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Grand Prince <mask> (Hangul: 능원대군, Hanja: 綾原大君; 15 May 1598 - 26 January 1656), personal name Yi Bo (Hangul: 이보, Hanja: 李俌) was a Korean Politician in the Late Joseon dynasty. He was also a Korean Royal Prince as the second son of Wonjong of Joseon and Queen Inheon of the Neungseong Gu clan. He was the younger brother of Injo of Joseon. Biography

Early life
The future Grand Prince <mask> was born on 15 May 1598 (31st year reign of Seonjo of Joseon) in Seongcheon, Pyeongan-do, Kingdom of Joseon as the second son of Prince Jeongwon (정원군, 定遠君) and Princess Consort Yeonju of the Neungseong Gu clan (연주군부인, 連珠郡夫人) during the Late Imjin War periods (임진왜란). Since child, he was spent a brief childhood in Pyeongyang-si, Pyeongan-do and grew up in his father's private residence in Hanseong-bu. Meanwhile, later in 1608 (41st year reign of his grandfather, Seonjo of Joseon), at 11 years old, Bo was adopted as his 1st uncle, <mask> (의안군)'s son. However, Prince Uian at 12 years old and later, in 1601, Bo was given royal title Master Neungwon (능원수, 綾原守) at first and later changed into <mask> (능원군) on 1608.During Gwanghaegun of Joseon's reign

In 1608 (Gwanghaegun's ascension to the throne), immediately after Yu Yeong-Gyeong (유영경)'s death in prison, the Prince become of Jeongunwonjonggongsin rank 1 (정운원종공신 1등). Later, in 1613 (5th year reign of Gwanghaegun), after Prince Imhae (임해군) was imprisoned, he became Iksawonjonggongsin rank 1 (익사원종공신 1등). However, 4 years later in 1617 (10th year reign of Gwanghaegun), he was participated in the discussion on the abolition of Dowager Queen Inmok (인목대비) as the senior person in the palace. Other bureaucrats whom participated in these discussion were punished, but he wasn't got punished. During Injo of Joseon's reign
Later, on 13 March 1623, his big brother, Prince Neungyang (능양군) make a rebellion and then ascended the throne. However, when their youngest brother, Prince Neungchang (능창군) was exiled to Gyo-dong on charges of treason in 1615 (7th year reign of Gwanghaegun of Joseon), he was immediately killed and died in there. Heard if the youngest brother was death, their father, Wonjong was so heartbroken over this and while drinking the alcohol, he died on 2 February 1619 (11st year reign of Gwanghaegun of Joseon) at 40 years old.Then, on 22 December in the same year, Neungwon became an officer in Sodeokdaebu (소덕대부). However, in March 1625 (Injo's 3rd year reign), a man named Jeong Yeong-Sin (정영신), the servant of Neungwon's adopted father was beaten and got killed. At this time, there were some ministers accused him, but Injo only believed the words of the servants who betrayed him and didn't conducted the investigation fairly,  instead ordered the ministers to left. Afterwards, both of Yun Sun-Ji (윤순지) and Gim-Yu (김유) were filed an appeal for fear that the state's words would be blocked and Injo then apologized for being too excessive. However, on 28 November 1625 (Injo's 3rd year reign), when his mother, Lady Gyewoon (계운궁, 啓運宮) became critically ill, Injo specially offered Hyeollokdaebu (현록대부) to Neungwon in order to comfort his biological mother. Later, when their mother passed away on 10 February 1626, Neungwon become the resident instead of Injo. Numerous ministers argued that Neungwon, who had already been adopted by Prince Uian, couldn't be Lady Gyewoon's resident, but Injo didn't grant permission and refused it.After that, Neungwon must faced a difficult life because he was being dismissed from the office and must divorced from his wife, Lady Yu (유씨) because her father was failed in conspiracy to make Prince Inseong (인성군), the first son of Seonjo of Joseon and Royal Noble Consort Jeong of the Yeoheung Min clan as the new King to succeeded Gwanghae in the throne, so King Injo demanded him to divorced from her. At first, he refused this, but later removed her title and demoted to just be his concubine (첩, 妾). Although that, she can still able to lived in his home. Meanwhile, when Injo concerned about his small house, Injo fell wrong with this and gave him a special palace in Yihyeon (이현, 梨峴), Hanseong-bu as his house. Later, on 17 September 1628 (Injo's 5th year reign), Neungwon became Somuwonjonggongsin rank 1 (소무원종공신 1등). After Military Service and ranks
Later, after Injo's ascension to the throne, their father was honoured as King Wonjong (원종왕, 元宗王) and their mother was honoured as Queen Inheon (인헌왕후, 仁獻王后). Then, on 4 May 1623 (Injo's 10th year reign), he was honoured as Grand Prince Neungwon (능원대군, 綾原大君) along with his younger brother who was died as Grand Prince Neungchang (능창대군, 綾昌大君).In 1645 (Injo's 23rd year reign), he received a portion of the envoys from Dorgon (도르곤) who was the Prince regent of Qing dynasty. Later, in September 1646 (24th year reign of Injo of Joseon), after Sim Gi-won (심기원)'s rebellion case was ended, Neungwon became Yeonggukgongsin (영국공신, 寧國功臣) and then Yeonggukwonjonggongsin (영국원종공신, 寧國元從功臣) in September 1646 (Injo's 24th year reign). Faction
Famous figures of his faction (능원대군파) were such as the Politician Yi Jin-Yong (정치인 이진용) and the playwright Yi Hae-Rang (연극인 이해랑). Meanwhile, since the Prince was adopted by his 1st uncle, his faction was sometimes called as <mask> Faction (의안군파). Died and later life
He later died on 26 January 1656 (7th year reign of his nephew, Hyojong of Joseon) at 57 years old and received his Posthumous name, then, was buried in Nokchon-ri, Hwado-eup, Namyangju-si, Gyeonggi-do along with his wife. On the other hand, it was said that he also claimed the theory of Cheokhwa (척화) together with Gim Sang-Heon (김상헌), who was a presiding officer at the time, despite the growing public opinion insisting on strengthening the Qing dynasty. He was also ignorant of Buddhism and didn't even look the cause, but after his 1st father in-law, Yu Hyo-Rib (유효립) was punished and exiled, he faced his wife, wept and complained about this.It was said that he lived together as before without any regrets. Family
Grand Prince Neungwon had 20 grandchildren and 45 middle-grandsons, almost of them were lived with prospering. His Sindo (신도) was written by Song Siyeol (송시열) and Jo Sa-U (조사우). Younger brother - Yi Jeon, Grand Prince Neungchang (16 July 1599 - 17 November 1615) (이전 능창대군)
Sister-in-law - Grand Princess Consort Gu of the Neungseong Gu clan (부부인 능성 구씨)
 Adoptive nephew - Yi Yo, Grand Prince Inpyeong (인평대군 요) (1622 - 1658); 3rd son of King Injo
Consorts and their Respective Issue(s):
Grand Princess Consort Munhwa of the Munhwa Ryu clan (27 October 1598 - 3 August 1676) (문화부부인 문화 류씨)
Grand Princess Consort of the Yeongam Kim clan (9 March 1610 - 25 January 1696) (부부인 영암 김씨)
Yi Sik, <mask>pung (? - 1692) (이식 영풍군)
Yi Ham, <mask>n (이함 영은군)
Yi Hyeong, <mask>sin (이형 영신군)
Yi Jeong, <mask>chun (이정 영춘군)
Yi Yu (이유)
Lady Yi (이씨)
Lady Yi Yeong-Jeong (1639 - 1657) (이영정, 李英淨)
Lady Yi (이씨)

Legacy
His tomb designated as Gyeonggi-do Cultural Heritage Material No. 115 on 16 September 2002 by the Cultural Heritage Administration of the Republic of Korea. References

External links
 능원대군 in Encykorea (in Korean).Retrieved June 5, 2021. 1598 births
1656 deaths
15th-century Korean people
Korean princes
House of Yi
16th-century Korean people

masks:
Neungwon
Neungwon
Prince Uian
Prince Nngwon
Prince Uian
Prince Yeong
Prince Yeongeu
Prince Yeong
Prince Yeong


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<mask> (15 November 1738 – 20 December 1809) was an influential 18th-century London bookseller and publisher. His publications covered a wide variety of genres and a broad spectrum of opinions on important issues. <mask> is best known for publishing the works of radical thinkers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, William Godwin, Thomas Malthus, Erasmus Darwin and Joel Barlow, feminist economist Priscilla Wakefield, as well as religious dissenters such as <mask>, Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Gilbert Wakefield, and George Walker. In the 1760s, <mask> established his publishing business, which focused primarily on religious works. He also became friends with Priestley and the artist Henry Fuseli – two relationships that lasted his entire life and brought him much business. In the 1770s and 1780s, <mask> expanded his business, publishing important works in medicine and children's literature as well as the popular poetry of William Cowper and Erasmus Darwin. Throughout his career, <mask> helped shape the thought of his era not only through his publications, but also through his support of innovative writers and thinkers.He fostered the open discussion of new ideas, particularly at his famous weekly dinners, the regular attendees of which became known as the "Johnson Circle". In the 1790s, <mask> aligned himself with the supporters of the French Revolution, and published an increasing number of political pamphlets in addition to a prominent journal, the Analytical Review, which offered British reformers a voice in the public sphere. In 1799, he was indicted on charges of seditious libel for publishing a pamphlet by the Unitarian minister Gilbert Wakefield. After spending six months in prison, albeit under relatively comfortable conditions, <mask> published fewer political works. In the last decade of his career, <mask> did not seek out many new writers; however, he remained successful by publishing the collected works of authors such as William Shakespeare. <mask>'s friend John Aikin eulogized him as "the father of the booktrade". He has also been called "the most important publisher in England from 1770 until 1810" for his appreciation and promotion of young writers, his emphasis on publishing inexpensive works directed at a growing middle-class readership, and his cultivation and advocacy of women writers at a time when they were viewed with skepticism.Early life
<mask> was the second son of <mask>, a Baptist yeoman who lived in Everton, Liverpool, and his wife Rebecca Turner. Religious Dissent marked <mask> from the beginning of his life, as two of his mother's relatives were prominent Baptist ministers and his father was a deacon. Liverpool, at the time of <mask>'s youth, was fast becoming a bustling urban centre and was one of the most important commercial ports in England. These two characteristics of his home – Dissent and commercialism – remained central elements in <mask>'s character throughout his life. At the age of fifteen, <mask> was apprenticed to George Keith, a London bookseller who specialized in publishing religious tracts such as Reflections on the Modern but Unchristian Practice of Innoculation. As Gerald Tyson, <mask>'s major modern biographer, explains, it was unusual for the younger son of a family living in relative obscurity to move to London and to become a bookseller. Scholars have speculated that <mask> was indentured to Keith because the bookseller was associated with Liverpool Baptists.Keith and <mask> published several works together later in their careers, which suggests that the two remained on friendly terms after <mask> started his own business. 1760s: Beginnings in publishing
Upon completing his apprenticeship in 1761, <mask> opened his own business, but he struggled to establish himself, moving his shop several times within one year. Two of his early publications were a kind of day planner: The Complete Pocket-Book; Or, Gentleman and Tradesman's Daily Journal for the Year of Our Lord, 1763 and The Ladies New and Polite Pocket Memorandum Book. Such pocketbooks were popular and <mask> outsold his rivals by publishing his both earlier and cheaper. <mask> continued to sell these profitable books until the end of the 1790s, but as a religious Dissenter, he was primarily interested in publishing books that would improve society. Therefore, religious texts dominated his book list, although he also published works relating to Liverpool (his home town) and medicine. However, as a publisher <mask> attended to more than the selling and distributing of books, as scholar Leslie Chard explains:

As <mask> became successful and his reputation grew, other publishers began including him in congers – syndicates that spread the risk of publishing a costly or inflammatory book among several firms.Formative friendships
In his late twenties, <mask> formed two friendships that were to shape the rest of his life. The first was with the painter and writer Henry Fuseli, who was described as "quick witted and pugnacious". Fuseli's early 19th-century biographer writes that when Fuseli met <mask> in 1764, <mask> "had already acquired the character which he retained during life, – that of a man of great integrity, and encourager of literary men as far as his means extended, and an excellent judge of their productions". Fuseli became and remained <mask>'s closest friend. The second and possibly more consequential friendship was with <mask>, the renowned natural philosopher and Unitarian theologian. This friendship led <mask> to discard the Baptist faith of his youth and to adopt Unitarianism, as well as to pursue forms of political dissent. <mask>'s success as a publisher can be explained in large part through his association with Priestley, as Priestley published dozens of books with him and introduced him to many other Dissenting writers.Through Priestley's recommendation, <mask> was able to issue the works of many Dissenters, especially those from Warrington Academy: the poet, essayist, and children's author Anna Laetitia Barbauld; her brother, the physician and writer, John Aikin; the naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster; the Unitarian minister and controversialist Gilbert Wakefield; the moralist William Enfield; and the political economist Thomas Malthus. Tyson writes that "the relationship between the Academy and the bookseller was mutually very useful. Not only did many of the tutors send occasional manuscripts for publication, but also former pupils often sought him out in later years to issue their works." By printing the works of Priestley and other of the Warrington tutors, <mask> also made himself known to an even larger network of Dissenting intellectuals, including those in the Lunar Society, which expanded his business further. Priestley, in turn, trusted <mask> enough to handle the logistics of his induction into the Royal Society. Partnerships
In July 1765, <mask> moved his business to the more visible 8 Paternoster Row and formed a partnership with B. Davenport, of whom little is known aside from his association with <mask>. Chard postulates that they were attracted by mutual beliefs because the firm of <mask> and Davenport published even more religious works, including many that were "rigidly Calvinistic".However, in the summer of 1767, Davenport and <mask> parted ways; scholars have speculated that this rupture occurred because <mask>'s religious views were becoming more unorthodox. Newly independent, with a solid reputation, <mask> did not need to struggle to establish himself as he had early in his career. Within a year, he published nine first editions himself as well as thirty-two works in partnership with other booksellers. He was also a part of "the select circle of bookmen that gathered at the Chapter Coffee House", which was the centre of social and commercial life for publishers and booksellers in 18th-century London. Major publishing ventures had started at the Chapter and important writers "clubbed" there. In 1768 <mask> went into partnership with John Payne (<mask> was probably the senior partner); the following year they published 50 titles. Under <mask> and Payne, the firm published a wider array of works than under <mask> and Davenport.Although <mask> looked to his business interests, he did not publish works only to enrich himself. Projects that encouraged free discussion appealed to <mask>; for example, he helped Priestley publish the Theological Repository, a financial failure that nevertheless fostered open debate of theological questions. Although the journal lost <mask> money in the 1770s, he was willing to begin publishing it again in 1785 because he endorsed its values. The late 1760s was a time of growing radicalism in Britain, and although <mask> did not participate actively in the events, he facilitated the speech of those who did, e.g., by publishing works on the disputed election of John Wilkes and the agitation in the American colonies. Despite his growing interest in politics, <mask> (with Payne) still published primarily religious works and the occasional travel narrative. As Tyson writes, "in the first decade of his career <mask>'s significance as a bookseller derived from a desire to provide dissent (religious and political) a forum". Fire
<mask> was on the verge of real success when his shop was ravaged by fire on 9 January 1770.As one London newspaper reported it:

At the time Fuseli had been living with <mask> and he also lost all of his possessions, including the first printing of his Remarks on the Writings and Conduct of J. J. Rousseau. <mask> and Payne subsequently dissolved their partnership. It was an amicable separation, and <mask> even published some of Payne's works in later years. 1770s: Establishment
By August 1770, just seven months after fire had destroyed his shop and goods, <mask> had re-established himself at 72 St. Paul's Churchyard – the largest shop on a street of booksellers – where he was to remain for the rest of his life. How <mask> managed this feat is unclear; he later cryptically told a friend that "his friends came about him, and set him up again". An early 19th-century biography states that "Mr. <mask> was now so well known, and had been so highly respected, that on this unfortunate occasion, his friends with one accord met, and contributed to enable him to begin business again". Chard speculates that Priestley assisted him since they were such close friends.Religious publications and advocacy of Unitarianism

Immediately upon reopening his business, <mask> started publishing theological and political works by Priestley and other Dissenters. Starting in the 1770s, <mask> published more specifically Unitarian works, as well as texts advocating religious toleration; he also became personally involved in the Unitarian cause. He served as a conduit for information between Dissenters across the country and supplied provincial publishers with religious publications, thereby enabling Dissenters to spread their beliefs easily. <mask> participated in efforts to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts, which restricted the civil rights of Dissenters. In one six-year period of the 1770s, <mask> was responsible for publishing nearly one-third of the Unitarian works on the issue. He continued his support in 1787, 1789, and 1790, when Dissenters introduced repeal bills in Parliament, and he published much of the pro-repeal literature written by Priestley and others. <mask> was also instrumental in Theophilus Lindsey's founding of the first Unitarian chapel in London.With some difficulty, as Unitarians were feared at that time and their beliefs held illegal until the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813, <mask> obtained the building for Essex Street Chapel and, with the help of barrister John Lee, who later became Attorney-General, its licence. To capitalize on the opening of the new chapel in addition to helping out his friends, <mask> published Lindsey's inaugural sermon, which sold out in four days. <mask> continued to attend and participate actively in this congregation throughout his life. Lindsey and the church's other minister, John Disney, became two of <mask>'s most active writers. In the 1780s, <mask> continued to advocate Unitarianism and published a series of controversial writings by Priestley arguing for its legitimacy. These writings did not make <mask> much money, but they agreed with his philosophy of open debate and religious toleration. <mask> also became the publisher for the Society for Promoting the Knowledge of the Scriptures, a Unitarian group determined to release new worship materials and commentaries on the Bible.(See British and Foreign Unitarian Association#Publishing.) Although <mask> is known for publishing Unitarian works, particularly those of Priestley, he also published the works of other Dissenters, Anglicans, and Jews. The common thread uniting his disparate religious publications was religious toleration. For example, he published the Reverend George Gregory's 1787 English translation of Bishop Robert Lowth's seminal book on Hebrew poetry, De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum. Gregory published several other works with <mask>, such as Essays Historical and Moral (1785) and Sermons with Thoughts on the Composition and Delivery of a Sermon (1787). Gregory exemplified the type of author that <mask> preferred to work with: industrious and liberal-minded, but not bent on self-glorification. Yet, as Helen Braithwaite writes in her study of <mask>, his "enlightened pluralistic approach was also seen by its opponents as inherently permissive, opening the door to all forms of unhealthy questioning and scepticism, and at odds with the stable virtues of established religion and authority".American revolution

Partially as a result of his association with British Dissenters, <mask> became involved in publishing tracts and sermons in defence of the American revolutionaries. He began with Priestley's Address to Protestant Dissenters of All Denominations, on the Approaching Election of Members of Parliament (1774), which urged Dissenters to vote for candidates that guaranteed the American colonists their freedom. <mask> continued his series of anti-government, pro-American pamphlets by publishing Fast Day sermons by Joshua Toulmin, George Walker, Ebenezer Radcliff, and Newcome Cappe. Braithwaite describes these as "well-articulated critiques of government" that "were not only unusual but potentially subversive and disruptive", and she concludes that <mask>'s decision to publish so much of this material indicates that he supported the political position it espoused. Moreover, <mask> published what Braithwaite calls "probably the most influential English defence of the colonists", Richard Price's Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty (1776). Over 60,000 copies were sold in a year. In 1780 <mask> also issued the first collected political works of Benjamin Franklin in England, a political risk as the American colonies were in rebellion by that time.<mask> did not usually reprint colonial texts – his ties to the revolution were primarily through Dissenters. Thus, the works published by <mask> emphasized both colonial independence and the rights for which Dissenters were fighting – "the right to petition for redress of grievance, the maintenance and protection of equal civil rights, and the inalienable right to liberty of conscience". Informative texts

After 1770, <mask> began to publish a wider array of books, particularly scientific and medical texts. One of the most important was John Hunter's A Natural History of the Human Teeth, Part I (1771), which "elevated dentistry to the level of surgery". <mask> also supported doctors when they questioned the efficacy of cures, such as with John Millar in his Observations on Antimony (1774), which claimed that Dr James's Fever Powder was ineffective. This was a risky publication for <mask>, because this patent medicine was quite popular and his fellow bookseller John Newbery had made his fortune from selling it. In 1777 <mask> published the remarkable Laws Respecting Women, as they Regard Their Natural Rights, which is an explication, for the layperson, of exactly what its title suggests.As Tyson comments, "the ultimate value of this book lies in its arming women with the knowledge of their legal rights in situations where they had traditionally been vulnerable because of ignorance". <mask> published Laws Respecting Women anonymously, but it is sometimes credited to Elizabeth Chudleigh Bristol, known for her bigamous marriage to the 2nd Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull after having previously privately married Augustus John Hervey, afterwards 3rd Earl of Bristol. This publication foreshadowed <mask>'s efforts to promote works about women's issues – such as A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) – and his support of women writers. Revolution in children's literature
<mask> also contributed significantly to children's literature. His publication of Barbauld's Lessons for Children (1778–79) spawned a revolution in the newly emerging genre. Its plain style, mother-child dialogues, and conversational tone inspired a generation of authors, such as Sarah Trimmer. <mask> encouraged other women to write in this genre, such as Charlotte Smith, but his recommendation always came with a caveat of how difficult it was to write well for children.For example, he wrote to Smith, "perhaps you cannot employ your time and extraordinary talents more usefully for the public & your self , than in composing books for children and young people, but I am very sensible it is extreamly  difficult to acquire that simplicity of style which is their great recommendation". He also advised William Godwin and his second wife, Mary Jane Clairmont, on the publication of their Juvenile Library (started in 1805). Not only did <mask> encourage the writing of British children's literature, but he also helped sponsor the translation and publication of popular French works such as Arnaud Berquin's L'Ami des Enfans (1782–83). In addition to books for children, <mask> published schoolbooks and textbooks for autodidacts, such as John Hewlett's Introduction to Spelling and Reading (1786), William Nicholson's Introduction to Natural Philosophy (1782), and his friend John Bonnycastle's An Introduction to Mensuration and Practical Mathematics (1782). <mask> also published books on education and

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 childrearing, such as Wollstonecraft's first book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787). By the end of the 1770s, <mask> had become an established publisher. Writers – particularly Dissenters – sought him out, and his home started to become the centre of a radical and stimulating intellectual milieu.Because he was willing to publish multiple opinions on issues, he was respected as a publisher by writers from across the political spectrum. <mask> published many Unitarian works, but he also issued works criticizing them; although he was an abolitionist, he also published works arguing in favour of the slave trade; he supported inoculation, but he also published works critical of the practice. 1780s: Success

During the 1780s, <mask> achieved success: he did well financially and his firm published more books with other firms. Although <mask> had begun his career as a relatively cautious publisher of religious and scientific tracts, he was now able to take more risks and he encouraged friends to recommend works to him, creating a network of informal reviewers. Yet <mask>'s business was never large; he usually had only one assistant and never took on an apprentice. Only in the last years of his life did two relatives assist him. Literature
Once <mask>'s financial situation had become secure, he began to publish literary authors, most famously the poet William Cowper.<mask> issued Cowper's Poems (1782) and The Task (1784) at his own expense (a generous action at a time when authors were often forced to take on the risk of publication), and was rewarded with handsome sales of both volumes. <mask> published many of Cowper's works, including the anonymous satire Anti-thelyphora (1780), which mocked the work of Cowper's own cousin, the Rev. Martin Madan, who had advocated polygamy as a solution for prostitution. <mask> even edited and critiqued Cowper's poetry in manuscript, "much to the advantage of the poems" according to Cowper. In 1791, <mask> published Cowper's translations of the Homeric epics (extensively edited and corrected by Fuseli) and three years after Cowper's death in 1800, <mask> published a biography of the poet by William Hayley. <mask> never published much "creative literature"; Chard attributes this to "a lingering Calvinistic hostility to 'imaginative' literature". Most of the literary works <mask> published were religious or didactic.Some of his most popular productions in this vein were anthologies; the most famous is probably William Enfield's The Speaker (1774), which went through multiple editions and spawned many imitations, such as Wollstonecraft's The Female Speaker. Medical and scientific publications
<mask> continued his interest in publishing practical medical texts in the 1780s and 1790s; during the 1780s, he brought out some of his most significant works in this area. According to <mask>'s friend, the physician John Aikin, he intentionally established one of his first shops on "the track of the Medical Students resorting to the Hospitals in the Borough", where they would be sure to see his wares, which helped to establish him in medical publishing. <mask> published the works of the scientist-Dissenters he met through Priestley and Barbauld, such as Thomas Beddoes and Thomas Young. He issued the children's book on birds produced by the industrialist Samuel Galton and the Lunar Society's translation of Linnaeus's System of Vegetables (1783). He also published works by James Edward Smith, "the botanist who brought the Linnaean system to England". In 1784, <mask> issued John Haygarth's An Inquiry How to Prevent Small-Pox, which furthered the understanding and treatment of smallpox.<mask> published several subsequent works by Haygarth that promoted inoculation (and later vaccination) for the healthy, as well as quarantining for the sick. He also published the work of James Earle, a prominent surgeon, whose significant book on lithotomy was illustrated by William Blake, and Matthew Baillie's Morbid Anatomy (1793), "the first text of pathology devoted to that science exclusively by systematic arrangement and design". Not only did <mask> publish the majority of Priestley's theological works, but he also published his scientific works, such as Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–77) in which Priestley announced his discovery of oxygen. <mask> also published the works of Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier, both of whom made their own claims of having discovered oxygen. When Lavoisier began to publish works in France on the "new chemistry" that he had developed (which included today's modern notions of element and compound), <mask> had these translated and printed immediately, despite his association with Priestley who argued strenuously against Lavoisier's new system. <mask> was the first to publish an English edition of Lavoisier's early writings on chemistry and he kept up with the ongoing debate. These works did well for <mask> and increased his visibility among men of science.Johnson Circle and dinners
With time, <mask>'s home became a nexus for radical thinkers, who appreciated his open-mindedness, generous spirit, and humanitarianism. Although usually separated by geography, such thinkers would meet and debate with one another at <mask>'s house in London, often over dinner. This network not only brought authors into contact with each other, it also brought new writers to <mask>'s business. For example, Priestley introduced John Newton to <mask>, Newton brought John Hewlett, and Hewlett invited Mary Wollstonecraft, who in turn attracted Mary Hays who brought William Godwin. With this broad network of acquaintances and reputation for free-thinking publications, <mask> became the favourite publisher of a generation of writers and thinkers. By bringing inventive, thoughtful people together, he "stood at the very heart of British intellectual life" for over twenty years. Importantly, <mask>'s circle was not made up entirely of either liberals or radicals.Chard emphasizes that it "was held together less by political liberalism than by a common interest in ideas, free enquiry, and creative expression in various fields". As Tyson notes, although "<mask>'s circle" is usually used in the singular, there were at least two such "circles". The first was made up of a group of London associates: Fuseli, Gregory, Bonnycastle, and Geddes. The second consisted of <mask>'s writers from farther afield, such as Priestley, Thomas Henry, Thomas Percival, Barbauld, Aikin, and Enfield. Later, more radicals would join, including Wollstonecraft, Wakefield, John Horne Tooke, and Thomas Christie. <mask>'s dinners became legendary and it appears, from evidence collected from diaries, that a large number of people attended each one. Although there were few regulars, except perhaps for <mask>'s close London friends (Fuseli, Bonnycastle and, later, Godwin), the large number of high-profile guests, including Thomas Paine, attests to the reputation of these dinners.The enjoyment and intellectual stimulation that these dinners provided is evidenced by the numerous references to them in diaries and letters. Barbauld wrote to her brother in 1784 that "our evenings, particularly at <mask>'s, were so truly social and lively, that we protracted them sometimes till – but I am not telling tales." At one dinner in 1791, Godwin records that the conversation focused on "monarch, Tooke, [Samuel] <mask>, Voltaire, pursuits, and religion" [emphasis Godwin's]. Although the conversation was stimulating, <mask> apparently only served his guests simple meals, such as boiled cod, veal, vegetables, and rice pudding. Many of the people that met at these dinners became fast friends, as did Fuseli and Bonnycastle; Godwin and Wollstonecraft eventually married. Friendship with Mary Wollstonecraft
The friendship between <mask> and Mary Wollstonecraft was pivotal in both of their lives, and illustrates the active role that <mask> played in developing writing talent. In 1787, Wollstonecraft was in financial straits: she had just been dismissed from a governess position in Ireland and had moved back to London.She had resolved to be an author in an era that afforded few professional opportunities to women. After Unitarian schoolteacher John Hewlett suggested to Wollstonecraft that she submit her writings to <mask>, an enduring and mutually supportive relationship blossomed between <mask> and Wollstonecraft. He dealt with her creditors, secured lodgings for her, and advanced payment on her first book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), and her first novel, Mary: A Fiction (1788). <mask> included Wollstonecraft in the exalted company of his weekly soirées, where she met famous personages, such as Thomas Paine and her future husband, William Godwin. Wollstonecraft, who is believed to have written some 200 articles for his periodical, the Analytical Review, regarded <mask> as a true friend. After a disagreement, she sent him the following note the next morning:

You made me very low-spirited last night, by your manner of talking – You are my only friend – the only person I am intimate with. – I never had a father, or a brother – you have been both to me, ever since I knew you – yet I have sometimes been very petulant.– I have been thinking of those instances of ill-humour and quickness, and they appeared like crimes. Yours sincerely, Mary. <mask> offered Wollstonecraft work as a translator, prompting her to learn French and German. More importantly, <mask> provided encouragement at crucial moments during the writing of her seminal political treatises A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). 1790s: Years of radicalism

As radicalism took hold in Britain in the 1790s, <mask> became increasingly involved in its causes: he was a member of the Society for Constitutional Information, which was attempting to reform Parliament; he published works defending Dissenters after the religiously motivated Birmingham Riots in 1791; and he testified on behalf of those arrested during the 1794 Treason Trials. <mask> published works championing the rights of slaves, Jews, women, prisoners, Dissenters, chimney sweeps, abused animals, university students forbidden from marrying, victims of press gangs, and those unjustly accused of violating the game laws. Political literature became <mask>'s mainstay in the 1790s: he published 118 works, which amounted to 57% of his total political output.As Chard notes, "hardly a year went by without at least one anti-war and one anti-slave trade publication from <mask>". In particular, <mask> published abolitionist works, such as minister and former slave-ship captain John Newton's Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade (1788), Barbauld's Epistle to William Wilberforce (1791), and Captain John Gabriel Stedman's Narrative, of a Five Years' Expedition, Against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (1796) (with illustrations by Blake). Most importantly he helped organize the publication of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789), the autobiography of former slave Olaudah Equiano. Later in the decade, <mask> focused on works about the French revolution, concentrating on those from France itself, but he also published commentary from America by Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe. <mask>'s determination to publish political and revolutionary works, however, fractured his Circles: Dissenters were alienated from Anglicans during efforts to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts and moderates split from radicals during the French revolution. <mask> lost customers, friends, and writers, including the children's author Sarah Trimmer. Braithwaite speculates that <mask> also lost business due to his willingness to put out works that promoted the "challenging new historicist versions of the scriptures", such as those by Alexander Geddes.<mask> refused to publish Paine's Rights of Man and William Blake's The French Revolution, for example. It is almost impossible to determine <mask>'s own personal political beliefs from the historical record. Marilyn Gaull argues that "if <mask> were radical, indeed if he had any political affiliation ... it was accidental". Gaull describes <mask>'s "liberalism" as that "of [a] generous, open, fair-minded, unbiased defender of causes lost and won". His real contribution, she contends, was "as a disseminator of contemporary knowledge, especially science, medicine, and pedagogical practice" and as an advocate for a popular style. He encouraged all of his writers to use "plain syntax and colloquial diction" so that "self-educated readers" could understand his publications. <mask>'s association with writers such as Godwin has previously been used to emphasize his radicalism, but Braithwaite points out that Godwin only became a part of <mask>'s Circle late in the 1790s; <mask>'s closest friends – Priestley, Fuseli, and Bonnycastle – were much more politically moderate.<mask> was not a populist or democratic bookseller: he catered to the self-educating middle class. Revolution controversy
In 1790, with the publication of his Reflections on the Revolution in France, philosopher and statesman Edmund Burke launched the first volley of a vicious pamphlet war in what became known as the Revolution Controversy. Because he had supported the American Revolution, friends and enemies alike expected him to support the French Revolution. His book, which decries the French Revolution, therefore came as a shock to nearly everyone. Priced at an expensive five shillings, it still sold over 10,000 copies in a few weeks. Reformers, particularly Dissenters, felt compelled to reply. <mask>'s periodical, the Analytical Review, published a summary and review of Burke's work within a couple of weeks of its publication.Two weeks later, Wollstonecraft responded to Burke with her Vindication of the Rights of Men. In issuing one of the first and cheapest replies to Burke (Vindication cost only one shilling), <mask> put himself at some risk. Thomas Cooper, who had also written a response to Burke, was later informed by the Attorney General that "although there was no exception to be taken to his pamphlet when in the hands of the upper classes, yet the government would not allow it to appear at a price which would insure its circulation among the people". Many others soon joined in the fray and <mask> remained at the centre of the maelstrom. By Braithwaite's count, <mask> published or sold roughly a quarter of the works responding to Burke within the following year. The most notable of all of these responses was Thomas Paine's Rights of Man. <mask> originally agreed to publish the controversial work, but he backed out later for unknown reasons and J. S. Jordan distributed it (and was subsequently tried and imprisoned for its publication).Braithwaite speculates that <mask> did not agree with Paine's radical republican statements and was more interested in promoting the rights of Dissenters outlined in the other works he published. After the initial risk was taken by Jordan, however, <mask> published Paine's work in an expensive edition, which was unlikely to be challenged at law. Yet, when Paine was himself later arrested, <mask> helped raise funds to bail him out and hid him from the authorities. A contemporary satire suggested that <mask> saved Paine from imprisonment:

Alarmed at the popular appeal of Paine's Rights of Man, the king issued a proclamation against seditious writings in May 1792. Booksellers and printers bore the brunt of this law, the effects of which came to a head in the 1794 Treason Trials. <mask> testified, publicly distancing himself from Paine and Barlow, despite the fact that the defendants were received sympathetically by the juries. Poetry
During the 1790s alone, <mask> published 103 volumes of poetry – 37% of his entire output in the genre.The bestselling poetical works of Cowper and Erasmus Darwin enriched <mask>'s firm. Darwin's innovative The Botanic Garden (1791) was particularly successful: <mask> paid him 1,000 guineas before it was ever released and bought the copyright from him for £800, a staggeringly large sum. The poem contains three "interludes" in the form of dialogues between a poet and his bookseller. The bookseller asks the poet what Tyson calls "leading questions" in order to elucidate the poet's theory of poetry. Tyson comments "that although the flat questions of the practical-minded bookseller may be meant to parody <mask>'s manner, most likely Darwin did not have him or any other particular bookseller in mind". After the success of The Botanic Garden, <mask> published Darwin's work on evolution, Zoonomia (1794–96); his treatise A Plan on the Conduct of Female Education (1797); Phytologia; or, the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening (1800); and his poem The Temple of Nature (1803). According to Braithwaite, The Temple of Nature was Zoonomia in verse and "horrified reviewers with its warring, factious, overly materialistic view of the universe".<mask> continued to publish the poetic works of Aikin and Barbauld as well as those of George Dyer, <mask>, James Hurdis, Joel Barlow, Ann Batten Cristall and Edward Williams. Most of the poets that <mask> promoted and published are not remembered today. However, in 1793, <mask> published William Wordsworth's An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches; he remained Wordsworth's publisher until a disagreement separated them in 1799. <mask> also put out Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Fears of Solitude (1798). They were apparently close enough friends for Coleridge to leave his books at <mask>'s shop when he toured Europe. <mask> had a working relationship with illustrator William Blake for nearly twenty years: <mask> commissioned around 100 engravings from Blake – more than any other publisher – including the second edition of Wollstonecraft's Original Stories from Real Life (1791) and Darwin's Botanic Garden. <mask> may also have had some connection with Blake as a writer, judging from galley proofs of his French Revolution (1791).Yet, in An Island in the Moon, Blake represents <mask> as "a bookseller without aesthetic values whose repetitive questions reveal his ignorance". Translations
As part of his endeavour to expose the public to more foreign-language works, <mask> facilitated the translation of

masks:
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texts:
 educational texts, serious fiction, and philosophy (he was less interested in translating popular novels). In particular, he promoted the translation of the works of persecuted French Girondins, such as Condorcet's Outlines of an Historical View of the Progress of the Human Mind (1795) and Madame Roland's An Appeal to Impartial Posterity (1795), which he had released in English within weeks of its debut in France. His publication of a translation of Constanin Volney's deistic Les Ruines, ou méditations sur les révolutions des empires (1791) quickly became a bestseller. <mask> also had some of the most prominent French children's literature translated, such as the works of Madame de Genlis. <mask>'s most significant contribution in this area was his promotion of German-language literature. Fuseli encouraged him to publish translations of important new German authors, such as Goethe and Schiller.<mask> was one of the few British publishers arranging for the translation of German moral philosophy in the 1790s, and his most important translated publication was arguably Johann Herder's Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1776), which introduced many of the historical and anthropological methods of thought already present on the Continent to Britons. Instead of attempting to faithfully reproduce texts, almost all of <mask>'s translators followed the 18th-century practice of freely adapting their texts, for example by substituting "British" counterparts of "German" examples. Analytical Review and other periodicals

<mask>'s first periodicals, Gospel Magazine (1766–? ), The Universal Museum and Complete Magazine (1765–1770), and The Monthly Record of Literature (1767), like many 18th-century journals, lasted only a short while, but his later attempts were much more successful. In 1783, he financed the first quarterly medical periodical in London, the London Medical Journal, founded by Samuel Foart Simmons, a prominent physician. Explaining the journal's goals, Simmons wrote that it would provide "an account of new medical books and useful discoveries in physic, and at the same time be a repository for original essays". The journal lasted until 1790 when it was replaced by another <mask> venture, Medical Facts and Observations, which ran until 1797.In 1788, <mask> and Thomas Christie, a Unitarian, liberal, and classicist, founded the Analytical Review. It was a gadfly publication, which offered readers a summary and analysis of the flood of new publications issuing from the presses at the end of the 18th century and provided a forum for radical political and religious ideas. Although it aimed at impartiality, its articles were often critical of the Pitt administration and supportive of the French revolutionaries. Tyson calls it "the most outspoken journal of its day", but Chard argues that it was "never particularly strident and certainly not radical". It was also instrumental in promoting scientific, philosophical, and literary foreign-language publications, particularly those in German and French. Compared to <mask>'s earlier periodicals, which were generally "marginal sectarian efforts", the Analytical Review was quite popular. At 1,500 copies per issue, it did not have the circulation of the Gentleman's Magazine, which averaged around 4,550, but it was influential despite its more limited readership.Its conservative counterpart and nemesis was the Anti-Jacobin Review, established specifically to counteract the effects of the Analytical and other radical media outlets. The Analytical was suspended at the end of 1798 following the deaths of Christie and Wollstonecraft in 1796 and 1797 respectively, and the retirement of other contributing editors. In 1796 <mask> joined in a venture to start The Monthly Magazine. Founded by his neighbour Richard Phillips and edited by his friend John Aikin, it was associated with Dissenting interests and was responsible for importing much German philosophical thought into England. According to Marilyn Butler, it "combined many of the best features of the periodicals of the century. It was a miscellany, but more intellectual and much more bookish than the [Gentleman's Magazine]; hospitable to readers, it nevertheless high-mindedly projected an ideal of liberal, middle-class intellectuality that anticipates both the innovative writing and projected readership" of Blackwood's and Fraser's. Changing political winds
With the beginning of the violence of the Reign of Terror (1793–94), those in Britain who had initially supported the French Revolution began to rethink their position and the government became increasingly concerned about the possibility of a British revolution akin to that of the French.The ardour of radicalism that had prevailed in the early 1790s dissipated. Booksellers were arrested and tried for seditious libel, and many of <mask>'s authors either stopped writing or became more conservative. Only a few, like Paine, veered further left. After being forced to testify at the trial of Paine and Thomas Hardy, <mask> published fewer incendiary works, among them Joel Barlow's Advice to the Privileged Orders (1792). Braithwaite describes it as "without doubt the most extreme that <mask> ever published (taking him immoderately close to what he later, jokingly, described as a 'hanging' offence)". However, once it became clear that Barlow, like Paine, was becoming radicalized, <mask> refused to publish any more of his works. In 1794 <mask> even considered emigrating to America with Priestley to escape the increasing pressure he felt from conservatives and the government.1798: Trial and imprisonment
Following the publication of Paine's provocative Rights of Man in 1791, a sedition law was passed in Britain and, in 1798, <mask> and several others were put on trial for selling Gilbert Wakefield's A Reply to Some Parts of the Bishop Llandaff's Address to the People of Great Britain, a Unitarian work attacking the privileged position of the wealthy. The indictment against <mask>, written on a six-foot parchment roll, read in part:

Braithwaite explains, "an English jury, in effect, was being asked to consider whether <mask>'s intentions as a bookseller were really as dangerous and radical as those of Thomas Paine". An issue of the Analytical Review was even offered as evidence against <mask>. Despite having retained Thomas Erskine as his lawyer, who had successfully defended Hardy and Horne Tooke at the 1794 Treason Trials, and character references from George Fordyce, Aikin, and Hewlett, <mask> was fined £50 and sentenced to six months imprisonment at King's Bench Prison in February 1799. Braithwaite speculates:

<mask>'s friends accused Erskine of using the trial as a political platform and not thinking of the best interests of his client. <mask>'s imprisonment was not harsh; being relatively wealthy, <mask> rented a home for himself within the prison, where he continued to hold his weekly soirées. Although <mask> still believed in the free exchange of ideas and was not embittered by his stay in prison, his publishing habits changed dramatically.After he was released, <mask> published very few political works and none were controversial. Other booksellers followed suit, and <mask>'s friend, Unitarian minister Theophilus Lindsey, wrote that "<mask>'s fate deters them all". <mask> lost authors after the trial and experienced a noticeable decline in business. Furthermore, he gained fewer new authors, his stalwarts like Priestley began to complain that he was not attending to their business, and he was forced to cease publishing the Analytical Review. 1800s: Declining years and death
As publishing began to change its form in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, large publishing houses pushed out small, independent booksellers. <mask> did not attempt to form or join one of these new firms. In the late 1790s and early 19th century, <mask>'s business declined, particularly as his relatives, John Miles and Roland Hunter, began to take over the daily operations; Miles was uninterested in the business, and Hunter did not have <mask>'s commercial sense or his ability to choose successful manuscripts.In January 1806, <mask>'s premises were wracked by a second fire, destroying the building and all of his stock. Although not as active in routine business, <mask> still took an interest in political events. For example, he spearheaded the efforts of the booksellers of London and Westminster to appeal a new copyright law in 1808. Moreover, although <mask> did not publish controversial political works after his imprisonment, he still undertook important publishing ventures. For example, he administered the publication of a forty-five volume work entitled The British Essayists, edited by Alexander Chalmers; the complete works of <mask>; and a ten-volume set of Shakespeare. <mask> published in more congers during the last decade of his life than at any other time. He also occasionally published important new authors, such as the political economist Thomas Malthus, whose Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) sparked a long debate between idealists and pragmatists.His emphasis on educational books continued or even increased as his interest in publishing contentious political works diminished. He also continued to support his friends, as with Godwin, who needed financial rescue after his play, Faulkener, cost him £800. <mask>'s authors became increasingly frustrated with him towards the end of his life, Wakefield calling him "heedless, insipid, [and] inactive" and Lindsey describing him as "a worthy and most honest man, but incorrigably  neglectful often to his own detriment". Priestley, by then in Pennsylvania, eventually broke off his forty-year relationship with the publisher, when his book orders were delayed several years and <mask> failed to communicate with him regarding the publication of his works. Most of the authors who became upset with <mask> were those writing religious or literary works, the riskiest publishing ventures. Death
Afflicted by a "chronic respiratory disease" for many years, <mask> died at his home and office on 20 December 1809, at the age of 71. The exact nature of his malady is unclear, but his great-nephew Miles wrote to Maria Edgeworth that <mask> was incapacitated with "spasms" and "asthma" near the end of his life.Never having married, he bequeathed his business concerns to his great-nephews, Hunter and Miles (Hunter took over the business, but could not retain <mask>'s impressive author list and floundered due to his lack of business "acumen"). <mask>'s remaining £60,000 fortune was shared among friends and family: for example, he willed a £200 annuity to Fanny Imlay, daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft, and £100 to one of <mask>'s sons. <mask> was buried at Fulham, where he had rented a country home since 1804, under an epitaph by his life-long friend Henry Fuseli:

According to Chard, <mask>'s obituaries, both those written by his friends and those not, "consistently stress his generosity and his principles", particularly his integrity. William Godwin's obituary of 21 December 1809 in the Morning Chronicle was particularly eloquent, calling <mask> an "ornament to his profession" and praising his modesty, his warm heart, and the integrity and clarity of his mind. Legacy

<mask> published more books in more fields than any other publisher of his time: "virtually every giant of the second half of the eighteenth century in medicine, science, religion, philosophy, political thought, education, and poetry published at least one work with <mask>". <mask>'s publications helped to "demystify medicine" for the public and were integral to the scientific revolution. His periodical, the Analytical Review, can be seen as a precursor to the New Statesman.By the end of his career, <mask> had acquired a majority or monopoly share in the ownership of the works of: Shakespeare, Milton, Alexander Pope, <mask>, Richard Steele, <mask>, and all of the major novelists of the period (except Samuel Richardson). <mask> was known for fostering the development of new writers without worrying about maximizing profits, and for printing works on principle, even if he knew they would make little money. His risky publication of Joel Barlow's Advice to the Privileged Orders (1792), for example, sold 600 copies and barely broke even. He was also instrumental in the creation of the female professional writer, a role that began opening to women only at the end of the 18th century in Britain. By nurturing the writings of Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Charlotte Smith, Mary Hays, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Maria Edgeworth, he gave women the opportunity to demonstrate that they could be both successful and significant authors. Additionally, he published works promoting women's equality, such as Hays's An Appeal to the Men of Great Britain (1798), which called for an end to the tyrannical rule of men over women; <mask>'s Analytical Review reviewed the work extensively and approvingly. <mask> was remarkably adept at recognizing new writing talent and making innovative works appealing to the public.More importantly, he functioned as a catalyst for experimentation by bringing disparate authors together. While <mask> promoted his authors, he retreated into the background himself. His friend John Aikin explained that he had "a decided aversion to all sorts of puffing and parade"; <mask>'s unassuming character has left historians and literary critics sparse material from which to reconstruct his life. For 200 years, it was assumed that all of <mask>'s business records and correspondence had been destroyed, but in the early 1990s, one of his "letter books" was discovered in an old desk. It contained copies of letters written to business associates as well as friends from 1795 to 1809. His letters to other publishers discuss "paper, printing, engraving costs, delivery dates, breaches of copyright, binding charges and accounts" whereas his letters to friends include missives to Priestley, Maria Edgeworth, Erasmus Darwin, Charlotte Smith, and others. This material has allowed scholars to theorize more concretely about <mask>'s life and work.<mask>'s publications were rarely luxury goods: he priced his merchandise competitively, but always within the reach of the middle class, the audience he most wanted to serve. One way that he reduced costs was by printing texts in the provinces and then importing them to London; many of Priestley's works, for example, were printed locally in Birmingham. <mask> did not take great care with the printing of many of his books; they are full of errors and poorly bound. But as they were often printed extremely quickly to respond to a particular event, this was expected by his contemporaries. Before <mask>'s generation of booksellers, publishers were not highly respected; <mask>'s sterling reputation helped publishing to become a more reputable business. His advocacy of cheap books, his desire to foster extensive provincial and foreign connections are all a part of why <mask> has been called "the most important publisher in England from 1770 until 1810". Publishing statistics
According to Chard, in the 48 years of his career, <mask> published around 2,700 imprints, averaging 56 per year.About half of these were pamphlets (e.g. sermons, religious tracts, political leaflets) and many were reprints; therefore he averaged around 20 to 30 new books per year. About 25% of his publications were of anonymous authors; these were usually political or religious works. He published more religious works than any other genre (1,067 titles). <mask> made roughly 750 copies for each print run, although many of his political and religious works would have been printed in editions of 250, as their topics were often ephemeral. Notes

Bibliography
 Aikin, John. "Biographical account of the late Mr. <mask>".The Gentleman's Magazine 79 (1809): 1167–68. Braithwaite, Helen. Romanticism, Publishing and Dissent: <mask> and the Cause of Liberty. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. .
 Butler, Marilyn. "Culture's Medium: the Role of the Review". The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism. Ed.Stuart Curran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. .
 Chard, Leslie. "Bookseller to publisher: <mask> and the English book trade, 1760–1810". The Library. 5th series. 32 (1977): 138–154. Chard, Leslie."<mask>: Father of the Book Trade". Bulletin of the New York Public Library 78 (1975): 51–82. Chard, Leslie. "<mask> in the 1790s". Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 95–101. Esterhammer, Angela. "Continental literature, translation, and the <mask> circle".Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 101–104. Gaull, Marilyn. "<mask>: Literary Alchemist". European Romantic Review 10.3 (1999): 265–278. Hall, Carol. "<mask>". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.Oxford University Press. 2004. Retrieved on 30 April 2007. Hall, Carol. "<mask> (London 1761–1809)". The British Literary Book Trade, 1700–1820. Eds.J. K. Bracken and J. Silver. New York: Gale Group, 1995. Holmes, Richard. Footsteps: Adventures of a Romantic Biographer. New York: Viking, 1985. .
 Lau, Beth. "William Godwin and the <mask> Circle: the evidence of the diaries".Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 104–109. Mandell, Laura. "<mask>'s Lessons for men: producing the professional woman writer". Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 108–113. Mann, Phyllis. "Death of a London bookseller". Keats–Shelley Memorial Bulletin 15 (1964): 8–12.Rowe, Mortimer. The History of Essex Hall. London: Lindsey Press, 1959. Full text reproduced here. Smyser, Jane Worthington. "The trial and imprisonment of <mask>, bookseller". Bulletin of the New York Public Library 77 (1974): 418–435.Tomalin, Claire. "Publisher in prison: <mask> and the book trade". Times Literary Supplement (2 December 1994): 15–16. Tyson, Gerald P. <mask>: A Liberal Publisher. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1979. .*
 Uglow, Jenny. "The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World." Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 2002.Zall, P. M. "The cool world of Samuel Taylor Coleridge: <mask>, or, The perils of publishing". Wordsworth Circle 3 (1972): 25–30. 1738 births
1809 deaths
British magazine publishers (people)
English prisoners and detainees
English booksellers
English Dissenters
English Unitarians
Male feminists
Publishers (people) from London
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texts:
<mask> (January 6, 1905 – February 28, 1978) was a British author best known for his science fiction novels and short stories. Much of his work was first published in the United States, in John W. Campbell's Astounding Science Fiction and other pulp magazines. <mask> also wrote horror fiction for Weird Tales and non-fiction articles on Fortean topics. Up to 1955 several of his stories were published under pseudonyms, at least Duncan H. Munro and Niall(e) Wilde. Biography
<mask> was born in 1905 near Sandhurst in Berkshire, where his father was an instructor at the Royal Military College. <mask> became a fan of science fiction and in 1934, while living near Liverpool, he saw a letter in Amazing Stories from Leslie J. Johnson, another reader from the same area. <mask> met up with Johnson, who encouraged him to embark on a writing career.Together, the two men wrote a novella, "Seeker of Tomorrow", that was published by F. Orlin Tremaine in the July 1937 number of Astounding Stories. Both <mask> and Johnson became members of the British Interplanetary Society. <mask>'s first novel was Sinister Barrier, cover story for the inaugural, May 1939 issue of Unknown—Astoundings sister magazine devoted to fantasy. It is explicitly a Fortean tale, based on Charles Fort's famous speculation "I think we're property", <mask> explains in the foreword. An often-repeated legend has it that Campbell, on receiving the manuscript for Sinister Barrier, created Unknown primarily as a vehicle for the short novel (pp. 9–94). There is no real evidence for it, despite a statement to that effect in the first volume of Isaac Asimov's autobiography, In Memory Yet Green.His second novel, Dreadful Sanctuary (serialized in Astounding during 1948) is an early example of conspiracy fiction, in which a paranoid delusion of global proportions is perpetuated by a small but powerful secret society. There are two different and mutually incompatible accounts of <mask>'s military service during World War II. The official, well-documented version is that he served with the Royal Air Force, with whom he saw active service in Europe as a member of a Mobile Signals Unit. However, in the introduction to the 1986 Del Rey Books edition of <mask>'s novel Wasp, Jack L. Chalker states that <mask> was too old for active service, and instead worked for Military Intelligence in London, where he "spent the war dreaming up nasty tricks to play against the Germans and Japanese", including Operation Mincemeat. <mask>'s biographer John L. Ingham states however that "there is nothing, absolutely nothing, in his R.A.F. record to show that he was anything more than a wireless mechanic and radio operator". <mask> took up writing full-time in the late 1940s.He became an active member of British science fiction fandom and the British representative of the Fortean Society. He won the first annual Hugo Award for Best Short Story in 1955 recognizing his humorous "Allamagoosa" as the year's best science fiction. The 1962 novel The Great Explosion won a Prometheus Hall of Fame Award in 1985—the third naming of two works to the libertarian science fiction hall of fame. The 1957 novel Wasp has been a finalist for the honor, which is now limited to one work per year. The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted <mask> in 2000, its fifth class of two deceased and two living writers. Into Your Tent, a thorough and detailed biography of <mask> by John L. Ingham, was published in 2010 by Plantech (UK). Writings

<mask>'s full-length fiction includes the following:
 Sinister Barrier (1939)
 Dreadful Sanctuary (1948)
 Sentinels From Space (1953), based on the earlier magazine story The Star Watchers (1951)
 Three to Conquer (1956), based on the earlier magazine serial Call Him Dead (1955)
 Men, Martians and Machines (1955), containing four related novellas
 Wasp (1958)
 Next of Kin (1959), published earlier as The Space Willies (1958)
 The Great Explosion (1962)
 With a Strange Device (1964), also published as The Mindwarpers.<mask> also wrote a large number of shorter works, many of which have been reprinted in collections such as Deep Space (1954), Six Worlds Yonder (1958), Far Stars (1961), Dark Tides (1962) and Somewhere a Voice (1965). His short story "Allamagoosa"  (1955), which was essentially a science-fictional retelling of a traditional tall story called "The Shovewood", won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story. <mask> wrote numerous non-fiction essays on Fortean themes, some of which were collected in a compendium of Forteana entitled Great World Mysteries (1957). His second non-fiction book was The Rabble Rousers (1963), a sardonic look at human folly including the Dreyfus affair and the Florida land boom. He also wrote Lern Yerself Scouse: The ABZ of Scouse (1966) under the pseudonym "Linacre Lane". Two omnibus collections of <mask>'s science fiction are available from NESFA Press: Major Ingredients (2000), containing 30 of his short stories, and Entities (2001) containing five novels. John Pelan's Midnight House published Dark Tides, a collection of <mask>'s horror and weird fiction, in 2006.The 1995 novel Design for Great-Day, published as by Alan Dean Foster and <mask> <mask>, is an expansion by Foster of a 1953 short story of the same name by <mask>. Writing style and themes
<mask> had an easy-going, colloquial writing style that was influenced in part by American "hard-boiled" detective fiction of the kind popularized by Black Mask magazine. Although British, <mask> wrote predominantly for an American audience, and was often assumed to be American by readers. Much of <mask>'s science fiction is based on what might be described as Fortean themes, with Sinister Barrier and Dreadful Sanctuary the most notable examples. Another common theme is the single resourceful human pitted against a ponderous alien bureaucracy, as in the novels Wasp and Next of Kin, as well as several shorter works. <mask> is sometimes categorized as a humorous writer, and Brian Aldiss describes him as John W. Campbell's "licensed jester". However, <mask>'s humour generally has a satirical edge, often aimed at authority and bureaucracy in its various forms.On other occasions, for example in the short stories "Somewhere a Voice" and "The Army Comes to Venus", his work has a deeper and more serious tone, in which the spiritual aspects of humanity's endeavours and aspirations shine through. Critical reception
Scott Connors, reviewing <mask>'s book Darker Tides, stated that " <mask>'s prose displays a rare sense of irony and wit...and does the reader the  compliment of presenting the story in an indirect fashion so that he has an  investment in the tale." Carl Sagan wrote that <mask>'s stories were examples of "desperately need[ed] exploration of alternative futures, both experimental and conceptual". Cultural influences

<mask>'s short story "Jay Score" (1941) is unusual amongst the pulp fiction of its time in presenting a black character, the ship's doctor, without any racial stereotyping. Indeed, this story and its sequels (collected in Men, Martians and Machines) may be considered an early example of the science fiction subgenre in which a spaceship is crewed by a multi-ethnic, mixed human/non-human, complement (cf. the much later Star Trek). <mask> also appears to have originated the colloquial initialism "MYOB" for "mind your own business", which appears frequently in the novella "... And Then There Were None" (Astounding, June 1951) and in the novel The Great Explosion based upon it.In 1970, <mask> was paid £4689 by the Beatles's company Apple Corps for the motion picture rights to his novel Wasp, the contract being signed on behalf of Apple by Ringo Starr. The film was never made, but it remained one of the most lucrative deals <mask> ever made. See also

 Study in Still Life - story by <mask>
 Tower of Hanoi - which features in his story "Now Inhale"

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

 <mask> <mask> at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
 Review of Major Ingredients
 "Shadow Man" fan site by Narrelle Harris
 Past Masters: Let Me Be Frank, or Welcome to the Allamagoosa Russell-Palooza by Bud Webster, at Galactic Central
 And then there were none (1951)—the internet host notes "Anarchy in action—an excellent model of an anarchist or free society"

1905 births
1978 deaths
English short story writers
20th-century English novelists
English horror writers
English science fiction writers
Weird fiction writers
Fortean writers
Forteana
Hugo Award-winning writers
People from Sandhurst, Berkshire
Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees
English male novelists

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Eric Frank Russell
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<mask> (October 12, 1889 – March 8, 1947) was an American film character actor who began in the silent era and appeared in more than 430 films in his 38-year career. Career
<mask> was born in Lafayette, Indiana in 1889, and his acting career goes back almost to the beginning of the commercial film industry in the United States. He made his first silent film in 1910, a comedy short filmed in Chicago by Essanay Film Manufacturing Company called A Dog on Business. <mask> continued to make films for Essanay, appearing in dozens of films every year, including most of the Broncho Billy series, and played a character called "Slippery Slim" in 80 movies. He also appeared in Universal Pictures' "Snakeville" series. <mask>'s first talking picture was Melody of Love, starring Walter Pidgeon, made for Universal in 1928, and in the sound era he continued to work continuously and constantly, playing small parts and sometimes uncredited bit parts, all primarily comic roles due to his height () and gawkiness. In addition to acting, on several occasions <mask> also wrote and directed.In the 1920s he directed two silent shorts, The Rubber-Neck in 1924 and Action Craver in 1927, and contributed the story for Saxophobia in 1927. In the following decade, in the sound era, he was the dialogue director for The Big Chance (1933), and wrote the story for Inside Information in 1934). In 1935 he provided continuity and dialogue for Million Dollar Haul and the screenplay for Hot Off the Press. In the 1940s, Potel was part of Preston Sturges' unofficial "stock company" of character actors, appearing in nine films written and directed by Sturges. <mask> continued to work right up until his death on March 8, 1947. The final film he worked on, Relentless finished filming on February 28 of that year. Selected filmography
Silent

 A Dog on Business (1910, Short)
 Across the Plains (1911, Short)
 Alkali Ike's Auto (1911, Short)
 The Good-for-Nothing (1914) - Old Clerk
 His Regeneration (1915, Short) - Pawn Shop Clerk (uncredited)
 Baseball Madness (1917, Short)
 Captain Kidd, Jr. (1919) - Constable Sam
 Full of Pep (1919) - Beanpole
 The Amateur Adventuress (1919) - Gregory Charles Sentel
 The Outcasts of Poker Flat (1919)
 The Petal on the Current (1919) - Skinny Flint
 In Mizzoura (1919) - Dave
 Water, Water, Everywhere (1920) - Steve Brainard
 Mary's Ankle (1920) - Johnny Stokes
 The Heart of a Child (1920) - Charley Peastone
 Billions (1920) - Pushkin
 Bob Hampton of Placer (1921) - Willie McNeil
 One a Minute (1921) - Jingo Pitts
 Lavender and Old Lace (1921) - Joe Pendleton
 At the Sign of the Jack O'Lantern (1922) - The Poet
 I Can Explain (1922) - Will Potter
 Don't Write Letters (1922) - The Lover
 Step on It!(1922) - Noisy Johnson
 The Loaded Door (1922) - Slim
 A Tailor-Made Man (1922) - Peter
 Quincy Adams Sawyer (1922) - Hiram Maxwell
 Refuge (1923) - Alphpmse
 Modern Matrimony (1923) - Junior Rutherford
 Penrod and Sam (1923) - Town Drunkard
 Itching Palms (1923) - The Village Dumbbell
 Tea: With a Kick! 1, 10-12]
 Western Frontier (1935) - Slim (uncredited)
 Trails End (1935) - Red
 The Girl Friend (1935) - Small Town Farmer (uncredited)
 Waterfront Lady (1935) - Alex
 She Couldn't Take It (1935) - Farmer (uncredited)
 Shipmates Forever (1935) - Radio Fan (uncredited)
 Barbary Coast (1935) - Wilkins (uncredited)
 Moonlight on the Prairie (1935) - Tall Cowboy (uncredited)
 The Last of the Clintons (1935) - Jed Clinton
 The Fighting Marines (1935, Serial) - Henchman - Fake Native Chief [Ch.

masks:
Victor Potel
Victor Potel
Potel
Potel
Potel
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texts:
<mask> (; 25 April 1921 – 3 May 2006) was a Dutch painter, sculptor, and poet. He started painting at the age of fourteen and studied at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam in the 1940s. He was one of the founders of the avant-garde movement CoBrA in 1948. He was also an avid sculptor and has had works featured in MoMA and other museums worldwide. Childhood
<mask> was born on 25 April 1921 in his parents' house at Dapperstraat 7 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. As a child he was often called 'Kik'. On the ground floor his father, <mask>, had a barbershop.His mother, born Johanna Chevalier, was a descendant of French Huguenots. <mask> <mask> had three brothers. At fourteen, <mask> produced his first real painting on canvas, a still life of a fruit basket. For his fifteenth birthday, his wealthy uncle <mask> Chevalier gave him a paint set and an easel. An avid amateur painter himself, Chevalier gave his namesake some lessons in painting. Career
From 1940 to 1943, during the German occupation, <mask> studied at the Rijksakademie van Beeldende Kunsten in Amsterdam, and it was there he met the young painter Corneille and, some years later, Constant; they became close friends for years. His parents opposed his choice to become an artist, leading him to leave home; this was also necessary because he needed to hide from the German police so that he would not be picked up and sent to Germany to work in the weapons industry.<mask> had his first show in Groningen in 1946. In 1949 he participated with the other CoBrA artists in the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; this generated a huge scandal and many objections in the press and public. He was influenced by Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and the French brute-art artist Jean Dubuffet. In 1947 he started sculpting with all kinds of used materials (in the technique of assemblage) and painted them in bright colors: white, red, yellow, blue, and black. He joined the  together with the young Dutch painters  Anton Rooskens, Theo Wolvecamp, and Jan Nieuwenhuys. Later the Belgian writer Hugo Claus joined the group. In 1948 <mask> joined CoBrA (coined by the Belgian poet Christian Dotremont from the initials of the members' home countries' capital cities: Copenhagen, Brussels, Amsterdam) together with the Dutch artists Corneille, Constant, and Jan Nieuwenhuys (see also Aart Kemink).The new art of the CoBrA group was not popular in the Netherlands, but it found a warm and broad welcome in Denmark. By 1939, Danish  artists had already started to make spontaneous art and one of their sources of inspiration was Danish and Nordic mythology. It was also in Denmark that the CoBrA artists started cooperating by collectively painting the insides of houses, which encouraged and intensified the exchange of the typical 'childish' and spontaneous picture language used by the CoBrA group. <mask> used this very intensively; his 1949 fresco 'Questioning Children' in Amsterdam City Hall caused controversy and was covered up for ten years. As a result of this controversy and other negative Dutch reactions to CoBrA, <mask> moved to Paris in 1950 and developed his international reputation by travelling to Mexico, the USA, Yugoslavia, and Brazil. He also lived in New York City and Florence. His first American gallery exhibition took place in 1954 at the Martha Jackson Gallery.The following year his painting Child and Beast II (1951) was included in the influential exhibition, The New Decade at the Museum of Modern Art which featured the work of twenty-two European painters and sculptors including newcomers like Francis Bacon, Jean Dubuffet, and Pierre Soulages. He is particularly noted for his mural work. After 1990 he became much more popular in the Netherlands; he had several big shows in Amsterdam and Bruxelles, organized by director Rudy Fuchs. Also, the CoBrA-museum in Amstelveen organized several shows featuring his work. He became the most famous Dutch CoBrA artist. <mask>'s work has been exhibited in a number of galleries, including the Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City, Galerie Lelong in Paris, Galerie Ulysses in Vienna, and Gallery LL in Amsterdam. Death

<mask> died on 3 May 2006 in his home in Zürich, Switzerland.He suffered from a heart ailment. He was buried on 16 May 2006 at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, France. Years before his death, <mask> established the Karel Appel Foundation, whose purpose is "to preserve [<mask>'s] artworks, to promote public awareness and knowledge of <mask> <mask>'s oeuvre, and to supervise publication of the Oeuvre Catalogue of the paintings, the works on paper, and the sculptures." In 2002 a number of <mask>'s works went missing on the way to his foundation, an event that was not to be resolved before his death. However, in 2012 the works were found in a disused UK warehouse and returned to the foundation. In the wake of his death, the Foundation (based in Amsterdam) functions as his official estate in addition to its primary service as an image archive. The U.S. copyright representative for the Karel Appel Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.Gallery

Public collections

Among the public collections holding works by <mask> <mask>  are:
 Museum de Fundatie, Zwolle, The Netherlands
 Aboa Vetus & Ars Nova, Turku, Finland
 Art Gallery of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
 Rijksmuseum, The Netherlands
 The Phillips Collection, Washington DC, USA
 Gallery Delaive, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
 Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
 Art Museum of Southeast Texas, Beaumont, Texas

Bibliography
<mask>, <mask>: Psychopathological Notebook. Drawings and Gouaches 1948–1950. Bern – Berlin: Verlag Gachnang & Springer, 1999. References

Further reading
 Kuspit, Donald (2010). "Titanic Power: <mask> Appel in the Tradition of the New". Psychodrama: Modern Art as Group Therapy. London: Ziggurat.pp. 13–45. .
Tapié, Michel; Amsterdam (Netherlands). Stedelijk Museum. <mask> <mask> (Publisher: Amsterdam, author, 1955) OCLC 11554905 (Worldcat link)

External links

Karel Appel Foundation

<mask> <mask>, Dutch Expressionist Painter, Dies at 85 in the New York Times (obituary)
<mask> <mask> in The Guardian (obituary)
images of painting art of <mask> <mask>

Art Signature Dictionary – See <mask> <mask>'s signature

Art Informel and Tachisme painters
1921 births
2006 deaths
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Dutch male sculptors
Modern painters
Modern sculptors
Painters from Amsterdam
20th-century Dutch painters
Dutch male painters
Abstract painters
School of Paris
Commanders of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
20th-century Dutch sculptors
Dutch contemporary artists

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Christiaan Karel Appel
Christiaan Karel Appel
Jan Appel
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