texts:
<mask> of Brittany (in Breton Frañsez II, in French François II) (23 June 1433 – 9 September 1488) was Duke of Brittany from 1458 to his death. He was the grandson of John IV, Duke of Brittany. A recurring theme in <mask>' life would be his quest to maintain the quasi-independence of Brittany from France. As such, his reign was characterized by conflicts with King Louis XI of France and with his daughter, Anne of France, who served as regent during the minority of her brother, King Charles VIII. The armed and unarmed conflicts from 1465 to 1477 and 1484–1488 have been called the "War of the Public Weal" and the Mad War (la Guerre Folle), respectively. Early life

<mask> was born on 23 June 1433 to Richard of Brittany, Count of Étampes (1395–1438) and his wife, Margaret of Orléans, Countess of Vertus (1406–1466). Richard of Brittany was the youngest son of Duke John IV of Brittany.Richard's older brothers, John V and Arthur III, both succeeded their father as duke, but upon Arthur's death in 1458 (John V's sons <mask> I and Peter II died in 1450 and 1457 respectively, without sons), the only legitimate male heir was his nephew <mask>. Relationship with English royalty

Protector of the House of Lancaster

Duke <mask> II unexpectedly became the protector of England's House of Lancaster in exile from 1471 to 1484. During the latter half of the 15th century, civil war existed in England as the House of York and House of Lancaster fought each other for the English throne. In 1471, the Yorkists defeated their rivals in the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. The Lancastrian king, Henry VI of England and his only son, Edward of Westminster, died in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury. Their deaths left the House of Lancaster with no direct claimants to the throne. Subsequently, the Yorkist king, Edward IV of England, was in complete control of England.He attainted those who refused to submit to his rule, such as Jasper Tudor and his nephew Henry Tudor (later King Henry VII of England), naming them as traitors and confiscating their lands. The Tudors tried to flee to France but strong winds in the English Channel forced them to land at Le Conquet in Brittany, where they were taken into the custody of Duke <mask>. Henry Tudor, the only remaining Lancastrian noble with a trace of royal bloodline, had a weak claim to the throne, and King Edward IV regarded him as "a nobody". However, <mask> II viewed Henry as a valuable tool to bargain for England's aid, when in conflicts with France, and therefore kept the Tudors under his protection. He housed Jasper Tudor, Henry Tudor, and the core of their group of exiled Lancastrians at the Château de Suscinio in Sarzeau, where they remained for 11 years. There, <mask> II generously supported this group of exiled Englishmen against all the Plantagenet demands that he should surrender them. In October 1483, Henry Tudor launched a failed invasion of England from Brittany.Duke <mask> II supported this invasion by providing 40,000 gold crowns, 15,000 soldiers, and a fleet of transport ships. Henry's fleet of 15 chartered vessels was scattered by a storm, and his ship reached the coast of England in company with only one other vessel. Henry realized that the soldiers on shore were the men of the new Yorkist king, Richard III of England, and so he decided to abandon the invasion and return to Brittany. As for Henry's main conspirator in England, Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, he was convicted of treason and beheaded on 2 November 1483, way before Henry's ships landed in England. For Henry's conspiracy against King Richard III had been unravelled, and without the Duke of Buckingham or Henry Tudor, the rebellion was easily crushed. Survivors of the failed uprising then fled to Brittany, where they openly supported Henry Tudor's claim to the throne. On Christmas Day in 1483 at the Rennes Cathedral, Henry swore an oath to marry King Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, and thus unite the warring houses of York and Lancaster.Henry's rising prominence made him a great threat to King Richard III, and the Yorkist king made several overtures to Duke <mask> II to surrender the young Lancastrian. <mask> II refused, holding out for the possibility of better terms from the King. In mid-1484, <mask> was incapacitated by one of his periods of illness, and while recuperating, his treasurer, Pierre Landais, took over the reins of government. Landais reached an agreement with King Richard III to send Henry and his uncle Jasper back to England in exchange for a pledge of 3,000 English archers to defend Brittany against a threatened French attack. John Morton, a bishop of Flanders, learned of the scheme and warned the Tudors in time. The Tudors then managed to separately escape, hours ahead of Landais' soldiers, across the nearby border into France. They were received at the court of King Charles VIII of France, who allowed them to stay and provided them with resources.Shortly afterwards, when <mask> II had recovered, he offered the 400 remaining Lancastrians, still at and around the Château de Suscinio, safe-conduct into France and even paid for their expenses. For the French, the Tudors were useful pawns to ensure that King Richard III did not interfere with French plans to acquire Brittany. Thus, the loss of the Lancastrians seriously played against the interests of <mask> II. Titular Earl of Richmond

Circa 1136, King Stephen of England named Alan of Penthièvre of Brittany (also known as Alan the Black) the 1st Earl of Richmond. After Alan, the title and its possessions (the Honour of Richmond) were typically bestowed upon the Dukes of Brittany, with a few interruptions, through the ducal reign of John IV, which ended in 1399. After John IV, the English kings would bestow the title Earl of Richmond on nobles other than the Dukes of Brittany, including Edmund Tudor, Henry Tudor's father. However the dukes of Brittany from John V through <mask> II would continue to use the titulary Earl of Richmond.It is possible that <mask> willed whatever remained of his claims to the earldom and the Honour of Richmond to Henry Tudor. On successfully gaining the English crown after the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, Henry VII merged the earldom and its possessions into the crown. Relationship with French royalty

King Louis XI
Louis XI was renowned as a cunning adversary and a master at diplomacy, if not the military arts. His contemporary nickname was "The Universal Spider," reflecting his constant political plotting. <mask> became a member of the League of the Public Weal. This was an alliance of feudal nobles organized in 1465 in defiance of the centralized authority of King Louis XI of France, whose declared aim was to enlarge the French royal domain by annexing all of the duchies – Burgundy, Berry, Normandy, Orléans, Brittany, etc. It was masterminded by Charles the Bold, Count of Charolais, son of the Duke of Burgundy, with the king's brother Charles, Duke of Berry, as a figurehead.In 1467 Charles the Bold inherited the Duchy of Burgundy, which held fiefs in France that included the counties of Artois and Flanders, and the Imperial lands of Holland, Brabant, and Luxembourg. As Duke of Burgundy, Charles aspired to forge a kingdom of his own between France and Germany, approximating the former domains of the Frankish Emperor Lothair I. In pursuit of this goal, Charles was killed in 1477 at the Battle of Nancy against René II, Duke of Lorraine and a hired army of Swiss mercenaries, and Louis was saved from his greatest adversary. The great Duchy of Burgundy was then absorbed into the Kingdom of France, and the League of the Public Weal was essentially defeated, although several members would re-ally for the Mad War in 1485. The fortunes of <mask> and Brittany would continue to deteriorate after Louis XI's death in 1483, as his daughter Anne of France would serve as regent for putative successor Charles VIII. Regency of Anne of France
<mask> II was anxious to maintain his duchy's autonomy during the minority of Charles VIII of France. He aligned himself with Louis, the Duke of Orléans (the future Louis XII) and Charles, Count of Angoulême, against the regency of Anne of France.She had been pursuing the same underhand politics towards Brittany as her father Louis XI. In focusing on relations with his neighbour France, however, <mask> neglected his own realm. His corrupt and oppressive prime minister, Guillaume Chauvin, who was overthrown by treasurer general Pierre Landais in 1477, died in prison on 5 April 1484. A large part of the nobility had been bribed by Anne and Charles and supported them in their eagerness to subjugate Brittany. These nobles performed a coup d'état ousting Landais, who was eventually hanged in 1485. In 1486, the Estates of Brittany confirmed <mask>' daughter Anne and heir and successor to further assure the Duchy's autonomy from France. The Treaty of Chateaubriant was signed with France in 1487 and reaffirmed Brittany's autonomy.Despite the Treaty of Chateaubriant, however, the French continued to harass the Duchy. Under the leadership of Louis II de la Trémoille, the French royal army struck against Vannes and Fougères, controlling access to Brittany. La Guerre Folle (The Mad War)

<mask> then allied with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, against France. Alain d'Albret, a rebel lord, believing he would marry <mask>' daughter Anne, reinforced the Breton army with 5000 troops supplied by the king of Spain. Maximilian I of Austria also sent 1500 men, and Edward Woodville, Lord Scales, brought over a force of archers from Britain. However Brittany was defeated 28 July 1488 in the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier. This battle also destroyed the power-base of the warring noble leaders as Edward Woodville was killed, and Louis of Orléans and Jean, Prince of Orange were captured.Alain d'Albret and the Maréchal de Rieux succeeded in escaping, and played an important part in continuing the conflict. A few days later, on 10 August, <mask> was forced to sign the Treaty of Verger. Under the terms of the treaty, the duke was compelled to submit himself and his duchy as a vassal of the king of France, and to expel foreign princes and troops from Brittany. It also restricted his ability to marry his children to suitors of his choosing and required that he cede territory in Saint-Malo, Fougères, Dinan, and Saint-Aubin to the king as a guarantee that in the absence of a male successor the king would determine the succession. <mask> died a few months later as a result of a fall from his horse during a leisurely ride. He left only a daughter, Anne of Brittany, so the treaty was used to force her, as his successor, to marry Charles VIII, and later Louis XII. Despite the French victory and the signing of the treaty, la Guerre Folle dragged on beyond <mask>'s death for three more years until December 1491, when Anne married Charles VIII.<mask> II is interred in an elaborate tomb in the Nantes Cathedral. His tomb was commissioned by his daughter Anne, and is an important early example of Renaissance sculpture in France. Family
<mask> was married twice. His first wife was Margaret of Brittany, the eldest daughter of <mask>, Duke of Brittany (his first cousin) and Isabella of Scotland. They had one son who died shortly after his birth:
 John, Count of Montfort (29 June – 25 August 1463)

His second wife was Margaret of Foix, Princess of Navarre, daughter of Gaston IV, Count of Foix and Queen Eleanor of Navarre. They had two children:
 Anne of Brittany (1477–1514), his only legitimate heir to reach adulthood. Isabeau of Brittany (1478–1490), betrothed to Jean d'Albret in 1481, died young, and was buried at the Rennes Cathedral.<mask> II also had five illegitimate children with Antoinette de Maignelais, the former mistress of King Charles VII of France. Legacy
Breton nobles acted to safeguard Anne as their Duchess and to protect the Duchy's autonomy for which <mask> had fought so hard. In 1489 these nobles signed the Treaty of Redon with Henry VII; that treaty between Brittany and England was intended to prevent the annexation of Brittany by France. However, in 1491 Charles VIII of France invaded Brittany and forced Anne to marry him, thereby gaining control of the duchy. Then in 1492 Henry VII signed the Treaty of Etaples with France, effectively removing England's defense of Breton autonomy in return for promises from the French to no longer support Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the English throne, and to pay a war indemnity. The duchy's autonomy was all but lost as the process of merging it into the French crown began, and Brittany's strongest ally was neutralized. Anne, however, became a formidable queen consort and fought to preserve Brittany's autonomy and <mask> II's legacy for herself, the Breton people, and her descendants.Ancestry

Notes

See also
Dukes of Brittany family tree
Henry VII of England
War of the Roses
Other politically important horse accidents

References

Bibliography

 Volume 2

1433 births
1488 deaths
15th-century dukes of Brittany
15th-century Roman Catholics
15th-century peers of France
Dukes of Brittany
Deaths by horse-riding accident in France
House of Dreux
French people of Breton descent
Counts of Étampes
French people of Italian descent
People from Loire-Atlantique
French Roman Catholics
Montfort of Brittany

masks:
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis II
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis I
Francis
Francis
Francis


type: original

texts:
<mask> (1928–2008) was a Jewish Australian author. <mask> wrote short stories, fiction, poetry, a radio play, and a memoir of his childhood in Sydney. Life
<mask> was one of a small group of Jewish writers of his generation who were born in Australia. He wrote extensively about the Anglo-Jewish community and his work reflects their struggles to survive in two disparate, and sometimes hostile, worlds. <mask> was unusual in that his family had been in Australia for generations. Both parents emanated from Western, rather than Eastern, European backgrounds. The <mask> side derives from the Van Kollum family who were Amsterdam printers in the 17th century.One branch moved to London and, in the 1840s, Mark and <mask> emigrated with their three sons to Sydney. <mask> was their great-great-grandson. Alva Davis was his mother and a branch of the Davis family – the Cortissos line – can be traced back to Barcelona at the time of the Spanish Inquisition in the 15th century. There is a young convict in the Davis tree, Samuel Davis, who was transported to Sydney in 1831. Both families must have moved to England in the late 18th century and would have left the London of Charles Dickens to seek a better life in Australia. Author Judah Waten said in his introduction to Troubles (1983) (a critically acclaimed collection of 21 short stories), that "<mask> ... has recorded movingly, the lives of Jews without money [without being] cynical or misanthropic". <mask>' mother died the day she gave birth to him in Sydney.Relatives were unable or unwilling to care for him, and he was sent to a number of children's homes until he was returned to his father, who subsequently remarried. The archetypal cruel stepmother ill-treated the boy to such a degree that a magistrate ordered that he be sent to the Isabella Lazarus Home that had been established to accommodate Jewish refugee children. <mask>' appalling childhood is described graphically in his confronting yet surprisingly funny memoir Alva's Boy. He reconstructs his early life in the Scarba Baby Home and the Ashfield Infants Home. His chaotic life as an urchin on the streets of Bondi is vividly recalled, as is the description of the social life of working-class Jews at the end of the Great Depression and the beginning of World War II. The novel The Boys from Bondi is based on his time in the Isabella Lazarus Home. It is here that the meeting of the two Jewish cultures – the 'reffos' and the 'anglos' – is so graphically described.When he was 14, <mask> was sent out into the world as an apprentice printer, living on lowly wages in crude rooming houses – and worse followed when he left to work in what he succinctly described as the 'inferno' of a glass factory. He had a talent for writing and, after working at Nock and Kirby (a hardware store) in their advertising department, he joined the Sydney Sun as a young reporter, and later became editor of the Sydney Jewish News. He gave himself an education by reading in public libraries and through second-hand books. In 1953, he left Sydney for Melbourne, where he became advertising manager for Rockmans Stores. Like many young Australians in the 1950s, he travelled overseas. He met and married Rosaline Fox in London in 1957 and they returned to Melbourne where he resumed work at Rockmans. Home was a rented flat in the beach-side suburb Elwood, where their eldest son, Daniel, was born.With the dream of having a real home for the first time in his life, he took the family to the raw outer-Melbourne suburb of Box Hill, where his sons Peter and Toby were born, and where he and Ros later fostered a young boy named John from a war-torn background. <mask> worked in advertising agencies as a copywriter and then formed his own business, Collins Advertising, in a home-made office he built in his garden. In the short story The Value of a Nail (Meanjin, 1984), <mask> eulogised that great Australian institution the hardware store, and in real life he gained creative pleasure from woodworking, establishing the 'Toby Toys' range for preschool children. He wrote articles and short stories for magazines and newspapers, many of which are published in anthologies, and a radio play called Shabbatai!, which is an irreverent take on a bizarre character in Jewish history. A prize-winning short story, The Balconies, provided the impetus for The Boys from Bondi, published by the University of Queensland Press in 1987. But readers wanted to know what happened next. The sequel, Going Home, was published in 1993, and Joshua (1995) completed the trilogy.The three titles were published in 2001 as the single-volume A Promised Land? The book was described as one of the significant family sagas of Australian youth. <mask> chose the title to reflect the complex feelings his central characters have towards Australia and Israel. The sea, beach and sun were always the restorative elements in his life. As a neglected child, the beach had been his haven from the often confusing world around him. In Melbourne, he and Ros returned to Elwood for their last 20 years together with their family and another of his great pleasures, sailing. In 1999, they became members of the newly formed Kehilat Nitzan congregation, founded on the egalitarian principles of Conservative Judaism (Masorti).He also became an enthusiastic student at the Florence Melton Adult Education School where he attended courses in Jewish history, philosophy, literature, and culture. He considered himself a secular Jew but also wrote:

Am I a Jewish fiction writer or a writer of Jewish fiction? They are, for me, one and indivisible – without my sense of Jewish history, I would not be a writer… I believe, too, that my writing….has its genesis in our Australian ethos; it would be most peculiar if it did not… It is the Australian–Jewish environment that takes priority and provides the parameters for my work…

<mask> is outlived by his wife Ros; sons Daniel, Peter and Toby; daughter-in-law Rhonda; grandsons Joshua, Eli and Isaac; and foster son John. Selected works
 Troubles: 21 short stories
 The Boys from Bondi
 Jacob's ladder (US edition of The Boys from Bondi)
 Going home
 Joshua
 A Promised land? Alva's boy: an unsentimental memoir

References

Levi, John S. These are the names: Jewish lives in Australia, 1788–1850, (Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 2006)
Levi, John S. and G. F. J. Bergman. Australian Genesis: Jewish convicts and settlers 1788–1860 (Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 2002)

External links
 Author's official site

1928 births
2008 deaths
20th-century Australian novelists
20th-century Australian male writers
21st-century Australian novelists
Australian male novelists
Australian male short story writers
Australian people of Dutch-Jewish descent
Jewish Australian writers
Writers from Sydney
Poets from Sydney
Australian male poets
Australian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Australian poets
20th-century Australian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Australian short story writers
21st-century Australian short story writers
21st-century Australian male writers

masks:
Alan Alva Collins
Collins
Alan Collins
Collins
Collins
Lydia Collins
Alan Collins
Alan Collins
Collins
Collins
Alan
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins


texts:
<mask>, <mask> Woodhouselee FRSE (15 October 17475 January 1813) was a Scottish advocate, judge, writer and historian who was a Professor of Universal History, and Greek and Roman Antiquities at the University of Edinburgh. Life
Tytler was born in the Old Town of Edinburgh, the eldest son of Ann Craig of Costerton (1722–1783) and her husband William Tytler of Woodhouselee (author of Inquiry into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots). He was educated at Edinburgh High School and Kensington Academy in London (1763/64), and then studied law at the University of Edinburgh, qualifying as an advocate in 1770. In 1773 he was living and working with his father, also an advocate, at Campbells Close on the Royal Mile. In 1780 he was appointed joint professor of Civil History at the University of Edinburgh. He then moved to Browns Square. He became sole professor in 1786.In 1790 he became Judge Advocate of Scotland. In 1802 he became a Lord of Session in the Scottish Courts, with the judicial title Lord Woodhouselee. Tytler's other positions included Senator of the College of Justice and George Commissioner of Justiciary in Scotland. Tytler was a friend of Robert Burns, and prevailed upon him to remove lines from his poem "Tam o' Shanter" which were insulting to the legal and clerical professions. In 1811 he retired from his role as Senator of the College of Justice his place being filled by David Williamson, Lord Balgray. He died at his townhouse at 65 Princes Street in Edinburgh and was buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard. The vault lies on the west side of the section known as the Covenanter's Prison which is generally closed to public view.Family

In 1776 he married <mask> of Balnain. Their children included <mask> Tytler, traveller and historian, <mask> Tytler, a lawyer, <mask> Tytler, Assistant Judge and author in Bengal, India, and <mask> Tytler, a lawyer and historian. Translation
Tytler wrote a treatise that is important in the history of translation theory, the Essay on the Principles of Translation (London, 1791). It has been argued in a 1975 book by Gan Kechao that Yan Fu's famous translator's dictum of fidelity, clarity and elegance came from Tytler. Tytler said that translation should fully represent the 1) ideas and 2) style of the original and should 3) possess the ease of original composition. Quotations on democracy

In his Lectures, Tytler expressed a critical view of democracy in general and representative democracies such as republics in particular. He believed that "a pure democracy is a chimera", and that "All government is essentially of the nature of a monarchy".In discussing the Athenian democracy, after noting that a great number of the population were actually enslaved, he went on to say, "Nor were the superior classes in the actual enjoyment of a rational liberty and independence. They were perpetually divided into factions, which servilely ranked themselves under the banners of the contending demagogues; and these maintained their influence over their partisans by the most shameful corruption and bribery, of which the means were supplied alone by the plunder of the public money". Speaking about the measure of freedom enjoyed by the people in a republic or democracy, Tytler wrote, "The people flatter themselves that they have the sovereign power. These are, in fact, words without meaning. It is true they elected governors; but how are these elections brought about? In every instance of election by the mass of a people—through the influence of those governors themselves, and by means the most opposite to a free and disinterested choice, by the basest corruption and bribery. But those governors once selected, where is the boasted freedom of the people?They must submit to their rule and control, with the same abandonment of their natural liberty, the freedom of their will, and the command of their actions, as if they were under the rule of a monarch". Tytler dismisses the more optimistic vision of democracy by commentators such as Montesquieu as "nothing better than an Utopian theory, a splendid chimera, descriptive of a state of society that never did, and never could exist; a republic not of men, but of angels", for "While man is being instigated by the love of power—a passion visible in an infant, and common to us even with the inferior animals—he will seek personal superiority in preference to every matter of a general concern". "Or at best, he will employ himself in advancing the public good, as the means of individual distinction and elevation: he will promote the interest of the state from the selfish but most useful passion of making himself considerable in that establishment which he labors to aggrandize. Such is the true picture of man as a political agent". However, Tytler does admit that there are individual exceptions to the rule, and that he is ready to allow "that this form of government is the best adapted to produce, though not the most frequent, yet the most striking, examples of virtue in individuals", paradoxically because a "democratic government opposes more impediments to disinterested patriotism than any other form. To surmount these, a pitch of virtue is necessary which, in other situations, where the obstacles are less great and numerous, is not called in to exertion. The nature of a republican government gives to every member of the state an equal right to cherish views of ambition, and to aspire to the highest offices of the commonwealth; it gives to every individual of the same title with his fellows to aspire at the government of the whole".Tytler believed that democratic forms of government such as those of Greece and Rome have a natural evolution from initial virtue toward eventual corruption and decline. In Greece, for example, Tytler argues that "the patriotic spirit and love of ingenious freedom ... became gradually corrupted as the nation advanced in power and splendour". Tytler further states: "Patriotism always exists in the greatest degree in rude nations, and in an early period of society. Like all other affections and passions, it operates with the greatest force where it meets with the greatest difficulties ... but in a state of ease and safety, as if wanting its appropriate nourishment, it languishes and decays". ... "It is a law of nature to which no experience has ever furnished an exception, that the rising grandeur and opulence of a nation must be balanced by the decline of its heroic virtues". Debatable attribution

The following quotation has been attributed to Tytler, although it has also been occasionally attributed to Alexis de Tocqueville:

A democracy is always temporary in nature; it simply cannot exist as a permanent form of government. A democracy will continue to exist up until the time that voters discover that they can vote themselves generous gifts from the public treasury.From that moment on, the majority always votes for the candidates who promise the most benefits from the public treasury, with the result that every democracy will finally collapse due to loose fiscal policy, which is always followed by a dictatorship. The average age of the world's greatest civilizations from the beginning of history has been about 200 years. During those 200 years, these nations always progressed through the following sequence: From bondage to spiritual faith; From spiritual faith to great courage; From courage to liberty; From liberty to abundance; From abundance to selfishness; From selfishness to complacency; From complacency to apathy; From apathy to dependence; From dependence back into bondage. This text was popularized as part of a longer piece commenting on the 2000 U.S. presidential election, which began circulating on the Internet during or shortly after the election's controversial conclusion. There is no reliable record of <mask>'s having written any part of the text. In fact, it actually comprises two parts which did not begin to appear together until the 1970s. The first paragraph's earliest known appearance is in an op-ed piece by Elmer T. Peterson in the 9 December 1951 The Daily Oklahoman, which attributed it to Tytler:

Two centuries ago, a somewhat obscure Scotsman named Tytler made this profound observation: "A democracy cannot exist as a permanent form of government.It can only exist until the majority discovers it can vote itself largess out of the public treasury. After that, the majority always votes for the candidate promising the most benefits with the result the democracy collapses because of the loose fiscal policy ensuing, always to be followed by a dictatorship, then a monarchy". The list beginning "From bondage to spiritual faith" is commonly known as the "Tytler Cycle" or the "Fatal Sequence". Its first known appearance was in a 1943 speech by Henning W. Prentiss, Jr., president of the Armstrong Cork Company and former president of the National Association of Manufacturers, delivered at the February 1943 convocation of the General Alumni Society of the University of Pennsylvania. The speech was subsequently published under the titles "The Cult of Competency" and "Industrial Management in a Republic". Works
 (1771). Piscatory Eclogues, with other Poetical Miscellanies of Phinehas Fletcher.(1778). The Decisions of the Court of Sessions, from its First Institution to the Present Time, supplementary volume to Lord Kames's Dictionary of Decisions. (1782). Plan and Outline of a Course of Lectures on Universal History. (1784). Essay on the Life and Character of Petrarch, with Translation of Seven Sonnets. (1788).Life and Writings of Dr John Gregory. (1791). Essay on the Principles of Translation. (1792). The Robbers: A Tragedy, translation of Schiller's Die Räuber. (1798). A Critical Examination of Mr. Whitaker's Course of Hannibal over the Alps.(1799). Ireland Profiting by Example, a political pamphlet. (1800). Essay on the Military Law and the Practice of Courts-Martial. (1801). Elements of General History, Ancient and Modern (an extended version of his 1782 lectures). (1801).Essay on Laura and Petrarch. (1807). Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Honourable Henry Home of Kames. See also
 Playfair cycle
 Translation theory
 Strauss–Howe generational theory
 Dynastic cycle, Chinese history

General:
 Cyclical theory
 Social cycle theory
 Societal collapse

Notes

External links

Tytler, <mask>, <mask> (1747–1813)
Significant Scots <mask> Tytler
Bartleby quotation
The New International Encyclopædia
A Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen

1747 births
1813 deaths
British translation scholars
Academics from Edinburgh
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Members of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh
Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard
Members of the Faculty of Advocates
Scottish historians
Woodhouselee
Scottish political philosophers
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Scottish legal writers
Historians of Scotland
Scottish biographers
Scottish classical scholars
Legal historians
Writers from Edinburgh
Lawyers from Edinburgh

masks:
Alexander Fraser Tytler
Lord
Ann Fraser
Patrick Fraser
James Fraser
Alexander Fraser
William Fraser
Alexander Tytler
Alexander Fraser
Lord Woodhouselee
Alexander Fraser


texts:
<mask><mask> (1846–1937) was the founder of international charity The Leprosy Mission. In India in the 1860s he witnessed the severe consequences of the disease and vowed to make caring for those with leprosy his life work. The Mission he established all those years ago is still active today. Early life
<mask> was born in Ireland in 1846. He grew up in Abbeyleix, Queens County where his father was an estate manager for the Cosby family. The <mask>s earned enough to send <mask> and his three brothers to boarding school at Kilkenny College. Ireland in the 1840s and '50s was a tough environment to grow up in – the country was immersed in the Great Famine.Over one million people emigrated from Ireland during the late 1840s. North America and the colonies were the favoured destinations of those who could afford to leave. It is not surprising then that <mask> himself dreamed of finding a new, more promising life, in distant lands. In 1866 he set out to find his fortune in the goldfields of Australia. Three years later he returned to Dublin, his ambitions unfulfilled. But it wasn't long before he was setting sail again. One of his brothers was serving in the police force in India and invited Wellesley to join him.Always on the look out for a challenge, <mask> departed for Faizabad, North East India, in 1869. <mask> <mask>'s Christian faith
Although <mask> <mask> had gone to a Church of Ireland church as a child, he'd never particularly taken the Christian faith seriously. That was until he found himself at the start of a voyage that was to take him a long way from home. In Gravesend, fog delayed the departure of his ship bound for Australia. Remembering his childhood girlfriend's request to him before he left to attend church whenever he could, he stopped by one Sunday at Gravesend Parish church. There, he says he had a sense of God's presence in a way he'd never known before and he committed his life to Christ. First visit to India
When Wellesley reached India in 1869, his brother had been moved to the north west of the country and he found himself alone in a strange land.He put aside his original intention to join the police and instead focused his energies on learning Hindi. He lodged with an old German Lutheran missionary who was able to teach him the local language. At this time he began to feel that God was calling him to missionary work. So he applied to work with the American Presbyterian Mission. They accepted him and sent him as a teacher to one of their schools in Ambala in the Punjab in north India. The leader of the American Mission in Ambala was Dr JH Morrison. Wellesley began to hear from his colleagues about how Dr Morrison looked after some 'beggars who were lepers'.Wellesley had no idea what this meant. He had only heard about leprosy and 'lepers' from Bible stories. One day Dr Morrison invited him to visit the beggars' huts with him. Wellesley was quite shocked by what he saw. Many of them had clawed hands, some were blind, some had disfigured faces. Afterwards, <mask> wrote: 'I almost shuddered, yet I was at the same time fascinated, and I felt that if there was ever a Christlike work in the world it was to go amongst these poor sufferers and bring them the consolation of the gospel.' All the while <mask> had been in India, he had been corresponding with the childhood girlfriend, Alice Grahame, who'd encouraged him to go to church.<mask> proposed in one letter and they became engaged. In 1870 Alice sailed to India and that year they were married in Bombay Cathedral. The dry heat of the Punjab had a bad effect on Alice's health. Two years after she arrived it was clear that she would be not be able to maintain a good quality of life in India, and so <mask> resigned from the American Mission and together they returned to Ireland. The 'Mission to Lepers' is born
Having to return to Ireland was a deep disappointment for <mask>. But it provided him with plenty of opportunities to talk to people about the problems faced by those with leprosy in India. In 1874 friends of <mask> and Alice, the Pim sisters, invited them to stay with them in Dublin.The sisters then invited some of their friends over and asked <mask> to describe his work with leprosy-affected people. The stories that Wellesley told captured the imagination; very little had ever been communicated before to people in the West about leprosy. A larger venue than the Pims' sisters living room was found and Wellesley talked about his work to a wider audience. He explained to people about some of the financial needs: 'For as little as £5 an adult leper can be cared for in an asylum, and a child for much less than that.' <mask>'s talks were also produced in booklet form, entitled Lepers in India. It soon sold out and had to be reprinted. The Pim sisters hesitantly agreed to try and raise £30 a year for leprosy work in India.Alice's health had significantly improved and they were able to return to India in 1875. <mask> had been appointed a lay-missionary with the Church of Scotland. Initially, he was preaching and then in his spare time doing whatever he could for leprosy sufferers, using some of the funds sent over to India by the Pim sisters to build shelters. His divided loyalties caused tension between <mask> and the Scottish Mission who wanted him to focus more on his teaching and preaching work. In 1878 he was given permission to take a month's leave and he returned to Ireland. Once <mask> was back in his home country The Mission to Lepers became properly formalised. <mask> reported that they were caring for about 100 leprosy-affected people, mostly in north India.Charlotte Pim informed the new committee that they were raising about £900 a year. <mask> <mask> was appointed the first secretary and treasurer to work from India. The <mask>s and their three children went back to India in 1879. At this stage, <mask> was still trying to combine his work for the Church of Scotland Mission with his unpaid work as secretary for the Mission to Lepers. Alice's health again became fragile. In 1882, the Scottish Mission board ordered them home and took Wellesley off their missionary lists. Later that year the <mask>s moved to Edinburgh where Wellesley took up position as secretary of a charity that worked with women in India.Still he continued his work with the Mission to Lepers. As the income continued to increase, it became possible to extend the work further. In 1886, <mask> <mask> gave up his post with the Scottish charity and was appointed full-time secretary of The Mission to Lepers in India. That same year, <mask> and Alice set off for a tour of India to see for themselves the vast needs of those with leprosy throughout the whole country. They did not return until the spring of 1887. The growth of the Mission
Wellesley's tour of India had highlighted to him how great the need for The Mission to Lepers work was. He had witnessed other missionaries' attempts to care for those with leprosy, often without the support of their Mission organisation.When he visited projects, <mask> was seen as the expert and also a source of financial support. Where possible, he provided the funds necessary to keep the asylums or shelters going. Steadily, income to the Mission to Lepers grew. Three 'auxiliaries', or fundraising bases, sprung up in England – in Brighton, Cheltenham and Bolton. <mask> and Alice returned to Scotland in 1887 and Wellesley began to concentrate on growing the Mission. Letters were arriving from different centres in India asking for support for leprosy work. Up until this point, Wellesley had focused solely on India.But then came a letter from Mandalay in Burma asking for help. The Mission to Lepers responded by providing funds for the building of a home for those with leprosy. By 1891, China was added to the list of countries that The Mission to Lepers was working in. In the last decade of the century the <mask>s were travelling East and West. In 1892 <mask> toured the US and Canada speaking about his work with leprosy sufferers. <mask> <mask> was becoming a key figure in Mission circles, and his knowledge and experience of leprosy work was sought after. In 1893 he was invited to Chicago to speak at the World Congress of Missions.In 1906 <mask> <mask> set off again for a tour of the East. Then in 1913 <mask> embarked on what was to be his last voyage to visit the work that The Mission to Lepers had started. Wellesely and <mask> journeyed through China, then on to New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Japan, Korea, back to China and then on to Malaysia, Singapore and India. During this tour he gave over 150 addresses, met with many government officials and visited leprosy homes everywhere. The situation they returned to in Scotland, and Europe, was difficult to bear. The workload for the Mission increased significantly. They lost a couple of key members of staff within a short space of time.Then war broke out in 1914 and one of <mask>'s sons, Dermot, was killed in the fighting. Retirement
In 1917, at the age of 71, <mask> <mask> made the decision to retire from his work with the Mission. He had spent the best part of 50 years dedicated to serving those with leprosy. By the time of his retirement, The Mission to Lepers was working with over 14,000 leprosy-affected people in 12 countries. His granddaughter later wrote about him: 'He was not a saint, nor even a clever man... But I do not ever remember hearing from him an ungenerous remark, or seeing him angry apart from minor irritations. His great gift was single-mindedness, and a simplicity that perhaps could not see the difficulties which a more sophisticated mind might see.'<mask> <mask> died in 1937, aged 91. <mask> <mask>'s impact on leprosy work
Before the birth of the Mission to Lepers, support for leprosy work was not very high on people's agendas. <mask> <mask> saw a huge need when he first visited the leprosy huts in Ambala and set about raising awareness of the plight of those with leprosy, which subsequently raised financial support allowing the work to grow and continue. The Leprosy Mission exists to this day. In one of his last speeches before his retirement, <mask> said: 'The Mission has been born and cradled in prayer. It has been brought up on prayer; it has been nourished on prayer; and prayer has been at the bottom of its success since the first moments of its life.' References

External links
 The Leprosy Mission International

1937 deaths
1846 births
Irish Christian missionaries
People educated at Kilkenny College
Anglican missionaries in India
Christian medical missionaries
Irish expatriates in India
Irish evangelicals
Evangelical Anglicans

masks:
Wellesley C
. Bailey
Wellesley Bailey
Bailey
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Bailey
Bailey
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Alice Bailey
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
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Bailey
Wellesley


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<mask> (; February 21, 1910 – July 12, 1979) was an American mobster. Galante was rarely seen without a cigar, leading to the nickname "The Cigar" and "Lilo" (a Sicilian term for cigar). Galante had a long career in organized crime and rose to acting boss (unofficial) of the Bonanno crime family. He was assassinated in 1979 while dining in a restaurant. Biography

Background
<mask> was born on February 21, 1910, in a tenement building in the East Harlem section of Manhattan. His parents, Vincenzo "James" <mask> and Vincenza Russo, had emigrated from Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, to New York City in 1906, where Vincenzo was a fisherman. <mask> had two brothers, Samuel and <mask>, and two sisters, Josephine and <mask>.On February 10, 1945, Galante married Helen Marulli, by whom he had three children; <mask>, <mask>, and <mask>. For the last 20 years of his life, <mask> lived with Ann Acquavella; the couple had two children together. He was the uncle to Bonanno crime family capo <mask> <mask>. While in prison in 1931, doctors diagnosed Galante as having a psychopathic personality. Galante owned the Rosina Costume Company in Brooklyn, New York  and was associated with the Abco Vending Company of West New York, New Jersey. Early years
At the age of 10, Galante was sent to reform school due to his criminal activities. He soon formed a juvenile street gang on New York's Lower East Side.By the age of 15, Galante had dropped out of seventh grade. As a teenager, Galante became a Mafia associate during the Prohibition era, becoming a leading enforcer by the end of the decade. During this period, Galante also worked as a fish sorter and at an artificial flower shop. On December 12, 1925, the 15-year-old Galante pleaded guilty to assault charges. On December 22, 1926, Galante was sentenced to at least two and a half years in state prison. In August 1930, Galante was arrested for the murder of police officer Walter DeCastilla during a payroll robbery. However, Galante was never indicted.Also in 1930, New York Police Department (NYPD) officer Joseph Meenahan  caught Galante and other gang members attempting to hijack a truck in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. In the ensuing gun battle, Galante wounded Meenahan and a six-year-old bystander, both survived. On February 8, 1931, after pleading guilty to attempted robbery Galante was sentenced to 12 and a half years in state prison. On May 1, 1939, Galante was released from prison on parole. By 1940, Galante was carrying out "hits" for Vito Genovese, the official underboss of the Luciano crime family. Galante had an underworld reputation for viciousness and was suspected by the NYPD of involvement in over eighty murders. Galante reportedly had a cold, dead-eyed stare with eyes that betrayed an utter indifference to human life, scaring both law enforcement officers and other Mafia members.Ralph Salerno, a former NYPD detective, once said, "Of all the gangsters that I've met personally, and I've met dozens of them in all of my years, there were only two who, when I looked them straight in the eye, I decided I wouldn't want them to be really personally mad at me. Aniello Dellacroce was one and <mask> was the other. They had bad eyes, I mean, they had the eyes of killers. You could see how frightening they were, the frigid glare of a killer." In 1943, <mask> allegedly murdered Carlo Tresca, the publisher of an anti-fascist newspaper in New York. Genovese, living in exile in Italy, offered to kill Tresca as a favor to Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. Genovese allegedly gave the murder contract to <mask>.On January 11, 1943, <mask> allegedly shot and killed Tresca as he stepped outside his newspaper office in Manhattan, and then got in a car and drove away. Although Galante was arrested as a suspect, no one was ever charged in the murder. After the Tresca murder, <mask> was sent back to prison on a parole violation. On December 21, 1944, <mask> was released from prison. Later years

In 1953, boss Joseph Bonanno sent Galante to Montreal, Quebec to supervise the family drug business there. He worked with Vincenzo Cotroni of the Cotroni crime family in the French Connection. The Bonannos were importing huge amounts of heroin by ship into Montreal and then sending it into the United States.Police also estimated that Galante was collecting gambling profits in Montreal worth about $50 million per year. In April 1956, due to <mask>'s strong-arm extortion tactics, the Canadian Government deported him back to the United States. In October 1957, Bonanno and <mask>, now a consigliere, held a hotel meeting in Palermo, Sicily on plans to import heroin into the United States. Attendees included Lucky Luciano and other American mobsters, with a Sicilian Mafia delegation led by Giuseppe Genco Russo. As part of the agreement, Sicilian mobsters would come to the U.S. to distribute the narcotics. Galante brought many young men, known as Zips, from his family home of Castellammare del Golfo, Trapani, to work as bodyguards, contract killers and drug traffickers. In 1958, after being indicted on drug conspiracy charges, Galante went into hiding.On June 3, 1959, New Jersey State Police officers arrested <mask> after stopping his car on the Garden State Parkway close to New York City. Federal agents had recently discovered that Galante was hiding in a house on Pelican Island off the South Jersey shore. After posting $100,000 bail, he was released. On May 18, 1960, <mask> was indicted on a second set of narcotics charges; he surrendered voluntarily. <mask>'s first narcotics trial started on November 21, 1960; one of his co-defendants was William Bentvena. From the beginning, the first trial was characterized by jurors and alternates dropping out and coercive courtroom displays by the defendants. On May 15, 1961, the judge declared a mistrial.The jury foreman fell down some stairs at an abandoned building in the middle of the night and was unable to continue the trial due to injury. <mask> was sentenced to 20 days in jail for contempt of court. On July 10, 1962, after being convicted in his second narcotics trial, <mask> was sentenced to 20 years in federal prison. Power grab

In January 1974, <mask> was released from prison on parole. Following his release from prison, <mask> allegedly ordered the bombing of the doors to the private mausoleum of his enemy Frank Costello in St. Michael's Cemetery, who had died in 1973. On February 23, 1974, at a meeting at the Americana Hotel in Manhattan, the Commission named Philip "Rusty" Rastelli as boss. When Rastelli was sent to prison in 1976, Galante seized control of the Bonannos as unofficial acting boss.During the late 1970s, <mask> allegedly organized the murders of at least eight members of the Gambino family, with whom he had an intense rivalry, in order to take over a massive drug-trafficking operation. On March 3, 1978, <mask>'s parole was revoked by the United States Parole Commission for allegedly associating with other Bonanno mobsters, and he was sent back to prison. However, on February 27, 1979, a judge ruled that the government had illegally revoked <mask>'s parole and ordered his immediate release. Death

The New York crime families were alarmed at <mask>'s brazen attempt to take over the narcotics market. Genovese crime family boss Frank Tieri began contacting Cosa Nostra leaders to build a consensus for <mask>'s murder, even obtaining approval from the retired Joseph Bonanno. In 1979, they received a boost when the official boss, Rastelli, sought Commission approval to kill Galante. Joseph Massino, a Bonanno soldier loyal to Rastelli, relayed the request to the Commission, which swiftly approved a contract on <mask>.On July 12, 1979, <mask> was killed just as he finished eating lunch on an open patio at Joe and Mary's Italian-American Restaurant at 205 Knickerbocker Avenue in Bushwick, Brooklyn. He was dining with Leonard Coppola, a Bonanno capo and staunch Galante loyalist, and restaurant owner/cousin Giuseppe Turano, a Bonanno soldier. Also sitting at the table were <mask>'s Sicilian bodyguards, Baldassare Amato and Cesare Bonventre. At 2:45 pm, three ski-masked men entered the restaurant, walked into the patio, and opened fire with shotguns and handguns. <mask>, Turano, and Coppola were killed instantly. A picture of the murdered Galante showed a cigar still in his mouth. Amato and Bonventre, who had done nothing to protect <mask>, were left unharmed.The gunmen then ran out of the restaurant. Aftermath
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York refused to allow a funeral mass for <mask> due to his notoriety. <mask> was buried at Saint John's Cemetery in Middle Village, Queens. In 1984, Bonventre was found murdered in a New Jersey warehouse, allegedly to guarantee his silence in the Galante murder. On January 13, 1987, Anthony Indelicato was sentenced to 40 years in prison, as a defendant in the Commission trial, for the <mask>, Coppola, and Turano murders. <mask> is depicted in the first episode of the UK history TV channel Yesterday's documentary series Mafia's Greatest Hits. References

Books
 Pistone, Joseph D.; & Woodley, Richard (1999) Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia, Hodder & Stoughton. .
 Pistone, Joseph D.; & Brandt, Charles (2007).Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business, Running Press. .
 DeStefano, Anthony. The Last Godfather: Joey Massino & the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family. California: Citadel, 2006. External links
"FBI Files <mask>nte 1 through 12"
Seize the Night: <mask>
<mask> "Lilo" <mask> at Find A Grave

1910 births
1979 deaths
1979 murders in the United States
American drug traffickers
American crime bosses
American people convicted of murder
Bonanno crime family
Bosses of the Bonanno crime family
Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens)
Catholics from New York (state)
Deaths by firearm in Brooklyn
Fugitives
Mafia hitmen
Male murder victims
Murdered American gangsters of Sicilian descent
People from East Harlem
People murdered by the Bonanno crime family
People murdered in New York City
People with antisocial personality disorder

masks:
Carmine Galante
Camillo Carmine Galante
Galante
Carmine Galante
Peter Galante
Angelina Galante
James Galante
Camille Galante
Angela Galante
Carmine Galante
James Carmine
Galante
Carmine Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
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Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Carmine Gala
Carmine Galante
Carmine
Galante


texts:
<mask>tmann (13 December 1785 – 29 May 1838) was an operatic soprano. Early life
Milder was born in Constantinople where her father, Felix Milder from Salzburg, was employed by the Austrian ambassador Baron Herbert von Rathkeal as pastry chef; her mother was lady-in-waiting to the ambassador's wife. When <mask> was five years old the family left for Bucharest, where Felix worked as translator until they had to leave because of the Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791). After he had briefly worked for the ambassador again, the family returned to Bucharest, only to be forced to flee again when pestilence broke out there. After quarantine in Herrmannstadt, the family settled in Vienna. Here <mask>, now aged 10, received her first formal education which included the German language she had not spoken before despite being fluent in French, Italian, modern Greek and Romanian. She became exposed to opera and church music, and begged her parents to let her receive a musical education.After some initial, and inadequate, teaching by the local schoolmaster, Sigismund von Neukomm heard her and began teaching the 16-year-old for two years. On Schikaneder's advice, she also studied with Salieri. Early career

Schikaneder had opened the Theater an der Wien in 1801 and Josepha Weber, Mozart's sister-in-law, negotiated on Neukomm's behalf for a position for <mask> in that theatre. Milder was engaged for 500 gulden, and made her stage debut there as Juno in Süßmayr's opera Der Spiegel von Arkadien on 9 April 1803, aged 19. Soon she gained major roles and changed to the Theater am Kärntnertor for a contract worth 2,000 gulden. In 1805, she sang the title role in the first performance of Beethoven's Leonore, and again in the second and third versions in 1806 and 1814, when in the final revision its title was permanently changed to Fidelio. Luigi Cherubini wrote his German opera Faniska for her in 1806.She was intended to sing Beethoven's concert aria , Op. 65, at his momentous Academy Concert on 22 December 1808 (when the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies, Fourth Piano Concerto and Choral Fantasia were heard for the first time under the composer's direction), but following a quarrel between Beethoven and Peter Hauptmann, Milder's soon-to-be husband, she refused and was replaced by a Dem. Josephine Killitschky. 1809–1813
In 1809, Napoleon was so impressed by her performance in Martin's opera Una cosa rara and other works that he invited her to Paris, but she refused due to her impending marriage to Viennese jeweler Peter Hauptmann in 1810. The couple had a daughter in 1811. She contributed to the success of Joseph Weigl's Das Waisenhaus (1808) and, as Emmeline, Die Schweizer Familie (1809). Her performance in Gluck's Iphigénie en Tauride in 1812 was largely responsible for the Gluck revival in Vienna and Berlin.She sang in the first Vienna performance of Cherubini's Médée in 1812. In 1812 and 1813, she toured Breslau, Berlin, Karsruhe, Stuttgart and Frankfurt. 1814–1838

The Austrian currency fell sharply around 1814, and Milder-Hauptmann received offers for roles at the Berlin Court Opera. Accompanied by her sister Jeanette Antonie Bürde (b. 1799), an accomplished composer and pianist, she travelled to Berlin in May 1815 where she would stay for the next 14 years. Gaspare Spontini was music director at the Berlin Court Opera, and she sang the role of Statira in the first Berlin performance of his highly underrated opera Olimpie in 1821 as well as in the premieres of his operas Nurmahal (as Namouna) in 1822 and Agnes von Hohenstaufen (as Irmengard) in 1827. She again sang in operas by Gluck and Weigl in Berlin, was appointed prima donna assoluta and became a member of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin in 1821.On 11 March 1829,  she sang in Mendelssohn's momentous revival of Bach's St Matthew Passion. Mendelssohn wrote the concert aria Tutto è silenzio in 1829 for her. Following a quarrel with Spontini, she left Berlin in 1829 and visited Russia, Sweden and Denmark. She then returned to Berlin, where she made her last public appearance in 1836. She died in Berlin, and is buried on the Alter Domfriedhof St. Hedwig. Other dedications
Joseph Haydn, whose pupil Neukomm was, remarked on Milder's voice, "it's like a house", and Georg August Griesinger described it "like pure metal". Johann Friedrich Reichardt said Milder's voice was the most beautiful he had heard since Elisabeth Mara's.Goethe was deeply moved by Milder's performance when he heard her in 1823 in Marienbad; on the occasion of Milder's 25th stage anniversary on 9 April 1828, he sent her a dedicated copy of his play Iphigenia in Tauris. Similarly, after a successful production of Gluck's Alceste, the composer's nephew presented Milder with a miniature painting of Gluck and the score of Alceste. Milder was however criticised for a lack of vocal agility. Schubert said: "her voice is the best, her trills are the worst." Generally, her performances of works by Rossini were disliked by critics. Many composers dedicated works to Milder-Hauptmann, including Bernhard Klein, Neukomm, Carl Blum, Conradin Kreutzer, Joseph Wolfram, . Among the more notable works are:

Kreutzer wrote his monodrama Adele von Budoy (1821, in 1823 revived as Cordelia with Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient) for Milder.Franz Schubert wrote the lied "Der Hirt auf dem Felsen", D. 965, for Milder-Hauptmann which she premiered in Riga on 10 February 1830 and later that year also sang in Berlin. Milder had previously premiered Schubert's song "Die Forelle" and he had in 1824 dedicated the lied "Suleika II", D. 717, to her; the role of Estrella in his opera Alfonso und Estrella was designed for her, but the opera was never performed during Schubert's lifetime. The Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (XVI, 1814, col. 315) wrote: "Happy those for whom works are written!" ("Wohl denen, für die eigens componiert wird!"). Notes

References

: Tonkünstler-Lexicon Berlin's, Berlin, 1861, p. 375

1785 births
1838 deaths
19th-century German women opera singers
Austrian operatic sopranos
19th-century Austrian women opera singers

masks:
Pauline Anna Milder Haup
Anna
Anna
Anna


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Captain <mask>, 1st Baronet KCB RN (26 August 17806 December 1828), Royal Navy captain. Best known as one of Lord Nelson's protégés, Hoste was one of the great frigate captains of the Napoleonic wars, taking part in six major actions including the capture of the heavily fortified port of Kotor. He was, however, absent from Trafalgar having been sent with gifts to the Dey of Algiers. Childhood and education
He was the second of eight children of <mask> (1750–1805) and Margaret Stanforth. At the time of his birth his father was rector of Godwick and Tittleshall in Norfolk. He was born at Ingoldisthorpe, and the family later moved to Godwick Hall, east of Tittleshall, which was leased from Thomas Coke, who later became the 1st Earl of Leicester, of Holkham Hall. Hoste was educated for a time at King's Lynn and later at the Paston School in North Walsham, where Horatio Nelson himself had been to school some years previously.<mask> had arranged for Hoste's name to be entered in the books of  as a Captain's servant when he was just 5 years old, although he would not actually go to sea until he reached the age of 12 or 13. That time coincided with the outbreak of war with France in February 1793. Lacking any influence or naval contacts himself, Dixon Hoste asked his landlord, Thomas Coke, for assistance and was introduced to Nelson, then living nearby in Burnham Thorpe and who had recently been appointed as Captain of  a 64-gun third-rate, which was being fitted out at Chatham Dockyard. Early career

HMS Agamemnon

Nelson accepted Hoste to join him as a captain's servant on , which he boarded at Portsmouth at the end of April 1793. The ship joined the Mediterranean Fleet under Lord Hood, and it was in the Mediterranean and Adriatic that Hoste saw most of his naval service. Extracts from Nelson's letters to his wife mention Hoste frequently; for example: 'without exception one of the finest boys I ever met with' and 'his gallantry never can be exceeded, and each day rivets him stronger to my heart'. Another captain's servant on Agamemnon was Josiah Nisbet, Nelson's stepson, but the letters suggest that Hoste quickly became a favourite and that Josiah compared badly with him in many respects.Hoste was promoted to midshipman by Nelson on 1 February 1794 and served with him during the blockade of and subsequent assault on Corsica on 7 February. HMS Captain and the battle of Cape St Vincent

Hoste moved with Nelson to  in 1796 and was with him at the Battle of Cape St Vincent, When a British fleet under Admiral Sir John Jervis defeated a Spanish fleet almost twice its size. Captain was heavily involved in the fighting and captured the larger  and  of 112 and 80 guns, respectively. Captain started the battle towards the rear of the British line. Instead of continuing to follow the line, Nelson disobeyed orders and wore ship, and made for the Spanish van, which consisted of the 112-gun San Josef, the 80-gun San Nicolas and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. Captain engaged all three, assisted by  which had come to her aid. After an hour of exchanging broadsides which left both Captain and Culloden heavily damaged, Nelson found himself alongside the San Nicolas which he boarded and forced her surrender.San Josef attempted to come to the San Nicolas'''s aid, but became entangled with her compatriot and was left immobile. Nelson led his party from the deck of the San Nicolas onto the San Josef and captured her as well. HMS Theseus

In June 1797, he transferred to  a 74-gun third-rate. Theseus was a 'troubled' ship, and Nelson and a few handpicked officers, including Hoste, Captain Ralph Willett Miller and Lieutenant John Weatherhead, were sent aboard to restore order. The tactic was successful and Nelson received a letter from the would-be mutineers which stated, "We thank the Admiral (Nelson) for the Officers he has placed over us". In July, Theseus was present at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, although Hoste remained aboard and took no part in the assault. Following the death of a Lieutenant Weatherhead in the battle, Nelson promoted Hoste to lieutenant to fill the vacancy, his position being confirmed, thanks to his 'book time' in Europa, in February 1798.The battle of the Nile

Later that year, <mask>, still aboard HMS Theseus, was at the Battle of the Nile. The Royal Navy fleet was outnumbered, at least in firepower, by the French fleet, which boasted the 118-gun ship-of-the-line L'Orient, three 80-gun warships and nine of the popular 74-gun ships. The Royal Navy fleet in comparison had just thirteen 74-gun ships and one 50-gun fourth-rate. Nevertheless, the battle was a decisive victory for the British. Following the battle, Nelson sent his report to London, taking the precaution of sending a duplicate in the brig , commanded by Lieutenant Thomas Capel. At Naples, Capel was to carry on with the dispatch, handing command of Mutine to Hoste. Upon taking command, Hoste became an acting-captain at the age of 18.Hoste, carrying news of the victory, first sailed to Gibraltar, before rejoining the fleet, under St Vincent, off Cadiz. His promotion was confirmed in December 1798. Command
Hoste continued in command of the Mutine for the next three years, campaigning in Italy under Nelson, where in the autumn of 1799, he took part in the capture of Rome. He later served under Lord Keith, who knew little of him and his career appeared to have stalled until, possibly at Nelson's prompting, he was promoted post-captain by Lord St Vincent, First Lord of the Admiralty, in January 1802. At this time, Hoste was in Alexandria, where he contracted malaria and then a lung infection, which were to have a lasting effect on his health. He convalesced with Lord and Lady Elgin in Athens, where he began an education in classical antiquity, completed following his appointment to the frigate  in Florence, when his ship was cruising on the Italian coast. Hoste served almost continuously throughout the Peace of Amiens, returning to England briefly in April 1803 before being given command of  in October.Notable actions
Nelson summoned him to Cadiz in September 1805 and gave him command of the 32-gun frigate . Sent on a diplomatic mission to Algiers, he missed the Battle of Trafalgar by a matter of days, and only learned of Nelson's death on his return in November. He wrote to his father – "Not to have been in it is enough to make one mad, but to have lost such a friend besides is really sufficient to almost overwhelm me" (Hoste's letters). A number of successes while engaged on active service in the Mediterranean over the following 18 months brought Hoste to the attention of Lord Collingwood, who sent him into the Adriatic Sea. Here he single-handedly conducted an aggressive campaign against enemy shipping and coastal installations, bringing coastal trade with the enemy more or less to a halt. By the end of 1809, Hoste and his crew had captured or sunk over 200 enemy ships. His endeavours were rewarded with command, as commodore, of a small detachment of frigates, comprising HMS Amphion,  (36 guns),  (22 guns) and  (32 guns), operations continued and by establishing a base at Lissa, now known as Vis, Hoste was able to dominate the Adriatic with just four ships.In March and April 1810 alone, they took or destroyed 46 vessels. The French and their allies became so frustrated by the disruption to their shipping that a Franco-Venetian squadron, under the command of an aggressive frigate commander named Bernard Dubourdieu, was dispatched and on 13 March 1811 they attacked Hoste's small force in what became known as the Battle of Lissa. Battle of Lissa

Dubourdieu's squadron of seven frigates and four smaller warships possessing a total of 276 guns and nearly 2,000 men significantly outnumbered Hoste with his 4 frigates mounting only 124 guns and manned by less than 900 men. The French officer imitated Nelson's attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English line from windward with his ships in two lines. However, signalling 'Remember Nelson' to rally his men, Hoste used his superior seamanship and gunnery to overcome the larger enemy force, with the loss of 50 men killed and 132 wounded. Dubourdieu was killed, one of the French frigates was driven on shore, another captured, and two of the Venetian frigates were taken. Hoste's signal had a profound effect on his men.It was universally greeted with loud cheers and Captain Hornby of the Volage wrote of it later: "Never again so long as I live shall I see so interesting or so glorious moment". Kotor, Split and Ragusa (Dubrovnik)Amphion was so badly damaged that she was obliged to return to England, where Hoste was given the command of  (38 guns), although he did not return to the Adriatic in her until 1812. Hoste continued to demonstrate the same kind of initiative and aggression as before. He helped capture Spalato (Split) in November 1813 with the assistance from the 35th regiment of foot. Then working with Montenegrin forces, he attacked the mountain fortress of Cattaro, hauling ships' cannon and mortars to positions above the fort using block and tackle. The French garrison had no alternative but to surrender, which it did on 5 January 1814. Hoste immediately repeated these tactics at Ragusa (now Dubrovnik), which also surrendered later on the 27th.Later life
<mask>'s health, compromised by his malaria and earlier lung infection, worsened and he was forced to return to England. In 1814, he was made a baronet, and in 1815 he was knighted KCB. In 1825, he was appointed to the royal yacht Royal Sovereign''. In January 1828, he developed a cold which affected his already weakened lungs, and he died of tuberculosis in London on 6 December 1828. He was buried in St John's Chapel, London. There is a memorial to him at St Paul's Cathedral. Personal life
He married Lady Harriet Walpole (1 March 179218 April 1875) on 17 April 1817.She was the daughter of Horatio Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford and Sophia Churchill. They had the following children:
 Caroline Harriet Clementina Hoste. Priscilla Anne Hoste (Unknown21 October 1854). Admiral Sir <mask> <mask> (19 March 181810 Sept 1868). Theodore Oxford <mask> (31 July 18191835). Psyche Rose Elizabeth <mask> (4 April 18228 July 1904). Wyndham Horatio <mask> (2 Feb 1825).Legacy
Hoste's actions at Cattaro and Ragusa were later immortalised in fiction, where they are attributed to Captain Jack Aubrey, the principal character in Patrick O'Brian's 20 novels of the Aubrey–Maturin series. One of the southernmost islands of Chile is named Hoste Island after him. A small islet in the entrance to the bay of Vis town is named Host after him, while The Sir William Hoste Cricket Club in Vis was founded by the Croatian islanders after learning that he had organised the game there during the British occupation of the island. The Hoste Hotel in Burnham Market, Norfolk, is such named after <mask> and features a Lord Nelson museum tribute. Once, while in conversation with Hoste's father, Nelson remarked:

Lord Radstock once wrote:

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

 Island of Vis
 Sir William Hoste Cricket Club
 The Hoste Arms Hotel
 William Hoste at Three Decks - Warships in the Age of Sail. 1780 births
1828 deaths
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
People from Ingoldisthorpe
Royal Navy officers
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Tuberculosis deaths in England
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
People educated at Paston College
People from Tittleshall

masks:
Sir William Hoste
Reverend Dixon Hoste
Dixon Hoste
Hoste
Hoste
William Legge
George Hoste
Raphael Hoste
Hoste
Nelson Hoste
William Hoste


texts:
<mask> or Turakhan Beg (; ; ; died in 1456) was a prominent Ottoman military commander and governor of Thessaly from 1423 until his death in 1456. He participated in many Ottoman campaigns of the second quarter of the 15th century, fighting against the Byzantines as well as against the Crusade of Varna. His repeated raids into the Morea transformed the local Byzantine despotate into an Ottoman dependency and opened the way for its conquest. At the same time, his administration of Thessaly, where he settled new peoples, founded the town of Tyrnavos and revitalized the economy, set the groundwork for Ottoman rule in the area for centuries to come. Life
Nothing is known of his birth date or early life, except that he was the son of <mask>. His father was a prominent general of Yürük origin who conquered Skopje in 1392 and was the first Ottoman governor of Bosansko Krajište. He is first mentioned in 1413 as governor of Vidin, and then again in 1422, when he fought against the Byzantine governor of Lamia, Kantakouzenos Strabomytes.During the Ottoman Interregnum he was one of the supporters of Mustafa Çelebi during the latter's struggle against Mehmed I and Murad II. He became governor of Thessaly in early 1423, and led his first major expedition in May–June of the same year, against the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece. His cavalry breached the recently rebuilt Hexamilion wall on 21/22 May and ravaged the interior of the peninsula unopposed. He attacked some Byzantine towns and settlements, such as Mystras, Leontari, Gardiki and Dabia. Aside from the plunder, the expedition was also probably a reconnaissance mission ultimately aimed against Venetian possessions in the area, as Venice was the main driving force behind attempts to unite the various Christian rulers of Greece against the Ottoman advance. Soon after, the Byzantine historian Doukas reports Turahan's presence on the shores of the Black Sea. At about the same time, he also campaigned in Epirus, defeated local Albanian tribes and made them tributary to the Ottoman state.In the 1430s, along with <mask> and Ishak <mask>, he participated in the campaigns that suppressed an Albanian revolt led by Gjergj Arianiti and Andrew Thopia. Despite the devastation visited upon the Peloponnese, Turahan's 1423 expedition was only a raid, and the Byzantine Despots of the Morea were able to restore their position and gradually over the next few years bring the entire peninsula under their control. In 1431 however Turahan again breached and destroyed the Hexamilion and took Thebes in 1435, to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Moreot Byzantines. The Despotate of the Morea, under the constant threat of renewed Turkish invasion, clung on to a precarious independence only through continuous gifts and payment of tribute to Turahan. In November 1443 Turahan participated in the Battle of Niš against John Hunyadi, which ended in an Ottoman defeat. During their retreat from Niš, <mask> <mask> and Kasim Pasha burned all villages between Niš and Sofia. Turahan persuaded Sultan Murad II to abandon Sofia as well, and follow a consequent scorched earth strategy against the Hungarian advance.Although the Hungarians were badly mauled in the Battle of Zlatitsa, in a subsequent action at Kunovica they were able to capture Mahmud <mask>, the Sultan's son-in-law, creating the impression of an overall victorious campaign. Contemporary Ottoman sources blame rivalry between Kasim and Turahan for the defeat at Kunovica, while some claim that the Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković bribed Turahan not to participate in the battle. <mask> fell from favour as a result and was banished by the Sultan to a prison in Tokat. Nevertheless, he was soon restored to his position, as he was present in Murad's 1446 campaign against the Morea. Murad was reportedly disheartened by the strength of the Hexamilion, but Turahan insisted on an assault. Aided by an artillery bombardment, the Ottomans again breached the Byzantine defences and ravaged the Peloponnese at will. As a result, the Despotate of the Morea was now officially reduced to an Ottoman vassal state.In early October 1452, <mask> and his sons Ahmed and Ömer led a large force into the Peloponnese. Sultan Mehmed II ordered them to remain there during the winter in order to prevent despots Thomas and Demetrios from assisting their brother, Emperor Constantine XI, during the Siege of Constantinople in 1453. <mask> again stormed the Hexamilion and penetrated into the Morea, raiding from Corinth through the Argolid and Arcadia to Messenia. The Byzantines put up little resistance after Hexamilion, although <mask>'s son Ahmed was captured in an ambush at Dervenakia and imprisoned in Mystras. The fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 had great repercussions in the Morea. The two despots, the brothers Demetrios and Thomas, heartily detested each other and were unpopular among their own subjects. A rebellion broke out against them in autumn, supported both by the local Albanian immigrants and the native Greeks, and spread quickly.As the Sultan's vassals, the despots called upon Turkish aid, and Turahan's son Ömer arrived in December. After a few successes, he departed after securing the release of his brother from captivity. The revolt did not subside, and in October 1454 Turahan himself was forced to intervene. After sacking a few fortresses, the rebellious populace capitulated. Turahan advised the two Palaiologoi to compose their differences and rule well, and then departed the peninsula. The two brothers were however unable to reconcile themselves, and soon reverted to quarreling and conspiring with Western powers against the Sultan. In retaliation, Mehmed II campaigned in the Morea in 1458 and seized the northwestern half of the country, which became an Ottoman province under Ömer.The rest of the despotate followed in 1460. <mask> himself was recalled to Adrianople in October 1455 and died ca. August 1456. He was buried at Kirk Kvak near Uzun Köprü in Thrace, but his memorial tomb (türbe) survives to this day in the city. His descendants, the <mask>ğlu, were wealthy landowners in Thessaly until the end of the Ottoman rule there in the late 19th century; with the exception of his sons however, they did not rise to any wider prominence. Legacy
<mask> <mask> ranked among the great, practically semi-autonomous Ottoman "marcher-lords" (uç beyi) of the 15th-century Balkans, along the likes of Evrenos. He was instrumental in the establishment of Ottoman rule in Thessaly and central Greece in general.Aside from his campaigns of conquest, he brought in 5,000 Turkish settlers (Yörüks and Koniars) whom he settled in a string of twelve villages across the province to strengthen Ottoman military control. In addition, according to <mask>'s Arab-language biography, which the Scottish traveller David Urquhart reported to be still extant in the 1830s in Tyrnavos, he was also the first to institute a Greek militia for the lawless mountainous regions of central Greece, the forerunners of the later Armatoloi. Turahan also took several measures to restore order and prosperity in his province, most notably the foundation (or re-foundation) of the town of Tyrnavos, which before was a small pastoral settlement. To attract and protect the local Greek Orthodox population, he granted it special privileges, such as special administrative status as a waqf (a religious endowment) of the Sharif of Mecca, tax exemptions and the prohibition of Ottoman troops from passing through the town. He also endowed it with both a mosque (destroyed after the Greek annexation of Thessaly in 1881) and a church, St Nicholas Turahan, which survives to this day. Turahan also endowed many other public buildings such as mosques, monasteries, madrasas, schools, caravanserais, bridges and baths across the province. He also took care to maintain and foster the Thessalian cotton, silk and wool textile industry, to the extent that later generations attributed to him the introduction of new dye techniques based on yellow berries, madder and the kali plant, used in the manufacture of potash.From there these materials spread to the rest of Rumelia and thence to Western Europe. Family tree
After Franz Babinger in the Encyclopedia of Islam:

References

Sources

Year of birth missing
14th-century births
1456 deaths
14th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
15th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars
City founders
Muslims of the Crusade of Varna
Military personnel of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Thessaly
People of the Ottoman Interregnum
Rulers of Thessaly

masks:
Turahan Bey
Pasha Yiğit Bey
Ali Bey
Bey
Turahan
Bey
Bey
Turahan
Turahan
Turahan
Turahan
Turahan
Turahano
Turahan
Bey
Turahan


texts:
Major <mask> (March 7, 1917 –  January 19, 1992) was an American officer in the United States Army Air Forces, who is known as the author of Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, a memoir of his participation in the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo in 1942. The book was subsequently adapted into  the 1944 film of the same name starring Spencer Tracy, Van Johnson and Robert Mitchum. Early life
<mask> was born in Alameda, California and attended Los Angeles City College in 1937–1938. He joined the U.S. Army Air Corps as an aviation cadet in March 1940 while a student studying aeronautical engineering by day and working nights in the drafting department of Douglas Aircraft Company. After basic flight instruction at Hancock Field, Santa Maria, California, <mask> attended primary flying training at Randolph Field and advanced training at Kelly Field, receiving his pilot's wings and commission as a second lieutenant on 15 November 1940. <mask> was assigned to the 95th Bomb Squadron, 17th Bomb Group (Medium) at McChord Field, Washington. He was assigned as a co-pilot flying B-18 Bolo medium bombers and checked out in the Douglas B-23 Dragon.He became a first pilot in February 1941 and two months later the group received seven B-25 Mitchells, the first of the new medium bombers to be assigned to a unit in the Air Corps. While his squadron was based at McChord, <mask> married Ellen Arlene Reynolds, a librarian at LACC he had met while a student, in Spokane on 5 September 1941. His best man at the ceremony was squadron-mate Lt. Robert M. Gray, who would be a fellow pilot on the Doolittle Raid. World War II

In early 1942, <mask>, then a First Lieutenant, was flying antisubmarine patrols with the 17th Bombardment Group out of Pendleton, Oregon. As the first Army Air Corps group to receive the B-25 Mitchell, the 17th BG had the most experienced pilots and so was ordered from Oregon to Lexington County Army Air Base at Columbia, South Carolina, ostensibly to fly similar patrols off the East Coast of the United States but in actuality to prepare for the mission against Japan. The group officially transferred effective 9 February to Columbia, where its combat crews were offered the opportunity to volunteer for an "extremely hazardous" but unspecified mission. On 17 February the group was detached from the Eighth Air Force.Lieutenant <mask> was accepted as a volunteer for the mission led by then-Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle to bomb Tokyo and several other cities with 16 carrier-launched B-25 Mitchell bombers from aboard  – the first air raid on mainland Japan during World War II following the Pearl Harbor attack. The aircraft that he flew on the raid was nicknamed "The Ruptured Duck" (AAF serial 40-2261). According to <mask> in his book, the plane's unusual name evolved from a minor training accident where the aircraft tail scraped the ground on take-off. Soon after <mask> found someone had written "ruptured duck" in chalk on the fuselage. Inspired, he had B-25 gunner Cpl. Rodger Lovelace create the now-famous caricature of Donald Duck with crutches and pilot's headphones. After launching the mission 170 miles (275 km) farther out than planned and bombing their targets in Japan, all of the aircraft ran out of fuel short of their intended recovery airfields in non-Japanese occupied China.<mask> and his crew crashed their plane off the coast of the small island of Nantien when its engines failed while trying to land on the beach during a storm. <mask> and his co-pilot were both thrown through the windscreen of the B-25, with <mask> suffering a compound fracture of the left leg, a lacerated left bicep, and severe facial injuries in the process. All five crew members survived the crash; however all but flight engineer/gunner David J. Thatcher received serious injuries. Bombardier Robert Clever would be returned to the U.S., only to die in another plane crash in November, 1942. After he was transported by friendly Chinese throughout several provinces in China to evade Japanese troops searching for his crew, <mask>'s infected leg was amputated by the mission's flight surgeon, Lt Thomas R<mask>, who had volunteered to fly the mission as a gunner on the crew of Lt. Donald Smith. The nose art of the crashed bomber, "The Ruptured Duck", was later salvaged by the Japanese and put on display in Tokyo. Author

In January 1943, <mask> and newspaper columnist Bob Considine decided to write a book about the mission, entitled Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo.In four nights and two days in the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D.C., the entire story was worked out, although approval to publish the book was not given until after information about the raid was released by the War Department in April 1943. Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo first appeared serialized in six issues of Collier's magazine, from May 22 to June 26, 1943. It was also published later that year by Random House in a  220-page hardback "wartime book" (5 1/4" x 7 3/4") format. Through friends in the Los Angeles area, <mask> made contact with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer producer Sam Zimbalist, and the movie was launched in 1944. The film starred Van Johnson as <mask>, alongside Spencer Tracy and Robert Mitchum. It won an Academy Award for Best Special Effects. In 2003, Brassey's reprinted Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo with more photos and an introduction from <mask>'s widow, Ellen.Later life
Along with the majority of the surviving Doolittle Raiders, <mask> was eventually repatriated back to the United States, and in his case, for further medical care including a second amputation of his injured leg and reconstruction of his lower face. During his recuperation, <mask> was promoted to captain in accordance with Doolittle's recommendation that all the raiders be promoted one grade, and later to major. He served as Liaison Officer, U.S. Air Mission, Santiago, Chile from May 1943 until April 1944. He was retired from the U.S. Army Air Forces for physical disability on February 2, 1945. His decorations include the Distinguished Flying Cross, Purple Heart, and the Chinese Army, Navy, and Air Corps Medal, Class A, 1st Grade. After the war, <mask> owned and operated a machine shop in Southern California, and also worked for Reynolds Metals as a liaison between the company and the military. He died at his home in Chico, California on January 19, 1992 and was interred at the Chico Cemetery Mausoleum.Honors and tributes
Lawson Army Airfield at Fort Benning, Georgia is partially named for <mask><mask>. It was originally named only for <mask><mask> (no relation to <mask>), an Army Air Corps flyer who earned the Distinguished Service Cross in World War I. Several years later, after the Doolittle Raid in World War II, <mask><mask>'s name was added to the memorial at the field. The Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor, located on Ford Island, has on display a B-25 done in the livery of <mask>'s aircraft from the Doolittle Raid. Military Awards

See also
 Doolittle Raid
 Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo

References
Notes

Bibliography

 Chun, Clayton K.S. The Doolittle Raid 1942: America's First Strike Back at Japan (Campaign: 16). Botley Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2006. .
 Glines, Carroll V. The Doolittle Raid: America's Daring First Strike Against Japan.New York: Orion Books, 1988. .
 <mask>, <mask>. Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo. Dulles, Virginia: Brassey's Inc., 2003 (60th anniversary reprinted edition). .
 <mask>, Charles Hoyt. DeShazer: The Doolittle Raider Who Turned Missionary. Winona Lake, Indiana: The Light and Life Press, 1950. External links
 Classic Film Guide
 Reviews of Aviation Films and Movies
 Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (book)
 Grave Site

United States Army Air Forces officers
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
American amputees
1917 births
1992 deaths
People from Alameda, California
Military personnel from California
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
Doolittle Raiders

masks:
Ted William Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
. White
Lawson
Ted
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Ted W
. Lawson
Walter R
. Lawson
Ted
Ted W
. Lawson
Lawson
Lawson
Ted W
Watson


texts:
<mask> (August 25, 1913 – January 29, 2000) was an American pioneering editor of black publications (including the Chicago Daily Defender, Ebony, Jet and Negro Digest) and a public relations executive in Chicago. He was a “top executive editor” for the Johnson Publishing Company who became so well known as a “black newspaperman” – even though he was white and Jewish – that he was invited to submit his biography for inclusion in Who's Who in Colored America. Early life
<mask> was born <mask> in Chicago in 1913 to Polish Jewish parents, Alexander and Frieda Bernstein. At the time of his birth at Michael Reese Hospital, the family lived on Chicago's Near West Side. <mask> grew up in the slums of Chicago. His father was a house painter originally from Łódź. His mother was born in Warsaw.His mother divorced Alexander when <mask> was a year old, and married Nathan Denison, a Chicago produce dealer. <mask>' parents also lived in Chicago. <mask> spent his teen years in New York's West Side, graduating in 1930 from James Monroe High School. He attended New York University, where he so enjoyed working on the NYU Daily News that when it was shut down in 1933 he decided not to finish his senior year. Instead, he returned to Chicago, enrolling in the Northwestern University journalism program, from which he graduated in 1934. In 1935, he joined the Young Communist League, in part because of its reputed opposition to the emergence of Adolf Hitler's anti-Semitism, in part because of its social positions. He maintained a connection to the party until he was expelled from it in 1948.<mask> married Esther Stern on November 28, 1937. The couple, married for over 62 years, had three children. Journalism career

Beginnings
<mask> obtained work at the three Communist newspapers in the United States: in 1937 at the Daily Worker (New York), in 1938 at the Midwest Daily Record (Chicago) and in 1940 at People's World (San Francisco). With an income insufficient to support him, his wife and a prospective family, <mask> and his wife decided it was time to move. By then, the FBI was tracking the couple. An FBI report dated April 17, 1941 noted: “Subjects leaving San Francisco for Chicago to be gone several years; future activities and intentions are unknown.”

Black publications
Back in Chicago, a political connection led <mask> in July 1942 to apply for a job at the Chicago Defender, a leading black weekly newspaper. Hired as a temporary fill-in editor, he remained in that field for 35 years.<mask>' previous contacts with black people had been “practically nonexistent,” but he threw himself into his new work with gusto. “Having committed myself wholly to Negroes' attainment of fair and equal status … I endeavored to become in every sense a 'brother' by virtue of my oneness with Negroes in values and customs, interests and concerns, reactions and resolutions,” he wrote. “I became a Defender editor, a 'black newspaperman,' black in my orientation and thinking, in my concerns and outlook, in my friends and associations, black in everything but my skin color.”

After a stint in the U.S. Merchant Marine in 1943, <mask> became, during the ensuing decades, the only white editor-in-chief of a black daily (the Chicago Daily Defender, converted to a daily in 1956); the founding editor of Negro Digest (serving as editor from 1942–54); the founding (and only white) editor of Ebony (1945–54); the founding editor of Duke (1957, “a black version of Playboy”); the founding editor of Jet (1950–54), the editor of Tan Confessions (founded 1950), the editor of Sepia (1955–58, 1968–77) and the editor of Guns (1956–58). In 1952, the Chicago Defender was the second-largest circulation weekly black newspaper in the United States (circulation: 155,074). Ebony was the largest circulation monthly black magazine (379,000), followed by Tan Confessions (200,000). During this time, <mask> worked often with John H. Johnson, who became a wealthy African-American publisher.“My communist and Defender training in protest proved a source of continual acrimony between Johnson and me for almost all the years I worked for him,” <mask> wrote. <mask> contrasted the “flame of racial militancy kindled in me” with what he characterized as Johnson's “carefully calibrated racial positivism.”

Later career
<mask> was fired from the Johnson Publishing Company in 1954. Johnson stated that <mask> allowed too many sensational stories to get into Ebony, a charge <mask> refuted. Leaving journalism, he entered public relations, partnering as a vice president from 1958-66 in the public relations firm of Cooper, Burns & Golin (later Golin Harris). In 1957, he obtained work from Ray Kroc, the head of a relatively new company called McDonald's. In the following year, to earn a living he edited five non-black monthlies. He later returned to serve as editor of the Chicago Daily Defender (1962–67) and Sepia (1968–77).<mask> retired from journalism and public relations in 1977, and immediately traveled to Africa with his wife. Relationship to Judaism
Although <mask>' paternal grandfather had been a scribe (sofer) and thus had been part of a religious Jewish family in Poland, <mask> had rebelled against his upbringing. “My father,” <mask> recalled, “had carried Marx's doctrine to the ultimate in his belief that 'religion was the cyanide rather than the opiate of the people.' And so I was brought up.<mask> was a self-described atheist who had “been in a synagogue but a half-dozen times as a sightseer.”

<mask> began using the byline “<mask>” (instead of his birth surname Bernstein) around 1936, because at the time he was having difficulty finding a job in the journalism field and he thought that “perhaps a non-Jewish name would change my fortunes.” Yet during his long career in black journalism, he did not avoid being identified as a Jew. On one occasion, a printing salesman asked if he was “Negro or white?” Cognizant of his “dark complexion,<mask> replied: “Neither, I'm Jewish.” Commenting on his experiences of black anti-Semitism at Ebony, he noted how photographer David Jackson once returned disappointed from an assignment because a person he was to photograph was “not colored" but "a kike” from “Jewtown” (that is, the Maxwell Street area of Chicago). Taken aback by the remark, <mask> asked Jackson what a “kike” is supposed to look like, adding, “Do I look like a kike?” Jackson replied that he didn't know, and <mask> said, “Well, I am a kike.”

In 1973, <mask> and his wife visited his parents' birthplaces in Poland, as well as the death camp Auschwitz. His account of the trip, which included criticism of religious authorities in Israel, was not published until 1996.In his later years, he rebuked the “black anti-Semitism” of Louis Farrakhan and was critical of the Holocaust denial of Arthur Butz. Controversies

Legacy
Some observers question <mask>' place in black journalism. “Does <mask> take too much credit for the seemingly substantial work he did on Negro Digest and Ebony? I don't know,” wrote one critic. “If the reader doesn't know the Black press well enough, it would be easy to accuse <mask> of racial condescension.”

<mask> wrote that he “single-handedly” put together the first issue of Negro Digest, which he states was the idea of John H. Johnson. Johnson hardly mentions <mask> in his autobiography. <mask> noted that Johnson “in later years … embellished his personal success story by claiming to have edited the Digest.”

Earl Conrad claimed to have priority over <mask> as the “first white man ever to work for a Negro newspaper,” an assertion <mask> easily refuted.Richard Wright
During the 1950s, <mask> had a disagreement with Richard Wright, a long-time friend, over an article by Wright on “the Shame of Chicago,” about the plight of the local black community, which had been submitted for publication to Ebony. <mask> wanted to publish the article, but Ebony'''s publisher, John H. Johnson, was against it. Johnson would only agree to publish Wright's article if, in order to appease advertisers, <mask> would write an editorial publicly denouncing the article, which he did. Later, another similar piece by Wright, solicited by <mask>, was rejected by Johnson. After Wright's death, some critics claimed <mask> was in a “continuing feud” with Wright, and accused him of “skullduggery”; <mask> defended his actions in his memoir. Recognition and influence
A statement of <mask>' influence appeared in the Chicago Defender obituary, which stated that <mask> “pioneered in creating and editing the first commercially successful African American magazines and was the former editor in chief of the Chicago Defender who trained many Black writers in all phases of print journalism.” The documentary record he accumulated during those years, and later donated to the Chicago Public Library, is a “gold mine” of information on the history of black journalism. “For students of African American history and Black journalism,” the Defender editorial stated in reference to the Burns papers, “it is a collection that demands to be seen.”

In 1997, <mask> was named to the Hall of Achievement at Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism."Hall of Achievement: <mask>,"  Medill Northwestern University, updated September 2010. WorksNitty Gritty: A White Editor in Black Journalism (1996)The Best of Negro Humor'', edited by John Harold Johnson and <mask>; intro. Langston Hughes (1945)

References

External links
Ben <mask> Collection, 1939-1999 consists of 46 archival boxes of material (approximately 135 linear feet) donated by <mask> to the Chicago Public Library, Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection of Afro-American History and Literature
Works by or about <mask> in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Businesspeople from Chicago
Journalists from Illinois
American print editors
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Jewish American journalists
1913 births
2000 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Medill School of Journalism alumni
New York University alumni
James Monroe High School (New York City) alumni
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American Jews
Jewish anti-racism activists

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