texts:
<mask>  (30 November 18311 July 1899) was an English surgeon, museum curator  and comparative anatomist, who became a leading authority on mammals and especially on the primate brain. He supported <mask> in an important controversy with Richard Owen about the human brain and eventually succeeded Owen as Director of the Natural History Museum in London. Origins
Born on 30 November 1831 in his father's house at Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, he was the second son of Selina née Greaves (d. 1884), eldest daughter of Mary Whitehead and John Greaves, and  <mask>, founder of the town brewery. His grandfather <mask> had married Elizabeth Fordham and settled at Albion, Illinois, where his father grew up. His uncles included the slate entrepreneur John Whitehead Greaves and <mask>, Governor of Washington. His elder brother <mask> ran the family brewery with the third brother <mask>, while he chose a scientific career. Early life
First taught at home by his mother, he went to a school in Edgbaston at the age 11 and then from age 13 to a Pestalozzian school at Worksop under a Swiss headmaster, Dr B. Heldenmaier.There were ten hours schooling each day which included, rare at that time, science. Already a collector of natural history objects, he was made curator of the school museum and for almost all the rest of his life was a museum curator of one kind or another. He then attended University College, London, followed by the Middlesex Hospital, where he studied medicine and surgery. Graduating as an MB of London University in 1851, he won a gold medal in physiology and a silver in zoology and comparative anatomy. In 1852 he read his first paper before the Zoological Society of London, of which he was made a Fellow. Medical career
Appointed a junior house surgeon at the Middlesex Hospital, after six months he was promoted to senior house surgeon and in 1854 passed the exam to become an MRCS (Member of the Royal College of Surgeons). Also in 1854 he became Curator of the Middlesex Hospital Museum.However, with the outbreak of the Crimean War that year, he joined the British Army and was appointed as Assistant-Surgeon to the 63rd (West Suffolk) Regiment of Foot. Embarking at Cork in July 1854, they sailed for Constantinople and then on to the Crimea, landing at Kalamita Bay in August. Within four months, the regiment was reduced in strength by almost one half from cold, exposure, infectious disease and, lastly, enemy action. His own health broke down and he had to be invalided home, never fully recovering. In recognition of his services, he received from the hands of Queen Victoria the Crimea Medal with clasps for Alma, Inkerman, Balaclava, and Sebastopol. Later, he received the Turkish Crimean War medal as well. When fit to work he returned to London, taking the diploma to become an FRCS (Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons) in 1857 and joining the staff of the Middlesex Hospital as a Demonstrator in Anatomy.In 1858 he married, and during the next year became Assistant-Surgeon at the Middlesex, curator of the Anatomical Museum and also Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy. In his 1859 lecture to the Royal United Services Institute on practical surgery for naval and military officers, as a direct result of his Crimean experience  he summarised the first aid knowledge needed by soldiers and sailors to help the wounded before a surgeon was available. The evolution debate
In 1860, intellectual circles in London were alive with talk of evolution. Long interested in the wider sphere of natural history rather than just human physiology, he decided to move his career in that direction. A probable influence was <mask> Huxley, also a comparative anatomist and Fullerian Professor at the Royal Institution at the time, and his first contact with Huxley came through the naval surgeon, zoologist, and palaeontologist George Busk. With Huxley he became engaged in controversy with Richard Owen, who claimed that the human brain had unique structures not present in simians. Huxley had contradicted this at the British Association meeting at Oxford in 1860, which included a debate on evolution, and promised proof.He was among experts consulted by Huxley and gave demonstrations at Huxley's public lectures, using monkey brains rather than scarce ape brains. He published papers on the brains of four species of monkey, and at the 1862 meeting of the British Association in Cambridge, after Owen read a paper repeating his claims, stood up saying "I happen to have in my pocket a monkey's brain" and produced the object in question. In the evolution debate he was among those who, like his brother-in-law Baden Powell, saw no threat to religious belief in accepting the theory. In 1883 he expounded his view in an address to the Church Congress in Reading under the title: "The bearing of science on religion" . Transfer to zoology
On the recommendation of Huxley and others, in 1862 he became Conservator of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, holding the post for 22 years, and in 1864 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1870 he became Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, in succession to Huxley, and began a series of lectures that ran for fourteen years, all on aspects of the Mammalia. The essence was published in his books of 1870 and 1891.He was elected President of the Zoological Society of London in 1879, holding the post for life, and in 1882 was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society. From 1883 to 1885 he was President of the Anthropological Institute. Natural History Museum

In 1884, on the retirement of Sir Richard Owen, he was appointed to the directorship of what were then the Natural History departments of the British Museum in South Kensington. The four departments of Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy and Geology each had its own Keeper, who was largely autonomous from the Director, who was himself subject to the Principal Librarian and to the Trustees of the British Museum. Facing a wide array of personalities to contend with and a heavy load of administrative duties, he was a more or less instant success, testifying to his strong but tactful personality. In 1889 he showed his devotion by installing a statue of Charles Darwin in the Museum. In that year he was chosen as President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, having previously headed  its biological section in 1878 and its anthropological section in 1881 (being chosen again in 1894).In 1893 he served as President of the Museums Association. In 1895, in addition to his role as Director he took over the post of Keeper of Zoology, holding it until his retirement. He immediately set about rearranging the zoological galleries according to the theories he had evolved on effective presentation by de-cluttering the exhibits, ensuring each specimen had an easy-to-read label, and placing each stuffed animal beside its skeleton and remains of its extinct allies in order to give the displays depth and context. Other contributions to knowledge

Beyond his continuing interest in primates, he became an expert on the Cetacea, that is the whales and their relatives. He carried out dissections, went out on whaling boats, studied discoveries of whale fossils, and established a whale room at the Natural History Museum with skeletons and plaster casts. It was he who made public the "absolute and complete destruction of two species of right whale by the reckless greed of the whalers". He made valuable contributions to structural anthropology, for example by publishing complete and accurate measurements of 1,300 human skulls, and as a comparative anatomist in the field of Mammalia he ranked high.He was the first person to show that lemurs are primates. He was a leading authority on the arrangement of museums. He insisted on the importance of distinguishing between collections intended for the use of specialists and those designed for the instruction of the general public, pointing out that it was as futile to present to the former a number of merely typical forms as to provide the latter with a long series of specimens differing only in the most minute details. His ideas, which were largely and successfully applied to the museums of which he had charge, gained wide approval and entitle him to be seen as a reformer who did much to improve methods of museum arrangement and management. He also laboured for wider access to museums, both by educated people who needed to know more about the rapidly developing world of science and by ordinary people whose mental horizons could be expanded. He personally led conducted tours for groups across the social spectrum, from royalty at one end to working men at the other. He became a public figure, his lectures being crowded and his views influential.In a study of deliberate deformation of the human body in various cultures, he included corsets and high heels, illustrating the effects with pictures of distorted female skeletons. Horrified at the widespread slaughter of birds to provide feathers for fashionable hats, he said of the egret: "one of the most beautiful of birds is being swept off the face of the earth under circumstances of peculiar cruelty, to minister to a passing fashion." Which led Beatrix Potter to write: "I wonder what Sir <mask>'s speciality is besides ladies' bonnets." In 1869, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society. Last years
Having been created a CB in 1887, three years after his first appointment to the Museum, in 1892 he was knighted as a KCB. He also received the Jubilee Medal and the Royal Prussian order "Pour le Mérite". He and his wife led an active life outside his work, over the years meeting many leading figures in British society.Among their friends were the poet laureate Alfred, Lord Tennyson and the leading churchman Dean Stanley. Illness and overwork led him to take retirement from the Natural History Museum in August 1898 and he died at his home in South Kensington on I July 1899, aged 67. His remains were buried with his wife's family at Stone in Buckinghamshire. <mask> married Georgiana Rosetta Smyth, on 15 April 1858, at Stone in Buckinghamshire. Rosetta was the youngest daughter of Admiral <mask> Smyth, an astronomer and hydrographer, and his wife Eliza Anne (Annarella) Warington. <mask> and his wife Rosetta had four daughters -
 Caroline Mary <mask>, 1861-1945
 Vera Josephine <mask>, 1863-1938
 Geraldine <mask>, 1867-1940
 Augusta Frances <mask>, 1882-1959

and three sons -
 Arthur Smyth <mask> Smyth <mask>, 1871-1946, zoologist. Victor Augustine <mask>, 1875-1917.Upon his marriage to Rosetta, <mask> gained as brothers-in-law -
 the mathematician and liberal theologian, the Rev. Prof. Baden Powell (father of 1st Baron Baden-Powell ("B-P"), founder of the Scouting movement), the husband of Rosetta's sister Henrietta Grace Smyth;
Warington Wilkinson Smyth, Rosetta's eldest brother;
Charles Piazzi Smyth, Rosetta's second brother; and
General Sir <mask> Smyth, Rosetta's third brother. Publications
Flowers publications were all but a few on mammals (and surgery); he was not a field biologist, nor a student of the other vertebrate groups. Diagrams of the nerves of the human body. London 1861. 'Observations of the posterior lobes of the cerebrum of the Quadrumana, with a description of the brain of a Galago'. Proc Roy Soc.1860–62 xi, 376–81, 508; Phil Trans 1862 185–201. 'Notes on the anatomy of Lithecia Monachus (Geoff.).' Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 9 December 1862 1–8
 'On the brain of the Javan Loris (Stenops javenicus).' Read 1862, publ. Zool Soc Trans 1866 103–111. 'On the brain of the Siamang (Hylobatis syndactylis).' Nat Hist Rev 1863 279–257.'Notes on the skeletons of whales in the principal museums of Holland and Belgium, with descriptions of two species apparently new to science.' Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 8 November 1864 384–420. An introduction to the osteology of the Mammalia. London 1870; 2nd ed 1876; 3rd ed with Hans Gadow 1883. An introduction to the osteology of the mammalia (1885)
 'On the brain of the red Howling Monkey (Mycetes seniculus).' Zool Soc Proc 1864 335–338. Fashion in deformity.1885. The Horse: a study in natural history. 1890. Introduction to the study of Mammals, living and extinct with Richard Lydekker. London 1891. Essays on Museums and other subjects. London 1898.(Includes appreciations of Huxley and Owen)
<mask> wrote forty articles for the 9th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, every one on a group of mammals. References

Further reading

External links

 <mask>, <mask> – Biodiversity Heritage Library

1831 births
1899 deaths
Evolutionary biologists
English zoologists
Directors of the Natural History Museum, London
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Presidents of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Presidents of the Zoological Society of London
People from Stratford-upon-Avon
British Army regimental surgeons
British Army personnel of the Crimean War
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons
Royal Medal winners
63rd Regiment of Foot officers
Presidents of the British Science Association
Alumni of University College London
Alumni of the UCL Medical School
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
19th-century British businesspeople

masks:
Sir William Henry Flower
Thomas Henry Huxley
Edward Fordham Flower
Richard Flower
William Pickering
Charles Edward Flower
Edgar Flower
Thomas Henry
W Flower
Family Flower
William Henry
Flower
Flower
Flower
Rose Flower
Ellen Flower
FlowerStanley
Flower
Flower
Flower
Henry Augustus
Flower
Flower
William Henry


type: original

texts:
<mask> (born 27 February 1953) is a Motswana politician and former military officer who was the fourth President of the Republic of Botswana from 1 April 2008 to 1 April 2018. After serving as Commander of the Botswana Defence Force, he entered politics and was Vice-President of Botswana from 1998 to 2008, then succeeded Festus Mogae as President on 1 April 2008. He won a full term in the 2009 election and was re-elected in October 2014. Early life

<mask>a is the second child of Sir <mask> (1 July 1921 – 13 July 1980), Botswana's foremost independence leader and its president from 1966 to 1980, and Lady <mask>. He was born in Chertsey, Surrey, while his father was living in exile in the United Kingdom, due to the opposition by the colonial government and the emergent apartheid regime in South Africa to his marriage to a white woman. He is also the grandson of Sekgoma II (1869–1925), who was the paramount chief of the Bamangwato people, and the great-grandson of <mask> III (1837–1923), their king. His great-great grandfather of Kgosikgolo Sekgoma I was Chief of the Bamangwato people (1815–1885).The name "Seretse" means “the clay that binds together”, and was given to his father to celebrate the recent reconciliation of his father and grandfather; this reconciliation assured Seretse <mask>'s ascension to the throne when his aged father died in 1925. <mask> Khama is named after his father to continue this historical legacy. He is also known simply as <mask> to differentiate between himself and his father. Tshekedi <mask> II, <mask>a's brother, was named after their great uncle, Tshekedi <mask> who was the regent and guardian for Seretse <mask>, the first president of Botswana. Education and military career
<mask> was educated at Waterford Kamhlaba, a United World College in Mbabane, and at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. He is a qualified pilot. In April 1977, Khama was appointed as a brigadier general at age 24 during Sir Seretse <mask>'s Presidency, making him the Deputy Commander to late former Vice President Lt. Gen. Mompati Merafhe.He later served as the Commander of the Botswana Defence Force (BDF) from his appointment in 1989, retiring from the position in 1998. During this time, Khama received military honours, including the Founder Officer Medal for being part of the Botswana Defence Force when it was created in 1977, the Duty Code Order for devotion to duty, and the Distinguished Service Medal in 1997 after 20 years of service. Political career

<mask>, serving as Commander of the Botswana Defence Force, announced on 16 December 1997 that he would retire from his command on 31 March 1998. Because this was the same date as the planned retirement of President Quett Masire, it fueled political speculation about Khama. On 1 April 1998, when Vice-President Festus Mogae succeeded Masire as President, <mask> was appointed as the new Vice-President. However, <mask> did not hold a seat in the National Assembly, and so could not immediately take office as Vice-President. In early July 1998 he overwhelmingly won a by-election in Serowe North, receiving 2,986 votes against 86 votes for the candidate of the opposition Botswana National Front.On 13 July, he took his seat in the National Assembly and was sworn in as Vice-President. By these actions, he effectively renounced his  hitherto unclaimed hereditary chieftaincy, as the constitutional monarchs of modern Botswana are legally barred from actively taking part in party politics. Be this as it may, many traditional Bamangwato continued to recognize him as their chief. Following the victory of the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP) in the general election of October 1999, <mask> remained Vice-President as well as Minister of Presidential Affairs and Public Administration. Mogae granted Khama a one-year leave later in the year, a decision that the opposition Botswana Congress Party and the Botswana Council of Non-Governmental Organizations sharply criticized. Khama's leave became effective on 1 January 2000. He returned to his duties as Vice-President on 1 September 2000, although he was replaced as Minister of Presidential Affairs and Public Administration at that time.<mask>, already a member of the BDP Central Committee, was elected as Chairman of the BDP on 22 July 2003 at a party congress; he defeated the previous Chairman, Ponatshego Kedikilwe, receiving 512 votes against 219 for Kedikilwe. Khama had been backed for the post by President Mogae, and the outcome was viewed as crucial, paving the way for Khama to eventually succeed Mogae as President. In 2007, Khama appeared on British television in the BBC's Top Gear motoring programme and he met the presenters as they prepared to cross the Makgadikgadi Pan in northern Botswana by car. Presidency

Interim term, 2008-09
Mogae stepped down, as he had long said he would do, on 1 April 2008; <mask> succeeded him as President. At his swearing-in ceremony in Gaborone, Khama said that there would be continuity in policy and no "radical changes", although he said that "a change in style and special emphasis on a number of issues" might be evident, and he emphasized his commitment to democracy. He immediately undertook a major cabinet reshuffle, and he appointed Mompati Merafhe, who had been Foreign Minister, as the new Vice-President. Upon becoming President, <mask> left his post as Chairman of the BDP; Daniel Kwelagobe was chosen to replace him.<mask> was not elected to the presidency for his first year in office, being appointed due to his position as Vice President. Some political commentators such as Kenneth Good see as a flaw in the electoral system in Botswana. President <mask> first articulated his desire to impose a 70% alcohol levy,  meant to combat the problem of excessive drinking in Botswana. The practical effect of such a levy was soon seen to have a deleterious effect on the brewing industry, who resisted the imposition of such a levy, along with bars and other drinking establishments. The President later imposed a 30% levy after consulting with industry leaders, including the Botswana Confederation of Commerce, Industry and Manpower. SAB Miller secured British diplomatic representation to attempt to lower the levy. In 2008, The Media Practitioners Act passed into Botswana law.the law has been criticized as inhibiting free speech by several outlets. The bill's language seeks to encourage a more professional journalistic standard. The law has proven to be difficult to enforce or implement. In 2009, <mask> appeared on CNN's African Voices which painted a positive picture of Khama, and named Botswana an African "success story". 2009 General Election
In the 2009 Botswana general election, <mask> was elected to the first of two terms as president. Politically, <mask>'s election campaign was dominated by internal squabbling in the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), which was clearly divided into two major factions, the A-Team and the Barata Phati factions. The A-Team was led by President <mask>, Jacob Nkate, the former minister of education, and the late former vice president Mompati Merafhe.The Barata Phati faction was led by former BDP secretary general Daniel Kwelagobe, formerly the chairman of the party, the late Gomolemo Motswaledi, and also retired former vice president Ponatshego Kedikilwe, who wished to bring about constitutional reform not only to the BDP but also to the country's constitution. In the run-up to the 2009 elections, Motswaledi, who gave up on his ambition to run for a seat in Serowe in order to make way for <mask>'s brother, Tshekedi <mask> II, was also excluded from representing Gaborone when he ran afoul of President Khama. Motswaledi lost a law suit against Khama when the High Court ruled that the president enjoyed constitutional immunity from litigation by virtue of his position. After this incident, critics accused Khama of authoritarian tendencies; More than half of the BDP central Committee at one time felt that Khama had on many instances acted beyond his powers. Others, including Khama and his legal representation, said that he was simply instilling discipline as part of his role as the head of the party. Khama won 53.26% of the vote, and a majority of seats in the National Assembly. First Term, 2009-14
After the 2009 election, Motswaledi bowed out of the BDP to form another political party, the Botswana Movement for Democracy (BMD).Khama put in place a ban on Elephant hunting in 2014. The death of John Kalifatis, whose death resulted during the course of a robbery investigation, occurred early in <mask>'s presidency. The police statement on Kalifatis reads: "The deceased, John Kalafatis, had a warrant of arrest issued against him on 12 January 2009 for armed robbery among others. All along, he was a fugitive from justice." The officers involved claimed that they mistakenly believed him to be reaching for his firearm at the time of the shooting. Other sources dispute this, and claim that Kalafatis had been executed by members of the Botswana Defense Force. The three members of the BDF responsible for the death of Kalifatis were found guilty of murder, and each sentenced to 11 years in prison.They received a presidential pardon from Khama in 2012. This was seen as proof by some sources that Khama was involved in the killing. The prosecuting lawyer for Kalifatis said “What is his special interest in these particular offenders, how can we not suspect that he had a personal interest in the case…?”

2014 General Election
In the 2014 Botswana general election, <mask> won his second term. His party received 46.45% of the vote, and a majority of seats in the National Assembly. In the lead up to the election, opposition politician Gomolemo Motswaledi died in a traffic collision on 30 July 2014. While there was some speculation on the incident being politically motivated, the police force concluded that the death was an accident. Second Term, 2014-18
In 2015, Khama was awarded an honorary doctorate in political science from Konkuk University in South Korea.After he received the degree, Khama's official title was "His Excellency the President Lieutenant General Dr Seretse <mask> <mask>a". Political opinions
Khama took a strong stance against the Zimbabwean government, particularly Robert Mugabe. He did so by refusing to recognize the government unless and until it included members of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) headed by  Morgan Tsvangarai. Khama also condemned the action of Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir in the region of Darfur and became a vocal critic of despotic governments in Africa along with President Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania and President Levy Mwanawasa of Zambia. Khama has been criticized by some figures for making poor decisions, including by former president Quett Masire, who claimed that the BDP had been taken over by opportunists looking to benefit from senior government positions. Under Khama, the government has also established the Directorate of Intelligence and Security Services (DISS) with police powers, which is seen as the Botswana equivalent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States. Although this type of organization is not new and is found in many countries, it has critics in Botswana who charge that there are very few domestic or transnational threats that the police and the military could not handle.Some, including Executive director of the Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, Siphosami Malunga, have argued that the institution, initially headed by President Khama's close friend Issac Kgosi, could easily be manipulated and used against political enemies or others who criticize the President or his administration. On the economic front, Khama has been a vocal proponent of moving Botswana away from its over-reliance on diamonds and diversifying its economy, especially to the agriculture and tourism sector. Khama put in place a ban on elephant hunting during his time as President, and supported conservation efforts in Botswana. In 2018, he criticized President Donald Trump for encouraging elephant poaching. Khama has been strongly prohibitionist in his attitude towards alcohol, viewing it as a significant problem. Retirement
On 1 April 2018, Mokgweetsi Masisi was sworn in as the 5th President of Botswana, succeeding <mask> and his full ten years of presidency. After several disagreements with Masisi, in particular criticizing Masisi for authoritarian tendencies, Khama decided to leave the BDP and join the Botswana Patriotic Front (BPF), a newly formed breakaway from the BDP.He campaigned for the BPF, which won three seats in the 2019 general elections in the Serowe area. In 2018, after resigning from the presidency, <mask> became a member of the Board of Directors of the US-based organization Conservation International, which is also active in Botswana. Honours and awards

Honours

References

External links

|-

Presidents of Botswana
Vice-presidents of Botswana
Members of the National Assembly (Botswana)
Botswana generals
Botswana Democratic Party politicians

1953 births
Waterford Kamhlaba alumni
People educated at a United World College
Graduates of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst

Botswana people of English descent
Botswana aviators
Children of national leaders
Living people
People from Chertsey
English people of Botswana descent

masks:
Seretse Khama Ian Khama
Ian Kham
Seretse Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Ian Seretse
Ian Khama
Khama
Ian Kham
Khama
Khama
Ian Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Ian Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Ian Kham
Ian Khama
Khama


texts:
<mask> (born May 25, 1974) is a retired American soccer player who played 17 seasons in Major League Soccer, being on the field for a record 37,260 minutes. Nicknamed El Gato (Spanish for "the cat") because of his agility, reflexes, physical qualities, and shot-stopping ability, Hartman has more saves than any other goalkeeper in MLS history, and was the MLS Goalkeeper of the Year in 1999. Considered to be one of the greatest and most successful goalkeepers in MLS history, he was also known for his longevity. Career

Youth and college

<mask> attended Radford High School in Radford, Virginia,  where he made the school's varsity team and served as backup goalkeeper in 1989. As a sophomore, he started for a young Radford High Team that went 1–12, where Hartman once gave up six goals in a half. That Radford High team won the Region IV Title in 1992 over Blacksburg High School and lost in the state semi-finals. RHS would have likely contended for the state title in 1992; however, between his sophomore and junior year at Radford High School, <mask> moved with his family to the Palos Verdes in California, where he enrolled in Palos Verdes High School, playing on the junior varsity squad for the 1990–1991 season.Before his senior year, Palos Verdes High School merged with Rolling Hills High School and Miraleste High School to form Palos Verdes Peninsula High School. As a senior, <mask> played on the Peninsula High School varsity squad, though he only started a few of the games early in the season. <mask> also played on a club team known as the San Pedro FC Santos, headed by Pat Nave of San Pedro, California. Known as having a strong work ethic, Hartman often woke up early in the morning to practice in the nearby city of Long Beach. After graduating from high school in the Spring of 1992, <mask> went on to play college soccer at California State University, Dominguez Hills and UCLA. He began his college career at Dominguez Hills, playing there in 1992 and 1993, before transferring to UCLA, where he played in 1995 and 1996, redshirting in 1994. Professional

LA Galaxy
Hartman was drafted 29th overall in the third round of the 1997 MLS College Draft by Los Angeles Galaxy.He played very little his rookie year, as he was stuck behind renowned Mexican keeper Jorge Campos. After the season, <mask>, or "El Gato" (dubbed by La Opinion reporter Ramiro Gonzalez),was selected third overall by Chicago Fire in the expansion draft; the Galaxy quickly reacquired him, however, trading Campos and Chris Armas to the Fire in exchange for <mask> and Danny Pena. With Campos in Chicago, Hartman seized the starting job, starting 28 games for the team kept it until his departure from the team, except for a brief period in 2001 when Matt Reis briefly took his job. He was named MLS Goalkeeper of the Year in 1999 following an especially good season. Hartman helped the Galaxy win the CONCACAF Champions' Cup in 2000, the U.S. Open Cup in 2001 and 2005, and the MLS Cup in 2002 and 2005. Other MLS teams
After ten years with the Galaxy, <mask> was traded to Kansas City Wizards following the 2006 season. On March 28, 2009, Hartman broke the all-time MLS saves record of 1,136 stops previously held by Tony Meola during a Wizards game against Colorado Rapids.<mask> left Kansas City when he failed to agree to a new contract extension with the club. <mask>'s rights were traded to FC Dallas in return for a conditional second round 2012 MLS SuperDraft pick. On September 16, 2010, in a match against New York Red Bulls, <mask> was injured by Red Bulls striker Thierry Henry, who wanted to kick the ball to celebrate a goal. Henry kicked the ball and the follow through kicked <mask>'s foot, causing him an injury. <mask> was named to the MLS Team of Week 8 and 9 in the 2011 MLS season for his consecutive clean sheets against D.C. United, Philadelphia Union, and Toronto FC. On June 4, 2011, <mask> became the first goalkeeper in MLS history to record 100 shutouts. On July 4, 2012, Hartman played his 400th match in MLS.Following the 2012 MLS season, <mask>'s contract was not renewed by FC Dallas. <mask> entered the 2012 MLS Re-Entry Draft, and became a free agent after going undrafted in both rounds of the draft. On March 21, 2013, <mask> joined the New York Red Bulls as a free agent saying "to play and also have the opportunity to get into a little bit more of the coaching side of things." <mask> announced his retirement from professional soccer on November 21, 2013.

International
Despite his success in MLS, <mask> saw little time with the United States national team, making only six international appearances. He received his first cap September 8, 1999 in a match against Jamaica, while his last international appearance came on February 10, 2006 in a friendly against Japan. MLS records

 2nd Most victories of any goalkeeper in MLS history with 180. Eleventh in MLS in career Goals Against Average (GAA) with a 1.20 (as of 2012-09-11), and career leader in saves (1,453).First MLS goalkeeper to have consecutive 20-win seasons. First MLS goalkeeper to have consecutive seasons with a GAA less than 1.0. Owns the Galaxy record for saves in a game with 12 (set August 20, 2003, vs. Chicago). Most saves in MLS history. Honors

Club
Los Angeles Galaxy
CONCACAF Champions' Cup (1): 2000
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup (2): 2001, 2005
Major League Soccer MLS Cup (2): 2002, 2005
Major League Soccer Supporters' Shield (2): 1998, 2002
Major League Soccer Western Conference Championship (3): 1999, 2002, 2005

FC Dallas
Major League Soccer Western Conference Championship (1): 2010

New York Red Bulls
Major League Soccer Supporters' Shield (1): 2013

Individual
MLS Goalkeeper of the Year: 1999
MLS Best XI: 1999

References

External links

1974 births
Living people
People from Athens, Ohio
American soccer players
Soccer players from Ohio
Association football goalkeepers
LA Galaxy players
Sporting Kansas City players
FC Dallas players
New York Red Bulls players
Major League Soccer players
Major League Soccer All-Stars
Cal State Dominguez Hills Toros men's soccer players
UCLA Bruins men's soccer players
United States men's international soccer players
LA Galaxy draft picks
People from Palos Verdes, California

masks:
Kevin Eugene Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Kevin
Hartman
Kevin
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman
Hartman


texts:
<mask> (born October 14, 1983) is an American adjunct professor in public policy and international affairs, a political advisor, philanthropist and a grandson of <mask>. He serves as an adjunct faculty member at Columbia University's School of International and Public Affairs and was previously the executive director of the Howard G. Buffett Foundation, a private philanthropic foundation that funds initiatives aimed at improving the standard of living and quality of life for the world’s most impoverished and marginalized populations. He previously led agriculture-based economic stabilization and redevelopment programs in Iraq and Afghanistan while at the United States Department of Defense, and as a policy advisor in the Executive Office of the President of the United States under President Barack Obama. Prior to joining the White House, <mask> served as a special assistant at the U.S. Department of Agriculture, as a member of the Office of the President-Elect, and as director of National Surrogate Radio for Obama for America. Early life and education

<mask> was born in Omaha, Nebraska, to farmer and philanthropist <mask>. He is a grandson of famed American investor and philanthropist <mask> and Norman Leffingwell Goss (1915-1994), who was a famous Pasadena restaurateur. <mask> is a great-great-grandson of Michael Cochrane Armour (1851 -1928), president of the Iroquois Iron Company.Raised in Omaha, he attended Ponca Elementary School before moving to Decatur, Illinois, where he attended Mount Zion High School and was elected president of the local chapter of the National FFA Organization. He completed his Bachelor of Arts in Political Science and Communication Studies in 2006 at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, where he also served as the student body vice president. He went on to receive a Master of Public Administration in Advanced Management and Finance at the School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University in 2008. Career

Public service
In 2009, <mask> was appointed to the United States Department of Agriculture, where he served as a special assistant in the Office of the Secretary. There, he managed the national expansion strategy for the Department’s $480 million Cooperative Extension Service program. Additionally, he was charged with identifying strategic external partnerships aimed at advancing the core mission areas of research, education, and economics. He also served on the five-year Strategic Planning Initiative, and represented the department in the White House Innovation and Information Policy Working Group.Upon completion of his service at the Department of Agriculture, <mask> served as a policy advisor in the Executive Office of the President of the United States at the White House, where he was responsible for the Cross-Sector Partnerships portfolio. In this role, he directed strategy development for cross-sector partnerships and innovation strategies aimed at enhancing collaboration between the White House, federal departments, agencies, corporations, nonprofits and foundations. After leaving the White House, <mask> became the director of agriculture development at the Task Force for Business Stability Operations under the U.S. Department of Defense, where he was tasked with designing and implementing a strategy for agricultural development in Afghanistan and Iraq under the leadership of Paul Brinkley. White House Energy Innovation Conference

In May 2010, <mask> spearheaded a White House Energy Innovation Conference focused on promoting partnerships. Represented at the event were four federal departments, three federal agencies, entrepreneurs, state government officials, academia, private sector leaders, nonprofits and innovators. At the conference, the United States Department of Energy and the Small Business Administration jointly announced that both the Small Business Investment Company program and the Small Business Technology Transfer program would begin using their existing funding networks to promote small green energy firms through a new $60 million Business Clean Energy Innovation Fund. The event also served as the launch vehicle for the Regional Energy Innovation Conferences.The first Regional Energy Innovation Conference was hosted in Omaha, Nebraska on June 17, 2010. The event focused on connecting entrepreneurs and small enterprise with representatives from organizations across sectors and was itself a partnership between the City of Omaha, The Gallup Organization, the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy. Over one hundred local, regional, and national organizations were represented at Gallup University’s Omaha Campus to discuss issues ranging from regional gap funding and human capital needs to collaboration and the early adoption of energy innovation. Social value investing

At the 2011 Social Good Summit in New York, <mask> introduced an approach premised on addressing social problems by systematically lining up nonprofits to each need. On May 28, 2018, <mask> announced the release of his book titled "Social Value Investing: A Management Framework for Effective Partnerships." Published by Columbia University Press, the book details specific case studies and examples on topics including clean energy, water scarcity and sustainable agriculture. Advisory positions
In 2010, <mask> joined the advisory board for Toyota Motor North America.He chairs the advisory board for the Harvard University International Negotiation Program. He previously served on the Board of Visitors for the Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University, and on the boards of New York Needs You and the Clark and Hinman Foundation. Additionally, he has served as an advisor to both the United Nations Office for Partnerships and the FEED Foundation. He served as a judge for the Collaboration Prize, the American Express 2009 NGen Fellows Program, and the Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship’s business plan competitions. He is an active member of the Nebraska Society and a lifetime alumni member of the Future Farmers of America (FFA). Philanthropy

<mask> currently serves as the executive director of the Howard G. Buffett Foundation, a private family foundation focused on improving the standard of living and quality of life for the world’s most impoverished and marginalized populations. He has engaged in the humanitarian and agriculture development efforts of the Foundation worldwide.<mask> also sits on the board of <mask>'s Learning By Giving Foundation. He has referred to Learning by Giving as the first step in the implementation of the Social Value Investment model, "By simply empowering students to become problem solvers in their own communities, we maximize the impact of our efforts, encourage innovation, and inspire life-long engagements with philanthropy." Professor
In the fall of 2013, <mask> served as a co-professor teaching an Innovations of Public Management class at his alma mater at the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University. <mask> taught the course with program head William Eimicke, and is currently an adjunct associate professor and research scholar at the school, teaching philanthropy, social value investing, and management innovation. Personal life
He is married to Lili <mask>, a Columbia University graduate whom he met at an agricultural conference, and the couple has a son, Thomas. They split their time between Omaha, Nebraska, and Decatur, Illinois. Buffett operates a 160-ha no-till farm near Tekamah, Nebraska.<mask> is a published photographer. His work has appeared in National Geographic, World Wide Fund for Nature, and Encyclopedia of Earth. References

External links
 The White House Office of Social Innovation and Civic Participation Official Website
 The White House Official Website
Membership at the Council on Foreign Relations

1983 births
Living people
American farmers
Philanthropists from Illinois
Artists from Chicago
Artists from Omaha, Nebraska
<mask> Warren <mask>
Businesspeople from Omaha, Nebraska
Columbia University faculty
Nebraska Democrats
Northwestern University alumni
School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University alumni
Obama administration personnel
People from Decatur, Illinois
Photographers from Nebraska
United States Department of Defense officials
United States Department of Agriculture officials

masks:
Howard Warren Buffett
Warren Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Howard Graham Buffett
Warren Edward Buffett
Howard Warren Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Doris Buffett
Buffett
Buffett
Thomas Buffett
Buffett
Howard
Buffett


texts:
<mask> (, ; born 23 May 1951) is a Greek politician who served as Prime Minister of Greece from 2012 to 2015. A member of the New Democracy party, he was its president from 2009 until 2015. <mask> started his national political career as Minister of Finance in 1989; he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1989 to 1992 (with a brief interruption in 1990) and Minister of Culture and Sports in 2009. <mask> was previously best known for a 1993 controversy in which he effectively caused the New Democracy government, of which he was a member, to fall from power. In spite of this, he rejoined the party in 2004 and was elected to its leadership in a closely fought intra-party election in late 2009. He was the seventh party leader since it was founded in 1974. Early life and education
Born in Athens, Samaras is the son of Doctor <mask> (a Professor of Cardiology) and Lena (née Zannas, a maternal granddaughter of author Penelope Delta).His brother, Alexander, is an architect. His paternal uncle, <mask>, was a long-standing Member of Parliament for Messinia in the 1950s and 1960s. <mask> grew up among the Athens well-connected families, playing tennis. At the age of 17, he won the Greek Teen Tennis Championship. He attended school in the Athens College (founded by his maternal great-grandfather, Stefanos Delta and Emmanouil Benakis, Delta's father-in-law) and graduated from Amherst College in 1974 with a degree in economics, and then from Harvard University in 1976 with an MBA. <mask> and former Prime Minister George Papandreou were dormitory roommates during their student years at Amherst College, but became bitter political rivals. He is married and has a daughter and a son.Political career

Early political involvement

<mask> has been elected as a Member of Parliament, initially for Messinia, from 1977 onward. In 1989 he became Minister of Finance, later advancing to become the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the New Democracy government of Prime Minister Konstantinos Mitsotakis (1990–1993), from which post he caused the Macedonia naming dispute to ignite. In a meeting of the Greek political leaders under the President of the Republic on the naming dispute on 13 April 1992, <mask> presented his own conditions for the solution of the crisis. These were rejected by both the President of the Republic, Konstantinos Karamanlis as well as the Prime Minister, Konstantinos Mitsotakis. <mask> was subsequently removed from Minister of Foreign Affairs. Foundation of Political Spring
After being removed from his post, <mask>' party caused the government's fall from power in 1993.Political Spring gained 4.9% of the vote in the 1993 general election, earning ten seats in the Hellenic Parliament. They gained 8.7% in the elections in the 1994 European Parliament elections, earning two seats. Its decline started in the 1996 general election, when it gained 2.94 per cent, just below the 3 per cent threshold necessary to enter parliament. They participated in the 1999 European Parliament elections, but only got 2.3%, which was not enough to elect MEPs. Return to the New Democracy
Political Spring did not participate in the 2000 general election; <mask> publicly supported the New Democracy party. Before the 2004 general election, <mask> dissolved his party, rejoined New Democracy and he was elected a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in the 2004 European elections. In the 2007 general election he was elected to the Hellenic Parliament for Messinia and consequently resigned from the European Parliament.He was succeeded by Margaritis Schinas. In January 2009 he was appointed Minister of Culture following a government reshuffle. In this capacity he inaugurated the new Acropolis Museum in July 2009. He was reelected in Messenia in 2009. After New Democracy resoundingly lost the 2009 legislative election, Kostas Karamanlis resigned as head of the party, prompting a leadership race, and <mask> ran for the post. Early polls showed he was running neck and neck with the perceived initial favorite Dora Bakoyanni, the former Foreign Minister and former Athens mayor. Shortly thereafter, another leadership candidate, former Minister Dimitris Avramopoulos announced he was resigning his candidacy and would support <mask> instead.In a break with previous practice, an extraordinary party congress resolved that the new leader would be elected by party members in a countrywide ballot. <mask>' candidacy soared in opinion polls and finished the race as a favorite. Leader of the Opposition

In the early morning hours of 30 November 2009, <mask> was elected the new President of New Democracy. Following early results showing <mask> in a comfortable lead, Bakoyanni, his main rival, conceded defeat and called <mask> to congratulate him. He accepted his election with a speech at the party headquarters, and pledged to carry out a broad ideological and organizational reform, aspiring to regain majority status. He was later instrumental in the expulsion of Bakoyanni (2010) for defying the party line and voting for an austerity measure required for European Union-International Monetary Fund backed lending. Prime Minister George Papandreou announced his government's plans on 31 October to hold a referendum on the acceptance of the terms of a Eurozone bailout deal.The referendum was to be held in December 2011 or January 2012. Following vehement opposition from both within and outside the country, Papandreou however scrapped the plan a few days later on 3 November. On 5 November, his government only narrowly won a confidence vote in the Greek Parliament and <mask> called for immediate elections. The next day Papandreou met with opposition leaders trying to reach an agreement on the formation of an interim national unity government. However, <mask> only gave in, after Papandreou agreed to step aside, allowing the EU bailout to proceed and paving the way for elections on 19 February 2012. After several days of intense negotiations, the two major parties along with the Popular Orthodox Rally agreed to form a grand coalition headed by former Vice President of the European Central Bank Lucas Papademos. On 10 November, George Papandreou formally resigned as Prime Minister of Greece.The new coalition cabinet and Prime Minister Lucas Papademos were formally sworn in on 11 November 2011. Prime Minister of Greece

Following the May 2012 general election in which the New Democracy party became the largest party in the Hellenic Parliament, <mask> was asked by Greek President Karolos Papoulias to try to form a government. However, after a day of negotiations with the other parties, <mask> officially announced he was giving up the mandate to form a government. The task passed to Alexis Tsipras, Leader of Syriza, the second largest party, who was also unable to form a government. After the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) also failed to negotiate a successful agreement to form a government, emergency talks with the President of Greece ended with a new election being called while the outgoing Chairman of the Council of State Panagiotis Pikrammenos was appointed as Prime Minister of Greece in a caretaker government composed of independent technocrats. Voters once again took to the polls in the widely watched June 2012 election. The New Democracy party came out on top in a stronger position with 129 seats, compared to 108 in the May election.On 20 June 2012, <mask> successfully formed a coalition with the PASOK (now led by former Finance Minister Evangelos Venizelos) and the Democratic Left (DIMAR). The new government had a majority of 28 (which was later reduced to 18), with Syriza, the Independent Greeks (ANEL), Golden Dawn (XA) and the Communist Party (KKE) comprising the opposition. The PASOK and DIMAR chose to take a limited role in <mask>'s Cabinet, being represented by party officials and independent technocrats instead of MPs. The Democratic Left left the coalition on 21 June 2013 in protest at the closure of the nation's public broadcaster Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), leaving <mask> with a slim majority of 153 ND and PASOK MPs combined. The two remaining parties proceeded to negotiate a cabinet reshuffle that resulted in a significantly expanded role for PASOK in the new coalition government. A further reshuffle followed the 2014 European Parliament election. <mask> implemented a series of reforms and austerity measures with the aim of reducing government budget deficits and making the Greek economy competitive.In 2013 he passed reform bills approving the layoff of 15,000 public employees, among them high school teachers, school guards and municipal policemen. At the same time, he cut value-added tax (VAT) in restaurants to 13 percent from 23 percent. He also passed a bill instituting the Single Property Tax and the auction of houses. The Minister of Administrative Reform and e-Governance Kyriakos Mitsotakis implemented an evaluation process on the public sector to locate surplus staff members. Greece achieved a primary government budget surplus in 2013. In April 2014, Greece returned to the global bond market as it successfully sold €3 billion worth of five-year government bonds at a yield of 4.95%. Greece's credit rating was upgraded by Fitch from B− to B. Greece returned to growth after six years of economic decline in the second quarter of 2014, and was the eurozone's fastest-growing economy in the third quarter.Tourism also grew. It is estimated that throughout 2013 Greece welcomed over 17.93 million tourists, an increase of 10% compared to 2012. More than 22 million tourists visited Greece in 2014. On healthcare, Minister for Health Adonis Georgiadis gave complete free pharmaceutical coverage to more than 2.000.000 uninsured citizens, with the cost being set at 340 million euros. On 9 December 2014, <mask> announced the candidacy of New Democracy politician Stavros Dimas for the position of President of Greece. Dimas failed to secure the required majority of MPs of the Hellenic Parliament in the first three rounds of voting. According to the provisions of the Constitution of Greece, snap elections were held on 25 January 2015, which were won by Syriza.Tsipras succeeded <mask>, who resigned as Leader of New Democracy on 5 July 2015, following the overwhelming victory of the "No" vote in the bailout referendum, naming Vangelis Meimarakis as transitional leader. <mask> had been backing a "Yes" vote, together with his party, before the referendum. See also
List of international prime ministerial trips made by <mask> Samaras

References

External links

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

1951 births
21st-century prime ministers of Greece
Amherst College alumni
Finance ministers of Greece
Foreign ministers of Greece
Greek government-debt crisis
Greek MPs 1990–1993
Greek MPs 1993–1996
Greek MPs 2007–2009
Greek MPs 2009–2012
Greek MPs 2012 (May)
Greek MPs 2012–2014
Greek MPs 2015 (February–August)
Harvard Business School alumni
Leaders of New Democracy (Greece)
Greek nationalists
National liberalism
Living people
MEPs for Greece 2004–2009
New Democracy (Greece) MEPs
Politicians from Athens
Prime Ministers of Greece
Culture ministers of Greece
Greek MPs 2019–2023

masks:
Antonis Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Konstantinos Samaras
George Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samarass
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Samaras
Antonis


texts:
<mask> (August 22, 1883 – August 15, 1984) was an American anthropologist. She was born in Ossining-on-the-Hudson, New York, and attended Vassar College, graduating in 1905 with a degree in Language and Literature. In 1907, she graduated from the London School of Economics and began travelling throughout Europe. During World War I, she worked for an Italian orphanage run by the Red Cross. After the war, she married Charles C. Crawford and published her first book The White Moth. Her marriage ended in 1929 and by 1930, she decided to go back to school to learn more about human behavior. After speaking with Franz Boas and <mask> in the Anthropology Department at Columbia University, she decided to pursue the field, graduating with a doctorate in 1937.She wrote numerous books on Native American tribes and helped to dispel many myths about their cultures. Life and family
<mask> was born in Ossining, New York on August 22, 1883 to Abram <mask>, a lawyer, and mother Anna Taber <mask>. There has been some discussion among historians about her year of birth, but both a copy of her birth certificate and early census records indicate that she was born in this year rather than 1884. The oldest of four children, she had two sisters and a brother. Her sister Elizabeth was a suffragist, law school graduate and one of the first female bank directors, while her brother Robert was a professor at Harvard and mountaineer. Like her brother, she enjoyed mountain climbing as a hobby. Her family took the children on frequent camping trips to Europe.In 1919, <mask> married Charles Cecil Crawford and they divorced amicably in 1929. She died in Denver, Colorado, on August 15, 1984, a week before her 100th birthday. Education
<mask> grew up attending Ossining School for Girls. She attended a Bryn Mawr College preparatory school before instead entering Vassar College in 1901. She studied English and languages, receiving her A.B. with honors and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa in 1905. After graduation she went on to travel in Europe and study languages and social sciences at London School of Economics and University of Munich.She became fluent in German, French, Italian, and Spanish. <mask> decided to go back to school after her divorce at age 46. She later described her entry into Columbia University as "a search for something she could do to help humanity." After wandering from department to department taking classes in economics, sociology, and philosophy she eventually found herself in encouraged to pursue anthropology by <mask>. The anthropology department head, Franz Boaz provided funds for her to study the Tohono O’odham in Arizona (at the time called Papago Indians). She also received research funding from the Columbia University Social Science and Humanities Council. Her Ph.D. dissertation, Social Organization of the Papago Indians, was published in 1937.Careers

Social Worker
In 1905, <mask> took a social worker position with the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children working with Italian cases. Toward the end of World War I she was employed as a social worker with the American Red Cross, Committee for Crippled and Disabled and was transferred to Civilian Relief to take charge of establishing orphanages in Italy in the summer of 1919. After the war she investigated child labor in Italy for the Rockefeller Foundation before returning to New York. Writer
Also after Vasser, <mask> began to write for newspapers and magazines. In 1920, her first novel The White Moth, was published. One of her most popular books was Red Man’s America, originally published in 1953. In 1956, KRMA-TV produced a series of 30 documentary films, which were adapted from the book and shared its title.Each film focused on a specific region in North America and examined the native peoples and their cultures of that region. Anthropologist
Graduate school led her to conduct one of the earliest scientific studies of the Tohono O’odham of Arizona, a work that would establish <mask> in the profession. Because of her age, the Tohono O’odham allowed her to live with them for several summers. During this time, she could study the women closely. She later wrote a book titled Autobiography of a Papago Woman, which chronicled the life of Maria Chona, an elderly member of the Tohono O’odham Nation. Government Worker
After graduating from Columbia, Underfill first worked with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service and then the Bureau of Indian Affairs. She served as Assistant Supervisor of Indian Education from 1934-1942 in Santa Fe, New Mexico, then Supervisor from 1942-1948 in Denver, Colorado.In this role she traveled extensively and worked with reservation teachers to develop curriculum for Indian Schools that included Native American culture. She also assisted in negotiations between the BIA and Native American groups. Retirement and teaching
With her government position in jeopardy after post-World War II reorganization in the BIA, <mask> held a series of visiting positions until retirement in October 1948. In 1949, <mask> accepted a position as Professor of Anthropology with the University of Denver and held the position for four years. In her second retirement, <mask> spent much of her time traveling the world and writing. She also taught at New York State Teachers College in New Paltz and Colorado Women's College. According to her oral histories, she stayed three months at a time in Israel and India.Beginning in the 1970s, the Denver Museum of Nature and Science began working with <mask> to capture her own history through audio and video recordings. Honors and awards
In 1979, <mask> was honored by the Tohono O’odham Nation, for her work in preserving their past. She was also honored by the Gila River Reservation O'odhams in 1980. On October 28, 1981, she was presented with an award from the Colorado River Indian Tribes for her sincere, devoted and untiring effort in the gathering of information about their culture. In addition, she received a Friendship Award from the White Buffalo Council of American Indians. She received an honorary Doctor of Laws from the University of Denver in 1962 and honorary Doctor of Science degree from University of Colorado in 1965. In 1983 on her 100th birthday, Colorado Governor Richard Lamm declared August 22 as <mask>hill Day.In June 1984, the American Anthropological Association presented <mask> with a Special Recognition for her teaching and research, including efforts to popularize anthropology and study the roles of women. In 1985 The Denver Women's Press Club established a scholarship in <mask>'s honor; this award is given to a University of Colorado student for accomplishment in creative writing. Published works
 ”Victory in Olive-Gray” The Atlantic Monthly Vol. 124, 1919, pp. 62.

masks:
Ruth Murray Underhill
Ruth Benedict
Ruth Underhill
Sutton Underhill
Murray Underhill
Ruth Underhill
Ruth
Underhill
Ruth Benedict
Underhill
Underhill
Underhill
Underhill
Underhill
Underhill
Underhill
Underhill
Ruth Under
Underhill
Underhill


texts:
<mask> (born <mask>; 24 March 1937 – 8 July 2009), also known as <mask>, Nadra binte Ma'arof, Nadra Adabi and simply as Natrah, was a Dutch woman of Eurasian extraction and Malay upbringing, notable for being at the centre of the <mask>gh riots as a girl. The riots took place between 11 and 13 December 1950 in Singapore, after a court decided that <mask> should be taken from her Malay Muslim foster/adoptive mother's custody and given over to her Dutch Catholic natal parents. A protest by outraged Muslims escalated into a riot when images of her were published showing her kneeling before a statue of the Virgin Mary and Saint Blaise. 18 people were killed and 173 injured; many properties were also damaged. Birth and baptism
<mask> was born on 24 March 1937 to a Dutch Catholic family living in Cimahi, near Bandung, Java, then a part of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). Her natal father, <mask>, came to Java in the 1920s as a sergeant in the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army. In the early 1930s, he married Adeline Hunter, a Eurasian of Scottish-Javanese descent brought up in Java.<mask>tius at Tjimahi on 10 April by a Catholic priest. Early life
When World War II broke out, Adrianus <mask>, as a sergeant in the Dutch Army, was captured by the Imperial Japanese Army and sent to a POW camp in Japan, where he was kept until 1945. Meanwhile, Adeline Hertogh stayed with her mother, Nor Louise, and her five children, among whom <mask> was the third and youngest daughter. On 29 December 1942, Mrs. Hertogh gave birth to her sixth child, a boy. Three days later, <mask> went to stay with Che Aminah binte Mohammad, a 42-year-old Malay woman from Kemaman, Terengganu, Malaya (now Malaysia) and a close friend of Nor Louise. Adeline <mask>'s version of events

According to <mask>'s natal mother, Adeline <mask>, in testimony given in evidence before the court at the hearing in November 1950, she was persuaded by her mother after the birth of her sixth child to allow <mask> to go and stay with Aminah in Bandung for three or four days. Consequently, Aminah arrived on 1 January 1943 to fetch <mask>.When the child was not returned, Mrs. Hertogh borrowed a bicycle on 6 January and set out to retrieve her. She claimed that she was stopped by a Japanese sentry on the outskirts of Bandung as she did not possess a pass and was therefore interned. From her internment camp, she smuggled a letter to her mother, requesting for her children to be sent to her. This Nor Louise did, but <mask> was not among them. So Mrs. Hertogh asked her mother to fetch <mask> from Aminah. Her mother later wrote and told her that Aminah wanted to keep <mask> for two more days, after which she herself would bring the child to the camp. This did not materialise, and Mrs. Hertogh did not see <mask> throughout her internment.After her release, she could not find neither <mask> nor Aminah. Life with Aminah

Upon arriving with Aminah, <mask> was given the name Nadra binte Ma'arof. For unknown reasons her new family moved to Jakarta for a period before moving back to Bandung, where Aminah worked for the Japanese military police as an interpreter until the end of the war. In 1947, fearing harm upon the family during the Indonesian National Revolution because <mask> was a putih ("white [child]"), Aminah moved back to her hometown of Kampung Banggol in Kemaman, Terengganu. By then <mask> was the same as any other Malay Muslim girl of her age: she spoke only Malay, wore Malay clothes and practised her religion devoutly. <mask> had an adoptive elder sister of Japanese descent, Kamariah Mohd Dahan, whom Aminah had adopted in Tokyo when she lived there with her husband. Custody battle
In 1945, with the end of World War II, Sergeant <mask> was released and returned to Java, and reunited with his wife.The couple said that they enquired about <mask> but could find neither her nor Aminah. They then returned to the Netherlands after requesting the Dutch authorities in Java and Singapore to try to trace the child. Investigations were then made by the Red Cross Society, the Indonesian Repatriation Service, the Royal Netherlands Army, and local police. Finally, in September 1949, Aminah and <mask> were traced to the kampung in which they were living. Negotiations were opened to retrieve <mask> in early 1950. The Dutch Consulate offered $500 to make up for Aminah's expenses in bringing up the girl for eight years. Aminah rejected the offer and refused to give up the little girl.Nonetheless, she was persuaded to travel with <mask> to Singapore in April to discuss the issue with the Dutch Consul-General. However, Aminah could not be persuaded and the Consulate applied to the High Court of Singapore on 22 April for <mask> to be delivered into the custody of the Social Welfare Department, pending further order. The Chief Justice heard the request the same day and approved the application ex parte. The next day, an officer from the department served the order on Aminah and took <mask> away. After a routine medical examination at the Middle Road Hospital, she was admitted to the Girls Homecraft Centre at York Hill. From this point onwards, <mask> had made it clear that she wanted to stay with Aminah and did not wish to be returned to her natal parents. Aminah contended that Adeline had given <mask> over to her willingly, and this was supported by testimony of Soewaldi Hunter, Adeline's elder brother – who bore witness to the adoption.However, after a 15-minute hearing on 19 May, the High Court ruled that the custody of <mask> be granted to the Hertoghs. As Aminah and <mask> exited the court via the back door, a car from the consulate was waiting to take <mask> away. <mask> refused to enter the car and clung on to Aminah, both shouting in Malay that they would kill themselves rather than be separated. A large crowd quickly formed around the commotion. It was only after much persuasion that Aminah agreed to enter the car together with <mask> and pay a visit to her lawyer, who explained that <mask> had to be given up until an appeal was made. The duo then parted in tears, with <mask> returned to York Hill for temporary safekeeping. <mask> stayed at York Hill for two more months under a further order from the Chief Justice pending appeal, which was filed on 28 July.The verdict was an over-ruling of the earlier decision. Aside from the ex parte order to hand <mask> to the Social Welfare Department, the Appellate Court found ambiguity in the Dutch Consul-General's representation of <mask>'s natal father, a rather minor and technical detail but apparently significant enough under the circumstance. Both Aminah and <mask> were overjoyed. Controversial marriage
On 1 August 1950, <mask> was married by way of a nikah gantung (truncated marriage to be consummated when both parties were of the age of majority, valid under Islamic law) to 21-year-old Mansoor Adabi, a Kelantan-born teacher-in-training at the Bukit Panjang Government School. As the marriage had been solemnised in Singapore, English law controlled the validity of the marriage rather than Malayan law (if say, she had married instead in Terengganu) – this was one of the factors that set up the court confrontation against her natal parents. The marriage could have been a manoeuvre by Aminah to prevent further retrieval attempts by the Hertoghs, as <mask> returned to live with Aminah after the wedding night and the new couple never consummated their marriage (this was also the conclusion reached by Justice Brown in the court case). Whether such speculation was true was unimportant in the subsequent development of events, in which <mask>, a willing bride nonetheless, became the central figure.Of Adabi, <mask> remembered decades later that "he was a good husband and really understood my needs". The first challenges on the appropriateness of the marriage actually came from the Muslim community. On 10 August a Muslim leader wrote to The Straits Times, pointing out that although Islamic law permits the marriage of girls starting after puberty (which <mask> had reached a year earlier), there were Muslim countries such as Egypt that legislated for a minimum marriage age of 16. He added, however, that it would not be in the interest of "the friendly understanding... between Christians and Muslims" to object to the marriage since it had already taken place. The latter view was held by the Muslim population at large, albeit in a more antagonistic mood against the Dutch and Europeans at large. Second appeal
Meanwhile, the Hertoghs had not given up legal pursuit to retrieve <mask>. Only a day after the marriage, Aminah received the Hertoghs' representative lawyers from Kuala Lumpur.The lawyers delivered a letter demanding <mask>'s return by 10 August, failing which legal action would be taken. Believing that the marriage settled the matter, Aminah and Mansoor both ignored the deadline. The Hertoghs did not. On 26 August, an originating summons was taken out, under the Guardianship of Infants Ordinance, by the Hertoghs as plaintiffs against Aminah, <mask> and Mansoor, who were all made defendants. The hearing proceeded between 20 and 24 November. For four months, the matter hung in suspense. During this time, <mask> rarely left her residence in the house of M.A.Majid, then president of the Muslim Welfare Association and Adabi's foster father, because in her own words, she attracted "too much attention". Nevertheless, media coverage on the incident had grown to a global scale. Letters from Muslim organisations in Pakistan promising financial and other help arrived, some going so far as to declare any further move by the Dutch Government to separate the couple as "an open challenge to the Muslim world". Pledges of aid also came from <mask>'s native Indonesia and as far as Saudi Arabia. The hearing finally opened, and <mask>'s natal mother, Adeline <mask> travelled down to Singapore to attend. The judge, Justice Brown, delivered the verdict in the case entitled Re M. H. Hertogh, an Infant: <mask> v. Amina binte Mohamed and Others two weeks later. The marriage, instead of resolving the dispute, had instead complicated it.His judgment stated inter alia:

That "after a most careful consideration of all the evidence which bears upon this marriage, the age of the child, the opportunities which she had of knowing Mansoor, and the date of the marriage in relation to the date of the Court of Appeal decision, I am compelled to the conclusion that this purported marriage was a manoeuvre designed to prejudice these proceedings, which is discreditable to all concerned. In saying that, I wish to make it clear that I am satisfied that the child was neither forced nor tricked into it." That "following the rule in Sottomayor v. De Barros (No. 2), the validity of a marriage celebrated in Singapore between persons of whom the one has a Singapore, and the other a foreign, domicile is not affected by any incapacity which, though existing under the law of such foreign domicile, does not exist under the law of Singapore." That nevertheless "<mask>'s incapacity [to contract marriage] under the law of her (father's domicile), admittedly Holland, to contract the marriage, since she was under age, existed also under the law of Singapore." That "since her father had not waived or by his conduct abrogated his legal right to control the religion of his child and had not consented to her becoming a Muslim, whatever the child may say and whatever ceremonies and teaching she may have undergone, she is not in the eyes of this court a Muslim." That "therefore the purported marriage was void."Having over-ruled the purported marriage, Justice Brown went on to deal with what he described as the "most difficult" question of custody. He noted that his duty to the law required him "to have regard primarily to the welfare of the infant". He believed this meant that he not only had to consider the current wishes of <mask>, but also her future well-being. He stated:

It is natural that she should now wish to remain in Malaya among people whom she knows. But who can say that she will have the same views some years hence after her outlooks has been enlarged, and her contacts extended, in the life of the family to which she belongs? He also noted that whatever the details of the contested initiation of the custody at the end of 1942 might be, Adrianus Hertogh had not been part of it and had not abrogated his parental rights. He therefore awarded the custody of <mask> to the Hertoghs and ordered that she should be handed over to her mother with immediate effect.Stay at the convent
When policewomen came to take <mask> away, she wept and clung to Aminah and Mansoor. Aminah fainted on the spot and a doctor standing by had to attend to her. Mansoor advised <mask> to concede for the time being and promised that he and others would carry on the legal fight. Thus <mask> allowed herself to be brought away into a car. Outside, the police, including a Gurkha Contingent, held back a crowd of several hundred. The car delivered <mask> to the Roman Catholic Convent of the Good Shepherd, run by the Sisters of the Good Shepherd, at Thomson Road. Mrs. Hertogh stayed at another address for a few days, from where she visited <mask> daily, before moving into the convent herself.According to an official of the Netherlands Consulate-General, such arrangement was because of "greater convenience" while the stay of execution pending appeal was in effect. But it proved to be the spark that lit the fuse of the subsequent riots. First and foremost, the press was not barred from entering the convent grounds. Nor were they restricted in any way in their approach to the incident, which had been nothing shy of sensational. On 5 December, the Singapore Tiger Standard published on its front page a photograph of <mask> standing holding hands with the Reverend Mother. There were several more pictures on page 2, under the headline: Bertha knelt before Virgin Mary Statue. The Malay press retorted.The Utusan Melayu published on 7 December three photographs of <mask> weeping and being comforted by a nun, as well as articles about <mask>'s "lonely and miserable" life in the convent. These pictures, whether presenting <mask> as happy or sad, mostly showed <mask> surrounded by symbols of Christian faith. The Muslims, who looked upon <mask> as one of their own, were deeply offended by such pictures, not to mention the sensational reports, some of which explicitly labelled the case as a religious issue between Islam and Christianity. On 9 December, an organisation calling itself the Nadra Action Committee was formally constituted under the leadership of Karim Ghani, a Muslim political activist from Rangoon. The Committee solicited support among local Muslims by distributing free copies of its newspaper, the Dawn (not the Dawn, an English paper

masks:
Maria Hertogh
Huberdina Maria Hertogh
Bertha Hertogh
Maria Herto
Maria
Huberdina Maria Hertogh
Adrianus Petrus Hertogh
Mariagna
Hertogh
Maria
Maria
Hertogh
Maria
Hertogh
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Hertogh
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Hertogh
Hertogh
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria


texts:
 published in Pakistan). Karim Ghani had also made an open speech at the Sultan Mosque on 8 December in which he mentioned jihad as a final resort. In the light of these potent signs of a great disturbance, the Criminal Investigation Department sent a memo to the Colonial Secretary suggesting moving <mask> back to York Hill to avoid further inciting Muslim anger.The Secretary did not agree on grounds that he had received no such representations from Muslim leaders, nor did he have the authority to remove <mask> without further court orders – It cannot be said definitively that moving <mask> out of the convent at such a late stage could have averted the riots. The riots and subsequent trials
The appeal hearing opened on 11 December. <mask> stayed at the convent and did not attend. Since early morning, crowds carrying banners and flags with star and crescent symbols began to gather around the Supreme Court. By noon, when the hearing eventually began, the restive crowd had grown to 2,000 to 3,000 in number. The court threw out the appeal within five minutes. The brevity of the hearing convinced the gathering that the colonial legal system was biased against Muslims.The riots erupted. The riots continued for three days and a curfew was imposed for two weeks. The mob (largely consisting of Muslims) moved out to attack any Europeans and even Eurasians in sight. They overturned cars and burnt them. The police force, its lower ranks largely consisted of Malays who sympathised with the rioters' cause, were ineffective in quelling the riots. By nightfall the riots had spread to even the more remote parts of the island. Help from the British military was enlisted only at around 6:45 PM.Major-General Dunlop promptly deployed two Internal Security Battalions while calling in further reinforcements from Malaya. Meanwhile, various Muslim leaders appealed over the radio for the riots to cease. Reinforcements arrived early on 12 December, but riotous incidents continued on that day. The troops and police only managed to regain control of the situation by noon on 13 December. In total, 18 people were killed, among whom were seven Europeans or Eurasians, two police officers, and nine rioters shot by the police or military, 173 were injured, many of them seriously, 119 vehicles were damaged, and at least two buildings were set on fire. Subsequently, two weeks of 24-hour curfew were imposed, and it was a long time before complete law and order was re-established. After the riot, the police set up a special investigation unit which detained 778 people, among them Karim Ghani.Out of these, 403 were released unconditionally and 106 were released on various conditions (they generally had to report to the police station monthly and adhere to a curfew after dark). The police eventually brought rioting charges against 200 people, of whom 25 were acquitted, 100 were convicted, 62 were referred to the Enquiry Advisory Committee, and seven were brought to trial at the Assize Court for wanton killing and five of them were subsequently sentenced to death on the gallows. One of the five that was sentenced to the gallows was A.K.S. Othman Ghani, a respectable Indian businessman from Madras, the founder of the once famous Jubilee Cafe and Restaurant. On 25 August 1951, Tunku Abdul Rahman, who would later become the first Prime Minister of Malaysia, took over as the president of UMNO, a Malay-centric party. He immediately set out to save the five on death row. Having garnered support from the Muslim population, Abdul Rahman placed pressure on the authorities, who finally gave in.The British government was expecting their role as the colonial master to end very soon and did not wish to leave behind grim memories. The death sentences for all five were commuted to life imprisonment. Aftermath of the riots
A Commission of Inquiry was appointed by Governor Franklin Gimson. It was headed by Sir Lionel Leach, a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The Commission placed large blame on the police command for not having anticipated the violence from many indicators between 2 and 11 December. Furthermore, when the riots first started, the police failed to act promptly to disperse the crowd. The Gurkha Contingent standing by was not put into action, while too much dependence was placed on Malay policemen, many of whom defected or at least hesitated to carry out their duties.The British House of Commons criticised the colonial government for its poor handling of the situation. The present-day Government of Singapore under then-Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew also attributes the tragedy to the insensitivity of the colonial government towards the racial and religious feelings of the locals. It cites the incident as a vital lesson learnt in the importance of racial and religious understanding and harmony, as well as a case for imposing a certain degree of government control on the media, especially when racial or religious issues are implicated. Leaving for the Netherlands
On the night the riots broke out, <mask> was moved out of the convent, where the rioters tried twice to march on and were only kept back by the police. Plans were made at York Hill to receive her but she was instead sent to Saint John's Island, an offshore island 4 miles south of the main island of Singapore. The next day, <mask> was taken by Adeline to the Netherlands by aeroplane. After landing in Schiphol Airport, they quickly proceeded to the Hertogh home on the outskirts of Bergen op Zoom.At first, <mask> could only talk to Adeline, the only one in the family who understood Malay. She demanded rice with every meal, resenting the western diet, and continued to say her Muslim prayers five times a day. In addition, a policeman in plain clothes was assigned to escort her whenever she left the house, for fear of possible kidnappers who might take her back to Singapore, following reported sighting of "oriental strangers" around town. The house was also placed under surveillance. Slowly, <mask> began to adjust to her new environment. A nun came to the house daily to teach her Dutch until she was proficient enough to attend a local convent school. She also began to attend Mass with her family.Back in Singapore, Aminah and Mansoor had apparently given up hope of retrieving <mask> after leave to appeal to the Privy Council was not granted. Earlier interest of the several Muslim groups involved had also gradually died down. Second and third marriages
On 20 April 1956, <mask> married Johan Gerardus "Joep" Wolkefeld, a 21-year-old Dutch Catholic. On 15 February 1957, she gave birth to a son, the first of ten children. However, <mask> did not seem to be contented. As she told De Telegraaf, she often had rows with Adeline, who lived nearby. She also said she still longed for her Malayan homeland.Johan and Mansoor began corresponding via letters. Both expressed a wish for <mask> to travel to Malaya to visit the aged Aminah, but such a trip was never made due primarily to financial difficulties. Aminah died in 1976 and Mansoor would die of a heart attack in 1988. On 16 August 1976, <mask> found herself on trial in a Dutch court charged with plotting to murder her husband. She admitted in court that she had been thinking about leaving her husband but was afraid to start divorce proceedings in case she lost custody of her children. She came into contact with two regular customers at her husband's café bar. The trio bought a revolver and recruited a fourth accomplice to carry out the actual murder.However, the last member got cold feet and gossiped about the murder plan. The police quickly learnt of it and arrested all four conspirators. At her trial, <mask> was quoted as saying: "I was a slave in my own home. I lived in a prison. I was not allowed to do anything. Joep [Johan] kicked up a row even if I went to drink a coffee somewhere." In her defence, <mask>'s lawyers brought up her background, which the court acknowledged.With this in mind, and because the plot was never executed and there was no proof that she offered any inducement to the other three, the three-man bench acquitted <mask>. Meanwhile, <mask> had also filed for divorce on the grounds of the irreparable breakdown of her marriage. Several days before Christmas 1979, <mask> married, for the third time, one of her co-conspirators, Antonius Christianus "Tom" Ballermans. Their domestic life was happy at first; however, three years into the marriage, Ballermans' behaviour became troublesome and worrying. He'd started drinking in excess. Suspicious, <mask> followed him to a cafetaria, where she discovered he was having an affair. They would divorce in 1983.Fourth marriage and moving to the US
After her divorce from Ballermans, <mask> moved to Zuidsingel, a neighbourhood not far from Bergen op Zoom. There, she reconnected with an old friend who offered her employment at her Indonesian food stall at a night market. In early 1984, she was admitted to hospital due to a stroke resulting from blocked arteries. After being kept for a week, she was discharged and returned to her job at the stall. It was at the same stall that <mask> met Benjamin Leopold Pichel, a naturalised Dutch citizen of Indonesian descent. Pichel was originally from Ambon, and a sailor by profession. That same year, they married, and on 15 September 1984, emigrated to the United States, intent on opening an Indonesian restaurant there.They elected to settle in Lake Tahoe, Nevada. Lacking employment authorisation from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, <mask> could only work ill-paid odd jobs such as babysitter or chambermaid. In March 1989, Malaysian journalist Fatini Yaacob, along with two of <mask>'s children, flew to Lake Tahoe to interview her for the Dewan Masyarakat. Yaacob informed her that the Terengganu State Government, under the leadership of Tan Sri Wan Mokhtar Ahmad, had offered her a parcel of land in Kemaman District if she wished to return home to Malaysia. <mask> declined, citing her trauma from the riots. On 29 January 1998, <mask> finally returned to Kemaman for Hari Raya, and reunited with Kamariah, as well as paying her respects at Che Aminah's grave. It was their first meeting in 48 years; unfortunately, it would be the only time they were able to see each other again before Kamariah died of leukaemia.Sometime between 2001 and 2003, <mask> left Pichel and returned to the Netherlands, settling in Huijbergen. The two were officially divorced in 2004. Death

On 8 July 2009, <mask> died at her house in Huijbergen, Netherlands from leukaemia at the age of 72, the same cause of death as her sister Kamariah. She donated her body to scientific research. In 2014, Singaporean channel Channel NewsAsia, in cooperation with Monsoon Pictures, broadcast a five-part documentary about the tumultuous era of the 1950s and 1960s in Singapore called Days of Rage. In part, it featured the <mask>gh riots, including exclusive interviews with <mask> herself and Kamariah prior to their deaths. <mask>'s son and two daughters spoke about witnessing their mother's frosty relationship with Adeline, and her struggle to come to terms with her painful childhood.Her son testified that she was not happy and felt betrayed. The siblings also paid a visit to Kemaman and met several elderly kampung residents who remembered the young <mask>, then known to them as Nadra. In an interview sometime before her death, which was featured in Days of Rage, <mask> had once said she despised her natal mother for forcibly separating her from her adoptive mother. Rokayah Yusof (Kamariah's daughter and therefore <mask>'s adoptive niece) stated that during the 1998 visit, <mask> still spoke Malay fluently and that she'd missed all the traditional Malay snacks when she celebrated Hari Raya together with Kamariah, whom Che Aminah adopted in Tokyo, Japan where she lived with her lecturer husband before Aminah returned to Malaya. Rokayah, who was 68 years old when she spoke about the visit in 2015, added that <mask> had visited the grave of Che Aminah during her visit and even after the death of <mask>, <mask>'s children maintained contact with her and her own children. Additionally, <mask> had also been evidently unhappy in her life in the Netherlands, "a far cry from the kampong life she had enjoyed". See also
1969 Race Riots of Singapore
1964 Race Riots
List of riots in Singapore

Notes

If and only if both conditions were met could the Muslim law practised in Singapore be applied to the case, which would render the marriage valid.Karim Ghani was arrested along with several members of the Nadra Action Committee and held at the detention camp on Saint John's Island for 15 months under Emergency Regulation 20 for his part in the riots before being released on grounds of poor health. Family tree of Johannes Gerardus Wolkenfelt, <mask> and their ten children. References

Further reading

Fatini Yaacob, magazine – Dewan Masyarakat published by Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Malaysia – Februari-Mei, 1989 (the long interview with <mask>berdina Hertogh @ Bertha @ Nadra was done in Lake Tahoe, Nevada United States of America, Mac 1989)

 broken URL
 Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied, Colonialism, Violence and Muslims in Southeast Asia: The <mask>togh Controversy and Its Aftermath, London: Routledge, 2009. Fatini Yaacob, book – "Natrah: Cinta, Rusuhan dan Air Mata, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia", year 2010, /
 Fatini Yaacob, book – "In The Name of Love – Natrah", Institut Terjemahan Buku Negara (now ITBM),2011,
 YouTube Story of a Nation – <mask>gh
 YouTube Message from <mask>gh a.k.a. Nadra
 Torn Between Two Worlds at "Headlines, Lifelines" website of the National Educational Multimedia kit for schools (c) Singapore Press Holdings. First published in 150 years of the Straits Times (15 July 1845–1995). In Dutch language, an Algemeen Nederlands Persbureau photo archive Flash slideshow of select news photos of the events published in the Netherlands
 <mask>, returned to Malaysia in 1999 aged 63, for a Dutch TV documentary De Affaire
 Singapore Media Development Authority and Christopher Chew's Monsoon Pictures Pte Ltd are developing an English language film "The Jungle Girl" aka "Nadra" (period drama) with screenwriter Sarah Lambert, Lantern Pictures, Australia.1950 riots
Riots and civil disorder in Singapore
History of Malaysia
Religiously motivated violence in Malaysia
History of Singapore
Ethnic riots
1950 in Singapore
Religious riots
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Islam
Dutch people of Javanese descent
Dutch people of Scottish descent
Dutch Roman Catholics
Indonesian Roman Catholics
Indo people
Javanese people
Indonesian people of Malay descent
Indonesian people of Scottish descent
Indonesian people of Dutch descent
Indonesian former Muslims
Anti-Catholic riots
December 1950

masks:
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria Herto
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria Hu
Maria Her
Maria Herto
Maria Herto
Maria Hertogh


texts:
<mask> (1798–1837) was an American Congregationalist and Methodist minister, abolitionist activist, and author. He was one of the leaders of the convention movement in New England. Background
<mask> was one of four sons of <mask> of North Bridgewater, who originally was a blacksmith, from Middleborough, Massachusetts. The background of his father traces back to a group of slaves freed by <mask> and his brother <mask>, in Rhode Island during the seventeenth century. <mask> married Sarah Dunbar, thought to be of "mixed race". Therefore his ancestry was African, Native American (Narragansett and Wampanoag), and European. Racial classifications meant little for this family, and <mask> was later to write against their meaning anything intrinsic.<mask> became a successful businessman in ironwork and was well-connected in the Boston area. From about 1816 to 1830, he ran a vocational school for persons of color that was attached to his foundry. His son <mask> participated in it, with his brother James who became a homeopathic physician. Activism in Boston
<mask> <mask> married in 1827 and moved to Boston in 1828, where he was minister in a church on West Centre Street, Beacon Hill (from 1861 Anderson Street). He joined the Massachusetts General Colored Association that had been set up in 1826. It had the dual aims of agitation for the abolition of slavery, and the welfare of free blacks. He was one of the Boston Committee set up by the convention of June 1831 in Philadelphia.It also included Samuel Snowden and Thomas Paul, the only black ministers then in Boston, Robert Roberts (who had married <mask>'s sister Sarah as his second wife and so become brother-in-law), and James G. Barbadoes. Robert Roberts and <mask>'s brother Joshua had joined with him in a previous venture, a vocational school in New Haven that would continue his father's ideas. That project had been made impossible by local racial hostility. They then united with him to oppose the American Colonization Society, who were acquiring land in what became Liberia. Some 1831 meetings in Boston on the colonization issue were reported in The Liberator, in March and May. Pastor in Hartford
<mask> moved to Hartford, Connecticut in 1833 with his wife Louisa and family. With local black leaders, he formed the Hartford Literary and Religious Institution and, in January 1834, was appointed its agent.He then toured New England as a fundraiser, but had to cut his plans back because of racial violence. <mask> was a preacher of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AMEZ) which he joined in the 1830s, and an influence on the young Amos Beman who was in Hartford teaching. <mask> applied to the New York AMEZ conference in 1832; it was in 1834 that he was ordained as deacon and elder, by Christopher Rush. The dates and details of his associations with churches are not completely clear, however. According to one source, in 1833 there was a split of the congregation in Hartford, resulting in Congregational and Methodist churches, and the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, now on Main Street, traces its history back to that year. The Metropolitan Church's official history describes an African Religious Society in Hartford in existence in 1827, owning a church on Talcott Street, and the split occurring about 1835. There resulted the Colored Congregational Church, and the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church where <mask> was the first pastor.David E. Swift writes that the Talcott Street premises being shared by the Congregational and Methodist groups, <mask> persuaded the Methodists to buy land of their own in Elm Street for a new church (which was at a later point identified as the AMEZ church). Hartford was singled out by Edward Strutt Abdy at this period for the virulence of racial hatred he saw. <mask>'s congregation were involved in the period 1834–36, culminating in the burning of the Methodist church in 1836. (The evidence points to this church though there is no conclusive local report that identifies the burned church explicitly.) Works
<mask> published A Treatise On the Intellectual Character, and Civil and Political Condition of the Colored People of the U. States; And the Prejudice Exercised Towards Them; With A Sermon on the Duty of the Church To Them (1837). In this work <mask> wrote against racial prejudice.He invoked the Declaration of Independence as free from racial discrimination; and he challenged the assumption that slaves could be regarded as machines and lacking in morality. Not well received in its time, it is now considered to be a leading work articulating the African-American abolitionist view, with the 1829 Appeal of David Walker. William Cooper Nell quoted <mask> at length in 1859 on the constitutional point, while speaking against the Dred Scott Decision. It has been argued that the book shows the influence of William Apess. <mask>'s outlook was rather pessimistic, informed by what he perceived as a hardening of racial divisions into a polarization in the North-East of his time and experience. He wrote of the racist taunts and caricatures common even in Boston. Further, he argued, the stereotypical denigration based on race was a matter of early indoctrination, had economic ends, and was supported by the way white clergy condoned slavery.<mask> argued for race as no more intrinsic than any other effect of variegation. He put his case in a way not calculated to offend on all sides, but still risking having that effect. He dealt with stereotypes, attempting to sift those that were artefacts of the institution of slavery from those that represented human variability and could be attributed to God. Along with James Forten and William Watkins, <mask> queried the "immediatist" assumptions common in white abolitionists. He stated that emancipated slaves would not be capable of self-improvement without help. His message was not what abolitionists, whether black and in many prominent cases escaped slaves, or white, much wanted to hear, and his reputation accordingly suffered. He is now seen as an early Afrocentrist writer, arguing for the cultural inheritance of Ancient Greece from Ancient Egypt.He used the scriptural ethnology of Hamitic and Japhetic lineages to argue for the cultural importance of Africa in the ancient Mediterranean world. Notes

1798 births
1837 deaths
African-American abolitionists
Abolitionists from Boston
Afrocentrists
American Congregationalists
American Methodists
Congregationalist abolitionists
Methodist abolitionists

masks:
Hosea Easton
Hosea Easton
James Easton
Nicholas Easton
Peter Easton
James Easton
Hosea Easton
James Easton
Hosea
Hosea
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton
Easton