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 Pralea), a socialist militant and intellectual, who taught mathematics in Ploieşti. Alexandrescu was herself a friend of Dobrogeanu-Gherea and an acquaintance of Caragiale. She had previously been married to Filip Codreanu, a Narodnik activist born in Bessarabia, with whom she had a daughter, Elena, and a son, Radu. Rallying with the left wing of international social democracy during the early stages of World War I, <mask> later indicated that he had been purposely informed of the controversial pro-war stance taken by the Social Democratic Party of Germany by the pro-Entente Romanian Foreign Minister Emanoil Porumbaru. With staff of the Menshevik paper Nashe Slovo (edited by Leon Trotsky), he was among the most prominent socialist pacifists of the period. Reflecting his ideological priorities, România Muncitoares title was changed into Jos Răsboiul!("Down with war! ")—it was later to be known as Lupta Zilnică (the "Daily combat"). Heavily critical of the French Socialist Party's decision to join the René Viviani cabinet (deeming it "an abdication"), he stressed the responsibility of all European countries in provoking the war, and adhered to Trotsky's vision of a "Peace without indemnities or annexations" as an alternative to "imperialist war". According to <mask>, tensions between the French SFIO and the German Social Democrats were reflecting not just context, but major ideological differences. Present in Italy in March 1915, he attended the Milan Congress of the Italian Socialist Party, during which he attempted to persuade it to condemn irredentist goals. In July, after convening the Bucharest Conference, he and Vasil Kolarov established the Revolutionary Balkan Social Democratic Labor Federation (comprising the left-leaning socialist parties of Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece), and <mask> was elected first secretary of its Central Bureau. Subsequently, together with the Italian Socialist delegates (Oddino Morgari, Giacinto Menotti Serrati, and Angelica Balabanoff among them), <mask> was instrumental in convening the anti-war international socialist Zimmerwald Conference in September 1915.During the congress, he came into open conflict with Lenin, after the latter voiced the Zimmerwald Left's opposition to the resolution (at one point, <mask> reportedly lost his temper and grabbed Lenin, causing him to temporarily leave the hall in protest). Later, he continued to mediate between Lenin and the Second International, a situation from which emerged a circular letter that complemented the Zimmerwald Manifesto while being more radical in tone. In October 1915, he reportedly did not protest Bulgaria's entry into the war—this information was contradicted by Trotsky, who also indicated that the Tesniatsy had been the target of a government crackdown at that exact moment. <mask> ran for Parliament for a final time during 1916, and again lost when contesting a seat in Covurlui County. Again arrested in 1916, after being accused of planning rebellion during a violent incident in Galaţi, he was, according to his own account, freed by a general strike which constituted "an outburst of indignation among the workers". Evaluating the situation in Romania, he identified the two main pro-Entente political forces of the moment, the groups led by Take Ionescu and Nicolae Filipescu, with, respectively, "corruption" and "reaction". Suspicions also rose that he had been contacted by German intelligence, that his 1915 trip to Italy had served German interests, and that he was being subsidized with German money.<mask> also drew attention to himself after welcoming to Bucharest the pro-German maverick socialist Alexander Parvus. His independence was consequently challenged by the interventionist paper Adevărul, a former socialist venue, who called <mask> "an adventurer without scruples", and viewed him as employed by Parvus and other German socialists. <mask> himself alleged that, "under the mask of independence", Adevărul and its editor Constantin Mille were in the pay of Take Ionescu. After Romania's entry into the conflict on the side of the Entente in August 1916, having failed to attend the Kienthal Conference due to the closure of borders, he was placed under surveillance and ultimately imprisoned in September, based on the belief that he was acting as a German spy. As Bucharest fell to the Central Powers during the 1916 campaign, he was taken by Romanian authorities to their refuge in Iaşi. Held until after the February Revolution, he was freed by the Russian Army on May 1, 1917, and immediately left for Odessa. October Revolution
<mask> moved to Petrograd (the new name of Saint Petersburg) in the spring of 1917.His anti-war activism almost got him arrested; <mask> managed to flee in August, and was present in Stockholm for the Third Zimmerwald Conference; he remained there and, with Karl Radek, issued propaganda material in support of the Russian revolutionaries. Present in the internationalist faction of the Mensheviks, he joined the Bolsheviks in December 1917 or early 1918, after the October Revolution (although he was occasionally listed among the Old Bolsheviks). <mask> later stated that he had friendly relations with the Bolsheviks from early autumn 1917, when, during the attempted putsch of Lavr Kornilov, he was hidden by these in Sestroretsk. His rise in influence and his approval of world revolution led him to seek Lenin's support for a Bolshevik government over Romania, at a time when a similar attempt was being made by the Odessa-based Romanian Social Democratic Action Committee, under the guidance of Mihai Gheorghiu Bujor; Stelian Tănase claims that during the period, a group of one hundred Russian Bolsheviks had infiltrated Iaşi with the goal of assassinating King Ferdinand I and organizing a coup. Eventually, Lenin decided in favor of a unified project, and called on Bujor and Rakovsky to form a single leadership (which also included the Romanian expatriates Alecu Constantinescu and Ion Dic Dicescu). As the coup was under preparation in December 1917, <mask> was present on the border and waiting a signal to enter the country. When Bolsheviks were arrested and the move was overturned, he was probably responsible for ordering the arrest of Romania's representative to Petrograd, Constantin I. Diamandy, and his entire staff (all of whom were used as hostages, pending the release of prisoners taken in Iaşi).Trotsky, who was by then Russia's People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs (Foreign Minister), called on the Romanian government of Ion I. C. Brătianu to hand in persons captured, indicating that he would otherwise encourage the communist activities of Romanian refugees on Russian soil, and receiving a reply according to which no such arrests had occurred. At the same time, <mask> regained Odessa, where he became a leader of the Bolshevik administrative body (Rumcherod), and, according to the claims of Stelian Tănase, ordered violent reprisals to be aimed at Romanian nationals present in the city, and issued agitprop literature in Romanian. As Russia negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, he ordered Rumcherod troops to march towards Romania, which was by then giving in to the German advances and preparing to sign its own peace. Initially stalled by a much-criticized temporary armistice with Romanian Army leader Alexandru Averescu, Rakovsky ordered a fresh offensive in Moldavia, but had to retreat when the Central Powers, confronted with Trotsky's refusal to accept their version of a Russo-German peace, began their own military operation and occupied Odessa (setting free Romanians who had been imprisoned there). On March 9, 1918, Rakovsky signed a treaty with Romania regarding the evacuation of troops from Bessarabia, which Stelian Tănase claims allowed for the Moldavian Democratic Republic to join Romania. In May, Romania conceded to the demands of the Central Powers (see Treaty of Bucharest, 1918).In April–May 1918, he negotiated with the Tsentral'na Rada of the Ukrainian People's Republic, then with the Hetmanate of Pavlo Skoropadsky, as well as with German forces (see Ukraine after the Russian Revolution). Soon after, Rakovsky left for Austria (where the First Republic had been proclaimed), being received by Foreign Minister Victor Adler (a member of Karl Renner's Social Democratic Party of Austria cabinet).<mask>'s real goal was to reach Germany and negotiate the situation in Ukraine, but he was expelled upon arrival to that country. Escorted, together with Adolph Joffe and Nikolai Bukharin, to the German-aligned Belarusian Democratic Republic, he caught news of the collapse of the German Empire and was selected as a delegate to the German workers' councils. He and all other envoys were arrested by German soldiers in Kaunas, and sent to Minsk, then to Homyel, before making their way to Moscow. Second Ukrainian government

After the subsequent Soviet offensive in Ukraine, Lenin appointed <mask> as the Chairman of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Workers and Peasants of Ukraine, replacing Georgy Pyatakov on January 16, 1919 due to the latter's argument with Fyodor Sergeyev for excessive interference in Ukrainian affairs. On March 29, 1919 the government was reorganized as the Soviet of the People's Commissars. According to the British author Arthur Ransome, present in Moscow during early that year, "It had been found that the views of the Pyatakov government were further left than those of its supporters, and so Pyatakov had given way to Rakovsky who was better able to conduct a more moderate policy". While in office, Rakovsky totally ignored Ukrainian issues, considering Ukraine and its language merely "an invention" of intellectuals.At the time, Rakovsky assessed the situation created by the Treaty of Versailles, and advised his superiors to build warm relations with both Mustafa Kemal's Turkey and the Weimar Republic, as a camp of countries dissatisfied with policies of the Allied Powers. <mask> subscribed to the Bolshevik condemnation of Greater Romania, stance that journalist Victor Frunză considered a revision of his previous views on Bessarabia. During the Paris Peace Conference, the Romanian delegation attributed the shortage in supply in Bessarabia and Transylvania a Bolshevik conspiracy centered on Rakovsky; various French reports of the time gave contradictory assessments (while some credited Rakovsky with direct influence on Soviet foreign policy, others dismissed the notion that Russia had any such projects). <mask> simultaneously served as Soviet Ukraine's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and a member of the South West Front's Revolutionary Military Council, contributing to the defeat of the White Army and Ukrainian nationalists during the Russian Civil War, while theorizing that "Ukraine was a laboratory of internationalism" and "a decisive factor in world revolution". <mask>'s presence was also decisive in rallying the dissident Borotbists to the Bolshevik faction's central bodies—he was subsequently confronted with a degree of Borotbist opposition inside his government. According to American politologist Jerry F. Hough, his appointment and policies were evidence of Russification, a program requested by Lenin himself; <mask>'s view contrasted with that supported by Stalin, who, at the time, was calling for increased Ukrainianization. On 13 February 1919 at the session of Kyiv city council Rakovsky as a head of Ukrainian government stated following: "Decreeing the Ukrainian language as a state language is reactionary and unnecessary".In March 1919, <mask> was one of the founding members of the Comintern, where he represented the Balkan Communist Federation. During those months, when control over the entire Ukraine was made possible by the offensive against Directorate forces, he expressed his support for the Yekaterinoslav wing of the Ukrainian Communist Party—following its wishes, he subordinated the Ukrainian Communists to the Russian Communist Party and argued that a separate Central Committee was "luxury" for such a small grouping. In summer, as <mask>'s government briefly lost control of Ukraine, his policies became hotly contested by partisans of Ukrainian autonomy inside the Party, who held a conference in Homyel (one which Rakovsky did not attend). At the Fourth Congress of the Ukrainian Party (March 1920), the leadership of <mask>, Stanislav Kosior, and Dmitry Manuilsky was not reelected. Attacks on them caused problems with the Russian Party; as Lenin himself sided with Rakovsky, a delegation comprising Trotsky, Lev Kamenev and Adolph Joffe left for Kyiv to discuss the matter with local leaders. In order to curb the crisis, the Ukrainian Party was subjected to a major purge, during which pro-autonomy opposition was removed from its ranks and the former leaders were reinstated. At the time, <mask> and Georgy Chicherin received harsh criticism from the Hungarian communist leaders Béla Kun, for allegedly refusing aid to the Hungarian Soviet Republic and thus contributing to its fall.This appears not to have been true, as <mask> reportedly urged Lenin to finance Kun even as the latter faced the intervention of troops from both Romania and Czechoslovakia. Lenin wrote back to Kun informing him that the Central Committee was satisfied with the way in which <mask> and Chicherin had carried out their mission. Reinstating of Soviet dominance and international conferences

After dealing with the common offensive of the Directorate and Polish forces—the Kyiv Offensive (see Polish-Soviet War in 1920)—, <mask>'s government took measures regarding collectivization; according to his biographer Gus Fagan, he became himself a proponent of greater Ukrainian autonomy, and advocated both Ukrainization through the complete integration of Borotbists into Party structures and a slower pace in communization. He notably came into conflict with the Russian Party after his second executive had its independent Commissariat of Foreign Trade replaced with an office under the control of central authorities. He continued to pressure for a measure of independence in Ukrainian economy, and, during the early 1920s, the republic sealed its own trade agreements with other European countries. <mask> remained a Romanian citizen for the entire period. In 1921, he was officially summoned to be tried by a court-martial for "crime against the security of the Romanian state".He was sentenced to death in absentia (1924). Journalist Victor Frunză claims this move had been prompted by a supposed similar verdict given by a Soviet Court to Ion Inculeţ (who had led the Moldavian Democratic Republic's Legislative Assembly that voted union with Romania). As the Socialist Party of Romania delegation (Gheorghe Cristescu, Eugen Rozvan, David Fabian, Constantin Popovici, Ioan Flueraş, and Alexandru Dobrogeanu-Gherea) voted to adhere to the Comintern, <mask> and Grigory Zinoviev pressured the group to expel those of its members who supported Greater Romania (including Flueraş and Popovici, as well as Iosif Jumanca and Leon Ghelerter). In February 1922, he was sent to Berlin in order to negotiate with German officials, and, in March, was part of the official delegation to the Genoa Conference—under the leadership of Georgy Chicherin. <mask> himself was virulently opposed to any stalemate with the Allies, and urged his delegation not to abandon policies over promises of deescalation and trade. A leader of the delegation's commissions on economic aid, loans and government debt, he was also charged with renewing contacts with Germany—together with Adolph Joffe, he discussed the matter with the pro-Soviet Ago von Maltzan, and, as Russia failed to reach an agreement with the Allies, managed to obtain from Germany promises of cooperation (see Treaty of Rapallo, 1922). Two years later, when captured by the Bolsheviks, Eser conspirator Boris Savinkov allegedly confessed that he intended to have both <mask> and Chicherin killed in Berlin, as they returned from Genoa.In November 1922, <mask> attended the Conference of Lausanne, where he was confronted with the assassination of his fellow diplomat Vaslav Vorovsky by the émigré Maurice Conradi. As the Soviet Union was being created, <mask> became opposed to the new central leadership over the issue of self-determination for the Soviet republics and autonomous republics. This followed the dispute between, on one side, Joseph Stalin, Zinoviev, Trotsky and Kamenev, and, on the other, the leadership of the Georgian SSR (see Georgian Affair). At the time, he evidenced a "permanent struggle which the so-called independent and autonomous republics had to carry out to safeguard not only their prerogatives but their very own existence". Arguing in favor of extending the revolution from Ukraine to the Balkans, and indicating his belief that the peasantry was being alienated by internationalist messages, <mask> cited concerns that centralism was placing Soviet influence in peril, and called for "carrying out a correct theoretical and practical solution to the national question within the boundaries of the Soviet Union". In November 1922, he successfully proposed the formation of a Soviet of Nationalities to double the Soviet of the Union inside the supreme legislative body; his arguments in favor of reducing the number of representatives of Russian SFSR and barring the total number of envoys from any republic at one fifth of the total were dismissed after being criticized by Stalin. Trotskyist opposition and ambassadorship
After Lenin's illness and incapacitation, <mask> joined Leon Trotsky's Left Opposition and came into conflict with Stalin.Although declining, his influence in Ukraine was, according to political scientist John P. Willerton, one of Trotsky's main bases of support, alongside sections of the Red Army, a group of Komsomol leaders, and various officials involved in economic planning. In early July 1923, after being isolated inside the Ukrainian leadership, he was removed from his Ukrainian post, replaced with Vlas Chubar, and sent to London to negotiate a formal recognition of the Soviet regime by the British and French governments. Chubar, an ethnic Ukrainian, came to represent Stalin's view on nationality issues in the region, officially defined as "nativization". In

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 London, <mask> and his wife were joined by Elena Codreanu, whom they had adopted. In 1924, as the Labour Party minority cabinet came to power, Ramsay MacDonald and Rakovsky negotiated de jure recognition and agreed on a possible future Anglo-Soviet treaty and a British loan for the Soviet Union. Negotiations were tested by the so-called Bankers' Memorandum, published by The Times, which demanded that the Soviet Union abandon nationalizations and return to private property. Eventually, two treaties were signed, allowing for commerce to be normalized between the two countries, and reflecting Rakovsky's views that private complaints of creditors against the Soviet state were to be settled outside the conference.The scandal which erupted when the Zinoviev Letter was publicized, rekindling suspicions against the Soviet government and provoking the fall of MacDonald's cabinet, brought an end to all further talks. During and after the incident, <mask> repeatedly cited evidence that the Letter was a forgery. In parallel, he had begun negotiations with France's Raymond Poincaré, who aimed for a "solidarity of foreign creditors" in respect to the Soviet state, and who agreed to recognize the latter on October 28, 1924. One of his last tasks involved placing Soviet orders for machinery, textiles, and other commodities with British manufacturers: worth 75 million US$ on paper, these failed to attract attention after he announced that the Soviet government did not intend to pay in cash. According to the American magazine Time, Rakovsky also played a hand in motivating Stalin's decision to marginalize Comintern leader Zinoviev, by complaining that the latter's foreign policy was needlessly radical. <mask> served as the Soviet ambassador to France between October 1925 and October 1927, replacing Leonid Krasin. He did not take hold of his office until 50 days after his official appointment, refusing to be received at the Élysée Palace by French President Gaston Doumergue for as long as the state authorities would not allow The Internationale (a revolutionary song which was at the time the Soviet national anthem) to be played on the occasion.Doumergeue resisted, and, in the end, <mask> was received to the sound of an improvised arrangement of bugles, the more discreet part of which may have been based on The Internationale. Time described it as a "deafening blast". His first task involved renewed negotiations with the cabinet of Aristide Briand (February 1926), during which he was confronted with the vocal campaign of creditors. Early results achieved in discussions with Anatole de Monzie were dismissed by the opposition rallied around Poincaré, and, after being revived by the short-lived cabinet of Édouard Herriot, talks ended without any result. Poincaré returned to power, and France remained committed to the Locarno Treaties (which had isolated the Soviet state on the international stage). Over the following year, <mask> continued to attempt a détente with France, advertising Soviet concessions and speaking directly to the public. During the same period, as tensions grew between Mexico and the Soviet government over the latter's support for a Mexican railway workers' strike, American agents reported that <mask> was instructed to threaten to publicize correspondence between former President Álvaro Obregón and Soviet authorities (which had occurred before diplomatic links were established).Since this could endanger Mexico's relations with the United States, President Plutarco Elías Calles chose to deescalate the conflict. Together with his second wife, <mask> gave full approval to Max Eastman's volume Since Lenin Died, which centered on heavy criticism of Soviet realities, and which they reviewed before it was published. He became acquainted with the former French Communist Party member and anti-Stalinist journalist Boris Souvarine, as well as with the Romanian writer Panait Istrati, who had observed <mask>'s career ever since his presence in Romania. He also maintained friendly contacts with Marcel Pauker, a prominent but independent-minded member of the Romanian Communist Party, whose activities were denounced by the Comintern in 1930. <mask> was eventually declared a persona non grata in France and recalled after signing the Declaration of the Opposition, a Trotskyist platform deemed unfriendly by the French government (it stressed support for revolutions and mutinies in all capitalist countries). According to Time, France's decision was tacitly welcomed by Foreign Affairs Commissar Georgy Chicherin, due to <mask>'s political opinions. Rakovsky left without presenting his letter of recall to President Doumergue, although he was scheduled for a meeting at the Élysée.He was initially scheduled to serve as Ambassador to Japan. On his trip back to the Soviet state, he was joined by Istrati, who, partly owing to his witnessing of the Rakovsky's downfall, soon became a noted opponent of Stalinism. Persecution and internal exile
In December 1927, <mask> and Lev Kamenev held brief speeches in front of the Soviet Communist Party's Fifteenth Congress. The former was interrupted fifty-seven times by his opponents—Nikolai Bukharin, Martemyan Ryutin, and Lazar Kaganovich. Although, unlike <mask>, Kamenev used the occasion to appeal for reconciliation, he was himself interrupted twenty-four times by the same group. After that moment, although branded "enemy of the people", <mask> was still occasionally allowed to speak in public (notably, together with Kamenev and Karl Radek, to the Moscow Komsomol), and continued to criticize Stalin's leadership as "bureaucratic socialism" (see Bureaucratic collectivism) and "social fascism". With Nikolai Krestinsky (who split with the group soon afterwards) and Kamenev, he attempted to organize a substantial opposition, visiting Ukraine for this purpose, hosting public meetings and printing manifestos addressed to the workers in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Mykolaiv, Odessa, Dnipropetrovsk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia (he was assisted by, among others, Yuri Kotsubinsky).He was persistently heckled during public appearances, and his supporters were beaten up by the Militsiya. In November 1927, after receiving news that Adolph Joffe had committed suicide, he assigned Ukrainian campaigning to Voja Vujović, and returned to Moscow. Following the defeat of the Left Opposition in November–December 1927, <mask> was ousted from the Comintern, the Central Committee, and eventually from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He was exiled, first to Astrakhan, Saratov, and then to Barnaul. Shortly before the decision, he commented to his visitor, French writer Pierre Naville: "The French expelled me from Paris for having signed a declaration of the opposition. Stalin expelled me from the [Foreign Affairs Commissariat] for having signed the same declaration. But in both cases they let me keep the jacket".While in Astrakhan, <mask> was employed by the Regional Planning Committee (Gubplan). He was also active as a writer, starting work on a volume detailing the sources of Utopian socialism and the thought of Saint-Simon. <mask> remained involved in Trotskyist politics, was contacted by Panait Istrati and the Greek writer Nikos Kazantzakis, and corresponded with Trotsky (who had himself been exiled to Almaty). Most of his writings were confiscated by the State Political Directorate, but the letter on Soviet "bureaucratism" he addressed to Nikolai Valentinov survived, and became notorious as a critique of Stalinism (under the title "Professional Dangers" of Power). Mistrusting Stalin's new leftist policies, he foresaw the renewed moves against the Left Opposition (inaugurated by Trotsky's 1929 expulsion). As his health deteriorated, he was allowed to move to Saratov upon requests addressed by Krestinsky to Kaganovich, the Secretary of the Central Committee. He was visited by Louis Fischer, who recorded Rakovsky's determination not to submit to Stalin (contrasting his option with those of Radek, Yevgeni Preobrazhensky, Alexander Beloborodov and Ivar Smilga).Instead, <mask> incited further resistance to Stalinism, and issued a declaration of the united opposition; following this, he was sent to Barnaul, which he called a "hole in the barren cold ground". In another critical letter to the Party leadership (April 1930), he called for, among other things, the restoration of civil liberties, a reduction in the party apparatus, the return of Trotsky, and an end to forced collectivization. Little is known of <mask>'s life between that moment and July 1932, the moment when he was allowed a medical leave. Towards the end of the same year, Trotsky was informed that he had attempted to flee the Soviet Union, and, in March 1933, it was announced that he had been deported to Yakutia. Answering Trotsky's request, the French mathematician and Trotskyist Jean Van Heijenoort, together with his fellow activist Pierre Frank, unsuccessfully called on the influential Soviet author Maxim Gorky to intervene in favor of <mask>, and boarded the ship he was traveling on near Istanbul. According to Heijenoort, they only managed to meet Gorky's son, Maxim Peshkov, who reportedly told them that his father was indisposed, but promised to pass on their request. Researcher Tova Yedlin proposed that the problem was caused by Gorky's distress over having recently separated from his mistress Moura Budberg, as well as to the writer's close surveillance by OGPU agents.Submission to Stalin and the Show Trial
<mask> was one of the last leading Trotskyists to break with Trotsky and surrender to Stalin. Alarmed by Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany and under intense pressure from Stalin, he announced his submission to the Party through a telegram he sent Izvestia (February 23, 1934). While <mask> was allowed to return to Moscow, Trotsky declared the dissociation statement to be "purely formal". <mask> formally "admitted his mistakes" in April 1934 (his letter to the Pravda, titled There Should Be No Mercy, depicted Trotsky and his supporters as "agents of the German Gestapo"). He was appointed to high office in the Commissariat for Health and allowed to return to Moscow, also serving as Soviet ambassador to Japan in 1935. Cited in allegations involving the killing of Sergey Kirov, <mask> was arrested in autumn 1937, during the Great Purge; according to Trotsky, he was forced to wait without food or rest for 18 hours, during which time his house was being searched. Shortly thereafter, in March 1938, he was put on trial along with Nikolai Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, Genrikh Yagoda, Nikolai Krestinsky and other Old Bolsheviks, on charges of conspiring with Trotsky to overthrow Stalin, the third Moscow Show Trial—known as the Trial of the Twenty-One.In his forced confession to Andrey Vyshinsky, he admitted to all the charges—including having been a spy (for Japan) and a landowner. He made attempts to point out that his revenue had been used to support socialism, and that he had a grasp of "revolutionary practices", but was attacked by Vyshinsky, who persistently referred to <mask> as "a counterrevolutionary". In his final statement, <mask> argued: "from my young days I honestly, truthfully and devotedly performed my duty as a soldier of the cause of the emancipation of labor. After this bright period a dark period set in, the period of my criminal deeds". Unlike most of his co-defendants, who were immediately executed, he was sentenced to twenty years of hard labor. In 1941 he was in Oryol Prison. After the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), <mask> was shot on Stalin's orders outside Oryol—along with Olga Kameneva, Maria Spiridonova and over 150 other political prisoners in the Medvedev Forest massacre.This execution was one of the many massacres of prisoners committed by the NKVD in 1941. Legacy and rehabilitation
<mask>'s second wife, Alexandrina Alexandrescu, was herself arrested, and is known to have been held in Butyrka prison, where she suffered a series of heart attacks. His adoptive daughter, Elena Codreanu-Racovski, was expelled from her job as secretary of the Mossoviet Theater, and deported to Siberia. She returned to Moscow in the 1950s, after Stalin's death, and settled in Communist Romania after 1975, rejoining her brother, the biologist and academic Radu Codreanu. She later authored a memoir which included recollections of her father (it was published in Romanian as De-a lungul şi de-a latul secolului, "The Length and Breadth of the Century").Brătescu, p.426-427 It was compiled from personal notes and dialogs with physician and former communist militant G. Brătescu, who noted that, probably owing to suspicions she had in respect to the Romanian communist regime, Elena Codreanu refused to talk about <mask>'s trial and her own persecution. <mask>'s nephew Boris Stefanov, whom he encouraged to join the Romanian socialist movement before World War I, later became a general secretary of the Romanian Communist Party, before being himself purged in 1940. By 1932, <mask>'s name was frequently invoked in the heated debate involving Panait Istrati and his political adversaries.Istrati, having returned to Romania in disillusion over Soviet realities, was initially attacked in the local right-wing newspapers Curentul and Universul; writing for the former, Pamfil Şeicaru defined Istrati as "the servant of Racovski". Having published To the Other Flame, in which he exposed Stalinism, he consequently became the target of intense criticism and allegations from various pro-Soviet writers, led by the Frenchman Henri Barbusse. During this period, the Romanian communist writer Alexandru Sahia speculated, among other things, that Istrati had been in the pay of <mask> and Trotsky for a sizable part of his life. Based on his independent opinions and, in part, on his friendship with <mask>, Marcel Pauker was disavowed by the Romanian and Soviet communist parties, and was himself a victim of the Great Purge in 1938. At various intervals between 1930 and 1952, his wife, the Romanian communist leader Ana Pauker, faced pressures to denounce her husband. She allegedly refused to criticize him for anything other than his association with <mask>, and to admit that Marcel Pauker had been guilty of all the charges brought against him. The Hungarian-born author Arthur Koestler, himself a former communist, based Rubashov, the main character in his 1940 novel Darkness at Noon, on victims of the Moscow Trials; according to George Orwell, <mask>'s fate was a possible direct influence: "Rubashov might be called Trotsky, Bukharin, Rakovsky or some other relatively civilised figure among the Old Bolsheviks.If one writes about the Moscow trials one must answer the question, «Why did the accused confess?» and which answer one makes is a political decision. Koestler answers, in effect, «Because these people had been rotted by the Revolution which they served», and in doing so he comes near to claiming that revolutions are of their nature bad". In 1988, during Glasnost, the Soviet government cleared Rakovsky and his co-defendants of all charges. His rehabilitation came in February, coinciding with that of Bukharin, as well as with those of Ukrainian official and former People's Commissar for Agriculture Mikhail Alexandrovich Chernov, former People's Commissar for Foreign Trade Arkady Rosengolts, and other five officials. Bukharin, <mask>, Rozengolts, and Chernov were posthumously reinstated to the Communist Party on June 21, 1988. His works were given imprimatur, while a favorable biography was published by the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (late 1988). Cigarettes

Footnotes

References
 <mask> Internet Archive at Marxists.org:
 Gus Fagan, Biographical Introduction to <mask>, Selected Writings on Opposition in the USSR 1923–30 (editor: Gus Fagan), Allison & Busby, London & New York, 1980; retrieved July 19, 2007
 <mask>, "An Autobiography", Granat, 1926, translated by Gus Fagan; retrieved July 19, 2007
  110 ani de social-democraţie în România ("110 Years of Social Democracy in Romania"), Social Democratic Party, Ovidiu Şincai Social Democratic Institute, Bucharest, July 9, 2003; retrieved July 19, 2007
 G. Brătescu, Ce-a fost să fie.Notaţii autobiografice ("That Which Was Meant to Be. Autobiographical Notes"), Humanitas, Bucharest, 2003. Şerban Cioculescu, Caragialiana, Editura Eminescu, Bucharest, 1974. Yuri Feofanov, Donald Barry, Arbitrary Justice: Courts and Politics in Post-Stalin Russia, National Council for Soviet and East European Research and Lehigh University, Washington, D. C., 1995; retrieved July 19, 2007
 Victor Frunză, Istoria stalinismului în România ("The History of Stalinism in Romania"), Humanitas, Bucharest, 1990. Şt. O. Iosif, D. Anghel, "Racovski", in Cireşul lui Lucullus. Teatru, proză, traduceri ("Lucullus' Cherry Tree.Drama, Prose, Translations"), Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1976. Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building and Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930, Cornell University Press, New York City, 1995. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge, Spokesman Books, Nottingham, 1976. Z. Ornea, Viaţa lui C. Stere ("The Life of C. Stere"), Vol. I, Cartea Românească, Bucharest, 1989. <mask>, Les socialistes et la guerre ("The Socialists and the War"), 1915, at Marxists.org (French edition); retrieved July 19, 2007
 Judith Shapiro, "The Prophet Returned? A Survey of Recent Works by and about Trotsky in the Soviet Union", in Revolutionary History, Vol.2, No. 2, Summer 1989; retrieved July 19, 2007
 Stelian Tănase,
  "Cristian Racovski" (Part I), in Magazin Istoric, April 2004; retrieved July 19, 2007
 "The Renegade Istrati", excerpt from Auntie Varvara's Clients, translated by Alistair Ian Blyth, in Archipelago, Vol.10–12; retrieved July 19, 2007
 Vladimir Tismăneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2003,
 Glenn E. Torrey, "Rumania's Decision to Intervene: Brătianu and the Entente, June–July 1916", in Keith Hitchins (ed. ), Romanian Studies. Vol. 2, 1971–1972'', Brill Publishers, Leiden, 1973, p. 3–29. Leon Trotsky, <mask> et Basile Kolarov ("<mask> and Vasil Kolarov"), 1915, at Marxists.org (French edition); retrieved July 19, 2007
 Charles Upson Clark,

masks:
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<mask> (born November 12, 1966) is an American business executive and government official serving as the White House Coronavirus Response Coordinator since 2021, succeeding Deborah Birx. He was the director of the National Economic Council from February 2014 to January 2017. <mask> was also acting director of the Office of Management and Budget in 2010 and from 2012 to 2013. Before entering government, <mask> was an executive at firms including The Advisory Board Company and CEB. , <mask> was on leave from his position as chief executive officer of Cranemere, an investment firm. He was a member of Facebook's board of directors from 2018 to 2020. In January 2021, he began serving as both Counselor to the President and Coordinator of the COVID-19 response in the Biden administration.Early life and education
<mask> was born in Washington, D.C. and raised in Kensington, Maryland. His family is Jewish. <mask> graduated from the St. Albans School prep school in 1984 and received a degree in political science from Duke University, graduating summa cum laude in 1988.

Business career
After college, <mask> worked in management consulting for Mercer Management Consulting (now Oliver Wyman) and Bain & Company. As a consultant <mask> reportedly "fell in love with Bain's culture, teamwork … and analytical rigor". After Bain, he was appointed the chief operating officer of DGB Enterprises, a holding company for the Advisory Board Company, Corporate Executive Board, and Atlantic Media Company. Advisory Board and Corporate Executive Board
<mask> was the chief operating officer (1996–1998), chief executive officer (1998–2000), and  chairman (2001–2004) of the Advisory Board Company and former chairman (2000–2001) of the Corporate Executive Board. <mask> and David G. Bradley took each of the companies public through initial public offerings that made both men multimillionaires.Portfolio Logic
Zients founded and was the managing partner of Portfolio Logic LLC, an investment firm primarily focused on health care and business services. He was a member of the board of directors of XM Satellite Radio until its 2008 merger, and a board member at Sirius XM Radio until his Senate confirmation. Zients also sat on the boards of Revolution Health Group and Timbuk2 Designs. Baseball
In 2005, Zients formed a group with Colin Powell and Fred Malek, among others, to compete for the purchase of the Washington Nationals. The group planned for Malek to be the managing partner for the first three years, after which <mask> would take over. The group was unsuccessful; the team was purchased by a group led by the Lerner family. Obama administration

Office of Management and Budget
In 2009, President Barack Obama appointed <mask> to the new position of United States Chief Performance Officer and Deputy Director for Management (DDM) of the Office of Management and Budget.It was Zients's first governmental experience. According to Obama, his assignment was to help "streamline processes, cut costs, and find best practices throughout" the U.S. government. His nomination was approved by the Senate in June 2009. As DDM, Zients established and chaired the President's Management Council. <mask> was the acting director of OMB from July 2010 to November 2010, and again from January 2012 to April 2013. Healthcare.gov
Following the error-plagued launch of healthcare.gov on October 1, 2013, Obama and White House Chief of Staff Denis McDonough asked Zients to take charge of fixing the website. While leading the "tech surge" to do that, Zients also had an ownership position in PSA Healthcare.The position of the White House was that <mask>'s stake in PSA Healthcare, a pediatric home health business, was not a conflict of interest. National Economic Council

From 2014 to 2017, <mask> was an assistant to the president for economic policy and director of the National Economic Council (NEC). <mask> also chaired the President's Management Advisory Board. The Wall Street Journal called <mask> "a kind of ambassador to the business community", and lobbying groups such as the Business Roundtable and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce praised <mask> as someone who heard them out. At NEC, <mask> worked with the Department of Labor to finalize the fiduciary rule, also known as the conflict of interest rule. It required financial advisers to provide advice in their clients' best interest. The rule was strongly criticized by Wall Street leaders and business groups and was struck down by a federal appeals court in 2018.In 2015, while NEC director, <mask> described the Trans-Pacific Partnership as "a massive tax cut for American businesses". Private sector

Facebook
<mask> joined Facebook's board of directors in 2018, following the Cambridge Analytica scandal. While on Facebook's board, <mask> chaired the Audit and Risk Oversight Committee. According to Facebook, he declined to seek re-election in 2020 "to devote more time to his business and other professional interests". <mask> was paid $100,000 in cash and roughly $300,000 in stock in exchange for his work on Facebook's audit committee. As of December 2020, <mask> had reportedly sold all of his holdings of Facebook stock. Cranemere
<mask> was the CEO of the Wall Street investment firm Cranemere, an investment firm owned by Vincent Mai, for which he earned a combined salary and bonus of $1.6 million., <mask> was on leave from his position as chief executive officer of Cranemere. Biden administration
In summer 2020, Saguaro Strategies, a media and consulting firm, heavily edited <mask>'s Wikipedia page as he became more prominent in the Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign. , <mask> was co-chair of the presidential transition of Joe Biden. He was described as "an important power center in the Biden transition team" and noted as a candidate for several positions in the incoming administration. On December 7, 2020, the Biden transition announced <mask>'s presumptive appointment as coordinator of the COVID-19 response and counselor to the president. The absence of any comprehensive COVID-19 vaccine distribution plan at the time of the handover from the outgoing Trump administration became an urgent priority for <mask> after the inauguration on January 20, 2021. In July 2021, <mask> came under criticism for standing in the way of relaxation of travel restrictions between the US and Europe on partisan political grounds.References

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1966 births
21st-century American politicians
American people of Jewish descent
American chief operating officers
American company founders
American management consultants
American technology chief executives
Bain & Company employees
Businesspeople from Washington, D.C.
Deputy Directors for Management of the Office of Management and Budget
Directors of the Office of Management and Budget
Duke University alumni
Living people
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations
Obama administration cabinet members
Jewish American government officials
People from Kensington, Maryland
St. Albans School (Washington, D.C.) alumni
Biden administration personnel

masks:
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<mask> ( – May 16, 1691) was a German-born colonist in the Province of New York. He gained wealth in New Amsterdam (later New York City) in the fur trade and tobacco business. In what became known as <mask>'s Rebellion following the English Revolution of 1688, he took control of the city, and ultimately the entire province, from appointees of deposed King James II, in the name of the Protestant accession of William III and Mary II. Beginning in 1689, <mask> led an insurrection and seized control of the city by taking over Fort James at the lower end of Manhattan. He took over control of the entire province, appointing himself as acting Lieutenant Governor of the Province of New York, which he retained until March 1691, refusing to yield power until the newly appointed governor himself finally arrived. While <mask> claimed to have acted to support the Protestant accession against Jacobite officeholders in New York, he was arrested by the newly appointed governor of New York in March 1691. With opponents active against him, he was condemned and executed in New York City for treason against the English monarchs William III and Mary II.His estate was forfeited to the Crown. During his period of control, <mask> completed a major purchase of property from Sir John Pell, Lord of Pelham Manor, to set up a French Huguenot settlement north of Manhattan. This developed as the city of New Rochelle, New York. <mask>'s son and supporters found the trial and conviction most unjust; it was mounted by his enemies. They worked to clear the names of <mask> and <mask> (his son in law) and for the restoration of their estates to their heirs, which was achieved in 1695 by an act of Parliament. Remains of the two men were reinterred with honors at the Dutch Reformed Church in Manhattan. Early life
<mask> was born in the village of Bockenheim, now a central part of Frankfurt am Main, Germany, in March 1640, the son of Calvinist French Reformed minister <mask> <mask>.After his father's death in 1651, <mask> was sent to military school. He went to New Amsterdam (later New York) in 1660 as a soldier in the service of the Dutch West India Company. Leaving the company's employ soon after his arrival, Leisler engaged in the lucrative fur trade and tobacco trade and became a wealthy man. New York tax records from 1676 list Leisler as the third wealthiest man in the city. In 1674, Leisler was one of the administrators of a forced loan imposed by Anthony Colve. While residing in Albany in 1676, <mask> engaged in a theological dispute with the Rev. Nicholas van Rensselaer, who had been appointed to the Reformed pulpit by James, Duke of York (later King King James II).His finances and reputation both suffered from this encounter, as he and a fellow dissenter <mask> were forced to pay all the costs of a lawsuit they had initiated in the dispute. While on a voyage to Europe in 1678, he was captured by Moorish pirates, and was compelled to pay a ransom of 2,050 pieces of eight to obtain his freedom. Leisler had endeared himself to the common people by befriending a family of French Huguenots who had been landed on Manhattan island. They were so destitute that a public tribunal had decided they should be sold into slavery to pay their ship charges. Leisler prevented the sale by purchasing the freedom of the widowed mother and son before the sale could be held. French Huguenots were arriving in New York as refugees from religious persecution by Catholics in France. Under Thomas Dongan's administration in 1683, <mask> was appointed one of the judges, or "commissioners," of the court of admiralty in New York, a justice of the peace for New York City and County, and a militia captain.<mask>'s Rebellion

The English Revolution of 1688 also played out in New York, where people of a wide variety of religious and ethnic backgrounds divided into two well-defined factions. In general, the small shopkeepers, small farmers, sailors, poor traders and artisans allied against the patroons (landholders), rich fur traders, merchants, lawyers, and crown officers. The former were led by <mask> (himself a wealthy man), the latter by Peter Schuyler, Nicholas Bayard, Stephen Van Cortlandt, William Nicolls, and other representatives of the aristocratic Hudson Valley families. The Leislerians claimed greater loyalty to the Protestant accession. In 1688, Governor Dongan was succeeded by Lieutenant-Governor Francis Nicholson. In 1689, the military force of the city of New York consisted of a regiment of five companies, with Leisler as one of the company captains. He was popular with the men and was probably the only wealthy resident in the province who sympathized with the Dutch lower classes, which were agitated by the attempts of the Jacobite officeholders to retain power in spite of the revolution in England and the accession of William III and Mary II to the throne.When news was received that Governor Sir Edmund Andros had been imprisoned in Boston by the opposition, the Leislerians took possession on May 31, 1689 of Fort James at the southern end of Manhattan Island. They renamed it Fort William and announced their determination to hold it until the arrival of a governor who was commissioned by the new sovereigns. Upon hearing of a report which claimed supporters of King James II were about to seize the fort and massacre settlers of Dutch descent, an armed mob gathered on the evening of June 2, 1689 to overthrow the existing government. The cry of "Leisler" was raised, and the crowd rushed to his house. At first, he refused to lead the movement, but when the demand was reiterated, he acceded and within an hour received the keys of the fort, which had been seized. The revolutionaries took advantage of the fort containing all the public funds, whose return Lieutenant Governor Nicholson demanded in vain. Four hundred of the new party signed an agreement to hold the fort "for the present Protestant power that reigns in England," and a committee of safety of ten of the city freeholders assumed the powers of a provisional government of which they declared <mask> to be the head.They commissioned him as "captain of the fort." In this capacity, he began to repair the fort, strengthening it with a battery of six guns beyond its walls. This was the origin of the public park known as the Battery in Lower Manhattan. Thus began <mask>'s Rebellion. Leisler as acting lieutenant-governor
The aristocrats also favored deposing James but preferred to continue the provincial government established by his authority, rather than risk the danger of an interregnum. Nicholson and the council of the province, with the authorities of the city, headed by Mayor Stephen van Cortlandt, attempted to prevent the uprising, but without effect. Finally, becoming alarmed for his own safety, Lieutenant-Governor Nicholson sailed for England on June 24.The New York City mayor and other officials retired to Albany. Albany held out against Leisler's authority for a time. In November, <mask> sent <mask> to Albany with an armed force to assist in its defense against any Indians. Milborne was directed to withhold aid unless Leisler's authority was recognized. That was refused, and Milborne returned unsuccessful. However, after the destruction of Schenectady on February 19, 1690, by the French and their allied Indians, Christian Mohawk among them, Albany submitted to Leisler's authority. Under authority of a letter from the home government addressed to Nicholson "or in his absence, to such as for the time being takes care for preserving the peace and administering the laws in His Majesty's province of New York," Leisler had assumed the title of lieutenant-governor in December 1689.He dissolved the committee of safety, appointed a council, and took charge of the government of the entire province. He appointed <mask> as Clerk to the Council, Attorney-General, Advocate General and his Secretary. Milborne married <mask>'s daughter Mary. <mask> summoned the first Intercolonial Congress in America, which met in New York on May 1, 1690, to plan concerted action against the French and Native Americans in the ongoing conflict in North America. The congress planned an expedition against Canada. It equipped and dispatched against Quebec the first fleet of men-of-war ever sent from the Port of New York. However, the expedition was unsuccessful.In the meantime, Colonel Henry Sloughter had been commissioned Governor of the Province of New York by William and Mary on September 3, 1689, but he did not reach New York until March 19, 1691. Leisler and Huguenots
Acting on behalf of a group of Huguenots in New York, Leisler brokered the purchase of land upon which they could settle. In 1689 John Pell, Lord of Pelham Manor, officially deeded 6,100 acres (25 km²) to Leisler for the establishment of a Huguenot community north of Manhattan. On September 20, 1689, Leisler donated a third of this land to Huguenot refugees. In addition to the purchase money, Leisler and his heirs and assigns were to yield and pay unto John Pell and his heirs and assigns (Lords of the Pelham Manor) one "Fat Calf" yearly, as acknowledgment of their feudal obligation to the Manor. This settlement developed as the city of New Rochelle, New York. End of rebellion

On January 28, 1691, English Army officer Richard Ingoldesby, who had been commissioned lieutenant-governor of the province, landed with two companies of soldiers in Manhattan and demanded possession of Fort James.<mask> refused to surrender the fort without an order from the king or the governor. After some controversy, Ingoldesby attacked the fort on March 17, during which <mask>'s forces killed two of his soldiers and wounded several. When Governor Sloughter finally arrived in New York the following March, he immediately demanded <mask>'s surrender. <mask> refused to surrender the fort until he was convinced of Sloughter's identity, and the governor had sworn in his council. As soon as the latter event occurred, he wrote the governor a letter resigning his command. Sloughter responded by arresting <mask> and nine of his colleagues, including his son-in-law <mask>. All but Milborne were released after trial.<mask> was imprisoned and charged with treason and murder. Shortly afterward, he was tried and condemned to death. His son-in-law and secretary, Milborne, was condemned on the same charges. <mask>'s son and other supporters were outraged by the trials, as they were considered unjust. The judges were the personal and political enemies of the prisoners, and their acts were described as "gross." Governor Sloughter was said to have hesitated to sign the death warrants but was trying to stabilize politics in the colony and did not have sufficient influence among the elite of New York City. He was said to have finally signed the warrants under the influence of wine.On May 16, 1691, <mask> and Milborne were executed. The court had sentenced them to be hanged "by the Neck and being Alive their bodyes be Cutt downe to Earth and Their Bowells to be taken out and they being Alive, burnt before their faces...." As was the common law punishment for treason, their estates were forfeited to the Crown. <mask>'s son and other supporters appealed for justice from the committee of the Privy Council. It reported that although the trial was in conformity to the forms of law, they recommended the restoration of the estates to their heirs. Restitution
In 1695, by an Act of Parliament, achieved through the efforts of <mask>'s son and supporters, the names of <mask> and Milborne were cleared, and <mask>'s estate was restored to his heirs. Three years later the Earl of Bellomont, who had been one of the most influential supporters of Leisler's son, was appointed as governor of New York. Through his influence, the assembly voted an indemnity to Leisler's heirs.Personal life
He married Elsie Tymens, the widow of Pieter Cornelisz van der Veen in 1663. Catharine <mask>, who in 1685 married Robert Walters (d. 1733), mayor of New York City from 1720 to 1725. <mask>, who in 1687 married Michael Vaughton of Staffordshire, a half-brother of John Spragg, the colonial secretary of New York. <mask>, who in 1691 married <mask> (-1691), who was executed in New York on 16 May 1691. Some descendants of <mask> use his surname as a middle name. The most prominent of them was Walther <mask> Kiep, a CDU politician. Legacy and honors
Governor Bellomont authorized the honorable reburial of <mask> and his son-in-law at the Dutch Reformed Church in New York City.In June 1913 a monument to <mask> was dedicated in New Rochelle, New York, by the Huguenot Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution and the Huguenot Association of New Rochelle, to celebrate the 250th anniversary of its founding and honor his role. <mask> has been described as the "first Governor of Colonial New York to owe his position to the popular suffrage." In June 1913 William O. Bates published his play, <mask>: A Play of Old New York, about the leader and the dramatic events of his life. <mask> was depicted by Nazi German propogandist playwright Curt Langenbeck in his play Der Hochverräter. Tragisches Schauspiel (1938) as a hero. References
Notes

Sources
  which in turn cites:
 John Romeyn Brodhead, History of the State of New York (vol. 2, New York, 1871)
 E. B. O'Callaghan, Documentary History of the State of New York (vol.2, Albany, 1850) (for the documents connected with the controversy)

Further reading

 The <mask>ler, New Rochelle, NY

1640s births
1691 deaths
17th-century executions by New York (state)
German emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
Politicians from New Rochelle, New York
History of New Rochelle, New York
Huguenot history in the United States
People of colonial New York
17th-century executions of American people
American rebels
Dominion of New England
Year of birth uncertain
Executed people from Hesse
Hessian emigrants to the United States
17th-century executions by England
People executed by the Thirteen Colonies by hanging
Colonial governors of New York (state)

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Jacob Leisler
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<mask> (April 19, 1890December 16, 1930), known as <mask>, was a German-American bank robber. A former Prussian Army soldier who immigrated to the United States, Lamm believed a heist required all the planning of a military operation. He pioneered the concepts of "casing" a bank and developing escape routes before conducting the robbery. Using a meticulous planning system called "The Lamm Technique", he conducted dozens of successful bank robberies from the end of World War I. In 1930,  Lamm committed suicide when surrounded by a law-enforcement party in Sidell, Illinois, after a botched heist. Lamm's techniques were studied and imitated by other bank robbers across the country, including the famous John Dillinger. Criminal career
Lamm was a member of the Prussian Army, but was forced out of his regiment after he was caught cheating at cards.After he was discredited, Lamm emigrated to the United States shortly before the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Lamm became a holdup man, and quickly started adapting his military training, his study of tactics, and his precision and discipline into the art of crime. He theorized that a heist required all the planning of a military operation, which included the development of contingency options in the event of unforeseen problems. Bank robberies in the United States were largely improvised at the time, resulting in varied degrees of success and failure among heists. Lamm sought to take the guesswork out of bank robbing. Lamm was arrested in 1917 after a botched holdup and served a brief stint in a Utah prison, where he developed what became known as "The Lamm Technique", in which he pioneered the concept of "casing" banks. The system involved carefully studying a target bank for many hours before the robbery, developing a detailed floor plan, noting the location of safes, taking meticulous notes and establishing escape routes.He would occasionally have a man pose as a journalist to better understand the inner workings of the bank. Lamm assigned each gang member a specific job, along with a specific zone of the bank they were charged with surveying and a strict timetable to complete their stage of the robbery. Among the jobs he assigned to his fellow robbers were the lookout, the getaway driver, the lobby man and the vault man. He also put his men through a series of rehearsals, some of which involved using a full-scale mock-up of the interior of the bank. Lamm stressed the importance of timing during these practice runs, and used stopwatches to ensure the proper results were achieved. He only allowed his gang members to stay in a bank for a specific period of time, regardless of how much money they could steal. Lamm is also credited with having devised the first detailed bank robbery getaway maps, which he called "gits".Once Lamm targeted a bank, he mapped the nearby back roads, which he called "cat roads", to a tenth of a mile. He meticulously developed getaway plans for each of his robberies. Before every heist, Lamm obtained a nondescript car with a high-powered engine, and often recruited drivers who had been involved in auto racing. Lamm pasted a chart on the dashboard for the driver, which included block-by-block markings of escape routes, alternative turns and speedometer readings. Before each run, Lamm and the getaway driver clocked each route to the second under various weather conditions. Practice runs on the escape routes and alternative routes would take days to master. Using this system, Lamm and his gang conducted dozens of successful bank robberies from the end of World War I to 1930, taking more than $1 million in total.They were considered the most efficient gang of bank robbers of the era. Lamm had several run-ins with the authorities, using several aliases. After he and an accomplice were arrested in February 1927, Lamm's past came up when police discovered previous criminal suspicion. In a bond hearing to determine Lamm's fate (he was using the alias "Robert J. Masden" at the time), evidence showed that he was arrested in San Francisco in December 1914 (under his actual name), on a charge of robbery, but there was no known disposition of the case. Also under his real name, he was arrested in Superior, Wisconsin, in June 1918 under suspicion of being connected with a hold-up. He was told to leave the city after no connection could be established. He was arrested under the alias "Harry K. Lamb" in Kansas City, Missouri, in July 1918, but was released.Under the name "Thomas Bell", he was arrested in St. Joseph, Missouri, in December 1920, on a charge of burglary. This was the alias he was originally identified as upon his death in 1930. In May 1929, Lamm was arrested in Benton, Illinois, and it was discovered he was a suspect in robbery of the Northwestern National Bank of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Death
Lamm died on December 16, 1930, after a botched bank robbery in Clinton, Indiana. After stealing $15,567 from the Citizens State Bank, getaway driver and ex-rum-runner W. H. Hunter noticed a local barber approaching the car with a shotgun. The barber was one of thousands of Indiana citizens organized to help police fight a growing number of bank robberies in the state. The driver panicked and pulled a fast U-turn, causing the Buick sedan to blow a tire after jumping a curb.Lamm and his men seized a second car, but were forced to abandon it after they realized it could go no more than  because it was fitted with a governor, which the car's owner had installed to prevent his elderly father from driving recklessly. The gang seized a third vehicle, a truck, but because it had very little water in the radiator, they were forced to seize a fourth vehicle (another car), which had only one gallon of gas in the tank. Lamm and his gang were cornered near Sidell, Illinois, by about 200 police officers and armed citizens. A massive gun battle ensued, in which Hunter was wounded and later died. Lamm and another gang member, 71-year-old G. W. "Dad" Landy, shot themselves in the head rather than surrender. Two survivors of Lamm's gang, Walter Dietrich and James "Oklahoma Jack" Clark, were captured and eventually sentenced to life in an Indiana state prison. Legacy

Lamm is widely considered one of the most brilliant and efficient bank robbers to have ever lived, and has been described as "the father of modern bank robbery".By his death in 1930, the Lamm Technique had already been widely imitated by other bank robbers across the country. Infamous bank robber John Dillinger studied Lamm's meticulous bank-robbing system and used it extensively throughout his criminal career. Dietrich and Clark met Dillinger during their stint in the Indiana state prison following Lamm's death. The pair were permitted to join Dillinger's gang on the condition they taught him everything they knew about the Lamm Technique. References

1890 births
1930 suicides
German bank robbers
American bank robbers
American outlaws
Crimes in Illinois
Crimes in Indiana
Crimes in Utah
Depression-era gangsters
German emigrants to the United States
People from Kassel
Prussian Army personnel
Suicides by firearm in Illinois

masks:
Herman Karl Lamm
Baron Lamm


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<mask> (born 10 November 1971 in Subiaco, Western Australia), is a musician based in Melbourne. Since 1999, he has toured regularly to the United States, Canada, Europe, Mexico, Japan, Taiwan, China, Malaysia, Scandinavia and Iceland with both Ninetynine, playing drums, and Baseball, playing violin. His band Cuba Is Japan toured the Far East in 2009. and a 5 date tour of China supporting Angie Hart. He is not to be confused with Sydney musician <mask>, lead singer and guitarist of Dead Letter Chorus. Biography
<mask> is originally from Perth, and from a hip hop background, prior to playing drums in 1988. He played in several bands in Perth, including Thou Gideon and Manic Pizza, before re-locating to Melbourne in 1992. In 1994 <mask> joined with Gareth Edwards to form Sandro, with Edwards on guitar and vocals and Nick Carroll on bass.Sandro released its first album, Live by Rivers in November 1996, which was followed by tours with Palace Brothers, Dirty Three and Smog, later releasing Hate Songs in 1997. The album attracted significant national airplay from Triple J, press in Rolling Stone and Juice and national airplay for the "Rainy Season" clip on Rage, Channel V and MTV. After a tour of the United States built around the completion of Sandro's third album, The Flux, <mask> Kinney drummer Laura MacFarlane and Rhonda Simmonds. They recorded the band's second album, 767, with Simmonds on bass; <mask> and MacFarlane sharing drums, vibraphone, and Casiotone keyboards; and MacFarlane on guitars, vocals, and xylophone. Simmonds left to join Origami and was replaced by Iain McIntyre and Michelle Mansford. A 75 date tour of the US, Canada and Europe followed, and with this lineup they recorded the album, 180°, in 2000.Mansford left after another long international tour in late 2001 and replaced by Amy Clarke (formerly of Vivian Girls). The band recorded with producer Lindsey Gravina releasing The Process in 2002. They also that year released a compilation of rarities and odd 7" B-Sides, Anatomy of Distance. Following this was another long tour of Europe and Japan. Clarke left Ninetynine in 2006 after the release of Worlds of Space, Worlds of Population, Worlds of Robots and was replaced by Meg Butler, with further touring to the US, Canada and Mexico, including a recording session at Motown studios in Detroit. On his third trip to Egypt in 2001, he acquired his first violin , an event that eventually led to the formation of Baseball, a Middle East influenced fusion band. During a stint in Scotland he met Monika Fikerle (Love of Diagrams) in November 2002 and with bassist, Steve Begovich, they toured Europe, Scandinavia and Japan.After returning from overseas, the group began recording their first album, Gods and Stars, Priests and Kings, with new bassist and keyboardist, Yoshi Araki in mid-2003. In November of that year, Baseball returned to Europe with Love of Diagrams, playing 28 shows across eleven countries, finishing in Osaka, Japan. Araki was not allowed re-entry into Australia and so Baseball underwent the line up change in early 2005 that would cement the foundings for the rest of their career. Ben Butcher joined to play guitar (ex Jihad Against America) and Evelyn Morris joined on drums (Pikelet/True Radical Miracle). Now a four piece with Monika switching from Piano Accordion to bass, and Potts solely on violin and vocals, they were invited to play at the Hohaiyan Rock Concert in Taiwan and released an EP, Taiwan/Japan Tour EP in 2005. In 2007, the group recorded Animal Kingdom at Head Gap in Melbourne and then undertook an extensive self-funded tour of Europe, taking in Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, Czech Republic, Austria, Slovenia, and Croatia, before heading into Italy, Spain, France, Ireland and the UK. 2008 finally saw the release of the band's second album, Animal Kingdom, and three separate national tours followed: one with The Mountain Goats, another with Snowman and their own set of dates to launch the album.Original guitarist Steve Begovich died from MS complications in 2008 and by the start of 2009, the band began to focus on other projects with <mask> forming Cuba is Japan, Fikerle performing with Love of Diagrams and Morris with Pikelet. In 2011 Baseball played their first show in three years, a fundraiser for Japanese earthquake victims, in Melbourne. <mask> has played in a number of other Melbourne bands including: Crank, Peachfuzz, Trippin Phil's All Ska's, Sea Haggs, Manic Pizza, and Perth group Thou Gideon,

In 2012 his  group membership included Cuba is Japan, Montero (with Guy Blackman, Geoff O'Connor and Ben Montero) and High Tea which includes former Baseball guitarist Ben Butcher, guitarist Kim Sills and Cuba is Japan violinist/keyboardist James Heenan playing bass. He is also a session drummer in Melbourne, playing on Regurgitator's 2010 EP Distractions and performing live with Japanese Avant Garde Legends, 'The Boredoms'. He also played on Nick Allbrook's (Pond/Tame Impala) solo album Pure Gardiya (2015). <mask> is also a writer and photographer. Other activities
<mask> is a graduate of Perth's Claremont School of Art, majoring in painting.He has exhibited and sold photographs from his world travels. Published works are a children's book In Fitzroy, The Flowers Grew So High (1993). and a  collection of poems called A Headache of Happiness (1995).

masks:
Cameron Potts
Cameron Potts
Potts
Potts
Pottster
Potts
Potts
Potts
Potts
Potts


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<mask> (6 June 1912 – 13 June 2008) was a South African-born English film actor with over 60 screen appearances to his credit between 1934 and his retirement from acting in 1958. <mask>'s career divided into two distinct periods. Between 1934 and 1938, billed as <mask>, he appeared in upwards of 20 British films, mostly of the cheaply shot and quickly forgotten quota quickie variety. He then moved to the US, where he changed his surname to <mask>, and found himself for a time appearing in some of the biggest prestige productions of their day, alongside stars such as Bette Davis, Joan Crawford, Tyrone Power and Errol Flynn. <mask> himself never achieved star-billing, but was said to have remarked that this at least meant that if a film was a flop, no blame ever fell on his shoulders. Early life
Born in Johannesburg to English parents, <mask> was educated at Brighton College in Sussex. He dabbled in amateur dramatics, but also showed potential as an exceptionally talented tennis player, and was considering trying to make a living from the sport until friends convinced him that acting offered far greater earning potential.Film career

1930s
After spending some time as a stage actor, <mask> obtained his first minor film role in the 1934 quota quickie The Girl in the Flat. His performance was noticed and a good career opportunity presented itself straight away when he was offered the male romantic lead in To Be a Lady, opposite Chili Bouchier, one of Britain's top female stars of the time. Far from a quota quickie, this was a quality production with a generous budget, but failed to perform as well as expected at the box-office. This was followed by another romantic lead, this time with Valerie Hobson, in Badger's Green, a film in which cricket played a major part and which was praised for its "Englishness". Both of these films are believed lost, but are deemed of great interest by the British Film Institute and are both included on its "75 Most Wanted" list of missing British feature films. <mask>'s career then began to stagnate. The most enduring British film in which he appeared was Death at Broadcasting House, also from 1934, although his role was relatively minor.The next few years were spent toiling mainly in low-budget programmes, often in insignificant roles. Things took an upturn in 1938, when he was signed to Teddington Studios, the British division of Warner Brothers. He was promptly sent to the US, where he was cast in the James Cagney vehicle Boy Meets Girl. He was then signed to a three-year Hollywood contract, reportedly at Cagney's urging. One of his first Hollywood assignments was the high-profile historical drama If I Were King. 1940s and 1950s
<mask>'s film career hit its peak in the early 1940s, beginning with the role of Mr. Bingley in the 1940 adaptation of Pride and Prejudice, followed by landing a plum role in the Bette Davis classic The Letter. <mask> and Davis shared some crucial scenes in the film, and it was soon being reported that Davis was very taken by the handsome young Englishman, going out of her way to help him and put him at his ease on set.It is generally believed that a brief relationship of some description developed between the two, although nothing came of it. Writer Jerry Asher, a long-time friend of Davis, recalled: "She found <mask> attractive and sweet, but he was a bit tame for her speed." At this time <mask> briefly returned to Britain, intending to join the army. However he was persuaded that his talents would be better employed in helping to promote the Allied cause in the US. He returned, and appeared in several films in which he played flying officers, including Man Hunt, A Yank in the RAF and Desperate Journey. In 1943 he played in the Joan Crawford and Fred MacMurray spy drama Above Suspicion. He did then decide to join the British services, serving through to the end of the war.On his return to Hollywood, <mask>'s career faltered, with both the quality of film and size of role he was being offered tapering off. He did land a good part in 1947's Golden Earrings with Ray Milland and Marlene Dietrich, then returned for a time to Europe, where he starred in But Not in Vain (1948 – filmed in the Netherlands) and Celia: The Sinister Affair of Poor Aunt Nora (1949). Returning to the US, <mask> began to turn his hand to working as a story analyst for Paramount and Columbia. In the early 1950s he was playing minor roles in low-budget versions of English-set historical dramas such as Tales of Robin Hood and Lorna Doone. As the decade progressed film parts became ever-smaller, until he was mainly playing uncredited bit parts. <mask>'s final screen credit came in 1958's Tarzan and the Trappers, after which he decided to retire from acting and spend the rest of his life out of the spotlight. Later life
In later years, <mask> and his wife divided their time between Los Angeles and Palm Springs.He continued to play tennis, and was a keen member of the Hollywood Cricket Club. <mask> died in Los Angeles on 13 June 2008, one week after his 96th birthday. He was buried at the Westwood Memorial Park in Westwood, Los Angeles

Filmography

1934: The Girl in the Flat - Bit Role (uncredited)
1934: To Be a Lady - Jerry Dean
1934: Badger's Green - Dickie Wetherby
1934: Death at Broadcasting House - Peter Ridgwell (uncredited)
1934: The Third Clue - Derek Clayton
1935: Old Faithful - Chris Morgan
1935: Old Roses - Alf Haines
1936: Ourselves Alone - 2nd Lieut. Lingard
1936: A Star Fell from Heaven - Winkler
1936: The Tenth Man - Edward O'Donnell
1936: Crime Over London - Ronald Martin
1936: Hail and Farewell - Peter Dove
1936: The Heirloom Mystery - Alf Dene
1936: Head Office - Halliday
1937: Mayfair Melody - Dickie
1937: The Windmill - Officer
1937: Ship's Concert (Short) - Purser
1937: Change for a Sovereign - Prince William
1938: Quiet Please - Dr. Faversham
1938: Thistledown - Lord James Dunfoyle
1938: Boy Meets Girl - Rodney Bowman
1938: If I Were King - Noel le Jolys
1939: Home from Home - Jim
1939: The Witness Vanishes - Lord Noel Stratton
1940: The Invisible Man Returns - Chaplain (uncredited)
1940: British Intelligence - Frank Bennett
1940: My Son, My Son! Clint Bradford
1953: Rogue's March - Wilson (uncredited)
1953: Storm over Africa - Saxon
1954: King Richard and the Crusaders - Castelaine
1954: Charade - Capt. van Buren
1955: The Sea Chase - Petty Officer (uncredited)
1955: The Scarlet Coat - Col. Simcoe (uncredited)
1957: Something of Value - Physician - McKenzie Massacre (uncredited)
1957: The Seventh Sin - Allan (uncredited)
1958: Tarzan and the Trappers (TV Movie) - Commissioner Brandini (final film role)

References

External links

1912 births
2008 deaths
English male film actors
People from Johannesburg
English expatriates in the United States
People educated at Brighton College
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
South African emigrants to the United Kingdom

masks:
Bruce Lester
Lester
Bruce Lister
Lester
Lester
Lester
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Bruce
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<mask> is an American professor of mathematics at the New Jersey Institute of Technology and author. Biography
Kappraff was trained in engineering, physical sciences and mathematics, earning a B.Ch.E. in chemical engineering at New York Polytechnic in 1958. He went on to be awarded a PhD in applied mathematics in 1974 from the Courant Institute of Mathematical Science, New York University and a M.S. in chemical engineering in 1960 from Iowa State University. He began work for DuPont DeNemours as a chemical engineer from 1961 to 1962 going on to teach mathematics for a brief period before obtaining a position at NASA as an aerospace engineer from 1962 until 1965. He went on to be an instructor of mathematics at the Cooper Union College, New York City from 1968 until 1974.Following this, he joined the New Jersey Institute of Technology, where he currently works. He was a consultant for the Department of Energy in 1976. In 1978 he developed a course in the mathematics of design for computer scientists, mathematicians and architects. In bringing together such an interdisciplinary range of subjects, he began to study what he termed a common language of design and geometry. He has been a prolific lecturer on the relationship between art and science and published a large number or articles on subjects ranging from plasma physics, solar heating, aerospace engineering and fractals. He has also published a number of books on these and related subjects and compiled a series of video lectures on the science of design. He is a skilled musician and a member of a Baroque ensemble, President of a local civic group and has organized a Chamber Music Workshop writing and directing a program entitled The Musicians and Artists of Terezin.He has also assisted a task force to improve voting machines in New Jersey. His other interests include playing violin and tennis, listening to chamber music and practicing t'ai chi. In 1991 his book Connections won a prize for the best book in chemistry, physics, mathematics, astronomy and reference from the Association of American Publishers. Professional activities
At the NJIT, Kapraff has organized various forums and tuition programs on subjects from Nuclear war and ancient geometry to experimental mathematics. he is a member of the faculty council and chairman of the NJIT Technology and Society Forum committee. He is a member of the Mathematics Association of America and on the editorial board of a new interdisciplinary journal, the International Journal of Biological Systems. He was also guest editor of the journal FORMA for a special issue on the golden mean in 2005.Selected bibliography
 <mask>, J. "Ancient Harmonic Law". Bridges 2007. (2007)
 <mask>, J. "The Lost Harmonic Law of the Bible". Proceedings of London-Bridges 2006. Edited by J.Sharp. <mask>, J. and McClain, E.G. "The Proportions of the Parthenon: A work of musically inspired architecture". Music in Art: International Journal for Music Iconography, Vol. 30/1–2 (Spring–Fall 2005)
 <mask>, J. In Search of the Golden Mean. FORMA Vol.19, No. 4 (2005)
 <mask>, J. Growth of Plants: A Study in Number. FORMA Vol 19, No. 4 (2005). <mask>, J. and Adamson, G.W. Generalized Binet Formulas, Lucas Polynomials, and Cyclic Constants.FORMA vol. 19, No. 4 (2005)
 <mask>, J., Jablan, S., Adamson, G.W., Sazdanovich, R. Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices. FORMA vol. 19, No. 4 (2005). <mask>, J. and Adamson, G.W.Polygons and Chaos. Journal of Biological Systems and Geometric Theories, Vol. 2 pp 79–94 (Nov. 2004). <mask>, J. The Anatomy of a Bud. In Bridges:2004 edited by R. Sarhangi. Winfield,KS:Central Plains books (2004)
 <mask>, J. and Adamson, G.W.The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, Silver Means, p-cycles, and Chaos Theory. FORMA. Vol.18, No. 3, pp 249–262 (2003)
 <mask>, J. The Anatomy of a Bud. In Bridges:2004 edited by R. Sarhangi. Winfield,KS:Central Plains books (2004)
 <mask>, J. and Adamson, G.W.Polygons and Chaos. Journal of Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories, Vol. 2 pp 79–94 (Nov. 2004). <mask>, J. Complexity and Chaos Theory in Art. Chaos and Complexity Letters, Vol 3. Special Issue on Chaos and Complexity in Arts and Architecture.In press. <mask>, J. and McClain,E. The System of Proportions of the Parthenon: A Work of Musically Inspired Architecture. Music in Art: International Journal of Music Iconography, Vol. 30 (2005), 5-16. <mask>, J and Adamson, G.W. A Unified Theory of Proportion.Conference Proceedings of ISAMA-Bridges 2003. J. Barrallo, et al. editors (2003) and in Journal of Visual Mathematics
 <mask>, J. "The System of Proportions of the Parthenon and its Meaning". Proceedings of the 5th Bridges Conference, ed. by R. Sarhangi (2002). <mask> and Adamson, G.W."Polygons and Chaos". Symmetry : Art and Science No. 1/2 (2001). <mask>, J. "Beyond Measure: Essays in Nature Myth, and Number". 600 pages., Singapore: World Scientific In press. (2002)
 <mask>, J."A Secret of Ancient Geometry." In Geometry at, Work edited by C.Gorini. Mathematics Association of American Geometry MAA Notes No. 53 (2000)
 <mask>, J. and Hawkins, G. "The Music of the Spheres: Was Kepler Wrong?” unpublished. <mask>, J. and Adamson, G.W. "A Fresh Look at Number". Visual Mathematics (an electronic journal, Vol.2, No. 3 Fall 2000. <mask>, J. "The Arithmetic of Nicomachus of Gerasa and its Applications to Systems of Proportion" Nexus Network Journal Vol. 4, No. 3 October 2000. <mask>, J."The Hidden Pavements of Michelangelo’s Laurentian Library". Article in the Mathematical Tourist section of Mathematical Intelligencer. June 1999. <mask>, J. "Systems of Proportion in Design and Architecture and their relationship to Dynamical Systems". In Visual Mathematics (an electronic journal). Issue 1.Feb. 1999. <mask>, J., Blackmore, D., and Adamson, G. "Phyllotaxis asDynamical System: A Study in Number." In Symmetry in Plants edited by R.V. Jean and D. Barabe. Singapore: World Scientific. In print (1996). <mask>, J."Musical Proportions at the Basis of Architectural Proportions both Ancient and Modern." In Nexus '96 edited by K. Williams. Fuccechio: Edizioni Dell' Erba. In print (1996). <mask>, J. "Linking the Musical Proportions of Renaissance, the Modulor, and Roman Systems of Proportions." Space Structures, Vol.11, Nos. 1 and 2 (1996). Blackmore, D. and <mask>, J. "Phyllotaxis and Toral Dynamical Systems." Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (1995). <mask>, J. "Tangrams, Amish Quilts, and Sacred Geometry".SIAM Newsletter in Discrete Mathematics. May 1993. <mask>, J. "Connections: The Geometric Bridge between Art and Science " 470 pages. New York: McGraw–Hill. 1991. <mask>, J."The Relationship between Mathematics and Mysticism of the Golden Mean through History." In Five-fold Symmetry in a Cultural Context edited by Istvan Hargittai. Singapore: World Scientific. 1991. <mask>, J. "The Spiral in Myth, Mathematics, and Nature." In Spiral Symmetry edited by I. Hargittai and C.A.Pickover. Singapore:World Scientific. 1991. <mask>, J. "A Course in the Mathematics of Design." In Symmetry:Unifying Human Understanding. Edited by I. Hargittai.Pergamon Press. 1986. <mask>, J. "The Geometry of Coastlines: A study in Fractals." In Symmetry: Unifying Human Understanding edited by I. Hargittai. Pergamon Press. 1986.References

External links
 NJIT – Professor <mask>, Department of Mathematics
 Professor <mask>, personal details
 youtube.com – <mask> – A new course in the mathematics of design

20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
American non-fiction writers
University of Iowa alumni
Polytechnic Institute of New York University alumni
People from New Jersey
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

masks:
Jay Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
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Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
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Kappraff
Kappraff
Kappraff
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Kappraff
Kappraff
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Kappraff
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Kappraff
Jay Kappraff
Jay Kappraff
Jay Kappraff


texts:
Henri "<mask><mask> (born 20 December 1933 in Grobbendonk) is a Belgian former professional cyclist of the post-war period, nicknamed the King of the Classics or Emperor of Herentals (after the small Belgian city where he lived). He was twice world professional road race champion, and was the first cyclist to win all five 'Monuments': the most prestigious one-day classics – a feat since achieved by just two others (both also Belgians: Roger De Vlaeminck and Eddy Merckx). With 379 road victories he's second to Merckx only. He is ninth on the all-time list of Grand Tour stage winners with thirty-seven victories. Career

<mask> rose to prominence when he won the Belgian amateur road championship in 1952. He repeated the victory the following year, adding third place in the world title race the same year, before turning professional. At the 1952 Summer Olympics, he won a gold medal in the team road race event.A powerful sprinter, <mask> won two races in what was left of his first professional season (1953), and 20 more over the next couple of seasons. In 1956, his victories included Gent–Wevelgem and Paris–Brussels, plus two stages and overall victory in the Tour of the Netherlands. He also won a silver medal in the world road race championship, behind his countryman <mask> <mask>en. He repeated his Gent–Wevelgem and Tour of the Netherlands victories in 1957, and in 1958 won the season's opening classic, Milan–San Remo. 1959 saw <mask> take the early-season Tour of Flanders and the autumn classic, the Giro di Lombardia. In between, he scored another 38 victories, including three stages of the Vuelta a España (finishing third overall and winner of the points competition) and four stages of the Giro d'Italia (for 4th overall). In 1960, he scored the first of two consecutive victories in the world road race championship, but Classic victories eluded him.However, he made up for this in 1961, winning both Paris–Roubaix and Liège–Bastogne–Liège – making him the first rider to take all five 'Monuments' – as well as retaining his rainbow world title jersey, and taking three stages, plus the mountains competition, in the Giro. <mask> scored two more Classic wins in 1962 (Paris–Roubaix, Tour of Flanders), took another Gent–Wevelgem, and two more Giro stages. In 1963 <mask> rode the Tour de France, taking four stages en route to victory in the points competition and a 10th place on general classification; he also grabbed a silver in the world title race. In the latter race, held in Ronse in his native Belgium, he was beaten in the sprint by his countryman Benoni Beheyt. <mask>, starting the sprint too early, did not take this defeat lightly. This race has remained memorable in the history of Belgian cycling. In 1965, he scored 42 victories including Paris–Roubaix, and eight stages of the Vuelta on his way to his second third place overall (his highest placing in a Grand Tour).For good measure, he also took two stages in the Tour de France. During the final years of his career (1966–1970), <mask>'s road performances began to fade, as the new Belgian star Eddy Merckx rose to prominence, but he still grabbed second in the 1967 Paris–Roubaix, won La Flèche Wallonne in 1968, and took a stage of the 1969 Tour de France. His rivalry with Eddy Merckx reached the height of sabotage of Merckx in the world championships in 1969. <mask> was also a star on the track, winning 11 Six-day races. His first came in Brussels in 1957, his last in Antwerp in 1968. For nine of these victories, he was paired with Dutchman Peter Post. Procyclingstats.com - All Time Wins Ranking: 2nd place (162 wins)
 Memoire du Cyclisme - Classement les Plus Grands Coureurs: 11th place (2002)

References

Further reading

External links

1933 births
Living people
Belgian male cyclists
Belgian Tour de France stage winners
Belgian Vuelta a España stage winners
UCI Road World Champions (elite men)
People from Herentals
Olympic cyclists of Belgium
Cyclists at the 1952 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Belgium
Olympic medalists in cycling
Flemish sportspeople
Sportspeople from Antwerp (province)
People from Grobbendonk
Medalists at the 1952 Summer Olympics

masks:
Rik
" Van Looy
Van Looy
Van Looy
Rik
Van Steenberg
Van Looy
Van Looy
Van Looy
Van Looy
Van Looy
Van Looy


texts:
<mask> (31 December 1889 – 27 August 1963) was a German politician, a member of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). He was Cultural Minister during the later years of the Weimar Republic and after World War II, during the early years of the Federal Republic of Germany. During the Third Reich, he was arrested as a member of the German Resistance and sentenced to prison. After the war, he filed a legal complaint against the judge who had condemned him and others. After years of delays, the case was dropped by the prosecutor. Life before 1945

<mask> was born in Goslar, Prussian Hanover, the son of Louise, née Sander (1858–1952) and <mask> (1854–1906), a train station master. In 1908, he began studying philosophy and German studies, attending universities in Halle, Munich and Göttingen.He was also involved in the free student reform movement. He finished, passing his state exams in philosophy in 1914. In 1922, he became a member of the SPD. He began teaching in 1924. He then became a senior teacher (Oberstudienrat) in Hannover and in 1925, he became the superintendent in Magdeburg. He became the assistant Minister at the Prussian Ministry of Culture, and a year later, the vice president of the provincial school council of Berlin and Mark Brandenburg. In 1930, he became the successor to Carl Heinrich Becker, serving as the last Culture Minister of a democratically elected state government in Prussia.He was removed from this position on 20 July 1932 when the state government was deposed in the Prussian coup. Grimme belonged to the Covenant of Religious Socialists. In 1942, his house was searched because of his connections to the Red Orchestra and he was arrested by the Gestapo. In 1943, he was brought before the Reich court martial. A good defense strategy, which mainly consisted of ratting on his fellow Red Orchestra members, enabled him to avoid the death penalty facing him and he was sentenced to three years in a labor prison (Zuchthaus), condemned for "failure to report an attempt at high treason". The Gestapo failed to uncover his participation in the German Resistance as author of many fliers then in circulation. Under the Third Reich, the crime of Wehrkraftzersetzung was punishable by death.<mask>'s prison term was spent at the prisons in Luckau and Fuhlsbüttel. After the war
Although not given to revenge, on 15 September 1945 Grimme filed a complaint with the state's attorney against Manfred Roeder for his involvement condemning to death or imprisonment 49 members of the Red Orchestra, including Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Hans von Dohnanyi, Arvid Harnack and Günther Weisenborn. Dated 12 May 1951, the final report by Hans-Jürgen Finck, Lüneburg state's attorney, about the investigation into the complaint filed by <mask> and other surviving Red Orchestra members came to the conclusion that the Reich court martial trials had been conducted "in accordance with the law" (ordnungsgemaß) and the defendants correctly sentenced to death. "The basis of the 'Red Orchestra'... was treason. Treason... has ever and in all ages been regarded as the most ignominious crime. ... Also the 20 July Plot was in profound measure fueled by treason and espionage." The report further stated that the military opposition had "assumed... an enormous amount of guilt".Other German men disagreed with Hitler and the war, but nonetheless "did their duty as soldiers and in administration and the economy... [and] certainly would have rejected with outrage... being placed in the same league with men like Beck, Canaris, Oster [and] von Dohnanyi." The case, also pursued by Weisenborn and Greta Kuckhoff, was delayed by the state's attorney in Lüneburg until the end of the 1960s, when it was dropped. Grimme was a member of the postwar "appointed Landtag" organized by the British military government in their occupation zone. It existed for just a few months, from 23 August 1946 to 8 December 1946. After the British created the German state of Lower Saxony, he became a member of the appointed Landtag of Lower Saxony, which existed from 8 December 1946 to 28 March 1947. When the elections were held, he became a member of the first elected Landtag, later becoming the first Minister of Culture of Lower Saxony. On 15 November 1948 Grimme was named the first General Manager of Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk.In 1956, he retired to Degerndorf am Inn in the municipality of Brannenburg. A well-known quote from <mask>e is A socialist can be a Christian. A Christian must be a socialist. Legacy
Over the decades since his death, Grimme has become a "name without a history". An annual television prize, the most prestigious in Germany, is named for him, the Adolf Grimme Award. Known since 2010 as the Grimme Award, it was first awarded by the City of Marl training institute in 1964. In 1973, a media institute named after Grimme was founded in Marl, and has given out the Grimme Award since 1977, expanded in 2001 to include new media.A biography about Grimme was published in 2008, helping to "return the missing history" to Grimme's name. Footnotes

References

Further reading
 Kai Burkhardt: <mask>. Eine Biographie. Cologne, Weimar, Vienna: Böhlau-Verlag 2007 ()
 Barbara Simon: Abgeordnete in Niedersachsen 1946–1994. Biographisches Handbuch. 1996, p. 128
 Gert Rosiejka: Die Rote Kapelle. „Landesverrat“ als antifaschistischer Widerstand, foreword by Heinrich Scheel.ergebnisse.Verlag: Hamburg 1986,

External links

 <mask>e The Federal Archives of Germany. Retrieved January 29, 2012

1889 births
1963 deaths
German resistance members
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Landtag of Lower Saxony
People condemned by Nazi courts
People from Goslar
People from the Province of Hanover
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
University of Göttingen alumni
ARD (broadcaster) people
Ministers of the Lower Saxony State Government
Education ministers of Prussia

masks:
Adolf Berthold Ludwig Grimme
Grimme
Adolf Grimme
Grimme
Grimme
Adolf Grimm
Adolf Grimme
Adolf Grimm