabinet and Francis Preston Blair Jr. a Union general and US Senator. Sarah married Jesse Bledsoe who became a US Senator, Anne wed Dr. Joseph Boswell, and Maria married Benjamin Gratz. The noted Maryland officer Mordecai <mask> was his first cousin. Notes
Footnotes

Citations

References

1733 births
1812 deaths
Continental Army officers from Virginia
Virginia colonial people
Colonial American Indian agents
People of Maryland in the American Revolution

masks:
Nathaniel Gist
Christopher Gist
Gist
Gist
Nathaniel Gist
Gist
Gist
Christopher Gist
Nathaniel Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
John Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Gist
Nathaniel
Richard Gist
Thomas Gist
Nathaniel Gist
Nathaniel
Nathaniel
Gist
Gist


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<mask> FRS (31 May 1756 in Dumfriesshire, Scotland – 31 August 1805 in Sidmouth) was a Scottish physician, best known for his anthology and biography of Robert Burns and his medical reports on the use of water in the treatment of fever. A watercolour portrait by Horace Hone (1756–1825) is in the National Galleries of Scotland. His early attempt to set up a merchanting business in Virginia was a failure and he returned to Scotland. After qualifying as a medical doctor he established a successful practice in Liverpool, England and after a few years was able to purchase a small estate in Dumfriesshire. He became a Fellow of the London Medical Society and was a founder member of the Liverpool Literary Society. He was an early advocate of the abolition of slavery and wrote several political letters and pamphlets, including one to William Pitt, which made him a number of enemies. Throughout his life he was dogged by illness and in 1804 he became seriously unwell.In an effort to find a cure, he relinquished his Liverpool practice and went to Bath, Clifton and finally Sidmouth, where he died on 31 August 1805 at age 49. Family and education
He was born in Kirkpatrick-Fleming, in Annandale, Dumfriesshire, a son of the minister, the Reverend <mask>, and Jane, the only daughter of Robert Boyd, of Dumfries. The <mask>s were an old Scottish family, descended from the <mask>s of Dunse, Berwickshire, and originally from the Corrie family of Annandale. <mask>'s first school was in the nearby parish of Middlebie, in Annandale, where his father had become Minister, and from age 13 he attended the grammar school in Dumfries, run by Dr George Chapman. After a period in America, described below, he returned in 1776 to Scotland to study medicine at Edinburgh. During his first year at university he contracted rheumatic fever, a disease which recurred periodically throughout his life. He obtained his degree of M.D.in Glasgow and in 1780 settled in Liverpool, where he was appointed as one of the physicians at the infirmary. He married Lucy Wallace in 1783, with whom he had five children. Her father was a prosperous merchant, a descendant of William Wallace, nicknamed The Hero of Scotland by Sir Walter Scott. Virginia
Attracted by the stories of prosperity in America he went in 1771 to Virginia, at that time a British colony, settling as a merchant on the James River, where he spent five hard years, much of the time ill and always in unprofitable commercial business. Trade between Britain and America suffered as a result of the dissension between the two countries and he turned his attention to politics. Under the misleading pseudonym 'An Old Man' he published a series of articles in defence of the right of the mother country to tax her colonies. He was an outspoken man, and his views were unlikely to have enhanced his business prospects.The outbreak of the American Revolution ended any further chance of success and he sailed for home in the spring of 1776. The ship was captured by the revolutionary army. He was made to serve in the Colonial Army, but bought his freedom and made a second attempt to sail to England. He was captured again and this time he had to sail 150 miles in an open boat to gain his freedom. He reached Deptford, England, on 2 May 1777. Medical publications
Dr <mask> used cold water treatments in the successful treatment of a contagious fever in Liverpool "and in 1797 made public his views and experiences, with a list of cures effected by his measures". This pamphlet, Medical Reports on the Effects of Water, Cold and Warm, as a Remedy in Fevers and Other Diseases (1797), had some influence in promoting the use of cold water affusion, and contains the first systematic record in English of clinical observations with the thermometer.A fourth edition was published in July 1805, the month before his death. In the 1840s, there was a strong revival of interest in cold water cures, or hydropathy, following the promotion of Vincent Priessnitz's methods by Captain R. T. Claridge and others. Yet while acknowledging the contributions of <mask>'s predecessors, such as John Floyer, Claridge noted that "After all, the merit of settling the use of cold water on just a principle, belongs incontestably to our own countryman, <mask>, whose work, published in 1797, upon the efficacy of water, may be considered the scientific base of Hydropathy". Anthology of Robert Burns
<mask> was an admirer of Burns's poetry and met him once in Dumfries. One of his wife Lucy's relatives, Mrs Dunlop, was a close friend of the poet. Burns visited Mrs Dunlop at her home on five occasions and over a period of ten years they exchanged a great number of letters, 186 of which survive to this day. After Burns's death, <mask> was entrusted with the publication of an authoritative anthology.Although inexperienced in such a task, he had many advantages, including access through Mrs Dunlop to original manuscripts of poems and letters and help from Gilbert Burns, Robert's brother, and several of Burns's friends. When The Complete Poetical Works of Robert Burns: With Explanatory and Glossarial Notes; And a Life of the Author was published in four volumes in 1800, it met with immediate success and second, third and fourth editions were published in 1801–3. In addition to containing revised versions of Burns' songs such as "The Battle of Sherramuir", it also contained an introductory criticism and an essay on the character and condition of the Scottish peasantry. The work remains an authoritative source, but not without criticism. It is claimed that <mask> exaggerated Burns's fondness for drink and that he deliberately misdated some of Burns's letters to Mrs Dunlop. An eighth edition, published in 1820, included an additional section Some Further Particulars of the Author's Life by Gilbert Burns. However, the publishers advised Gilbert not to impugn <mask>'s accuracy and the legend that Burns was an incurable alcoholic remained unchallenged.References

See also

List of abolitionist forerunners

1756 births
1805 deaths
People from Dumfries and Galloway
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Scottish book editors
18th-century Scottish medical doctors
Fellows of the Royal Society

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<mask> is an American human rights lawyer. He specializes in helping victims pursue abusive leaders for atrocities, and has gained fame as the "Dictator Hunter". He worked as counsel for the victims in the case of the exiled former dictator of Chad, Hissène Habré – who was convicted of crimes against humanity in Senegal - and has worked with the victims of Augusto Pinochet and Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier. He currently works with victims of the former dictator of Gambia, Yahya Jammeh. Early life and education

<mask> was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1953. His father, <mask>, a Hungarian Jew, spent three years in German labor camps before emigrating to the United States and teaching at Fairleigh Dickinson University. His mother, Francesca Cash, was an arts teacher at a Brooklyn inner-city school.<mask> went to Stuyvesant High School in New York and received his Bachelor of Arts in Political Science from Fairleigh Dickinson University where he was Student Government President and a leader in the anti-Vietnam War movement. He earned his law degree from Columbia University School of Law, where he was a Harlan Fiske Stone Scholar. While a law student, <mask> worked a year in Paris as a teaching assistant at the Université de Paris (Panthéon-Sorbonne). <mask> holds an honorary doctorate from Fairleigh Dickinson University and was awarded a Public Interest Achievement Award by Columbia University Law School. Career

After law school, <mask> worked as New York State Assistant Attorney General from 1980 to 1984 where he authored consumer protection laws and advocated on behalf of consumers and workers in class action-type suits against large corporations and financial institutions. He was called "the leading expert in the country on career-counseling malpractices.”

<mask> left his position as Assistant Attorney General to research and uncover a pattern of atrocities against Nicaraguan civilians by US-funded "contras". His report, Contra Terror in Nicaragua received national front-page coverage and led to U.S. Congressional hearings and a temporary halt to contra funding.<mask> conducted a speaking tour of over 60 U.S. cities and appeared as co-counsel with the Center for Constitutional Rights in litigation in U.S. federal court to stop U.S. aid to contras. His report was also introduced into evidence in the case Nicaragua v. United States at the International Court of Justice in The Hague. He was attacked by United States President Ronald Reagan, who called him a Sandinista "sympathizer". From 1987 until 1991, <mask> worked for the International Commission of Jurists in Geneva, as the Director of its Centre for the Independence of Judges and Lawyers (CIJL), where he organized campaigns on behalf of harassed and/or detained jurists and engaged in high-level regional and national seminars on the independence of numerous judiciary systems around the world. Together with P. N. Bhagwati, former Chief Justice of India, he assisted the government of Mongolia on behalf of the United Nations in preparing its 1991 constitution. In 1992, <mask> became Executive Director of the International Human Rights Law Group (now Global Rights), where he served until 1994 placing activists in-country to train and empower locally based rights advocates in a dozen countries, and in 1993, he was spokesman for the more than 3,000 NGO representatives at the UN World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna. <mask> then served as Director of the Human Rights Division of the United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL) from 1994 until 1995, where he led a staff of human rights officers and police observers responsible for verifying respect for human rights, monitoring compliance with peace accords, and coordinating international support to El Salvador’s judiciary and Human Rights Ombudsman.He was also a member of the UN Preliminary Mission to establish a human rights verification mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA) in 1994. In 1995, <mask> helped found the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux in Haiti to prosecute human rights crimes committed during de facto military rule. The investigations he began led to the convictions of 57 military and paramilitary officers for the "Raboteau Massacre," the most significant rights prosecution in Haitian history. From 1995 to 1997 he worked as a free-lance activist. He served as media liaison for the exiled Tibetan Women's Delegation at the 1995 UN Women’s Conference in Beijing. In 1995, he was expelled from occupied East Timor by Indonesian authorities. He led an Amnesty International fact-finding mission to Sierra Leone (1996).As former Executive Secretary, he was a coordinator of the International Commission of Jurists' report Tibet: Human Rights and the Rule of Law, published in 1997. He was a member of the U.S. National Criminal Justice Commission, which produced The Real War on Crime, published in 1996. In 1997, <mask> was Deputy Director of the United Nations Secretary General’s Investigative Team in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, charged with probing atrocities committed by troops loyal to Laurent Kabila. Human Rights Watch

<mask> was with Human Rights Watch from 1998 to 2016 and was an integral part of the organization’s efforts to hold perpetrators of large-scale human rights violations accountable for their crimes. Most notably, <mask> directed Human Rights Watch’s participation in the landmark case of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet before the British House of Lords, a seminal case that many say marked the beginning of the end of impunity for powerful former heads of state. <mask> credits the Pinochet case as the defining moment in pushing him to pursue similar cases that would serve as a "wake-up call" to tyrants and a “spark of hope for victims.” In the wake of the Pinochet case, <mask> began pursuing other former exiled leaders including Hissène Habré of Chad, Mengistu Haile Mariam of Ethiopia, Jean-Claude Duvalier and Raul Cédras of Haiti, and Idi Amin of Uganda. He wrote the Human Rights Watch booklet The Pinochet Precedent: How Victims can Pursue Human Rights Criminals Abroad.<mask> was an observer at the 2012 trial of Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón. Judge Garzón is best known for using the doctrine of universal jurisdiction to investigate war crimes and torture across national lines, most notably ordering the arrest of Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet and seeking to indict members of the Bush administration for their role in torturing prisoners. On 9 February 2012, the Supreme Court of Spain convicted Judge Garzón of illegally wiretapping conversations to discover evidence of illicit money laundering tactics being used by suspects and their lawyers. In April 2010, <mask> spoke at a rally of over 60,000 in Madrid’s Puerta del Sol, noting the irony that Judge Garzón was prosecuted for attempting to apply the very principles that he had successfully promoted internationally. <mask> expressed disbelief that Judge Garzón was the first judge in Spain to be put on trial for ordering wiretaps. In 2010, he assisted the Haitian government in building the case against former dictator Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier, and he co-authored the HRW report Haiti’s Rendezvous with History: The Case of Jean-Claude Duvalier.<ref>Human Rights Watch Report, Haiti’s Rendezvous with History: The Case of Jean-Claude Duvalier, April 2011. (pdf)</ref> He is featured in a video on the case produced by Human Rights Watch.He is author of the July 2011 HRW report Getting Away with Torture which examined the impunity of former US President George W. Bush and other top officials for the widespread mistreatment of Muslim prisoners, and of the book Faut-il Juger George Bush? based on the report. His other reports on counter-terrorism issues include The Road to Abu Ghraib (June 2004), which investigated the roots of the prisoner abuse scandal and The United States’ 'Disappeared' (October 2004), which looked at the long-term incommunicado detention of al-Qaeda leaders in "secret locations". Hissène Habré case

<mask> has worked since 1999 with the victims of the former dictator of Chad, Hissène Habré to bring Habré and his accomplices to justice. Habré is accused of thousands of political killings and systematic torture when he ruled Chad from 1982 to 1990 and has been living in exile in Senegal ever since. After what the Toronto Globe and Mail called “one of the world’s most patient and tenacious campaigns for justice" waged by the victims with <mask>’s support, Habré’s trial by a special court in Senegal finally began on July 20, 2015 and ended on February 11, 2016. On May 30, 2016, the court convicted Habré for crimes against humanity, including torture, rape and sexual slavery, and sentenced him to life imprisonment.It was the first time ever that a head of state had been prosecuted in the courts of another country. The New York Times, among others, hailed the case as “a Milestone for justice in Africa.” On April 27, 2017, an appeals court confirmed the verdict and ordered Habré to pay approximately 123 million euros in victim compensation. Also as a result of the victims’ campaign, on March 25, 2015, a Chadian criminal court convicted 20 Habré-era security agents on charges of murder, torture, kidnapping and arbitrary detention. Current Work

While away from Human Rights Watch in 2016-2017, <mask> was active in human rights causes in the United States. In October 2016, he represented the journalist Amy Goodman, host of the television and radio show Democracy Now!, who was charged with criminal offenses for her reporting on an attack against Native American-led anti-pipeline protesters at Standing Rock, North Dakota. The charges were dropped

In January 2017, <mask> was elected to the International Commission of Jurists. In 2017, he returned to Human Rights Watch to work with victims of the former dictator of Gambia Yahya Jammeh who is now in exile in Equatorial Guinea.<mask> organized a meeting between the victims of Hissène Habré and the victims of Yahya Jammeh and helped launch the “Campaign to Bring Yahya Jammeh and his Accomplices to Justice”- (“#Jammeh2Justice"). In May 2018, he spearheaded an investigation which revealed that 56 West African migrants, mostly from Ghana, had been killed by a death squad taking orders from Jammeh. His June 2019 investigation uncovered the cases of three women who accused Jammeh of rape and sexual abuse. He also helped initiate a criminal case in Argentina against Saudi Arabia’s visiting Crown Prince Mouhamed bin Salman. Publications and academia

<mask> has authored several books, including, Faut-il Juger George Bush?, The Pinochet Papers: The Case of Augusto Pinochet in Britain and Spain, Tibet: Human Rights and the Rule of Law, and Contra Terror in Nicaragua. His articles have appeared in the International Herald Tribune, Los Angeles Times, Boston Globe, Le Monde, Le Soir, and El País. <mask> has taught law at Columbia University Law School and American University’s Washington College of Law and been a guest lecturer at the law schools of Cornell, Georgetown, Harvard, NYU, Wisconsin and Yale.Appearances in films and media

<mask>’s work has been featured in documentaries including “The trial of Hissène Habré, an inconvenient ally” (Al-Jazeera/France24, 2016), Le Chasseur de Dictateurs  (France 2, Complément d'enquête, 2011), Le Chasseur de Dictateurs: Jean-Claude Duvalier (Radio Canada TV, 2011), Hissène Habré: La Traque d’un Dictateur (Canal+, France, 2009), and The Dictator Hunter (directed by Klaartje Quirijns, 2007). <mask> has also appeared as an actor in the feature films of his life partner Isabel Coixet, notably “Endless Night” (2015). References

1953 births
Human Rights Watch people
Living people

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<mask> (; 1909–1995) was a Chinese philosopher and translator. He was born in Shandong province and graduated from Peking University. In 1949 he moved to Taiwan and later to Hong Kong, and he remained outside of mainland China for the rest of his life. His thought was heavily influenced by Immanuel Kant, whose three Critiques he translated from English, possibly first, into Chinese, and above all by Tiantai Buddhist philosophy. Over the last 40 years of his life, <mask> wrote histories of "Neo-Daoist," Confucian, and Buddhist philosophy (totaling six volumes) a group of constructive philosophic treatises, culminating in his 1985 work, On the Summum Bonum (), in which he attempts to rectify the problems in Kant's system through a Confucian-based philosophy reworked with a set of concepts appropriated from Tiantai Buddhism. In the People's Republic of China, <mask> is especially famous for his cultural traditionalism and his defense of democracy as a traditional Chinese value. Biography
<mask> was born into the family of an innkeeper in Qixia, Shandong.He went to Peking University for college prep (1927) and undergraduate courses (1929). During that time he became a follower of Xiong Shili, author of the New Treatise on Consciousness-only and soon to be the most eminent philosopher in China until supplanted by <mask> himself. After graduating in 1933, <mask> moved around the country working as a secondary school teacher and a faculty member at different universities. In 1949 he followed the Nationalist government to Taiwan. His student at Tunghai University was Tu Weiming. In 1960 he moved to Hong Kong and eventually took up a post at New Asia College in Hong Kong (now part of the Chinese University of Hong Kong) and helped found New Asia Middle School. During the last two decades of his life <mask> was something of an intellectual celebrity.He lectured frequently on Confucian, Buddhist, Daoist, and Kantian philosophy at Hong Kong University, National Taiwan Normal University, and National Taiwan University. He died in Taipei in 1995, leaving dozens of disciples in top academic jobs in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Works
<mask>'s complete works contains more than 30 volumes written over about 60 years. In religious studies and philosophy programs, attention is paid mostly to his production in his last 30 years. These can be divided into histories of Chinese philosophy and philosophic treatises. Histories of philosophy
Physical Nature and Speculative Reason 才性與玄理 (1963). This is <mask>'s main treatise on "Neo-Daoism" or xuanxue 玄學.It is an analysis of intellectual developments of the Wei-Jin dynasties (220-420 AD), said to set the agenda for much of later Chinese philosophy and anticipate the developments in Buddhist philosophy later understood by <mask> as a pattern underlying the main line of Song-Ming Confucianism. Substance of Mind and Substance of Human Nature 心體與性體 (1968–1969). This is probably the most studied of <mask>'s books, and by far the most famous in the West. It is a three volume history of Confucianism in the Song (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties, often called "Neo-Confucianism" in the West. It challenges usual two-part division of Neo-Confucian thought into a "school of principle" (lixue 理學), the Cheng-Zhu school represented by Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao, and Zhu Xi, and a "school of mind" (xinxue 心學) or Lu-Wang school represented by Lu Xiangshan and Wang Yangming. Mou identifies a third lineage, whose main figures are Hu Hong (Hu Wufeng) and Liu Zongzhou (Liu Jishan), which best conveys the basic message of the classical sage Mencius. <mask>'s later book From Lu Xiangshan to Liu Jishan () (1979) is treated as the fourth volume of this book.Buddha-Nature and Prajna 佛性與般若 (1977). This is <mask>'s main examination of Buddhist philosophy, written in two volumes. It upends usual Chinese recognition of Huayan school as most well-developed form of Buddhism and puts the Tiantai school in first place. <mask> credits Tiantai with having the best concepts for understanding the authoritative Hong-Liu line of Confucianism. Philosophical treatises
Intellectual Intuition and Chinese Philosophy 智的直覺與中國哲學 (1971). In this treatise, Mou applies the Kantian idea of 'intellectual intuition' to Chinese philosophy, which he believes affirms the idea that human beings can have such awareness. He expresses strong interest in the utility of Buddhist philosophy for Confucian purposes.This book is often thought of as an early version of Phenomenon and Thing-in-Itself. Phenomenon and Thing-in-Itself 現象與物自身 (1975). This develops <mask>'s famous doctrine of "two-level ontology," patterned off of Kantian and Buddhist metaphysics. Treatise on Summum Bonum () (1985). This is <mask>'s last major work. <mask> did not intend it as his final book, but scholars generally treat it as the definitive summary of his thinking. It attempts to use Tiantai ontological concepts as inspiration to find Confucian solution to Kant's problem of the highest good or summum bonum.It includes a chapter with <mask> and a more complete evaluation of the place of Daoist and Buddhist philosophy for the modern Confucian. Philosophical work

<mask> and Kant

Following his teacher Xiong Shili, <mask> <mask> sought to articulate and justify a moral metaphysics. A moral metaphysics asserts the interconnectedness of ontology and morality, implying the moral value of all objects including the self. <mask>'s philosophy attempts to demonstrate the limits of Kant, suggesting instead the ways in which Chinese thought may surpass Kantian morality. Several of <mask>'s titles directly reveal his engagement with Kant – Intellectual Intuition and Chinese Philosophy, Phenomenon and Thing-in-Itself, and Treatise of the Perfect Good – a commitment that is reflected in <mask>'s decision to express his philosophy in Kantian terms. For example, <mask>'s philosophy inherits the Kantian concepts of autonomy, intellectual intuition, and Thing-in-Itself, although Confucianism inspires Mou to transform these concepts. The reason behind this decision to use Kantian terms remains unknown, but some scholars argue that Mou's use of certain terminologies aims to facilitate a dialogue between the East and West, pointing to <mask>'s comparison of Mencius and Kant, whereby he demonstrates the compatibility of Chinese and Western philosophies.<mask>'s philosophy develops as a critique and transformation of Kant's critical philosophy. <mask> believes in the compatibility of Chinese thought and Kantian philosophy because both are backed by the Way, where the Way is essentially truth and different philosophies manifest different aspects it. <mask>'s analysis of Kant centers on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. One of <mask>'s major criticisms of Kant involves Kant's regard for free will as theoretical. Herein lies one of <mask>'s fundamental beliefs, that morality and the moral life are, contrary to what Kant posits, really real. This presumption stems from <mask>'s belief in the metaphysical necessity of the capability of improving one's moral praxis, and thus Mou develops a moral metaphysics within the tenet of subjectivism. While Kant believes that intellectual intuition is only possible for God, Mou ascribes human beings equal capability of this intuition, which Mou finds superior to Heidegger’s fundamental ontology.<mask> rejects Heidegger because according to Kant, true metaphysics is transcendent. <mask> further departs from Kant’s philosophy, eventually transforming it into what is commonly referred to as New Confucianism or Mind Confucianism. <mask> and Heidegger

<mask>'s relation to Heidegger
<mask> <mask>’s interest in Heidegger’s philosophy arises from his critique and transformation of Kant's philosophy. <mask>'s interpretation of Kant is greatly influenced by Heidegger’s elaboration of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason in his books Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics (Kantbuch) and Introduction to Metaphysics. Under the influence of Heidegger’s philosophy, <mask> change his interpretation of Kant’s first critique from an epistemological approach to an ontological approach. In his treatise Intellectual Intuition and Chinese Philosophy (zhi de zhexue yu zhongguo zhexue) 智的直覺與中國哲學 (1971), <mask> not only wrote his reflection on Heidegger’s philosophy (and translated two chapters from Being and Time), but also criticized Heidegger’s fundamental ontology with his moral metaphysics. Actually, <mask> may get influence from Heidegger even in his early major work Substance of Mind and Substance of Human Nature (xinti yu xingti) 心體與性體 (1968–1969).<mask>’s argument of the “Three modes” of Neo-Confucianism may be inspired by Heidegger's “Three ontological difference”, which was introduced to Mou from Max Müller’s works. <mask> <mask> agrees to a certain extent with Heidegger’s interpretation of Kant. Mou introduces a two-layer structure of understanding of the transcendental determination of the Kantian categories: a “logical” layer of understanding and an “ontological” layer of understanding. <mask> believes the Kantian thesis that “objectivity is subjectivity” is not an “ontical proposition” but rather an “ontological proposition”. He agrees with Heidegger's analysis of Transcendental Schematism, which indicates that the meaning of objectification presupposes a subjective horizon that enables the object to appear. Mou names the ontology of the phenomenal world as “attached ontology” (zhi de cunyoulun). Mou rejects Kant's declaration that human beings are incapable of producing any intuitive knowledge of thing-in-itself.He embraces Heidegger's affirmation of the “subjective” character of the Kantian transcendental distinction, which he learns from Kantbuch:

The distinction between the concept of thing in itself and that of appearance is not objective but merely subjective.The thing in itself is not another but another aspect (respectus) of the representation with regard to the same object. <mask>'s critique
In general, <mask> holds a critical attitude towards Heidegger's fundamental ontology in his treatise Intellectual Intuition and Chinese Philosophy:

Heidegger’s descriptions could let us think of a disclosure of a “true mind” (zhen xin) for instance when he speaks about “call of consciousness”(Ruf, liangxin de huhuan), feeling of guilt ( jiuze zhi gan), dread (Sorge, jiaolü), determined being (Entschlossenheit, jueduan) or nothingness (Nichtigkeit, xuwu). Nevertheless, all these descriptions are still “floating” and he has not been able to pave the way for a “true mind.”

According to Mou, Heidegger's descriptions are “floating” because Heidegger's thought does not recognize any transcendental reality (chaoyue de shiti) but focus on the immanent metaphysics (neizai xingershangxue) to develop his fundamental ontology. “True metaphysics” is “transcendent.” In the eyes of <mask> Zongsan, since the immanent metaphysics merely focuses on the problem of the meaning of phenomenal beings, it fails to deal with Kant's transcendental concepts of freedom, immortality, and God. <mask> also thinks Heidegger's philosophy is too heroic and romantic and thereby fails to maintain an inherent calmness to approach to “true mind.” Besides, Mou disagrees with Heidegger's “value-free,” and in particular, “morally-neutral” approach. The lack of moral awareness indicates that Heidegger's fundamental ontology does not reach the realm of moral metaphysics, but merely offers an empty and inauthentic answer to the subject. In short, Mou considers Heidegger only as a “commentator” or “usurper” of Kant.According to <mask>, the reason why Heidegger's fundamental ontology fails to reach the realm of moral metaphysics is that Heidegger sticks to the Kantian thesis of the finitude of human being and fails to recognize the intellectual intuition (zhi de zhijue) of human beings. <mask> claims that although the study

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