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<mask> (;  or ; 13 October 18215 September 1902) was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, editor, and politician. He is known as "the father of modern pathology" and as the founder of social medicine, and to his colleagues, the "Pope of medicine". Virchow studied medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University under Johannes Peter Müller. While working at the Charité hospital, his investigation of the 1847–1848 typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia laid the foundation for public health in Germany, and paved his political and social careers. From it, he coined a well known aphorism: "Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing else but medicine on a large scale". His participation in the Revolution of 1848 led to his expulsion from Charité the next year. He then published a newspaper Die Medizinische Reform (The Medical Reform).He took the first Chair of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Würzburg in 1849. After five years, Charité reinstated him to its new Institute for Pathology. He co-founded the political party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, and was elected to the Prussian House of Representatives and won a seat in the Reichstag. His opposition to Otto von Bismarck's financial policy resulted in duel challenge by the latter. However, Virchow supported Bismarck in his anti-Catholic campaigns, which he named Kulturkampf ("culture struggle"). A prolific writer, he produced more than 2000 scientific writings. Cellular Pathology (1858), regarded as the root of modern pathology, introduced the third dictum in cell theory: Omnis cellula e cellula ("All cells come from cells").He was a co-founder of Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft in 1849 and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pathologie in 1897. He founded journals such as Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (with Benno Reinhardt in 1847, later renamed Virchows Archiv), and Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology). The latter is published by German Anthropological Association and the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory, the societies which he also founded. Virchow was the first to describe and name diseases such as leukemia, chordoma, ochronosis, embolism, and thrombosis. He coined biological terms such as "chromatin", "neuroglia", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida"; terms such as Virchow's node, Virchow–Robin spaces, Virchow–Seckel syndrome, and Virchow's triad are named after him. His description of the life cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis influenced the practice of meat inspection. He developed the first systematic method of autopsy, and introduced hair analysis in forensic investigation.Opposing the germ theory of diseases, he rejected Ignaz Semmelweis's idea of disinfecting. He was critical of what he described as "Nordic mysticism" regarding the Aryan race. As an anti-Darwinist, he called Charles Darwin an "ignoramus" and his own student Ernst Haeckel a "fool". He described the original specimen of Neanderthal man as nothing but that of a deformed human. Early life

Virchow was born in Schievelbein, in eastern Pomerania, Prussia (now Świdwin, Poland). He was the only child of Carl Christian Siegfried Virchow (1785–1865) and Johanna Maria née Hesse (1785–1857). His father was a farmer and the city treasurer.Academically brilliant, he always topped his classes and was fluent in German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, English, Arabic, French, Italian and Dutch. He progressed to the gymnasium in Köslin (now Koszalin in Poland) in 1835 with the goal of becoming a pastor. He graduated in 1839 with a thesis titled A Life Full of Work and Toil is not a Burden but a Benediction. However, he chose medicine mainly because he considered his voice too weak for preaching. Scientific career

In 1839, he received a military fellowship, a scholarship for gifted children from poor families to become army surgeons, to study medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (now Humboldt University of Berlin). He was most influenced by Johannes Peter Müller, his doctoral advisor. Virchow defended his doctoral thesis titled De rheumate praesertim corneae (corneal manifestations of rheumatic disease) on 21 October 1843.Immediately on graduation, he became subordinate physician to Müller. But shortly after, he joined the Charité Hospital in Berlin for internship. In 1844, he was appointed as medical assistant to the prosector (pathologist) Robert Froriep, from whom he learned microscopy which interested him in pathology. Froriep was also the editor of an abstract journal that specialised in foreign work, which inspired Virchow for scientific ideas of France and England. Virchow published his first scientific paper in 1845, giving the earliest known pathological descriptions of leukemia. He passed the medical licensure examination in 1846 and immediately succeeded Froriep as hospital prosector at the Charité. In 1847, he was appointed to his first academic position with the rank of privatdozent.Because his articles did not receive favourable attention from German editors, he founded Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (now known as Virchows Archiv) with a colleague Benno Reinhardt in 1847. He edited alone after Reinhardt's death in 1852 till his own. This journal published critical articles based on the criterion that no papers would be published that contained outdated, untested, dogmatic or speculative ideas. Unlike his German peers, Virchow had great faith in clinical observation, animal experimentation (to determine causes of diseases and the effects of drugs) and pathological anatomy, particularly at the microscopic level, as the basic principles of investigation in medical sciences. He went further and stated that the cell was the basic unit of the body that had to be studied to understand disease. Although the term 'cell' had been coined in the 1665 by an English scientist Robert Hooke, the building blocks of life were still considered to be the 21 tissues of Bichat, a concept described by the French physician Xavier Bichat. The Prussian government employed Virchow to study the typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia in 1847–1848.It was from this medical campaign that he developed his ideas on social medicine and politics after seeing the victims and their poverty. Even though he was not particularly successful in combating the epidemic, his 190-paged Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia in 1848 became a turning point in politics and public health in Germany. He returned to Berlin on 10 March 1848, and only eight days later, a revolution broke out against the government in which he played an active part. To fight political injustice he helped found Die Medizinische Reform (Medical Reform), a weekly newspaper for promoting social medicine, in July of that year. The newspaper ran under the banners "medicine is a social science" and "the physician is the natural attorney of the poor". Political pressures forced him to terminate the publication in June 1849, and he was expelled from his official position. In November 1848, he was given an academic appointment and left Berlin for the University of Würzburg to hold Germany's first chair of pathological anatomy.During his six-year period there, he concentrated on his scientific work, including detailed studies of venous thrombosis and cellular theory. His first major work there was a six-volume Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie (Handbook on Special Pathology and Therapeutics) published in 1854. In 1856, he returned to Berlin to become the newly created Chair for Pathological Anatomy and Physiology at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, as well as Director of the newly built Institute for Pathology on the premises of the Charité. He held the latter post for the next 20 years. Cell biology

Virchow is credited with several key discoveries. His most widely known scientific contribution is his cell theory, which built on the work of Theodor Schwann. He was one of the first to accept the work of Robert Remak, who showed that the origin of cells was the division of pre-existing cells.He did not initially accept the evidence for cell division and believed that it occurs only in certain types of cells. When it dawned on him in 1855 that Remak might be right, he published Remak's work as his own, causing a falling-out between the two. Virchow was particularly influenced in cellular theory by the work of John Goodsir of Edinburgh, whom he described as "one of the earliest and most acute observers of cell-life both physiological and pathological". Virchow dedicated his magnum opus Die Cellularpathologie  to Goodsir. Virchow's cellular theory was encapsulated in the epigram Omnis cellula e cellula ("all cells (come) from cells"), which he published in 1855. (The epigram was actually coined by François-Vincent Raspail, but popularized by Virchow.) It is a rejection of the concept of spontaneous generation, which held that organisms could arise from nonliving matter.For example, maggots were believed to appear spontaneously in decaying meat; Francesco Redi carried out experiments that disproved this notion and coined the maxim Omne vivum ex ovo ("Every living thing comes from a living thing" — literally "from an egg"); Virchow (and his predecessors) extended this to state that the only source for a living cell was another living cell. Cancer

In 1845, <mask> and John Hughes Bennett independently observed abnormal increases in white blood cells in some patients. Virchow correctly identified the condition as a blood disease, and named it leukämie in 1847 (later anglicised to leukemia). In 1857, he was the first to describe a type of tumour called chordoma that originated from the clivus (at the base of the skull). Theory of cancer origin

Virchow was the first to correctly link the origin of cancers from otherwise normal cells. (His teacher Müller had proposed that cancers originated from cells, but from special cells, which he called blastema.) In 1855, he suggested that cancers arise from the activation of dormant cells (perhaps similar to cells now known as stem cells) present in mature tissue.<mask> believed that cancer is caused by severe irritation in the tissues, and his theory came to be known as chronic irritation theory. He thought, rather wrongly, that the irritation spread in the form of liquid so that cancer rapidly increases. His theory was largely ignored, as he was proved wrong that it was not by liquid, but by metastasis of the already cancerous cells that cancers spread. (Metastasis was first described by Karl Thiersch in the 1860s.) He made a crucial observation that certain cancers (carcinoma in the modern sense) were inherently associated with white blood cells (which are now called macrophages) that produced irritation (inflammation). It was only towards the end of the 20th century that Virchow's theory was taken seriously. It was realised that specific cancers (including those of mesothelioma, lung, prostate, bladder, pancreatic, cervical, esophageal, melanoma, and head and neck) are indeed strongly associated with long-term inflammation.In addition it became clear that prolonged use of anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, reduced cancer risk. Experiments also show that drugs that block inflammation simultaneously inhibit tumour formation and development. The Kaiser's case

Virchow was one of the leading physicians to Kaiser Frederick III, who suffered from cancer of the larynx. While other physicians such as Ernst von Bergmann suggested surgical removal of the entire larynx, Virchow was opposed to it because no successful operation of this kind had ever been done. The British surgeon Morell Mackenzie performed a biopsy of the Kaiser in 1887 and sent it to Virchow, who identified it as "pachydermia verrucosa laryngis". Virchow affirmed that the tissues were not cancerous, even after several biopsy tests. The Kaiser died on 15 June 1888.The next day a post-mortem examination was performed by Virchow and his assistant. They found that the larynx was extensively damaged by ulceration, and microscopic examination confirmed epidermal carcinoma. Die Krankheit Kaiser Friedrich des Dritten (The Medical Report of Kaiser Frederick III) was published on 11 July under the lead authorship of Bergmann. But Virchow and Mackenzie were omitted, and they were particularly criticised for all their works. The arguments between them turned into a century-long controversy, resulting in Virchow being accused of misdiagnosis and malpractice. But reassessment of the diagnostic history revealed that Virchow was right in his findings and decisions. It is now believed that the Kaiser had hybrid verrucous carcinoma, a very rare form of verrucous carcinoma, and that Virchow had no way of correctly

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 identifying it.(The cancer type was correctly identified only in 1948 by Lauren Ackerman.) Anatomy
It was discovered approximately simultaneously by Virchow and Charles Emile Troisier that an enlarged left supraclavicular node is one of the earliest signs of gastrointestinal malignancy, commonly of the stomach, or less commonly, lung cancer. This sign has become known as Virchow's node and simultaneously Troisier's sign. Thromboembolism
Virchow is also known for elucidating the mechanism of pulmonary thromboembolism (a condition of blood clotting in the blood vessels), coining the terms embolism and thrombosis. He noted that blood clots in the pulmonary artery originate first from venous thrombi, stating in 1859: [T]he detachment of larger or smaller fragments from the end of the softening thrombus which are carried along by the current of blood and driven into remote vessels. This gives rise to the very frequent process on which I have bestowed the name of Embolia." Having made these initial discoveries based on autopsies, he proceeded to put forward a scientific hypothesis; that pulmonary thrombi are transported from the veins of the leg and that the blood has the ability to carry such an object.He then proceeded to prove this hypothesis by well-designed experiments, repeated numerous times to consolidate evidence, and with meticulously detailed methodology. This work rebutted a claim made by the eminent French pathologist Jean Cruveilhier that phlebitis led to clot development and that thus coagulation was the main consequence of venous inflammation. This was a view held by many before Virchow's work. Related to this research, Virchow described the factors contributing to venous thrombosis, Virchow's triad. Pathology
Virchow founded the medical fields of cellular pathology and comparative pathology (comparison of diseases common to humans and animals). His most important work in the field was Cellular Pathology (Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre) published in 1858, as a collection of his lectures. This is regarded as the basis of modern medical science, and the "greatest advance which scientific medicine had made since its beginning."His very innovative work may be viewed as between that of Giovanni Battista Morgagni, whose work Virchow studied, and that of Paul Ehrlich, who studied at the Charité while Virchow was developing microscopic pathology there. One of Virchow's major contributions to German medical education was to encourage the use of microscopes by medical students, and he was known for constantly urging his students to "think microscopically". He was the first to establish a link between infectious diseases between humans and animals, for which he coined the term "zoonoses". He also introduced scientific terms such as "chromatin", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida". His concepts on pathology directly opposed humourism, an ancient medical dogma that diseases were due to imbalanced body fluids, hypothetically called humours, that still pervaded. Parasitology
Virchow worked out the life cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis. Virchow noticed a mass of circular white flecks in the muscle of dog and human cadavers, similar to those described by Richard Owen in 1835.He confirmed by microscopic observation that the white particles were indeed the larvae of roundworms, curled up in the muscle tissue. Rudolph Leukart found that these tiny worms could develop into adult roundworms in the intestine of a dog. He correctly asserted that these worms could also cause human helminthiasis. Virchow further demonstrated that if the infected meat is first heated to 137 °F for 10 minutes, the worms could not infect dogs or humans. He established that human roundworm infection occurs via contaminated pork. This directly led to the establishment of meat inspection, which was first adopted in Berlin. Autopsy
Virchow was the first to develop a systematic method of autopsy, based on his knowledge of cellular pathology.The modern autopsy still constitutes his techniques. His first significant autopsy was on a 50-year-old woman in 1845. He found an unusual number of white blood cells, and gave a detailed description in 1847 and named the condition as leukämie. One on his autopsies in 1857 was the first description of vertebral disc rupture. His autopsy on a baby in 1856 was the first description of congenital pulmonary lymphangiectasia (the name given by K. M. Laurence a century later), a rare and fatal disease of the lung. From his experience of post-mortem examinations of cadavers, he published his method in a small book in 1876. His book was the first to describe the techniques of autopsy specifically to examine abnormalities in organs, and retain important tissues for further examination and demonstration.Unlike any other earlier practitioner, he practiced complete surgery of all body parts with body organs dissected one by one. This has become the standard method. Ochronosis

Virchow discovered the clinical syndrome which he called ochronosis, a metabolic disorder in which a patient accumulates homogentisic acid in connective tissues and which can be identified by discolouration seen under the microscope. He found the unusual symptom in an autopsy of the corpse of a 67-year-old man on 8 May 1884. This was the first time this abnormal disease affecting cartilage and connective tissue was observed and characterised. His description and coining of the name appeared in the October 1866 issue of Virchows Archiv. Forensic work

Virchow was the first to analyse hair in criminal investigation, and made the first forensic report on it in 1861.He was called as an expert witness in a murder case, and he used hair samples collected from the victim. He became the first to recognise the limitation of hair as evidence. He found that hairs can be different in an individual, that individual hair has characteristic features, and that hairs from different individuals can be strikingly similar. He concluded that evidence based on hair analysis is inconclusive. His testimony runs:

Anthropology and prehistory biology

Virchow developed an interest in anthropology in 1865, when he discovered pile dwellings in northern Germany. In 1869, he co-founded the German Anthropological Association. In 1870 he founded the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte) which was very influential in coordinating and intensifying German archaeological research.Until his death, Virchow was several times (at least fifteen times) its president, often taking turns with his former student Adolf Bastian. As president, Virchow frequently contributed to and co-edited the society's main journal Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology), which Adolf Bastian, together with another student of Virchow, Robert Hartman, had founded in 1869. In 1870, he led a major excavation of the hill forts in Pomerania. He also excavated wall mounds in Wöllstein in 1875 with Robert Koch, whose paper he edited on the subject. For his contributions in German archaeology, the <mask> lecture is held annually in his honour. He made field trips to Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Egypt, Nubia, and other places, sometimes in the company of Heinrich Schliemann. His 1879 journey to the site of Troy is described in Beiträge zur Landeskunde in Troas ("Contributions to the knowledge of the landscape in Troy", 1879) and Alttrojanische Gräber und Schädel ("Old Trojan graves and skulls", 1882).Anti-Darwinism
<mask> was an opponent of Darwin's theory of evolution, and particularly skeptical of the emergent thesis of human evolution. He did not reject evolutionary theory as a whole, and viewed the theory of natural as "an immeasurable advance" but that still has no "actual proof." On 22 September 1877, he delivered a public address entitled "The Freedom of Science in the Modern State" before the Congress of German Naturalists and Physicians in Munich. There he spoke against the teaching of the theory of evolution in schools, arguing that it was as yet an unproven hypothesis that lacked empirical foundations and that, therefore, its teaching would negatively affect scientific studies. Ernst Haeckel, who had been Virchow's student, later reported that his former professor said that "it is quite certain that man did not descend from the apes...not caring in the least that now almost all experts of good judgment hold the opposite conviction." Virchow became one of the leading opponents on the debate over the authenticity of Neanderthal, discovered in 1856, as distinct species and ancestral to modern humans. He himself examined the original fossil in 1872, and presented his observations before the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte.He stated that the Neanderthal had not been a primitive form of human, but an abnormal human being, who, judging by the shape of his skull, had been injured and deformed, and considering the unusual shape of his bones, had been arthritic, rickety, and feeble. With such an authority, the fossil was rejected as new species. With this reasoning, <mask> "judged Darwin an ignoramus and Haeckel a fool and was loud and frequent in the publication of these judgments," and declared that "it is quite certain that man did not descend from the apes." The Neanderthals were later accepted as distinct species of humans, Homo neanderthalensis. On 22 September 1877, at the Fiftieth Conference of the German Association of Naturalists and Physician held in Munich, Haeckel pleaded for introducing evolution in the public school curricula, and tried to dissociate Darwinism from social Darwinism. His campaign was because of Herman Müller, a school teacher who was banned because of his teaching a year earlier on the inanimate origin of life from carbon. This resulted in prolonged public debate with Virchow.A few days later Virchow responded that Darwinism was only a hypothesis, and morally dangerous to students. This severe criticism of Darwinism was immediately taken up by the London Times, from which further debates erupted among English scholars. Haeckel wrote his arguments in the October issue of Nature titled "The Present Position of Evolution Theory", to which <mask> responded in the next issue with an article "The Liberty of Science in the Modern State". Virchow stated that teaching of evolution was "contrary to the conscience of the natural scientists, who reckons only with facts." The debate led Haeckel to write a full book Freedom in Science and Teaching in 1879. That year the issue was discussed in the Prussian House of Representatives and the verdict was in favour of Virchow. In 1882 the Prussian education policy officially excluded natural history in schools.Years later, the noted German physician Carl Ludwig Schleich would recall a conversation he held with <mask>, who was a close friend of his: "...On to the subject of Darwinism. 'I don't believe in all this,' Virchow told me. 'if I lie on my sofa and blow the possibilities away from me, as another man may blow the smoke of his cigar, I can, of course, sympathize with such dreams. But they don't stand the test of knowledge. Haeckel is a fool. That will be apparent one day. As far as that goes, if anything like transmutation did occur it could only happen in the course of pathological degeneration!'"<mask>'s ultimate opinion about evolution was reported a year before he died; in his own words:

<mask>'s anti-evolutionism, like that of Albert von Kölliker and Thomas Brown, did not come from religion, since he was not a believer. Anti-racism

Virchow believed that Haeckel's monist propagation of social Darwinism was in its nature politically dangerous and anti-democratic, and he also criticized it because he saw it as related to the emergent nationalist movement in Germany, ideas about cultural superiority, and militarism. In 1885, he launched a study of craniometry, which gave results contradictory to contemporary scientific racist theories on the "Aryan race", leading him to denounce the "Nordic mysticism" at the 1885 Anthropology Congress in Karlsruhe. Josef Kollmann, a collaborator of Virchow, stated at the same congress that the people of Europe, be they German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races", further declaring that the "results of craniology" led to a "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race" over others. He analysed the hair, skin, and eye colour of 6,758,827 schoolchildren to identify the Jews and Aryans. His findings, published in 1886 and concluding that there could be neither a Jewish nor a German race, were regarded as a blow to anti-Semitism and the existence of an "Aryan race". Anti-germ theory of

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Virchow did not believe in the germ theory of diseases, as advocated by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.He proposed that diseases came from abnormal activities inside the cells, not from outside pathogens. He believed that epidemics were social in origin, and the way to combat epidemics was political, not medical. He regarded germ theory as a hindrance to prevention and cure. He considered social factors such as poverty major causes of disease. He even attacked Koch's and Ignaz Semmelweis' policy of handwashing as an antiseptic practice, who said of him: "Explorers of nature recognize no bugbears other than individuals who speculate." He postulated that germs were only using infected organs as habitats, but were not the cause, and stated, "If I could live my life over again, I would devote it to proving that germs seek their natural habitat: diseased tissue, rather than being the cause of diseased tissue". Politics and social medicine

More than a laboratory physician, Virchow was an impassioned advocate for social and political reform.His ideology involved social inequality as the cause of diseases that requires political actions, stating:

Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing else but medicine on a large scale. Medicine, as a social science, as the science of human beings, has the obligation to point out problems and to attempt their theoretical solution: the politician, the practical anthropologist, must find the means for their actual solution... Science for its own sake usually means nothing more than science for the sake of the people who happen to be pursuing it. Knowledge which is unable to support action is not genuine – and how unsure is activity without understanding... If medicine is to fulfill her great task, then she must enter the political and social life... The physicians are the natural attorneys of the poor, and the social problems should largely be solved by them. Virchow actively worked for social change to fight poverty and diseases. His methods involved pathological observations and statistical analyses.He called this new field of social medicine a "social science". His most important influences could be noted in Latin America, where his disciples introduced his social medicine. For example, his student Max Westenhöfer became Director of Pathology at the medical school of the University of Chile, becoming the most influential advocate. One of Westenhöfer's students, Salvador Allende, through social and political activities based on <mask>'s doctrine, became the 29th President of Chile (1970–1973). <mask> made himself known as a pronounced pro-democracy progressive in the year of revolutions in Germany (1848). His political views are evident in his Report on the Typhus Outbreak of Upper Silesia, where he states that the outbreak could not be solved by treating individual patients with drugs or with minor changes in food, housing, or clothing laws, but only through radical action to promote the advancement of an entire population, which could be achieved only by "full and unlimited democracy" and "education, freedom and prosperity". These radical statements and his minor part in the revolution caused the government to remove him from his position in 1849, although within a year he was reinstated as prosector "on probation".Prosector was a secondary position in the hospital. This secondary position in Berlin convinced him to accept the chair of pathological anatomy at the medical school in the provincial town of Würzburg, where he continued his scientific research. Six years later, he had attained fame in scientific and medical circles, and was reinstated at Charité Hospital. In 1859, he became a member of the Municipal Council of Berlin and began his career as a civic reformer. Elected to the Prussian Diet in 1862, he became leader of the Radical or Progressive party; and from 1880 to 1893, he was a member of the Reichstag. He worked to improve healthcare conditions for Berlin citizens, especially by working towards modern water and sewer systems. Virchow is credited as a founder of anthropology and of social medicine, frequently focusing on the fact that disease is never purely biological, but often socially derived or spread.The duel challenge by Bismarck

As a co-founder and member of the liberal party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, he was a leading political antagonist of Bismarck. He was opposed to Bismarck's excessive military budget, which angered Bismarck sufficiently that he challenged Virchow to a duel in 1865. Virchow declined because he considered dueling an uncivilized way to solve a conflict. Various English-language sources purport a different version of events, the so-called "Sausage Duel". It has <mask>, being the one challenged and therefore entitled to choose the weapons, selecting two pork sausages, one loaded with Trichinella larvae, the other safe; Bismarck declined. However, there are no German-language documents confirming this version. Kulturkampf
Virchow supported Bismarck in an attempt to reduce the political and social influence of the Catholic Church, between 1871 and 1887.He remarked that the movement was acquiring "the character of a great struggle in the interest of humanity". He called it Kulturkampf ("culture struggle") during the discussion of Paul Ludwig Falk's May Laws (Maigesetze). Virchow was respected in Masonic circles, and according to one source may have been a freemason, though no official record of this has been found. Personal life

On 24 August 1850 in Berlin, Virchow married Ferdinande Rosalie Mayer (29 February 183221 February 1913), a liberal's daughter. They had three sons and three daughters:
 Karl Virchow (1 August 185121 September 1912), a chemist
 Hans Virchow (de) (10 September 18527 April 1940), an anatomist
 Adele Virchow (1 October 185518 May 1955), the wife of <mask>, a professor of German studies
 <mask> (24 January 18585 April 1942)
 Marie Virchow (29 June 186623 October 1951), the wife of Carl Rabl, an Austrian anatomist
 Hanna Elisabeth <mask> (10 May 187328 November 1963)

Death

Virchow broke his thigh bone on 4 January 1902, jumping off a running streetcar while exiting the electric tramway. Although he anticipated full recovery, the fractured femur never healed, and restricted his physical activity. His health gradually deteriorated and he died of heart failure after eight months, on 5 September 1902, in Berlin.A state funeral was held on 9 September in the Assembly Room of the Magistracy in the Berlin Town Hall, which was decorated with laurels, palms and flowers. He was buried in the Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof in Schöneberg, Berlin. His tomb was shared by his wife on 21 February 1913. Collections and Foundations
<mask> was also a collector. Several museums in Berlin emerged from Virchow's collections: the Märkisches Museum, the Museum of Prehistory and Early History, the Ethnological Museum and the Museum of Medical History. In addition, Virchow's collection of anatomical specimens from numerous European and non-European populations, which still exists today, deserves special mention. The collection is owned by the Berlin Society for Anthropology and Prehistory.The collection hit the international headlines in 2020 when the two journalists Markus Grill and David Bruser, in cooperation with the archivist Nils Seethaler, succeeded in identifying four skulls of indigenous Canadians that were thought to be lost and which came into Virchow's possession through the mediation of the Canadian doctor William Osler in the late 19th century. Honours and legacy
 In June 1859, Virchow was elected to Berlin Chamber of Representatives. In 1860, he was elected official Member of the Königliche Wissenschaftliche Deputation für das Medizinalwesen (Royal Scientific Board for Medical Affairs). In 1861, he was elected foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1862, he was elected as an international Member of the American Philosophical Society. In March 1862, he was elected to the Prussian House of Representatives. In 1873, he was elected to the Prussian Academy of Sciences.He declined to be ennobled as "von Virchow," he was nonetheless designated Geheimrat ("privy councillor") in 1894. In 1880, he was elected member of the Reichstag of the German Empire. In 1881, Rudolf-Virchow-Foundation was established on the occasion of his 60th birthday. In 1892, he was appointed Rector of the Berlin University. In 1892, he was awarded the British Royal Society's Copley Medal. The Rudolf Virchow Center, a biomedical research center in the University of Würzburg was established in January 2002. <mask> Virchow Award is given by the Society for Medical Anthropology for research achievements in medical anthropology.<mask>w lecture, an annual public lecture, is organised by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, for eminent scientists in the field of palaeolithic archaeology. Rudolf Virchow Medical Society is based in New York, and offers Rudolf Virchow Medal. Campus Virchow Klinikum (CVK) is the name of a campus of Charité hospital in Berlin. The <mask>irchow Monument, a muscular limestone statue, was erected in 1910 at Karlplatz in Berlin. Langenbeck-Virchow-Haus was built in 1915 in Berlin, jointly honouring Virchow and Bernhard von Langenbeck. Originally a medical centre, the building is now used as conference centre of the German Surgical Association (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Chirurgie) and the Berlin Medical Association (BMG-Berliner Medizinische Gesellschaft). The Rudolf Virchow Study Center is instituted by the European University Viadrina for compiling of the complete works of Virchow.Virchow Hill in Antarctica is named after <mask>irchow. Eponymous medical terms

Works
Virchow was a prolific writer. Some of his works are:
 Mittheilungen über die in Oberschlesien herrschende Typhus-Epidemie (1848)
 Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre., his chief work (1859; English translation, 1860): The fourth edition of this work formed the first volume of Vorlesungen über Pathologie below. Handbuch der Speciellen Pathologie und Therapie, prepared in collaboration with others (1854–76)
 Vorlesungen über Pathologie (1862–72)
 Die krankhaften Geschwülste (1863–67)
 Ueber den Hungertyphus (1868)
 Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am Schädel (1875)
 Beiträge zur physischen Anthropologie der Deutschen (1876)
 Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im Modernen Staat (1877)
 Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der offentlichen Medizin und der Seuchenlehre (1879)
 Gegen den Antisemitismus (1880)

References

Further reading
 Becher (1891). <mask>, Berlin. Pagel, J. L. (1906). <mask>, Leipzig.Ackerknecht, Erwin H. (1953) <mask>: Doctor, Statesman, Anthropologist, Madison. Virchow, RLK (1978). Cellular pathology. 1859 special ed., 204–207 John Churchill London, UK. , available at Project Gutenberg (co-authored by Virchow with Tomás Comyn, Fedor Jagor, and Chas Wilkes)
 Virchow, <mask> (1870). Menschen- und Affenschadeh Vortrag gehalten am 18. Febr.1869 im Saale des Berliner Handwerkervereins. Berlin: Luderitz,

External links

 The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes, available at Project Gutenberg (co-authored by Virchow with Tomás Comyn, Fedor Jagor, and Chas Wilkes)
 Short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
 Students and Publications of Virchow
 A biography of Virchow by the American Association of Neurological Surgeons that deals with his early work in Cerebrovascular Pathology
 An English translation of the complete 1848 Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia is available in the February 2006 edition of the journal Social Medicine
 Some places and memories related to <mask>w
 Article on <mask>w in Nautilus retrieved on 28 January 2017. 1821 births
1902 deaths
People from Świdwin
People from the Province of Pomerania
German Protestants
German Progress Party politicians
German Free-minded Party politicians
Members of the Prussian House of Representatives
Members of the 5th Reichstag of the German Empire
Members of the 6th Reichstag of the German Empire
Members of the 7th Reichstag of the German Empire
Members of the 8th Reichstag of the German Empire
German anthropologists
German radicals
19th-century German biologists
German pathologists
Germ theory denialists
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Physicians of the Charité
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Prehistorians
Recipients of the Copley Medal
University of Würzburg alumni
University of Würzburg faculty
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
German

masks:
Virchow
Virchow
Virchow
Rudolf Henning
Ernst Virchow
Maria Virchow
Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf
Rudolf Vircho
Rudolf V
Rudolf V
Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf
Rudolf Vcho
Rudolf Vircho


texts:
<mask> (; born 26 July 1986) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a striker. After starting out with CAI, he joined San Lorenzo in 2005, going on to spend the better part of the following years in Spain with Castellón and Almería, competing in La Liga with the latter club and also being Segunda División top scorer in 2012. <mask> moved to England in 2013, where he represented Brighton & Hove Albion and Leicester City. He won the Premier League with the latter, in the 2015–16 season. Club career

Early years and Castellón
Born in General Roca, Río Negro, <mask> started his career in 2002, playing with Primera B Nacional side Comisión de Actividades Infantiles. In 2005 he moved to the Primera División, signing for San Lorenzo where he was part of the squad that won the 2007 Clausura. Shortly after, Ulloa joined Arsenal de Sarandí.In the summer of 2008, after a brief stint with Olimpo, he moved to Spain to play for Segunda División club Castellón, where he was reunited with compatriot and former CAI teammate José Tabares. He scored 16 goals in his debut season, his team's best and sixth in the league. Almería
Ulloa posted similar numbers in 2009–10, but Castellón were relegated after finishing 22nd and last. In late June 2010 he moved to another club in the country, Almería, signing a five-year contract. On 13 September 2010, in only his second official match for the Andalusians, Ulloa scored in the last minute for a 2–2 La Liga home draw against Real Sociedad, after an individual effort. The following month, against the same opponent in the Copa del Rey's round-of-32 first leg, he netted twice in the last 20 minutes to help his team come back from 0–2 to win 3–2, in the Basque Country. On 22 December 2010, again in the domestic cup, <mask> scored three goals and assisted on another, as Almería beat Mallorca 4–3 in the first leg, winning 8–6 on aggregate.On 16 January 2011 he took his league tally to five, netting in a 1–1 home draw against Real Madrid after finishing a move from countryman Pablo Piatti. <mask> was crowned the 2011–12 season's top scorer, but Almería failed to regain their top level status after finishing seventh. Brighton & Hove Albion

On 16 January 2013, <mask> transferred to Championship side Brighton & Hove Albion on a four-and-a-half-year deal, for an undisclosed fee believed to be around £2 million. He scored on his debut ten days later, in a 2–3 home loss against Arsenal in the FA Cup. On 2 March 2013, <mask> became the first ever player to score a hat-trick at Falmer Stadium, during Brighton's 4–1 win over Huddersfield Town. Two weeks later he scored twice against Crystal Palace in a 3–0 victory, also at home, contributing to his team's first home win in the Brighton-Crystal Palace Derby since 1988; manager Gus Poyet described him as "different class"; he continued his scoring run on the 30th, with his ninth goal in 12 matches coming in a 2–2 draw at Nottingham Forest. On 27 April 2013, <mask> scored the goal that confirmed Brighton's place in the Championship play-offs, heading the 88th-minute winner to secure a 2–1 success at Leeds United.The following season, on 3 May 2014 and again through a header, he netted in the last minute to once again send the club to the play-offs, helping to a comeback at Nottingham Forest and 2–1 win. Leicester City

On 22 July 2014, <mask> joined Leicester City on a four-year contract for a club record £8 million, being handed the number 23 shirt. He started on his Premier League debut at home to Everton on 16 August, and scored after 22 minutes as his team twice came from a goal down to secure a 2–2 draw. He found the net in his third appearance, against Arsenal on 31 August for another home draw (1–1), and scored the only goal of the match to help defeat Stoke City for the club's first win of the campaign. On 21 September 2014, <mask> contributed with a brace in a 5–3 home win over Manchester United. After nine games without a goal, he scored but in a 1–2 loss at Aston Villa. During January 2015, Ulloa scored in FA Cup victories over Newcastle United and Tottenham, helping the Foxes to reach the fifth round.On 18 April, he netted his first league goal of 2015 in a 2–0 win against Swansea City which saw Leicester move off the bottom of the table for the first time since November 2014. Two weeks later, he scored twice in a 3–0 success over Newcastle for his team's fifth win from six matches. Under Claudio Ranieri, Ulloa played mostly second-fiddle to Shinji Okazaki and Jamie Vardy in 2015–16, but still managed to contribute with 29 games and six goals as Leicester won the first top-flight league title of their 132-year history, including one in the last minute of a 1–0 win over Norwich City at the King Power Stadium on 27 February 2016 which caused celebrations that led to a small earthquake registering on the Richter scale. <mask> struggled to break into the first team following the signings of Islam Slimani and Ahmed Musa in 2016–17, prompting an enquiry from Swansea City. He did not start his first league match of the season until 2 January 2017, in a goalless draw against Middlesbrough, and late into that month he submitted a transfer request, which led to bids from Alavés and Sunderland; these were rejected, as well as a subsequent loan offer from Galatasaray, leading the player to express in a Twitter post that he felt "betrayed by Ranieri" and vowed not to play for Leicester again. A total of three bids from Sunderland, ranging from £3 million to £7.5 million, were rejected as Leicester were unwilling to sell him to a relegation rival. On 24 August 2017, aged 31, <mask> signed a new contract at Leicester, extending his stay with the club until June 2019.He struggled to break into the first team during the season, only playing a total of 19 minutes in the league in four substitute appearances; thus, on 29 January 2018, he completed a loan move to Brighton & Hove Albion for his second spell. <mask> scored his first goal for Brighton since 2014 on 17 February 2018, in a home 3–1 home defeat of Coventry City for the FA Cup. His first in the league came on 9 May, but in a 1–3 away loss against Manchester City; shortly after, having appeared in 12 competitive matches, he revealed he was hoping to earn a permanent move to the club. Pachuca
On 10 August 2018, <mask> joined Liga MX club Pachuca. His first goal for his new team, a header, opened the scoring in a 2–0 win over Celaya in the Copa MX. Rayo Vallecano
On 30 August 2019, Pachuca announced <mask>'s departure to Rayo Vallecano via Twitter. International career
In late 2014 <mask>, whose grandfather was born in Chile, had an offer from Chile national team manager Jorge Sampaoli to become naturalized and represent them, but he declined it.Personal life
<mask> was one of up to 20 top footballers named in the Panama Papers, a 2016 leak of offshore accounts. In 2008, while at San Lorenzo, he ceded his economic and image rights to Jump Drive Sports Rights LLC, registered in Washington in the name of two companies registered in Samoa. The director of the company at the time of the leak was on trial for fraud; it was alleged he took money that was due to Ulloa. Career statistics

Honours
San Lorenzo
Argentine Primera División: 2007 Clausura

Arsenal Sarandí
Copa Sudamericana: 2007

Leicester City
Premier League: 2015–16

Individual
Segunda División top scorer: 2011–12

References

External links

Argentine League statistics

1986 births
Living people
People from General Roca
Argentine sportspeople of Chilean descent
Argentine footballers
Association football forwards
Argentine Primera División players
Primera Nacional players
Comisión de Actividades Infantiles footballers
San Lorenzo de Almagro footballers
Arsenal de Sarandí footballers
Olimpo footballers
La Liga players
Segunda División players
CD Castellón footballers
UD Almería players
Rayo Vallecano players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. players
Leicester City F.C. players
Liga MX players
C.F. Pachuca players
Argentine expatriate footballers
Expatriate footballers in Spain
Expatriate footballers in England
Expatriate footballers in Mexico
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in England
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Mexico
People named in the Panama Papers

masks:
José Leonardo Ulloa Fernández
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa
Ulloa


texts:
<mask>  <mask> (June 28, 1742  October 14, 1790) was an American Founding Father, lawyer, politician, and a member of the Continental Congress representing North Carolina from 1774 through 1777. <mask> signed the Continental Association and the United States Declaration of Independence. Early life

<mask> was the first child of five, born in Boston, Massachusetts, on June 28, 1742. His father, <mask>, was a Scottish minister who studied at the University of Edinburgh prior to immigrating to Boston, and his mother, Mary Dennie, was the daughter of John Dennie, a well-respected merchant from Massachusetts. <mask>'s father had hoped that <mask> would follow in his footsteps as an Episcopal priest and at the age of seven placed <mask> in Boston Latin School headed by Mr. John Lovell, a highly distinguished educator in Massachusetts. In 1757, at the age of sixteen, <mask> entered Harvard University where he was considered an industrious student and was highly regarded. In 1760, <mask> graduated from Harvard with honors, obtaining a Bachelor of Arts.However, after graduating, <mask> did not wish to pursue a career in the clergy as his father had hoped. Instead, <mask> decided on a career in law, studying under James Otis, a popular attorney in Boston who was regarded as a radical. <mask> studied under Otis until 1764 and once completing his bar exam decided to leave Massachusetts in part because of the abundance of lawyers in Boston. Life in North Carolina
In 1764 <mask> moved temporarily to Wilmington, North Carolina, where he began to practice law and became the circuit court lawyer for Cape Fear. <mask> began to build a highly respected reputation in North Carolina among the wealthy farmers as well as fellow lawyers. <mask> increased his influence by representing the colonial government in several court cases. In 1767, <mask> married Anne Clark, the daughter of a wealthy early settler to the region and sheriff of New Hanover County.They had three children: <mask> (b. 1768), Elizabeth (b. 1770), and Thomas (b. 1772). <mask> moved quickly up the ranks, first in 1769 when he was appointed as deputy attorney of the Salisbury District, and then in 1770 when he was appointed deputy Attorney General of North Carolina. Initially, <mask> supported the British colonial government of North Carolina. As deputy attorney general, in 1768 <mask> worked with Colonial Governor <mask> to suppress a rebellious group known as the Regulators who participated in the War of the Regulation.The Regulators had been operating in North Carolina for some time, and in 1770 it was reported that the group dragged <mask> through the streets in Hillsborough during a riot. <mask> advised that Governor Tryon use as much force as was necessary to stamp out the rebels and even accompanied the troops at the Battle of Alamance in 1771. He served in the Province of North Carolina House of Burgesses in 1775. American Revolution involvement

<mask>'s support of the colonial governments began to erode, causing problems for him because of his past support of Governor Tryon. <mask> had been labeled a Loyalist and therefore he was not immediately accepted by Patriots. <mask> eventually was elected to the North Carolina General Assembly in 1773, where he became an opponent to colonial attempts to pass laws that would regulate the provincial courts. This in turn helped to sour his reputation among Loyalists.<mask> recognized that independence was likely to occur and mentioned this in a letter to his friend James Iredell, saying that the colonies were "striding fast to independence, and ere long will build an empire upon the ruins of Great Britain." During his time in the assembly <mask> slowly became a supporter of the American Revolution and independence. After the governor disbanded the assembly, <mask> helped to organize a new colonial assembly. <mask> was also appointed to the Committee of Correspondence and Inquiry. In 1774, <mask> was appointed a delegate to the First Continental Congress, where he served on numerous committees. <mask> was again elected to the Second Continental Congress, but much of his time was split between the congress and work in North Carolina, where he was assisting in forming a new government. This caused him to miss the vote approving the Declaration of Independence; however, he arrived in time to sign it on August 2, 1776.In 1777, because of continued financial concerns, <mask> resigned from Congress and returned to North Carolina to resume his law career. Throughout the Revolution the British attempted to capture <mask>, and with his country home in Finian vulnerable to British attacks, <mask> moved his family to Wilmington. In 1781, the British captured Wilmington, to where Cornwallis and his forces fell back after the Battle of Guilford Court House, and <mask> found himself separated from his family. In addition, the British burned his estates in both Finian and Wilmington, so <mask> was forced to rely on friends for food and shelter during this time, as well as nursing him back to health when he contracted malaria. Finally, after nearly a year of separation, <mask> was reunited with his family, and they settled in Hillsborough, North Carolina, where <mask> continued to work for the North Carolina assembly until 1783. Post-Revolution years
After the Revolution <mask> returned to his career in law, but he lost favor with the public because of his political stance. <mask> fell in line with the Federalist Party because of his influential connections, his mistrust of the lower class, and his widely criticized soft dealings with Loyalists, toward whom he was generally forgiving.This kind and fair treatment made some even label him a Loyalist. <mask> was again called to public service in 1786, when he was appointed a federal judge in a border dispute between New York and Massachusetts, though the case was settled out of court. In 1787 and 1788, <mask> campaigned heavily for North Carolina to ratify the new United States Constitution, but by this time <mask> had become quite ill, and he died on October 14, 1790, at the age of 48. He was laid to rest in the Presbyterian Churchyard in Hillsborough, North Carolina. His remains were later reinterred at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park. His home at Hillsborough, the <mask> House, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971. It is located in the Hillsborough Historic District.See also
 Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence

References

Further reading
 Broadwater, Jeff and Troy L. Kickler (eds. ), North Carolina's Revolutionary Founders. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. Fradin, Denis Brindell. The Signers: The 56 Stories Behind the Declaration of Independence. New York: Walker and Company, 2002. Goodwin, A.C. "Brief Biography and Genealogy of <mask>."Ancestry.com (2 December 1998). Accessed April 13, 2008. Lossing, B.J. Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence. Aledo, Tex. : WallBuilders Press, 2007. Lowry, Harold D. "<mask>."Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence. 2006. Accessed April 13, 2008. Snell, Charles W. Signers of the Declaration of Independence: Biographical Sketches. United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 4 July 2004. Accessed April 13, 2008.Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History. New York: Modern Library, 2002. External links
 North Carolina History Project
 National Park Service Biographical Sketches
 Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
 Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence

1742 births
1790 deaths
Politicians from Boston
American Episcopalians
American people of Scottish descent
American slave owners
North Carolina Federalists
People from Hillsborough, North Carolina
Continental Congressmen from North Carolina
18th-century American politicians
Members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Harvard University alumni
Lawyers from Boston
New Latin-language poets
Members of the North Carolina Provincial Congresses
Members of the North Carolina House of Burgesses
Signers of the Continental Association

masks:
William
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
William Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
William
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
William Tryon
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Hooper
Nash Hooper
William Hooper
William Hooper


texts:
<mask> MA(RCA) FRBS (born 24 February 1958) is a British conceptual sculptor working in Installation art and digital media. She was the winner of the 2014 European Trebbia Awards for artistic achievement. Biography
<mask> was born in London to <mask> and <mask> and she is the great-granddaughter of <mask>. Her career began with a solo show at the age of 18, curated by her art teachers at Putney College, which is now part of South Thames College. After completing a Foundation course at Wimbledon College of Art, <mask> studied Mosaics in Ravenna from 1977 to 1978 returning to London to study at the Central School of Art and Design and at the Royal College of Art under the supervision of John Stezaker and Eduardo Paolozzi. In 1986 McAdam <mask> won the British Art Medal Scholarship in Rome where she studied sculpture at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Roma under Gino Marotta and at the Scuola d'Arte della Medaglia in Rome. McAdam <mask> is an associate lecturer at Central Saint Martins and teaches short courses in the Sculpture School at Morley College.She has also taught at the Royal College of Art, London and at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp. <mask> <mask> is a Fellow of the Royal British Society of Sculptors. In 1991 she was awarded the Italian State Mint prize for her work Moments and Memories. Her winning design was put into production by the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato. In the same year she was granted the Freedom of the City of London. She has published several catalogues including; On the Edge 1996, Relative Relations 2006  and numerous papers on Art and Psychoanalysis. <mask> <mask>'s short film Dead or Alive refers to <mask>'s concept of Condensation.The pairings morph into each other through the merging back and forth of <mask>'s antiquities with her sculpture, from past to present ‘virtually’ closing the gap of time. Great similarities can be found in the forms and motifs of the pairs. At a midway point the two objects merge and form a third image of a ‘virtual’ object. Her preference for this work was to locate it within reach of a psychoanalytically aware audience. Dead or Alive was shown internationally at museums, institutes and galleries including Philoctetes Centre for the Imagination, NY, New York USA in 2008, Lung Yingtai Cultural Foundation, (Media Tek Lectures) Taipei, Taiwan and the Kosciuszko Foundation, NYC, USA in 2009. Also the Sundaram Tagore Gallery, LA, USA in 2010 and Whitelabs Gallery, Milan in 2012. Her works are represented in both national and international public collections including the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, National Gallery Archives, London, the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford and the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.International collections include the Brooklyn Museum, The National Arts Club, Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, the Greek National Gallery, and the Berlin State Museums. Solo exhibitions
21-22 Installation, Freud Birth House, Pribor, CZ
2020  Gazelli Art House, Baku, Azerbaijan
2020  Headstone Manor Museum, Harrow, London
2019  Spatui Intact, Cluj, Romania
2019  Museo Attivoa Claudia Costa, Quarto, Genoa, Italy
2019  Palazzo Ducale, Genoa, Italy
2019  Palazzo Tagliaferro, Andora, Italy
2018  Oradea City Museum, Oradea, Romania
2018  Jekza Gallery, Timișoara, Romania
17–18 'Freud Study Merge', CE Contemporary, Milan, Italy
17–18 'Object' Fix Me in Your Turquoise Gaze', Gazelli Art House, London
2017  Museum of Modern Art, Ascona, Lugano, Switzerland – Group exhibition
2017 Symposium and Exhibition with works by Claudio Costa, Silesiun Uni. Screening venues include
21//22 Freud Birth House, Pribor, CZ
2018 IEA Institute for Expressive Analysis, NY, USA
2017 Freud Study Merge, CE Contemporary, Milan
2017 Museum of Modern Art, Ascona, Lugano, Switzerland
2017 Societe Psychanalytique de Paris, Lyon, France,
2017 Human, German Embassy, Belgravia, London
2017 C2 Contemporary – Di Pinto, Florence, Italy
15/16 Wooyang Art Museum, Gyeongju-si, South Korea Retrospective
2014 On Identity, Gallery Martini Ronchetti, Genoa, Italy,
2013 Family Matters, Gazelli Art House, Baku, Azerbaijan
2012 Three Generations, Milan, Italy
2011 Psycause Conference, Pribor, Czech Republic
2011 Sundaram Tagore Gallery, NY, USA
2010 Sundaram Tagore Gallery, LA, USA
2010 New Center for Psychoanalysis in LA, USA
2009 National Arts Club, NYC, USA
2009 Kosciuszko Foundation, NYC, USA
2009 Shifan University, Kaohsiung, South Taiwan Org.

masks:
Jane McAdam Freud
McAdam Freud
Katherine Margaret McAdam
Lucian Freud
Sigmund Freud
McAdam Freud
Freud
Freud
McAdam
Freud
McAdam
Freud
Freud
Freud


texts:
<mask>. (born August 19, 1946) is a former Administrator of NASA, a retired United States Marine Corps Major General, and a former astronaut who flew on four Space Shuttle missions. A 1968 graduate of the United States Naval Academy, he became a Marine aviator and test pilot. After his service as an astronaut, he became Deputy Commandant of Midshipmen at the Naval Academy. On May 23, 2009, President Barack Obama announced the nomination of <mask> as Administrator of NASA and Lori Garver as deputy NASA administrator. Both were confirmed by the Senate by unanimous consent on July 15, 2009. <mask> was the first African American to head the agency on a permanent basis. On January 12, 2017, <mask> announced his retirement from NASA during a town hall meeting at NASA Headquarters in Washington D.C. His last day would be January 19, and Robert M. Lightfoot Jr. was announced as acting NASA Administrator.In 2020, <mask> was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for leadership and development of U.S. human spaceflight and space operations programs, and for revitalizing fundamental aeronautics research. Education
<mask> graduated from C. A. Johnson High School in Columbia, South Carolina, in 1964. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Science from the United States Naval Academy in 1968, where he was a contemporary of future Marine officers Oliver North, Jim Webb and Michael Hagee and future Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Michael Mullen, and later earned a Master of Science degree in Systems Management from the University of Southern California in 1977. He is a member of Omega Psi Phi fraternity. Military career

In high school <mask> was turned down for an appointment to the United States Naval Academy by South Carolina's Congressional delegation, which included then segregationist Senator Strom Thurmond. Bolden received his appointment after personally writing, as a high school senior, to President Johnson. A recruiter came to his house a few weeks later, eventually leading to Bolden receiving an appointment from U.S. Representative William L. Dawson from Chicago, Illinois.He later received notes of congratulations from Thurmond at various career milestones. <mask> was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps following graduation from the United States Naval Academy in 1968. He was president of his class. He underwent flight training at Pensacola, Florida, Meridian, Mississippi, and Kingsville, Texas, before being designated a United States Aviator Badge in May 1970. He flew more than 100 sorties into North and South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the A-6A Intruder while assigned to VMA(AW)-533 at Royal Thai Air Base Nam Phong, Thailand, from June 1972 to June 1973. Upon returning to the United States, <mask> began a two-year tour as a Marine Corps officer selection and recruiting officer in Los Angeles, California, followed by three years in various assignments at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, California. In June 1979, he graduated from the United States Naval Test Pilot School at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland and was assigned to the Naval Air Test Center's Systems Engineering and Strike Aircraft Test Directorates.While there, he served as an ordnance test pilot and flew numerous test projects in the A-6E, EA-6B, and A-7C/E airplanes. He logged more than 6,000 hours flying time. <mask> was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in 1980. He was a member of the NASA Astronaut Corps until 1994 when he returned to assignments in the Marine Corps, first as the Deputy Commandant of Midshipmen at the Naval Academy, effective June 27, 1994. In July 1997, he was assigned as the Deputy Commanding General of I Marine Expeditionary Force. From February to June 1998, he served as Commanding General, I MEF (Forward) in support of Operation Desert Thunder in Kuwait. In July 1998, he was promoted to his final rank of major general and assumed his duties as the Deputy Commander, United States Forces Japan.He then served as the Commanding General, 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing, from August 9, 2000, until August 2002. He retired from the military in August 2004. NASA career
Selected by NASA in May 1980, <mask> became an astronaut in August 1981. His technical assignments included: Astronaut Office Safety Officer; Technical Assistant to the Director of Flight Crew Operations; Special Assistant to the Director of the Johnson Space Center; Astronaut Office Liaison to the Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance Directorates of the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and the Kennedy Space Center (KSC); Chief of the Safety Division at JSC; Lead Astronaut for Vehicle Test and Checkout at the Kennedy Space Center; and Assistant Deputy Administrator, NASA Headquarters. A veteran of four space flights, he has logged over 680 hours in space. Bolden served as pilot on STS-61-C (January 12–18, 1986) and STS-31 (April 24–29, 1990), and was the mission commander on STS-45 (March 24April 2, 1992), and STS-60 (February 3–11, 1994). Bolden was the first person to ride the Launch Complex 39 slidewire baskets which enable rapid escape from a Space Shuttle on the launch pad.The need for a human test was determined following a launch abort on STS-41-D where controllers were afraid to order the crew to use the untested escape system. A few years before his appointment by President Barack Obama to be administrator of NASA, Bolden auditioned, along with professional actors, for the role of virtual host for NASA's "Shuttle Launch Experience" educational attraction at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Merritt Island, Florida. Spaceflights

On STS-61-C, Bolden piloted . During the six-day flight, crew members deployed the SATCOM Ku-band satellite and conducted experiments in astrophysics and materials processing. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on January 12, 1986, orbited the Earth 96 times, and ended with a successful night landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California on January 18, 1986. Bolden piloted  during STS-31. Launched on April 24, 1990, from Kennedy Space Center, the crew spent the five-day mission deploying the Hubble Space Telescope and conducting a variety of mid-deck experiments.They also used a variety of cameras, including both the IMAX in cabin and cargo bay cameras, for Earth observations from their record-setting altitude of over 400 miles. Following 75 orbits of Earth in 121 hours, Discovery landed at Edwards Air Force Base on April 29, 1990. On STS-45, <mask> commanded a crew of seven aboard , launched on March 24, 1992, from Kennedy Space Center. STS-45 was the first Spacelab mission dedicated to NASA's "Mission to Planet Earth". During the nine-day mission, the crew operated the twelve experiments that constituted the ATLAS-1 (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) cargo. ATLAS-1 obtained detailed measurements of atmospheric chemical and physical properties. In addition, this was the first time an artificial beam of electrons was used to stimulate an auroral discharge.Following 143 orbits of Earth, Atlantis landed at Kennedy Space Center on April 2, 1992. <mask> commanded STS-60's crew of six aboard Discovery. This was the historic first joint-American–Russian Space Shuttle mission involving the participation of a Russian cosmonaut, Sergei Krikalev, as a Mission Specialist. The flight launched on February 3, 1994, from Kennedy Space Center, and carried the Space Habitation Module-2 (SPACEHAB-2), and the Wake Shield Facility. The crew conducted a series of joint American/Russian science activities. The mission achieved 130 orbits of the Earth, ending with a landing on February 11, 1994, at the Kennedy Space Center. Administrator of NASA

In 2009, President Obama appointed <mask> to be administrator of NASA.In a NASA video published April 28, 2010, titled "NASA's New Era of Innovation and Discovery", Bolden said, "We're going to turn science fiction into science fact". On the same day, at a question and answer session with employees at the Johnson Space Center, Bolden compared the Constellation Program to a stillborn baby calf extracted from a camel's womb by U.S. Marines. Bolden said, "We've got some stillborn calves around, and we have got to figure out ways to help each other bring them back to life". In a June 2010 interview with Al Jazeera, Bolden said that the top three goals he was tasked with by President Obama were to help re-inspire children to want to get into science and math, to expand NASA's international relationships, and, "perhaps foremost", "to reach out to the Muslim world ... to help them feel good about their historic contribution to science... and math and engineering". The White House disagreed with <mask>'s statement, with the press secretary saying Bolden probably misspoke and "That was not his task, and that's not the task of NASA". <mask> said his agency's long-term ambition is landing astronauts on Mars. He has cited spending cuts as a concern for major NASA projects.On August 28, 2012, he was the first human being to have his voice broadcast on the surface of Mars. Although the rover has no speakers, it received the transmission of his voice and then beamed it back to Earth. In 2013, he noted the National Aerospace Week as Administrator of NASA. On October 28, 2015, Bolden presented the next steps for a human journey to Mars at the Center for American Progress in Washington, D.C.

On January 12, 2017, <mask> announced his resignation from NASA during a Town Hall meeting at NASA Headquarters in Washington D.C. His last day would be January 19, and Robert M. Lightfoot Jr. was announced as acting NASA Administrator. Personal life
<mask> lives in Houston, and is married to Alexis (née Walker); the couple have two children. Bolden is a Christian, stating in a question and answer session in May 2010:

"You know, the universe is a big place. I'm a practicing Christian, so in my faith, I learn about omnipotent, omnipresent God, which means he's everywhere.He's all-knowing. He does everything. And I just cannot bring my little pea brain to believe that a God like that would pick one planet of one of millions of suns and say that's the only place in the vast universe that I'm going to put any kind of life. And so the problem is I haven't been far enough away."

masks:
Charles Frank Bolden Jr
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
Bolden
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texts:
Rev. <mask> (1731–1802) was an early New England Congregational minister, born in Connecticut, and subsequently the pastor of churches in New Hampshire and Massachusetts, both of which dismissed him from his posts. Several of Rev. Leavitt's descendants became among the most noted abolitionists of their day, even though he himself was dismissed from one pastorate for allegedly abusing his runaway slave, and from another for his Loyalist sentiments. Early life and career beginnings

<mask> was born on January 11, 1731, in Suffield, Massachusetts, the son of Lieutenant <mask>  and his wife Mary Thomas (Winchell) Leavitt. <mask> was one of three children of Lieut. <mask> and his second wife.The family was among the earliest settlers of Suffield, and were prosperous, his father Lieut. Leavitt a well-to-do farmer and officeholder. But before Rev. Leavitt was two years old, his father, a brother and a sister all perished of disease within three days of each other. Nevertheless, Rev. Leavitt and two of his brothers attended Yale College. His sister Jemima Leavitt married Capt.David Ellsworth, and became mother of Chief Justice of the United States and Founding Father Oliver Ellsworth. <mask> graduated from Yale College in 1758  and afterwards was ordained minister  of Walpole, New Hampshire, on May 27, 1761. On the occasion of his ordination, Rev. Leavitt's brother Rev. Freegrace <mask>, a fellow Congregationalist minister, preached the installation sermon – at a local home as Walpole's meeting house had yet to be built. The formal rigor of Congregationalism was in full bloom in Walpole, as elsewhere across the New England states. Rev.Leavitt wore a large, full-powdered wig, "and when he entered the meeting-house, the whole congregation rose to do obeisance to the man in black, who, in his turn, always responded with a full bow." Trailing the prime minister was his wife, Sarah (Hooker) <mask>, great-granddaughter of Rev. Thomas Hooker, Puritan divine and founder of the state of Connecticut. Mrs. Leavitt was gotten up in "full suit of brocade lutestring, without any bonnet, holding a fan to shade the sun from her face, as was the fashion 'down country.'" Leavitt's initial pay at Walpole was set at £75 sterling, and, as was the custom of the day, the financial terms of his contract were carefully delineated – with annual raises in pay stipulated in the document, as well as free use of a minister's house lot. But Leavitt's tenure was apparently tenuous from the start. Within three years, he was dismissed by the new congregation.Although the exact reason is unclear, the new Reverend was said to have been spotted being cruel to a slave. "It is handed down that, having dragged home a negro slave, a woman, who had run away, by a rope attached to his saddle", according to a history of Walpole, "[prominent local citizen] Colonel Bellows declared that such cruelty should not be submitted to; that he had settled Parson Leavitt, and now he would unsettle him. Ministers, however, were not got rid of so easily in those days. Being settled for life, they had rights which they well understood; and it is plain that some considerable diplomacy was required to shake Mr. Leavitt off." Departure from Walpole and arrival in Massachusetts

On May 17, 1764, on the eve of a town meeting called to discuss Leavitt's tenure – and his act of cruelty towards his slave  – the minister suddenly accepted a payment from the townsmen for services rendered and agreed to depart. Two years later, in 1767, Rev. Leavitt secured an appointment as the minister of Charlemont, Massachusetts, in the mountainous northwestern corner of the state.The congregation in the Berkshires was looking for a minister to pastor the town's first church, and Leavitt was selected. But the imperious Leavitt once again got into trouble with his congregation. After arriving with his family to an auspicious beginning, Leavitt's Loyalist sentiments began to rub his congregants the wrong way. The matter of wardrobe might have complicated things. "Mr. Leavitt dressed in the costume of his day", noted a fellow minister. "He wore a great white wig and a cocked up hat, and made a dignified appearance. He would do more execution with one nod of his wig, than you or I could in talking half an hour."Another ministerial colleague noted that Rev. <mask>'s sermons "are not fresh and beautiful by the imagination, not ardent and overflowing with love, but didactic, dry, and clean, and very long. His services were delivered in a dull monotony, and his prayers were incredibly long, in public and in family devotions." Aside from matters of dress, comportment and diction, Leavitt possessed another trait which apparently sealed his fate: he was enamored with English colonial rule – a delicate subject anywhere in the American colonies, but especially among the hardscrabble rural settlers attempting to scratch a living from the Berkshire hill country. Whether because his congregants were hard-pressed, or because they objected to Leavitt's sympathies with mother England, they held back his pay. One rumor, never proved, was that the Reverend personally confiscated the only cows belonging to two of his poorer parishioners to pay his back salary. Departure from another church, later life and legacy

By 1777 matters came to a head.Leavitt refused to accept his salary in rapidly depreciating colonial currency. So the town voted to simply shut the church. A constable was dispatched to bar the offending reverend. But Leavitt would not be deterred. He moved his services to the town schoolhouse, where he continued to preach his long sermons for almost another decade. On April 15, 1785, he was finally turned out by the town, and his schoolhouse sermons came to an end. He then sued his parishioners for his back wages, as well as his loss on the depreciated colonial currency.Ultimately the litigious reverend was awarded some £700, and retired to his home in nearby Heath, Massachusetts. Rev. <mask>tt spent the rest of his life at his home in Heath, and retired from the ministry. His wife, the former Sarah Hooker, died at Heath on October 11, 1791, when a daughter gave her the wrong medicine. Her husband Rev. Leavitt died on September 9, 1802, aged 71. In the year before his death, in 1801, Rev.<mask> published a book entitled The New Covenant and the Church's Duty. The couple had 12 children – 11 sons and an only daughter. The daughter was Clarissa, who died unmarried; his sons were <mask>, Hart, Joshua, David, Roger, Erastus, Roswell, Thomas, Samuel, Horatio, and Hooker. <mask>, the eldest son of Rev. <mask>, became a prominent Greenfield, Massachusetts, attorney, judge, state senator and businessman. Two grandchildren became ministers – one of them was the noted abolitionist publisher and editor Rev. <mask>, whose brothers Roger Hooker Leavitt and Hart Leavitt operated Underground Railroad stations to shelter escaped slaves on their journeys north to Canada.A great-grandson of Rev. <mask>tt, John Hooker Leavitt, became an Iowa banker, and later published a book in 1904, two years before his death, about his controversial ancestor. Written by the banker's brother William Hooker <mask>, a Minneapolis businessman, the slim volume was titled A Sketch of the Life and Character of Rev. <mask>tt, the first Minister of Charlemont, Mass. In it the two sibling descendants attempted to portray their ancestor as a misunderstood and complicated man. See also

Joshua Leavitt
Roger Hooker Leavitt
Hart Leavitt
John Hooker Leavitt
<mask>tt
Oliver Ellsworth

References

Further reading
 A Sketch of the Life and Character of Rev. <mask>tt, the first Minister of Charlemont, Mass., by William H<mask>, published by John H<mask>, Waterloo, Iowa, 1904

External links
 Gravestone of Lieut.<mask>, father of Rev. <mask>, died October 22, 1732, Old Burying Ground, Suffield, Connecticut, smugmug.com
 Photographs (<mask>tt), Colonial Clergyman. Ambrotype photograph of an illustration of Rev. <mask>tt family
People from Walpole, New Hampshire
People from Charlemont, Massachusetts
Yale College alumni
18th-century Congregationalist ministers
People from Heath, Massachusetts

masks:
Jonathan Leavitt
Jonathan Leavitt
Joshua Leavitt
Jonathan Leavitt
Leavitt
Jonathan Leavitt
Leavitt
Leavitt
Leavitt
Jonathan Leavi
Jonathan Leavitt
Jonathan
Jonathan Leavitt
Jonathan
Joshua Leavitt
Jonathan Leavi
Leavitt
Jonathan Leavi
Jonathan Leavi
Jonathan Leavi
. Leavitt
. Leavitt
Joshua Leavitt
Jonathan Leavitt
Jonathan Leavi
Jonathan Leavivi


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<mask> (; Japanese name: , ; born November 3, 1947) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the junior United States senator from Hawaii since 2013. She is a member of the Democratic Party. Hirono served as a member of the Hawaii House of Representatives from 1981 to 1995 and as Hawaii's ninth lieutenant governor from 1994 to 2002, under Ben Cayetano. The Democratic nominee for governor of Hawaii in 2002, <mask> was defeated by Republican Linda Lingle. From 2007 to 2013, she served as a member of the United States House of Representatives for Hawaii's 2nd congressional district. <mask> is the first elected female senator from Hawaii, the first Asian-American woman elected to the Senate, the first U.S. senator born in Japan, and the nation's first Buddhist senator. She considers herself a non-practicing Buddhist and is often cited with Hank Johnson as the first Buddhist to serve in the United States Congress.She is also the third woman to be elected to Congress from Hawaii (after Patsy Mink and Pat Saiki). In 2012, <mask> was the Democratic nominee for the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by the retirement of Daniel Akaka. <mask> won the election, defeating Lingle in a landslide, 63% to 37%. She was sworn in on January 3, 2013, by Vice President Joe Biden. <mask> was the only person of Asian ancestry serving in the U.S. Senate from 2013 until 2017, when senators Tammy Duckworth and Kamala Harris were sworn in, representing Illinois and California, respectively. Although Brian Schatz joined the Senate a week before Hirono, following the death of Daniel Inouye, making him Hawaii's senior senator, Hirono's three terms in the U.S. House of Representatives make her the dean, or longest-serving member overall, of Hawaii's congressional delegation. Early life and education
<mask> <mask> was born on November 3, 1947, in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan to Laura Chie Satō, a Japanese American, and <mask> Matabe, a Japanese veteran of World War II.<mask>'s maternal grandfather, Hiroshi Satō, immigrated to Hawaii to work on a sugar plantation at the age of 16; her grandmother, Tari Shinoki, immigrated to Hawaii as a picture bride. After finding plantation work difficult, the couple opened a bathhouse on River Street in Honolulu in 1928. The couple had a daughter, Laura Chie, in 1924, and a son, Akira. In 1939, Tari returned to Japan with the teenaged Laura and Akira; Hiroshi remained in Hawaii to run the bathhouse for two more years before joining his family in 1941. Laura felt out of place in Japan as one of the many Nisei Japanese Americans who emigrated with their returning Issei parents (barred from US citizenship or land ownership) before World War II and during the Great Depression. But although her brother returned to Hawaii after the war, she remained in Japan and married a veterinarian, <mask> Matabe, in 1946. Laura moved with her husband to southern Fukushima, and had three children, Roy, <mask>, and Wayne.<mask>, the middle child, was the only surviving daughter. <mask>'s father, Matabe, was a compulsive gambler and alcoholic who pawned even his wife's possessions for gambling money. Treated "like a slave" by her in-laws, <mask>'s mother finally left the abusive marriage in 1951. Laura later recounted her point of decision: "My brother sent money to buy a school uniform for my son. My husband took the money, went to town and never came back home. It was getting closer to the start of school, so I went to look for him. I found out he had ordered an overcoat for himself with the money.He didn't need an overcoat in the spring. That's when I made up my mind to leave." After telling her in-laws she was going to take her children to school in her hometown, Laura left the house, never to return. Selling her clothes to pay the rail fare, she and the children moved back to her parents' home. Laura said, "My husband never came around once; my parents were supportive and took all of us in. My mother gave us money. I guess it all boils down to love."The Satō-<mask> family decided to return to Hawaii, but under the U.S. quota system Tari and Hiroshi, as Japanese nationals without American citizenship or professional status, could not go with Laura, an American citizen. Thus the family was separated, with three-year-old Wayne staying behind with his grandparents and Laura returning to Honolulu on her own with <mask> and Roy in March 1955. After two years of hard work, she brought her parents and youngest son to Hawaii in 1957. "She determined that she had to get away [from her husband]...she wanted to put thousands of miles between them", <mask> said of her mother. "That took a lot of courage. I always tell my mom there is nothing I can do—hard as it is to be in politics...harder than what she did." After first living with <mask>'s uncle Akira, the family moved into a rooming house on Kewalo Street in Honolulu with one room, one table, three chairs and one bed.Laura recalled, "<mask> and Roy slept on the bed. I slept on the floor with a futon. The landlady was so nice. The rent was $35, but she charged us less because I didn't have a job." Laura began working for the Hawaii Hochi as a typesetter and also three nights a week for a catering company. <mask> worked in the school cafeteria and had a paper route. Though money was tight and the family was forced to move often, Laura kept them together.<mask> recalled that she and her brother used to get a dime once or twice a week from their mother. "We both had baseball piggy banks. My older brother spent all his dimes but I saved mine. But one day I came home and the dimes were gone. My mother had to use it to buy food." Hirono never saw her father again, and he has since died. Laura became a newspaper proofreader in 1961 and retired from the Hawaii Newspaper Agency in 1986; Roy became a Hawaiian Electric supervisor.Wayne drowned in 1978, aged 26. <mask>'s grandfather Hiroshi died in 1989, and her grandmother Tari died in 2000 at age 99. Raised in Honolulu, Hirono became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1959, the year Hawaii became a state. She attended Kaahumanu Elementary and Koko Head Elementary Schools. She graduated from Kaimuki High School, which at the time of her attendance had a predominantly Japanese American student body. Hirono then enrolled at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, graduating Phi Beta Kappa with a B.A. in psychology in 1970.She left Hawaii to attend Georgetown University Law Center, where she obtained her J.D. degree in 1978. <mask> then returned to Honolulu, where she practiced law. Hawaii House of Representatives (1981–1994)

Elections
In 1980 <mask> was elected to Hawaii's 12th House district in a multi-member district with Democratic State Representative David Hagino. Hawaii eliminated multi-member districts, and after redistricting she ran for Hawaii's 20th House district and won. After redistricting again in 1984, she ran for the newly redrawn Hawaii's 32nd House district and won. In 1992, after redistricting, she ran in the newly redrawn Hawaii's 22nd House district.She won the three-candidate Democratic primary with 91% of the vote. She won the general election and served only one term in the 22nd district before retiring in 1994 to run for statewide office. Tenure
From 1980 to 1994 Hirono served in the Hawaii House of Representatives, passing more than 120 laws. She was honored by a coalition of leaseholders as Legislator of the Year in 1984. Committee assignments
From 1987 to 1992 she was Chair of the Consumer Protection and Commerce Committee. Lieutenant governor (1994–2002)

Elections

1994
<mask> ran for lieutenant governor of Hawaii and won the Democratic primary, defeating fellow State Representative Jackie Young 65%–26%. In the general election she defeated three other candidates: Danny Kaniela Kaleikini (Best Party), State Representative Fred Hemmings (Republican Party), and Jack Morse (Green Party), 37%–31%–29%–4%.1998
<mask> ran for reelection in 1998. She was challenged in the primary by Nancy L. Cook and defeated her, 89%–11%. In the general election <mask> defeated Republican State Senator Stan Koki 50%–49%, a difference of 5,254 votes. Tenure
In 1994 Hirono joined the ticket of incumbent Lieutenant Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano and was elected to a historic administration led by the first Filipino American governor and first Japanese immigrant lieutenant governor. During her tenure as lieutenant governor, she was president of the National Commission on Teaching, America's Future, and the Hawaii Policy Group. She also spearheaded the first-in-the-nation comprehensive Pre-Plus program, a precursor to universal preschool education in the United States. 2002 gubernatorial election

<mask> originally wanted to run for mayor of Honolulu in a potential 2002 special election created by the vacancy of incumbent Mayor Jeremy Harris, who was planning to resign in order to run for governor of Hawaii.But due to internal controversies, Harris dropped out of the gubernatorial election and remained mayor for another two years. <mask> switched races. <mask> maneuvered to gain the support of potential Harris voters in her challenge against former State House Majority Leader Ed Case. Throughout the primary campaign, <mask> and Case polled almost equally. <mask> defeated Case in the September 21 Democratic primary, 41%–40%, a difference of 2,613 votes. A few weeks later, Republican nominee and Mayor of Maui Linda Lingle defeated Hirono 52–47%, becoming Hawaii's first female governor. U.S. House of Representatives (2007–2013)

Elections

2006

On September 23, <mask> ran for  being vacated by incumbent Ed Case.The Democratic primary was very competitive. There were ten candidates, seven of whom served in the Hawaii Legislature. <mask>'s advantage was that she was the only candidate who had held statewide office and as a result had the most name recognition. She also raised the most money, mostly because of the endorsement of EMILY's List, and lent her own campaign $100,000. She won with a plurality of 22% of the vote. State Senator Colleen Hanabusa finished second with 21%, 845 votes short of <mask>. In the general election <mask> defeated Republican State Senator Bob Hogue, 61%–39%.2008

<mask> won reelection to a second term with 76% of the vote. 2010

<mask> won reelection to a third term with 72% of the vote. Tenure

In 2008 <mask> was named the national preschool advocacy organization Pre-K Now's "Pre-K Champion" for her efforts on behalf of pre-kindergarten legislation. Hirono co-sponsored and signed the Prevention First Act of 2007. The act aimed to increase public access to contraception and government funding to support the use of contraception. It places an emphasis on informing and protecting women from unintended pregnancy. On May 4, 2011, Hirono voted against the No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act, which would have prohibited federal health care programs from covering abortion costs, with exceptions for life-threatening cases.In July 2011 <mask> voted for the Access to Birth Control Act, which mandates that pharmacies provide birth control to customers without undue delay. The ABP Act also ensures that customers seeking birth control can obtain it without being submitted to unwanted harassment or breaches in patient confidentiality. EMILY's List, a Democratic pro-choice action committee, pledged support to <mask> for her history of supporting contraceptive and abortion policies during her term. Its endorsement helped Hirono in her 2012 senatorial race, contributing $129,714 to her campaign. Committee assignments
 Committee on Armed Services
 Subcommittee on Personnel
 Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support
 Subcommittee on Seapower (Chair)
 Committee on the Judiciary
 Subcommittee on Immigration, Refugees and Border Security
 Subcommittee on Oversight, Agency Action, Federal Rights and Federal Courts
 Subcommittee on Privacy, Technology and the Law
 Committee on Veterans' Affairs
 Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

Caucus memberships
 Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus
 Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus
 International Conservation Caucus

U.S. Senate (2013–present)

Elections

2012

On May 19, 2011, <mask> announced her candidacy for the U.S. Senate seat left open by Daniel Akaka, who was retiring at the end of his term in 2012. She won the Democratic primary election on August 11, 2012. <mask> was endorsed as one of Democracy for America's Dean Dozen.The Republican nominee was former Hawaii Governor Linda Lingle. <mask> won the general election on November 6, 2012, with 63% of the vote. She is the first female senator from Hawaii, as well as the first Asian-born immigrant to be elected to the U.S. Senate. She was a part of the first completely non-Christian Congressional delegation from the state, which continued until the election of Mark Takai (an Episcopalian) in 2014 as Representative of Hawaii's 1st congressional district. In the 2012 campaign <mask> raised $5.2 million, with approximately 52% of that from large corporations. Lingle raised $5.5 million, with 74% from large corporations. Hirono spent $5 million and Lingle $4.8 million.2018

On November 6, 2018, <mask> was reelected with 71.2% of the vote, defeating Republican Ron Curtis. Tenure
On December 12, 2012, the Senate Democratic Steering Committee announced that <mask> would serve on the Senate Judiciary Committee, giving her influence on matters ranging from approving nominations of federal judges to setting criminal-justice policy. During the Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination hearings in September 2018, <mask> became an outspoken defender of Christine Blasey Ford after Ford accused Kavanaugh of sexual assault, telling men to "shut up and step up. Do the right thing for a change." In the wake of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Hirono called for the resignation of fellow senators Ted Cruz and Josh Hawley for their opposition to certifying the 2020 presidential election Electoral College count. She also called for the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution to be invoked to remove Donald Trump from office. In April 2021, <mask> sponsored and the Senate passed a bill attempting to decrease hate crimes against Asian Americans due to xenophobia associated with COVID-19.The vote was 94–1, with Senator Hawley (R-MO) the only one who voted against the bill. Committee assignments (117th Congress)

 Committee on Armed Services
 Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support
 Subcommittee on Seapower (Chair)
 Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
 Subcommittee on National Parks
 Subcommittee on Public Lands, Forests, and Mining
 Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship
 Committee on the Judiciary
 Subcommittee on Border Security and Immigration
 Subcommittee on Oversight, Agency Action, Federal Rights and Federal Courts
 Subcommittee on Privacy, Technology and the Law
 Committee on Veterans' Affairs
Joint Select Committee on Budget and Appropriations Process Reform

Caucus memberships
 Congressional NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus
Expand Social Security Caucus

Political positions

According to On the Issues, Hirono's voting history places her in the "left/liberal" camp. The American Conservative Union gave her a 2% lifetime conservative rating in 2020. Abortion
Hirono has a 100% rating from Naral Pro-Choice America. She is also endorsed by EMILY's list for pro-choice women. Gun control
In 2016, she participated in the Chris Murphy gun control filibuster. Hirono expressed disappointment when the Democrat-proposed Feinstein Amendment (banning the sale of firearms to individuals on the terrorist watchlist) and the Republican-backed background check expansion and alert system (regarding guns being sold to terrorist watchlist suspects) both failed to pass the Senate.Health care
On July 28, 2017, two months after undergoing surgery for stage-four kidney cancer, <mask> spoke on the Senate floor and voted against the so-called "skinny repeal" of the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare). MSNBC reporter Kyle Griffin filmed <mask>'s speech and posted it on Twitter. In January 2019, during the 2018–19 United States federal government shutdown, <mask> was one of 34 senators to sign a letter to Commissioner of Food and Drugs Scott Gottlieb recognizing the efforts of the FDA to address the effect of the government shutdown on the public health and employees while expressing alarm "that the continued shutdown will result in increasingly harmful effects on the agency's employees and the safety and security of the nation's food and medical products." Gottlieb said additional staff might be called in as needed. <mask> is a supporter of Medicare for All. Housing
In April 2019, <mask> was one of 41 senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Section 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing "HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country" and expressing disappointment that Trump's budget "has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development." The senators wrote of their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020.Telecommunications
In April 2019, <mask> was one of seven senators to sponsor the Digital Equity Act of 2019, legislation establishing a $120 million grant program that would fund the creation and implementation of "comprehensive digital equity plans" in every state and a $120 million grant program to support projects developed by individuals and groups. The bill also gave the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) the role of evaluating and providing guidance for digital equity projects. Personal life

In May 2017, Hirono announced that she had been diagnosed with stage 4 kidney cancer, which had spread to her seventh rib. The cancer was discovered in a chest X-ray in April before minor eye surgery. <mask>'s right kidney was removed on May 17, 2017, with a Cyberknife procedure to treat the rib lesion. She returned to the Senate on May 22, 2017, and was reelected to a second term in 2018. As of 2018, according to OpenSecrets.org, <mask>'s net worth was more than $4.3 million.In 2021, Viking Press published <mask>'s autobiography, Heart of Fire: An Immigrant Daughter's Story. Marie Claire listed the book among its "25 Great Memoirs to Pre-Order Now". Also in 2021, it was announced that <mask> would receive Japan's Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star for her "significant contributions in strengthening bilateral relations and promoting legislative exchanges between Japan and the United States".

masks:
Mazie Keiko Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Mazie
Hirono
Hirono
Mazie
Hirono
Mazie
Mazie
Mazie
Mazie
Hirono
Mazie
Hirono
Mazie
Mazie
Mazie
Mazie
Mazie
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
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Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
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Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono
Hirono