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<mask> (; 29 July 18172 May 1900) was a Russian Romantic painter who is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art. Baptized as Hovhannes Aivazian, he was born into an Armenian family in the Black Sea port of Feodosia in Crimea and was mostly based there. Following his education at the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg, Aivazovsky traveled to Europe and lived briefly in Italy in the early 1840s. He then returned to Russia and was appointed the main painter of the Russian Navy. Aivazovsky had close ties with the military and political elite of the Russian Empire and often attended military maneuvers. He was sponsored by the state and was well-regarded during his lifetime. The saying "worthy of Aivazovsky's brush", popularized by Anton Chekhov, was used in Russia for describing something lovely.He remains highly popular in Russia in the 21st century. One of the most prominent Russian artists of his time, <mask> was also popular outside Russian Empire. He held numerous solo exhibitions in Europe and the United States. During his almost 60-year career, he created around 6,000 paintings, making him one of the most prolific artists of his time. The vast majority of his works are seascapes, but he often depicted battle scenes, Armenian themes, and portraiture. Most of <mask>'s works are kept in Russian, Ukrainian and Armenian museums as well as private collections. Life

Background
<mask> was born on 17 July (29 in New Style) 1817 in the city of Feodosia (Theodosia), Crimea, Russian Empire.In the baptismal records of the local St. Sargis Armenian Apostolic Church, Aivazovsky was listed as Hovhannes, son of Gevorg Aivazian (). During his study at the Imperial Academy of Arts, he was known in Russian as <mask> (Иванъ Гайвазовскій in the pre-1918 spelling). He became known as <mask> since , while in Italy. He signed an 1844 letter with an Italianized rendition of his name: "Giovani <mask>". His father, Konstantin, (–1840), was an Armenian merchant from the Polish region of Galicia. His family had migrated to Europe from Western Armenia in the 18th century. After numerous familial conflicts, Konstantin left Galicia for Moldavia, later moving to Bukovina, before settling in Feodosia in the early 1800s.He was initially known as Gevorg Aivazian (Haivazian or Haivazi), but he changed his last name to Gaivazovsky by adding the Polish "-sky". <mask>'s mother, Ripsime, was a Feodosia Armenian. The couple had five children—three daughters and two sons. <mask>'s elder brother, Gabriel, was a prominent historian and an Armenian Apostolic archbishop. Education
The young Aivazovsky received parochial education at Feodosia's St. Sargis Armenian Church. He was taught drawing by Jacob Koch, a local architect. Aivazovsky moved to Simferopol with Taurida Governor Alexander Kaznacheyev's family in 1830 and attended the city's Russian gymnasium.In 1833, <mask> arrived in the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, to study at the Imperial Academy of Arts in Maxim Vorobiev's landscape class. In 1835, he was awarded with a silver medal and appointed assistant to the French painter . In September 1836, Aivazovsky met Russia's national poet Alexander Pushkin during the latter's visit to the Academy. In 1837, <mask> joined the battle-painting class of Alexander Sauerweid and participated in Baltic Fleet exercises in the Gulf of Finland. In October 1837, he graduated from the Imperial Academy of Arts with a gold medal, two years earlier than intended. Aivazovsky returned to Feodosia in 1838 and spent two years in his native Crimea. In 1839, he took part in military exercises in the shores of Crimea, where he met Russian admirals Mikhail Lazarev, Pavel Nakhimov and Vladimir Kornilov.First visit to Europe

In 1840, <mask> was sent by the Imperial Academy of Arts to study in Europe. He first traveled to Venice via Berlin and Vienna and visited San Lazzaro degli Armeni, where an important Armenian Catholic congregation was located and his brother Gabriel lived at the time. Aivazovsky studied Armenian manuscripts and became familiar with Armenian art. He met Russian novelist Nikolai Gogol in Venice. He then headed to Florence, Amalfi and Sorrento. In Florence, he met painter <mask>. He remained in Naples and Rome between 1840 and 1842.<mask> was heavily influenced by Italian art and their museums became the "second academy" for him. According to Rogachevsky the news of successful exhibitions in Italy reached Russia. Pope Gregory XVI awarded him with a golden medal. He then visited Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands and Britain. In an international exhibition at the Louvre, he was the only representative from Russia. In France, he received a gold medal from the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture. He then returned to Naples via Marseille and again visited Britain, Portugal, Spain, and Malta in 1843.<mask> was admired throughout Europe. He returned to Russia via Paris and Amsterdam in 1844. Return to Russia and first marriage

Upon his return to Russia, <mask> was made an academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts and was appointed the "official artist of the Russian Navy to paint seascapes, coastal scenes and naval battles." In 1845, <mask> traveled to the Aegean Sea with Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich and visited the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, and the Greek islands of Patmos and Rhodes. In 1845, <mask> settled in his hometown of Feodosia, where he built a house and studio. He isolated himself from the outside world, keeping a small circle of friends and relatives. Yet the solitude played a negative role in his art career.By the mid-nineteenth century, Russian art was moving from Romanticism towards a distinct Russian style of Realism, while <mask> continued to paint Romantic seascapes and attracted heavy criticism. In 1845 and 1846, Aivazovsky attended the maneuvers of the Black Sea Fleet and the Baltic Fleet at Petergof, near the imperial palace. In 1847, he was given the title of professor of seascape painting by the Imperial Academy of Arts and elevated to the rank of nobility. In the same year, he was elected to the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1848, <mask> married Julia Graves, an English governess. They had four daughters: Elena (1849), Maria (1851), Alexandra (1852) and Joanne (1858). They separated in 1860 and divorced in 1877 with permission from the Armenian Church, since Graves was a Lutheran.Rise to prominence

In 1851, traveling with the Russian emperor Nicholas I, <mask> sailed to Sevastopol to participate in military maneuvers. His archaeological excavations near Feodosia lead to his election as a full member of the Russian Geographical Society in 1853. In that year, the Crimean War erupted between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and he was evacuated to Kharkiv. While safe, he returned to the besieged fortress of Sevastopol to paint battle scenes. His work was exhibited in Sevastopol while it was under Ottoman siege. Between 1856 and 1857, <mask> worked in Paris and became the first Russian (and the first non-French) artist to receive the Legion of Honour. In 1857, Aivazovsky visited Constantinople and was awarded the Order of the Medjidie.In the same year, he was elected an honorary member of the Moscow Art Society. He was awarded the Greek Order of the Redeemer in 1859 and the Russian Order of St. Vladimir in 1865. <mask> opened an art studio in Feodosia in 1865 and was awarded a salary by the Imperial Academy of Arts the same year. Travels and accolades: 1860s–1880s
In the 1860s, the artist produced several paintings inspired by Greek nationalism and the Italian unification. In 1868, he once again visited Constantinople and produced a series of works about the Greek resistance to the Turks, during the Great Cretan Revolution. In 1868, <mask> traveled in the Caucasus and visited the Russian part of Armenia for the first time. He painted several mountainous landscapes and in 1869 held an exhibition in Tiflis.Later in the year, he made a trip to Egypt and took part in the opening ceremony of the Suez Canal. He became the "first artist to paint the Suez Canal, thus marking an epoch-making event in the history of Europe, Africa and Asia." In 1870, <mask> was made an Actual Civil Councilor, the fourth highest civil rank in Russia. In 1871, he initiated the construction of the archaeological museum in Feodosia. In 1872, he traveled to Nice and Florence to exhibit his paintings. In 1874, the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze (Florence Academy of Fine Art) asked him for a self-portrait to be hung in the Uffizi Gallery. The same year, <mask> was invited to Constantinople by Sultan Abdülaziz who subsequently bestowed upon him the Turkish Order of Osmanieh.In 1876, he was made a member of the Academy of Arts in Florence and became the second Russian artist (after Orest Kiprensky) to paint a self-portrait for the Palazzo Pitti. <mask> was elected an honorary member of Stuttgart's Royal Academy of Fine Arts in 1878. He made a trip to the Netherlands and France, staying briefly in Frankfurt until 1879. He then visited Munich and traveled to Genoa and Venice "to collect material on the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus." In 1880, <mask> opened an art gallery in his Feodosia house; it became the third museum in the Russian Empire, after the Hermitage Museum and the Tretyakov Gallery. Aivazovsky held an 1881 exhibition at London's Pall Mall, attended by English painter John Everett Millais and Edward VII, Prince of Wales. Second marriage and later life

<mask>'s second wife, Anna Burnazian, was a young Armenian widow 40 years his junior.<mask> said that by marrying her in 1882, he "became closer to [his] nation", referring to the Armenian people. In 1882, <mask> visited Moscow and St Petersburg and then toured the countryside of Russia by traveling along the Volga River in 1884. In 1885, he was promoted to the rank of Privy Councilor. The next year, the 50th anniversary of his creative labors, was celebrated with an exhibition in St Petersburg, and an honorary membership in the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts. In 1887, as part of a jubilee celebration of his career, Aivazovsky hosted a dinner for 150 friends. Each guest received a miniature painting by Aivazovsky set into a studio photograph of the artist at work. After meeting <mask> in person, Anton Chekhov wrote a letter to his wife on 22 July 1888 describing him as follows:

After traveling to Paris with his wife, in 1892 he made a trip to the United States, visiting Niagara Falls in New York and Washington D.C.In 1896, at 79, <mask> was promoted to the rank of full privy councillor. <mask> was deeply affected by the Hamidian massacres that took place in the Armenian-inhabited areas of the Ottoman Empire between 1894 and 1896. He painted a number of works on the subject such as The Expulsion of the Turkish Ship, and The Armenian Massacres at Trebizond (1895). He threw the medals given to him by the Ottoman Sultan into the sea and told the Turkish consul in Feodosia: "Tell your bloodthirsty master that I've thrown away all the medals given to me, here are their ribbons, send it to him and if he wants, he can throw them into the seas painted by me." He created several other paintings capturing the events, such as Lonely Ship and Night. Tragedy in the Sea of Marmara (1897). He spent his final years in Feodosia.In the 1890s, thanks to his efforts a commercial port (ru) was established in Feodosia and linked to the railway network of the Russian Empire. The railway station, opened in 1892, is now called  and is one of the two stations within the city of Feodosia. Aivazovsky also supplied Feodosia with drinking water. Death
<mask> died on 19 April (2 May in New Style) 1900 in Feodosia. In accordance with his wishes, he was buried at the courtyard of St. Sargis Armenian Church. A white marble sarcophagus was made by Italian sculptor L. Biogiolli in 1901. A quote from Movses Khorenatsi's History of Armenia in Classical Armenian is engraved on his tombstone:  (), which translates: "He was born a mortal, left an immortal legacy" or "Born as a mortal, left the immortal memory of himself".The Russian inscription beneath reads: "Professor <mask> Aivazovsky 1817–1900" (). After his death, his wife Anna led a generally secluded life, living in several rooms she had retained after nationalization, until 1941. She died on 25 July 1944 and was buried next to <mask>. Two of his daughters (Maria and Alexandra) left Russia following the Revolution of 1917, while the other two died shortly thereafter: Yelena in 1918 and Zhanna in 1922. Art

During his 60-year career, Aivazovsky produced around 6,000 paintings of, what one online art magazine describes, "very different value ... there are masterpieces and there are very timid works". However, according to one count as many as 20,000 paintings are attributed to him. The vast majority of Aivazovsky's works depict the sea.He rarely drew dry-landscapes and created only a handful of portraits. According to Rosa Newmarch <mask> "never painted his pictures from nature, always from memory, and far away from the seaboard." Rogachevsky wrote that "His artistic memory was legendary. He was able to reproduce what he had seen only for a very short time, without even drawing preliminary sketches." Bolton praised "his ability to convey the effect of moving water and of reflected sun and moonlight." Exhibitions
He held 55 solo exhibitions (an unprecedented number) over the course of his career. Among the most notable were held in Rome, Naples and Venice (1841–42), Paris (1843, 1890), Amsterdam (1844), Moscow (1848, 1851, 1886), Sevastopol (1854), Tiflis (1868), Florence (1874), St. Petersburg (1875, 1877, 1886, 1891), Frankfurt (1879), Stuttgart (1879), London (1881), Berlin (1885, 1890), Warsaw (1885), Constantinople (1888), New York (1893), Chicago (1893), San Francisco (1893).He also "contributed to the exhibitions of the Imperial Academy of Arts (1836–1900), Paris Salon (1843, 1879), Society of Exhibitions of Works of Art (1876–83), Moscow Society of Lovers of the Arts (1880), Pan-Russian Exhibitions in Moscow (1882) and Nizhny Novgorod (1896), World Exhibitions in Paris (1855, 1867, 1878), London (1863), Munich (1879) and Chicago (1893) and the international exhibitions in Philadelphia (1876), Munich (1879) and Berlin (1896)." Style
A primarily Romantic painter, Aivazovsky used some Realistic elements. Leek argued that Aivazovsky remained faithful to Romanticism throughout his life, "even though he oriented his work toward the Realist genre." His early works are influenced by his Academy of Arts teachers Maxim Vorobiev and Sylvester Shchedrin. Classic painters like Salvator Rosa, Jacob Isaacksz van Ruisdael and Claude Lorrain contributed to Aivazovsky's individual process and style. Karl Bryullov, best known for his The Last Day of Pompeii, "played an important part in stimulating Aivazovsky's own creative development," according to Bolton. Aivazovsky's best paintings in the 1840s–1850s used a variety of colors and were both epic and romantic in theme.Newmarch suggested that by the mid-19th century the romantic features in <mask>'s work became "increasingly pronounced." She, like most scholars, considered his Ninth Wave his best piece of art and argued that it "seems to mark the transition between fantastic color of his earlier works, and the more truthful vision of the later years." By the 1870s, his paintings were dominated by delicate colors; and in the last two decades of his life, <mask> created a series of silver-toned seascapes. The distinct transition in Russian art from Romanticism to Realism in the mid-nineteenth century left <mask>, who would always retain a Romantic style, open to criticism. Proposed reasons for his unwillingness or inability to change began with his location; Feodosia was a remote town in the huge Russian empire, far from Moscow and Saint Petersburg. His mindset and worldview were similarly considered old-fashioned and did not correspond to the developments in Russian art and culture. Vladimir Stasov only accepted his early works, while Alexandre Benois wrote

masks:
Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Ivan Aivazovsky
Ivan Gaivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
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Alexander Ivanov
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Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Ivan Konstantinovich
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky
Aivazovsky


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 in his The History of Russian Painting in the 19th Century that despite being Vorobiev's student, <mask> stood apart from the general development of the Russian landscape school.<mask>'s later work contained dramatic scenes and was usually done on a larger scale. He depicted "the romantic struggle between man and the elements in the form of the sea (The Rainbow, 1873), and so-called "blue marines" (The Bay of Naples in Early Morning, 1897, Disaster, 1898) and urban landscapes (Moonlit Night on the Bosphorus, 1894)." Works

Landscapes

Seascapes

Religious paintings

Orientalist themes

Armenian themes
<mask>'s early works incorporated Armenian themes. The artist's longstanding wish to visit his ancestral homeland was fulfilled in 1868. During his visit to Russian (Eastern) Armenia (roughly corresponding to the modern Armenia, as opposed to Western Armenia under Ottoman rule), <mask> created paintings of Mount Ararat, the Ararat plain, and Lake Sevan. Although Mt. Ararat has been depicted in paintings of many non-native artists (mostly European travelers), <mask> became the first Armenian artist to illustrate the two-peaked biblical mountain.He resumed the creation of Armenian-related paintings in the 1880s: Valley of Mount Ararat (1882), Ararat (1887), Descent of Noah from Ararat (1889). The unique Valley of Mount Ararat contains Aivazovksy's signature in Armenian: "Aivazian" (). In a panorama of Venice expressed by Byron's Visit to the Mekhitarists on St Lazarus Island in Venice (1898); the foreground of the picture contains members of the Armenian Congregation giving an enthusiastic welcome to the poet. His other themed works from this period include rare portraits of notable Armenians, such as his brother Archbishop <mask> (1882), Count Mikhail Loris-Melikov (1888), Catholicos Mkrtich Khrimian (1895), Nakhichevan-on-Don Mayor Аrutyun Khalabyan and others. The Baptism of Armenians and Oath Before the Battle of Avarayr (both 1892) depict the two single most memorable events of ancient Armenia: the Christianization of Armenia via baptism of King Tiridates III (early 4th century), and the Battle of Avarayr of 451. Aivazovsky and archaeology

Aivazovsky took an interest in archaeology since the 1850s. He employed farmers to conduct archaeological excavations in the Feodosia area.In 1853 some 22 burial mounds were excavated on Mount Tepe-Oba, which mostly contained broken amphorae and bones, but also golden necklaces, earrings, a female head, a chain with a sphinx, a sphinx with woman's head, the head of an ox, slabs; silver bracelets; clay statuettes, medallions, various vessels, a sarcophagus; silver and bronze coins. The site has been dated to the 5th to 3rd centuries BC when there was an ancient Greek settlement of Theodosia. The best finds were sent by <mask> to the Imperial Hermitage in Petersburg. In 1871 he founded the construction of a new Museum of Antiquities on Mount Mitridat modeled after a typical Ancient Greek temple of the Doric order. It was destroyed during World War II. <mask>'s estates

<mask> was a major landowner who owned numerous estates in the eastern part of Crimea, mostly located not far from Feodosia. These estates delivered him significant income; more than the sale of his paintings.His earliest major estate, bestowed by the Emperor in 1848 along with a personal noble title, was the one at Shakh-Mamai (now called ). Located some  from Feodosia, it initially covered an area of 2,500 diasiatins (around ). The estate had an Eastern-style house, and one of its most prominent visitors, Anton Chekhov, wrote that "It is an extravagant, fairy-tale estate of the kind you must probably find in Persia." By the end of his life, the estate had grown to include some 6,000 diasiatins of land, a dairy farm, and a steam-powered mill. The second major estate, located in Subash (now ), contained some 2,500 diasiatins of land. The site contained several natural springs, which Aivazovsky acquired in 1852 from the Lansky family. The latter also sold Aivazovsky 2,362 diasiatins of land.Later, Aivazovsky supplied Feodosia with water from Subash. In both estates, vegetables were grown. He had small estates in Romash-Eli (now Romanovka), with 338 diasiatins of land covered with orchards, and the Sudak Valley, with 12 diasiatins of vineyard, along with a dacha (summer house). In Feodosia, Aivazovsky possessed a house and a vineyard. He also owned houses elsewhere in Crimea, such as Stary Krym and Yalta. The estates inherited by his heirs were lost in the early Soviet period when they were nationalized. Influence
<mask> was the most influential seascape painter in nineteenth-century Russian art.According to the Russian Museum, "he was the first and for a long time the only representative of seascape painting" and "all other artists who painted seascapes were either his own students or influenced by him." Arkhip Kuindzhi (1841/2–1910) is cited by Krugosvet encyclopedia as having been influenced by <mask>. In 1855, at age 13–14, Kuindzhi visited Feodosia to study with <mask>, however, he was engaged merely to mix paints and instead studied with Adolf Fessler, <mask>'s student. A 1903 encyclopedic article stated: "Although Kuindzhi cannot be called a student of <mask>, the latter had without doubt some influence on him in the first period of his activity; from whom he borrowed much in the manner of painting." English art historian John E. Bowlt wrote that "the elemental sense of light and form associated with Aivazovsky's sunsets, storms, and surging oceans permanently influenced the young Kuindzhi." <mask> also influenced Russian painters Lev Lagorio, , and  (the latter two were his grandsons). Recognition

<mask> is one of the few Russian artists to achieve wide recognition during his lifetime.Today, he is considered as one of the most prominent marine artists of the 19th century, and, overall, one of the greatest marine artists in Russia and the world. <mask> was also one of the few Russian artists to become famous outside Russia. In 1898, Munsey's Magazine wrote that Aivazovsky is "better known to the world at large than any other artist of his nationality, with the exception of the sensational Verestchagin". However, according to art historian Janet Whitmore, he is relatively unknown in the west. Art historian Rosalind Polly Blakesley noted in a 2003 book review that Aivazovsky has not been incorporated into the mainstream Western history of art. In Russia
In a July 2017 poll conducted by the VTsIOM Aivazovsky ranked first as the most favorite artist with 27% of respondents naming him as their favorite, ahead of <mask> (26%) and Ilya Repin (16%). Overall, 93% of respondents said they were familiar with his name (26% knew him well, 67% have heard his name) and 63% of those who know him said they liked his works, including 80% of those 60 or older and 35% of 18 to 24 year olds.In 1890, the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary described him as the "best Russian marine painter". <mask>, one of the most prominent Russian artists of the nineteenth century, praised him thus: "<mask> is—no matter who says what—a star of first magnitude, and not only in our [country], but also in history of art in general." Another Russian painter, Alexandre Benois, suggested that "Aivazovsky stands apart from the general history of the Russian school of landscape painting." The State Russian Museum website continues, "It is hard to find another figure in the history of Russian art enjoying the same popularity among amateur viewers and erudite professionals alike." Writing in 1861 in the magazine Vremya, Fyodor Dostoyevsky compared <mask>'s work with that of Alexandre Dumas as both artists "produce a remarkably striking effect: remarkable indeed, as neither man ever produces anything ordinary at all. Ordinary things, they despise. Their compositions are certainly quite fascinating.The books of Dumas were devoured with impatience; the paintings of <mask> have been selling like hot cakes. Both produce works that are not dissimilar to fairy tales: fireworks, clatter, screams, howling winds, lightning." In nineteenth-century Russia, his name became a synonym for art and beauty. The phrase "worthy of <mask>'s brush" was the standard way of describing something ineffably lovely. It was first used by Anton Chekhov in his 1897 play Uncle Vanya. In response to Marina Timofeevna's (the old nurse) query about the fight between <mask> ("Uncle Vanya") and Aleksandr Serebryakov, Ilya Telegin says that it was "A sight worthy of <mask>'s brush" ( ). A street in Moscow  was named after Aivazovsky in 1978.His first and only statue in Russia was erected in 2007 in Kronstadt, near Saint Petersburg. The Simferopol International Airport in Crimea, under Russian administration, was voted to be named after <mask> in 2018. It was officially renamed according to a decree signed by President Vladimir Putin on May 31, 2019, and ceremonially renamed on Russia Day (June 12). In Armenia

<mask> has always been considered an Armenian painter in his ancestral homeland and referred to by his Armenian name, Hovhannes. Virtually all Armenian, some Russian and English sources, refer to him by that name: Hovhannes Ayvazovski (; , ). He signed some of his paintings and letters in Armenian. For instance, his signatures in both Armenian (, ) and Russian (, ) appear on Valley of Mount Ararat (1882).<mask> has been described as the "most remarkable" Armenian painter of the 19th century and the first-ever Armenian marine painter. He was born outside Armenia proper, and like his contemporaries, including Gevorg Bashinjaghian, Panos Terlemezian, and Vardges Sureniants, <mask> lived outside his homeland, drawing primary influences from European and Russian schools of art. His creativity and viewpoint have been attributed to his uniquely Armenian roots. According to Sureniants, he sought to create a union which would have brought together all Armenian artists around the world. The prominent Armenian poet Hovhannes Tumanyan wrote a short poem titled "In Front of an Aiazovsky painting" () in 1893. It is inspired by painting of the sea by Aivazovsky, mostly likely from the 1870s–1890s. It was translated into English in 1917 by Alice Stone Blackwell.Several paintings of <mask> from the National Gallery of Armenia hang in the Presidential Palace in Yerevan. A bust of <mask> was erected in Stepanakert in December 2021. In Ukraine
In Ukraine, he is sometimes considered a Ukrainian painter. He was included in a 2001 book titled 100 Greatest Ukrainians. An alley in Kiev () was named after him in 1939. A three-star hotel in Odessa, where dozens of reproductions of his works are displayed, is named for him as well. A statue of <mask> and his brother Gabriel is located in Simferopol, Crimea's administrative center.In June 2017 Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko claimed that Aivazovsky is "part of Ukrainian heritage." Russian media accused him of appropriation of Aivazovsky. In Turkey
<mask>'s paintings were popular in the Ottoman imperial court during the 19th century. According to Hürriyet Daily News, as of 2014, 30 paintings of Aivazovsky are on display in museums in Turkey. According to , there are 41 paintings of Aivazovsky on display in Turkey, 21 in former palaces of Ottoman sultans, 10 in various marine and military museums, and 10 at the presidential residence. In 2007, when Abdullah Gül became president of Turkey, he brought paintings by Aivazovsky up from the basement to hang in his office during redecoration of the presidential palace, the Çankaya Mansion in Ankara. Pictures of official meetings of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan at the new Presidential Complex in Ankara show that the walls of the rooms at the presidential residence are decorated with <mask>'s artwork.Legacy

<mask>'s house in Feodosia, where he had founded an art museum in 1880, is open to this day as the Aivazovsky National Art Gallery. It remains a central attraction in the city and holds the world's largest collections (417) of Aivazovsky paintings. A statue of the artist stands in front. Posthumous honors
The Soviet Union (1950), Romania (1971), Madagascar (1988), Armenia (first in 1992), Russia (1995), Ukraine (1999), Abkhazia (1999), Moldova (2010), Kyrgyzstan (2010), Burundi (2012), and Mozambique (2013) have issued postage stamps depicting Aivazovsky or his works. The minor planet 3787 Aivazovskij, named after Aivazovsky, was discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh in 1977. In 2016 and 2017 the 200th anniversary of Aivazovsky was celebrated with major exhibitions in several countries. An exhibition featuring 120 paintings and 55 etchings of Aivazovsky was held at the Tretyakov Gallery on Krymsky Val in Moscow from 29 July to 20 November 2016 dedicated to his 200th anniversary of birth.In the first 2 weeks, the exhibition had around 55,000 visitors, a record number. 38 of the works were moved from the Aivazovsky Art Gallery in Feodosia, which prompted Ukraine to call for an international boycott of the Tretyakov Gallery as it considers Crimea an occupied territory. Exhibitions were also held at the National Art Museum of Ukraine in Kiev, and the National Gallery of Armenia in Yerevan. In 2018, the third series of Armenian dram banknotes were issued. The 20,000 Dram banknote bears a portrait of <mask> on the obverse and a view of his art museum and statue in Feodosia in the reverse. Auctions
<mask>'s paintings began appearing in auctions (mostly in London) in the early 2000s. Many of his works are being bought by Russian oligarchs.His works have risen steadily in auction value. In November 2004, his Saint Isaac's Cathedral On A Frosty Day, a rare cityscape, sold for around £1 million ($2.1 million). In 2007, his painting American Shipping off the Rock of Gibraltar auctioned at £2.71 million, "more than four times its top estimate". It was, "the highest price paid at auction for <mask>" at the time. In April 2012, his 1856 work View of Constantinople and the Bosphorus was sold at Sotheby's for a record $5.2 million (£3.2 million), a tenfold increase since it was last at an auction in 1995. Stolen paintings
In January 2011 a number of paintings, including those of <mask>, were stolen from the country house of Aleksandr Tarantsev, an owner of a chain of jewelry stores in Russia. In 2017 it was reported that a fake of one of the paintings stolen from Tarantsev's house was presented to Armenian president Serzh Sargsyan by the Pyunik foundation.In June 2015 Sotheby's withdrew from auction an 1870 Aivazovsky painting Evening in Cairo, which was estimated at £1.5–2 million ($2–$3 million), after the Russian Interior Ministry claimed that it was stolen in 1997 from a private collection in Moscow. These allegations were not maintained before the English court, which ordered the return of the painting to the seller. In 2017 View on Revel (1845), stolen from the Dmitrov Kremlin Museum in 1976, was found at  in Zürich, Switzerland. Awards

Ranks
Russian Table of Ranks:

1870 – Actual Civil Councilor ()
1885 – Privy Councilor ()
1896 – Actual Privy Councilor ()

See also
Russian culture
Armenian culture
Armenians in Crimea

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

Books and articles on Aivazovsky

Articles analyzing Aivazovsky's works

External links

 Chronological List of paintings by <mask>vsky

Galleries of Aivazovsky's paintings

 at the Russian State Museum
National Gallery of Armenia
Russian Art Encyclopedia
The Athenaeum
Old Istanbul paints at Organization of Istanbul Armenians
<mask>vsky in collection of the Odessa Art Museum. Album. Odessa, Astroprint, 2012. 1817 births
1900 deaths
People from Feodosia
Ethnic Armenian painters
19th-century Armenian painters
19th-century Russian painters
Painters of the Russian Empire
Russian male painters
Armenian people of the Russian Empire
Armenian romantic painters
Russian romantic painters
Russian landscape painters
Imperial Academy of Arts alumni
Russian marine artists
Ethnic Armenian academics
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Members of the Imperial Academy of Arts
Awarded with a large gold medal of the Academy of

masks:
Aivazovsky
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Gabriel Aivazovsky
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Ivan Aivazovsky
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Ivan Shishkin
Ivan Kramskoi
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Ivan Voynitsky
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Ivan Aivazo
Ivan Aivazo


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<mask><mask><mask> (November 28, 1848 – December 27, 1910) was a tribal administrator and Principal Chief of the Choctaw Republic (1896–1900 and 1902–1906), serving a total of four elected two-year terms. He was the third of his brothers to be elected as chief. (His older brothers <mask> and <mask> had previously been elected as chief, serving a total of three terms.) He was a Republican in the late 19th century, leaning toward allotment and assimilation when the nation was under pressure by the United States government, as he believed the Choctaw needed to negotiate to secure their best outcome prior to annexation. After 1906 and dissolution of tribal governments under the Dawes Act prior to Oklahoma achieving statehood, and the annexation of the Choctaw Republic by the United States, <mask> was appointed as chief by the United States government. He served in that capacity until 1910 and his death in office. He was the last freely-elected Chief of the Choctaws until 1971.<mask> represented his tribe as a delegate at the Sequoyah Constitutional Convention. This was an effort by American Indian nations in Indian Territory to create an Indian-controlled state in what is now Oklahoma. They were not successful in getting Congressional support for this proposal. European Americans, who had established considerable presence in the Oklahoma Territory, had lobbied strongly for the entire area to be admitted as a regular state. Personal life
<mask><mask><mask> was born on November 28, 1848 in Skullyville, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory, the third son of <mask>, born in Mississippi, and Mayhiya "Amy" Blevins, both Choctaw. He was named after leader <mask>. Blevins's grandmother was Sho-Ma-Ka, a captive from a neighboring tribe who was adopted and assimilated into the Choctaw.<mask>'s paternal ancestry was of Irish origin. His Irish immigrant ancestor was <mask>, nephew of Cornelius Curtain, from County Cork, who settled in Spanish Florida in the 18th century with a land grant from the Spanish crown. He became a trader and married into the Choctaw tribe. In 1833 <mask>'s parents and older brother Jackson had moved with numerous other Choctaw to Indian Territory as part of Indian Removal and the Choctaw Trail of Tears. His family became prominent as leaders of the tribe. His older brothers were Jackson Frazier <mask>, born in Mississippi (1830-1885); Edmund Aaron <mask>, (1842-1890); and David Cornelius <mask> (1846-1874). They also had a younger brother <mask> (1853-1874), who was fatally shot at age 20 by a cousin.<mask>'s older brother Jackson Frazier <mask> became a leader and served as president of the Choctaw senate before succeeding Isaac Garvin as president. Jackson served 1880-1884; he was succeeded by his brother Edmund, who served 1884-1886, a total of three two-year terms by the two of them. Marriage and family
<mask> was a Baptist, at a time when numerous Choctaw had become Protestants, influenced by missionaries. He married Martha Ainsworth, a European-American woman, and together they had a son, D.C<mask>. He later lived in Spiro, Oklahoma. The senior McCurtain later married his second wife, Kate 'Kittie' Spring. They had a son and four daughters together: Alice, Lena, Bertha and Cora.Political career
<mask> was an imposing man, described as six foot two. He had a variety of positions locally and in the tribe before becoming principal chief after his brothers. In 1872 he served as sheriff of Skullyville County. By the late nineteenth century, he represented the Tuskahoma, or Progressive party of his tribe, also known as the "Eagles", who began to favor negotiation with the United States over proposals for allotment and statehood of the Choctaw communal lands. Originally opposed to this, McCurtain came to believe he needed to negotiate to try to achieve the best outcome for the Choctaw. The nation was violently torn by the prospect of losing their sovereign governance and lands: the day after the 1884 elections, Nationalist Charles Wilson was brutally killed. While more than one Progressive was implicated in the assassination, several Choctaw were acquitted and only Jackson Crow, an African American, was convicted and executed for the crime.In the 1890s, Silan Lewis, a committed Nationalist, killed five Progressives in related retaliatory political assassinations. He was convicted and executed by the Choctaw in 1894. <mask> continued to gain power in this period. He served as Choctaw National Treasurer for two terms and oversaw the distribution of $2 million in treaty settlements. Twice he served as the Choctaw Delegate to the U.S. federal government in Washington, DC. He served as a member of his district's board of education within the tribe. In addition, he served as  district attorney.In 1896 and 1898, <mask> was elected as Principal Chief of the Choctaw Nation. Term limits prevented him from a third successive term. In 1902, he was eligible to run again and won the election. He won a fourth term in 1904. Before Oklahoma was admitted as a state, <mask> represented the Choctaw Nation and served as a vice president at the Sequoyah Constitutional Convention in 1905. Attendees discussed proposals for Indian Territory to be admitted as a separate state, under Native American control. It is thought to have laid the groundwork for the Oklahoma Constitution.Under the Dawes Act, in 1906 the U.S. government broke up tribal governments and institutions. The Bureau of Indian Affairs appointed <mask> as chief. He acted under BIA supervision until his death in office in 1910. Although originally a member of the Democratic Party, which represented a solid block in the states of the former Confederacy, <mask> came to believe their Congressional delegation was hostile to his people. He shifted his affiliation to the Republican Party, and many of his tribesmen did the same. In those years, the Democrats had established the Solid South, a block they controlled because of having disenfranchised most blacks, Natives and other minorities at the turn of the century, and retaining full control of the region's congressionally apportioned seats, based on the total population (until 2003, the only Natives elected to the U.S. Congress from Oklahoma were all Democrats with the backing of the party - five in total). Even if <mask> influenced many Choctaws to become Republicans, they remained both racial and political minorities in the new Southern state of Oklahoma, and as such they were cast aside by the ruling White Democratic establishment.<mask>'s Haskell County home
His former home, the <mask> House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 21, 1971. The house was in ruins at the time and has since been reconstructed. It is a two-story, L-shaped residence. The <mask> House, once more in ruins following a tragic fire, is located in Kinta, Haskell County, Oklahoma. <mask> died December 27, 1910 at his home in Kinta, Oklahoma. He was buried in San Bois Cemetery in Kinta, Haskell County, Oklahoma. Legacy and honors
McCurtain County, Oklahoma was named for this family of chiefs.Notes

Further reading
Lewis, Anna Lewis. "<mask>," The Chronicles of Oklahoma 11 (December 1933). Meserve, John Bartlett. "The McCurtains," The Chronicles of Oklahoma 13 (September 1935). Thoburn, Joseph Bradford. A Standard History of Oklahoma, Volume 5., Chicago: American Historical Society, 1916. External links

Choctaw people
1848 births
1910 deaths
Native American politicians
Native American leaders
Native American Christians
Oklahoma Democrats
Oklahoma Republicans
People of Indian Territory
People from Le Flore County, Oklahoma
Pre-statehood history of Oklahoma
Baptists from Oklahoma
19th-century Baptists
20th-century Native Americans
19th-century Native Americans

masks:
Greenwood "
Green
" McCurtain
Jackson Frazier McCurtain
Edmund McCurtain
McCurtain
Green McCurtain
Greenwood "
Green
" McCurtain
Cornelius McCurtain
Greenwood LeFlore
McCurtain
Cornelius McCurtain
McCurtain
McCurtain
McCurtain
McCurtain
Robert McCurtain
Green
McCurtain
McCurtain
. McCurtain
McCurtain
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Jane McCurtain


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<mask> (6 September 1870 – 21 August 1937) was a French philosopher and historian who wrote studies of the British utilitarians, the book of essays Era of Tyrannies, and a history of Britain from 1815 to 1914 that influenced British historiography. Biography
<mask> was born in Étretat, Seine-Maritime, where his mother had fled as the German army marched on Paris. His father was the playwright <mask>, his brother was the historian <mask>. His family was of Jewish descent, but his parents were Protestant and he was brought up as a Protestant. <mask> grew up surrounded by musicians, scholars, and politicians. After studying at the École Normale Supérieure, he received his doctorate in philosophy in 1901 with the theses The Platonic Theory of Knowledge and The Origins of Philosophical Radicalism. The latter formed the base of his first major study, The Formation of English Philosophical Radicalism (3 vols., 1901-1904).In an article of 1893, <mask> suggested that the great moral question of modern thought was how the abstract idea of duty could become a concrete aim of society. This question had first attracted him to the utilitarians, and he found at the core of their answer a fundamental contradiction. Utilitarianism, he said, was based on two principles: first, that the science of the legislator must bring together the naturally divergent interests of individuals in society; and, second, that social order comes about spontaneously through the harmony of individual interests. To Halévy, this exemplified two fundamental human attitudes toward the universe: the contemplation of the astronomer and the intervention of the engineer. In 1892, Émile Boutmy invited <mask> to lecture on English political ideas at the newly founded School of Political Science. After 1900, he alternated this course with another, on the history of socialism. At the same time he helped found the Revue de métaphysique et de morale, in which he retained an interest until his death.<mask>'s teaching led him to undertake annual trips to England, during which he became the intimate friend of many of the most important scholars and political figures of the age. He thoroughly explored the Jeremy Bentham manuscripts at Cambridge for his work on philosophical radicalism and over the years developed a deep and intensive knowledge of all the sources of 19th-century English history. In 1901 he began to work on the first volume of his masterpiece, the History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century (published from 1913 onwards). In this first volume, he described England in 1815 and sought to explain how England avoided violent social change. "If economic facts explain the course taken by the human race," he wrote, "the England of the nineteenth century was surely, above all other countries, destined to revolution, both politically and religiously." Neither the British constitution nor the Established Church was strong enough to hold the country together. He found the answer in religious nonconformity: "Methodism was the antidote to Jacobinism."He did not write his history in chronological sequence, nor did he live to complete it. The second and third volumes of this history (1923) carried the story up to 1841. Then <mask>, profoundly moved by World War I, turned his attention to the period from 1895 to 1914. The two volumes on this period (published in 1926-1930) were written with considerable detachment, considering the immediacy of the problems he discussed. Together with Célestin Bouglé he would republish a set of Saint-Simonian lectures of the 1830, bundled in the 1924 work Doctrine de Saint-Simon. In lectures of 1929, revised in 1936 (published in 1938; The Era of Tyrannies), <mask> argued that the world war had increased national control over individual activities and opened the way for de facto socialism. In opposition to those who saw socialism as the last step in the French Revolution, he saw it as a new organization of constraint replacing those that the Revolution had destroyed.Wallas translates:

In what proved to be his last work (which he did not live to complete), <mask> began to bridge the gap between 1841 and 1895 with a volume entitled The Age of Peel and Cobden (1841-1852). A liberal individualist to the last, <mask> died at Sucy-en-Brie on 21 August 1937. His publishers posthumously commissioned R. B. McCallum to contribute a supplementary essay to link this volume with the concluding ones, the whole appearing under the title Victorian Years in 1961. Publications

In French
Most of these are online free. (1896). La Théorie platonicienne des sciences. Paris: Félix Alcan.(1901-1904). La Formation du radicalisme philosophique. Paris: Félix Alcan. (1901). La Jeunesse de Bentham 1776-1789. (1901). L'Évolution de la doctrine utilitaire de 1789 à 1815.(1904). Le Radicalisme philosophique. (1903). Thomas Hodgskin (1787-1869). Paris: Librairie Georges Bellais. (1913-1946). Histoire du peuple anglais au XIXe siècle.(1913). L'Angleterre en 1815. (1923). Du lendemain de Waterloo à la veille du Reform Bill. (1923). De la Crise du Reform Bill à l'Avènement de Sir Robert Peel: 1830-1841. (1946).Le Milieu du siècle: 1841-1852 (posth.) (1926). Épilogue 1. Les impérialistes au pouvoir: 1895-1914. (1932). Épilogue 2. Vers la démocratie sociale et vers la guerre: 1895-1914.(1938). L'Ère des tyrannies, préf. de Célestin Bouglé. (posth.) (1948). Histoire du socialisme européen. Paris: Gallimard (posth.)Works in English translation
Most of these are online free. (1928). The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism. New York: The Macmillan Company [London: Faber & Faber, 1952; Clifton, N. J.: Kelley, 1972]. (1930). The World Crisis of 1914-1918: An Interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon.(1932, 1949–52). History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century. Translated by E. I. Watkin. London: Ernest Benn, Ltd. online
 (1949). England in 1815. (1949). The Liberal Awakening (1815-1830).(1950). The Triumph of Reform (1830-1841). (1951). Victorian Years (1841-1895). (1951). Imperialism and the Rise of Labour (1895-1905). (1952).The Rule of Democracy (1905-1914). (1956). Thomas Hodgskin. London: Ernest Benn, Ltd.
 (1965). The Era of Tyrannies. Essays on Socialism and War. Translated by R. K. Webb.Notes by Fritz Stern. New York: Doubleday [London: Allen Lane, 1967]. Selected articles
<mask>, <mask> (1921). "Chartism," The Quarterly Review, Vol. 236, No. 468, pp. 62–75.<mask>, <mask> (1922). "Where England Stands at Present," The Living Age, Vol. 314, No. 4078, September 2, pp. 569–574. See also
 Historiography of the United Kingdom

References

Further reading
 Bone, Christopher (1973). "Elie Halevy: Philosopher as Historian," Journal of British Studies, Vol.13, No. 1, pp. 151–168. Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing. Vol. 1 (Taylor & Francis, 1999) 508-9.Bresciani, Marco. "From 'East to West', the «world crisis» of 1905-1920: a re-reading of Elie <mask>." First World War Studies 9.3 (2018): 275-295. Chase, Myrna. Elie <mask>, an Intellectual Biography (Columbia University Press, 1980). Frobert, Ludovic (2007). "Elie <mask>'s First Lectures on the History of European Socialism," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol.68, No. 2, pp. 329–353. Jones, Hugh Stuart (2002). "The Era of Tyrannies: <mask> <mask> and Friedrich von Hayek on Socialism," European Journal of Political Theory 1, pp. 53–69. Smith, Catherine Haugh (1942)."<mask> Halévy," in Bernadotte Everly Schmitt, (ed.) Some Historians of Modern Britain: Essays in Historiography. University of Chicago Press. Vergara, Francisco (1998). A critique of <mask> <mask>:Refutation of an important distortion of British moral philosophy, Philosophy (Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy), London, January 1998. External links

 Works by <mask> <mask>, at JSTOR
 <mask> <mask>, 1870-1937
 Drawing of <mask> Halévy, by William Rothenstein

1870 births
1937 deaths
People from Seine-Maritime
Lycée Condorcet alumni
École Normale Supérieure alumni
French essayists
French historians
20th-century French philosophers
Consequentialists
Utilitarians
French people of Jewish descent
French socialists
French male essayists
French Protestants

masks:
Élie Halévy
Élie Halévy
Ludovic Halévy
Daniel Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Halévy
Élie
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<mask> (26 September 192613 May 2010) was an economist famous for his pessimism about the British economy and his criticism of the British government. In 2007, he and Marc Lavoie wrote a book about the "Stock-Flow Consistent" model, an analysis that predicted the global financial crisis of 2008. <mask> was born in London to <mask>, 2nd Baron Kilbracken and his wife Elizabeth Usborn. He was born six years after his older brother, John who was to become the <mask>, 3rd Baron Kilbracken. <mask> attended Sandroyd School in Wiltshire before attending Rugby School then read politics, philosophy and economics at New College, Oxford where Isaiah Berlin and Philip Andrews, one of the main economists of the Oxford Economic Research Group, were two of his most important mentors. <mask> trained to become a professional musician, studying at the Paris Conservatoire for three years, and then becoming principal oboist at the BBC Welsh Orchestra. He was however continuously nervous about performing in public, and gave up this career, although he remained interested in music and was director of the Royal Opera from 1976 to 1987.In 1955 he married Kitty Epstein, daughter of Jacob Epstein the sculptor, who used his "impossibly handsome" head as the model for his statue of St Michael at the rebuilt Coventry Cathedral. After his musical career ended he became an economist at the Metal Box company, and then from 1956 to 1970 he worked at the Treasury where he worked in macroeconomic policy issues and short term forecasting, bridging economic and policy issues, including the 1967 devaluation of the pound under Harold Wilson. While at the Treasury he met Nicholas Kaldor, who persuaded him to move to Cambridge University where he became a fellow of King's College and director of the department of applied economics, although he continued to work as a government economic advisor at times, and was appointed as one of Norman Lamont's 'seven wise men' external economic advisors after Black Wednesday. He predicted that the 1973–74 economic boom would end, and that unemployment would hit 3 million in the 1980s. As one of his proteges noted, these dire warnings "… earned him the title 'Cassandra of the Fens' and were derided – until they came true". His contributions to Treasury policy thinking over the years were acknowledged by Dave Ramsden, chief economic advisor to the treasury: "In the 2000s, much of which coincided with a period of apparent and widely researched stability, what stands out is his distinctive analysis and his prescience about the looming financial and economic crisis, and the potential role for what had become by then innovative policies in responding." In 1992 he warned that without shared fiscal policy to replace currency movements there would be problems with monetary union in Europe.In 1983, <mask> published a book call Macroeconomics, co-authored with Francis Cripps. In 1995, <mask> took up a post at the Levy Economics Institute of Bard College in New York State, where his work focused on the strategic prospects for the US and world economies, and the use of accounting macroeconomic models to reveal structural imbalances. In 1998, he was one of the first to warn that the growing imbalance in the global economy, fuelled by burgeoning American private sector debt, was unsustainable. His book Monetary Economics: Integrated Approach to Money, Income, Production and Wealth (2007), written with Marc Lavoie, deals with stock-flow consistent macro modelling. Contribution to economics

Economist Martin Wolf gave credit to Godley's "sectoral financial balances" analytical framework in a 2012 analysis of the Great Recession. Wolf explained: "The essential idea is that since income has to equal expenditure for the economy, as a whole, (which is the same thing as saying that savings equals investment) so the sums of the difference between income and expenditures of each of the sectors of the economy must also be zero. These differences can also be described as “financial balances”.Thus, if a sector is spending less than its income it must be accumulating (net) claims on other sectors. The crucial point is that, since sectoral balances must sum to zero, a rise in the deficit of one sector must be matched by an offsetting change in the others. It follows that if the fiscal deficit is increasing, the sum of the surpluses of the other sectors of the economy must be increasing in a precisely offsetting manner." Wolf explained that a large increase in the private sector financial balance drove a large increase in government deficits. De-Industrialization

Godley developed the "New Cambridge" model of de-industrialization. It stresses the long-term Decline and competitiveness of British industry. During the 1970s especially, the manufacturing sector  steadily lost its share of both home and international markets.The historic substantial surplus of exports over Imports slipped into an even balance. That balance is maintained by North Sea oil primarily, and to a lesser extent from some efficiency improvement in agriculture and service sectors. The New Cambridge model posits several different causes for the decline in competitiveness. Down to the 1970's, the model stresses bad delivery times, poor design of products, and general low-quality. The implication is that although research levels are high in Britain, industry has been laggard in implementing innovation. The model after 1979 points to the appreciation of sterling against other currencies, so that British products are more expensive. In terms of policy, the New Cambridge model recommends general import controls, or else unemployment will continue to mount.The model indicates that deindustrialization is a serious problem which threatens the nation's ability to maintain balance of payments equilibrium in the long run. The situation after North Sea oil runs out appears troublesome. De-industrialization imposes that serious social consequences. Workers skilled in the manufacturing sector are no longer needed, and are shuffled off to lower paying, less technologically valuable jobs. Computization and globalization are compounding that problem. Prediction of the Great Recession
Dirk Bezemer argues that <mask> was notable for being one of relatively few economists to predict the nature of the Great Recession of the late 2000s  well in advance, and for doing so on the basis of a formal model. Bibliography
Books
<mask> <mask> and Marc Lavoie, 2007.Monetary Economics: An Integrated Approach to Credit, Money, Income, Production and Wealth, Palgrave MacMillan. Description. <mask> <mask> and T. Francis Cripps, 1983. Macroeconomics,

Papers
<mask> <mask> and Marc Lavoie, April 2007. Fiscal Policy in a Stock-Flow Consistent (SFC) Model, Working Paper No. 494, Levy Economics Institute

Bibliographies
Robert A. Cord, 2017. The Palgrave Companion to Cambridge Economics, pp 929–953, Palgrave MacMillan,

Criticism
In an 1983 review of Macroeconomics, Lester Thurow wrote that the usefulness of macro-economic models is questionable, especially as the Godley-Cripps model described a closed economy.References

External links
Interviewed by Alan Macfarlane 16 May 2008 (video)

1926 births
2010 deaths
Civil servants from London
British economists
Post-Keynesian economists
English classical oboists
Male oboists
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
People educated at Sandroyd School
People educated at Rugby School
Alumni of New College, Oxford
Analysands of Masud Khan
Younger sons of barons
20th-century classical musicians
20th-century British male musicians

masks:
Wynne Godley
Life Godley
Hugh Godley
John Godley
Godley
Godley
Godley
Godley
Godley
Wynne
Godley
Wynne
Godley
Wynne
Godley


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Christopher Wong Won (May 29, 1964July 13, 2017), better known by his stage name <mask>, was an American rapper. He was a co-founder of the rap group 2 Live Crew, appearing on all of the group's albums from 1985 to 1998. Wong Won was born and spent his early childhood in Trinidad and Tobago, before emigrating to the United States. In his early twenties, Wong Won was in the United States Air Force and he co-founded 2 Live Crew while he was stationed in California. Early 2 Live Crew singles gained so much traction in Florida that they relocated there. By 1986, the group released the single "Throw The 'D; it is now considered the blueprint of Miami bass. Later in 1986, 2 Live Crew released their debut album, The 2 Live Crew Is What We Are.The album established the group's signature style of comical sexually explicit lyrics. After a slew of successful releases the group met with considerable controversy as a U.S. district court ruled the album legally obscene. They were prosecuted, but all later acquitted. Wong Won is the only 2 Live Crew member to appear in the all of 2 Live Crew's subsequent albums. Wong Won was the first prominent Asian and Asian American rapper, releasing his first solo album, The Chinaman, in 1992. In the 2000s, he continued touring and releasing singles with 2 Live Crew. Wong Won's last projects, before his death in 2017, were his autobiography My Rise 2 Fame (2015) and the compilation Breaking Glass Ceilings Volume 1 (2017).Early life
Wong Won was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago on May 29, 1964. Wong Won's family is of Trinidadian Chinese ancestry, with his Asian heritage originating primarily in Hong Kong. Both of his grandmothers were of African ancestry. In 1976, at the age of 12, Wong Won and his family emigrated from Trinidad and Tobago to the United States, settling in Brooklyn, New York City. In 1982, Wong Won graduated from Samuel J. Tilden High School in Brooklyn. Career

1984: Military service, founding 2 Live Crew and Asian Hip hop pioneer

According to Wong Won, he joined the United States Air Force in 1982, while stationed in March Air Force Base near Riverside, California. Wong Won met fellow Airmen Yuri Vielot (Amazing Vee) and David Hobbs (Mr. Mixx), with whom he formed the rap group 2 Live Crew.Wong Won recounted that the group would perform in small, local venues on weekends, unbeknownst to their superiors. In 1985, 2 Live Crew released the single "The Revelation", which became popular in Florida, so much so that they relocated to Miami, minus Vielot who left the group, at the behest of local concert promoter Luther Campbell, after Wong Won and Hobbs were discharged from the Air Force. With the subsequent success of 2 Live Crew, Wong Won became the first rapper of note in Asian American hip hop, and the first rapper of Asian heritage to gain notoriety. 1985–1986: Miami Bass pioneer and 2 Live Crew's breakthrough

In 1985, 2 Live Crew released their next single, "What I Like" on Fresh Beat Records, with Wong Won appearing as the only rapper on the track. That same year, 2 Live Crew entered into a joint venture with Miami-based rap producer Luther Campbell who formed Luke Skyywalker Records with the group. Shortly after forming the record label, Campbell joined 2 Live Crew as producer, artist, and hype man. In April of that same year, 1985, rapper Brother Marquis (Mark D. Ross) joined 2 Live Crew, forming the most well known and recognized line up of the group (Wong Won, Ross, Hobbs, and Campbell).In January 1986, 2 Live Crew released the single "Throw The 'D, the rap was performed and the lyrics were written by Wong Won. The single became an influential blueprint as to how future Miami bass songs were written and produced. On July 25, 1986, the reconfigured 2 Live Crew became popular locally and nationally with the release of their Gold-certified debut album, The 2 Live Crew Is What We Are. Notorious for sexually explicit lyrics, that made many DJs of the time uncomfortable. 1988–1991: Subsequent fame and controversy

In 1988, 2 Live Crew released their second album, Move Somethin' It was also certified Gold and featured the singles "Move Somethin'" and "Do Wah Diddy Diddy". Reached #68 on the Billboard 200 and #20 on the Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums charts. 2 Live Crew's third album As Nasty As They Wanna Be (1989), became the group's most successful commercial studio album and was certified double Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America.The album's single "Me So Horny" peaked at 26 of the Billboard Top 100 chart. A clean version of the album, As Clean As They Wanna Be was released concurrently with the explicit version. In 1990, the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida ruled  As Nasty As They Wanna Be to be legally obscene, becoming the first album in history to be so declared by a federal court; this ruling was later overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit. An obscenity trial followed, where all of the defendants, including Wong Won, were eventually acquitted. Later that year, 2 Live Crew released Banned in the U.S.A.. The album included the hits "Do the Bart" peaked at 20 on the Top 100 chart. The eponymous title single referred to the earlier federal court obscenity ruling regarding the group's previous album As Nasty As They Wanna Be.Bruce Springsteen granted the group permission to interpolate his song "Born in the U.S.A." for the single. Banned in the U.S.A. was also the first album to bear the RIAA-standard Parental Advisory warning sticker. Also that year 2 Live Crew's album Live in Concert  peaked at number 46 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. Sports Weekend: As Nasty as They Wanna Be, Pt. 2, featuring the single "Pop That Coochie", which reached 58 on the Hot 100 chart, was released by 2 Live Crew in 1991. The group's sixth album was a sequel of sorts to As Nasty As They Wanna Be, and was also accompanied by a clean version, Sports Weekend: As Clean As They Wanna Be, Pt. 2.It is the last studio album to include all of the members of the group. Wong Won would become the only member of the group to appear on every subsequent album. 1992–2004: Continued success and solo projects

In 1992, Wong Won released his debut solo, The Chinaman. It is the first American hip hop album to embrace having an Asian heritage. On the Billboard charts, the album peaked at No. 38 and stayed two weeks on the Heatseekers Albums chart. The Chinaman was also on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart for ten weeks, peaking at No.56. Deal with This was released in 1993 as a Rock on Crew vs 2 Live Crew album, where Wong Won only teamed up with Hobbs. I

n 1994, the album Back at Your Ass for the Nine-4 by The New 2 Live Crew was released. In this output, Wong Won was joined by Campbell, and a new rapper named Verb. The album became peaked at No. 52 on the Billboard 200 chart and #9 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. In 1995, Wong Won reunited with Ross and Hobbs as the 2 Live Crew, and released the group's album Shake a Lil' Somethin' .The single "Shake a lil' Somethin'", peaked at No.72 on the Top 100 chart and #11 on the Hot Rap Songs|Hot Rap Singles chart. Two of the album's singles charted:  "Do the Damn Thing", which made it to #24 on the Hot Rap Singles chart, and "Be My Private Dancer", which peaked at No. 34. In 1998, only Wong Won and Ross participated to the 2 Live Crew release The Real One. The album's singles "2 Live Party", peaked at No. 52 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, #9 on the Hot Rap Songs chart, while "The Real One" peaked at No. 60 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and #9 on the Hot Rap Songs charts.After 2 Live Crew, Wong Won said he started Chinaman Records and brought his own show on the road. With this endeavor he released three solo albums Still Nasty (2000), Stop Playin (2003), and Freaky Chinese (2004). Rapper Flo Rida, then unknown, with his underground group named GroudHoggz participated to Wong Won's 2004 release. 2006–2017: Reforming 2 Live Crew and final projects
During 2006–07 Wong Won and Ross met, discussed their differences, and ultimately decided to relaunch 2 Live Crew. They  made offers to past members to rejoin the group, but were declined. As the 2 Live Crew, Wong Won and Ross toured and released singles. In 2010, Wong Won and 2 Live Crew were honorees at the 2010 7th VH1 Hip-Hop Honors.In August, Wong Won and Ross announced the pending release of an album named, Just Wanna Be Heard. In 2014, Wong Won and Ross released the single "Take It Off". Also, Wong Won and Ross made cameo appearances in the Flo Rida music video "G.D.F.R." That same year, the duo announced the pending release of a new 2 Live Crew studio album Turn Me On.Also that year, Wong Won and Ross reunited with Campbell for several performances. In 2015, Wong Won published his autobiography My Rise 2 Fame. The book chronicled Wong Won's journey from U.S. Air Force Airman to the Hip hop scene. On January 13, 2017, Wong Won released his final project, a compilation album named Breaking Glass Ceilings Volume 1.Health issues and death
In 1988, shortly before the release of Move Somethin', Wong Won was involved in a near fatal car accident. His injuries included damage to his brachial plexus, which resulted in the loss of mobility in his left arm. Wong Won had a stroke in 2009 and 2010. On July 13, 2017, he died at the Miami VA Hospital. His death was attributed to cirrhosis of the liver. Legacy
While not the first to rap, Wong Won is noted for being the first Asian rapper to gain some notoriety. When 2 Live Crew started to gain traction, Wong Won said that many fans had no clue that he was Asian until the group's music videos were released.For a while Wong Won was the only noticeable Asian American rapper until others came along. Discography

Solo albums

Solo EPs/Singles

Compilation albums

2 Live Crew studio albums (1986–1998)

Bibliography

References

External links

Works cited

1964 births
2017 deaths
American rappers of Caribbean descent
American hip hop record producers
American musicians of Chinese descent
American rappers of Trinidad and Tobago descent
East Coast hip hop musicians
Southern hip hop musicians
West Coast hip hop musicians
Samuel J. Tilden High School alumni
People from Port of Spain
Rappers from Brooklyn
Rappers from California
Rappers from Miami
American rappers of Asian descent
United States Air Force airmen
Deaths from hepatitis
Deaths from cirrhosis
Record producers from New York (state)
Alcohol-related deaths in Florida


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<mask> (; born 21 September 1983) is a retired Argentine professional footballer. He played as a striker who was efficient in front of goal with either foot and from any range. He spent most of his career with River Plate in three separate spells, playing 210 games and scoring 112 goals, while winning honours including the 2014 Copa Sudamericana and the 2015 Copa Libertadores. Abroad, he had his best successes with Bordeaux, whom he helped win a Ligue 1 title and two each of the Coupe de la Ligue and Trophée des Champions. He also had short spells in Spain, Brazil, Mexico and Cyprus, finishing as the Cypriot First Division's top scorer as APOEL won it in his final year as a professional. <mask> was part of the Argentina under-20 team that won the 2003 South American Youth Championship, finishing as its top scorer with eight goals. In the same year, he was part of the team that reached the semi-finals at the FIFA U-20 World Cup, and was joint top scorer with four goals.He earned four caps for the senior team in 2008. Club career

River Plate / Spartak
Born in O'Brien, Buenos Aires Province, Cavenaghi played for Rivadavia de Chacabuco and Bravado in the regional leagues between the ages of nine and twelve. Cavenaghi made his professional debut for River Plate in the 2000–01 season in which he scored one goal in five appearances. In his first full season he scored 17 goals in 23 appearances, including a hat-trick against Estudiantes. In July 2004, Cavenaghi moved abroad for the first time, joining Spartak Moscow for a fee of US$12 million, then a record for a Russian team. He failed to adapt to Russian football, and was frozen out of the team following the arrival of manager Vladimir Fedotov in April 2006, whom he publicly criticised for his tactics. He was put up for sale that December.Bordeaux

On 22 January 2007, Cavenaghi was sold to French club Bordeaux. He signed a four-and-a-half-year deal for a €7 million fee. Through an Italian passport earned by his ancestry, he could work freely in the European Union. On 3 February he played his first Ligue 1 match against Nice. In his first season, Bordeaux won the Coupe de la Ligue with a 1–0 win over Lyon in the final, with Cavenaghi an unused substitute. During the 2007–08 season he scored 22 goals in 35 appearances for Bordeaux. In the 2008 Trophée des Champions, Cavenaghi came on as a 70th-minute substitute for Alou Diarra in a goalless draw against Lyon at the Stade Chaban-Delmas.Though both he and David Bellion had their attempts saved by Grégory Coupet in the penalty shootout, Bordeaux were victorious. In the 2008–09 Ligue 1 season Cavenaghi helped Bordeaux to its first league title in ten years, scoring 13 goals in 29 league matches. The team also won the Coupe de la Ligue in the same season, with Cavenaghi scoring in a 4–2 home win over Guingamp in the last 16. The Girondins won their third honour of the calendar year on 25 July 2009 as they retained the Trophée des Champions with a 2–0 win over Guingamp in Montreal, Cavaneghi scoring the opening goal for Laurent Blanc's team. <mask> signed for Spanish club Mallorca on 26 August 2010 a season-long loan with the option to purchase for €3.5 million. He scored six goals in 13 total games for the Balearic club, all in the form of braces against Real Sociedad in La Liga, and Sporting Gijón and Almería in the Copa del Rey. In January 2011 Cavenaghi joined Brazil's Internacional on a year-long loan, with option to make it permanent for €2.5 million.Return to River Plate / Villarreal

In July 2011, after leaving his contract at Bordeaux a year early, Cavenaghi returned to River Plate. He was appointed captain of the club, who had been relegated. He scored 19 goals in 37 league matches that season, including a notable performance against Gimnasia de Jujuy where he scored four goals. In his one-season back he helped the club capture the 2011-12 Primera B Nacional and gain promotion back to the first division. Cavenaghi returned to Spain in August 2012 by signing for Villarreal, who themselves had fallen into the Segunda División. On his debut on 17 August, he scored in each half of a 2–1 win over Real Madrid Castilla at the Estadio El Madrigal. He totalled 19 appearances and four goals for the "Yellow Submarine", but cut his stay short in January 2013 Cavenaghi when he signed for Pachuca of the Mexican Liga MX.In early 2014, Cavenaghi joined River Plate for the third time. He would wear his number 9 throughout his 3rd stay. River Plate became Champion in Argentina's Primera División 2014, making them eligible to several continental/international tournaments in 2014-15. As captain, Cavenaghi led River Plate to achieve a sweep of all three international championships: 2014 Copa Sudamericana, 2015 Recopa Sudamericana and the 2015 Copa Libertadores. Included in these campaigns were two eliminations of arch-rival Boca Juniors, first in the Sudamericana and later in Libertadores. Winning the Copa Libertadores would make River Plate eligible to play in the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup in Japan representing CONMEBOL. He was the second-highest scorer in Argentina's Primera División 2015 with 11 goals.APOEL and retirement
On 25 August 2015, Cavenaghi moved back to Europe signing a two-year contract with Cypriot First Division club APOEL FC. Five days later, he scored twice on his debut in a 6–2 home victory against Pafos FC for the Cypriot First Division. He scored in each of his first seven league appearances, totalling twelve goals in that sequence. He helped APOEL to win the Cypriot First Division title, and despite playing his last match on 10 February 2016, missing the last three months of the season  due to his injury, he also won the top goalscorer award with 19 goals in only 18 league appearances. Cavenaghi appeared in 26 matches and scored 23 goals in all competitions with APOEL, before a serious knee injury forced him to mutually terminate his contract with the club on 2 April 2016, as his recovery from the knee surgery was estimated to take more than eight months to complete. His serious knee injury eventually forced Cavenaghi to retire from the professional scene, making the official announcement through a YouTube video on 27 December 2016 at River Plate's El Monumental in Buenos Aires. International career
In December 2002, manager Hugo Tocalli named Cavenaghi in the Argentina under-20 team for the 2003 South American U-20 Championship in Uruguay.He was top scorer with eight goals – four in each stage – as the Argentines won the title, and scored the only one against Colombia on 28 January to seal the Championship. In October, <mask> was again called up by Tocalli for the squad at the 2003 FIFA U-20 World Cup in the United Arab Emirates. In the last 16 against Egypt in Dubai, he scored both goals, including the golden goal, in a 2–1 victory. He scored a golden goal again in the quarter-finals against the United States in Abu Dhabi. Argentina finished fourth, and Cavenaghi was one of four top scorers with four goals apiece, though the Golden Shoe award went only to the American Eddie Johnson. However, due to his non-liberation by River Plate for the 2004 CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament, he would not get any chances with Marcelo Bielsa. Cavenaghi had then the fifth better goal average in River Plate history, very close to Alfredo Di Stéfano numbers at that club, but he missed the 2004 Summer Olympics, won by Bielsa team.Bielsa resigned soon after the gold medal and Cavenaghi got a first chance in Argentina main team in 29 December, in a non-official match against Catalonia. José Pekerman, the new Argentina coach, used him as a substitute for Diego Milito. In that 3-0 win at the Camp Nou, Cavenaghi was already in FC Spartak Moscow. Cavenaghi had an offer from Juventus, but he chose Spartak instead by feeling he would not get easily a place in Juve regular team. Years later, he admitted that staying in Moscow did not help him at all in getting new chances with Pekerman: "they didn't call players from Russian football". In March 2008, <mask>'s form for Bordeaux earned him a first official call up to the senior national side by Alfio Basile, ahead of a friendly against Egypt on 26 March. He made his debut in the 2–0 win at the Cairo International Stadium, as a 69th-minute substitute for Julio Cruz, and played three more friendlies that year.He would get just four caps, saying that "at my best moment in France, I was called up to a few games, but Messi, Agüero, Higuaín were already there, and it was very difficult to find a place among these players". Career statistics

Honours

Club
River Plate
Argentina Primera Division: 2002 Clausura, 2003 Clausura, 2004 Clausura, 2014 Final
Primera B Nacional: 2011–12 Primera B Nacional
Copa Sudamericana: 2014
Recopa Sudamericana: 2015
Copa Libertadores: 2015

Internacional
Campeonato Gaúcho: 2011

Bordeaux
Ligue 1: 2008–09
Trophée des Champions: 2008, 2009
Coupe de la Ligue: 2006–07, 2008–09

APOEL
Cypriot First Division: 2015–16

International
Argentina Under-20
South American Youth Championship: 2003

Individual
Argentine Primera División top scorer: 2001–02 Clausura
Cypriot First Division top scorer: 2015–16

References

External links

 Cavenaghi vuelve a River
 Video : Cave in France
 Video : Cave in Argentina

1983 births
Living people
People from Buenos Aires Province
Association football forwards
Argentine footballers
Argentina international footballers
Argentina under-20 international footballers
Club Atlético River Plate footballers
FC Spartak Moscow players
FC Girondins de Bordeaux players
RCD Mallorca players
Sport Club Internacional players
Villarreal CF players
C.F. Pachuca players
APOEL FC players
Ligue 1 players
Russian Premier League players
Argentine Primera División players
Primera Nacional players
La Liga players
Segunda División players
Liga MX players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A players
Cypriot First Division players
Expatriate footballers in Russia
Expatriate footballers in France
Expatriate footballers in Spain
Expatriate footballers in Brazil
Expatriate footballers in Mexico
Expatriate footballers in Cyprus
Argentine expatriate footballers
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in France
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Brazil
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Mexico
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus
Argentine people of Irish descent

masks:
Fernando Ezequiel Cavenaghi
Cavenaghi
Cavenaghi
Cavenaghi
Cavenaghi


texts:
Dato' Sri <mask>  (Jawi: سيتي نورهاليزا بنت تارودين ; IPA: ; born 11 January 1979)  is a Malaysian singer, songwriter, actress and businesswoman with more than 300 local and international awards. She made her debut after she won a local singing competition show, "Bintang HMI" in 1995 when she was 16. Her debut single, Jerat Percintaan, won the 11th Anugerah Juara Lagu and another two awards for Best Performance and Best Ballad. The album, as of 2005, has sold more than 800,000 units in Malaysia. She has recorded and sung in multiple languages, including Malaysian, Javanese, English,and Mandarin. Throughout her career, Siti has received an unprecedented number of music awards in Malaysia and its neighbouring countries: 42 Anugerah Industri Muzik, 25 Anugerah Bintang Popular, 28 Anugerah Planet Muzik, 21 Anugerah Juara Lagu, four MTV Asia Awards, three World Music Awards, two Anugerah Musik Indonesia (Indonesian Music Awards), and two records in the Malaysia Book of Records. Having 19 studio albums, she is one of the most popular artists in the Malay Archipelago and Nusantara region – she has been voted for Regional Most Popular Artiste ten times in a row beating other fellow artists from Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore in the Anugerah Planet Muzik since 2001.Currently listed as one of Malaysia's richest, most-influential, most award-winning, and most single-produced artist. She is also one of Malaysia's best selling artists, with her album sales having contributed to 10 percent of Malaysia's total album sales for 2001. To date, she has sold more than 6 million in record sales. At international stage, Siti has won the Gold Award in Asia New Singer Competition at Shanghai Asia Music Festival in 1999, two awards from 'South Pacific International Song and Singing Competition 1999' held in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, and the Grand Prix Champion title in Voice of Asia in 2002 held in Almaty, Kazakhstan. In 2020, after receiving a record breaking of votes, she won the public choice for Adelaide Festival Centre's Walk of Fame 2019. Besides musical awards, she has various other achievements. In 1998, Siti was chosen to perform during the closing ceremony of 1998 Commonwealth Games in front of Queen Elizabeth II and her consort, Prince Philip, among other dignitaries and officials from 70 countries including those from the Commonwealth of Nations.In 2005, Siti became the first Southeast Asian singer, and third Asian singer to perform a solo concert at the Royal Albert Hall, London, while being backed by the London Symphony Orchestra. She was listed second by MTV Asia in Asia's Best Musical Artiste and Channel V's Biggest Asian Artiste in 2005. Later in 2008, she was named as one of Asia's Idol by Asia News Network. She also has been listed as one of The Muslim 500 - The World's 500 Most Influential Muslims from year 2015 to 2022. Her success in the Asian region has gained her honorific titles including the "Voice of Asia" and "Asia's Celine Dion". Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on 11 January 1979, in Berek Polis (police barrack) Kampung Awah in Temerloh, Pahang, Malaysia where she was the fourth child in a family of seven siblings to Tarudin Ismail, a police officer and <mask> Salmah Bachik, a housewife. She comes from a musically inclined family; her brother, Saiful Bahri Tarudin, and her sisters, <mask> Norsaida and <mask> Nursairah are also singers.Her grandfather was a famous violinist, and her mother used to be a local traditional singer. During her childhood, she was involved in various school activities including sports and co-curricular activities. She attended her pre-school at Tabika Perkep, Balai Polis Kampung Awah, Temerloh where she first showcased her early singing talent at the age of six when she sang "Sirih Pinang", a Malay traditional song, at her kindergarten's certificate-receiving event. She later attended primary school at Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan Clifford and followed up her secondary education at Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Clifford, Kuala Lipis, Pahang. In 1991, when she was 12 years old, she won one of her earliest singing competitions, with the song "Bahtera Merdeka" at the Merdeka Day Singing Contest, a local patriotic song competition. During her schooling years, she was active in sports, especially in netball and this was evident when she participated in two different sports events – netball and 5x80 meter relay during the Fiesta Media Idola 2006 in Kuantan. She was also chosen as one of the torch bearers to light the games of the Fiesta, marking its opening alongside Malaysian actress, Fasha Sandha.Coming from a poor family, at the age of nine, Siti had to wake up at 4:00 am to help her mother make and sell various homemade kuih in her neighbourhood, where sometimes, she also had to carry a makeshift table down three flights of stairs to the main road to set up a small stall. She commented that all the hardships have not only helped her to be more frugal when spending, but also to be more confident when communicating with the public. She also jokingly said that the whole experience has helped to improve her vocal skills as she has to shout to call for customers. Apart from participating in singing competitions, she also used to follow her uncle, Abdul Rahim Bachik, to invitational shows like wedding ceremonies and dinner parties, which have helped to expose her to performing live. Career

Early commercial success (1995–1996)

<mask> <mask>'s family performed at many public local ceremonies in their hometown, such as weddings and public soirées. At the age of 2, Siti began to learn traditional songs from her mother and went on performing the same music genre during special occasions and events. She was also the vocalist for 'Family Group', a small band founded by her uncle, Abdul Rahim Bachik.She started to improve her singing skills by participating in numerous local singing competitions. When she was 14, she went for the audition for Asia Bagus but failed to go through. Despite her frustration, she did not give up. Two years later, she participated in 1995 RTM Bintang HMI competition at the age of 16 where she auditioned with a song made famous by Ruth Sahanaya, Kaulah Segalanya. In the competition, she met Adnan Abu Hassan, the music composer who tutored and helped her with her vocal performance, before she finally won the contest with the song by Aishah, Camar Yang Pulang. She signed a contract with Suria Records thus rejecting four other offers from different international recording companies, including Sony Music, BMG Music and Warner Music. In 1996, Suria Records released her first eponymous self-titled debut album, and the first single, Jerat Percintaan won the 11th Anugerah Juara Lagu In that year too, she won Most Popular Television Entertainer, Most Popular Female Singer, Most Popular Teen Artiste and the top award Most Popular Star in Anugerah Bintang Popular 1996.Career development (1997–1998)
In 1997, Siti started to become a well-known figure in Indonesia's music industry when her story appeared in one of the most popular magazines in Indonesia, POS Kota, in April 1997's edition. She was taken as a formidable figure because it was difficult for foreign artists to break through in Indonesian's music industry if the artist has less to offer compared to their own artists. Siti was also said to be the first Malaysian singer to hold a live concert on Indosiar, a popular television station in Indonesia and it was televised nationwide. She has become one of the most influential artists in Indonesia which was evidenced by the series of big scale concerts she held in Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta and many more cities over the next few years. She also won Best New Artist and Best Song (Jerat Percintaan) from Anugerah Industri Muzik 1997. In 1998, at the early age of 19, she launched her own company on 12 January (one day after her 19th birthday), Siti Nurhaliza Productions (M) Sdn. Bhd.which acts as her official management team. Siti made her first and biggest appearance on the international stage during the 1998 Commonwealth Games which was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia where she performed in front of Queen Elizabeth II and her consort, Prince Philip among other dignitaries and officials from 70 Commonwealth countries. She also shared the same stage with two international stars Céline Dion and Rod Stewart to entertain the crowd during the closing ceremony. The ceremony was televised in 70 nations worldwide, which led her to become known in the international arena for the first time. In November of the same year, she was invited to perform in Japan for five days at the Pop Queen Festival, also known as Saga Fiesta '98. Early international stardom (1999–2005)

In December 1999, Siti received one of her first international winnings from an international singing competition when she took part in 'Shanghai Asia Music Festival 1999' that was held in China, where she managed to win the Gold Award for the Asia New Singer Competition. She was also invited in 2000 and 2002 for the same competition as featuring artiste.In the same year earlier in May, she took part in 'South Pacific International Song and Singing Competition 1999' held in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia where she was crowned with the first place in the category of 'Pop/Top 40 for International Song' beating contestants from all over South Pacific through her single, We'll Be As One. Siti also managed to catch the juries' attention with her vocal prowess, that finally led her to be awarded with the Best Female Vocal Performance with the same single even though the single was judged by cassette tape/compact disc sent by her recording company to the organiser and not through live performance. For the next few years, Siti took part in 'Voice of Asia 2002' which was held in Kazakhstan, where she performed one of her singles from her third album, Purnama Merindu and managed to grab the Grand Prix Champion title, the ultimate prize. In December 2003, she was invited to perform at 2003 Japan and ASEAN Pop Stars Dream Concert 2003 (J-ASEAN Pops 2003), held in Yokohama, Japan, alongside top Japan and ASEAN artists, including THE BOOM, You Hitoto, INSPi, Leonard Eto, Yuri Chika, Hiroshi Takano and Hideki Kurosawa from Japan. While ASEAN artists including Hans Anwar & Lo'Ryder (Brunei), Preap Sowat (Cambodia), AB Three (Indonesia), Alexandra (Laos), Lay Phyu & Iron Cross (Myanmar), Jolina Magdangal (Philippines), Tanya Chua (Singapore), Briohny (Thailand) and Lam Truong (Vietnam). For the concert, a special song was composed by a Japanese composer, Kazufumi Miyazawa with lyrics by a Singaporean lyricist, Dick Lee entitled, Treasure the World. The same song was also sung by each singer from each participating country in their native languages, where Siti's version which was in Malay, entitled Dunia Milik Kita was also performed for the first time during the event.<mask> was the first non-Chinese artiste to be invited to perform at the 15th Golden Melody Awards, Taiwan in 2004. Apart from performing solo with 征服 (Conquer) cover of Na Ying's single, she also sang a duet with Leehom Wang in a song called 月亮代表我的心 (The Moon Represents My Heart) which is a cover of the late Teresa Teng and as awards presenter alongside Taiwanese news anchor Patty Hou. She also appeared on a half-hour special program by Azio TV during her brief four days in Taipei. She also made her third appearance on MTV Asia Awards in 2004 held in Singapore, where she performed for the second time in a row for the ceremony with Gareth Gates, the runner up from the first series of England version of Idol, Pop Idol, in a song originally by Gareth's himself, 'Say It Isn't So'. In 2004 also her company Siti Nurhaliza Production (M) Sdn. Bhd. (SNP) produced television programs.With the first musical program Muzikal Aidiladha (Musical of Eid Al-Adha) in conjunction with the Eid Al-Adha. After that, the company came up with the Siti Nurhaliza 3D (Siti Nurhaliza Dari Dalam Diri), a reality television series that exclusively reveal the private life of Siti Nurhaliza with 13 episodes and airing on RTM, a Malaysian public broadcasting network. In the same year also SNP produced Sukan dan Selebriti (Sports and Celebrities) programs involving the participation of popular artists and sports personalities in various fields with 26 episodes. In 2005, she was dubbed as The Voice of Asia, when Alicia Keys first introduced her with the title during the MTV Asia Aid in 2005 held in Bangkok, Thailand due to her powerful vocal, and her outstanding achievements locally and internationally. In the same year, Siti held a successful solo concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London in April 2005, although the majority of the audience were Malaysians living in the United Kingdom, together with the local citizens. British press compared her performance to those by Celine Dion and cited her as Asia's Celine Dion for her powerful vocal and outstanding performances. During the concert, she was backed by the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by Indonesian maestro, Erwin Gutawa where the concert was even attended by the Sultan and Sultanah of Pahang and royal families from Brunei.In the same year, Channel V listed her as the Second Biggest Asian Artist for her achievements, trailing behind Taiwanese singer Jay Chou, who is on the top of the list. Coincidentally, MTV Asia also rated her as the Second Asia's Best Musical Artist, also behind the same Taiwanese artiste, Jay Chou. Datukship and Transkripsi (2006–2007)

Siti's eleventh studio album, Transkripsi, was released in April 2006 and contained contributions from producers and composers from Indonesia like Erwin Gutawa, Melly Goeslaw and Glenn Fredly and Malaysians, like Aubrey Suwito, Cat Farish, Jenny Chin, Firdaus Mahmud, Mac Chew, Yasin and Damian VE. Transkripsi became the year's best album after winning the Best Pop Album and Best Album categories in the Anugerah Industri Muzik. It also received praises before by critics as one of her best albums ever produced and the album released was her debut attempt of producing an album under her own production company. On 24 October 2006, she was conferred as "Dato'" after receiving the title of Darjah Indera Mahkota Pahang (DIMP) from the Sultan of Pahang, Sultan Ahmad Shah on his 76th birthday alongside two Malaysian designers, Bernard Chandran and Dayang Tom Abang Saufi. In 2007, she made her first appearance at the Grammy Award for the red carpet session on 11 February 2007 where she was the first Malaysian to walk the red carpet.On 20 and 21 April 2007, she performed at the Konsert Istana Cinta Nostalgia, which was a tribute concert for the late Tan Sri P. Ramlee and Puan Sri Saloma at Istana Budaya, Kuala Lumpur. The concert featured popular songs composed by Tan Sri P. Ramlee himself, performed by Siti and other invited artistes. Before this, Siti was also invited to perform a tribute concert for the late Sudirman Hj Arshad, also at Istana Budaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2002. On 30 April 2007, she garnered 4 nominations in the Anugerah Industri Muzik including Best Pop Album (Transkripsi), Best Vocal Female Performance in an Album (Transkripsi), Best Music Video (Bisakah) and Best Cover for an Album (Transkripsi). Out of the four nominations, she won two awards – Best Pop Album and Best Album for Transkripsi. She also received five nominations from Anugerah Planet Muzik 2007 for two categories that were voted by fans from Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore – Most Popular Female Artist and Most Popular Song (Biarlah Rahsia) and three categories that were judged by professional juries and judges – Best Female Artist, Best Song (Biarlah Rahsia) and Best Album. She won three out of five – Most Popular Female Artist, Best Female Artist and Best Song.Hadiah Daripada Hati, Lentera Timur and other works (2007–2008)

<mask> <mask> was the first Malaysian to be given the honour of walking up the red carpet meant for invited celebrities at the Grammy Awards held at Staples Centre in Los Angeles on 11 February 2007, after she won the two tickets as Best Dressed celebrity at Star World's "Breakfast With the Stars" in conjunction with the 78th Annual Academy Awards. 2007 also showed Siti's participation on soundtracks for films where she recorded two songs for two different films where she sang Menanti Pasti and Hati for Kayangan and 1957: Hati Malaya respectively. However, only the song Hati was included in her twelfth studio album, Hadiah Daripada Hati and also received the award of Best Original Theme Song from Anugerah Festival Filem Malaysia ke-21 (21st Malaysian Film Festival) in 2008. In the same year too she finally agrees to act in a production where she performed as Azizah, P. Ramlee's mysterious lover, in the musical 'Remy ... Kisah P. Ramlee (Remy ... The Story of P. Ramlee), which is a tribute to the late P. Ramlee, staged at Istana Budaya from 19 October to 3 November 2007. On 10 December of the same

masks:
Hajah Siti Nurhaliza Tarudin
Siti
Nurhaliza
Siti
Siti
Siti
Siti
Nurhaliza
Siti
Siti
Nurhaliza