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<mask> (1847–1927) was an American Episcopal clergyman who in 1906 was defrocked after a celebrated heresy trial. Family
<mask> was born in Fairmount, Ohio on June 28, 1847. His parents were <mask> (1808-1882) and Rachel M<mask> (1815-1881). His maternal grandfather Senator Thomas Morris left Virginia because he opposed slavery to help settle Ohio. Morris was an Abolitionist. He served one term in the United States Senate. Crapsey "identified deeply" with his grandfather Morris, who was to him "a seer, a prophet, a hero, and a martyr."<mask>'s father was a lawyer whose office was in nearby Cincinnati. Crapsey had eight siblings. Early life
When his father got into financial difficulty, Crapsey quit school at age eleven and took a job in a dry good store. When, after two years, his father recovered financially, Crapsey returned to school, but because he was the oldest boy in his class, he felt uncomfortable and quit school again and took a job in a hardware factory. After a co-worker called him "worthless," in August 1862, at age fourteen, Crapsey joined the army during the American Civil War. However, he was given a medical discharge the first winter after his enlistment and sent back to his home in Fairmount, Ohio. At home, Crapsey was bored, both at home and at his father's law office.However, there was a library in the same building. <mask> took advantage of the library to educate himself. He read Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, Washington Irving, Thomas Babington Macaulay, William Makepeace Thackeray, H. F. M. Prescott, and the Bible. One evening in Cincinnati, <mask> attended a service at Christ Church. He later looked back on the experience "as the hour of his conversion." In 1863, <mask> took a job as storekeeper in a salt yard in West Virginia. By the beginning of 1864, he was back in Cincinnati.He found a job there as a bookkeeper in a printing company. To improve his qualifications for the job, he attended night classes. Nevertheless, <mask> was fired. His next job was in the Dead Letter Office in Washington, D.C. for six months. <mask>'s uncle persuaded him that there were more opportunities in New York City. He found a job as bookkeeper and cashier in a print shop. Ministry in the Episcopal Church

While working in New York City, Crapsey attended services at Christ Episcopal Church.the Rev. Ferdinand Cartwright Ewer was the rector. This was another turning point in <mask>'s life. Ewer influenced <mask> to seek ordination in the Episcopal church. To receive the education required for ordination, he attended St. Stephen's College, Annandale, New York for two years. He then attended the General Theological Seminary in New York City for three years, graduating with a degree in divinity. <mask> was ordained a deacon on June 30, 1872, and a priest on October 5, 1873.After ordination, <mask> worked in St. Paul's Chapel of Trinity Church in New York City. During his time in St. Paul's Chapel of Trinity Church, <mask> married Adelaide Trowbridge, whose father was a Catskill, New York newspaper man. The couple had nine children. Mrs. Crapsey was born in 1855 and died in 1950. St. Andrew's Mission
The father of one of Crapsey's seminary friends persuaded Crapsey to leave St. Paul's Chapel to serve in St. Andrew's Mission, Rochester, New York. So <mask>, with his wife and three small children, moved to Rochester. On June 1, 1879, he began his work in St. Andrew's mission, located in a mostly Roman Catholic neighborhood.In St. Andrew's, <mask> and his wife entered into the lives of the people. During the first summer, <mask> had classes for the children in which he taught them about plants and how they grow. For the women, Mrs. <mask> organized women's groups. For the men, Crapsey organized the St. Andrew's Brotherhood. The organization did charitable work and promoted religious education. The Brotherhood grew to three hundred members, but not all were members of St. Andrews. The Brotherhood was as a "Mutual Benefit Society."Payments were made to sick members, to the widows of members, and to the members who lost their wives. In addition to his work with the Brotherhood and traditional parish duties, <mask> led retreats for the Sisters of St. Mary, a Roman Catholic religious order in Peekskill, NY. He lectured at black Episcopal churches, urging members to stand up for their rights. In Rochester, <mask> was one of the founders and the first president of the Citizens Political Reform Association, which worked for civic improvement in the face of the poverty caused by the Depression of 1893. He visited people in asylums and prisons. Together, the <mask>s established the first training school for kindergarten teachers in Rochester. They also began a night school with classes in "domestic science and mechanical arts."In 1897, Crapsey published a book entitled A Voice in the Wilderness. In it, he made five statements affirming his orthodoxy:
He reaffirmed the vows which he made at the time of his ordination. He professed his belief that the Holy Scriptures are the Word of God. He professed his belief, explicit and implicit, in the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. He professed his use and veneration of the Sacraments as the means of union between the soul and God. He said that he was ready to follow the Bishops and others who are set over him in the Lord. While at St. Andrew's, the Crapseys lost two daughters.Ruth died of undulant fever in 1898 at age eleven and daughter Emily died in 1901 at age 24 of appendicitis. The twenty-fifth anniversary of the Crapsey's coming to St. Andrew's was on June 1, 1904. The congregation had a special service to celebrate the occasion and gave him gifts. A Rochester newspaper extolled Crapsey as "a power for good in the community for 25 years." Crapsey published a book in 1905 entitled Religion and Politics. It was based on a series of lectures in which Crapsey "advocated that the church become involved in social reform." Opposition to ecclesiastical authority
In his autobiography, Crapsey says that he had been a heretic from his tenth year."A heretic," he says, "is one who thinks and gives voice to his own thought," and has difficulty submitting to authority. Crapsey characterizes himself as a "Humanist," who took God for granted. His allegiance to Jesus was based on His humanity more than on His divinity. Crapsey pictured himself  "as a simple parish priest, primarily concerned with the welfare of his parishioners." However, he was not satisfied with "the dogma of the church" and he felt it is duty to speak publicly about this fact. Crapsey wanted to be elected a bishop, but, when he was not, he declared himself a "prophet." From his perspective this office was more important than that of a bishop, and it lifted him above "mundane denominationalism."Rather than accept the truth and historicity of the Bible merely because they were part of the "historic Christian faith" as received by his church, turned to "developments in scientific research" and to "higher criticism" of the Bible. Crapsey was "proud to acknowledge his heresy" because of his "rebellious, yet ethical heritage demanded it." Conflict with Bishop Walker
There has been a broad agreement in the literature on the subject that the action against Crapsey was the work of Bishop William David Walker as "a strong-willed bishop" and of "conservatives" in the diocese. However, in his article "Algernon Sidney Crapsey and the Move for Presentment," Stephen Todd Neese documents <mask>'s "incessant public exhibition" and his "prodding the diocese" until it finally resulted in his trial. In 1885, Crapsey was feeling "discouragement," both because of "a sense of personal failure" and "a disillusionment in the Christian Church as a whole." He described his disillusionment in a sermon at a Presbyterian Church in Rochester. This occasioned <mask>'s first run-in with Bishop Walker because Walker had specifically forbidden Crapsey to preach in a Presbyterian Church.3

In 1901, <mask> published a tractate with the title  "The Law of Liberty: The Nature and Limit of Religious Thought."In the tractate, he wrote, "a free thinker has for ages been feared and hated by the officers of the church." Furthermore, a man who "gives himself over entirely" to a sect "no longer asks himself what is true." <mask> observed that this is the "sad condition" of most of "the Protestant clergy." This was true in his opinion because "theological schools" teach "a fully formulated system of beliefs." In December 1904, Crapsey began a series of Sunday evening lectures at St. Andrew's, which ended on February 18, 1905. As the lectures became "more unorthodox" they attracted greater notice in the press and by the diocese. He called the final lecture "Religion and Politics."In the lecture, <mask> specifically questioned two articles of the Apostles' Creed. He said that "the Virgin Birth" and the "resurrection of Jesus" were legends, not facts. He implied that Jesus was "wrong about various teachings," and he "denied the deity of Christ and the validity of the supernatural." Because Crapsey believed in his "own merit," he did not need "the redemptive atonement of Christ," which orthodoxy held to be required. The lecture was reported in newspapers nationwide. Bishop Walker demanded a retraction, but <mask> refused. After the lectures ended, <mask> continued to promulgate his views by publishing them the following summer
in a book entitled Religion and Politics.On September 2, 1905, the New Outlook published an article by Crapsey under the title "Honor Among Clergymen". In it, Crapsey quoted the Pastoral Letter of the House of Bishops issued after its meeting at the Episcopal Church's General Convention of October 5–25, 1904. In Crapsey's quotation, the Bishops said that any person in the Church "who has lost his hold on eternal verities" should "in the name of common honesty, . . . be silent or withdraw." Crapsey replied, with implied reference to himself, for "any true, brave-hearted man . . . silence is impossible and withdrawal is treason." Furthermore, he said that "unless the prophet is ready to face the doom of the prophet, he should not undertake on the prophet's office."Thus, by now <mask> had taken issue not only with Bishop Walker, but with the whole House of Bishops. The Committee of Investigation had done little until <mask>'s New Outlook article propelled it into action. The chairman invited <mask> to meet with it on September 5, 1905. Crapsey replied that he would meet with the committee if he could bring two or three of his "friends among the Clergy" who believed and felt as he did about the matter in hand. The committee rejected <mask>'s request on the basis that its mission was "to ascertain facts," not to engage in "a theological debate." The Committee of Investigation met on September 26, 1905 and decided that a sub-committee of two clergymen should meet with <mask>. They went to meet with him at St. Andrew's the next day.<mask> was asked two questions. The questions included the qualification of taking the fact of "various interpretations into consideration." The two questions were whether he believed that "the Holy Scriptures are the Word of God" and whether he held the Apostles' Creed as "the true Creed of the Church and contains the essentials of salvation." By keeping the "various interpretations" qualification in mind, Crapsey could truthfully answer both questions in the affirmative. Crapsey's affirmative answers transformed the meeting from an investigation into a friendly gathering with refreshments. Before the two clergymen left, one asked <mask> to write down his answers. He agreed to do so with the questions and his answers recorded verbatim.As they left, one of the men assured <mask> that there would be no trial. Two other members of the sub-committee met with Crapsey on October 3, 1905. They suggested that he write his answers to the two questions posed to him at the September meeting "to provide a written record." There are conflicting accounts of what followed. According to diocesan records, <mask> wrote his answers later and then submitted them to the investigating committee. In contrast, <mask> said that the three men at the meeting worked together preparing "a document for submission to the bishop." He wrote later that, if the document had been submitted as written, there would have been no "trial for heresy," but that it "was not so submitted."On October 24, 1905, the sub-committee asked the ten clergymen who had "submitted grievances" to submit their evidence of Crapsey's heresy. Only one submitted an affidavit and it was based on a personal conversation with Crapsey. A second said he would not submit one until he could know more about the committee's proceedings. The other eight had nothing more to offer except their opinions about Crapsey's book Religion and Politics. After the meetings, the issue was kept alive in the press. The Church Standard criticized the diocese for taking too long to settle the question. Crapsey wrote two letters to the diocese expressing the same opinion.The case was argued in church periodicals. The Church Standard and The Living Church supported the prosecution. The New York Churchman and the Pacific Churchman supported Crapsey. The investigating committee completed its work in November 1905, but it did not submit its report to Bishop Walker immediately. During this interim, Walker made an address at St. James Church in Rochester. He said that he stood up "for the faith of the Catholic Church as it is taught in the Gospel, as it is taught in the Creed." Furthermore, he stated that he could not "sympathize with the man who teaches anything contrary to that which he has promised to teach."In its report to the bishop, Walker's Committee of Investigation was "undivided in its denunciation of <mask>'s position." However, only two of the five members "found sufficient grounds to present Crapsey for heresy." In the judgment of these two members, there was "sufficient evidence to secure conviction in the event of trial." When the committee's report was made public on November 17, 1905, it was "vigorously condemned" by The Living Church and The Church Standard called the report "scandalous." An editorial in The Outlook, Volume 81 (September 30, 1905) on "The Liberty of Prophesying" suggested that <mask> might keep quiet about his disagreements. The editorial pointed out that many a clergyman in <mask>'s situation "remains in the Church and keeps silent upon the uncertain doctrines." But Crapsey would not stop publicly promulgating his views because, for him, "silence constituted acquiescence" and he refused to "compromise."He preferred what he perceived as "martyrdom." <mask> continued to express his views in public forums. On December 3, 1905, he began another series of Sunday evening lectures at St. Andrew's. The topic was the second coming of Jesus. Crapsey said that there would be no second coming in a literal sense; it happens only in the heart of people. The lecture "caused deep concern on the part of the diocese." Given the deep concerns about these further public statements by Crapsey, Bishop Walker deemed the recommendation by his investigating committee that Crapsey should not be charged with heresy to be unsatisfactory.He took further action by calling a meeting of the Standing Committee for December 23. 1905. More generally, Crapsey was being ostracized within the diocese. At the consecration of a church, clergy were seated in the chancel, but Crapsey was seated in the nave. Bishop Walker's message stressed the ordination vows to "hold and teach the doctrine of God as this Church has received the same." Walker would not "allow the situation to continue without consequences." The consequences

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 began by the Standing Committee's appointing a committee to "prepare a presentment" against Crapsey.Heresy charges
There has been a broad agreement in the literature on the subject that the action against Crapsey was the work of "a strong-willed bishop and conservatives." However, in his article "<mask> <mask> and the Move for Presentment," Stephen Todd Neese documents <mask>'s "incessant public exhibition" and his "prodding the diocese" until it finally resulted in his trial. When Episcopal clergy called on Bishop Walker to investigate what Crapsey was teaching, Walker wrote members of St. Andrew's asking for first-hand reports. <mask> wrote Walker questioning "the legality of his intrusion" into his parish. Faced with <mask>'s opposition to the bishop's corresponding with his parishioners, Walker followed his Standing Committee's advice and set up a "Committee of Investigation." Its first formal meeting was July 19, 1905. On February 23, 1906, the Standing Committee voted unanimously to present Crapsey for heresy.Before the presentment was delivered to Crapsey, Walker, in a pastoral effort, tried to convince Crapsey to "take some time off and reconsider his position." However, Crapsey was not willing to reconsider his position. He wanted "total exoneration." Therefore, on March 3, 1906 Walker gave the "presentment against Crapsey" to the diocesan chancellor who delivered it to Crapsey. The members of the Ecclesiastical Court had already been elected. "Crapsey was presented on two charges." The first charge alleged that Crapsey had held and taught publicly and privately "doctrine contrary to that held by this Church."The second charge alleged that Crapsey had violated his ordination vows." Soon after the presentment had been delivered to Crapsey, fifteen prominent members of the diocese (seven lay and eight clergy) wrote Walker "urging him to postpone the trial until after the election of the new diocesan council in May. Nevertheless, the trial was set for April 17, 1906. Trial and deposition
<mask>'s heresy trial and the events leading up to it were reported and discussed by the press and the religious journals of the Episcopal Church. The story "held the interest of the nation for nearly two years." For the most detailed account of <mask>'s heresy trial one would read <mask>'s autobiography The Last of the Heretics published in 1924 when he was seventy-five years old. However.<mask>'s account is marred by his "self-aggrandizing." However, two people have written more objective accounts: Carolyn Swanton in her essay "Dr. <mask> S. Crapsey" and Stephen Todd Neese in his article "Algernon Sidney Crapsey and the Move for Presentment" in Anglican and Episcopal History Vol. 70, No. 3 (September 2001) and in his book <mask> <mask>sey: The Last of the Heretics (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009). Therefore, the following account will be based on these works. Walker commanded <mask> to appear before an ecclesiastical court held in St. James Church, Batavia, New York. The "presentment charge" was that Crapsey "did openly, advisedly, publicly and privately utter, avow, declare, and teach doctrines contrary to those held and received by the church."Besides witnesses from St. Andrews for Crapsey's defense, clergy came from other parishes in the diocese, as well as a large delegation from Boston. So many people came to the trial that it had to be moved to the Batavia Court House to accommodate them. Among the people who came to the trial were "experts on theology" and "eminent churchmen" whom Crapsey had lined up as witnesses for his defense, but none of them were allowed to testify. Closing arguments
Closing arguments began on April 27, 1906:
In its closing arguments, the prosecution alleged that <mask>, "an officer of his Church in his official capacity, denies the fundamental doctrines of his Church," and demanded "a verdict of guilty." One of <mask>'s attorneys James Breck Perkins said in his closing argument that it certainly is not heresy to say that "God is Love" which was the main thesis of the defendant's lectures and writings. In his own concluding remarks, <mask> said that he was not charged with any moral offence, but only with having said things which the prosecution claims were unlawful for him to say. On May 9, 1906, the five-member Ecclesiastical Court met and by a four to one vote decided <mask> was guilty.The Court's findings were then forwarded to Bishop Walker. The verdict was delivered to Crapsey on May 15, 1906. The story was carried all of the nation's major newspapers. An appeal to the Court of Review was filed on June 6, 1906 giving eleven reasons why an appeal should be granted. The complete argument by Crapsey's counsel Edward M. Shephard on October 19, 1906. for appealing Crapsey's verdict can be read at "Argument for Appeal." The complete argument against appeal by John Lord O'Brian, the Church Advocate for the Diocese of Western New York, can be read at

The Court of Review unanimously affirmed the guilty decision of the diocesan Ecclesiastical Court. On November 20, 1906, the clerk of the Court of Review delivered the decision to Bishop Walker.The decision was then delivered to Crapsey. Rather than wait to be deposed by Bishop Walker, Crapsey wrote the bishop asking to be deposed. This action gave him a bit of control over what was taking place. Walker was quoted as saying, that the Crapsey affair was "the most painful happening" in his life. The bishop said: "I have known and respected Dr. Crapsey for many years and have honored and respected him for his great abilities. I have great affection for him and have watched him as he grew up in Church work, so the matter of the present gives me great pain." Crapsey did Walker a favor by asking for his deposal by letter.By sending Walker his resignation, Crapsey relieved Walker of the duty of deposing. Removal from St. Andrew's
After the Appeal was denied, <mask> was given until the end of the year to leave St. Andrew's. Many of his parishioners were "heartbroken at the loss of their rector." On December 4, 1906, <mask> gave his last sermon to a capacity congregation. <mask>'s last sermon is online at "Words of Farewell". Life after deposition
William Rossiter Seward, who was neither a parishioner nor a friend of Crapsey, financed a new home for the Crapseys. Even though Rossiter did not know Crapsey personally, he supported Crapsey's work in Rochester.Seward later helped finance the education of the Crapseys' children. The Brotherhood
Outside of the Episcopal Church, "<mask> went right back to what he had always done," but without the confines of ecclesiastical authority. Crapsey gave his efforts to his Brotherhood for "social and religious reform." For this work, he added Walter Rauschenbusch, who was "a young and radical minister." <mask> reorganized what previously had been the brotherhood of Andrew's as the Brotherhood. The Brotherhood served as Crapsey's congregation. He taught Sunday School and "considered himself the pastor of the Brotherhood."Membership in the Brotherhood was open to people of any "race, nationality, class or creed." The Brotherhood's purpose was "to unify the race of mankind in God and in one another." As pastor of the Brotherhood, Crapsey often gave eulogies at funerals. Crapsey divided the Brotherhood into two departments. The work of the Department of Social Betterment included sewing and donating clothing, providing medical and toilet supplies, visiting the sick, and providing foodstuff including Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners for the needy. The Lecture Department gave lectures which promoted "both the new religiosity and other humanitarian ideas." They were so popular that they had to be moved from the Unitarian Church to the Lyceum Theater."As a deposed clergyman, <mask>'s world was much larger and less restricted than it had been as a priest. His activities in 1907 illustrated the scope of his new world. He published a book entitled The Re-birth of Religion. He spoke at the Ethical Society in Philadelphia. While there, he met many prominent people. In 1907, he was a delegate to the International Peace Conference at the Hague. After he returned, <mask> worked for six years as a parole officer.In 1912, <mask> was sixty-five years old, but he continued his activity. He delivered twenty-three lectures on the "moral and spiritual" aspects of "politics and economic problems." The lectures were given in six cities. In Rochester, <mask> taught a class on Wednesday evenings. As a pastor, he officiated at ten wedding and twelve funerals, he "visited the sick and the needy," and he did counseling. By this time, <mask> had become a socialist. In October 1912, <mask> learned of a strike at a mill in Little Falls, New York.In spite of the fact that both public assembly and public speaking were prohibited, <mask> spoke to a crowd in a park next to the mill about the Sermon on the Mount. A police officer arrested him and took him to jail. At the jail, the Little Falls police chief asked him to "please go home." Crapsey replied, "I can't go home I'm under arrest." The chief told the judge that Crapsey was charged with "disorderly conduct." Crapsey pleaded "not guilty." The judge then discharged Crapsey.Before the end of 1912, <mask> took the job of a parole officer, a job he held six years. He needed to earn more money to help support his family, partly because he was earning less money on the lecture circuit. After his work as a parole officer, Crapsey retired to write his autobiography The Last of the Heretics, which was published in 1924. Now he was being cared for by his "family and friends." Mrs. Crapsey contributed to the family's income with her business of designing, making, and selling dresses for young girls. She was so successful that she was able to hire seamstresses. On October 4, 1914, the Crapsey's daughter Adelaide, a published poet, died of tuberculosis.In his seventies, <mask> wrote his fourth book about the "historic development" of religion. The Ways of the Gods, published in 1924, was a "Marxist interpretation" of the development. Last days and death
<mask> suffered poor health in his late seventies, but for his eightieth birthday on June 28, 1927, many friends visited him. He later said that it was the "happiest day in his life." However, <mask> became ill before the following Christmas. He died on December 31, 1927. He was survived by his wife, two sisters, five children and six grandchildren.A Presbyterian minister officiated at <mask>'s private funeral. <mask>'s ashes were placed in the family plot at Mt Hope Cemetery in Rochester. After his death, the press remembered <mask> "as being honest, tolerant and kind." He fought for what he believed in, but did not try to force his beliefs on anyone. He was a Good Samaritan. One account recalled that Crapsey had taken coal and food to a needy family, that he spent read to blind workers, that he counseled prisoners and bereaved relatives, and admitted hoodlums into his night school classes. In summary, the Rochester press remembered how <mask> had "worked tirelessly for a better city."Works
This list is divided into three sections: books and articles by <mask>, works about Crapsey, and works about <mask>'s heresy trial. Books and articles by <mask>
Meditations on the Five Joyful Mysteries (New York: J. Pott & Co., 1888)
The Man and the Movement: A Monograph upon the Life and Work of John Henry Newman so far as These Relate to the Catholic Movement in the Church of the English (New York: J. Pott & Co., 1890). A Voice in the Wilderness (New York: James Pott & Co., 1897). In this book Crapsey implores for "a restoration of primitive Christianity" which could be partially accomplished by dioceses with fewer clergy. This would, he holds, enable the Bishop to give more pastoral care to his clergy. The Story of a Simple Life (Bible House, 1900). Political Crimes and Their Consequences (1901).A Constitutional Defense of the Negro. Delivered at a Mass Meeting of Citizens in the Metropolitan A.M.E. Church, Washington, D.C., December 15, 1901. The Greater Love (New York: Abbey Press, 1902, 2nd ed.). This work is a novel in which the heroine was "one of the working poor" and the hero was an Episcopal priest who was deposed for his "ethical principles." The novel was laced with the themes of "works righteousness and martyrdom" from <mask>'s own character. "Prison Methods." in Documents of the Senate of the State of New York, Volume 5 (New York State Legislature Senate, 1902), 83-90.Tractates (Jacobs, 1899-1902). Tracts included are "The Disappointment of Jesus Christ" (1899), "The Royal Priesthood" (1900), "The Pastoral Rod and Staff" (1900), "The Answer to Pilate" (1899), "The Judgement of Abraham" (1900), "The Law of Liberty" (1901), "God's Winnowing Fan" (1901), and "The Church: the School of the Saints" (1902). <mask> <mask>, Religion and Politics (Thomas Whittaker, 1905). "Passive Resistance: Jesus' Method of Government." From chapter four Religion and Politics (Boston: American Peace Society, 1905.) "Honor Among Clergymen" in New Outlook, Volume 81 (Outlook Publishing Company, September 2, 1905), 25-29. The article is also available online at "Honor Among Clergymen" in New Outlook, Volume 81 (Outlook Publishing Company, September 2, 1905), 25-29."Word of Farewell": <mask>'s last sermon at St. Andrew's, Christmas 1906. The Re-birth of Religion; Being an Account of the Passing of the Old and Coming of the New Dogmatic (New York: John Lane Co., 1907). Did Jesus Really Live? (Chicago, Original Research Society, 1908). A debate in which <mask> takes the affirmative position against M. M. Mangasarian. The Rise of the Working-class (New York, The Century Co., 1914.) "Militarism and the Church".An article from the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 66, July 1, 1916.
International Republicanism: the Way to Permanent Peace (Society for Ethical Culture, 1918). The Ways of the Gods (New York, The International Press, 1921). The Last of the Heretics (Alfred A. Knopf, 1924). Works about Crapsey
Argument of Edward M. Shepard as Counsel for the Rev. <mask> S<mask>, S.T.D. Before the Court of Review of the Protestant Episcopal Church upon His Appeal from the Judgment of the Court of the Diocese of Western New York (October 19, 1906).Stephen T. Neese, <mask> <mask>: the Last of the Heretics (Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Pub., 2007). Karen Alkalay-Gut, Alone in the Dawn: The Life of <mask> (University of Georgia Press, 2008) contains two chapters about the heresy trial of <mask>'s father <mask> <mask>: "The Heresy" and "The Verdict.". Works about <mask>'s trial
James Breck Perkins, Court of Review: In the Matter of the Presentment of the Reverend <mask> <mask>, D. D., for Trial Upon Certain Charges
The argument made for appeal of the decision of the Ecclesiastical Court of the Diocese of Western New York by Edward Morse Shepard in Argument of Edward M. Shepard as Counsel for <mask> S. <mask>: before the Court of Review of the Protestant Episcopal Church Upon his Appeal from the Judgment of the Court of the Diocese of Western New York (October 19, 1906). The argument made against appeal of the decision of the Ecclesiastical Court of the Diocese of Western New York by John Lord O’Brian, the Church Advocate for the Diocese of Western New York. See also

 Christian heresy in the 20th century

References

External links
 Documents by and about Crapsey

1847 births
1927 deaths
Burials at Mount Hope Cemetery (Rochester)
People convicted of heresy
American Episcopal clergy
Religious leaders from Rochester, New York
19th-century American Episcopalians
20th-century American Episcopalians
Anglican socialists
American Christian

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<mask> is an American writer, poet, and record producer. He has written nine books, including collaborations with the visual artists Gerhard Richter and Ed Ruscha. Beginning in the early 1980s, he produced albums by musicians including John Zorn, Bill Frisell, Ronald Shannon Jackson and Vernon Reid. In more recent years, he has worked with Nels Cline, Mary Halvorson, Kris Davis, Dan Weiss, Ingrid Laubrock, and Craig Taborn, among others. <mask>'s poetry has appeared in The New Yorker, The Paris Review, TriQuarterly and New American Writing, among other journals. Early life and education
<mask> was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. In college, as a student at Brown University, he wrote for The Village Voice.He graduated from Brown with a B.A. in 1980, magna cum laude, with a double major in history and semiotics. Career

New York: 1980–1990

Journalism, Rolling Stone, We Are the World
<mask> moved to New York City following his graduation. He wrote for publications including Esquire, The Village Voice, GQ, Musician, Life, and Rolling Stone, where he was a contributing editor. Over the course of the decade, he conducted interviews with Bono, Willie Nelson, Steven Spielberg, and Wayne Shorter, among others, and wrote feature stories on people such as musician Miles Davis, comedian Martin Short, basketball player Michael Jordan and architect Helmut Jahn. In 1984, <mask> wrote "Kids in the Dark", a Rolling Stone article about the murder of Gary Lauwers by self-professed Satanist Ricky Kasso, told almost completely in the words of the teens and young adults he interviewed in Northport, New York. Following its publication, he co-wrote a play with Rick Cleveland, based on the story, also titled Kids In the Dark.Described by the Chicago Tribune as a "frequently gripping and deeply moving drama", it premiered at Chicago's Victory Gardens Theater in 1987. <mask>'s original article was included in the 1993 anthology The Best of Rolling Stone: 25 Years of Journalism on the Edge, and the play was nominated for a 1987 Joseph Jefferson Award for New Work. <mask> story is chronicled in the 2018 book "The Acid King" by Jesse P. Pollack. <mask> also wrote "Leave It to Beaver", an investigation into a group of high school vigilantes in Fort Worth, Texas, who called themselves the Legion of Doom. The Legion of Doom became the subject of a 1986 television movie called Brotherhood of Justice. His 1984 piece on teen suicide, "Dear Mom and Dad", was a National Magazine Awards finalist. In 1985, after he profiled record producer Quincy Jones for LIFE, <mask> was invited to be one of two journalists present for the recording of "We Are the World", a song which benefited the charity USA For Africa.He wrote a cover story on the subject for LIFE and later wrote the book We Are The World: The Photos, Music and Inside Story of One of the Most Historic Events in American Popular Music. A detailed narrative of the sessions, it appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list. <mask> donated all royalties from the book's sales to USA for Africa. The Real Life Diary of a Boomtown Girl
In 1989, <mask>'s novel, The Real Life Diary of a Boomtown Girl, was published by Viking Press. A "candid cultural chronicle of the modern American West" based on his unpublished short story Boomers, it was optioned by Jane Fonda's film company, IPC Films. Ronald Shannon Jackson, Bill Frisell, John Zorn
Active in New York's avant-garde music scene since the early 80s, <mask> produced Ronald Shannon Jackson's "milestone" albums Mandance and Barbeque Dog. He continued to produce avant-garde music throughout the decade, and became known for extensive pre-production discussion and planning and the presentation of materials such as packaging, liner notes, and videos which "engaged the visual and tactile sense to provide the best delivery of the album/concept".Among other albums, <mask> produced Pulse, on which Jackson played solo drums, Smash and Scatteration, which paired Bill Frisell with pre-Living Colour Vernon Reid; Strange Meeting (with Jackson, Frisell, and Melvin Gibbs) and "Two-Lane Highway" featuring Albert Collins on John Zorn's Spillane. San Francisco: 1990–present

Inner Views: Filmmakers in Conversation
<mask> moved to San Francisco in 1990. In 1992, longer versions of seven of his Rolling Stone interviews conducted with film directors Robert Altman, Francis Ford Coppola, <mask>, Oliver Stone, Spike Lee, <mask> and Tim Burton were published by Faber and Faber as Inner Views: Filmmakers in Conversation. An eighth Q&A with Clint Eastwood was included in a later, expanded edition of the book under the same title, published by Da Capo Press in 1997. Poetry, DIRTY BABY, Campaign
A finalist for the National Poetry Series, <mask>'s first book of poetry, Fresh Kills, was published in 1997; his second, Escape Velocity, was released in 2004. It was followed in 2006 by SUPERMODEL, a one sentence epic poem told in two interwoven strands: one which follows the life of the unnamed supermodel of the title, the other which is composed of fragments of text found online. In 2010, Delmonico Books / Prestel published <mask>'s multi-media book DIRTY BABY.It featured sixty-six paintings by American artist Ed Ruscha, original music by Nels Cline, and "beautiful, lush" poems by <mask> that employ the ancient Arabic poetic form, the ghazal. The book consists of two parts or "sides": side A describes the rise of human civilization, and side B provides an account, in a variety of voices, of the second Iraq War. The book includes four CDs, two of Cline's music and two of spoken-word poetry. <mask>'s sixth book of poetry, Campaign, was published in print and as an audiobook in late 2017. About the book, he wrote: "On February 1, 2016, the date of the Iowa Caucus, the traditional onside kick which begins every presidential scrum, I decided to write a single poem "about" the election, with the vague idea I might write another. To allow for the possibility that something serial, tight, and deliberate might actually happen, I knew I needed a form—an existing form or one of my own. Having toiled (happily) upon the sweltering rack of the ghazal for my last project (DIRTY BABY), I thought it would be more fun to just concoct something.I didn't want anything symmetrical or pleasant. I wanted something wrong-footed and corrugated, but self-contained. So: I created a deliberately awkward, rollickingly restrictive form—seven beats per line, eleven lines per poem, one stanza fits all. And given our country's preference for the convenience of sound-bite news and junk-food polls over more nutritious fare, I decided to call them '7-Elevens.' Slurpee Heaven, 7-Eleven. Seventy-seven beats per poem, no exceptions: it's got a beat and you can't dance to it." RICHTER 858
For his multi-media book RICHTER 858, published by SFMOMA/D.A.P in 2002, <mask> commissioned twelve American poets--including Robert Hass, Michael Palmer, Jorie Graham, Ann Lauterbach and Dean Young--to write poems inspired by the paintings of Gerhard Richter.Dave Hickey and Klaus Kertess contributed essays. He also commissioned Bill Frisell to compose new music for the project. Frisell formed the 858 Quartet with Jenny Scheinman on violin, Eyvind Kang on viola, and Hank Roberts on cello to perform the music for RICHTER 858. About the music Jazz Times wrote: "One might say that Richter sounds like Frisell; his broad lateral smears find their aural counterpart in Frisell's wobbly yet hard nosed minimalism." The 858 Quartet has toured and recorded extensively since then. Music production, 1990s to 2019
In the 1990s and into the following decade, <mask> produced albums for Miniature (Tim Berne, Joey Baron, Hank Roberts), Herb Robertson and Bobby Previte, in addition to three albums for Joey Baron + Barondown. In 2005, the music piece of the RICHTER 858 album was re-released as a stand-alone CD on the Songlines label.For his 2010 multi-media artist collaboration with Ed Ruscha, DIRTY BABY, <mask> commissioned and produced new music by Nels Cline. Rolling Stone wrote: "The two-disc Dirty Baby, his collaboration with polymath poet-producer <mask>, is Cline's most far-reaching work yet." That same year, he produced The Nels Cline Singers album, Initiate. Between 2014 and 2016, <mask> produced The Nels Cline Singers' follow-up, Macroscope, as well as albums by Mark Dresser, Ben Goldberg, Kris Davis and Mary Halvorson. Davis' Duopoly, released in 2016, was a series of duets with eight musicians—guitarists Bill Frisell and Julian Lage, pianists Craig Taborn and Angelica Sanchez, drummers Billy Drummond and Marcus Gilmore, and reed players Tim Berne and Don Byron—recorded live to two-track. Of Mary Halvorson's 2016 Away with You, The New York Times called it "unflinching and full of grace ... a standout jazz release of the year". He worked again with Nels Cline, this time on his 23-person ensemble album, Lovers, named by the 2016 NPR Music Jazz Critics Poll as one of the Top 10 albums of that year.Breskin's subsequent production projects include albums by Kris Davis and Craig Taborn, Dan Weiss, Mary Halvorson, Chris Lightcap, Cory Smythe, Ingrid Laubrock and Mark Dresser. Davis and Taborn joined together to release the Breskin-produced Octopus in 2018. The recording was the distillation of a dozen concerts in a national tour that took place in fall of 2016. Of the album, The Wall Street Journal wrote, "Ms. Davis and Mr. Taborn...are elevating jazz beyond the limiting continuum of accessibility and abstraction." In 2018, he produced Weiss' Starebaby, an album from the drummer/composer's quintet that featured Craig Taborn and Matt Mitchell on keyboards, piano, and electronics; Trevor Dunn on bass; and Ben Monder on guitars. The eight songs on Starebaby were a blend of jazz and heavy metal influences. Halvorson's double album that year, Code Girl, featured her improvisational style set to lyrics.It was called "riveting" by Nate Chinen for NPR's The Record, and "the most startling move of her solo career." Laubrock's 2018 album, Contemporary Chaos Practices, was her first orchestral recording, featuring 47 musicians and two conductors. "Volgelfrei" from this album was named by The New York Times as one of "The 25 Best Classical Music Tracks of 2018". In May 2019, the Mark Dresser Seven released Ain't Nothing But a Cyber Coup & You, produced by Breskin and featuring Nicole Mitchell and Jim Black. In August, the Breskin-conceived Good Day For Cloud Fishing was released. This was Ben Goldberg's trio recording with Nels Cline and trumpeter and cornetist Ron Miles. The project was inspired by the poems of Dean Young, who subsequently joined the musicians in the studio and wrote new poems in response to the music he heard.Three additional albums produced by <mask> came out in October 2019: Jon Irabagon's Invisible Horizon,  Chris Lightcap's SuperBigmouth,  and Kris Davis' Diatom Ribbons, featuring Grammy Award-winning artists Esperanza Spalding and Terri Lyne Carrington as well as turntablist Val Jeanty. The project, which grew out of <mask>'s suggestion that she do a funk record, was No. 1 in The New York Times Best Jazz of 2019, and the top album in the 2019 NPR Music Jazz Critics Poll. "Davis is a master quilter, able to turn a patchwork of colors, inspirations, textures, and voices into a single harmonious vision," wrote JazzTimes of Diatom Ribbons. Music production, 2020 to present
The decade began with the release of six new Breskin-produced projects. In June 2020, Pyroclastic Records released Accelerate Every Voice from Cory Smythe, an album that was honored by NPR Music's 8th Annual Jazz Critic's Poll as a top five in the vocals category. In September, <mask> Courvoisier Trio album, Free Hoops,.Also that month, he produced the album Natural Selection, the second album from Dan Weiss's jazz-metal hybrid Starebaby. Seven Storey Mountain VI, the next part of Nate Wooley's album series inspired by priest, monk and philosopher Thomas Merton's autobiography, was produced by <mask> and released October 2020. The same month saw the release of NPR's No. 4 of Top 50 New Albums, Artlessly Falling, from Mary Halvorson's Code Girl, produced by Breskin and featuring vocals by English musician Robert Wyatt. The Minneapolis Star Tribune wrote: "The producer of Code Girl's records, <mask>, is also a published poet. He challenged Halvorson to organize her lyrics into different poetic forms, including a sestina, a ghazal, a pantoum, a tanka and a haibun (which combines haiku with prose)." In November 2020, the Breskin-produced Dreamt Twice, Twice Dreamt by Ingrid Laubrock was released by Intakt Records.Inspired by the dreams Laubrock documented for the past decade in her dream journal, disc one of the double album contained five compositions recorded by a large ensemble consisting of the EOS Chamber Orchestra and a group of five soloists. Disc two was a near mirror repeat of the five compositions, this time reimagined by Laubrock's small ensemble with Cory Smythe on piano, Sam Pluta on electronics, and three other guest musicians. Discography
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Record producers from New York (state)
American male poets
21st-century American poets
American investigative journalists
Brown University alumni
1958 births
Living people
Writers from Chicago
Rolling Stone people
The Village Voice people
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists
21st-century American journalists
20th-century American poets
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
American male non-fiction writers
Record producers from Illinois

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David Lynch
David Cronenberg
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<mask> (born 29 November 1959) is a Mexican politician affiliated to Movimiento Ciudadano. He is a federal deputy to the LXIII Legislature of the Mexican Congress from the fifth electoral region. <mask> also was a federal deputy in the LVIII Legislature and from 2005 to 2007 served as the national president of the PAN. Life

Education and career in Chihuahua
In 1979, <mask> received his degree as an electrical technician from the Regional Technological Institute of Durango; a year before, he had joined the PAN. He was a frequent representative of the party in electoral matters, as well as a Scout and an instructor teaching business training courses in Ciudad Juárez and Durango; additionally, between 1978 and 1985, he was a middle and high school teacher at various educational institutions in Durango and Ciudad Juárez, as well as an administrator of an accounting and administration company. Between 1983 and 1985, <mask> acted as an intervening administrator at Zapatería Bernini, a Ciudad Juárez company. From 1983 and 1988, <mask> worked in the General Directorate of Public Security of Ciudad Juárez, first heading the department of Unit Control and later moving to Archives and Statistics; his final year in the agency was spent as a systems director.1984 also saw <mask> get involved in the founding of the Center of Hispanic-American Studies in El Paso, Texas, while the next year, he began a three-year term as president of the Mexican Scouts Association. In 1987, after five years of study, <mask> graduated from the Universidad del Noroeste with a degree in business administration; the next year, he began a short stint as a production supervisor at Honeywell Optoelectronics in Ciudad Juárez. <mask>'s political career continued to center around the PAN in Ciudad Juárez and Chihuahua. Between 1987 and 1989, he was the secretary of the Civil Resistance organization in the party; he served as a municipal-level general secretary from 1989–91 (which ended when he was tapped to be the interim president of the PAN in Ciudad Juárez), a state councilor between 1990 and 1993, ran for federal deputy in 1991, and served again in the Chihuahua PAN from 1991–92. Also during this time, he was a founding member and vice president of the Foundation for the Cultural Diffusion of America's Half Millennium, between 1989 and 1992. In 1994, he served as a coordinator of the PAN's federal electoral campaign in Ciudad Juárez, and at the same time, he ran as a proportional representation deputy from the second electoral region. He was the PAN's Security Coordinator and served as a secretary on the National Defense Commission; simultaneously, he served on the national PAN's Secretariat of National Relations, in the department that managed relations with the armed forces.Shift to Sonora
In 1996, <mask> became the head of the PAN in Sonora and served on its state executive council from 1999 to 2002. Additionally, he served as the municipal comptroller of Hermosillo between 1998 and 2000. In 2000, he returned to the Chamber of Deputies in its LVIII Legislature. He presided over the Special Commission on Public Security and also served on the Energy Commission. During this time, he simultaneously served as the travel coordinator for President Vicente Fox, as a national councilor for the PAN, and from 2002 to 2005, as the secretary general of the national PAN organization and a consultant to Grupo Industrial Fuentes. Presidency of the PAN and expulsion
In 2005, <mask> succeeded Luis Felipe Bravo and became the 18th president of the National Action Party, a position he held for two years. On November 11, 2006, he was elected president of the Christian Democrat Organization of America, a post he held until July 30, 2010, and between 2006 and 2009, he also was the vice president of Centrist Democrat International.However, during this time, a rift began to grow between <mask> and the PAN president, Felipe Calderón Hinojosa; he also disagreed with the federal government's security strategy, calling it "one of the bloodiest". The end of <mask>'s presidency in 2007 and his replacement with Germán Martínez Cázares, identified as close to Calderón, came months after <mask> and those associated with the highly conservative group Desarrollo Humano Integral, A.C., lost national party positions to supporters of Calderón. In 2010, he founded the  (National Start Over Movement). That year, the national PAN voted to begin the process of expelling <mask> from the party, with only one member voting against the measure; this would culminate in his expulsion from the party after 33 years in May 2011; <mask> promised to bring the case before the TEPJF. When he met with Enrique Peña Nieto, who at the time was seeking election from the Institutional Revolutionary Party, he promised Peña Nieto that he would promote the "useful vote" for Peña Nieto among the 941,000 members of Volver a Empezar, which in turn prompted then-PAN leader Gustavo Madero Muñoz to note that one of the reasons for <mask>'s expulsion from the party was his previous support for PRI candidates. His business activities continued throughout this period; in 2010, he opened a restaurant in Durango, known as El Esquilón. He also owned a parking facility and administered the company Negocios Maryam.Movimiento Ciudadano and return to San Lázaro
In 2013, <mask> started a political group known as Concertación Mexicana. The group included other former members of the PAN and PRD, such as René Arce (who returned to the PRD in 2015) and Jorge Carlos Díaz Cuervo. While it promised to be a "party that was not ideological", it was derided as being a "Frankenstein" group. However, in its attempts to become a political party, it ran into obstacles; in Puebla, it failed to get 3,000 people to attend its first meeting, as was required, and in the states where it did meet the numbers, it did so using infrastructure of state-level political parties. When he traveled to an event in Cuernavaca, organizers had to remove dozens of empty chairs from the venue. Ultimately, <mask> decided not to form a political party. On December 6, 2014, <mask> officially joined the Movimiento Ciudadano political party.The next year, MC placed <mask> on its list for proportional representation deputies from the fifth district, winning him a seat in the Chamber of Deputies for the LXIII Legislature. He is a secretary on the National Defense and Public Security Committees and also holds a seat on the Commission for the Strengthening of Federalism. Movimiento Ciudadano has also allied with Concertación Mexicana in select regions, such as Quintana Roo and on the national level while it worked with the Peninsular Party of the Californias in Baja California and with Alternativa Veracruzana in Veracruz. Books
<mask> has written various books, including Señal de Alerta (2008), which warned that Manlio Fabio Beltrones might run for president in 2012; Volver a Empezar (Start Over, 2010); La guerra injusta de Ciudad Juárez (The Unjust War of Ciudad Juárez, 2010), in which he called the drug war started by Calderón "the bloodiest conflict on Mexican soil since the Revolution"; El Poder del Águila (The Power of the Eagle, 2012); and Mexicanos al Grito de Paz (2015). References

1959 births
Living people
People from Durango City
Politicians from Durango
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
Presidents of the National Action Party (Mexico)
Citizens' Movement (Mexico) politicians
21st-century Mexican politicians
20th-century Mexican politicians

masks:
Manuel Espino Barrientos
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<mask><mask> (1849-1911) was an American businessman. He was among the wealthiest African Americans in Pennsylvania and possibly the United States at the time of his death. Early life and career
Trower was born on October 3, 1849, in Eastville, Northampton County, Virginia. His parents, Luke and Anna M<mask>, were free black farmers and of mixed white, Native American and African American descent. From age 16 to 21, Trower worked on the farm with his family, saving all that he could. All through his early life young Trower was hobbled with the necessity of servicing his family's debt. By the time he was 21 he had saved enough to lift this burden from his family and he felt free to go in search of a fortune.He presented his mother with the deed of the farm and bade her goodbye. At that time, the tide of immigration had already set in from the Virginia plantations toward the cities and young Trower drifted with it in the direction of Baltimore. There was $52 surplus after the farm was paid for and with this sum Trower, wholly inexperienced in the difficulties and dangers of city life, landed in Baltimore. Trower was fortunate there in meeting the Mack family, with whom he made his home during the larger part of the time that he was in Baltimore. They gave him advice which proved of great value to him in his later life. While he was in Baltimore he obtained work in a restaurant as an oyster-opener and soon began, in spite of the small salary he received there, to accumulate a small capital. Partly because he believed he could better his condition in a Northern city and partly led by mere desire to see more of the world, he determined in 1870 to leave Baltimore and go to Philadelphia.Business success
Trower decided to settle in Germantown, one of the more wealthy and prosperous quarters of the city, and with the little capital that he had gotten together, he opened a restaurant. He found a modest place in Chelton Avenue in the neighborhood of the Philadelphia and Reading depot. This business seems to have prospered from the beginning. Very soon, Trower was doing, in addition to his restaurant business, a very respectable trade as a caterer. He won the favor of the fashionable people of Germantown and his increasing trade forced him rapidly into a larger and more lucrative business. Within two blocks of his restaurant stood the old Germantown Savings Fund building. Fortunately for Trower, this building was left vacant at this time, the bank having just completed a new building into which it established itself.There was a demand for a first-class caterer's establishment in Germantown. Trower had succeeded in winning the goodwill of some of the wealthy citizens and, with their encouragement, he purchased and refitted the Savings Fund building and made out of it, at a cost of $25,000, a first-class caterer's establishment. He was now fairly on his feet in a business way and began to make money rapidly. It was at this time that he made the acquaintance and won the goodwill of some of the officers of William Cramp & Sons, a shipbuilding company. Soon after this, in 1889, Trower had his first opportunity to cater for the Cramps. The firm employed him steadily after that time. Many of the world's most renowned war vessels were served upon their trial trips by Trower, among them the Yorktown, the Philadelphia, the Vesuvius, the New York, the Iowa, the Columbia, the Baltimore, the Minneapolis, the Newark, the Brooklyn, the Variag, the Retvizan, the Mecidiye, the Colorado and the Pennsylvania.Trower's place of business was one of the most complete of its kind in the country. On the first floor were his offices, dining-room, delivery department and ice cream plant, which was run by electricity. On the second floor was a reception-room and a dining hall, which seated 150 guests, and the baking department. On the third floor were the storeroom and laundry. In the basement were china closets and storage-rooms. In his office he employed five clerks, all of whom were young African American men and women. The culinary, ice cream, baking, and delivery service departments employed 20 people.A large element of Trower's success must be attributed to the fact that he constantly sought to improve and extend his business. His trade was not limited to Germantown and Philadelphia, but extended throughout the state. On several occasions he served large orders in the South and West. At the time when <mask>, of Philadelphia, was Postmaster General, Trower served him as caterer in a reception which was at that time one of the most elaborate that had ever been given in Washington, D.C. In addition to his caterer's trade he did a lucrative real estate business. He owned considerable property both in Germantown and Ocean City, New Jersey, where he had his summer residence. Personal life
Outside of his business, Trower was a member of the well known Cherry Street Baptist Church.He was a member of the board of deacons, and of the board of trustees, and superintendent of the Sunday school. The National Baptist Convention made him the National Baptist Superintendent of the World. He was the President of the Sunday School Convention of Pennsylvania, a position he held for many years. Trower contributed greatly to the building up of a number of Baptist churches of his city and state. His advice was frequently sought in matters of finance and church policy in the Baptist denomination. He was president of the Cherry Building and Loan Society, treasurer of the Reliable Mutual Aid and Improvement Company, and treasurer of the Reliable Business Men's Building. He was a member of the board of trustees for the Home for Aged and Infirm Colored People, and member of the board of trustees for the Olive Cemetery.As president of the Pennsylvania Sunday School Convention, it was he who suggested the necessity of the establishment of an Industrial and Theological School in Pennsylvania. He purchased a farm in Downingtown, Pennsylvania, and held it in trust until the Baptists of the state were enabled to assume the responsibility of the purchase. Trower was also very active in charitable work. Trower's wife was Miss Matilda Daniels, of Haymarket, Virginia. Matilda Trower took an active part in the business as well as rearing a family of six children. Death
Trower died in Philadelphia on April 4, 1911, at the age of 61. His reputed wealth of approximately $1 million placed him among the richest African Americans in Pennsylvania and possibly the United States.References

Businesspeople from Philadelphia
19th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American businesspeople
African-American businesspeople
American restaurateurs
1849 births
1911 deaths
People from Eastville, Virginia
20th-century African-American people

masks:
John S
. Trower
. Trower
John Wanamaker


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<mask> (1606–1680) was a puritan and English Civil War soldier who was convicted of the regicide of Charles I. Born in Rochester, Kent, to a well-connected gentry family, he was the second of two sons of Sir <mask>, although his elder brother died in 1627. As a child, <mask> moved with his father from Rochester to Chadwell St Mary in Essex and then to Etchingham in Sussex, where he settled. <mask> gained military experience as a member of the Duke of Buckingham's expedition to the Isle of Ré in 1627. As a puritan, he joined the Parliamentary army at the outbreak of the Civil War and fought at the Battle of Edgehill. He rose to become a colonel and commanded Tilbury Fort, an important defensive position on the approach to London by river. He was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bramber in September 1645 to replace an ejected Royalist.He sided with the army in opposing any compromise with the King, and was appointed as a judge at the trial of King Charles I of England. <mask> attended most of the court sessions and was the 28th (of 59) to sign the King's death warrant. After the restoration of Charles II, he was convicted of regicide, but avoided execution and was imprisoned on Jersey, where he died. Early life

<mask> was born to Sir <mask> and Mary Sommer while his parents were living in the parish of St. Margaret's in Rochester, Kent in the house previously owned by his mother's first husband. His family was closely related to the <mask> family of Stowe House. The family belonged to the gentry, having a reasonable income, without being members of the aristocracy. His father had been knighted at the Tower of London by <mask> following the King's accession to the English throne - one of many members of the gentry who were knighted during the first years of the King's reign.<mask> had an older brother (John) and a sister (Susan). As a result of his mother's first marriage, he had two half-brothers (including Sir Thomas Peniston) and two half-sisters. He was born into a well connected family. His uncles included Sir <mask>, 1st Baronet, of Stowe and William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele. His sister, <mask>, Lady Lister, was the mother of Martin Lister and the grandmother of Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough. In 1607, following his mother's death, he moved to Longhouse Place (now known as Chadwell Place) in Chadwell St Mary, Essex. Both he and his older brother John, were admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1622.In the same year, <mask> was given permission by the privy council to travel abroad for up to three years. He was allowed to take a servant with him, but he was strictly forbidden to visit Rome. While <mask> was living in Chadwell St Mary, a number of <mask> family portraits were painted by Cornelius Johnson. These may have been part of a family commission. They include <mask>'s father (which hangs in Hagley Hall) and his sister (which is in the Tate Gallery). These family portraits may have included <mask> himself, but no portrait is known to have survived. In the early 1620s, as a result of his father's marriage to Mary Bankworth (who was previously married to John Busbridge), he moved, this time to Haremere Hall in Etchingham, Sussex.His father's third marriage gave him step siblings, including his stepsister, Mary Busbridge to whom <mask> was married in March 1627. Over the next few years, they had six children. Isle of Ré expedition
In June 1627, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham led an expedition to the island of Île de Ré to support the Huguenots besieged in La Rochelle by King Louis XIII of France. With no standing army, Buckingham's forces were largely volunteers and mercenaries. Since public opinion in England (particularly among extreme Protestants) supported the Huguenots, a number of well connected gentry came forward. The volunteers to join Buckingham included <mask>, his elder brother John and other members of his family. The expedition to the Isle of Ré, was a disaster and altogether, Buckingham lost more than 5,000 men in the campaign out of a force of 7,000.Among those who died was <mask>'s brother. Life in Sussex
When his father died in 1629, <mask> was the main beneficiary of his father's estate. However, much of his father's property was held via his wife, mortgaged or being used to meet other commitments. <mask> had a relatively meagre inheritance - no grand country house, no great estate and certainly no large fortune. His financial affairs were not in good order and were discussed by other members of the family. Margaret Longville, <mask>'s cousin, wrote to her mother, "my cousin Cary Saunders is broke for forty thousand pounds and is not able to pay five shillings in the pound and <mask> is in too much". (Cary was the family name for Carew Saunders.)During Charles I's Personal Rule (1629–1640), he was part of a network of Puritan gentry in Sussex and in due course became a Sussex Justice of the Peace (JP). Civil War
 <mask>, like most members of his family, was a puritan and supported Parliament against the King. His uncle Lord Saye and Sele was one of the King's principal opponents. <mask>'s military experience became useful when the First English Civil War broke out in August, 1642. He was appointed captain of a troop of horse raised by Lord Saye and Sele and commanded by <mask>'s cousin, John Fiennes. <mask> was related to Oliver Cromwell via his kinsman Edward Whalley and was able to secure a commission for Whalley in his uncle's unit. He saw action close to the <mask> family home at Stowe where both Temple and Whalley fought at the Battle of Edgehill in October 1642.<mask> was also present at the Battle of Bramber Bridge in December 1643. In March 1643, he had returned to Sussex, and along with his stepbrother, John Busbridge, he was appointed by Parliament to the Sussex committee set for the sequestration (i.e. seizure and administration) of the assets of prominent Royalists. In December 1643, <mask> was prominent in the defence of the crossing of the River Adur at Bramber Castle against a Royalist attack during Lord Hopton's attempt to obtain control of Sussex for the King. His actions were described by Dr Cheynell: "Upon the 12th of December I visited a brave soldier of my acquaintance, Captn Jas <mask>, who did that day defend the fort of Bramber against a bold and daring enemy to the wonder of all the country ; and I did not marvel at it, for he is a man that hath his head full of stratagems, his heart full of piety and valour, and his hand as full of success as it is of dexterity." As the war progressed, <mask> was promoted to colonel and became governor of Tilbury Fort in Essex, a post that had previously been held by his father. The fort was close to <mask>'s childhood home at Longhouse Place and was of strategic importance because it controlled the approach to London by river.During the Second Civil War, there were Royalist uprisings in Kent and Essex. <mask>'s control of Tilbury Fort for Parliament enabled Lord Fairfax's troops to cross from Gravesend to Tilbury en route to Colchester for the siege of royalists in that town. Trial of Charles I and Commonwealth
 In September 1645, <mask> was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Bramber to replace Sir Thomas Bowyer, the royalist member who had been ejected. He belonged to the political and religious group known as Independents who were opposed to any compromise in Parliament's negotiations with the King. As a result, he was one of the MPs allowed to remain after Pride's Purge - a military coup that excluded from Parliament roughly three quarters of the MPs, particularly those who were believed to be unsympathetic to the Army. In January 1649, the army and the Independents decided to bring Charles I to trial. <mask> was one of the judges named to the High Court of Justice that conducted the trial.He attended nine sessions of the court in both the Painted Chamber and Westminster Hall. He approved the guilty verdict and signed the King's death warrant - the 28th of the 59 judges to so. During the early part of the Commonwealth period, he continued to serve on Parliamentary committees. However, he attracted accusations of corruption. In September 1650, these accusations led to him giving up his post at Tilbury Fort. It was probably around this time that he married his second wife, Joanna van Tromp. <mask> attracted a number of other accusations of financial impropriety, although apparently nothing was proved.In 1648, he was ordered by the House of Commons to respond to the legal action of one Elizabeth Willan who had attempted to serve him with two writs in connection with a bond for £400. He "threw them on the ground and spurned them with his foot". In 1649, <mask> became the guardian of the daughter of one Mrs Eyre. He apparently "inveigled" her to marry his son, Alexander. As a result, <mask> acquired the deeds to property in Ireland which he subsequently refused to return. A few years later, he was accused of improperly benefiting from administering the estate of a prominent Sussex catholic - Sir John Shelley - whose heir was a minor. Following <mask>'s marriage, his father had invested in a farming venture by Edward Whalley who was the brother-in-law of <mask>'s stepsister - Mary Penistone.Sir Alexander apparently intended this to provide an inheritance for his grandchildren (the children of <mask>). As a younger son himself, Sir Alexander wanted to ensure suitable provision for his own younger son. This investment made by <mask>'s father for the benefit of his children had apparently become valueless when Edward Whalley fled to Scotland in the late 1630s. However, in the 1650s, Whalley had become a prominent and successful member of the Puritan establishment and there was a possibility of recovering some money. In the late 1650s, <mask> and Whalley went to the Court of Chancery to determine what was due to <mask> and his children. However, with the death of Oliver Cromwell and the subsequent restoration of Charles II, both regicides were faced with the possibility of execution and the case appears to have been unresolved. Restoration

<mask> returned to Parliament with the recall of the Rump and Long Parliaments by General Monck, but following the Restoration in 1660, he was excluded from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act, because of his role in the trial and execution of Charles I.He was captured in Warwickshire while trying to travel to Ireland, under his first wife's maiden name of Busbridge. He was held in the Tower of London before being tried as a regicide. He tried to avoid the death penalty by saying that he had only acted as a judge in Charles I's trial in order to give information to the Royalists. He went on to claim that he had tried to prevent the King's execution, begging Oliver Cromwell to spare him. He did avoid execution and was sentenced to life imprisonment. As a result of security concerns, a number of regicides, including <mask> were sent to Jersey in the Channel Islands. Initially he was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and subsequently in Elizabeth Castle, where he is reported to have died on 17 February 1680.William Winstanley described him as "not so much famous for his valour as his villainy, being remarkable for nothing but this horrible business of the king's murther, for which he came into the pack to have a share in the spoyle." References

1606 births
1670s deaths
English MPs 1640–1648
Regicides of Charles I
Roundheads
People from Chadwell St Mary
People from Etchingham
People from Rochester, Kent
Prisoners who died in Jersey detention
Members of Lincoln's Inn
17th-century English Puritans
Military personnel of the English Civil War
English politicians convicted of crimes
English MPs 1648–1653

masks:
James Temple
Alexander Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Alexander Temple
Temple
James I
Temple
Thomas Temple
Susan Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
James Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
Temple
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James Temple
Temple
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Temple
Temple


texts:
<mask> (May 26, 1891 – March 6, 1989) was an American pathologist. The son of a freed slave, <mask> became the first African-American associate professor at the University of Chicago in 1922 and spent the next 20 years studying racial differences in relation to medicine. In the meantime, he conducted research on immunology, for which he earned a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1926. <mask>'s research on race culminated in the 1942 publication of The Biology of the Negro, a lengthy text summarizing the scientific literature on the demographic, anatomical, physiological and biochemical characteristics of the black population. While <mask> was deeply interested in biological differences between the races, he argued against the viewpoint that black people were biologically inferior. The book, though well reviewed, sold poorly, and <mask> published no further works after 1943. Early life and education
<mask> was born on May 26, 1891, in Shawneetown, Illinois, to <mask>, a freed slave, and Cordelia O<mask>.Both of <mask>'s parents were schoolteachers. <mask> attended the University of Illinois for his undergraduate education, graduating in 1911 with a degree in biology and physiology. He received a master's degree from the University of Illinois in 1912 and then attended the University of Chicago, where he completed his PhD in 1915. <mask> won the Ricketts Prize for his PhD dissertation on lipids and immunity. He graduated from Rush Medical College with an MD in 1917, earning the Benjamin Rush Medal for academic achievement. <mask> married Eva Overton in 1918; the couple had three children. Career

Early career
After his graduation from Rush, <mask> was appointed to the University of Chicago's department of pathology.In 1920 he was hired as a pathologist at the African-American Provident Hospital, where he eventually became chief pathologist. During his early years at Chicago, <mask> worked closely with H. Gideon Wells and Ludvig Hektoen. Wells served as a mentor and advocate throughout <mask>'s career, and Hektoen's research on blood groups informed <mask>'s studies of medicine and race. Hektoen had previously published statistics on ABO blood types, but had not noted the race of his subjects, who were all white. In 1922, <mask> published a paper on the frequency of ABO blood types in African-Americans in the Journal of the American Medical Association. <mask> noted that the distribution of blood types differed between white and black people and that it was inaccurate to define what was "normal" based only on white subjects. This would become a major theme of his research.The same year <mask>'s paper was published, he became an associate professor of pathology at Chicago. The first African-American to hold such a position at the university, <mask> served in this role until 1943. The Sprague Institute awarded him a grant in 1922 to research "pathology among Negroes in all countries", and in 1926, he earned a Guggenheim Fellowship for immunology studies at the University of Basel. The Biology of the Negro

In 1942, <mask> published the culmination of the work he had begun 20 years ago: a 400-page volume titled The Biology of the Negro, drawing on medical and anthropological studies from more than 1,300 different researchers. The book—"nothing more than an arranged assembly of the observed and reported facts concerning the biology, including the pathology, of the Negro", as <mask> described it—provided an extensive overview of the literature on racial differences, spending, for example, 35 pages on a discussion of black skin. It was divided into nine chapters, the first three of which covered demographic factors, anatomy, and physiology and biochemistry. The remaining six focused on racial differences in the presentation of various classes of diseases.Special attention was given to sickle cell anemia, which <mask> argued was a disease exclusive to the black population. While <mask> stated that "many of the biological and environmental characteristics of the two peoples...show sharp contrasts", he criticized the use of biological differences to justify belief in the inferiority of blacks to whites. He argued that many physiological differences were advantageous, noting the comparative resistance of blacks to malaria and how it facilitated the building of the Panama Canal by West Indian laborers, and dismissed research on racial differences in mental illness as "in keeping with the conventional vaudeville stage conception of the Negro". A 1942 review in the Journal of the National Medical Association stated " [i]t is noteworthy that the author failed to discover any fundamental evidence to show that the Negro is biologically inferior to other groups". Some, however, considered <mask>'s focus on the biological aspects of race to be regressive. A review in The Crisis, the official magazine of the NAACP, praised the book as "a significant contribution to the long recognized need for a scientific reference volume on constitutional studies of the Negro", but noted that it did little to challenge the contemporary medical literature and in its discussion of sickle cell anemia "approache[d] dangerously the reductio ad absurdum which even the Negro himself denounces in respect to so-called tests of Negro blood". <mask>'s position on sickle cell disease was later characterized by Keith Wailoo as "an endorsement and legitimation of cherished racial categories through blood analysis".The book, although it received mostly positive reviews, sold less than 500 copies in 1942 and was not reprinted. <mask>'s biological approach to the study of race gradually fell out of favor in the academic community. Later career
H. Gideon Wells died in 1943. <mask>'s academic work suffered: after that year he never published a research paper again, and he was put on leave from the university in 1944. The next year, he asked the Sprague Institute to fund the establishment of a laboratory dedicated to the study of racial differences at the Provident Hospital. The Institute agreed to finance the project, but the plans never materialized; the death of <mask>'s wife that year may have played a role. During the later years of his career, <mask> took up various positions at local hospitals, eventually leaving Provident in 1952.He served as the director of pathology at Our Lady of Mercy Hospital in Dyer, Indiana until just before his death. <mask> died on March 6, 1989. Selected publications

References

African-American physicians
Rush Medical College alumni
University of Chicago alumni
University of Chicago faculty
University of Illinois alumni
Physicians from Illinois
People from Shawneetown, Illinois
Writers from Illinois
1891 births
1981 deaths
20th-century African-American people

masks:
Julian Herman Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
John Calhoun Lewis
. Scott Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
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Lewis


texts:
<mask> (born 19 November 1961) is a Polish politician and handball coach and former Polish and German handball player. He has been a member of the Poland men's national handball team in 1981–1994 and Germany men's national handball team in 1997–2000, a participant of the Olympic Games Sydney 2000, five-time Polish Champion (1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988), and former head coach of Poland. He has been one of the best handball player in the history of Polish handball. Between 2014-2018 he was a Member of the European Parliament for the Polish Civic Platform. In 2018, he was elected as Mayor of Kielce, having run from his own committee with the endorsement of the Civic Platform. Personal life

Since 1984 he has been married to Iwona. They have one son Tomasz (born 13 March 1996).In 2014 <mask> <mask> was elected to European Parliament. Career as player

Clubs
<mask>'s entire career in Poland was connected with one club - Wybrzeże Gdańsk, where he started playing in first team in 1978, when he was 17. He was five-times Polish Champion (1984–1988) and achieved European Cup final twice, losing to RK Metaloplastika Šabac in 1986 and SKA Mińsk in 1987. In 1989 he moved to Spain and played for Bidasoa Irún (1989–1992) and FC Barcelona Handbol (1992–1995). He was first Polish player in FC Barcelona. At last, he emigrated to Germany, and played for TuS Nettelstedt (1995–1998) and SG Flensburg-Handewitt (1998–2000). National teams

Poland 1981–1993
<mask> made his debut in Polish national team in 1981, when he was barely 20.He was appointed by Zygfryd Kuchta. It was match with Switzerland. He represented Poland in 185 official games (including friendly matches 198) and scored 763 goals, which is the third result in history of Polish handball. He took part in IHF World Handball Championship twice - in 1986 (14th place) and 1990 (11th place). He did not participate in Olympic Games as Polish player. In 1993 he was blamed for Poland's elimination during qualifications to 1994 European Men's Handball Championship. Since then he was never called up again to Polish national team.Germany 1997–2000
In 1996 <mask> accepted German citizenship, which caused a lot of controversy in his homeland, Poland. However he has never played against Poland. He represented the German side in 46 official games (and 4 friendly matches) and scored 144 goals. He was a member of German national team in IHF World Handball Championship twice - 1997 and 1999. In 1998 he achieved bronze medal of European Championship and took part in European Championship 2000. He made his Olympic debut at Olympics Sydney 2000 (5th place). He regained Polish citizenship in 2008.Career as coach, 2000–2012
<mask> <mask> retired in 2000 and became coach assistant in SG Flensburg-Handewitt. In 2005 he had to enter the court and play because of many players had injuries. He was 44 and this number was on his shirt. From summer 2006 to autumn 2007 he was head coach of German handball club, SC Magdeburg. On 28 October 2004 <mask> Targi Kielce
 2010  Polish Championship, with Vive Targi Kielce
 2011  Polish Cup, with Vive Targi Kielce
 2011  Polish Championship, with Vive Targi Kielce
 2012  Polish Cup, with Vive Targi Kielce
 2012  Polish Championship, with Vive Targi Kielce
 2013  Polish Cup, with Vive Targi Kielce
 2013  Polish Championship, with Vive Targi Kielce
 2013  EHF Champions League, with Vive Targi Kielce

Involvement in politics, 2014–present
Wenta was a Member of the European Parliament elected in  the 2014 European elections.In European Parliament, he served on the Committee on Culture and Education and on the Committee on Development. In addition to his committee assignments, he was a member of the Parliament's delegation to the ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly. In 2018, he quit his membership in the European Parliament after being elected as Mayor of Kielce in 2018 Polish local elections.

masks:
Bogdan Brunon Wenta
Bogdan
Wenta
Wenta
Wenta
Wenta
Bogdan
Wenta
Wentaive


texts:
<mask> ( ;  ;  BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey). He is known for having written the Histories – a detailed account of the Greco-Persian Wars. <mask> was the first writer to do systematic investigation of historical events. He is referred to as "The Father of History", a title conferred on him by the ancient Roman orator Cicero. The Histories primarily covers the lives of prominent kings and famous battles such as Marathon, Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale. His work deviates from the main topics to provide cultural, ethnographical, geographical, and historiographical background that forms an essential part of the narrative and provides readers with a wellspring of additional information. <mask> has been criticized for his inclusion of "legends and fanciful accounts" in his work.Fellow historian Thucydides accused him of making up stories for entertainment. However, <mask> explained that he reported what he "saw and [what was] told to him." A sizable portion of the Histories has since been confirmed by modern historians and archaeologists. Life
Modern scholars generally turn to <mask>'s own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, such as the Byzantine Suda, an 11th-century encyclopedia which possibly took its information from traditional accounts. Childhood
Modern accounts of his life typically go something like this: <mask> was born at Halicarnassus around 485 BC. The Suda describes his family as influential, and that he was the son of Lyxes and Dryo, and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to Panyassis – an epic poet of the time. Halicarnassus was within the Persian Empire at that time, making Herodotus a Persian subject, and it may be that the young Herodotus heard local eyewitness accounts of events within the empire and of Persian preparations for the invasion of Greece, including the movements of the local fleet under the command of Artemisia I of Caria.Inscriptions recently discovered at Halicarnassus indicate that Artemesia's grandson Lygdamis negotiated with a local assembly to settle disputes over seized property, which is consistent with a tyrant under pressure. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, indicating that there might well have been a successful uprising against him sometime before 454 BC. <mask> wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect, yet he was born in Halicarnassus, which was a Dorian settlement. According to the Suda, Herodotus learned the Ionian dialect as a boy living on the island of Samos, to which he had fled with his family from the oppressions of Lygdamis, tyrant of Halicarnassus and grandson of Artemisia. Panyassis, the epic poet related to Herodotus, is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. The Suda also informs us that Herodotus later returned home to lead the revolt that eventually overthrew the tyrant. Due to recent discoveries of inscriptions at Halicarnassus dated to about Herodotus's time, we now know that the Ionic dialect was used in Halicarnassus in some official documents, so there is no need to assume (like the Suda) that he must have learned the dialect elsewhere.The Suda is the only source placing <mask> as the heroic liberator of his birthplace, casting doubt upon the veracity of the romantic account. Early travels

As Herodotus himself reveals, Halicarnassus, though a Dorian city, had ended its close relations with its Dorian neighbours after an unseemly quarrel (I, 144), and it had helped pioneer Greek trade with Egypt (II, 178). It was, therefore, an outward-looking, international-minded port within the Persian Empire, and the historian's family could well have had contacts in other countries under Persian rule, facilitating his travels and his researches. <mask>'s eyewitness accounts indicate that he traveled in Egypt in association with Athenians, probably sometime after 454 BC or possibly earlier, after an Athenian fleet had assisted the uprising against Persian rule in 460–454 BC. He probably traveled to Tyre next and then down the Euphrates to Babylon. For some reason, possibly associated with local politics, he subsequently found himself unpopular in Halicarnassus, and sometime around 447 BC, migrated to Periclean Athens – a city whose people and democratic institutions he openly admires (V, 78). Athens was also the place where he came to know the local topography (VI, 137; VIII, 52–55), as well as leading citizens such as the Alcmaeonids, a clan whose history features frequently in his writing.According to Eusebius and Plutarch, <mask> was granted a financial reward by the Athenian assembly in recognition of his work. Plutarch, using Diyllus as a source, says this was 10 talents. Later life
In 443 BC or shortly afterwards, he migrated to Thurium, in modern Calabria, as part of an Athenian-sponsored colony. Aristotle refers to a version of The Histories written by "Herodotus of Thurium," and some passages in the Histories have been interpreted as proof that he wrote about southern Italy from personal experience there (IV, 15,99; VI, 127). Intimate knowledge of some events in the first years of the Peloponnesian War (VI, 91; VII, 133, 233; IX, 73) indicate that he might have returned to Athens, in which case it is possible that he died there during an outbreak of the plague. Possibly he died in Macedonia instead, after obtaining the patronage of the court there; or else he died back in Thurium. There is nothing in the Histories that can be dated to later than 430 BC with any certainty, and it is generally assumed that he died not long afterwards, possibly before his sixtieth year.Author and orator
<mask> would have made his researches known to the larger world through oral recitations to a public crowd. John Marincola writes in his introduction to the Penguin edition of The Histories that there are certain identifiable pieces in the early books of Herodotus's work which could be labeled as "performance pieces." These portions of the research seem independent and "almost detachable," so that they might have been set aside by the author for the purposes of an oral performance. The intellectual matrix of the 5th century, Marincola suggests, comprised many oral performances in which philosophers would dramatically recite such detachable pieces of their work. The idea was to criticize previous arguments on a topic and emphatically and enthusiastically insert their own in order to win over the audience. It was conventional in Herodotus's day for authors to "publish" their works by reciting them at popular festivals. According to Lucian, Herodotus took his finished work straight from Anatolia to the Olympic Games and read the entire Histories to the assembled spectators in one sitting, receiving rapturous applause at the end of it.According to a very different account by an ancient grammarian, Herodotus refused to begin reading his work at the festival of Olympia until some clouds offered him a bit of shade – by which time the assembly had dispersed. (Hence the proverbial expression "Herodotus and his shade" to describe someone who misses an opportunity through delay.) Herodotus's recitation at Olympia was a favourite theme among ancient writers, and there is another interesting variation on the story to be found in the Suda: that of Photius
and Tzetzes,
in which a young Thucydides happened to be in the assembly with his father, and burst into tears during the recital. Herodotus observed prophetically to the boy's father, "Your son's soul yearns for knowledge." Eventually, Thucydides and Herodotus became close enough for both to be interred in Thucydides' tomb in Athens. Such at least was the opinion of Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides. According to the Suda, he was buried in Macedonian Pella and in the agora in Thurium.Place in history
Herodotus announced the purpose and scope of his work at the beginning of his Histories:

Here are presented the results of the inquiry carried out by <mask> of Halicarnassus. The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among the matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks. — Herodotus, The Histories (tr. R. Waterfield, 2008)

Predecessors
His record of the achievements of others was an achievement in itself, though the extent of it has been debated. Herodotus' place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact. However, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a literary critic of Augustan Rome, listed seven predecessors of Herodotus, describing their works as simple, unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends, sometimes melodramatic and naïve, often charming – all traits that can be found in the work of Herodotus himself.Modern historians regard the chronology as uncertain, but according to the ancient account, these predecessors included Dionysius of Miletus, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellanicus of Lesbos, Xanthus of Lydia and, the best attested of them all, Hecataeus of Miletus. Of these, only fragments of Hecataeus's works survived, and the authenticity of these is debatable, but they provide a glimpse into the kind of tradition within which <mask> wrote his own Histories. Contemporary and modern critics
It is on account of the many strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics have branded him "The Father of Lies." Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement. In fact, one modern scholar has wondered if <mask> left his home in Greek Anatolia, migrating westwards to Athens and beyond, because his own countrymen had ridiculed his work, a circumstance possibly hinted at in an epitaph said to have been dedicated to <mask> at one of his three supposed resting places, Thuria:

Yet it was in Athens where his most formidable contemporary critics could be found. In 425 BC, which is about the time that <mask> is thought by many scholars to have died, the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes created The Acharnians, in which he blames the Peloponnesian War on the abduction of some prostitutes – a mocking reference to <mask>, who reported the Persians' account of their wars with Greece, beginning with the rapes of the mythical heroines Io, Europa, Medea, and Helen. Similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed <mask> as a "logos-writer" (story-teller).Thucydides, who had been trained in rhetoric, became the model for subsequent prose-writers as an author who seeks to appear firmly in control of his material, whereas with his frequent digressions <mask> appeared to minimize (or possibly disguise) his authorial control. Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view: Focused on the context of the polis or city-state. The interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as <mask> himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory. See also

Critical editions
 C. Hude (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs prior: Libros I–IV continens. (Oxford 1908)
 C. Hude (ed.)Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs alter: Libri V–IX continens. (Oxford 1908)
 H. B. Rosén (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Vol. I: Libros I–IV continens. (Leipzig 1987)
 H. B. Rosén (ed.)Herodoti Historiae. Vol. II: Libros V–IX continens indicibus criticis adiectis (Stuttgart 1997)
 N. G. Wilson (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs prior: Libros I–IV continens. (Oxford 2015)
 N. G. Wilson (ed.) Herodoti Historiae.Tomvs alter: Libri V–IX continens. (Oxford 2015)

Translations
Several English translations of The Histories of Herodotus are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by:
 Henry Cary (judge), translation 1849: text Internet Archive
 George Rawlinson, translation 1858–1860. Public domain; many editions available, although Everyman Library and Wordsworth Classics editions are the most common ones still in print. George Campbell Macaulay, translation 1890, published in two volumes. London: Macmillan and Co.
 A. D. Godley 1920; revised 1926. Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004.Available in four volumes from Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right:
 A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume I : Books 1–2 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1920)
 A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume II : Books 3–4 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1921)
 A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume III : Books 5–7 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1922)
 A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume IV : Books 8–9 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1925)
 Aubrey de Sélincourt, originally 1954; revised by John Marincola in 1996. Several editions from Penguin Books available. David Grene, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. Robin Waterfield, with an Introduction and Notes by Carolyn Dewald, Oxford World Classics, 1997. Andrea L. Purvis, The Landmark Herodotus, edited by Robert B. Strassler. Pantheon, 2007.  with adequate ancillary information.Walter Blanco, Herodotus: The Histories: The Complete Translation, Backgrounds, Commentaries. Edited by Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. New York: W. W. Norton, 2013. Tom Holland, The Histories, Herodotus. Introduction and notes by Paul Cartledge. New York, Penguin, 2013. Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

 Pitcher, Luke (2009).Writing Ancient History: An Introduction to Classical Historiography. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. Waters, K.H. (1985). Herodotus the Historian: His Problems, Methods and Originality. Beckenham: Croom Helm Ltd.External links

 Herodotus on the Web

 Herodotus of Halicarnassus at Livius.org

  (translation by George Campbell Macaulay, 1852–1915)

 The History of Herodotus, at The Internet Classics Archive (translation by George Rawlinson). Parallel Greek and English text of the History of Herodotus at the Internet Sacred Text Archive

 Excerpts of Sélincourt's translation

 Herodotus Histories on the Perseus Project

  The Histories of Herodotus, A.D. Godley translation with footnotes ( )

480s BC births
420s BC deaths
5th-century BC Greek people
5th-century BC historians
Ancient Greek political refugees
Ancient Greeks in Egypt
Ancient Halicarnassians
Classical-era Greek historians
History of Asia
Historians from ancient Anatolia
Historiography of India
Ionic Greek writers
Sources of ancient Iranian religion
Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire
Historians of the Achaemenid Empire

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