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<mask> (23 December 1895 – 28 April 1949) was a Romanian Brigadier General during World War II. Biography

World War I
He was born in Bucharest. From 1913 to 1915 he studied at the Cavalry Officer School in Târgoviște, graduating with the rank of second lieutenant. He fought in World War I with the 4th Regiment Roșiori "Regina Maria", and in 1917 was promoted to lieutenant. He stood out in August 1917 during the Third Battle of Oituz, when he commanded a machine-gun detachment in the assault on Tarapan Hill, and was later wounded in action; for his valor, he was decorated with the Order of Michael the Brave, 3rd class. In the spring of 1919 he served with the 4th Regiment in the Hungarian–Romanian War, first in command of the 2nd Squadron and then of a machine-gun group. In October 1919 he was promoted to captain.The interwar period
<mask> continued his military training in 1921–23 at the Higher War School in Bucharest, and in 1925–26 at the École de cavalerie in Saumur, France. He was then named cavalry instructor and tactics professor at the Special Cavalry School in Sibiu; promoted in 1927 to the rank of major, he became the school’s director of studies. In 1934 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and assigned to command the 1st Battalion/9th Călărași Regiment. Subsequently he was chief of staff of the 12th Division and then of the General Inspectorate of the Cavalry, after which he was promoted in 1939 to the rank of colonel and given the command of the 8th Roșiori Regiment. World War II
The start of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941 found Colonel <mask> in command of the 6th Motorized Roșiori Regiment from the 5th Cavalry Brigade, which was stationed in Northern Moldavia. On 4 July, as part of Operation München, the brigade crossed the Prut River and advanced with a detachment commanded by Korne towards Lipnic, reaching the Dniester River on 7 July. After forcing the river on 17 July and breaking through the Stalin Line, situated on the left bank, his regiment advanced to the Bug River, reaching it at the beginning of August.By the end of the month his regiment was at the Dnieper River; crossing the river on 19 September, it continued to advance north of the Sea of Azov. On 25 September, at the start of the Battle of the Sea of Azov, the 5th Cavalry Brigade faced the powerful Soviet offensive carried out by the 9th and 18th Armies, being attacked by a much superior force in the Yakymivka area. The 6th Motorized Roșiori Regiment stood its ground, even though the rest of the brigade was pushed back. The offensive ran out of steam after several days and the German–Romanian counterattack led to the encirclement and destruction of the two Soviet armies. For his actions during the battle, Colonel <mask> was awarded on 12 February 1942 the Order of Michael the Brave, 2nd class by King Michael I.

<mask> was engaged in follow-up operations in Crimea. Breaching the Isthmus of Perekop on 28 October 1941, his regiment moved towards Simferopol, cut the retreat roads to Yevpatoria, and then took part in the siege of Sevastopol and the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula. <mask>'s units fought at Feodosia and on the road to Kerch alongside the German troops of Colonel Karl-Albrecht von Groddeck.By 11 May, the German XXX Army Corps surrounded eight Soviet divisions, allowing a motorized brigade, under the command of which was also the "Colonel Korne" Motorized Detachment, to enter the city of Kerch, behind the Red Army defense perimeter. Starting in August 1942 Korne fought in the Battle of the Caucasus, reaching Anapa at the end of the month, and then Novorossiysk, which fell to Wehrmacht and Romanian Army units at the beginning of September. On 7 October, Korne took command of 8th Cavalry Division and engaged in the Battle of Stalingrad, as part of the 4th Romanian Army, under the command of lieutenant general Constantin Constantinescu-Claps. After the start of the Soviet offensive on 20 November, the division pulled back; its attempt to reach the encircled German 6th Army failed. The newly formed "Korne Detachment" (3rd, 4th Cavalry Regiments, 2nd Artillery Battalion, and the 7th Heavy Artillery Regiment), backed by German armored units, launched a counterattack towards Abganerovo; the action failed due to lack of effective anti-tank weapons. On 22 November, Korne's Detachment was attacked in the Krasnay-Geroy area, suffering heavy losses. On 26 November, the Korne and "Pannwitz" Detachments managed to push back the Soviet troops which had infiltrated between the Romanian formations.The next day, the Soviets broke  through the lines of defense, and the general retreat started. In January 1943, <mask> was promoted to the rank of brigadier general, and was appointed commander of the 8th Cavalry Division (succeeding Colonel Corneliu Carp). At the time, he was considered to be the foremost expert in Romania on mechanized operations. On April 4, 1944, he took command of the 1st Armored Division; equipped with several dozen Pz IV tanks and a dozen Stug III assault guns, as well as some SPW armoured personnel carriers for the infantry troops, the division was the strongest formation of the Romanian Army at the time. In July, the 1st Armored Division was given the name "România Mare" and was put in the reserve of Army Group Wöhler, comprising the 4th Romanian Army (under the command of lieutenant general Ioan Mihail Racoviță) and the 6th German Army. At the start of the Soviet Second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive on 20 August, <mask>'s division entered in combat south of the Bahlui River, near Scobâlțeni. Starting at 05:15, a 90–100 minute Soviet artillery and aviation bombardment destroyed the Romanian forward lines, and hundreds of tanks of the 6th Guards Tank Army poured through the breach.While many Romanian units disintegrated under this attack, with thousands surrendering without a fight, <mask>'s division confronted head on the onslaught of the Red Army. <mask>, assisted by Colonels Cristache Iliescu and Constantin Nistor, staged a counterattack against the Soviet tanks that had broken through; during the battle, the division lost 34 tanks and self-propelled guns, and destroyed 60 Soviet tanks. By 23 August his forces had established a defensive position north of Roman, between the Siret and the Moldova rivers. Later that day, a coup d'état led by King Michael I deposed Marshal Ion Antonescu and withdrew Romania from the Axis. <mask> stayed in command of the 1st Division until 24 September. At the request of the Soviet commission for the implementation of the Armistice, the division was disbanded, and <mask> was arrested in October 1944, in his words, "like a common burglar". On November 16, he wrote a letter to Prime Minister Constantin Sănătescu, where he deplored the fact that so many of the Romanian senior officer corps were being dismissed en masse, while others were being arrested or harassed, after having fought in war as ordered by the king.He concluded his letter by asking, "Why are the prisons being filled with the most devoted soldiers of the country?" After being held at the military headquarters in Bucharest, he was released on 6 February 1945 from Malmaison Prison on intervention from Chief of the General Staff Sănătescu with General Vladislav Vinogradov. He was put under house arrest, and he retired from the army the next month. After the war
<mask> was investigated by the Bucharest People's Tribunal for "anti-Soviet propaganda,"  but on 20 June 1945 he was found not guilty. His son, Mihai, managed to escape Communist Romania in 1948 (at age 17) and settled in France. On 24 March 1948, <mask> was arrested by the Siguranța Statului secret police for "conspiracy against state security," and sent to Jilava prison. There, he was severely beaten on orders from the prison commandant, Nicolae Moromete, and was left with a broken spine, according to historian .At Jilava, <mask>'s health deteriorated rapidly; after being transferred to the hospital of Văcărești prison on 18 April 1949, he died there 10 days later. He is buried at Eternitatea cemetery in Iași, next to a relative, General Mihail Cerchez. Awards
 Order of Michael the Brave
 3rd Class (2 November 1917)
 2nd Class (12 February 1942)
 Iron Cross (1939) 2nd and 1st Class
 Order of the Star of Romania, Officer rank (8 June 1940)
 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (18 December 1942)

Legacy
The National Military Museum in Bucharest houses a permanent exhibition that displays personal objects
which belonged to top Romanian military leaders, including memorabilia of <mask> <mask>. References

External links

1885 births
1949 deaths
Military personnel from Bucharest
Carol I National Defence University alumni
Romanian military personnel of World War I
Romanian people of the Hungarian–Romanian War
Romanian military personnel of World War II
Romanian Land Forces generals
Recipients of the Order of Michael the Brave, 2nd class
Knights of the Order of the Crown (Romania)
Officers of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross
Romanian torture victims
Romanian people who died in prison custody
Prisoners who died in Romanian detention
Burials at Eternitatea cemetery

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<mask> (; born March 31, 1940) is an American politician and attorney who is the senior United States senator from Vermont and serves as the president pro tempore of the United States Senate. Leahy was first elected to the Senate in 1974, and previously served as president pro tempore from 2012 to 2015. He is the chair of the Senate Appropriations Committee. A member of the Democratic Party, Leahy is now in his eighth term of office. He is the most senior member of the Senate, and the last of the Senate's "Watergate Babies" — Democrats first elected to Congress in the wave election of 1974 that followed President Richard Nixon's resignation over the Watergate scandal. Leahy is also the only sitting senator to have served during Gerald Ford's presidency, and one of just two to have served during Jimmy Carter's term. The dean of his state's congressional delegation, Leahy is Vermont's longest-serving U.S. senator, as well as the only Democrat ever elected to the U.S. Senate from Vermont.He is the former chairman of the Agriculture and Judiciary committees. He served as the ranking member of the Appropriations Committee from 2017 to 2021, and became chairman in 2021. In 2001, Leahy was one of the two U.S. senators targeted by the anthrax attacks that killed five people. He was the presiding officer at Donald Trump's second impeachment trial, becoming the first senator to preside over a former president's impeachment trial. On November 15, 2021, Leahy announced that he would not seek reelection in 2022. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Montpelier, Vermont, the son of Alba (née Zambon) and Howard Francis <mask>. He has been legally blind in his left eye since birth.Leahy's maternal grandparents were Italian, and his father was of Irish ancestry; some of his ancestors came to Vermont in the 19th century to work at the granite quarries and manufacturing plants in Barre Town and Barre City. The Leahys ran a printing business across from the Vermont State House, and were also the publishers of the Waterbury Record newspaper. Leahy attended the parochial schools of Montpelier, and graduated from Montpelier's St. Michael's High School in 1957. In 1961, Leahy graduated from Saint Michael's College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in government. While attending college, Leahy was a member of the National Federation of Catholic College Students. He was also involved with the Knights of Columbus, the Saint Michael's College Glee Club, and the school's pre-law society and politics club. He was active with the Reserve Officers' Training Corps rifle team, and was a member of the varsity rifle team.He was also on the staff of The Shield, the Saint Michael's College yearbook and WSSE, the school's AM radio station. In 1964, Leahy received his Juris Doctor from the Georgetown University Law Center. While in law school, Leahy was active in the Phi Delta Phi legal honor society. In addition, Leahy participated in Georgetown Law's Legal Aid Society and Legal Argument Program. He was also a representative to the school's Student Bar Association. Early career
Leahy was admitted to the bar soon after his law school graduation and became an associate at the Burlington firm headed by Philip H. Hoff, then serving as governor of Vermont. In January 1965, Leahy was appointed as an assistant to Lewis E. Springer Jr., the legislative draftsman for the Vermont General Assembly.While working for Hoff's firm, <mask> was also appointed as Burlington's assistant city attorney. In May 1966, Hoff appointed Leahy State's Attorney of Chittenden County after the incumbent resigned. Leahy was elected to a full term in 1966 and reelected in 1970. His service as state's attorney was notable for his participation in the sting operation that caught Paul Lawrence, an undercover police officer for numerous departments in Vermont. Lawrence falsely claimed to have purchased illegal drugs from several people, resulting in numerous convictions based on his perjury. U.S. Senate

Early career (1975–1987)

Leahy originally aspired to the governorship, but in 1974 ran for the United States Senate. He ran in the wake of the Watergate scandal that had resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation in August of that year, won a close race against Republican Congressman Richard W. Mallary, and succeeded the retiring George Aiken.At age 34, <mask> was the youngest U.S. senator in Vermont history and the first non-Republican senator from Vermont since 1856. He is the only Democrat ever elected to the Senate from Vermont, and one of only three Democrats to represent Vermont in either house of Congress since the end of the Civil War. In 1980, <mask> defeated Republican Stewart Ledbetter by only 2,700 votes amid Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in the presidential election. In 1986, he faced what was on paper an even stronger challenger in former Governor Richard Snelling, but Leahy turned it back, taking 63 percent of the vote. In 1992, Secretary of State of Vermont Jim Douglas held him to 54 percent of the vote. Since then, Leahy has not faced a strong Republican challenger. In May 1981, Leahy and Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts requested that the Senate reject John Crowell Jr.'s nomination as Assistant Agriculture Secretary.<mask> said his opposition was "because documents have been uncovered since his approval by the Agriculture Committee which suggest that he was aware of and involved in the anti-competitive and monopolistic practices of his former employer." Leahy and Kennedy contended that Crowell concealed his involvement with Louisiana-Pacific, Panhandle Logging Company, and Ketchikan Spruce Mills during the confirmation process. Crowell was confirmed by the Senate. In 1981, <mask> introduced an amendment that would have increased the enforcement budget for the Energy Department by $13 million. He called the Reagan administration's cuts to the enforcement budget "de facto amnesty" for violations made by alleged increases in prices for oil companies. The amendment was defeated in the Senate on October 28 by a vote of 48 to 43. On December 2, 1981, Leahy voted for an amendment to Reagan's MX missiles proposal that would divert the silo system by $334 million, as well as earmark further research for other methods that would allow giant missiles to be based.The vote was seen as a rebuff of the Reagan administration. In March 1982, <mask> was named to the Senate Select Committee to Study Law Enforcement Undercover Activities of the Department of Justice, an eight-member select committee formed to investigate undercover operations. The resolution introducing the committee was the result of Harrison A. Williams's resignation for his involvement in the Abscam sting operation. On December 23, 1982, Leahy voted for a five-cent per gallon increase on gasoline taxes across the U.S. to finance highway repairs and mass transit. The bill passed on the last day of the 97th United States Congress. On October 19, 1983, Leahy voted for a bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day. Reagan signed the legislation the next month.In March 1984, Leahy voted against a proposed constitutional amendment authorizing periods in public school for silent prayer and against Reagan's unsuccessful proposal for a constitutional amendment permitting organized school prayer in public schools. 1987 to 1999
In 1987, during his tenure as vice-chairman of the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Leahy showed a news reporter an unclassified draft report on the Iran–Contra affair. At a press conference afterwards, Leahy said, "Even though it was declassified, I was way too careless about it" and accepted blame. Disclosure of that information was against Intelligence Committee rules; Leahy said he hastened his already planned departure from the committee because he was so angry at himself. Later that year, as a member of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Leahy said if Reagan could not produce an acceptable Supreme Court nominee to replace Lewis F. Powell Jr., after Robert Bork was rejected and Douglas Ginsburg withdrew, Senate Democrats would refuse hearings for any candidate, until after the 1988 presidential election. In February 1992, the George H. W. Bush administration and Israeli officials struggled to strike a deal that would entice both sides to proceed with a loan guarantee package. After a meeting between Secretary of State James Baker and Zalman Shoval failed to generate a compromise, Baker informed Leahy of the meeting's contents and Leahy announced that he would introduce his own plan if the United States and Israel could not come to an agreement in the following weeks.Later that month, the Bush administration announced the United States would present Israel with loan guarantees only if the Israeli government halted settlement building. Leahy supported the measure and introduced his own proposal that retained the $10 billion in loan guarantees, but "disbursed at a pace up to $2 billion a year for five years". On November 20, 1993, Leahy voted for the North American Free Trade Agreement. The agreement linked the United States, Canada, and Mexico into a single free trade zone, and was signed into law on December 8 by President Bill Clinton. Clinton publicly weighed reducing funding for The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP) by half. In March 1994, during a news conference, Leahy pledged that he would preserve funding for TEFAP, noting his 1987 lawsuit against Agriculture Secretary Richard Edmund Lyng and declaring that TEFAP maintained the same level of significance as it did then. In August 1994, Leahy attended a news conference with the health advocacy group Public Voice, as it urged the federal government to take more ambitious steps to increase the healthiness of school lunches.Leahy praised the 41 schools involved with Public Voice for setting a good example for the remainder of the country and cited the importance of school lunches to education. The 1994 midterm elections resulted in a Republican majority in the House for the first time since the 1950s, and conversation arose of limiting feeding programs. Leahy remarked, "Not since the Great Depression has the possibility of millions of children lining up at soup kitchens been so real." He cosponsored legislation with Indiana Republican Richard Lugar that led to the downsizing of the Agriculture Department. In December 1994, the department announced it was closing 1,274 field offices around the US, a scaling back that was estimated to save over $3 billion over the next five years. Leahy said the Agriculture Department was the only federal agency to succeed in its downsizing efforts and called on other agencies to follow its example. In 1994, Leahy introduced legislation to encourage schools to ban soft drinks and other food items of "minimal nutritional value", saying, "These vending profits go for good causes.But when it comes to vending machine junk food, it would be better to put pupils ahead of vending profits." The bill overcame opposition from The Coca-Cola Company and other representatives of the beverage industry, as well as some education organizations, and was enacted. In October 1999, Leahy voted in favor of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. The treaty was designed to ban underground nuclear testing and was the first major international security pact to be defeated in the Senate since the Treaty of Versailles. 1999 to 2009

The 1998 United States Senate election in Vermont was noteworthy, in that Republican candidate Fred Tuttle endorsed Leahy. Tuttle was a retired farmer and the lead actor in the mock documentary film Man with a Plan, shot in Vermont, in which a farmer decides to run for Congress. After winning the Republican nomination in a campaign designed both to promote the movie and to mock ostensible GOP frontrunner Jack McMullen, who had only recently moved to Vermont from Massachusetts, Tuttle recommended that voters support Leahy.<mask> was touched by this gesture; he and Tuttle made several joint appearances during the campaign, and Leahy said of Tuttle that he was the "distilled essence of Vermonthood". The September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center shifted American foreign policy focus to terrorism. In December 2006, during an appearance at the law school of Georgetown University, Leahy said that after the September 11 attacks, "the White House accelerated its power plays at the expense of the other branches of government, all in the name of fighting terrorism." He added that the administration had declined to answer "the legitimate oversight questions of the public's duly elected representatives", as well as broken the law by wiretapping Americans without warrants. On September 13, 2002, Leahy said in a radio interview that an investigation should be launched into whether the West Nile virus was a biological terrorism effort. During a July 1, 2007 interview, Leahy said he was not against lawful eavesdropping and recommended a revision to the Federal Intelligence Surveillance Act, so potential terrorists could be investigated without question. Leahy added that the White House had been subpoenaed, so George W. Bush administration officials could explain "the legal justification they tried to follow when, for years, they wiretapped ordinary Americans and everyone else put out a warrant."<mask> was one of two senators targeted in the 2001 anthrax attacks. The anthrax letter meant for him was intercepted before it reached his office. In 2004, <mask> was awarded the Electronic Privacy Information Center's Champion of Freedom Award, for efforts in information privacy and open government. He is regarded as one of the leading privacy advocates in Congress. Leahy has been active in the international effort to ban the production, export, and use of anti-personnel land mines. In 1992, Leahy penned a bill to prohibit the export of land mines, the first law of its kind. In 2000, Leahy cosigned a letter sent to Appropriations Committee conference members, requesting a delay in implementing Section 304 in H.R.4392, the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2001, until it could be fully considered by the Senate Committee on the Judiciary. The amendment would introduce new felony crime laws, concerning the unauthorized disclosure of information. <mask> and his colleagues indicated this would be in conflict with existing First Amendment rights and Whistleblower Protection Acts. On June 22, 2004, <mask> and Vice President Dick Cheney participated in the U.S. Senate class photo. After the vote, Cheney was talking to only Republicans. When <mask> asked him to come over and talk to the Democrats, Cheney upbraided <mask> for the Senator's recent excoriations of Halliburton's activities in Iraq. At the end of the exchange, Cheney told Leahy, "Go fuck yourself."<mask> joked about the incident in 2007, when he escorted Bernie Sanders, Vermont's newly elected senator, to the well of the Senate where he was sworn in by Cheney: "When it comes to the vice president, it's always better to be sworn in than to be sworn at." In March 2004, <mask> and Senator Orrin Hatch introduced the Pirate Act, backed by the Recording Industry Association of America. In July 2004, <mask> and Hatch introduced the INDUCE Act. Both were aimed at combating copyright infringement. On November 2, 2004, <mask> easily defeated his opponent, businessman Jack McMullen, with 70.6 percent of the vote. On January 5, 2005, Cheney swore <mask> in for his sixth term in the Senate. On September 21, 2005, <mask> announced his support for John Roberts to be Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court.On January 19, 2006, Leahy announced that he would vote against Judge Samuel Alito, to be a justice of the Supreme Court. He has a mixed record on gun control, being one of the few Senate Democrats to vote against the Brady Bill. He voted for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and is in favor of phasing out farm subsidies that are supported by the populist wing of the Democratic Party. He voted against the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Leahy voted for the Defense of Marriage Act and was one of the few in his party to support the ban on intact dilation and extraction procedures. In 2005, Project on Government Oversight, a government watchdog group, presented Leahy and Senator John Cornyn with its first ever Bi-Partisan Leadership Award, in honor of their cooperation on issues of government oversight and transparency, including their co-sponsorship of the OPEN Government Act of 2005, which prevented burying exemptions to the Freedom of Information Act in legislation. On March 2, 2006, Leahy was one of ten senators to vote against the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act, a bill to extend the USA PATRIOT Act.The Reauthorization Act changed the appointment process for interim United States attorneys, allowing the Attorney General of the United States to make interim appointments without term limit or Senatorial confirmation. This was an aspect of hearings in the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy. In March 2007, both houses voted to overturn the interim appointment provision. On January 18, 2007, Leahy received widespread coverage for his cross-examination of Attorney General Alberto Gonzales, about the Maher Arar affair and the extraordinary rendition of Arar to Syria. Later career (2009–present)
Leahy endorsed Barack Obama, the Democratic junior senator from Illinois, in the 2008 presidential election, and recorded a radio advertisement for the Obama campaign to be aired in Vermont. In May 2009, President Obama nominated Sonia Sotomayor to the Supreme Court. Sotomayor received criticism for having said "I would hope that a wise Latina woman with the richness of her experiences would more often than not reach a better conclusion than a white male who hasn't lived that life."In June, Leahy discussed the remark with Sotomayor, during their meeting, and secured her consent to recount the comment. According to Leahy, the comment meant she believed one's life experiences influence who they are, but that judges of all ethnic backgrounds are still required to follow the law, which is the same for every American. In August, on the day of Sotomayor's confirmation, Leahy defended her record against Republican critics: "Judge Sotomayor's career and judicial record demonstrates that she has always followed the rule of law. Attempts at distorting that record by suggesting that her ethnicity or heritage will be the driving force in

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 her decisions as a justice of the Supreme Court are demeaning to women and all communities of color." On September 20, 2010, Leahy introduced the Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, Senate Bill S. 3804, which would allow the court to issue a restraining order or injunction against Internet domain names which infringe upon copyright. In May 2011, Leahy introduced the Protect IP Act (PIPA) to the Senate. The bill was drafted to give the U.S. government and copyright holders additional tools to fight copyright piracy and counterfeit goods trafficking by foreign rogue websites.Critics of the bill said it would be ineffective, impede free expression on the internet, and interfere with its infrastructure. Leahy subsequently indicated that he would favor further research into provisions that raised objections. Leahy chaired the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee from 1987 until 1995 the Judiciary Committee from 2001 to 2003 and from 2007 to 2015. He is one of the key Democratic leaders on Senate issues on rules for filling federal judgeships, via advise and consent. Leahy serves as second-highest Democrat on the Appropriations Committee and as Chairman of the Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs. In his position as the second-highest Democrat on the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee, Leahy chairs the Agriculture Subcommittee on Research, Nutrition and General Legislation. Upon the death of Senate President pro tempore Daniel Inouye, a Hawaii Democrat, on December 17, 2012, Leahy became the most senior senator in the majority party, and was elected president pro tempore by unanimous consent.He was succeeded in this post by Orrin Hatch on January 3, 2015, and became president pro tempore emeritus. In February 2013, Leahy was one of 24 senators to sign a letter asserting that Sikh, Hindu and Arab Americans were often targets of violence because they were mistaken for radical Muslims and citing a need for the federal government to "begin tracking information about anti-Sikh, anti-Hindu and anti-Arab hate crimes as soon as possible so that law enforcement can more effectively respond to this threat". In June 2013, Leahy filed three amendments to an immigration reform package, including one that proposed recognizing same-sex marriages when one spouse is an American. He said implementation of the amendment would end discrimination in the American immigration system and that seeking "equal protection under our laws for the LGBT community is the right thing to do." According to GovTrack, in 2013, Leahy was the senator who has sponsored the most bipartisan bills. Sixty-one percent of bills he sponsored had both Democratic and Republican co-sponsors. In January 2015, Leahy headed a congressional delegation to Cuba, meant to "impress upon Cuban leaders the importance of concrete results and positive momentum".It was American officials' first visit to Cuba, since President Obama announced normalized relations between the US and Cuba the previous month. In July 2015, after the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action was unveiled, an international agreement on the nuclear program of Iran, Leahy issued a statement saying it was preferable to war and calling it "unfortunate" that some members of Congress opposed the deal as the lack of deal would allow Iran to further develop nuclear weapons. In January 2017, during a hearing, Leahy asked Jeff Sessions, President-elect Donald Trump's nominee for attorney general, whether he believed grabbing a woman by her genitals without consent was sexual assault, in reference to comments made by Trump on the Access Hollywood tape that had surfaced during the election cycle. Leahy also asked Sessions if he would be able to "prosecute and investigate" a president or elected official who had been accused of committing the aforementioned act. In April 2017, Leahy was one of 11 senators to cosponsor a bill that would have restored a FCC rule requiring internet service providers to obtain permission from customers before selling data about them to advertisers that had been repealed earlier in the week. On June 1, 2017, weeks after the firing of FBI Director James Comey, <mask> and Senator Al Franken of Minnesota released a joint statement disclosing their prior request of Comey to investigate all contacts and communications Attorney General Sessions or his aides had with Russian government officials and raised the question of whether Sessions had committed perjury in his Senate testimony. In September 2017, <mask> was one of eight senators to vote against the National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), a defense policy bill that included $640 billion in base defense spending and $60 billion in war funds.In November 2017, <mask> was one of ten Democratic senators to sign a letter urging Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu to halt the planned demolitions of Palestinian villages Khan al-Ahmar and Sussiya, on the grounds that such action would further impede efforts to seek a two-state solution and "endanger Israel's future as a Jewish democracy". On January 18, 2018, Leahy announced he would not support the stopgap measure for the fiscal year to avert a government shutdown, saying the House bill left "too much undone, and it is woefully inadequate". Leahy added that bipartisan support for the bill would only come from collaborating with Democrats and charged Republicans with "appealing for our support only after they've written a mishmash bill crafted behind closed doors". After the United States federal government shutdown of January 2018 commenced, Leahy was one of 18 senators to vote against temporary funding. In February 2018, Leahy was one of four senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of Defense James Mattis requesting that the Pentagon estimate the cost of and time needed to assemble President Trump's requested military parade, calling the parade seemingly "inappropriate and wasteful" at a time of war. In March 2018, Leahy wrote a letter to Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Chuck Grassley in which he expressed his fear that "the damage being done to the FBI, and to our nation's institutions more broadly, will far outlast any current crises unless we take decisive, bipartisan action" and requested an oversight hearing on the Trump administration's criticisms of the FBI and Justice Department. In September 2018, as the Senate weighed the first spending package for the 2019 fiscal year, Leahy advocated for increasing the spending cap for a veterans' care program.When this proposal was not implemented in the final version of the package, which consisted of military construction and veterans' affairs, legislative branch, and energy and water, Leahy warned the decision would leave the VA choice program unfunded. In October 2018, <mask>, along with Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman Bob Corker, ranking Democrat on the Foreign Relations Committee Bob Menendez, and Lindsey Graham, sent President Trump a letter requesting that he begin an investigation of the disappearance of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi, under the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act. The letter asked Trump to report the findings within 120 days, along with a decision on whether to impose sanctions on those found responsible. Later that month, Leahy was one of eight senators to sign a letter to Director of National Intelligence Dan Coats requesting a classified briefing on what the American intelligence community knew about threats to Khashoggi, so that the senators may fulfill their "oversight obligation" as members of Congress. In March 2019, <mask> was one of nine Democratic senators to sign a letter to Salman of Saudi Arabia requesting the release of human rights lawyer Waleed Abu al-Khair and writer Raif Badawi, women's rights activists Loujain al-Hathloul and Samar Badawi, and Dr. Walid Fitaih. The senators wrote, "Not only have reputable international organizations detailed the arbitrary detention of peaceful activists and dissidents without trial for long periods, but the systematic discrimination against women, religious minorities and mistreatment of migrant workers and others has also been well-documented." In December 2018, after United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced the Trump administration would suspend its obligations in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 60 days, if Russia continued to violate the treaty, Leahy was one of 26 senators to sign a letter expressing concern over the administration's "now abandoning generations of bipartisan U.S. leadership around the paired goals of reducing the global role and number of nuclear weapons and ensuring strategic stability with America's nuclear-armed adversaries" and calling on President Trump to continue arms negotiations.After Minnesota Representative Rick Nolan retired from Congress in 2019, Leahy became the only remaining Watergate baby in Congress. Leahy endorsed fellow Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders's 2020 presidential campaign. On January 26, 2021, Leahy was hospitalized "out of an abundance of caution" after feeling ill. Leahy's hospitalization occurred hours after he had been sworn in as the presiding officer for Trump's second impeachment trial. He returned home later the same day. In May 2021, POLITICO reported that Leahy was "leaning toward [running for a ninth term]" and asking his Senate colleagues for support. On November 15, 2021, Leahy announced that he was not running for a ninth term. Committee assignments

 Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry
 Subcommittee on Rural Revitalization, Conservation, Forestry and Credit
 Subcommittee on Production, Income Protection and Price Support
 Subcommittee on Hunger, Nutrition and Family Farms
 Committee on Appropriations (chair)
 Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies
 Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies
 Subcommittee on Defense
 Subcommittee on Homeland Security
 Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies
 Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs
 Committee on the Judiciary
 Subcommittee on Border Security and Immigration
 Subcommittee on Intellectual Property
 Subcommittee on Oversight, Agency Action, Federal Rights and Federal Courts
 Committee on Rules and Administration

Political positions

Leahy has held progressive political positions that are generally in line with those of the state.Abortion
Leahy has generally supported abortion rights, rejecting proposals to limit minors or those stationed on military bases from having the procedure performed. He voted against the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act in 1995 and for it between 1997 and 2003. On March 11, 1982, Leahy voted against a measure sponsored by Orrin Hatch that sought to reverse Roe v. Wade and allow Congress and individual states to adopt laws banning abortions. Its passing was the first time a congressional committee supported an anti-abortion amendment. Agriculture
In 2019, Leahy worked with Senators Sherrod Brown, Susan Collins, and David Perdue on a bipartisan effort to ensure students have access to local foods. The proposal would bolster the Farm to School Grant Program, administered by the Agriculture Department, and raise the program's authorized level from $5 million to $15 million, in addition to furthering the maximum grant award to $250,000. In March 2019, Leahy was one of 38 senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of Agriculture Sonny Perdue warning that dairy farmers "have continued to face market instability and are struggling to survive the fourth year of sustained low prices", and urging his department to "strongly encourage these farmers to consider the Dairy Margin Coverage program".In May 2019, <mask> and eight other Democratic senators sent Perdue a letter that criticized the USDA for using farm bailout money to purchase pork from the Brazilian-owned JBS USA, writing that it was "counterproductive and contradictory" for foreign companies to receive "U.S. taxpayer dollars intended to help American farmers struggling with this administration's trade policy". The senators requested that the department "ensure these commodity purchases are carried out in a manner that most benefits the American farmer's bottom line — not the business interests of foreign corporations." In June 2019, Leahy and 18 other Democratic senators sent USDA Inspector General (IG), Phyllis K. Fong, a letter requesting that she investigate USDA instances of retaliation and political decision-making, and arguing that to not conduct an investigation would mean these "actions could be perceived as a part of this administration's broader pattern of not only discounting the value of federal employees, but suppressing, undermining, discounting, and wholesale ignoring scientific data produced by their own qualified scientists." Antitrust, competition, and corporate regulation
In June 2019, Leahy was one of six Democrats, led by Amy Klobuchar, who signed letters to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the Department of Justice recounting that many of them had "called on both the FTC and the Justice Department to investigate potential anticompetitive activity in these markets, particularly following the significant enforcement actions taken by foreign competition enforcers against these same companies", and requesting that each agency confirm whether it had opened antitrust investigations into each of the companies and that each agency pledge to publicly release any such investigation's findings. Cannabis
Leahy supports states' rights to make their own cannabis laws. He proposed a companion to the Rohrabacher-Farr Amendment, which would extend protections to states that have legalized cannabis in some form. It became known as the Leahy Amendment, and prevents the federal government from spending federal tax dollars to prosecute people who are following their state's cannabis laws.Child care
In 2019, Leahy and 34 other senators introduced the Child Care for Working Families Act, a bill that created 770,000 new child care jobs and ensured that families making less than 75 percent of the state median income did not pay for child care, with higher earning families having to pay "their fair share for care on a sliding scale, regardless of the number of children they have". The legislation also supported universal access to high-quality preschool programs for all three- and four-year-olds, changed compensation for the child care workforce, and provided training to aid both teachers and caregivers. China
In a September 12, 2019, press release, Leahy condemned the persecution of Falun Gong practitioners in China and contended that Falun Gong is a threat to the survival of the Chinese Communist Party. He also argued that the Chinese government should commit to ending the use of torture, organ harvesting of prisoners, and propaganda against minorities. Civil justice

In February 2016, Leahy introduced the "Restoring Statutory Rights Act", to "prevent companies from imposing forced arbitration in cases covered by consumer protection laws, as well as employment discrimination and other civil rights matters". Civil rights and privacy
Leahy has been supported by the NAACP and is outspoken in his support for affirmative action. He has supported the legalization of gay marriage and reducing discrimination against gays and lesbians.Leahy has called for the domestic partners of federal employees to receive the same benefits as heterosexual couples. Leahy is a lead sponsor of the Senate version of the Email Privacy Act, which would reform the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 and enhance privacy protections for email. He sponsored this bipartisan bill with Republican Mike Lee of Utah. Criminal justice
Leahy has called for a moratorium on the death penalty and for more DNA testing for death row inmates. He supports rehabilitation as the goal of prisons and providing treatment, instead of punishment, for first-time offenders. In February 2015, <mask> and Republican Rand Paul revived the Justice Safety Valve Act, legislation granting federal judges authority to bestow sentences lower than the mandatory punishment in certain cases, where the sentence violates standards for fair punishment as defined elsewhere in American law. In October 2017, Leahy cosponsored a bill aimed at easing sentences for some nonviolent offenders, such as for drug crimes, while beefing up other tough-on-crime laws.The bill would have abolished the three-strike mandatory life sentence for some repeat drug offenders and authorized enhanced penalties for some individuals with previous convictions for serious violent and drug felonies. On July 31, 2019, after Attorney General William Barr announced that the federal government would resume carrying out the death penalty, for the first time in over 20 years, Leahy, Cory Booker, and Dick Durbin introduced a bill that would ban the death penalty. Leahy said capital punishment fails "by any objective measure", citing its finality and juries' propensity to mistakenly convict. Defense
Leahy was a longtime critic of the Iraq War, and spoke in favor of timetables for troop withdrawal, saying the country needs well-trained employees in both foreign service and private industry to help repair damage to its civilian structure. He has been critical of the PATRIOT Act, even though he has voted to reauthorize altered versions of it. In June 2013, following the disclosure of PRISM and other covert surveillance activities by the National Security Agency, Leahy introduced a bill that would tighten guidelines related to the acquisition of FISA warrants for domestic surveillance and shorten the current FISA authorization by two years. Leahy has always opposed the opening and operation of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, and supported punishment of war profiteering.Economy
On taxation, Leahy has consistently supported progressive rates. He has rejected proposals to remove the Estate Tax and Alternative Minimum Tax, and he has spoken out strongly against cutting taxes for the wealthy. Leahy has strongly supported the rights of employees, and has voted to increase the minimum wage and allow for more union organization. He has voted against a free trade proposal, CAFTA, but supported normalizing trade relations with China. Environment
Leahy has been a strong supporter of environmental policy. He has supported bills that would increase

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 hydrogen car production, uphold Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards, set a goal of reducing oil consumption by 40 percent in 2025, and increase solar and wind power funding. Climate change
In 2011, Leahy voted against limiting EPA's ability to regulate greenhouse gas emissions.In 2013, he voted against a concurrent resolution creating a point of order which would make it harder for Congress to put a price on carbon. In 2015, he voted in support of Obama's Clean Power Plan. On his Climate Change page, he states that "human activity, since the Industrial Revolution, has contributed, in large part, to the changes in climate." He has supported the establishment of greenhouse gas tradeable allowances and has spoken out against the use of ethanol as a solution to rising gasoline prices. In June 2017, after President Trump announced the US would withdraw from the Paris Agreement, Leahy called the move a "great leap backward", adding that pandering "to a handful of billionaires and special interests would impose huge harm upon our generation, upon future generations, and upon our fragile planet." He said he intended "to ensure that this stroke of the president's pen does not derail Vermonters' hard work and leadership to protect our communities from climate risk, and that it does not deter the entrepreneurs and innovators in Vermont and other states who are expanding the world markets for the clean green energy and conservation technologies that will shape our future." In February 2019, in response to reports that the EPA intended to decide against setting limits for perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in drinking water, as part of an upcoming national strategy to manage the chemicals, Leahy was one of 20 senators to sign a letter to Acting EPA Administrator, Andrew R. Wheeler, calling on the agency "to develop enforceable federal drinking water standards for PFOA and PFOS, as well as institute immediate actions to protect the public from contamination from additional per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)".Pipelines
In October 2016, Leahy was one of five senators to sign a letter to President Obama requesting that the administration halt work on the Dakota Access Pipeline, until the permitting process of the Army Corps could "be transparent and include public notice and participation, formal and meaningful tribal consultation, and adequate environmental review", and stating their support for the "tribes along the pipeline route in their fight against the Dakota Access pipeline project". First Amendment
Leahy spoke strongly against a proposed constitutional ban on flag burning and on its implications for freedom of speech and expression. He rejects school prayer initiatives. Gun laws
Leahy has generally supported gun control, including requiring background checks at gun shows and allowing for lawsuits against firearms manufacturers. He voted in favor of prohibiting foreign and UN aid that inhibits gun ownership. In January 2019, Leahy was one of 40 senators to introduce the Background Check Expansion Act, a bill that would require background checks for either the sale or transfer of all firearms, including unlicensed sellers. Exceptions to the bill's background check requirement included transfers between members of law enforcement, loaning firearms for either hunting or sporting events on a temporary basis, giving firearms to members of one's immediate family, firearms being transferred as part of an inheritance, or giving a firearm to another person temporarily for immediate self-defense.In February 2019, Leahy was one of 38 senators to sign a letter to Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Lindsey Graham calling on him to "hold a hearing" on universal background checks and noting Graham's statement in the press that he "intended to have the Committee work on 'red flag' legislation and potentially also background checks, both actions" the senators indicated their support for. Health care
Leahy has stated the importance of increasing the prevalence of public health care, during times of economic downturn. He voted to increase Medicare benefits and to allow this organization to negotiate lower-priced, bulk prescriptions from pharmaceutical manufacturers. Leahy has broken with Democratic leadership in supporting allowing states to make bulk drug purchases on their own, an idea he has characterized as an important short-term solution until Congress can agree on a similar proposal. In a May 2012 speech on the Senate floor, Leahy advocated that Chief Justice John Roberts uphold the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act: "The conservative activism of recent years has not been good for the court. Given the ideological challenge to the Affordable Care Act and the extensive, supportive precedent, it would be extraordinary for the Supreme Court not to defer to Congress in this matter that so clearly affects interstate commerce." In March 2017, after House Republicans withdrew the American Health Care Act, Leahy released a statement touting the accomplishments of the Affordable Care Act and charging Republicans with trying to undo the record with a bill that was really "a massive tax cut for the wealthiest Americans".In September 2017, <mask> was one of 16 senators to co-sponsor the Medicare for All Act, introduced by his fellow Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, which would establish a single-payer healthcare system in the United States. In December 2018, Leahy was one of 42 senators to sign a letter to Trump administration officials Alex Azar, Seema Verma, and Steve Mnuchin arguing that the administration was improperly using Section 1332 of the Affordable Care Act to authorize states to "increase health care costs for millions of consumers while weakening protections for individuals with pre-existing conditions". The senators requested the administration withdraw the policy and "re-engage with stakeholders, states, and Congress". In February 2019, Leahy and 22 other Democratic senators introduced the State Public Option Act, a bill that would authorize states to form a Medicaid buy-in program for all residents and thereby grant them the ability to buy into a state-driven Medicaid health insurance plan if they wished. Brian Schatz, a bill cosponsor, said the legislation would "unlock each state's Medicaid program to anyone who wants it, giving people a high-quality, low-cost public health insurance option" and that its goal was "to make sure that every single American has comprehensive health care coverage". Immigration
In February 2018, after the Supreme Court declined to immediately consider the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, Leahy said that Congress should have acted on immigration reform the previous year, and urged Congress to act, while admitting the Supreme Court decision had reduced pressure to pass legislation quickly. In June 2018, <mask>, Kirsten Gillibrand, and Joni Ernst wrote a letter to United States Defense Secretary James Mattis saying they were "deeply troubled by the department's decision to send 21 active and reserve JAGs to the border on temporary orders to prosecute immigration cases", expressing the view that dispatching "twenty-one trial counsel from military courtrooms to prosecute immigration cases is an inappropriate misapplication of military personnel", and urging Mattis to maintain the military lawyers within the military justice system.In August 2018, <mask> was one of 17 senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of Homeland Security Kirstjen Nielsen demanding that the Trump administration take immediate action in attempting to reunite 539 migrant children with their families, citing each passing day of inaction as intensifying "trauma that this administration has needlessly caused for children and their families seeking humanitarian protection". In September 2018, after nearly $10 million of the Federal Emergency Management Agency budget was transferred to US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Leahy said in a statement, "I am hopeful that the administration will see the consequences of its actions and begin to work with Republicans AND Democrats to actually address the problems in our immigration system. Fomenting fears against immigrants is not governing — it's demagoguery on the taxpayer's dime. It needs to stop now." In January 2019, Leahy was one of 20 senators to sponsor the Dreamer Confidentiality Act, a bill banning the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) from passing information collected on DACA recipients to Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), Customs and Border Protection (CBP), the Department of Justice, or any other law enforcement agency with exceptions in the case of fraudulent claims, national security issues, or non-immigration related felonies. In July 2019, following reports that the Trump administration intended to cease protecting spouses, parents and children of active-duty service members from deportation, <mask> was one of 22 senators, led by Tammy Duckworth, to sign a letter arguing that the protection gave service members the ability "to fight for the United States overseas and not worry that their spouse, children, or parents will be deported while they are away" and that its termination would both cause service members personal hardship and negatively affect their combat performance. Internet privacy
In April 2017, after President Trump signed a law undoing a Federal Communications Commission rule requiring internet service providers to obtain their customers' permission to sell their data to advertisers, Leahy was one of 11 senators to sponsor legislation undoing the repeal and reinstating the regulations.Iran
In May 2018, Leahy was one of 12 senators to sign a letter to Trump urging him not to withdraw from the Iran nuclear deal, on the grounds that "Iran could either remain in the agreement and seek to isolate the United States from our closest partners, or resume its nuclear activities" if the U.S. pulled out and that both possibilities "would be detrimental to our national security interests". Israel
Leahy has signed resolutions in support of Israel's right to self-defense, but has also been critical of alleged human rights violations in the region, especially after the 2008 Operation Cast Lead. In 2011, Leahy initially promoted a bill to cut the military aid to three elite IDF units after reports of human rights violations during the Gaza flotilla raid and in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In February 2016, Leahy joined ten House of Representatives members asking the State Department to investigate suspected human rights violations by Egyptian and Israeli security forces, in particular citing claims of extrajudicial killings that could trigger the Leahy Law, which can cause the suspension of American military aid to countries guilty of such abuses. In April 2019, after the Trump administration refused to distribute money to West Bank and Gaza "because of perceived intransigence on peace talks by the Palestinians and payments to the families of those who have attacked Israelis", Leahy was one of six Democratic senators to introduce a resolution restoring U.S. humanitarian aid to the West Bank and Gaza. In May 2020, Leahy voiced his opposition to Israel's plan to annex parts of the occupied Palestinian territories. Opioids
In March 2017, Leahy was one of 21 senators, led by Ed Markey, to sign a letter to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell that said that 12% of adult Medicaid beneficiaries had some form of a substance abuse disorder, that one-third of treatment for opioid and other substance use disorders in the U.S. is financed by Medicaid, and that the American Health Care Act could "very literally translate into a death spiral for those with opioid use disorders" due to inadequate funding, often resulting in individuals abandoning substance use disorder treatment.LGBT issues
In October 2018, <mask> was one of 20 senators to sign a letter to Secretary of State Mike Pompeo urging him to reverse the rolling back of a policy that granted visas to same-sex partners of LGBTQ diplomats who had unions that were not recognized by their home countries, writing that too many places around the world have seen LGBTQ individuals "subjected to discrimination and unspeakable violence, and receive little or no protection from the law or local authorities", and that refusing to let LGBTQ diplomats bring their partners to the US would be equivalent of upholding "the discriminatory policies of many countries around the world". North Korea
In June 2018, Leahy was one of seven Democrats to sign a letter cautioning Trump that they would not support lifting sanctions against North Korea unless a nuclear agreement between it and the US met five standards outlined in the letter. In a statement after the North Korea–United States summit, Leahy commended Trump "for beginning direct negotiations" but added that it was troubling that Trump "agreed to unilaterally halt military exercises with South Korea without verifiable commitments from North Korea to denuclearize, while giving Kim the recognition he has long craved." Russia
In December 2010, Leahy voted for the ratification of New START, a nuclear arms reduction treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation obliging both countries to have no more than 1,550 strategic warheads and 700 launchers deployed during the next seven years, and providing for a continuation of on-site inspections that halted when START I expired the previous year. It was the first arms treaty with Russia in eight years. In February 2017, Leahy was one of 11 senators to sign a letter to United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions expressing their concern "about credible allegations that the Trump campaign, transition team, and Administration has colluded with the Russian government, including most recently the events leading to the resignation of Lieutenant General Michael Flynn as National Security Adviser". The senators requested the creation of "an independent Special Counsel to investigate collusion with the Russian government by General Flynn and other Trump campaign, transition and Administrative officials", in order to maintain "the confidence, credibility and impartiality of the Department of Justice".Other issues
Leahy has consistently voted to uphold Social Security and has opposed school vouchers. Leahy supported Joe Biden's plan to withdraw all U.S. troops from Afghanistan. Awards
In 2013, Leahy received the annual U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official from the Jefferson Awards for Public Service. In 2014, the Congressional Management Foundation awarded <mask> a "Silver Mouse Award" for his website, and a "Gold Mouse Award" for his engagement on social media. Leahy is the recipient of several honorary degrees, including:

Saint Michael's College, LL.D., 1976
Middlebury College, LL.D., 2011
Albany College of Pharmacy, D,Sc., 2013
Green Mountain College, LL.D., 2014

Personal life

Family
Leahy married Marcelle Pomerleau in 1962. Her parents, Louis Philippe Pomerleau and Cecile Bouchard Pomerleau, emigrated to the United States from Quebec, and she is bilingual (English and French).The extended Pomerleau family established several successful Vermont businesses, and includes her uncle Antonio Pomerleau (d. 2018), a prominent real estate developer and philanthropist. Marcelle <mask> graduated from the nursing school at Burlington's former DeGoesbriand Hospital. She is a registered nurse and has worked at hospitals in Burlington, Washington, D.C., and Arlington, Virginia. The Leahys have resided in a farmhouse in Middlesex, Vermont, since moving from Burlington, and have three children. In 2012, they celebrated their 50th wedding anniversary, with Leahy saying, "We hate it when we're apart from one another." Other
<mask> is a published photographer. He is a Roman Catholic and attends Saint Andrew's Church in Waterbury, Vermont.He also attends Holy Trinity Catholic Church in Washington, D.C. Comic book fan
<mask> is a fan of comic books, and in particular the character Batman. He wrote the foreword to The Dark Knight Archives, Volume 1 (a 1992 collection of the first four Batman comic books), the preface essay for Batman: Death of Innocents (a 1996 graphic novel about the horrors of landmines), and the introduction to Green Arrow: The Archer's Quest (a single-volume collection of a six-issue story arc). <mask> has also made several cameo appearances in Batman television episodes and films, beginning with an uncredited cameo in Batman Forever (1995). He voiced a territorial governor in the Batman: The Animated Series episode "Showdown" (1995), appeared as himself in the film Batman & Robin (1997), and appeared twice in Christopher Nolan's Dark Knight Trilogy as a Wayne Enterprises board member. In The Dark Knight (2008), he tells the Joker "We're not intimidated by thugs," to which the Joker replies, "You know, you remind me of my father. I hated my father."In The Dark Knight Rises (2012), he defended the legacy of the Wayne family against attempts to usurp the company by industrialist John Daggett. Leahy also appeared in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, playing Senator Purrington, in a scene set during Superman's Senate hearing which is subsequently destroyed by an explosion. All royalties and fees from Leahy's roles are donated to charities, primarily the Kellogg-Hubbard Library in Vermont, where he read comic books as a child. Filmography

Electoral history

See also
 Trump–Ukraine scandal

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

 Senator <mask> official U.S. Senate website
 <mask> for Senate

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1940 births
21st-century American politicians
American people of Irish descent
American politicians of Italian descent
American politicians with physical disabilities
American Roman Catholics
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Democratic Party United States senators
Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Living people
Male actors from Vermont
People from Middlesex, Vermont
People from Montpelier, Vermont
Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate
Progressivism in the United States
Saint Michael's College alumni
State's attorneys in Vermont
United States senators from Vermont
Vermont Democrats
Vermont

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<mask><mask> (September 6, 1922 – December 7, 2018) was an American sculptor. Safer's varied career spanned work in theater lighting, television, real estate, politics and banking. Safer was best known for his monumental sculptures, but he has also created many smaller works. These include award sculptures for organizations such as the National Air and Space Museum, the PGA Tour, the Georgetown University Lombardi Cancer Center, the World Peace Foundation, and the Shakespeare Guild. Safer's works stand in museums, galleries and embassies throughout the world. In 1972 and in 1989 the U.S. Department of State sent a group of Safer sculptures abroad to be exhibited as examples of America's finest art. He died in December 2018 at the age of 96.Sculpture

Safer's earliest sculptures in the 1950s and 1960s were small works of Lucite. Over time he also began to work in bronze and stainless steel. The pieces became larger and in 1979 his first public commission, Judgment,  a multi-ton patinated bronze,  was installed at Harvard Law School in Cambridge,Massachusetts. This was the first in a long string of public installations. As the commissions grew in number they grew in size as well. Interplay, created in 1987, is  high. Leading Edge, created in 1989, is  high.His hallmark work,  Ascent, which stands at the entrance of the Smithsonian Institution's Udvar-Hazy Center at Dulles Airport in Virginia,  is  high. "Through his work, <mask> has tried to capture the essence ... and reduce the subject to the pure line in space that Aristotle believed to be the basis of sculpture." Early life

<mask> was born and raised in Washington, D.C., the only child of <mask> and Rebecca Herzmark <mask>. His father, who operated a moving and storage business, was a lawyer who graduated from Georgetown University Law School at the head of his class. His mother Rebecca Herzmark <mask> was a social activist, suffragette and intellectual. <mask> learned to read and write by the age of four. At this time his mother entered him into first grade at the Maret French School.Safer continued as a precocious student. Fluent in French, he entered high school at the age of eleven and graduated when he was fourteen. He was pressured by his mother to enroll at Harvard University. Safer, uncomfortable at the thought of being a fourteen-year-old college student, deliberately failed the Harvard entrance exam by handing in blank pages. Safer instead attended Woodward Prep School. There he discovered his love for and ability in athletics. This theme would greatly influence his art and his life.Until then, his age and size had prevented him from participating in sports and left him with the sense that he was a misfit. At the age of sixteen, Safer entered George Washington University where he majored in economics. He became an assistant to Professor Edward Acheson –– brother of the United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson –– who became a mentor. At the beginning of World War II, Safer enlisted in the United States Air Force to become a flying cadet. Safer became a first lieutenant and served in India, Burma and China. When the war ended in 1945 he opted for an additional year in the Air Force hoping to fulfill a dream of seeing Europe's great works of art while he was stationed there. His new assignment allowed him to visit the Parthenon, the Tate, and the Louvre.While in Rome, he learned that he was suddenly to be transferred to Athens. Unwilling to leave Italy without visiting the Accademia in Florence,  Safer "borrowed" a jeep to make the drive to see Michelangelo's  David. The Accademia was closed but he convinced the caretaker to let him in. The two hours Safer spent alone with the masterpiece resulted in a seminal experience, but it was Michelangelo's other sculptures in the Gallery, The Prisoners, which gave Safer an insight that was to impact his entire life and transform his artistic career. The Prisoners are heroic figures rising from rough hewn stone. The upper portion of the figures are finished while the lower part remains uncarved. As Safer studied The Prisoners he realized the power of the abstract –– a realization that gave direction to his future work.Businessman
After Safer graduated from Harvard Law School in 1949 his fascination with the emerging technology and promise of television prompted him to take a job as a handyman at WXEL in Cleveland, Ohio. He quickly rose to the position of program director. During this time his innovations led the new independent station to "beat the ratings of all the network affiliates." In 1953 Safer's father became terminally ill and he returned to Washington, D.C. to take over his father's affairs. Although Safer successfully parlayed these into a major real estate development business he did not find his commercial life a rewarding one. In 1974 Safer entered the world of banking, becoming Chairman of the Executive Committee of Financial General Bankshares, and in 1981 the Chairman of the Board of DC National Bank which later became part of Bank of America. In 1999 Safer became Chairman of the Board of Materia, Inc.  Materia specializes in Olefin metathesis, and is noted for its Nobel Prize–winning Green chemistry.Sculptor

<mask> never formally studied art. His first forays into sculpture were experiments with plastic swizzle sticks. In 1957 he made his first creations, and he continued to experiment, eventually beginning to carve Lucite. In 1969 Safer had his first show in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania at the Michael Berger Gallery. Several shows in private galleries followed with a major exhibition at the Pyramid Gallery in Washington, D.C. In 1971 the renowned art collector and U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain, Walter Annenberg, invited Safer to have an exhibition at the American Embassy in London.In 1972 President Gerald Ford presented Safer's Limits of Infinity to King Juan Carlos of Spain as a gift of state. This in turn led to several major events in Safer's sculptural career. As a result of a news report of President Ford's gift, the Dean of Harvard Law School sought to acquire a Safer sculpture for the school. This culminated in 1979 with the installation of Judgment,  a monumental bronze work which was presented to Harvard Law School as a gift of Safer's class of 1949. This was Safer's first monumental public work. <mask>, the Dean of Harvard Business School visited the palace at Zarzuela where King Juan Carlos had installed Limits of Infinity. Moved by the sculpture, Dean McArthur returned to America and commissioned Safer's  Search for Harvard Business School.The patinated bronze was installed on the Business School grounds in 1984 adjacent to the spot where Safer's daughter, Janine, received her MBA five days later. In 1985 Safer was invited to exhibit sculpture in the Pioneers of Flight Hall at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum, in Washington, D.C. He has the distinction of being the only artist to have ever had an exhibition in the central gallery of the most visited museum in the
world. In 1989 the U.S. Department of State again sent Safer sculptures to Europe. As of 2008, the Department has exhibited Safer sculpture in London, Paris, Beijing, Dublin, Bern, Lisbon, Brussels, Bucharest, Belgrade, Nassau, Washington, and New Deli. Both public and private exhibitions of Safer sculpture can be seen in venues throughout the world. Safer continues to create sculpture.He works with his stepdaughter Kathryn Scott, to whom he taught his trade and offered his mantle. In 2007, they began work on a monumental sculpture, Quest,  for the Johns Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute. The  stainless steel fabricated sculpture and state of the art research center, the Robert H. and Clarice Smith Building,  was dedicated two years later, on October 16, 2009,  80 years to the day after the pioneering institute's  first building made its debut. Safer, a patient, donated the multi-ton sculpture as a gift  of appreciation. It is one of the largest gifts of art that Johns Hopkins has received. In December 2011, Scott and Safer began work on a model for a monumental sculpture for the Marine Aviation Memorial. Over the next ten years the Safer-Scott partners continued to collaborate on private and public projects.The eleven foot-high (3.4 m) mirror finished, Interplay,  was commissioned for the LEED wing of the $340M Kimmel Cancer Center expansion at Sibley Memorial Hospital in Washington, DC. In 2014 Scott began negotiations with MGM Resorts International for a centerpiece at MGM National Harbor in Maryland. The 60 foot high (18.3 m) stainless steel sculpture, Unity, weighting eighteen thousand pounds and unprecedented in its scale, was installed two years later on November 12, 2016—one month before the opening of the $1.4B resort. Safer explains the motivation behind his sculpture:

Safer credits his wife, Joy, with giving him "a new perspective on the world ... which lifted my sculpture to a level I had not previously attained." Civic

Sports

Safer's interest in sports has provided the inspiration behind many of his sculptures. Dancer and the Dance,  Serve,  Before the Wind, and Line of Flight are works that capture a line of athletic motion. As a youngster, Safer was ahead of, and therefore smaller than his classmates in school, so it was later that he discovered his own athletic prowess.Safer has awards in marksmanship, baseball and bowling. Safer, now ninety, still plays competitive golf. In November 2012, <mask> and his partner Jack Frazee won the Lyford Cay Shootout. Later that week, <mask> and his team won the "B" flight in the Lyford Cay Four-Ball Invitational tournament, a tournament they won in 2007, when Safer was 85. Honours
Safer has been awarded two honorary degrees: Doctor of Philosophy from Daniel Webster College and Doctor of Literature from Lees-McRae College. In May 2009, Safer received a third honorary degree– Doctor of Fine Arts from George Washington University. Along with Rahm Emanuel and Jeanne L. Narum,  <mask> delivered a commencement speech, from the National Mall, to the graduating class of 2009.Safer explains the motivation behind his career:

There is one other basic principle that guides my work, my business career, and my life in general, and that is balance. I believe that the Aristotelian golden mean is as good a guiding philosophy for life as you can find. In business, I adhere to it continually, trying to balance the necessity for a successful business always to move forward with the caveat that too much motion can be counterproductive or unnecessarily dangerous. In art, the human spirit is gratified by balance, by a tonic note. And so I try to express a sense of balance and completeness in my work. Bibliography
 Guinness Book of World Records, 1990 By Donald McFarlan, Norris Dewar McWhirter, David A. Boeh Contributor David A. Boeh Published by Guinness Superlatives, 1989 ,  - Largest Clock called,Timepiece designed by <mask>r
 <mask>r By Frank Getlein, <mask>r Published by J.J. Binns, 1982 Original from the University of Michigan
Digitized Nov 13, 2007 ,
 Art in Flight: The Sculpture of <mask>r By Walter J. Boyne, <mask>, David Finn Photographs by David Finn
Contributor David Finn Published by Hudson Hills Press, 1992 Original from the University of Michigan
Digitized Nov 13, 2007 ,
 <mask>r: [exhibition] April 3–26, 1975, Findlay Galleries. By <mask>, N.Y. David Findlay Galleries New York
Published by The Galleries, 1975
 <mask>r.The United States Embassy, 1 Grosvenor Square, London, England. A One Man Exhitition Under the Sponsorship of the Ambassador of the United States of America and Mrs. Walter H. Annenberg, October 6–22, 1971 [and] Valley House Gallery. : The United States Embassy, 1 Grosvenor Square ... By <mask>, Valley House Gallery, United States Embassy Great Britain, Embassy Great Britain, Valley House Gallery, United States Published by Valley House Gallery, 1971
 Refractions By <mask>, Pyramid Galleries, Pyramid Galleries Ltd, Westmoreland County Museum of Art, Westmoreland County Museum of Art Published by Westmoreland County Museum, 1970

References

External links
 <mask>r
 A Who's Who in America Publication
 Materia
 National Air and Space Museum Trophy
 The Guinness Book of World Records, a record for the World's largest clock called Timepiece designed by <mask>r

1922 births
2018 deaths
Artists from Washington, D.C.
Columbian College of Arts and Sciences alumni
United States Air Force officers
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Harvard Law School alumni
American bankers
Green chemistry
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century male artists
American male sculptors

masks:
John H
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John
John Safer
John
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John
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John McArthur
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John Safe
John Safe
John Safe
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<mask> (; ) was a Spanish-Jewish astronomer, historian, and philosopher; born at Córdoba, Spain about 1110; died in Toledo, Spain, according to common report, a martyr about 1180. He is sometimes known by the abbreviation Rabad I or Ravad I. His mother belonged to a family famed for its learning. Some scholars believe he is the Arabic-into-Latin translator known as “Avendauth.”

Works
His chronicle, a work written in 1161 under the title of Sefer ha-Qabbalah  (Book of Tradition), in which he fiercely attacked the contentions of Karaism and justified Rabbinic Judaism by the establishment of a chain of traditions from Moses to his own time, is replete with valuable general information, especially relating to the time of the Geonim and to the history of the Jews in Spain. An astronomical work written by him in 1180 is favorably noticed by Isaac Israeli the Younger. His philosophical work, al-ʿaqida l-Rafiya (The Sublime Faith), written in 1168, in Arabic, has been preserved in two Hebrew translations: one by Solomon ben Labi, with the title Emunah Ramah; the other by Samuel Motot. Labi's translation was retranslated into German and published by Simshon Weil.Philosophy

Aristotelian approach
<mask> was the first to introduce the phase of Jewish philosophy which is generally attributed to Maimonides and which differs from former systems of philosophy mainly in its more thorough systematic form derived from Aristotle. Accordingly, Hasdai Crescas mentions <mask> as the only Jewish philosopher among the predecessors of Maimonides. But having been completely overshadowed by Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed, <mask> <mask>'s Emunah Ramah ("Sublime Faith"), a work to which Maimonides himself was indebted for many valuable suggestions, received scant notice from later philosophers. The only Jewish philosophical works that <mask> had before him, according to his own statement, were Saadia's Emunoth ve-Deoth, and "The Fountain of Life" by <mask> Gabirol. On the one hand, he fully recognizes the merits of Saadia Gaon, although he does not adopt his views on the freedom of the will, notwithstanding that the solution of this problem was to be the chief aim and purpose of his whole system. On the other hand, his attitude toward Gabirol is entirely antagonistic, and even in the preface to his "Emunah Ramah" he pitilessly condemns Gabirol's "Fountain of Life." Being the first strict Aristotelian among the Jews—who considered Aristotle and his Arabic commentators, Alfarabi and Ibn Sina, to be the only true philosophers—<mask> was provoked to constant opposition by the doctrines of Gabirol, who represented Neoplatonism.Impartial enough to accord to childlike faith its full rights, <mask> desired also to defend the rights of reason, and, consequently, resisted with the utmost energy any attempt to set bounds to science; regarding this as a culpable encroachment upon the Divine plan, who did not endow man with the faculty of thought without intent. True philosophy, according to <mask>, does not entice us from religion; it tends rather to strengthen and solidify it. Moreover, it is the duty of every thinking Jew to become acquainted with the harmony existing between the fundamental doctrines of Judaism and those of philosophy, and, wherever they seem to contradict one another, to seek a mode of reconciling them. <mask> insists that, however highly philosophy may be valued, the religion of Judaism is preferable. Knowledge, which had been acquired by philosophers through the evolution of several thousand years, and after overcoming the most serious errors, had been bestowed upon Judaism from the beginning through revelation. As to moral truths, it may be even assumed as probable that the philosophers did not attain to them through independent study, but rather under the influence of the doctrines of Holy Scripture. Dissent from Aristotle
It is true that on certain points <mask> could not always avoid conflict with the doctrines of Aristotle: this was especially true regarding Aristotle's theory of creation.According to Aristotle, all coming into being results from the fusion of matter into a certain form; matter, therefore, is the necessary basis for any genesis; primary matter itself, as the substance common to all things existent, must, therefore, be without beginning and must be eternal. But the acceptance of preexistent and eternal matter cannot be reconciled with the Biblical history of creation, which implies a creation out of nothing, and subject to time. From this conflict, which later caused Maimonides to dispute the authority of Aristotle in all matters transcendental, <mask> was not able to extricate himself; and, therefore, he rather tries to glide over the existing difficulties than to solve them. For he represents the course of creation as a series of creative acts; which recalls Gabirol's doctrine concerning the succession of the various substances. But he himself subsequently admits that this was only a hypothesis to satisfy the need of giving an architectonic finish to our notions, intended to mark that gradual process of things which would result, had creation really gone through all the stages of existence, from primary matter, which is imperceptible to us, to all individual things, though some of these stages may be regarded as partly existing only in abstract notions. To concede the possibility of such a gradual process of creation, however, would be, according to <mask>, a contradiction of our conception of God's mode of acting. Theology
As to the doctrine of God, <mask> <mask>, like Aristotle and his Arabic interpreters, proceeding from the principle of motion, and basing his argument upon the proof of the impossibility of a regressus in infinitum, arrives at the conception of a First Cause of all motion, or of a Prime Mover, who Itself, as First Cause, can not have any other cause of motion above It, and must, therefore, be thought of as motionless.The Prime Mover is God. But this proof of the existence of God leaves still open two important questions relating to the truth of our knowledge of God: one concerning the incorporeality, and the other respecting the unity of God. As to the incorporeality of God, it follows logically from the notion of infinity which belongs to the First Cause of motion that no corporeal thing can be infinite itself; nor can infinite force be attributed to it. But the Prime Mover is infinite; for, since it itself is without motion, its force also remains unaffected by the motion of change and transformation. Therefore, the Prime Mover—that is, God—cannot be corporeal. But as a being of necessary existence, God must also be absolutely simple and single; inasmuch as the conception of a plurality in its essence would, at the same time, nullify the notion of the necessity of Its existence. For the consolidation of this plurality into a unity must have been effected by another being different from itself; hence the existence of this plural being would be no more necessary, that is, determined by its own essence, but would be dependent upon that other being which brought about the unification.From the notion of absolute unity results the conception of the uniqueness of God; for if two beings of this kind could exist, the unity of God would be nullified, since to one, at least, of the units a special character must be attributed so as to distinguish it from the other. With the doctrine of the unity of God is connected the doctrine of the divine attributes, which is preceded in <mask> <mask>'s system by the doctrine of the negative attributes, already accepted by Bahya ibn Paquda. and by Judah ha-Levi from the older Arabic theology. According to <mask>, only negative attributes, in the strict and proper sense, can be imputed to God; so that, whatever multiplicity of these negative attributes may be ascribed to It, no multiplicity in the essence of God can result. Certainly this is equivalent to a renunciation of a positive conception of the Divine Being; for negative statements may suffice to prevent erroneous ideas, but a positive knowledge can never be obtained through them alone. Indeed, our whole knowledge of God is limited to two certainties, (1) that It exists and (2) that Its essence is incomprehensible. In addition to the negative attributes, only relative attributes can be predicated of God; for even these latter, however many may be assumed, since they do not apply to the essence of God but only to Its relation to the world, produce no modification in the notion of the unity of the Divine Being.From the speculative doctrines of faith, the truth of which can be proved only by reasoning, are to be distinguished the historical dogmas whose authenticity is based principally upon divine revelation, or (more precisely) upon the historical tradition of such a revelation. The tradition concerning an event that is reported to have taken place publicly before a great body of men, which originated, so to say, under the control of public opinion, without having been disputed by contemporaries, and has descended with an uninterrupted continuity, is persuasive which cannot be controverted even by the professional logician. The trustworthiness of historical tradition forms a presumption in favor of the truth of prophecy. This trust only applies when the divine revelations apply to important public matters, but not when they relate to less important matters, or to the personal affairs of a single individual. Thus, as <mask> remarks (perhaps referring to the miracles attributed to Jesus), the authenticity of the Torah would be in a difficult situation if, instead of being based historically certain miracles such as those of Moses, it were supported only by private miracles such the resurrections by Elijah and Elisha. Theory of prophecy
Relying upon the doctrines of Alfarabi and Avicenna, <mask> (whom Maimonides follows in many ways in his conception of prophecy) further argues that the gift of prophecy must not be considered as a phenomenon, interrupting the continuity of the development of the human mind, but in a certain sense as the final stage of a natural evolution whose lower phases, though they must be distinguished from prophecy proper, are nevertheless connected with the same faculty through a certain identity of nature. And even if the true stage of prophecy is reached, this gift is, nevertheless, still capable of progressive development, although it may exceptionally at once reach the highest perfection in particularly gifted individuals.The connection between the mind of the prophet and the higher intellects, principally with the Active Intelligence, furnishes a sufficient explanation of the higher cognitive faculty of the prophet, as well as of his power of transcending natural law. Appointed to become an intermediary between God and man, the prophet is elevated almost to the plane of the separated intelligences, or angels. On predestination
Based upon the philosophical system developed above, and after the exposition of the doctrine of faith, the problem of human free will and its relation to faith in a divine providence, or predestination, may be regarded as much nearer its solution. The objection that faith in a divine providence is inconsistent with the existence of evil in the world, because God can not be the author of evil and good at the same time, is refuted by the fact that evil has no existence in itself, but is only the natural result of the absence of actual good, and that, consequently, evil needs no creator. The defects and imperfections which appear in this world in no way contradict the wisdom and goodness of God. The defects appear only to a finite conception which considers things separately and in themselves, and not in their connection with the whole. Viewed from a higher standpoint the imperfections adhering to things or individuals would perhaps, in their relation to the whole, even prove to be perfections and advantages.The human free-will as a subjective principle has for its objective correlate the notion of possibility, by which one of two alternatives may occur. This does not limit divine omniscience in any way; unless, misled by common usage, one should designate as "possible" those things whose undetermined state results not from their own essence, but only from our deficient knowledge of the essence. But this kind of possibility, which, indeed, is no possibility at all, must be eliminated from God as quite irreconcilable with His omniscience. In its strict and precise form, the notion of possibility is not at all antagonistic to the omniscience of God; for it is easily conceivable that God from the beginning regulated creation, so that for certain cases both alternatives should be "possible" events; that the Creator, in order to grant to human liberty the opportunity to display its own energy, left the final issue of certain actions undecided even for His own knowledge. <mask> admits that human free will is somewhat limited through the variety of moral dispositions, partly due to natural causes, to be found both in single individuals and in entire nations. But man is able to overcome his natural disposition and appetites, and to lift himself to a higher plane of morality, by purifying and ennobling himself. The Torah, and the study of ethics which forms a part of practical philosophy and is designated, by an expression borrowed from Plato, as the "doctrine of the healing of souls," are the guiding stars to this exalted plane; but no scientific presentation of practical philosophy approaches in this regard the lofty heights of the Scriptures, wherein are clearly expressed the most sublime moral principles known to philosophers.The ceremonial laws also serve the purpose of moral education. Therefore, they too qualify as moral laws; although when compared with the doctrines of faith and the ethical laws proper, they have only a subordinate importance, just as the Bible also attribute to the sacrifices a relatively minor importance in comparison with the moral laws. See also
 Latin translations of the 12th century

References

 Sefer ha-Kabbalah, with Latin translation by G. Génébrard, Mantua, 1519, Paris, 1572, Cracow, 1820;
 Neubauer, Mediæval Jew. Chron., i;
 Emunah Ramah, German translation by S. Weil, Frankfort, 1882;
 Joseph Guggenheimer, Die Religionsphilosophie des Abraham ben David, Augsburg, 1850;
 J. Guttmann, Die Religionsphilosophie des Abraham ibn Daud aus Toledo, Göttingen, 1879. External links
 Jewish Encyclopedia article
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 Britannica article
 <mask>ud at Sephardic Sages

1110s births
1180 deaths
People from Toledo, Spain
12th-century Jews of Al-Andalus
Rishonim
12th-century rabbis
Jewish historians
12th-century historians
Philosophers of Judaism
Chronologists

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