texts:
<mask> (Hangul 권혁웅; born 1967) is a South Korean poet, literary critic, and professor. He was born in Chungju, South Korea and studied Korean literature at Korea University, where he also received his doctoral degree. He has been teaching creative writing at Hanyang Women's University since 2003. Life
<mask>g was born in Chungju, South Korea. He began his literary career when he won the Joongang Ilbo New Writer's Contest in 1996 for criticism and the Munye Joongang Literary Award in 1997 for poetry. As a critic, he was closely involved in a heated controversy over South Korean Futurist literature in the mid-2000s. Experimental works by young South Korean poets in that decade were attracting criticism for their abstruseness, but <mask> defended them arguing that they simply used “a different style of communication” from conventional poetry.He was in fact the first one to call them “Futurist” poetry, and despite the controversy surrounding the subject, the name stuck. It became an important term to explain South Korean poetry in the 2000s and sparked various other discussions on new poetics. <mask>'s own poetry, however, was not the kind of work he praised as a critic. He preferred to write lyrical and romantic poetry. He earned a number of accolades for his work, including the 6th Modern Poetry Coterie Award in 2000, the 4th Yushim Award for Best Criticism in 2006, the 2nd Society of Korean Poets Award for Emerging Poets in 2006, the 15th Contemporary Poetry Award in 2010, and the 12th Midang Literary Award in 2012. He served on the editorial board of literary journals Munye Joongang and Hyeondaesihak. He currently teaches creative writing at Hanyang Women's University.Writing
<mask> Hyeok-ung's poetry has a lyricism that subtly balances emotion with logic. His first poetry collection Hwanggeumnamu areseo (황금나무 아래서 Beneath the Golden Tree) (2001) observes the interior and exterior of objects. His second collection Majingga gyebohak (마징가 계보학 A Genealogy of Mazinger) (2005) nostalgically portrays the hardships of the 1970s and 80s in South Korea by alluding to comic books, erotica, and other cultural memes that were popular among the lower middle class during that time. Geu eolgure ipsureul daeda (그 얼굴에 입술을 대다 I Pressed My Lips on That Face) (2007) is a collection of love poems set in a fantastical universe, featuring mythical creatures from around the world such as centaurs, werewolves, unicorns, and jiangshi. Kwon captures everyday scenes using different motifs for each collection. From his fourth collection Somundeul (소문들 Rumors), his poems start taking on a more subversive character. In particular, they advocate a type of semantics where signifiers resist and gain independence from the “tyranny” of meaning, explore the meaning of resisting meaning, and seek a counterpower to cause power to implode.Such satirical poetry allowed him to perceive the world in a new light and experience the constant tension between language and reality. From parodies and love poems through political satires to poems about everyday life, <mask>'s poems have diversified in their sensibility and expression. Literary critic Shin Hyeong-cheol argues that <mask> is “an intelligent poet” who takes easy-to-miss “people and objects and turns them into protagonists of his stories, then casually nudges them toward us.<mask> has also been noted for his lyricism, experimental style, ability to create images from mundane subjects, imagination, and extensive knowledge of poetry. Works

Poetry collections

1. 『마징가 계보학』(창비, 2005) { A Genealogy of Mazinger. Changbi, 2005. } 2.『그 얼굴에 입술을 대다』(민음사, 2007) { I Pressed My Lips on That Face. Minumsa, 2007. } 3. 『소문들』(문학과지성사, 2010) { Rumors. Moonji, 2010. } 4. 『애인은 토막난 순대처럼 운다』(창비, 2013) { The Lover Wails Like a Chopped up Sausage.Changbi, 2013. } Essay collections

1. 『태초에 사랑이 있었다』(문학동네, 2005) { In the Beginning There Was Love. Munhakdongne, 2005. } 2. 『두근두근』(랜덤하우스코리아, 2008) { Pitapat. Random House Korea, 2008. }3. 『몬스터 멜랑콜리아』(민음사, 2011) { Monster Melancholia. Minumsa, 2011. } 4. 『당신을 읽는 시간』(문예중앙, 2012) { Time to Read You. Moonye Joongang, 2012. } 5.『꼬리치는 당신』(마음산책, 2013) { You’re Flirty. Maumsanchaek, 2013. } 6. 『미주알 고주알』(난다, 2014) { Every Last Detail. Nanda Books, 2014. } 7. 『생각하는 연필』(난다, 2014) { Thinking Pencil.Nanda Books, 2014. } 8. 『외롭지 않은 말』(마음산책, 2016) { Unlonely Words. Maumsanchaek, 2016. } Criticism

1. 『미래파』(문학과지성사, 2005) { Futurism. Moonji, 2005. }2. 『시론』(문학동네, 2010) { Poetics. Munhakdongne, 2010. } 3. 『입술에 묻은 이름』(문학동네, 2012) { The Name Stained on Your Lips. Munhakdongne, 2012. } 4.『시적 언어의 기하학』(새미, 2013) { The Geometry of Poetic Language. Saemi, 2013. } Works in translation
1. 現代詩手帖 2007年 8月号 (Japanese)

Awards
1. 2000: 6th Modern Poetry Coterie Award

2. 2005: 3rd Aeji Literary Award for Best Criticism

3. 2006: 4th Yushim Award for Best Criticism

4.2006: 2nd Society of Korean Poets Award for Emerging Poets

5. 2010: 15th Contemporary Poetry Award

6. 2012: 12th Midang Literary Award

Further reading
1. 최현식, ｢파문의 기원과 궤적｣, 『실천문학사』 봄호, 2002. { Choi, Hyeon-sik. “The Origins and Trajectory of Scandal.” Literature and Practice, Spring 2002 Issue. } 2.김종훈, ｢시어 수집가의 기록 보관소｣, 『문학과사회』 봄호, 2011. { Kim, Jong-hoon. “The Archives of a Poetic Words Collector.” Literature and Society, Spring 2011 Issue. } 3. 신형철, ｢우주의 지도를 그리다가 심장 부근에서 : 권혁웅의 시｣, 『열린시학』 봄호, 2007. { Shin, Hyeong-cheol. “Mapping the Universe but Near the Heart: The Poetry of <mask> Hyeok-ung.” Open Poetics, Spring 2007 Issue. }4. 강동호, ｢메타적 상상력의 미래를 위하여 : 권혁웅 비평집 『시론｣, 『창작과비평』 봄호, 2011. { Gang, Dong-ho. “For a Future of Meta-Imagination: <mask> Hyeok-ung’s Critical Essay Collection Poetics.” Changbi, Spring 2011 Issue. } External links
1. 백(白)형제의 문인보](24) 시인 권혁웅 { “Writer Bios of the White Brothers: Poet <mask> Hyeok-ung.” The Kyunghyang Shinmun. Last modified September 28, 2014. }2. 미당문학상 받는 시인 권혁웅 씨 "술 취한 샐러리맨에서 현대인 상처 봤죠“ { “Poet <mask> Hyeok-ung, Winner of Midang Literary Award, Says He Saw the Scars of Modern Society in a Drunk Office Worker.” Hankyung News. Last modified September 25, 2012. } References

1967 births
Living people
21st-century South Korean poets
South Korean literary critics
South Korean male poets
Midang Literary Award winners
21st-century male writers

masks:
Kwon Hyeokg
Kwon Hyeok un
Kwon
Kwon
Kwon
Kwon
Kwon
” Kwon
Kwon
Kwon
Kwon
Kwon


type: original

texts:
<mask> (20 October 1890 in Liepāja – 17 October 1971 in Kaunas) was one of the most prominent Lithuanian politicians of the interwar period. A Christian Democrat, he rose to the peak of his career in 1925, when he was appointed as the Prime Minister of Lithuania. <mask> also headed the ministries of education, defense and foreign affairs in several different governments throughout 1920s and 1930s and twice served as the speaker of the Lithuanian parliament, the Seimas. After the 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état and the subsequent fall of parliamentary democracy, <mask> led the Christian Democrats and, despite persecution, acted as an outspoken leader of the opposition to the authoritarian President Antanas Smetona. After the Soviet occupation and annexation of Lithuania, <mask> was arrested, sentenced without a trial and deported from Lithuania, only returning permanently after the death of Josef Stalin. <mask> lived the remaining years of his life in obscurity and poverty, supported only by the local people of Kaunas. Early life and education
<mask> was born in 1890 to a working-class family in Liepāja, Courland Governorate of the Russian Empire (now in Latvia), where his father had emigrated.He graduated from the Liepāja Gymnasium in 1911. <mask> attempted studying medicine at the University of Geneva, switching to philosophy at the University of Freiburg a year later. He then returned to studying medicine in Dorpat (now Tartu), but was unable to finish due to the complex international environment leading up to World War I. Upon the start of the war, <mask> was conscripted to the Imperial Russian Army and served in Russia until the Bolshevik Revolution, initially as a private and later as a medic. After the war, Bistras returned to Lithuania and helped to establish the Kaunas municipality, and worked for the press office in Lithuania and Switzerland. <mask> finally graduated from the University of Freiburg in 1921, with a PhD in Philosophy. Between 1922 and 1940 he taught at the faculty of Theology and Philosophy at the Kaunas University.Throughout his life, <mask> did not publish a single article in philosophy (other than his doctoral thesis), but was proud of his doctoral degree, signing his name "Dr. <mask> <mask>" throughout his political career. Political career

Entry into politics
<mask> first ventured into politics during the World War I. The February Revolution liberalized the political environment and allowed for discussions on the status of Lithuania. In Voronezh, <mask> met other active Lithuanian Catholics and edited the newspaper Voice of the Lithuanians (Lietuvių balsas), giving him his first experience in journalism – an activity that would take much of his interest in the coming decades. In 1917, Bistras joined the activities of the emerging Lithuanian Christian Democratic movement. The political situation during the war led to the formation of two parties styling themselves as the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party. One was originally established by Lithuanian refugees in Russia, led by priest Mykolas Krupavičius, and was radicalized by the ongoing revolution there.The other, established in Lithuania, was led by Aleksandras Stulginskis and was more moderate in its goals. In November 1918, a conference was called to unite the two parties. During the conference, <mask> emerged as one of the leaders of the movement and proposed a solution once an impasse was reached – both radical and moderate Christian Democrats would be represented in the joint leadership of the party and both programs would remain in place until they could be aligned. This goal was eventually achieved and the party remained united. <mask> officially joined the party as a member in 1921 and from 1922 onward was regularly elected to its central committee. Member of the Seimas
<mask>' growing prominence in the Lithuanian politics was evident when, in 1922, he was elected to the First Seimas from the constituency of Raseiniai and became its speaker. He played a role in the election of Stulginskis as the President of Lithuania, dismissing complaints from the opposition politicians that the Seimas did not have the necessary quorum when voting on his candidacy.The first Seimas, however, had a short and troubled life – no clear majority had emerged in the elections (Christian Democrats and their allies won 38 of the 78 seats allocated), making governing difficult. In fact, Prime Minister Ernestas Galvanauskas failed twice to get his cabinet approved by the Seimas and Stulginskis dissolved the First Seimas on 12 March 1923. However, the Seimas did play a role in the history of interwar Lithuania, authorizing the Klaipėda Revolt that would see the Klaipėda Region become an autonomous part of Lithuania between 1923 and 1939. <mask> was reelected to the Second Seimas in 1923. Between June 1923 and January 1925, he served as the minister of education in the successive cabinets headed by Galvanauskas and Antanas Tumėnas. As a minister, he took a hard line insisting on religious instruction in public schools, drawing criticism from political opponents. Between January and September 1925, <mask> again served as the speaker of the Seimas.Prime Minister
In September 1925, the government of Vytautas Petrulis opened negotiations with Poland over the navigation of the Neman as required by the Klaipėda Convention. Successive Lithuanian governments bitterly contested the Polish possession of the Vilnius region and refused to open diplomatic relations. Although Petrulis' government saw negotiations as technical and not constituting a diplomatic recognition, the public and military discontent was widespread. An ultimatum from military offices forced Petrulis to resign and <mask> was appointed as the Prime Minister of the 12th cabinet on 25 September 1925. He also served as the minister of defense and, after the resignation of Mečislovas Reinys, as the minister of foreign affairs. His government was in power for less than a year, until the Seimas elections the following spring. <mask>' cabinet withdrew from the negotiations with Poland.Feeling isolated in the international arena, Bistras started negotiations with the Soviet Union on the Soviet–Lithuanian Non-Aggression Pact that would eventually be signed by the government of Mykolas Sleževičius in 1926. Bistras later regretted this shift in political direction. Seeing the growing power of the Soviet Union and Germany in mid-1930s, he advocated for stronger ties with Latvia, Estonia and, above else, Poland, even if it meant accepting the Polish possession of Vilnius. A major challenge for the Bistras' government was managing relations with the Holy See in the Vatican. While Christian Democrats were naturally aligned with the Church in their views on a number of matters, organization of the Catholic Church presented the Lithuanian government with a headache. Even after the declaration of independence in 1918, Catholic churches in Lithuania continued to be organized under ecclesiastical provinces based in foreign countries. The issue escalated in 1925, when the Holy See signed the Concordat of 1925 with Poland and assigned the contested Archdiocese of Vilnius to the Polish ecclesiastical province.While this did not confer a diplomatic recognition of the Polish possession of Vilnius, public opinion in Lithuania turned against Vatican and the Christian Democrats, who were perceived as their allies. Despite protests, Bistras accepted the establishment of the Lithuanian ecclesiastical province without Vilnius in 1926. <mask> was elected to the Third Seimas in 1926, this time in Marijampolė, but Christian Democrats and their allies did not fare well in the elections. For the first time in six years, the party was in opposition to a left-leaning coalition that attempted to normalize the life in Lithuania by lifting the martial law and introducing far-reaching reforms. Christian Democrats proved to be an active opposition in the parliament, with multiple interpellations to the government, many of them co-authored or signed by Bistras. Christian Democrats voted against the treaty with the Soviet Union that was originally conceived under Bistras' government and criticized other government decisions, as support for the government waned, especially among the military officers and the clergy. Coup d'état and Smetona's rule
In December 1926, military officers executed a coup d'état, removing Mykolas Sleževičius as the Prime Minister and Kazys Grinius as the President.Although <mask> and the Christian Democrats were not directly involved in the coup, they participated in implementing its outcome. Christian Democrats voted to elect Antanas Smetona as the President, thus giving him constitutional legitimacy, and initially joined the government, with <mask> appointed as the minister of education. <mask>, ever trying to reach a compromise, initially hoped that a new election would be called, allowing the Christian Democrats to return to power. As the prospect of new elections waned and the Third Seimas was dissolved, <mask>, together with the other Christian Democrats, resigned from the government, leaving Smetona's Nationalists Union of Lithuania as the sole governing party. <mask> assumed the leadership of the Christian Democrats in 1927, leading it through a difficult period. Smetona did not call for new elections to the parliament until 1936, severely limiting the activities and influence of the party. Party leadership was constantly persecuted and put under surveillance, and party congresses were banned in 1929.Apart from the pressure from the government, the Christian Democrats also struggled to maintain unity with their traditional allies (the Farmers' Association and the Labour Federation) as well as within their own ranks. The party, along with other opposition political parties, was finally banned in 1936. <mask> was openly critical of the government during the period. In 1927, he was alleged to have influenced several military officers who attempted to force Smetona to form a coalition government. The intervention failed and Brisas fled Lithuania for Germany, only returning the following year. Starting with 1930, he, together with other Catholic leaders, criticized the government for their attempt to curtail the activities of religious organizations and, in 1935, he openly criticized the government in a speech at the Global Lithuanian Congress. Until 1936, <mask> also edited newspaper Rytas (The Morning) giving a voice to Christian Democrats in Lithuania.The newspaper was often critical of the ruling Nationalists and Smetona, and was often a target of censure and fines. In 1928, the publication of the newspaper was suspended as a result of "infractions" and Bistras started publishing Sutemos (The Dusk) instead, expressing the editor's view of the situation in the country. Bistras had many political articles published in minority (especially Jewish) press, which was less subject to censure. For his activities in inciting protests against the government, <mask> was sentenced in 1938 and sent to a three-month exile to Alytus, separating him from the political elite in Kaunas. His sentence was cut short and Bistras even returned to the government after Lithuania lost the Klaipėda Region after the German ultimatum of March 1939, serving on the 20th cabinet as the minister of education. Even as part of the government, Bistras maintained an explicitly cold relationship with Smetona, refusing to present the president with the work plan for his ministry. Later life and death
In July 1940, <mask> was arrested, imprisoned in the Kaunas Prison and, without a trial, deported to the region of Archangelsk in 1941.Charges laid against him were related to the suppression of the Lithuanian Communist Party in the interwar Lithuania. Proving <mask>' involvement in implementing the suppression was not seen as necessary, his mere participation in the government and the Christian Democratic Party was enough. Due to health reasons, he was transferred to Atbasar in Kazakhstan, where he worked as a medic. In January 1945, he was sentenced again, for allegedly providing a fake certificate of absence, but was released seven months later and allowed to return to Lithuania. In Lithuania, he worked at the library of the Archdiocese of Vilnius. In 1950, he was again arrested, sentenced and sent to Siberia, only returning in 1954 or 1956. As he was not granted a pension or given work by the Soviet government, <mask> lived on donations from the people of Kaunas, where he died in 1971, three days before his 81st birthday.He was buried in Petrašiūnai Cemetery in Kaunas. References

1890 births
1971 deaths
Politicians from Liepāja
People from Courland Governorate
University of Freiburg alumni
University of Geneva alumni
Vytautas Magnus University faculty
Lithuanian people of World War I
Russian military personnel of World War I
Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party politicians
Prime Ministers of Lithuania
Ministers of Education of Lithuania
Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Lithuania
Ministers of Defence of Lithuania
Speakers of the Seimas
Lithuanian journalists
Prisoners and detainees of the Soviet Union
Burials at Petrašiūnai Cemetery
20th-century journalists

masks:
Leonas Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Leonas
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras
Bistras


texts:
<mask> (or <mask>) (reigned 1584–1588) was a khan of the Crimean Khanate. His long stay in Turkey, theological training, and possibly age, may have unfitted him to rule. Most of the fighting was done by his brother <mask>. He was one of the many sons of <mask>. His reign was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of his nephew Saadet, and much of his reign was spent in conflict with Saadet and his brothers, the sons of his murdered brother and predecessor, <mask>. Unlike many Crimean khans he died of natural causes. Early life
The year of his birth is not given.After his father Devlet <mask> came to the throne in 1551, Islyam was sent to the Sultan's court as a rekhin or kind of honorary hostage. Girays living in Istanbul could be put on the Crimean throne if the ruling khan was disobedient. He spent more than 30 years of his life in Turkey and at some point left the Ottoman court for the Mevlevi Order of Sufis at Konya, where he engaged in prayer, meditation and theological study. Accession
In 1584 his elder brother Khan Mehmed <mask>y refused a Turkish order to lead the Crimeans on a distant campaign to Persia. Murad <mask> recalled Islyam and declared him the new Crimean Khan. The Sultan's reasons were probably that Islyam was the eldest Giray after Mehmed and that his long stay in Turkey and lack of military experience would make him a tractable vassal. In May 1584 Islyam arrived at Kaffa with Turkish soldiers and was joined by his brothers Alp, Selyamet and Mubarek and most of the Crimean nobles including the Shirin clan.Mehmed, his sons (below) and the pro-Nogai Mansur clan leaders fled toward the steppe seeking Nogai support. Near Perekop Alp caught up with Mehmed and had him strangled. Islyam with Turkish troops marched to Bakhchisarai and took the throne. Alp became his kalga and Mubarak his nureddin. Saadet’s rebellion
When Mehmed died his sons were Saadet II Giray, Murad and Safa. Three months after Islyam's accession, seeking revenge for their murdered father, Saadet and his brothers led 15000 Nogais, 230 Don Cossacks and the Mansur bey southward. There was no defending army because most of the beys and mirzas had gathered at Bakhchiserai to make arrangements for the new reign.They defended the capital for seven days and then broke up. Under cover of darkness Islyam fled southwest through the hill country to Balaklava and took ship to the Turkish garrison at Kaffa. He was joined by his brothers Alp and Selyamet who had traveled by land. Saadet seized the royal treasury and headed east toward Kaffa. Because of his victory and possession of the treasury many beys joined him. At the old capital of Stary Krym the beys proclaimed him khan. At some point he was joined by some Kumyks.The Zaporozhian Cossacks offered to fight for pay, but this plan was overtaken by events. Saadet marched south and besieged Kaffa. Saadet could not break the walls and the garrison could not deal with the Nogai cavalry. Islyam appealed to the Turks. After a two and a half month siege 4000 janissaries arrived in galleys. Alp opened the gate and the Turkish artillery drove back the Nogai horse. There was a bloody battle at the river Indol near Stary Krym.Saadet was defeated and fled. In the summer of the following year (1585) Saadet tried again but was defeated by Alp <mask> before he reached Perekop. On the steppe
The three brothers were now in danger since any bold chieftain might seize them and sell them to Islyam. Saadet and his younger brother Safa fled east to refuge with Chopan, the shamkhal of the Kumyks on the Caspian Sea. Chopan probably wanted a bargaining chip to protect his independence, since in the last reign Turkish and Crimean troops had several times marched through his lands to attack the Persians. The Shah of Persia was happy with Saadet's arrival and sent him a decorated saber which he suggested be used against the Turks. See Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–90).Another source has Safa go first to Cherkassia, then to the Kumyks in autumn 1586, and later refuse to cooperate with the Russians. Murad chose a stronger protector and went to the Russians at Astrakhan. The Russians hoped to use him as a puppet khan just as they had done at Kazan. Murad went to Moscow in the spring of 1586, was shown great honor and returned to Astrakhan in September. He affected royal airs and called himself 'Lord of the Four Rivers" (Don, Volga, Ural and Terek), but was closely watched by the Russians. He was told to unite the Nogais, Kabardians and Kumyks against Crimea and Turkey. Urus Bey of the Nogais submitted very reluctantly and sent a complaint to the sultan.In the spring of 1587 Islyam heard that the czar had sent Murad 30000 streltsi and Cossacks in preparation for an attack on Crimea at the end of the year. In response, Alp and Selyamet made a raid on the Oka (1587). The Russians claimed success, but the raid reduced their support for Murad. The Russians pretended that they had sent the men to fight the Poles, not the Crimeans. Unhappy with Murad's demands, Urus-Bey sent an ambassador to the sultan offering to become a Turkish subject and receive a Turkish governor, asking for Adil <mask>'s fort of Bola-Serai to replace Saraichik which the Volga Cossacks had destroyed and proposed a new Turkish campaign to liberate Astrakhan. Some time before the Sultan had received a proposal from Bukhara for a joint attack on Astrakhan to open up communications north of the Caspian. Both were at war with Persia.The vizier Piyale-Pasha visited both Bukhara and the Nogais and reported that the capture of Astrakhan was feasible. The sultan ordered Urus and Islyam to prepare for a Volga campaign in the spring of 1588. Islyam would be in charge. Piyale-Pasha began filling Kaffa with food and equipment. (When Islyam died in 1588 the campaign was cancelled, the Turkish troops were sent to the Persian front and the galleys returned to the Mediterranean.) At this time Murad had gone to the Kumyks to marry the Shamkhal’s daughter and bring him into the Russian orbit, while Saadet moved from Kumykia to Astrakhan. It was learned in Crimea that a certain Khoja-bey had left Istanbul, bypassed Crimea and landed at Azov with messages for Saadet and Murad.We do not know what was said, but a few weeks later Saadet was found dead at Astrakhan. It is thought that the Russians had him murdered, fearing that he might go over to the Turks. The whole business remains mysterious. In Crimea
After Saadet's expulsion the Janissaries were rather rough with his supporters which made Islyam unpopular. There was a problem with Alp since he had long been in Crimea, had military experience and would probably have made a better khan. Islyam had difficulty imposing himself since his subjects might to go over to the three brothers if he did anything unpopular. Less than a month after Alp's 1587 campaign, Islyam and his younger brother Fetikh went of Gozleve/Evpatoria on some business.The Turks there complained that they could not reach Crimea by land because the Cossacks were raiding and had destroyed fort of Ak-Chakum (apparently Ochakiv at the mouth of the Dnieper estuary). While he was there the Cossacks looted seventeen villages on the northwest coast of Crimea and disappeared before Islyam could do anything. The sultan sent a blunt letter hinting that he knew what to do with a khan who could not defend their northern frontier. He also ordered Islyam to make a retaliatory campaign against the Poland which, in theory, controlled Zaporozhian Cossacks. That winter Islyam started his only military campaign, along with his brothers Alp and Fetikh. He was to join the Turkish army at Akkerman and do something that is not explained. The campaign failed from the start.He had to coerce a number of subjects who did not want to join him. Because of an unusually warm winter they had to spend a month on the Dnieper waiting for it to freeze. When he got to Akkerman he found that the Turks, who had been waiting for him since autumn, had dispersed because of his delay. He was therefore forced to wait at Akkerman until they came back. In March 1588, at that city, he died of natural causes. He was buried in the walls to the Akkerman mosque. The beys who were with Islyam chose Alp <mask> as the new khan.They sent to Istanbul for confirmation, but the sultan chose Gazi II <mask> (1588–1608). See also
Crimea#geography for places

References and notes
Oleksa Gaivoronsky «Повелители двух материков», Kiev-Bakhchisarai, second edition, 2010, , volume 1, pages 319–331
Henry Hoyle Howorth, History of the Mongols, 1880, Part 2, pp. 518–523 (out of date)

Crimean Khans
1588 deaths
16th-century monarchs in Europe
Hostages
Sufis
Konya
Bakhchysarai
Cossacks
Kumyks
Bukhara
Yevpatoria
Ottoman Empire

masks:
Islyam II Giray
İslâm
Alp Giray
Devlet I Giray
Mehmed II Giray
I Giray
II Gira
III
Giray
Giray
Giray
Giray


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<mask> (; July 16, 1918 – October 12, 2015), was an American electrical engineer who was an associate administrator at NASA who headed the Office of Manned Space Flight from September 1963 until December 1969. Hailed as one of NASA's "most brilliant and fearless managers", he was instrumental in introducing the all-up testing philosophy for the Saturn V launch vehicle, which ensured the success of the Apollo program in landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth by the end of 1969. <mask> also played a key part in the design of Skylab, and championed the space shuttle's development, which earned him the nickname, "the father of the space shuttle." More recently, <mask> was chairman and chief vehicle architect of the now defunct Kistler Aerospace Corp. Early life and education
<mask> was born in St. Louis, Missouri, on July 16, 1918. His mother, a high school graduate, was from Belleville, Illinois and had been a secretary, but she never worked after marriage. His father was an electrician who began working as a boy and never went to high school, but later became superintendent of an electrical motor repair shop in St. Louis.Both parents were English speakers, but also spoke German; <mask> never learned German well enough to converse. He went to Benton School in St. Louis until the 8th grade, when he and his parents moved to a larger house in the country called Bel Nor, and later graduated from Normandy High School. The young <mask> enjoyed reading science fiction and, helped by his grandfather, woodworking. When he was aged 11 or 12 <mask> also built and raced model aircraft – such as gliders and rubber band model airplanes. Always curious about how things worked, he also built radios, following in the footsteps of his father. Interested in these activities, the teenage <mask> wanted to be an aeronautical engineer but discovered that where he could afford to go to school, the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy (now Missouri University of Science and Technology) in Rolla, Missouri, there was no aeronautical engineering department. They did offer mechanical engineering, so he enrolled in that program but found it discouraging and switched to electrical engineering.<mask> assumed he would end up working in industry and so, in his senior year, went on a tour of various suitable companies. He applied to RCA, General Electric and Emerson but when he graduated in 1939 the economy took another downturn and he, like most of the class, had no job. After applying to several graduate schools, he got an offer of a television fellowship (funded by RCA) at Purdue University. The fellowship led to his working on an early television project. Purdue was building a television transmitter for the campus, and it was the first of the kind that was using all vacuum tubes to produce the pictures. It was also the first using a cathode ray tube for display purposes. They still had mechanical disks for scanning but were trying to develop an all-electronic approach.Bell Labs
Near graduation, he applied for a research job at Bell Labs, which he received. After a year to establish himself there, he married Maude Rosenbaum, whom he had met in St. Louis and dated while at Purdue. The work <mask> did at Bell Labs deferred him from being drafted into the military during World War II. He initially researched orthicon technology, but, as Bell Labs geared up for war, it later became heavily involved in airborne radar technology. As the war progressed, his group was given the task of building the first airborne radar for Bell. Ultimately, the radar designed by MIT was chosen over the Bell Labs system, but not until after <mask> became spectacularly sick while flight testing Bell Labs' radar on a visit to Wright Airfield in Ohio. He continued his work on magnetrons and said he came close to co-inventing the transistor.If he and his co-workers had placed their contacts on a single crystal of zircon rather than working with multiple crystals, they would have beaten Shockley's team, also at Bell Labs. PhD and Ramo-Wooldridge
<mask> increasingly believed that to move up in the hierarchy of the Labs he would need a PhD, and he began working towards this goal on a part-time basis at Princeton University, getting up every morning at around 5 o'clock and driving to Princeton to take a couple of courses before driving back down to Holmdel to work all day at Bell Labs. In 1946 a colleague at the Labs, Milton Boone, a professor from Ohio State University on leave at Bell Labs during the war, encouraged <mask> to help set up a vacuum tube lab and run the communications group at Ohio State. Moving to Columbus, <mask> taught electrical engineering and the new field of system engineering, and continued his research, focusing his PhD thesis on dielectric antennas. Upon obtaining his doctorate in physics in 1951, he became associate professor of electrical engineering. Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation, later part of TRW, recruited him and he took a one-year sabbatical in 1953. A consultant to Ramo-Wooldridge, <mask> got involved in the review of radar designs and the Bell Labs radar for the Titan rocket (which was originally radio-guided).<mask> was peripherally involved with some of the developments of the inertial systems and generally began to help out wherever there was a problem. <mask> admitted in 1987 that at this time he did not know anything about missiles. After returning from his sabbatical year to Ohio State, <mask> taught but was also retained as a part-time consultant to R-W. In 1957 he joined Ramo-Wooldridge full-time as director of the Electronics Laboratories. This Laboratory soon merged with the mechanical group, and then <mask> became deputy leader of this larger research and development organization. He was also program director for the Pioneer program and later took over as head of R&D [Research and Development]. The Thompson Products Company bought R-W and merged it into what became TRW.While working on missile systems <mask> became convinced that all-up testing was essential as "you don't want to be testing piece-wise in space. You want to test the entire system because who knows which one's going to fail, and you'd better have it all together so that whatever fails, you have a reasonable chance of finding the real failure mode, not just the one you were looking for." NASA and the Apollo program

<mask> became increasingly involved with NASA and the Apollo Program. NASA's Administrator James E. Webb sounded <mask> out for a top job. <mask> would only agree if the agency was restructured, and so during the fall of 1963 Webb worked with Associate Administrator Robert Seamans to restructure NASA, shifting three key centers (Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC), Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), and the Launch Operations Center (LOC)) to report directly to <mask>, as well as a local staff at Headquarters. <mask> accepted the job, and took a substantial pay cut. The reorganization of NASA and the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF) was announced in November 1963.Encouraged by Webb, <mask> had studied the three centers, speaking with people he knew from his work at Ramo-Wooldridge. His impression: "there wasn't any management system in existence". More seriously, <mask> found no means to determine and control hardware configurations, which gave no way to determine costs or schedules. <mask> concluded he would have to "teach people what was involved in doing program control." In August 1963, <mask> invited each of his three field center directors to visit him and explained how his proposed changes would put Apollo back on schedule and solve problems with the Bureau of the Budget. Change did not come easy and he had some problems with Wernher von Braun who gave "one of his impassioned speeches about how you can't change the basic organization of Marshall." After some argument, von Braun accepted <mask>'s proposals and reorganized MSFC, strengthening its capacity in running large projects.<mask>'s position was strengthened by directors at MSC, MSFC and LOC reporting directly to OMSF. <mask> also reduced attendance at the Manned Space Flight Management Council to just himself and the Center directors. Borrowing from the US Air Force Minuteman program, <mask> formed the Apollo Executive Group, which consisted of himself and the presidents of Apollo's main contractors. The biggest problem <mask> still faced was Apollo's slipping schedule and huge cost overruns. He had always thought the only way to resolve this, and achieve a lunar landing before 1970, was to reduce the number of test flights. <mask> wanted to use his "all-up testing" concept with each flight using the full number of live stages. This approach had been used successfully on the Titan II and Minuteman programs but violated von Braun's engineering concepts.The von Braun test plan called for the first live test to use the Saturn's first stage with dummy upper stages. If the first stage worked correctly then the first two stages would be live with a dummy third stage and so on, with at least ten test flights before a manned version was put into low earth orbit. The Saturn V program manager Arthur Rudolph cornered <mask> with scale models of Saturn and Minuteman. The Saturn dwarfed the Minuteman but <mask> replied, "So what?" Eventually von Braun and the others were won over. As von Braun stated: "It sounded reckless, but <mask>'s reasoning was impeccable. Water ballast in lieu of a second and third stage would require much less tank volume than liquid-hydrogen-fuelled stages, so that a rocket tested with only a live first stage would be much shorter than the final configuration.Its aerodynamic shape and its body dynamics would thus not be representative. Filling the ballast tanks with liquid hydrogen? Fine, but then why not burn it as a bonus experiment? And so the arguments went on until <mask> in the end prevailed." <mask>'s concept of all-up testing worked. The first two unmanned flights of the Saturn V were successful (the second less so), then the third Saturn V put Frank Borman's Apollo 8 crew in orbit round the Moon on Christmas 1968, and the sixth Saturn V carried Neil Armstrong's Apollo 11 to the first lunar landing. In an interview <mask> acknowledged what would have happened if all-up testing had failed, "The whole Apollo program and my reputation would have gone down the drain".With this battle won, in November 1965, <mask> reorganized the Gemini and Apollo Program Offices, creating a five-box structure at HQ and field center. This structure replicated <mask>'s concept of system management and provided far better program overview. The key part of the idea was that inside these "GEM boxes" (named from his initials), managers and engineers communicated directly with their functional counterparts in NASA HQ, bypassing the usual chain of command and bureaucracy. With another battle won, <mask> still found that he could not always find the right people with the right skills. Using his background with Air Force projects, <mask> sought Webb's permission to bring in skilled Air Force program managers. He proposed Minuteman program director Colonel Samuel C. Phillips as Apollo program director in OMSF. Webb agreed, and so did AFSC chief General Bernard Schriever.Phillips in turn agreed and brought with him 42 mid-grade officers and eventually 124 more junior officers. Ultimately, over 400 experienced military officers worked on Apollo and other NASA programs during the 1960s. Seamans (promoted in 1965 to deputy administrator) stated that <mask> "didn't sell; he dictated – and without his direction, Apollo would not have succeeded." Also well known were <mask>'s Project Status Reviews, often held on Sundays and in brutal detail. The presentations were nicknamed "pasteurized" as the tired managers' ability to absorb the detail was waning, and the charts were merely "past your eyes." After the Apollo 1 fire, NASA Administrator James Webb became distrustful of <mask>, but commented. "Even if I wanted to, I couldn't fire him because he was manager of our successful Apollo project, and one of the ablest men in the world ...The last thing I wanted was to lose him, but I also had another desire, which was not to let his way of working create too many difficulties." Apollo applications and Skylab
Even while Apollo was progressing <mask> and others were pushing for an aggressive post-Apollo program. He established the Apollo Applications Office in 1965. The Applications were extensive, involving a manned lunar base, an Earth-orbiting space station, Apollo telescope, a Grand Tour of the Outer Solar System, and the original "Voyager program" of Mars Lander probes. Faced with Congressional disapproval and infighting within NASA, the ambitious Apollo Applications Program was cut back time and time again, until just Skylab remained. Father of the Space Shuttle? <mask> is often credited as being the "Father of the Space Shuttle".Whether this is entirely true is debatable – Scott Pace propounded the view that, in such a complex system with so many stakeholders, "everyone was a Shuttle designer." What is beyond doubt is that <mask> played a key role in early Space Shuttle decisions and in championing the cause for a reusable space vehicle. While perhaps not the 'Father' he has been accurately described by Professor John Logsdon as the 'Policy Father of the Space Shuttle'. <mask> held a one-day symposium (held at NASA headquarters) in December 1967 to which 80 people from the Air Force, NASA and industry were invited to discuss low cost space flight and shuttle-like designs. The designs ranged from 'simple' concepts like Martin Marietta's six person reusable craft similar to the Dyna-Soar (launched by a Titan III-M), to partially reusable concepts like Lockheed's Star Clipper or Tip Tank from McDonnell Douglas, to fully reusable two-stage vehicles like the one proposed by General Dynamics. Following this symposium <mask> continued to champion a "space shuttle". He did not invent the term, but he made it his own.He was also a keen proponent of space stations and was well aware that the space shuttle was to shuttle to and from such a station. While in London in August 1968, to receive an award from the British Interplanetary Society, he again trumpeted the cause of the shuttle, "... there is a real requirement for an efficient earth to orbit transportation system – an economical space shuttle". "I forecast that the next major thrust in space will be the development of an economical launch vehicle for shuttling between Earth and the installations, such as the orbiting space station that will soon be orbiting in space." He also stated, as many others would do later, that "The shuttle ideally would be able to operate in a mode similar to that of a large commercial air transports and be compatible with the environment of major airports". <mask>'s optimism grew in 1968 and he chided Wernher von Braun (who had been cautiously promoting a cheap interim shuttle-type craft), "You'd be telling me that my Shuttle was in the future and you needed an interim system." <mask> was sure that the incoming president, Richard Nixon, would want to go "all out" and that "this may be the big program for Nixon". In 1987 <mask> had this to say about the shuttle, "It was clear to us at that time that we needed to have a joint program between the Air Force and NASA, and that that program ought to be aimed at providing low cost space transportation for all of our needs.It's just in my view unfortunate that we made the compromise, after I left NASA, in terms of a partially reusable vehicle, and all that that implies in terms of not only the cost of the throw-away parts but also the cost of the ground troops that have to process it and put it together and fly it every time. That combination—and ground support is a not insignificant part of a Shuttle cost—was a set of decisions that doomed low cost space transportation for that generation of vehicles." <mask>'s working style
Almost everyone who worked with <mask> on Apollo agreed he was technically brilliant and exceedingly capable. Even those who frequently disagreed with him like Christopher Kraft or <mask> recognized his abilities. While <mask> could be described as intellectually arrogant he was not an office tyrant; one of his colleagues, John Disher, describes working for him as a "piece of cake". Nor did he try to belittle others or shout them down. While appearing affable and reasonably charming "with the epitome of politeness, but you know down deep he's just as hard as steel!".Resignation from NASA
<mask> resigned from NASA on November 10, 1969 effective from December 10. Rumors had been circulating for a while that he wanted to return to private industry. The New York Times stated that 'informed sources' "alleged clashes with (Administrator) Thomas Paine over space priorities for '70s and disputes with subordinates; he has twice been passed over for deputy admr post". In an interview <mask> gave different reasons for leaving, "One is that the decision had been made to terminate the Apollo program, and that was a good time then to leave before, and let someone else take over for the next phase. From a practical point of view, I needed to go make some money so I could keep my family going. It was costly for us to join the Apollo program. My salary was half what I was making in industry when I went there, and it was just a strain to keep the family going and work going at the same time.So I went back to industry." After a short time at General Dynamics, <mask> became chairman and president of the System Development Corporation, a spin-off from the RAND Corporation, in 1971. He remained with SDC following the Burroughs Corporation's acquisition of the company, and retired after growing the company successfully in 1984. While at SDC, <mask> married his second wife, Darla. After a short retirement, <mask> became the president of the International Academy of Astronautics, in addition to consulting and other volunteer work. Yearning to return to full-time employment, he became the CEO of Kistler Aerospace in 1996 and remained with the company for a number of years. Post NASA career
 Senior vice president of General Dynamics Corporation, Falls Church, Virginia (1969–1971)
 System Development Corporation, Santa Monica, California
Chairman, president (1971–1980)
Chairman, chief executive officer (1981–1983)
Burroughs Corporation
Senior vice-president (1982–1983)
Consultant (1984 – date unknown)
Kistler Aerospace (Rocketplane Kistler from 2006)
CEO 1995–2004
Chairman and chief vehicle architect 2004

<mask> died of congestive heart failure in Irvine, California, on October 12, 2015, at the age of 97.Awards and Honors
 1970, National Medal of Science
 1972, Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement

References
Specific

General
 Murray, C. and Cox, C.B. (2004). Apollo. Pages 151-162. South Mountain Books, Burkittsville, MD. Buy the Book
 Heppenheimer, T.A. The Space Shuttle Decision, 1965–1972: History of the Space Shuttle, Volume 1.Smithsonian Institution Press. Pace, Scott (1982) Engineering Design and Political Choice: the Space Shuttle 1969–1972, Thesis (M.S. ), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1982
 Slotkin, Arthur L., (2012). Doing the Impossible: <mask><mask> and the Management of NASA's Human Spaceflight Program, Springer-Praxis Scientific Publications, New York. External links

 Interview with <mask> for NOVA series: To the Moon WGBH Educational Foundation, raw footage, 1998
 <mask> Mueller
 Dr. <mask> interview NASM Oral History Project

NASA people
1918 births
2015 deaths
American people of German descent
National Medal of Science laureates
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Burroughs Corporation people

masks:
George Edwin Mueller
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<mask> (18 August 1925 – 14 January 2019) was a German art historian. Life and career
Born in Barmen, <mask> grew up in a working-class district of Barmen. He completed an apprenticeship as a bricklayer, then was drafted for military service. After the Second World War, he helped his parents work on a farm near Leipzig, where the family had been evacuated after a heavy Air Raids on Wuppertal. In 1948, the parents returned to their hometown. At the same time, <mask> took up work as a journalist in Halle (Saale). He studied art history, German studies and architecture at the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg from 1946.From 1953 to 1957, he was an aspirant and lecturer at the Institute of Art History there and received his doctorate. From 1957 to 1959, <mask> took on a teaching position. During these years, he worked on his first work, Wir und die Kunst (We and Art), a popularly written introduction to the study of art and art history, which was published in 1959, and of which several greatly revised and expanded editions were published until 1988. Numerous dogmatic objections from critics loyal to the line were directed against the publication. As early as 1956, the Ministry for State Security (MfS), Halle district administration, opened an "" because of "softening up and decomposition activity within the University of Halle". Therefore, Hütt followed the call of the rector, Professor , to the Institute for Art History at the University of Leipzig and continued his academic work there as a senior assistant from 1959 to 1961. But even in Leipzig, the observation by the MfS, Leipzig district administration, continued and culminated in the suspicion of organising an "anti-state group formation".Because of his art-theoretical views - which the leadership of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) as "revisionist" - he was increasingly defamed by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) increasingly defamed him. After his public criticism of the construction of the Berlin Wall and his opposition to initial plans in the context of urban redevelopment to sacrifice the Paulinerkirche, he was expelled from the SED in 1961 and dismissed from Leipzig University. Nevertheless, <mask> did not leave the GDR, but continued to work as a freelance publicist in Halle. An attempt to gain a foothold as director of the "Staatliche Galerie Moritzburg Halle" (1969-1971) failed. After his commitment to formalism" and his opposition to the sale of works of art from the gallery's depot, <mask> had to give up this position in 1971. Subsequently, he produced an extensive journalistic oeuvre. Precisely because of his conflicts with the dogmatists in the GDR, <mask> contributed to an objective view of the art history of the GDR.As a member of the advisory board of the art publishers of the GDR, as a member of the advisory board of the  and the artists' associations, Hütt was valued as a contentious discussion partner. <mask> never accepted the prescribed separation from his family and his hometown of Wuppertal, and despite all the sanctions he never let contact break off. He dealt with this life conflict in Heimfahrt in die Gegenwart (1925 to 1949), published in 1982, and the autobiography Schattenlicht - ein Leben im geteilten Deutschland, published in 1999. After the Peaceful Revolution, <mask> conducted extensive research for years in the bequeathed archives of the SED, the Stasi and in the . On this basis, he created the extensive book Gefördert. Monitored. Reform Pressure of Visual Artists in the GDR - The Example of Halle.Hütt continued to support young academics into old age. After a serious illness, he had to end his publishing work in 2015 and handed over extensive material to the Academy of Arts as an estate. He died in January 2019 at the age of 93 in a nursing home in Halle-Kröllwitz. Awards
In 1986 he was awarded the Handel Prize of the Halle district. Publications as author (selection)
 Wir und die Kunst. Henschelverlag Berlin, 1959 (grundlegend überarbeitete Neuauflagen 1973 und 1988)
 Adolph Menzel. E. A. Seemann, Leipzig, 1964 (3rd edition), 2008 (Lizenz in München und Wien)
 Deutsche Malerei und Graphik im 20.Jahrhundert. Henschelverlag Berlin, 1968
 Mathis Gothard Neithardt, genannt Grünewald. Leben und Werk im Spiegel der Forschung, E. A. Seemann, Leipzig, 1968
 Was Bilder erzählen. Kinderbuchverlag Berlin, 1969
 Deutsche Malerei und Graphik der frühbürgerlichen Revolution. Leipzig, 1973
 Kleine bunte Welt. Kinderbuchverlag Berlin, 1973 (auch engl., span., ungar. Ausgaben)
 Wir – Unsere Zeit – Künstler der DDR in ihren Selbstbildnissen.Henschelverlag Berlin, 1974
 Arbeit in der Kunst. E. A. Seemann Leipzig, 1974
 Plastik, Grafik, Malerei. () Kinderbuchverlag Berlin, 1974
 Willi Sitte. Verlag der Kunst, Dresden, 1976
 Was Städte und Häuser erzählen. Kinderbuchverlag Berlin, 1977
 Künstler in Halle. Henschelverlag, Berlin, 1977
 Carl Marx. Verlag der Kunst, Dresden, 1978
 Grafik in der DDR.Verlag der Kunst, Dresden, 1979. Holbein d.J., Maler und Werk. Verlag der Kunst, 1980
 Carl Crodel. Verlag der Kunst, Dresden, 1981
 Heimfahrt in die Gegenwart – Ein Bericht. Henschelverlag, Berlin, 1982
 Adolph Menzel – Ausgewählte Holzschnitte. E. A. Seemann, Leipzig, 1983
 Die Düsseldorfer Malerschule. E. A. Seemann Leipzig, 1984
 Der Drachentöter im Paradiesgärtlein – Ikonografie für Kinder.Kinderbuchverlag, Berlin, 1988
 Deutsche Malerei und Grafik 1750–1945. Henschelverlag Berlin, 1986
 Defregger 1835–1921. Leipzig und München, 1986
 Hintergrund – Mit den Unzüchtigkeits- und Gotteslästerungsparagraphen gegen Kunst und Künstler, 1900–1933., Henschelverlag, 1990
 Schattenlicht. Fliegenkopf-Verlag, Halle, 1999. Gefördert. Überwacht. Reformdruck bildender Künstler der DDR.Das Beispiel Halle. Stekovics, 2004, . Zinnoberrot und Schweinfurter Grün. Roman, Halle (Saale), 2009
 Wo ist Arkadien? Roman, Halle (Saale), 2011

Publications as co-author (selection)
 Der Naumburger Dom. Sachsenverlag Dresden, 1956
 Otto Nagel, Berliner Bilder. 1970
 Albrecht Dürer, Das Gesamte graphische Werk.Henschelverlag, Berlin 1971 (Lizenzausgabe Verlag Rogner & Bernhard, München)
 Das Albrecht Dürer Hausbuch. Rogner & Bernhard, Munich, 1975
 Ludwig Knaus. Wiesbaden, 1979
 Figurative Malerei aus dem letzten Jahrzehnt der DDR. 1999
 Enge und Vielfalt – Auftragskunst und Kunstförderung in der DDR. 1999
 Ergötzliche Briefe des Dessauer Malers Carl Marx an <mask>tt. 2002
 Johann Peter Hasenclever – Ein Malerleben zwischen Biedermeier und Revolution. Solingen, 2003
 Further more than 400 scientific and popular science publications, essays and contributions.References

External links

 <mask>-Hütt-Archiv im Archiv der Academy of Arts, Berlin
 <mask>tt auf http://www.barmen-200-jahre.de/

German art historians
1925 births
2019 deaths

masks:
Wolfgang Hütt
Hütt
Hütt
Hütt
Hütt
Hütt
Hütt
Hütt
Hütt
Wolfgang Hü
Wolfgang
Wolfgang Hü


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<mask> (1771 1839) was an African American freed slave who is best known for his 1825 autobiography entitled A Narrative of Some Remarkable Incidents in the Life of <mask>, Formerly a Slave in the State of Delaware, North America. Published in London, it is among the early slave narratives written by slaves who gained freedom before the American Civil War and emancipation. <mask> was born into slavery in Delaware. After escaping and being recaptured, he later bought his freedom, and that of his wife and children. He worked as a farmer and at a sawmill. In their later years, he and his wife emigrated in 1827 to the new colony of Liberia, where he worked as a missionary and farmer. His short book about the colony was published in Delaware in 1833.From slavery to freedom

<mask> is believed to have been born about 1772 into slavery in Kent County, in what is now the state of Delaware). As was the case with many African Americans who lived in the United States during the 19th century, neither his birth nor death were recorded. Scholars such as Henry Louis Gates, Jr. have made rough estimates of <mask>'s birth and death years based on his autobiography and related materials. Bayley learned that his maternal grandmother was born in Guinea, where she was captured at the age of eleven, sold into slavery, and transported to the English colonies in North America in 1690. She had fifteen children in total. <mask>'s mother had a total of thirteen children, while held by the same family. When a daughter of the family married a man from Delaware, she took Bayley's mother and father Abner, and the rest of the family with her to Delaware.After some time, they moved back to Virginia, and <mask>'s family was widely dispersed in sales, with his father, sister Margaret, and brother Abner taken to Long Island in the West Indies and sold to Abner Stephen. His mother escaped with a young son and finally reached New Jersey. It was eighteen years before Bayley saw her again, after he had gained his own freedom. Bayley was held in Delaware and trained as a cooper. Although the state legislature had passed a law forbidding the sale of slaves in Delaware to other states, in 1799 Bayley was sold as a young man to a man from Virginia. <mask> had already, since slaves could not marry, informally married Thamar, an enslaved woman on another Delaware plantation, and they had a nine-month-old son. His new owner took him to Virginia, but Bayley escaped as he was being transported there.He returned to Delaware, where he was briefly reunited with his wife, but knew he could not stay. He moved on to Dover and then to Camden, Delaware. After a time, his owner recaptured him. <mask> sued in a Delaware court for his freedom, saying that he had been illegally sold out of state. While the case was in court, his master agreed to let Bayley buy his freedom for $80. As noted, his wife Thamar and their infant daughter Margaret were owned by another Delaware planter. Bayley first "hired out" his wife (with their child) from her master, paying for her time in order to keep her with him.He worked to save money to buy her outright; and he paid her master about $103 dollars. After gaining their freedom, <mask> and his wife worked as tenant farmers. He started work in a sawmill to earn more money. Their son Spence had been sold earlier and was auctioned at a sale in 1813 after his master's death. Prices had risen and Bayley despaired of being able to buy him, but white men who knew Bayley from the Methodist church aided him in buying his son's freedom, at a price of more than $360. As their children grew, Bayley apprenticed them to "good families", so that they could learn skills and gain educations. About this time, Bayley also arranged for his mother to come to them from New Jersey, and she lived with him to "a great age", as her own mother had done.In 1820 <mask> met Robert Hurnard, a Quaker and abolitionist from Essex, England, who was visiting Delaware. After hearing the story of his life, Hurnard encouraged Bayley to write about it and publish an account. He corresponded with Bayley for years afterward, and Hurnard wrote a preface for the memoir, which was published in London in 1825. In 1821 both <mask>'s oldest and youngest daughters died, Margaret and Leah, respectively, several months apart; they were in their early 20s. In each case, he wrote about their faith in their last days. Emigration to Africa
Bayley learned about Paul Cuffee, a wealthy African-American shipbuilder in Boston, Massachusetts, who promoted free blacks emigrating to Africa. This idea appealed to Bayley but Cuffee died before the project could get well underway.In this period the American Colonization Society was established in 1817, to encourage free blacks to emigrate to a colony it established as Liberia in West Africa in the antebellum years. It was supported by both slaveholders and abolitionists, who thought for different reasons that free blacks might have more opportunity in their own society in Africa. Its members helped to support transportation costs for free blacks, and in the early years states such as Virginia and Maryland contributed to resettlement. While most free African Americans wanted to make their lives in the United States with rights that recognized their citizenship, some did emigrate. <mask> and his wife Thamar were among them, going in 1827 after their children were grown. He served as a Methodist missionary and worked as a farmer. They lived near the main settlement of Monrovia.In 1833 he published a book about the colony, describing its products and society. In it he expressed an ambivalent attitude toward the African natives, describing them as "benighted" and in need of Christianity, but he was also hopeful about potential autonomy for African Americans in the colony. Slaves using the courts
In the 19th century, African Americans petitioned various levels of government on a variety of issues. When necessary, they used the courts. Numerous individuals addressed the topics of personal freedom and economic discrimination in their appeals. To explain his thinking about using the legal avenues open to him, <mask> wrote: "I thought where the law made liberty the right of any man, he could not be wrong in trying to recover it." Bayley threatened to take his master to court for transporting his family out of state and immediately selling them on arrival in Virginia.He was successful in gaining an out-of-court settlement that included his master's accepting an arrangement whereby he could buy his freedom over time. Other African Americans were also sometimes successful in petitioning the courts to right wrongs if their masters  violated the law. Particularly in areas on the western frontier between slave and free states, for instance in St. Louis, Missouri and in Louisiana, hundreds of slaves filed freedom suits, challenging the grounds of their enslavement and sometimes winning freedom. The legal justifications for the institution of slavery included exceptions. Slaves claimed the right to freedom based on Native American ancestry (where Native American slavery had been prohibited), or on masters knowingly holding them in free states past the limits set by those states' laws. For decades before the Civil War, state courts often observed a precedent of "once free, always free", until the Dred Scott ruling by the United States Supreme Court. <mask>'s memoir, A Narrative of Some Remarkable Incidents in the Life of <mask> (1825), is one of the earliest of the genre known as slave narratives.Published in London in 1825, it is forty-eight pages in length. It was based in part on correspondence between <mask> and Hurnard. <mask> expresses his religious faith throughout, in his escape, his efforts to buy freedom for himself and his family, and other trials. He was a Methodist who saw his life through a Christian perspective. His escape and recapture are covered in detail. Yolanda N. Pierce has explored <mask>'s memoir and four other slave narratives from the standpoint of slave agency. A.J.Raboteau noted that she said the plot line of most of them "constitutes a picaresque journey of incredible incidents, ... all governed by Divine Providence". Referring to Pierce's account, Raboteau notes that "These narratives describe a double journey from slavery to freedom, spiritual and physical. Their rhetorical structure frequently oscillates between an interpretive perspective that is (sometimes in the same paragraph) both African and Western." Pierce says that <mask>'s narrative merges African and Western belief, creating a “liminal space” for Bayley “in which he does not have to abandon one to adopt the other”. Raboteau noted that Bayley was inspired to compassion by his Christian faith, drawing from it to grapple with challenges in slavery and as a free man. For instance, he belonged to the same Methodist class meeting as his wife's master, who threatened to see Thamar and Bayley's infant daughter. Bayley wrote in his memoir that it was extremely difficult

to keep up true love and unity between him and me, in the sight of God: this was a cause of wrestling in my mind; but that scripture abode with me, 'He that loveth father or mother, wife or children, more than me, is not worthy of me; then I saw it became me to hate the sin with all my heart, but still the sinner love; but I should have fainted, if I had not looked to Jesus, the author of my faith'...In 1833 <mask> published his "A Brief Account of the Colony of Liberia", based on his emigration to the African colony and work there as a missionary. According to Raboteau, he expressed the "ultimate ambiguity", that “his duty as a Christian was to bring religion to the ‘benighted’ regions of Africa, while choosing to emigrate there as a true place of freedom, removed from the hell of American slavery.”

See also

List of slaves

Sources
 <mask>, <mask> (1825), A Narrative of Some Remarkable Incidents in the Life of <mask>, Formerly a Slave in the State of Delaware, North America, London: Harvey and Darton; posted at Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina
 <mask>, <mask> (1833), "A Brief Account of the Colony of Liberia", Wilmington, Delaware
 Dalleo, Peter T. (1997), "THE GROWTH OF DELAWARE'S ANTEBELLUM FREE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY", in A HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS OF DELAWARE AND MARYLAND'S EASTERN SHORE, edited by Carole Marks, Wilmington, Delaware: University of Delaware, 1997. Retrieved 2007-07-13
 Gates, Henry Louis; Higginbotham, Evelyn Hooks, African American Lives, Oxford University Press US, 2004,
 Newton, J. E. (1997), "BLACK AMERICANS IN DELAWARE: AN OVERVIEW", in A HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS OF DELAWARE AND MARYLAND'S EASTERN SHORE, edited by Carole Marks, Wilmington, Delaware: University of Delaware, 1997; Retrieved 2007-07-13
 Pierce, Yolanda. Hell Without Fires: Slavery, Christianity, and the Antebellum Spiritual Narrative, University Press of Florida, 2005; analysis of five early slave narratives, including that of Solomon Bayley
  Raboteau, A. J. (2002), "The African American Witness to the Sacred Gift of Life", Lecture at the Orthodox Peace Fellowship Conference, June, St. Tikhon's Monastery, South Canaan, Pennsylvania; Retrieved 2007-04-17. Raboteau, A. J. (2005), "Response to Papers on" Survival, Resistance, and Transmission: New Historiological and Methodological Perspectives for the Study of Slave Religion, in The North Star, Volume 8, Number 2; Retrieved 2007-08-18

References

External links
 A Narrative of Some Remarkable Incidents in the Life of Solomon Bayley, Formerly a Slave in the State of Delaware, London: Harvey and Darton, 1825; reprinted at Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina.<mask>, <mask>. A Brief Account of the Colony of Liberia (Wilmington, Delaware: 1833)
 WebRoots.org: Nonprofit Library for Genealogy
 American Slavery: Pre-1866 Imprints
 Mike Haughey, "Black History Overview" (Literature, see 1825)
 "<mask> and Anti-Slavery in Delaware" [exhibition] from University of Delaware. Special Collections

1770s births
1830s deaths
African-American writers
American slave owners
American people of Guinean descent
18th-century American slaves
People from Camden, Delaware
19th-century American writers
People who wrote slave narratives
People of colonial Delaware
Black slave owners in the United States

masks:
Solomon Bayley
Solomon Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Solomon Bayley
Works Bayley
Solomon Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Bayley
Solomon
Solomon Bayley
Bayley
Solomon
Bayley
Solomon
Solomon Bayley


texts:
<mask> ( , , often misspelled Verrazano in English; 1485–1528) was an Italian (Florentine) explorer of North America, in the service of King Francis I of France. He is renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524, including New York Bay and Narragansett Bay. Early life
The consensus of scholars is that <mask> was born in Val di Greve, south of Florence, the capital and the main city of the Republic of Florence, the son of <mask> and Fiammetta Cappelli. It is generally claimed that he was born in the Castello di Verrazzano, hence its birth indicator (similar to <mask>). Some alternative theories have been elaborated; for example, certain French scholarship assumes that <mask> was born in Lyon, France, the son of <mask> and <mask>ni. "Whatever the case," writes Ronald S. Love, "<mask> always considered himself to be Florentine," and he was considered a Florentine by his contemporaries as well. He signed documents employing a Latin version of his name, "Janus Verrazanus", and he called himself "Jehan de Verrazane" in his will dated 11 May 1526 in Rouen, France (preserved at the Archives départementales de la Seine-Maritime).In contrast to his detailed account of his voyages to North America, little is known about his personal life. After 1506, he settled in the port of Dieppe, Kingdom of France, where he began his career as a navigator. He embarked for the American coast probably in 1508 in the company of captain Thomas Aubert, on the ship La Pensée, equipped by the owner, Jean Ango. He explored the region of Newfoundland, possibly during a fishing trip, and possibly the St. Lawrence River in Canada; on other occasions, he made numerous voyages to the eastern Mediterranean. 1522–24 voyage to America
In September 1522, the surviving members of Ferdinand Magellan's crew returned to Spain, having circumnavigated the globe. Competition in trade was becoming urgent, especially with Portugal. King Francis I of France was impelled by French merchants and financiers from Lyon and Rouen who were seeking new trade routes and so he asked <mask> in 1523 to make plans to explore on France's behalf an area between Florida and Terranova, the "New Found Land", with the goal of finding a sea route to the Pacific Ocean.Within months, four ships set sail due west for the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, but a violent storm and rough seas caused the loss of two ships. The remaining two damaged ships, La Dauphine and La Normande, were forced to return to Brittany. Repairs were completed in the final weeks of 1523, and the ships set sail again. This time, the ships headed south toward calmer waters, which were under the dangerous Spanish and Portuguese control. After a stop in Madeira, complications forced La Normande back to home port, but <mask>'s ship La Dauphine departed on January 17, 1524, piloted by Antoine de Conflans, and headed once more for the North American continent. It neared the area of Cape Fear on about March 21st and, after a short stay, reached the Pamlico Sound lagoon of modern North Carolina. In a letter to Francis I described by historians as the Cèllere Codex, <mask> wrote that he was convinced that the Sound was the beginning of the Pacific Ocean from which access could be gained to China.Continuing to explore the coast further northwards, <mask> and his crew came into contact with Native Americans living on the coast. However, he did not notice the entrances to Chesapeake Bay or the mouth of the Delaware River. In New York Bay, he encountered the Lenape in about 30 Lenape canoes and observed what he deemed to be a large lake, really  the entrance to the Hudson River. He then sailed along Long Island and entered Narragansett Bay, where he received a delegation of Wampanoag and Narragansett people. The words "Norman villa" are found on the 1527 map by Visconte Maggiolo identifying the site. The historian Samuel Eliot Morison writes that "this occurs at Angouleme (New York) rather than Refugio (Newport). It was probably intended to compliment one of <mask>'s noble friends.There are several places called 'Normanville' in Normandy, France. The main one is located near Fécamp and another important one near Évreux, which would naturally be it. West of it, conjecturally on the Delaware or New Jersey coast, is a Longa Villa, which Verrazzano certainly named after François d'Orléans, duc de Longueville." He stayed there for two weeks and then moved northwards. He discovered Cape Cod Bay, his claim being proved by a map of 1529 that clearly outlined Cape Cod. He then followed the coast up to modern Maine, southeastern Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, and he then returned to France by 8 July 1524. Verrazzano named the region that he explored Francesca in honor of the French king, but his brother's map labeled it Nova Gallia (New France).Later life and death
<mask> arranged a second voyage, with financial support from Jean Ango and Philippe de Chabot, which departed from Dieppe with four ships early in 1527. One ship was separated from the others in a gale near the Cape Verde Islands, but <mask> reached the coast of Brazil with two ships and harvested a cargo of brazilwood before returning to Dieppe in September. The third ship returned later, also with a cargo of brazilwood. The partial success did not find the desired passage to the Pacific Ocean, but it inspired <mask>'s final voyage, which left Dieppe in early 1528. There are conflicting accounts of <mask>'s demise. In one version, during his third voyage to North America in 1528, after he had explored Florida, the Bahamas, and the Lesser Antilles, Verrazzano anchored out to sea and rowed ashore, probably on the island of Guadeloupe. He was allegedly killed and eaten by the native Caribs.The fleet of two or three ships was anchored out of gunshot range, and no one could respond in time. However, older historical accounts suggest that <mask> was the same person as the corsair Jean Fleury, who was executed for piracy by the Spanish at Puerto del Pico, Spain. Legacy

Despite his discoveries, <mask>'s reputation did not proliferate as much as other explorers of that era. For example, <mask> gave the European name Francesca to the new land that he had seen, in accordance with contemporary practices, after the French king in whose name he sailed. That and other names that he bestowed on features that he discovered have not survived. He had the misfortune of making major discoveries in the same three years (1519 to 1521) that the dramatic Conquest of Mexico and Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the world occurred. Magellan himself did not complete his voyage, but his publicist Antonio Pigafetta did so, and Spanish publicity outweighed the news of the French voyage.In the 19th and the early 20th centuries, there was a great debate in the United States about the authenticity of the letters that he wrote to Francis I to describe the geography, flora, fauna, and native population of the east coast of North America. Others thought that they were authentic, almost universally the current opinion, particularly after the discovery of a letter signed by Francis I, which referred to <mask>'s letter. <mask>'s reputation was particularly obscure in New York City, where the 1609 voyage of Henry Hudson on behalf of the Dutch Republic came to be regarded as the de facto start of European exploration of New York. It was only by a great effort in the 1950s and 1960s that <mask>'s name and reputation were re-established as the European discoverer of the harbor, during an effort to name the newly built Narrows bridge after him. Commemorations

In 1909, during the Hudson-Fulton Celebration, a bronze statue of <mask> by Ettore Ximenes was installed in Battery Park in Manhattan. There are numerous commemorations of the explorer on Staten Island. The Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge, spanning The Narrows that separate Staten Island from Brooklyn, is perhaps the best known.Until October 2018, it was known as the "Verrazano-Narrows Bridge" with one "z". A Staten Island Ferry boat that served New York from the 1950s to the 1990s was also named for <mask>. The ferry was named the "Verrazzano", while the bridge was named "Verrazano", reflecting the confusion over the spelling of his name. A Little League team on Staten Island is also named for him. The Jamestown Verrazzano Bridge in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, is named for him, as is Maryland's Verrazano Bridge. A vessel of the Italian navy, a destroyer of the Navigatori class, was named after Verrazzano. She was launched in 1930 and sunk by a British submarine in 1942.There is a statue of him in the town of Greve in Chianti, Italy. There is a monument commemorating him in Rehoboth Beach, Delaware; it states on its south face:

The monument further states on its east face:

A native of Val Di Greve in the Tuscany region of Italy, he studied navigation as a young man and became a master mariner. He was engaged by the King of France to lead a voyage to North America in 1524. The purpose of <mask>'s journey was to learn more about the continent. Traveling in a small ship known as the Dauphine, he explored coastal areas from the present-day State of North Carolina to Canada, observing the natural abundance of the land and the vibrant culture of its native peoples. His voyage is the earliest documented European exploration of this part of the Atlantic Coast.This monument rests upon stone from Castello di Verrazzano, the explorer's ancestral home. References

Further reading

External links
 Verrazzano Centre for Historical Studies

1485 births
1528 deaths
People from Greve in Chianti
Italian explorers of North America
16th-century people of the Republic of Florence
Italian explorers
Explorers of Canada
Cannibalised people
Explorers of Florida

masks:
Giovanni da Verrazzano
Giovanni da Verrazzano
Piero Andrea di Bernardo da Verrazzano
Leonardo da Vinci
Verrazzano
Alessandro di Bartolommeo da Verrazano
Giovanna Guadag
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano
Verrazzano


texts:
<mask> (March 5, 1926 – March 22, 1987), born and also credited as <mask>, was an American film and television actress. She is known for her recurring role in The Dick Van Dyke Show. Early years
<mask> was born in Forest Hills, New York to Thomas Cuyler Fulton, an automobile salesman, and Esther L. Ring Fulton, and she moved with her parents and two brothers Theodore Cuyler Fulton Jr and Albert Fulton to Vancouver when she was five years old. Career

Dancing and modeling
Shawlee studied ballet under Ernest Belcher. At the age of fourteen, she began to work as a model for the John Robert Powers agency in New York, and worked later as a showgirl on Broadway. Billed as Joyce Ring, she appeared in the musical productions By Jupiter (1942) and A Connecticut Yankee (1943). Film
A tall woman (5'9"), she was known for small parts in Jack Lemmon and Billy Wilder films.She is probably best remembered for her role as bandleader Sweet Sue in Some Like It Hot (1959) starring Marilyn Monroe, Tony Curtis, and Lemmon. She appeared as Sylvia in The Apartment (1960), and as Amazon Annie in Irma la Douce, both of which starred Lemmon and Shirley MacLaine. She also appeared in Billy Wilder's final film, Buddy Buddy (1981), starring Lemmon and Walter Matthau. Television
Shawlee had a recurring role on TV in The Dick Van Dyke Show as Fiona "Pickles" Sorrell, wife of writer Maurice "Buddy" Sorrell (Morey Amsterdam). She played the lead in The Adventures of Aggie (1956–57), which only ran for one season. She played Lorna Peterson on Betty Hutton's short-lived series Goldie; Margo on the 1976–77 crime drama The Feather and Father Gang; and Tessie on Joe's World. She was also a regular on The Abbott and Costello Show.She played a dead criminal's wife in Stories of the Century with Jim Davis and a 1957 episode of Maverick titled "Stampede", starring James Garner and Efrem Zimbalist Jr., in which she portrayed the exuberant Madame Pompey. Her final acting appearance was in an episode of Crazy Like a Fox in 1985. Comedy team
In the early 1960s, <mask> and actress Mitzi McCall teamed up as a night club act. They opened at the Club Robaire in Cleveland. In January 1961, syndicated newspaper columnist Dorothy Kilgallen reported that the team was "causing quite a stir", while drawing attention to -- and exaggerating -- their discrepancy in height: "<mask> being six feet, three inches tall and Mitzi four feet, 10 inches short." Personal life
She was married twice. Her first husband was <mask>, a printing executive.They had a son, Walter, and divorced in 1956. Her second husband, Eddie Barchet, was a resort hotel manager she met in England and with whom she lived in California. She and Barchet had a daughter, Angela. <mask> was a Democrat who was supportive of Adlai Stevenson's campaign during the 1952 presidential election. Death
<mask> died of breast cancer, in Hollywood, California, on March 22, 1987, aged 61. She was cremated and her ashes scattered at sea.

masks:
Joan Shawlee
Joan Fulton
Shawlee
Shawlee
Joan
Walter Shawlee
Shawlee
Shawlee


texts:
<mask> (born 13 April 1953) is a British Labour Party politician who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Wallsend between 1992 and 1997, and  North Tyneside from 1997 to 2010. He was implicated in the MP expenses scandal and retired from politics in 2010. During <mask>' ministerial career, he was Chief Secretary to the Treasury, Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, and Secretary of State for Transport, Local Government and the Regions in the Cabinet. Early career

<mask> was born in Wolverhampton. He was educated at Wymondham College, a state-run day and boarding school, Chester City Grammar School and the Chester College of Further Education. He then gained a law degree at Liverpool John Moores University and became a law lecturer at Newcastle Polytechnic (now Northumbria University) in 1977, a post he retained until his election as a Member of Parliament in 1992. <mask> was elected as a councillor to the North Tyneside District Council in 1980 and was its deputy leader from 1985 until he became an MP in 1992.Reportedly a former supporter of the entryist Militant group once active within the Labour Partya claim which he says is untrue Byers had publicly rejected the group's approach by 1986. In the 1983 general election, he contested the Conservative stronghold seat of Hexham, finishing in third place and some 14,000 votes behind the former Cabinet minister Geoffrey Rippon. He was first elected to Parliament in the 1992 general election in Wallsend, a Labour stronghold, following the retirement of Ted Garrett, and secured a majority of 19,470. In 1993, <mask> joined the influential Home Affairs Select committee. He became an ally of Tony Blair, a fellow northeastern Labour MP, who was also in favour of 'modernising' the Labour Party. Blair gave him a job as soon as he became the Leader of the Opposition, placing <mask> in the Whips Office. He became a spokesman for the Department for Education and Employment in 1995, and he identified himself as an "outrider" for the New Labour project, regularly floating radical ideas on Blair's behalf to test reaction.An instance of this is when Byers briefed journalists in 1996 saying that the party might sever its links with the trade unions. <mask> was swiftly appointed to Shadow ministerial posts and became the Minister for School Standards with the title of Minister of State at the Department of Education and Employment following the victorious 1997 general election. While at this post, <mask> drew attention to himself when he said 8 times 7 was 54 in a BBC interview promoting a Government numeracy drive. His Wallsend constituency was abolished in 1997 and he was elected for the equally safe North Tyneside constituency with a 26,643 vote majority. Cabinet appointment

He joined the Cabinet in July 1998, as Chief Secretary to the Treasury and became a Member of the Privy Council. After the sudden resignation of Peter Mandelson, <mask> was appointed as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry in December 1998. After the 2001 general election, he was made Secretary of State for Transport, Local Government & the Regions.MG Rover

Byers was heavily criticised for his part in the collapse of the MG Rover Group. <mask>, as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, advocated the 2000 deal with the Phoenix Consortium instead of the bid from Alchemy Partners, a successful turnaround private equity investor that would have slimmed down the business. Although this deal prolonged the existence of the group for five years, it ultimately collapsed at extensive cost to the British tax payers while giving large profits from a dowry given by the seller BMW to the Phoenix Consortium. Byers responded to this criticism in his submission to the Trade and Industry committee, stating that his actions had largely been in line with government policy and that the long slow collapse of MG Rover Group had been preferable to a short sudden collapse. Railtrack

The first source of controversy in the Railtrack incident was the decision, taken at short notice with disregard for the regulator Tom Winsor, and implemented over a weekend, to ask the High Court to put the privatised railway infrastructure company Railtrack into railway administration, on 7 October 2001. This ultimately led to the creation of Network Rail, which effectively renationalised Britain's railway infrastructure company. The British Office for National Statistics insisted that the placement of Network Rail in the private sector was correct.Byers later admitted that he had not been truthful. Byers' decision angered those private investors who had lost money, and under pressure from The City, the government eventually had to offer compensation. The action also led to the largest class legal action ever seen in the British courts. Exit from the Cabinet

In late 2001, it was revealed that Byers' political adviser, Jo Moore, had sent an email on 11 September 2001, suggesting that the September 11, 2001 attacks made it "a very good day to get out anything we want to bury". Moore and <mask> survived the resulting outrage, but, in February 2002, the public uproar broke out again. A leaked email from the Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions's head of news, Martin Sixsmith, a former BBC news reporter, seemed to warn Moore not to "bury" any more bad news on the day of Princess Margaret's funeral, implying that she was attempting to do so. On 15 February, the resignations of both Moore and Sixsmith were announced.Later on, however, Sixsmith stated that he had not agreed to go, but rather that Byers had insisted on the head of news' departure as his price to pay for losing Moore. In May it was confirmed by the Department that <mask> had announced Sixsmith's resignation prematurely, though the Government said that this was due to a misunderstanding, and he had done nothing wrong. Byers' troubles continued over the following months. The Labour-dominated House of Commons Transport Select Committee criticised the party's transport strategy, and a long-running row over Byers' decision as Trade Secretary to allow pornographic-magazine publisher Richard Desmond to buy the Daily Express newspaper returned to the limelight. The pressure on Byers was too much, and he resigned on 28 May 2002 to be replaced by Alastair Darling. Return to backbenches

On the backbenches, Byers kept up pressure for the Labour Party to keep to the centre ground. In August 2006, he suggested that Labour heir-apparent, Gordon Brown, should discard the inheritance tax to prove his "New Labour" credentials to Middle England.This suggestion was widely criticised by many MPs, who claimed that the publicity surrounding Byers' plan would "frighten constituents in the high-priced south into believing they would have to pay death duties, when most won't". On 14 November 2009, he announced that he would be stepping down from Parliament at the 2010 general election. Following the criticism of the Prime Minister over the budget of 2007, which dismissed the ten percent starting rate of income tax as well as that of 2008, which included a planned two percent rise in fuel duties, Byers accused Gordon Brown of manipulating the tax system for "tactical advantage" and urged an "immediate halt" to proposals to increase taxes on motorists. He also condemned the government's proposed inheritance tax reforms that had been launched in response to Opposition proposals to reform the tax. He went on to urge the government to carry out a fundamental rethinking of tax policy. Expenses

As part of a series of reports highlighting MPs' expenses claims, on 10 May 2009, The Sunday Telegraph reported that Byers had claimed more than  in second home allowances for a London flat owned by his partner, where the MP lived rent-free. Allegedly included in his expenses claims was £27,000 for redecoration, maintenance, and appliances for the property.Lobbyist investigation

In March 2010, <mask> was among the politicians caught out by undercover journalists who were posing as lobbyists from an international company. The journalists were from The Sunday Times and filming for a Channel Four investigatory series called Dispatches. He was shown describing himself as a "cab for hire" and offering to lobby his parliamentary contacts in support of the fictitious company for a financial payment of between £3,000 and £5,000 per day. Byers claimed to have influenced outcomes for National Express and Tesco through his relationships with Lord Adonis, Transport Secretary, and Lord Mandelson, Business Secretary, respectively. He claimed that he phoned Mandelson to put a stop to "massively bureaucratic" food labelling regulations after he had been contacted by Tesco. He later withdrew his name for consideration by the fictitious lobbying company via email, claiming he had over-stated his role, writing, "I have not spoken to Andrew Adonis or Peter Mandelson about the matters I mentioned". When the story broke, National Express and Tesco also denied there was any truth in <mask>' statements.Byers referred himself to John Lyon, the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards. Byers expressed confidence that Lyon would clear his name, but he was eventually banned from the parliamentary estate. On 22 March 2010, Byers' administrative suspension from the membership of the Parliamentary Labour Party was announced alongside those of Patricia Hewitt, Geoff Hoon and Margaret Moran. However, all four remained members of the Labour Party itself. On 9 December 2010, Geoff Hoon along with <mask> and Richard Caborn were banned from parliament, the Standards and Privileges Committee banned Geoff Hoon for a minimum five years as his was the most serious breach, whilst Byers received two years and Caborn six months. See also
 List of residents of Wolverhampton

Footnotes

External links

 Guardian Unlimited Politics – Ask Aristotle: <mask> MP
 BBC News report on <mask>'s sacking from the UK Government by Tony Blair
 TheyWorkForYou.com – <mask> MP

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1953 births
Living people
Academics of Northumbria University
Alumni of Liverpool John Moores University
British Secretaries of State
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Friends of Israel
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Chester City Grammar School
People from Wolverhampton
Secretaries of State for Transport (UK)
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
Councillors in Tyne and Wear
People educated at Wymondham College
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Labour Party (UK) councillors

masks:
Stephen John Byers
Byers
Stephen Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Byers
Stephen Byers
Stephen Byers
Stephen Byer
Stephen Byers