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<mask> (August 19, 1871 – October 26, 1943) was a wealthy American art collector who was a founding benefactor of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. A major figure in thoroughbred horse racing, he was head of New York's Belmont Park and builder of Miami's Hialeah Park racetrack in Florida. Early life
<mask> was born in Philadelphia, the third and only surviving son of the extremely wealthy transportation and real estate magnate Peter A. B<mask> (1834 – 1915) and <mask> (1836 – 1896). His older brother <mask> died on the RMS Titanic. <mask> attended Harvard University, and for a short time studied architecture at the University of Pennsylvania. Thoroughbred horse racing
<mask> used his great wealth to pursue his interest in Thoroughbred horse racing on a large scale. Not only did he become an owner of a large stable of racehorses, Widener acquired the Elmendorf Farm in Lexington, Kentucky and the Belmont Park racetrack in New York, plus he built Hialeah Park racetrack in Miami, Florida.In 1901, thirty-year-old <mask> began purchasing Thoroughbred horses to compete in both flat racing and steeplechase events. He hired future U.S. Racing Hall of Fame horse trainer, J. Howard Lewis. For the next four decades, they combined to race fourteen Champions, two in flat racing and twelve Steeplechase Champions. Widener's steeplechase horses won numerous important races including three editions of the American Grand National with Relluf (1914), Arc Light (1929), and Bushranger (1936). His steeplechasers Bushranger and Fairmount were both elected to the U.S. Racing Hall of Fame.Following the death of August Belmont Jr., <mask> and friends W. Averell Harriman and George Herbert Walker, purchased much of Belmont's Thoroughbred breeding stock. For his Elmendorf Farm breeding operation, Widener acquired Belmont's very important sire Fair Play and the broodmare Mahubah, the parents of Man o' War. He also purchased a son of Fair Play named Chance Shot who would go on to win the 1927 Belmont Stakes and following the 1929 death of Fair Play would become Elmendorf Farm's leading sire. Widener had a life-size statue of Fair Play erected by his grave at Elmendorf Farm. As part of the selloff of the August Belmont Jr. estate, in 1925 <mask> also acquired majority control of Belmont Park in Elmont, New York and would serve as the race track's president until 1939 when failing health necessitated his stepping down. In 1930, he imported the stallion Sickle from Lord Derby in England who came to visit the U.S. that year and was <mask>'s guest at the 1930 Kentucky Derby. A son of the very important sire Phalaris, Sickle would produce 45 Graded stakes race winners and be the leading sire in North America in 1936 and 1938.Following Chance Shot's win in the 1927 Belmont Stakes, <mask>'s racing stable won the race two more times with Hurryoff in 1933 and with a son of Chance Shot in 1934 named Peace Chance. He also had five horses compete in the Kentucky Derby with his best finishes a second place earned by Osmand in 1927 and by Brevity in 1936. <mask>'s father had had business interests in France and like other wealthy elite Americans of that era, maintained a place in fashionable Paris. In addition to racing horses in the United States, Widener also kept a stable of Thoroughbreds in France. Competing in French grass racing, his horses won the 1923 and 1926 editions of the Prix La Rochette and the 1923, 1924, and 1937 runnings of the Prix d'Aumale. Widener also owned English Hackney horses who competed at various shows. Personal life
He married <mask> ″<mask>″ Holmes Pancoast (1874–1929) with whom he had two children:
Peter Arrell <mask> II (1895–1948)
<mask> "Fifi" <mask> Leidy Holden Wichfeld Bigelow (1902–1961)
<mask> Leidy (1923–1988) was married from 1941 to 1950 to State Senator <mask> Paine (1920–1991)

<mask> raised his family at Lynnewood Hall, his father's 110-room Georgian-style mansion  in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania.Designed by Horace Trumbauer and Jacques Greber, the mansion, along with its extensive and important art collection, was part of the huge fortune he inherited. In poor health for several years, <mask> <mask> died at his Lynnewood Hall estate in 1943 and was interred in the <mask> family mausoleum, Section K, Lot 338 at Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia. Hialeah Park
In 1930, <mask> built a  mansion in Palm Beach, Florida. where he would spend a good part of most winters. That same year, he purchased a controlling interest in the Miami Jockey Club and in 1931 renovated Hialeah Park. Hailed as one of the most beautiful Thoroughbred race tracks in the world, in 1979 Hialeah Park was listed on the United States National Register of Historic Places. Major races here were the Widener Handicap inaugurated in 1936, and the Flamingo Stakes, an important stepping stone to the Kentucky Derby for 3-year-old horses.Following <mask>'s death, ownership of the facility changed hands several times and after running into financial difficulties it closed in 2001. Art collection
<mask> added to the extensive and valuable art collection he had inherited from his father. His collection included a dozen or more works by Rembrandt as well as those by Johannes Vermeer, Édouard Manet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and others. In 1939, <mask> made a number of donations from his assorted collections including manuscripts of historical and artistic importance given to the Rare Book Department at the Free Library of Philadelphia. However, his most important philanthropic endeavor was as a founding benefactor of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. Widener's 1939 donation of a vast collection was announced by U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Gallery's opening ceremony. Known as the Widener Collection, the more than 2,000 sculptures, paintings, decorative art, and porcelains went on display in 1942. <mask>'s own 1921 portrait by Augustus John hangs in the National Gallery of Art.References

Sources
<mask>, Paintings at Lynnewood Hall (Elkins Park, PA: privately printed, 1923). Peter A. B<mask> II, Without Drums (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1940). External links
 Normandy Farm, Lexington, Kentucky at the National Sporting Library's Thoroughbred Heritage website
 <mask><mask>, Founding Benefactor of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 (<mask>.) Widener Collection at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 Lewis-Widener manuscript collection at the Free Library of Philadelphia
 <mask><mask>'s biography of at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

American art collectors
American racehorse owners and breeders
French racehorse owners and breeders
American horse racing industry executives
American philanthropists
Businesspeople from Philadelphia
Harvard University alumni
University of Pennsylvania School of Design alumni
1871 births
1943 deaths
Widener family
Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia)
People from Cheltenham, Pennsylvania

masks:
Joseph Early Widener
Widener
. Widener
Hannah Josephine Dunton
George Dunton Widener
Joseph Widener
Joseph Widener
Joseph Widener
Joseph Widener
Joseph Widener
Widener
Widener
Joseph Widener
Eleanor
Ella
Browne Widener
Josephine
Widener
Joan Widener
George Eis
Joseph Widener
Joseph Early
Widener
Widener
Joseph Widener
Widener
Joseph Widener
Widener
Joseph Widener
Joseph Widener
. Widener
Joseph E
. Widener
Joseph E
Joseph E
. Widener


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<mask> () is an academic, administrator, and politician in Serbia. He was a cabinet minister in the Yugoslavian government in 1999, has served in the assemblies of Yugoslavia and Serbia, and at one time was the acting mayor of Belgrade. He now serves as chair of the supervisory board of Telekom Srbija. A member of the Serbian Renewal Movement (Srpski pokret obnove, SPO) for most of his time as an elected official, <mask> is now a member of the Serbian Progressive Party (Srpska napredna stranka, SNS). Early life and career
<mask> was born in Belgrade, in what was then the People's Republic of Serbia in the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. He graduated from the University of Belgrade Faculty of Science and Mathematics in 1975 with a focus on mathematics, received his master's degree in 1978, and earned a Ph.D. in 1983. He became an assistant professor in mathematics in 1984 and was promoted to associate professor in 1991; he also served for a time as dean of the faculty.<mask> has published several academic works and has taken part in popular science programming in the Serbian media. One of his colleagues in the faculty of mathematics was Mirjana Marković, with whom he was on friendly terms. Marković was the wife of Slobodan Milošević and the leader of the Yugoslav Left (Jugoslovenska Levica, JUL) party from 1994 to 2003. <mask>'s personal association with Marković was a point of controversy during his political career. Politician

Early years
<mask> joined the Democratic Party (Demokratska stranka, DS) when multi-party politics was re-introduced to Serbia in 1990 and emerged as a prominent figure in the party. In October 1990, he was part of a group of DS activists who opposed the party leadership's decision to participate in the 1990 Serbian parliamentary election, arguing that conditions for fair elections did not exist. On 22 January 1991, <mask> and other members of this group left the DS to form the Serbian Liberal Party (Srpska liberalna stranka, SLS).In 1992, the SLS became part of the Democratic Movement of Serbia (Demokratski pokret Srbije, DEPOS), a broad coalition of parties opposed to the Milošević government. The party left the coalition the following year, when the SLS leadership disagreed with DEPOS's decision to participate in the 1993 Serbian parliamentary election. <mask>, who opposed this call for a boycott, left the SLS and remained within DEPOS as an individual member. Parliamentarian
<mask> appeared in the sixth position on the DEPOS electoral list for Belgrade in the 1993 Serbian election and was awarded a mandate when the coalition won eleven seats in the capital. (From 1992 to 2000, one-third of Serbia's parliamentary mandates were assigned to candidates from successful lists in numerical order, while the remaining two-thirds were distributed amongst other candidates at the discretion of the sponsoring parties and coalitions. <mask> did not automatically receive a mandate by virtue of his list position but was nonetheless included in the DEPOS delegation and took his seat when the assembly met in early 1994.) DEPOS dissolved after the election; <mask> joined the SPO, which had been the leading party in the coalition, and became an advisor to its leader Vuk Drašković.The election was won by Milošević's Socialist Party of Serbia (Socijalistička partija Srbije, SPS), and <mask> served in opposition. From 1992 to 2000, the Serbian parliament nominated half the membership (i.e., twenty members) of the Chamber of Republics in the Yugoslavian parliament. By virtue of the coalition's performance in the 1993 election, the parties of DEPOS were allowed to nominate four members to the federal chamber. <mask> was selected as a delegate, receiving an appointment in February 1994 for a term that lasted four years. He continued to serve in the Serbian parliament during this time. In March 1995, he spoke favourably of a recent proposal by the Contact Group as the basis for a negotiated end to the Bosnian War. He also indicated that, in the longer term, he would favour the incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Serbian Krajina, and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia into a reconstituted Yugoslavia.1996 local elections and after
The SPO participated in the 1996 Serbian local elections with the DS and the Civic Alliance of Serbia (Građanski savez Srbije, GSS) in a new opposition alliance called Zajedno (English: Together). The alliance won victories in several major cities, including Belgrade, but the results were not initially recognized by the Serbian government. Following an extended standoff and several weeks of protest, the government belatedly recognized the victories of Zajedno in February 1997. DS leader Zoran Đinđić became mayor of Belgrade; <mask>, who had been elected to the City Assembly of Belgrade for a division in Vračar, was chosen as deputy mayor as well as being appointed as president of the managing board for Belgrade's television station Studio B. During this time, journalist Seamus Martin described <mask> as "the most influential person" in developing the policies of Zajedno. The Zajedno coalition fell apart at the republic level before 1997 was over. One of the points of controversy was participation in the 1997 Serbian parliamentary election, which the SPO supported and the DS opposed.<mask> was re-elected to the Serbian parliament in the 1997 election after appearing in the second position on the SPO's list in Palilula; the party won three seats, and he was again awarded one its optional mandates. Soon after the 1997 parliamentary election, the Zajedno alliance in the Belgrade assembly completely dissolved. On 30 September 1997, <mask> presided over an assembly session that removed Đinđić as mayor via a SPO motion supported by the SPS and the far-right Serbian Radical Party (Srpska radikalna stranka, SRS). The SPO subsequently occupied all of the main positions in the city government. The position of mayor was not initially filled by the assembly; as deputy mayor, <mask> served as the city's acting mayor until January 1999. He suffered injuries while attending a basketball game in November 1997, after he was hit by a tracer rocket fired by someone in the audience. Media reports did not indicate that this was a deliberate attack.<mask> was chosen for a new term in the Yugoslavian Chamber of Republics in 1998. During the early period of the Kosovo War, <mask> stated that "the whole of Serbia [would] be up in arms and react" if ethnic Albanians in Kosovo did not realize that "they live in Serbia, where they can and should exercise all their rights." Yugoslavian cabinet minister and after
In January 1999, the SPO joined a coalition government in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia that was led by the SPS, the JUL, and the Socialist People's Party of Montenegro. Vuk Drašković became a deputy prime minister, and <mask> was among the SPO members appointed to the cabinet, serving as a minister without portfolio. A month after his appointment, <mask> joined Drašković in representing the SPO in the Rambouillet talks that sought a negotiated end to the Kosovo War. The Rambouillet talks did not lead to a successful outcome, and the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia began shortly thereafter. As deputy mayor of Belgrade, <mask> played a prominent role in attempting to ensure that the city's services remained as functional as possible.In an interview on American television during the bombing, <mask> accused NATO of attacking civilian targets and of having created a "humanitarian catastrophe [...] in the very downtown of Belgrade." The Yugoslavian government announced a unilateral ceasefire in Kosovo on 6 April 1999. In an interview with Romanian television, <mask> said that the ceasefire was being offered because the government believed "the terrorists who used the NATO bombings to put pressure on our country are now virtually destroyed." The ceasefire was not accepted by NATO, and the bombings continued. Later in the same month, <mask> took part in a Yugoslavian delegation to meetings in Strasbourg with deputies of the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. This was his last major act as a cabinet minister: Drašković was fired from cabinet on 28 April, and the other SPO ministers including <mask> announced their resignations on the same day. He continued to serve as deputy mayor of Belgrade and to oversee the city's efforts to maintain its infrastructure during the NATO bombing.After leaving the Yugoslavian government, the SPO once again positioned itself in opposition to the Milošević administration. In August 1999, <mask> announced the SPO's rejection of a SPS offer for a unity government in Serbia. He criticized the Serbian government's decision to shut down several media outlets in May 2000, and the following month he described an "anti-terrorism" law passed by the Yugoslavian government as "clearly a political" act that brought the regime closer to "real dictatorship." His term in the Chamber of Republics ended in May 2000, when the SPO boycotted a session of the Serbian assembly in which new federal mandates were chosen. 2000 elections
Slobodan Milošević was defeated by Vojislav Koštunica of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia, a broad and ideologically diverse coalition of parties that did not include the SPO, in the 2000 Yugoslavian presidential election. This event precipitated major changes in the Serbian and Yugoslavian politics. <mask> sought re-election to the Chamber of Republics in the concurrent Yugoslavian assembly election, appearing in the second position on the SPO's list.(This was the first and only time that members of the Chamber of Republics were directly elected.) Half of the mandates in this parliamentary election were awarded to parties on successful lists in numerical order, while the other half were distributed to candidates at the discretion of the sponsoring parties or coalitions. The SPO won only a single mandate for the Chamber of Republics, which automatically went to its lead candidate, the noted architect Spasoje Krunić. The SPO also lost all of its seats in the Belgrade assembly in the concurrent 2000 Serbian local elections; <mask> was defeated in his bid for re-election in Vračar's second division. He resigned from the SPO's presidency following the elections. He was not a candidate in the subsequent 2000 Serbian parliamentary election, and his term in the Serbian legislature ended when the new assembly convened in January 2001. Later years
<mask> was appointed to the management board of Naftna Industrija Srbije in 2002 and served until 2005.The SPO contested the 2003 Serbian parliamentary election in an alliance with New Serbia, and <mask> appeared in the fifteenth position on their combined list. By this time, the entire country had been designated as a single electoral division, and all parliamentary mandates were distributed to candidates on successful lists at the discretion of sponsoring parties or coalitions, irrespective of numerical order. Though the list won twenty-two seats, <mask> did  not receive a mandate on this occasion. The SPO joined a new coalition government with the Democratic Party of Serbia (Demokratska stranka Srbije, DSS) and other parties after the election; there were rumours that <mask> would be appointed as deputy leader of Serbia's Security Intelligence Agency, though ultimately this did not occur. He was, however, appointed to the managing board of Telekom Srbija and served for a time as its chair. In 2005, he indicated that the company would seek to expand its operations by taking over telecommunications companies in the Republika Srpska. He was a member of the Telekom board until 2008 and also served from 2005 to 2009 on a committee for restructuring Serbia's public sector.He appeared on a combined SPO–New Serbia electoral list for the Vračar municipal assembly in the 2004 Serbian local elections and was given the nineteenth position on SPO's list in the 2007 parliamentary election. In each case, the list failed to cross the relevant electoral threshold to win assembly representation. Following a 2011 reform, all mandates in Serbian elections were given to candidates on successful lists in numerical order. <mask> joined the SNS in 2011 and appeared in the twenty-second position on that party's Let's Get Belgrade Moving list for the Belgrade city assembly in the 2012 local elections. The list won thirty-seven mandates, and he returned to the assembly after a twelve year absence. The DS and its allies won the election, and <mask> served in opposition. He did not seek re-election in the 2014 Belgrade City Assembly election.He was appointed as president of the supervisory board of Telekom in 2012, a position that he still holds as of 2021. In 2013, he recommended that the service partner with a foreign company as an alternative to privatization. Electoral record

Local (City Assembly of Belgrade)

References

1952 births
Living people
Politicians from Belgrade
Members of the City Assembly of Belgrade
Members of the National Assembly of Serbia
Members of the Chamber of Republics in the Assembly of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Government ministers in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Mayors of Belgrade
Democratic Party (Serbia) politicians
Serbian Liberal Party politicians
Serbian Renewal Movement politicians
Serbian Progressive Party politicians

masks:
Milan Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić
Božić


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<mask> (March 11, 1925 – February 12, 2016), was professor emeritus of medicine at the University of Hawaii in Honolulu, and a longtime organizer in the Hawaiian Sovereignty Movement. <mask> was the co-founder of an organization of Hawaiian health professionals called, E Ola Mau in 1984. He was also the Founding Chair, of the Department of Medicine at the University of Hawaii John Burns School of Medicine in 1966. He was the convener for the 1993 Kanaka Maoli People's Tribunal, which documented U.S. abuses throughout all major islands in great detail before an international panel of judges, and the primary organizer of Ka Pākaukau (literally, "the Table"), an ongoing forum for dialogue surrounding Kānaka Maoli sovereignty and Hawaiian independence. Early life
<mask> was born March 11, 1925 to Marguerite Nameleonalani Piltz and James Keli‘ikauahi Akana. His mother married William Kaha‘<mask> in 1940. A Graduate of the Kamehameha School for Boys in 1942, and a classmate of former U.S.Senator Daniel K. Akaka during World War II, <mask> was awarded a BA cum laude from the University of Redlands in 1945 (Class Officer, Football Team), a classmate of Warren Christopher, Secretary of State for President Clinton, and an MD from the University of Chicago School of Medicine in 1948. Early medical career
After an Osler medical internship at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland in 1949, he served as a medical resident on the Tulane Medical Service of Charity Hospital in New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1950-1954, he was in the US Army Medical Corps, as an investigator at the Climatic Research Laboratory in Lawrence, Massachusetts. He served as a battalion surgeon in Korea and a medical officer (Internist, US Army 343 Army Hosp) in Koizumi, Japan and Taiwan. In 1954-1955, he became an instructor in pathology at Duke University Hospital in Durham, North Carolina. He then returned to the University of Chicago in 1955 to complete a fellowship in hematology (research on iron enzymes and preleukemia), and he was appointed to the faculty as instructor in 1957 and assistant professor of medicine in 1958. In 1959, he was appointed Chief of Hematology and Research Associate at the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, where he did research on anemia, leukopenia, myelodysplasia in atomic bomb survivors, and adopted Mitsunori, a Japanese orphan.He returned to the University of Chicago in 1961-1966 as an assistant professor of medicine. His research was on experimental splenic hemolytic anemia and myelodysplasia. Marriage and family
In 1962, <mask> married  Irene Hiroko Saito, RN, in Chicago, IL. with adopted Mitsunori as ring boy. The couple's only daughter,  Helen Kaleleonalani <mask>,  was born in Chicago. Eventually, the family moved back to Hawaiʻi and settled in Nuʻuanu, Oʻahu. Medical career, 1965 to 1973
In 1965, while in Chicago, <mask> received the national Lederle Medical Faculty Teaching Award, and thus became known to Dean Windsor Cutting, former Stanford Medical School dean and newly appointed first dean of the University of Hawaii School of Medicine.In 1966, <mask> became the first Professor and Chair of the Department of Medicine at the newly established University of Hawai'i School of Medicine.1,2  He and his wife joined others in lobbying for a four-year medical school. He continued platelet atherosclerosis research. During sabbatical years,  <mask> was a visiting professor of medicine at Rutgers Medical School in 1969 and Harvard Medical School in 1979. He served as an East-West Center medical consultant in the Trust Territory of the Pacific, 1968–1970, and as a University of Hawai'i teaching consultant on Okinawa, 1967-1974. Death
Blaidell died at the age of 90 from respiratory failure in Queen's Medical Center on February 12, 2016. Awards
In 1973, <mask> was named Ha'awi 'Ike Akea Outstanding Professor at the University of Hawaii School of Medicine.1,2

In 1974 Blaidell was named Kamehameha Schools Alumnus of the year.2

In 1975, <mask> received the Kaiser Teaching Award of the University of Hawai'i School of Medicine.2

In 1970-1977, <mask> was appointed, along with served with Mary Kawena Puku'i, to the University of Hawai'i Committee for the Preservation of Hawaiian Language, Art and Culture; in 1972-1976, a member of the University of Hawai'i Native Hawaiian Students Committee, Program and Hawaiian Scholars Program. He served on the 1986-1988 University of Hawai'i System Ka'u (Hawaiian Studies) Task Force and, in 1987-1989, as acting interim director of the then-created University of Hawai'i Center for Hawaiian Studies.2

1970 <mask> served on the Hui Hanai (Queen Lili'uokalanai Children's Center Auxiliary) Board of Directors, as president, 1980-1982.He worked  on the Nana I ke Kumu (Look to the Source) Book Committee, 1972–1979; and Queen's Songbook Committee, 1980-1990.2

1990 Living Treasure Award. The Living Treasures of Hawaiʻi program was created by the Buddhist temple Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii to honor residents of Hawaii. The criteria for selection are, "First, the designee must demonstrate continuous growth in his or her field; second, the potential Living Treasure must have made significant contributions toward a more humane and fraternal society (and this perhaps is the most important criteria); and finally, he or she must have shown an on-going striving for excellence and a high level of accomplishment." Honorees are nominated by members of the general public by August 1 of each year, and chosen by a committee designated by the temple. 1997. Asian and Pacific Island American Health Forum Lifetime Achievement Award in San Francisco

1998. Ahahui O na Kauka, charter member, board member.2000. University of Chicago Alumni Community Service Award. 2001. Consultant, Native Hawaiian Center of Excellence, Dept of Native Hawaiian Health, University of Hawaii JABSOM. 2003. Prof Emeritus of Medicine, JABSOM. Recipient of the Republic of Palau Joint House and Senate Commendation Resolution and Pacific Basin Medical Association Recognition and Appreciation Award.2007. Kekuni Blaisdell Endowment Lectureship was formed at the University of Hawaii by Osama Fukuyama, M.D. 2008. Awarded the Hawaiian Historical Society's Paa Moolelo Award in appreciation for "steadfast leadership and dedication to promoting and preserving the proud history of our islands." 2009. Awarded Honolulu Hawaiian Civic Club "I Ola Ka Lahui" Award. 2010 David Malo Award.Sponsored by the Rotary Club of West Honolulu. The award recognizes an individual of Hawaiian ancestry whose accomplishments and life have portrayed the idea of high achievement in such fields as art, music, dance, education, science, community service, government, religion, business or sport. The award is named after David Malo whose accomplishments and life exemplify the ideal of high achievement and community service for the betterment of the world around us. 2011 O'o Award April 7, 2011. The ‘Ō‘ō Award has become one of the most prestigious honors presented to outstanding Native Hawaiians who, through their talents, have made significant contributions to improve our communities and the well being of Native Hawaiians. The ‘ō‘ō itself is made from precious hardwoods firmly rooted in the ‘āina. Today, the tool is used as Native Hawaiian Chamber of Commerce’s symbol representing each honoree’s keen sense of firmly rooted values, business acumen, skill, and dedication to service – key ingredients for sustaining success in modern Hawai‘i, while maintaining ancient traditions and values.2015 Kalani Ali'i Award September 12, 2015, Sponsored by:  'Aha Hipu'u:  The Royal Order of Kamehameha I, The 'Ahahui Ka'ahumanu, The Hale O Na Ali'i O Hawai'i & The Daughters and Sons of Hawaiian Warriors - MAMAKAKAUA

Kānaka Maoli Medicine, research and Hawaiian sovereignty movement
Kānaka Maoli. In the 1980s, Dr<mask> discovered the term Kanaka Maoli, in Historical Text. He was the first to ask the questions:  if one compares original historic  descriptions of Hawaiians (robust health) with current statistics (ill health), what is it about western contact other than the obvious that explains  near extinction of a race? More importantly, what can be done? After this, he began to pioneer serious study of Kanaka Maoli Health Research as a medical field. Na 'Oiwi O Hawaii. In 1984, <mask> helped to found Na 'Oiwi O Hawai'i with the goal of promoting Kanaka Maoli Independence.Na 'Oiwi O Hawai'i sponsored the first Native Hawaiian Sovereignty Conference at The Kamehameha Schools. As a major speaker, <mask> emphasized that the health of Kanaka Maoli is connected to the 'āina, and to  preservation of cultural traditions and knowledge of one's own history and way of life. (This later became the basis for an M. Oneha dissertation, which <mask> nurtured and supported. )3,5

Nā Pu'uwai. In 1986, <mask> joined the board of Na Pu'uwai, a Native Hawaiian Health Care organization of the island of Moloka'i, with Emmett Aluli and Helen O'Connor. Na Pu'uwai became the Moloka'i-Lana'i Native Health Care System and conducted a study that demonstrated that the traditional Kanaka Maoli diet lowered blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels, thereby reducing risk for heart disease. (This later became the basis for the Waianae diet, popularized by T Shintani.)This study intensified interest in growing and eating traditional foods throughout the islands and invigorated the organization of health fairs in Kanaka Maoli communities to revitalize preparation and propagation of foods and other traditional medicines and healing practices. It was also one of the first studies on Kanaka Maoli health conducted largely by Kanaka Maoli themselves.3

Director, Center for Hawaiian Studies, University of Hawai'i at Manoa. <mask> served as Interim Director from 1987-1988. <mask> served on the Dissertation committees for nearly a dozen Native Hawaiian PhD candidates, including Lilikala Kame'eleihiwa and Kamana'opono Crabbe. He has helped numerous candidates write  PhD papers, including Malcolm Chun.1,2,5

E Ola Mau and Papa Ola Lokahi. <mask> was a pioneer in advocating for accessible and culturally appropriate healthcare for Native Hawaiians. He provided dramatic documentation of worsening Kanaka Maoli health conditions.After authoring the critical health report for the United States Congress Native Hawaiians Study Commission in 1983, he researched and wrote a compelling report identifying the  health needs of Native Hawaiians entitled "E Ola Mau." The report was funded by the US Public Health Services and presented at the East-West Center in December 1985. The following year,  E Ola Mau became an organization of Native Hawaiian Health professionals formed to implement the recommendations of the report. <mask> was among members of E Ola Mau who testified for the Native Hawaiian Health Bill before the US Congress in 1986, 1987 and 1988. The bill was passed in October 1988 with final language provided by members of EOM to establish five Native Hawaiian Health Care Systems on five islands. The bill specified that traditional practices be integrated with services offering western health practices. The organization Papa Ola Lokahi (POL) was formed to provide coordination and oversight.Sovereignty Movement. <mask> credits Puhipau Ahmad and Soli Niheu for inviting him to help start the Sovereignty Movement in the 1960s. Ahmad (Na Maka O Ka Aina) became the "eyes" of the movement, documenting evictions of Native Hawaiians from their homes at Sand Island and elsewhere. Niheu was the "heart" of the movement, participating in demonstrations, and <mask> became the "brains," researching and writing. It was <mask> who, with his own computer, copying machine, and checkbook, created the Native Hawaiian Tribunal, in which <mask> gathered an international panel of judges, flew the judges from island to island and asked Native Hawaiians on each island to testify as to how they had been affected by the overthrow of the monarchy, by annexation, and by statehood. Disposition of the tribunal documents are now under dispute. <mask> has specified to his attorney specifically where he would like them to reside.Other positions and awards
1987-1989  Wai'anae Coast Comprehensive Health Center Board of Directors. 1988-2006. Ke Ola Mamo, co-founder, board member. 1989. Hawai'i Medical Association (HMSA) Physician of the Year. 1989. Pro Kanaka Maoli Independence Working Group co-founder, convener.Ka Pakaukau, co-founder, convenor. 1990 Honpa Honwanji Living Treasure

1992-3. Convenor, Kanaka Maoli Tribunal Komike Covenor. 1994. Papa Ola Lokahi Ka'onohi Award . 1996. Petra Foundation Fellow in Washington, DC.http://petrafoundation.org/fellows/kekuni-blaisdell/index.html

1997. Asian and Pacific Island American Health Forum Lifetime Achievement Award in San Francisco

1998. Ahahui O na Kauka, charter member, board member. 2000. University of Chicago Alumni Community Service Award. 2001. Consultant, Native Hawaiian Center of Excellence, Dept of Native Hawaiian Health, University of Hawaii JABSOM.2003. Prof Emeritus of Medicine, JABSOM. Recipient of the Republic of Palau Joint House and Senate Commendation Resolution and Pacific
Basin Medical Association Recognition and Appreciation Award. 2007. Kekuni Blaisdell Endowment Lectureship was formed at the University of Hawaii by Osamu Fukuyama, M.D. 2008. Awarded the Hawaiian Historical Society's Paa Moolelo Award in appreciation for "steadfast leadership and dedication to promoting and preserving the proud history of our islands."2009. Awarded Honolulu Hawaiian Civic Club "I Ola Ka Lahui" Award. 2010. David Malo Award, West Honolulu Rotary Club

2011. O'O Award, Native Hawaiian Chamber of Commerce

References

1Hawaiian Historical Society, October 20, 2006;
2Kamehameha Schools Alumni Association;
3Biography <mask> Blaisdell, Peace Journal November 1996;

4Message from the Interim Chair (K Brady), Kekuni Blaisdell Endowment Dinner, August 7, 2010;
5Private documents /Dissertation documents;
6 Public Communication @ Moananui Conference, Calvary by the Sea Church 11.09.11

1925 births
2016 deaths
American medical academics
Pritzker School of Medicine alumni
Physicians from Hawaii
Native Hawaiian nationalists

masks:
Richard Kekuni Akana Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Richard Kekuni Akana
i Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
. Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Blaisdell
Richard Kekuni


texts:
<mask>  (; 11 June 1776 – 31 March 1837) was an English landscape painter in the Romantic tradition. Born in Suffolk, he is known principally for revolutionising the genre of landscape painting with his pictures of Dedham Vale, the area surrounding his home – now known as "Constable Country" – which he invested with an intensity of affection. "I should paint my own places best", he wrote to his friend <mask> in 1821, "painting is but another word for feeling". <mask>'s most famous paintings include Wivenhoe Park (1816), Dedham Vale (1821) and The Hay Wain (1821). Although his paintings are now among the most popular and valuable in British art, he was never financially successful. He became a member of the establishment after he was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts at the age of 52. His work was embraced in France, where he sold more than in his native England and inspired the Barbizon school.Early career

<mask> was born in East Bergholt, a village on the River Stour in Suffolk, to Golding and Ann (Watts<mask>. His father was a wealthy corn merchant, owner of Flatford Mill in East Bergholt and, later, Dedham Mill in Essex. Golding <mask> owned a small ship, The Telegraph, which he moored at Mistley on the Stour estuary, and used to transport corn to London. He was a cousin of the London tea merchant, Abram Newman. Although <mask> was his parents' second son, his older brother was intellectually disabled and <mask> was expected to succeed his father in the business. After a brief period at a boarding school in Lavenham, he was enrolled in a day school in Dedham. <mask> worked in the corn business after leaving school, but his younger brother Abram eventually took over the running of the mills.In his youth, <mask> embarked on amateur sketching trips in the surrounding Suffolk and Essex countryside, which was to become the subject of a large proportion of his art. These scenes, in his own words, "made me a painter, and I am grateful"; "the sound of water escaping from mill dams etc., willows, old rotten planks, slimy posts, and brickwork, I love such things." He was introduced to George Beaumont, a collector, who showed him his prized Hagar and the Angel by Claude Lorrain, which inspired <mask>. Later, while visiting relatives in Middlesex, he was introduced to the professional artist <mask> Smith, who advised him on painting but also urged him to remain in his father's business rather than take up art professionally. In 1799, <mask> persuaded his father to let him pursue a career in art, and Golding granted him a small allowance. Entering the Royal Academy Schools as a probationer, he attended life classes and anatomical dissections, and studied and copied old masters. Among works that particularly inspired him during this period were paintings by Thomas Gainsborough, Claude Lorrain, Peter Paul Rubens, Annibale Carracci and Jacob van Ruisdael.He also read widely among poetry and sermons, and later proved a notably articulate artist. In 1802 he refused the position of drawing master at Great Marlow Military College (now Sandhurst), a move which Benjamin West (then master of the RA) counselled would mean the end of his career. In that year, <mask> wrote a letter to <mask> in which he spelled out his determination to become a professional landscape painter:

His early style has many qualities associated with his mature work, including a freshness of light, colour and touch, and reveals the compositional influence of the old masters he had studied, notably of Claude Lorrain. <mask>'s usual subjects, scenes of ordinary daily life, were unfashionable in an age that looked for more romantic visions of wild landscapes and ruins. He made occasional trips further afield. By 1803, he was exhibiting paintings at the Royal Academy. In April he spent almost a month aboard the East Indiaman  as it visited south-east ports while sailing from London to Deal before leaving for China.In 1806 <mask> undertook a two-month tour of the Lake District. He told his friend and biographer, Charles Leslie, that the solitude of the mountains oppressed his spirits, and Leslie wrote:

<mask> adopted a routine of spending winter in London and painting at East Bergholt in summer. In 1811 he first visited <mask> and his family in Salisbury, a city whose cathedral and surrounding landscape were to inspire some of his greatest paintings. To make ends meet, <mask> took up portraiture, which he found dull, though he executed many fine portraits. He also painted occasional religious pictures but, according to <mask>, "<mask>'s incapacity as a religious painter cannot be overstated." Another source of income was country house painting. In 1816, he was commissioned by Major-General Francis Slater-Rebow to paint his country home, Wivenhoe Park, Essex.The Major-General also commissioned a smaller painting of the fishing lodge in the grounds of Alresford Hall, which is now in the National Gallery of Victoria. <mask> used the money from these commissions towards his wedding with Maria Bicknell. Marriage

From 1809, his childhood friendship with Maria Elizabeth Bicknell developed into a deep, mutual love. Their marriage in 1816 when <mask> was 40 was opposed by Maria's grandfather, Dr Rhudde, rector of East Bergholt. He considered the <mask>s his social inferiors and threatened Maria with disinheritance. Maria's father, Charles Bicknell, solicitor to George IV and the Admiralty, was reluctant to see Maria throw away her inheritance. Maria pointed out to <mask> that a penniless marriage would detract from any chances he had of making a career in painting.Golding and <mask>, while approving the match, held out no prospect of supporting the marriage until <mask> was financially secure. After they died in quick succession, <mask> inherited a fifth share in the family business. <mask> and Maria's marriage in October 1816 at St Martin-in-the-Fields (with Fisher officiating) was followed by time at Fisher's vicarage and a honeymoon tour of the south coast. The sea at Weymouth and Brighton stimulated <mask> to develop new techniques of brilliant colour and vivacious brushwork. At the same time, a greater emotional range began to be expressed in his art. Three weeks before their marriage, <mask> revealed that he had started work on his most ambitious project to date In a letter to Maria Bicknell from East Bergholt, he wrote:

The picture was Flatford Mill (Scene on a Navigable River), it was the largest canvas of a working scene on the River Stour that he had worked on to date and the largest he would ever complete largely outdoors. <mask> was determined to paint on a larger scale, his objective was not only to attract more attention at the Royal Academy exhibitions but also, it seems, to project his ideas about landscape on a scale more in keeping with the achievements of the classical landscape painters he so admired.Although Flatford Mill failed to find a buyer when it was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1817. Its fine and intricate execution drew much praise, encouraging <mask> to move on to the even larger canvases that were to follow. The ‘Six-Footers’

Although he managed to scrape an income from painting, it was not until 1819 that <mask> sold his first important canvas, The White Horse, described by Charles Robert Leslie as ‘on many accounts the most important picture <mask> ever painted'''. The painting (without the frame) sold for the substantial price of 100 guineas to his friend <mask>, finally providing <mask> with a level of financial freedom he had never before known. The White Horse marked an important turning point in <mask>’s career; its success saw him elected an associate of the Royal Academy and it led to a series of six monumental landscapes depicting narratives on the River Stour known as the ‘six-footers’ (named for their scale). Viewed as ‘the knottiest and most forceful landscapes produced in 19th-century Europe’, for many they are the defining works of the artist's career. The series also includes Stratford Mill, 1820 (National Gallery, London); The Hay Wain, 1821 (National Gallery, London); View on the Stour near Dedham, 1822 (Huntington Library and Art Gallery, Los Angeles County); The Lock, 1824 (Private Collection); and The Leaping Horse, 1825 (Royal Academy of Arts, London).The following year, his second six-footer Stratford Mill was exhibited. The Examiner described it as having ‘a more exact look of nature than any picture we have ever seen by an Englishman’. The painting was a success, acquiring a buyer in the loyal <mask>, who purchased it for  100 guineas, a price he himself thought too low. Fisher bought the painting for his solicitor and friend, <mask> Tinney. Tinney loved the painting so much, he offered <mask> another 100 guineas to paint a companion picture, an offer the artist didn’t take up. In 1821, his most famous painting The Hay Wain was shown at the Royal Academy's exhibition. Although it failed to find a buyer, It was viewed by some important people of the time, including two Frenchmen, the artist Théodore Géricault and writer Charles Nodier.According to the painter Eugène Delacroix, Géricault returned to France ’quite stunned‘ by <mask>’s painting, while Nodier suggested French artists should also look to nature rather than relying on trips to Rome for inspiration. It was eventually purchased, along with View on the Stour near Dedham, by the Anglo-French dealer <mask>, in 1824. A small painting of Yarmouth Jetty was added to the bargain by <mask>, with the sale totalling £250. Both paintings were exhibited at the Paris Salon that year, where they caused a sensation, with the Hay Wain being awarded a gold medal by Charles X. The Hay Wain was later acquired by the collector Henry Vaughan who donated it to the National Gallery in 1886. Of <mask>'s colour, Delacroix wrote in his journal: "What he says here about the green of his meadows can be applied to every tone". Delacroix repainted the background of his 1824 Massacre de Scio after seeing the Constables at Arrowsmith's Gallery, which he said had done him a great deal of good.A number of distractions meant that The Lock wasn't finished in time for the 1823 exhibition, leaving the much smaller Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Grounds as the artist's main entry. This may have occurred after Fisher forwarded <mask> the money for the painting. This both helped him out of a financial difficulty and nudged him along to get the painting done. The Lock was therefore exhibited the following year to more fanfare

masks:
John Constable
John Fisher
Constable
John Constable
) Constable
Constable
Constable
John
Constable
Constable
Constable
John Thomas
Constable
Constable
John Dunthorne
Constable
Constable
Constable
John Fisher
Constable
John Walker
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
John
Ann Constable
Constable
Constable
John
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
John Fisher
Constable
Constable
John Fisher
John Pern
Constable
Constable
John Arrowsmith
Constable
Constable
Constable


texts:
 and sold for 150 guineas on the first day of the exhibition, the only <mask> ever to do so. The Lock is the only upright landscape of the Stour series and the only six-footer that <mask> painted more than one version of. A second version now known as the ‘Foster version’ was painted in 1825 and kept by the artist to send to exhibitions. A third, landscape version, known as ‘A Boat Passing a Lock’ (1826) is now in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts.<mask>’s final attempt, The Leaping Horse, was the only six-footer from the Stour series that didn’t sell in <mask>’s lifetime. Later life

<mask>’s pleasure at his own success was dampened after his wife started displaying symptoms of tuberculosis. Her growing illness meant that <mask> took lodgings for his family in Brighton from 1824 until 1828, in the hope the sea air could restore her health. During this period <mask> split his time between Charlotte Street in London and Brighton. This change saw <mask> move away from large scale Stour scenes in favour of coastal scenes. He continued painting six-foot canvases, although he was initially unsure of the suitability of Brighton as a subject for painting. In a letter to Fisher in 1824 he wrote

In his lifetime, <mask> sold only 20 paintings in England, but in France he sold more than 20 in just a few years.Despite this, he refused all invitations to travel internationally to promote his work, writing to Francis Darby: "I would rather be a poor man [in England] than a rich man abroad." In 1825, perhaps due partly to the worry of his wife's ill-health, the uncongeniality of living in Brighton ("Piccadilly by the seaside"), and the pressure of numerous outstanding commissions, he quarreled with Arrowsmith and lost his French outlet.Chain Pier, Brighton was his only ambitious six-foot painting of a Brighton subject, it was exhibited in 1827. The <mask>s persevered in Brighton for five years to aid Maria’s health, but to no avail. After the birth of their seventh child in January 1828, they returned to Hampstead where Maria died on 23 November at the age of 41. Intensely saddened, <mask> wrote to his brother Golding, "hourly do I feel the loss of my departed Angel—God only knows how my children will be brought up...the face of the World is totally changed to me". Thereafter, he dressed in black and was, according to Leslie, "a prey to melancholy and anxious thoughts". He cared for his seven children alone for the rest of his life.The children were <mask>, Maria Louisa, Charles Golding, Isobel, Emma, Alfred, and Lionel. Only Charles Golding <mask> produced offspring, a son. Shortly before Maria died, her father had also died, leaving her £20,000. <mask> speculated disastrously with the money, paying for the engraving of several mezzotints of some of his landscapes in preparation for a publication. He was hesitant and indecisive, nearly fell out with his engraver, and when the folios were published, could not interest enough subscribers. <mask> collaborated closely with mezzotinter David Lucas on 40 prints after his landscapes, one of which went through 13 proof stages, corrected by <mask> in pencil and paint. <mask> said, "Lucas showed me to the public without my faults", but the venture was not a financial success.This period saw his art move from the serenity of its earlier phase, to a more broken and accented style. The turmoil and distress of his mind is clearly seen in his later six-foot masterpieces Hadleigh Castle (1829) and Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows (1831), which are amongst his most expressive pieces. He was elected to the Royal Academy in February 1829, at the age of 52. In 1831 he was appointed Visitor at the Royal Academy, where he seems to have been popular with the students. He began to deliver public lectures on the history of landscape painting, which were attended by distinguished audiences. In a series of lectures at the Royal Institution, <mask> proposed a three-fold thesis: firstly, landscape painting is scientific as well as poetic; secondly, the imagination cannot alone produce art to bear comparison with reality; and thirdly, no great painter was ever self-taught. He also spoke against the new Gothic Revival movement, which he considered mere "imitation".In 1835, his last lecture to students of the Royal Academy, in which he praised Raphael and called the Academy the "cradle of British art", was "cheered most heartily". He died on the night of 31 March 1837, apparently from heart failure, and was buried with Maria in the graveyard of St John-at-Hampstead Church in Hampstead in London. (His children <mask> <mask> and Charles Golding <mask> are also buried in this family tomb.) Locations
Bridge Cottage is a National Trust property, open to the public. Nearby Flatford Mill and Willy Lott's Cottage (the house visible in The Hay Wain) are used by the Field Studies Council for courses. The largest collection of original <mask> paintings outside London is on display at Christchurch Mansion in Ipswich. Somerville College, Oxford is in possession of a portrait by <mask>.Art

<mask> quietly rebelled against the artistic culture that taught artists to use their imagination to compose their pictures rather than nature itself. He told Leslie, "When I sit down to make a sketch from nature, the first thing I try to do is to forget that I have ever seen a picture". Although <mask> produced paintings throughout his life for the "finished" picture market of patrons and R.A. exhibitions, constant refreshment in the form of on-the-spot studies was essential to his working method. He was never satisfied with following a formula. "The world is wide", he wrote, "no two days are alike, nor even two hours; neither were there ever two leaves of a tree alike since the creation of all the world; and the genuine productions of art, like those of nature, are all distinct from each other." <mask> painted many full-scale preliminary sketches of his landscapes to test the composition in advance of finished pictures. These large sketches, with their free and vigorous brushwork, were revolutionary at the time, and they continue to interest artists, scholars and the general public.The oil sketches of The Leaping Horse and The Hay Wain, for example, convey a vigour and expressiveness missing from <mask>'s finished paintings of the same subjects. Possibly more than any other aspect of <mask>'s work, the oil sketches reveal him in retrospect to have been an avant-garde painter, one who demonstrated that landscape painting could be taken in a totally new direction. <mask>'s watercolours were also remarkably free for their time: the almost mystical Stonehenge, 1835, with its double rainbow, is often considered to be one of the greatest watercolours ever painted. When he exhibited it in 1836, <mask> appended a text to the title: "The mysterious monument of Stonehenge, standing remote on a bare and boundless heath, as much unconnected with the events of past ages as it is with the uses of the present, carries you back beyond all historical records into the obscurity of a totally unknown period." In addition to the full-scale oil sketches, <mask> completed numerous observational studies of landscapes and clouds, determined to become more scientific in his recording of atmospheric conditions. The power of his physical effects was sometimes apparent even in the full-scale paintings which he exhibited in London; The Chain Pier, 1827, for example, prompted a critic to write: "the atmosphere possesses a characteristic humidity about it, that almost imparts the wish for an umbrella". The sketches themselves were the first ever done in oils directly from the subject in the open air, with the notable exception of the oil sketches Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes made in Rome around 1780.To convey the effects of light and movement, <mask> used broken brushstrokes, often in small touches, which he scumbled over lighter passages, creating an impression of sparkling light enveloping the entire landscape. One of the most expressionistic and powerful of all his studies is Seascape Study with Rain Cloud, painted about 1824 at Brighton, which captures with slashing dark brushstrokes the immediacy of an exploding cumulus shower at sea. <mask> also became interested in painting rainbow effects, for example in Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows, 1831, and in Cottage at East Bergholt, 1833. To the sky studies he added notes, often on the back of the sketches, of the prevailing weather conditions, direction of light, and time of day, believing that the sky was "the key note, the standard of scale, and the chief organ of sentiment" in a landscape painting. In this habit he is known to have been influenced by the pioneering work of the meteorologist Luke Howard on the classification of clouds; <mask>'s annotations of his own copy of Researches About Atmospheric Phaenomena by Thomas Forster show him to have been fully abreast of meteorological terminology. "I have done a good deal of skying", <mask> wrote to Fisher on 23 October 1821; "I am determined to conquer all difficulties, and that most arduous one among the rest". <mask> once wrote in a letter to Leslie, "My limited and abstracted art is to be found under every hedge, and in every lane, and therefore nobody thinks it worth picking up".He could never have imagined how influential his honest techniques would turn out to be. <mask>'s art inspired not only contemporaries like Géricault and Delacroix, but the Barbizon School, and the French impressionists of the late nineteenth century. In 2019 two drawings by <mask> were unearthed in a dusty cardboard-box filled with drawings; the drawings sold for £60,000 and £32,000 at auction. Gallery

 Selected paintings

 Dedham Vale (1802) – Victoria and Albert Museum, LondonThe Stour (1810) – Philadelphia Museum of Art
 Landscape: Two Boys Fishing (1813) – Anglesey Abbey, Cambs, NT
 Landscape: Ploughing Scene in Suffolk (1814, revised c. 1816 and 1831) – Yale Center for British Art, New Haven
  The Mill Stream, Flatford (1814) – Christchurch Mansion, IpswichThe Stour Valley And Dedham Village (1814–1815) – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 Boat-building near Flatford Mill (1815) – Victoria and Albert Museum, London
 Golding Constable's Flower Garden (1815) – Christchurch Mansion, Ipswich
 Golding Constable's Kitchen Garden (1815) – Christchurch Mansion, Ipswich
 Portrait of Maria Bicknell, Mrs. <mask> (1816) – Tate Britain, London
 Wivenhoe Park, Essex (1816) – National Gallery of Art, Washington,

masks:
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
John Charles
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
John Charles
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
Constable
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Constable
Constable
Constable
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Constable
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Constable
Constable
Constable
John Constable


texts:
<mask><mask><mask> (born 1972) is a British Indian academic, journalist, activist and writer who has lived and worked in Zimbabwe, South Africa, and the United States for extended periods. He has been referred to as "the rock star of social justice writing." Early life and education
Born to a mother from Kenya and a father from Fiji, he grew up in Golders Green in north-west London where his family ran a corner shop. <mask> received a BA in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE), from Oxford, and a master's degree from the London School of Economics, and gained his PhD in Development Sociology from Cornell University in 2002. As part of his academic training, <mask> worked at the World Bank, World Trade Organization, and the United Nations. He has since become an outspoken public critic of all of these organisations, and reports having been tear-gassed on four continents protesting against his former employers. Career
<mask> is an educator and academic.He has written articles and books. He is possibly best known for his 2008 book, Stuffed and Starved: The Hidden Battle for the World Food System. In 2009, he published The Value of Nothing which was on The New York Times best-seller list during February 2010. In 2017, he published, with co-author , A History of the World in Seven Cheap Things: A Guide to Capitalism, Nature, and the Future of the Planet (University of California Press). He has been a visiting scholar at Yale University, the University of California, Berkeley, and the University of Texas at Austin. <mask> is listed as a Research Professor at the LBJ School of Public Affairs of the University of Texas at Austin. Activism

<mask> was one of many organizers in the 1999 protests in Seattle, Washington, and has organised in support of food sovereignty.More recently he has  resided and worked extensively in Zimbabwe and in South Africa. He was refused a visa extension by the Mugabe regime for his political involvement with the pro-democracy movement. He is associated through his work on food with the Via Campesina movement, and through his work on urban poverty and resistance with Abahlali baseMjondolo and the Landless Peoples Movement. <mask> has written a number of criticisms of various aspects of the policies and research methods of the World Bank and was a co-editor, with Christopher Brooke, of the online leftist webzine The Voice of the Turtle. Film appearances
In 2012, he appeared in the National Film Board of Canada documentary Payback, based on Margaret Atwood's Payback: Debt and the Shadow Side of Wealth, which premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival. He appears in the documentary film A Place at the Table which opened in the US on 1 March 2013. Honours and awards
In 2007 he was invited to give the keynote address at the University of Abahlali baseMjondolo graduation ceremony.He administers the organisation's website. In 2008 he was asked to testify on the global food crisis before the House Financial Services Committee in the USA. In 2009 he joined the advisory board of Corporate Accountability International's Value the Meal campaign. In January 2010 some adherents of Share International, following an announcement by Benjamin Creme, concluded that <mask> could be the Maitreya. <mask> denied being the Maitreya. Political views

<mask> is a libertarian socialist and has described himself as "someone who has very strong anarchist sympathies." In his book The Value of Nothing he praised the grassroots participatory democracy practised in the Zapatista Councils of Good Government in southern Mexico and has advocated similar decentralist models of economic democracy and confederal administration as templates to go by for social justice movements in the global north.He described himself in 2010 as "not a communist [or socialist] ... just open minded". Nonetheless, the analysis of A History of the World in Seven Cheap Things: A Guide to Capitalism, Nature, and the Future of the Planet,  published seven years later, locates its concept of "cheapness" within a Marxist framework. According to the authors, "Capitalism values only what it can count, and it can count only dollars. Every capitalist wants to invest as little and profit as much as possible. For capitalism, this means that the whole system thrives when powerful states and capitalists can reorganize global nature, invest as little as they can, and receive as much food, work, energy, and raw materials with as little disruption as possible." This extrapolates a key formulation by Marx: “The battle of competition is fought by the cheapening of commodities.”

Quotes

Personal life
<mask> became a US citizen on 7 January 2010. In an interview with The New Yorker'''s Lauren Collins, he considers himself an atheist Hindu.BooksStuffed and Starved: The Hidden Battle for the World Food System (2008)Food Rebellions! Crisis and the Hunger for Justice, Eric Holt Giménez, <mask> (2009)Food Rebellions! : Forging Food Sovereignty to Solve the Global Food Crisis (2009)The Value of Nothing: How to Reshape Market Society and Redefine Democracy (2010)
Forward to No Land! No House! No Vote! Voices from Symphony Way by the Symphony Way Pavement Dwellers (2011)A History of the World in Seven Cheap Things: A Guide to Capitalism, Nature, and the Future of the Planet (2017), with Jason W. MooreInflamed: Deep Medicine and the Anatomy of Injustice'' (2021), with Rupa Marya

See also
Abahlali baseMjondolo
Landless Peoples Movement
Landless Workers' Movement
Slow Food
Via Campesina
Zapatista Army of National Liberation

References

External links

<mask>'s website
Stuffed & Starved Website
A list of journalism available online by <mask>

1972 births
Living people
Abahlali baseMjondolo members
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Anti-consumerists
Anti-globalization activists
Anti-globalization writers
British anarchists
British atheists
British democracy activists
British economists
British food writers
British Hindus
British political writers
British social commentators
British socialists
British sociologists
Cornell University alumni
Criticism of capitalism
Deified people
English people of Indian descent
Gujarati people
Libertarian socialists
South African democracy activists
South African economists
Writers from London

masks:
Rajeev "
Raj
" Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Patel
Raj Patel
Raj Patel
Raj Patel


texts:
<mask> (848/849 – 26 October 899) was King of the West Saxons from 871 to  and King of the Anglo-Saxons from  until his death in 899. He was the youngest son of King <mask>lf and his first wife Osburh, who both died when <mask> was young. Three of <mask>'s brothers, Æthelbald, <mask> and Æthelred, reigned in turn before him. Under <mask>'s rule, considerable administrative and military reforms were introduced, prompting lasting change in England. After ascending the throne, <mask> spent several years fighting Viking invasions. He won a decisive victory in the Battle of Edington in 878 and made an agreement with the Vikings, dividing England between Anglo-Saxon territory and the Viking-ruled Danelaw, composed of northern England, the north-east Midlands and East Anglia. <mask> also oversaw the conversion of Viking leader Guthrum to Christianity.He defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at conquest, becoming the dominant ruler in England. Details of his life are described in a work by 9th-century Welsh scholar and bishop Asser. <mask> had a reputation as a learned and merciful man of a gracious and level-headed nature who encouraged education, proposing that primary education be conducted in Old English rather than Latin and improving the legal system and military structure and his people's quality of life. He was given the epithet "the Great" in the 16th century. Family

<mask> was a son of Æthelwulf, king of Wessex, and his wife Osburh. According to his biographer, Asser, writing in 893, "In the year of our Lord's Incarnation 849 <mask>, King of the Anglo-Saxons", was born at the royal estate called Wantage, in the district known as Berkshire (which is so called from Berroc Wood, where the box tree grows very abundantly)." This date has been accepted by the editors of Asser's biography, Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, and by other historians such as David Dumville and Richard Huscroft.West Saxon genealogical lists state that <mask> was 23 when he became king in April 871, implying that he was born between April 847 and April 848. This dating is adopted in the biography of <mask> by <mask>, who regards Asser's biography as fraudulent, an allegation which is rejected by other historians. Richard Abels in his biography discusses both sources but does not decide between them and dates <mask>'s birth as 847/849, while Patrick Wormald in his Oxford Dictionary of National Biography article dates it 848/849. Berkshire had been historically disputed between Wessex and Mercia, and as late as 844, a charter showed that it was part of Mercia, but <mask>'s birth in the county is evidence that, by the late 840s, control had passed to Wessex. He was the youngest of six children. His eldest brother, <mask>, was old enough to be appointed sub-king of Kent in 839, almost 10 years before <mask> was born. He died in the early 850s.<mask>'s next three brothers were successively kings of Wessex. <mask> (858-860) and <mask> (860-865) were also much older than <mask>, but Æthelred (865-871) was only a year or two older. <mask>'s only known sister, <mask>, married Burgred, king of the midland kingdom of Mercia in 853. Most historians think that Osburh was the mother of all Æthelwulf's children, but some suggest that the older ones were born to an unrecorded first wife. Osburh was descended from the rulers of the Isle of Wight. She was described by <mask>'s biographer Asser as "a most religious woman, noble by temperament and noble by birth". She had died by 856 when Æthelwulf married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, king of West Francia.In 868, <mask> married Ealhswith, daughter of the Mercian nobleman Æthelred Mucel, ealdorman of the Gaini, and his wife Eadburh, who was of royal Mercian descent. Their children were Æthelflæd, who married Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians; Edward the Elder, <mask>'s successor as king; Æthelgifu, abbess of Shaftesbury; Ælfthryth, who married Baldwin, count of Flanders; and Æthelweard. Background

<mask>'s grandfather, Ecgberht, became king of Wessex in 802, and in the view of the historian Richard Abels, it must have seemed very unlikely to contemporaries that he would establish a lasting dynasty. For 200 years, three families had fought for the West Saxon throne, and no son had followed his father as king. No ancestor of Ecgberht had been a king of Wessex since Ceawlin in the late sixth century, but he was believed to be a paternal descendant of Cerdic, the founder of the West Saxon dynasty. This made Ecgberht an ætheling – a prince eligible for the throne. But after Ecgberht's reign, descent from Cerdic was no longer sufficient to make a man an ætheling.When Ecgberht died in 839, he was succeeded by his son Æthelwulf; all subsequent West Saxon kings were descendants of Ecgberht and Æthelwulf, and were also sons of kings. At the beginning of the ninth century, England was almost wholly under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. Mercia dominated southern England, but its supremacy came to an end in 825 when it was decisively defeated by Ecgberht at the Battle of Ellendun. The two kingdoms became allies, which was important in the resistance to Viking attacks. In 853, King Burgred of Mercia requested West Saxon help to suppress a Welsh rebellion, and Æthelwulf led a West Saxon contingent in a successful joint campaign. In the same year Burgred married Æthelwulf's daughter, Æthelswith. In 825, Ecgberht sent Æthelwulf to invade the Mercian sub-kingdom of Kent, and its sub-king, Baldred, was driven out shortly afterwards.By 830, Essex, Surrey and Sussex had submitted to Ecgberht, and he had appointed Æthelwulf to rule the south-eastern territories as king of Kent. The Vikings ravaged the Isle of Sheppey in 835, and the following year they defeated Ecgberht at Carhampton in Somerset, but in 838 he was victorious over an alliance of Cornishmen and Vikings at the Battle of Hingston Down, reducing Cornwall to the status of a client kingdom. When Æthelwulf succeeded, he appointed his eldest son <mask> as sub-king of Kent. Ecgberht and Æthelwulf may not have intended a permanent union between Wessex and Kent because they both appointed sons as sub-kings, and charters in Wessex were attested (witnessed) by West Saxon magnates, while Kentish charters were witnessed by the Kentish elite; both kings kept overall control, and the sub-kings were not allowed to issue their own coinage. Viking raids increased in the early 840s on both sides of the English Channel, and in 843 Æthelwulf was defeated at Carhampton. In 850, Æthelstan defeated a Danish fleet off Sandwich in the first recorded naval battle in English history. In 851 Æthelwulf and his second son, Æthelbald, defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Aclea and, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, "there made the greatest slaughter of a heathen raiding-army that we have heard tell of up to this present day, and there took the victory".Æthelwulf died in 858 and was succeeded by his oldest surviving son, <mask>d, as king of Wessex and by his next oldest son, <mask>, as king of Kent. Æthelbald only survived his father by two years, and Æthelberht then for the first time united Wessex and Kent into a single kingdom. Childhood

According to Asser, in his childhood <mask> won a beautifully decorated book of English poetry, offered as a prize by his mother to the first of her sons able to memorise it. He must have had it read to him because his mother died when he was about six and he did not learn to read until he was 12. In 853, <mask> is reported by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to have been sent to Rome where he was confirmed by Pope Leo IV, who "anointed him as king". Victorian writers later interpreted this as an anticipatory coronation in preparation for his eventual succession to the throne of Wessex. This is unlikely; his succession could not have been foreseen at the time because <mask> had three living elder brothers.A letter of Leo IV shows that <mask> was made a "consul" and a misinterpretation of this investiture, deliberate or accidental, could explain later confusion. It may be based upon the fact that <mask> later accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome where he spent some time at the court of <mask> Bald, king of the Franks, around 854–855. On their return from Rome in 856, Æthelwulf was deposed by his son Æthelbald. With civil war looming, the magnates of the realm met in council to form a compromise. Æthelbald retained the western shires (i.e. historical Wessex), and Æthelwulf ruled in the east. After King Æthelwulf died in 858, Wessex was ruled by three of <mask>'s brothers in succession: Æthelbald, <mask>ht and Æthelred.The reigns of <mask>'s brothers

<mask> is not mentioned during the short reigns of his older brothers Æthelbald and Æthelberht. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes the Great Heathen Army of Danes landing in East Anglia with the intent of conquering the four kingdoms which constituted Anglo-Saxon England in 865. <mask>'s public life began in 865 at age 16 with the accession of his third brother, 18-year-old Æthelred. During this period, Bishop Asser gave <mask> the unique title of secundarius, which may indicate a position similar to the Celtic tanist, a recognised successor closely associated with the reigning monarch. This arrangement may have been sanctioned by <mask>'s father or by the Witan to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Æthelred fall in battle. It was a well known tradition among other Germanic peoples - such as the Swedes and Franks to whom the Anglo-Saxons were closely related - to crown a successor as royal prince and military commander. Viking invasion
In 868, <mask> was recorded as fighting beside Æthelred in a failed attempt to keep the Great Heathen Army led by Ivar the Boneless out of the adjoining Kingdom of Mercia.The Danes arrived in his homeland at the end of 870, and nine engagements were fought in the following year, with mixed results; the places and dates of two of these battles have not been recorded. A successful skirmish at the Battle of Englefield in Berkshire on 31 December 870 was followed by a severe defeat at the siege and the Battle of Reading by Ivar's brother Halfdan Ragnarsson on 5 January 871. Four days later, the Anglo-Saxons won a victory at the Battle of Ashdown on the Berkshire Downs, possibly near Compton or Aldworth. The Saxons were defeated at the Battle of Basing on 22 January. They were defeated again on 22 March at the Battle of Merton (perhaps Marden in Wiltshire or Martin in Dorset). Æthelred died shortly afterwards in April. King at war

Early struggles
In April 871 King Æthelred died and <mask> acceded to the throne of Wessex and the burden of its defence, even though Æthelred left two under-age sons, Æthelhelm and Æthelwold.This was in accordance with the agreement that Æthelred and <mask> had made earlier that year in an assembly at an unidentified place called Swinbeorg. The brothers had agreed that whichever of them outlived the other would inherit the personal property that King Æthelwulf had left jointly to his sons in his will. The deceased's sons would receive only whatever property and riches their father had settled upon them and whatever additional lands their uncle had acquired. The unstated premise was that the surviving brother would be king. Given the Danish invasion and the youth of his nephews, <mask>'s accession probably went uncontested. While he was busy with the burial ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the Saxon army in his absence at an unnamed spot and then again in his presence at Wilton in May. The defeat at Wilton smashed any remaining hope that <mask> could drive the invaders from his kingdom.<mask> was forced instead to make peace with them. Although the terms of the peace are not recorded, Bishop Asser wrote that the pagans agreed to vacate the realm and made good their promise. The Viking army withdrew from Reading in the autumn of 871 to take up winter quarters in Mercian London. Although not mentioned by Asser or by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, <mask> probably paid the Vikings cash to leave, much as the Mercians were to do in the following year. Hoards dating to the Viking occupation of London in 871/872 have been excavated at Croydon, Gravesend and Waterloo Bridge. These finds hint at the cost involved in making peace with the Vikings. For the next five years, the Danes occupied other parts of England.In 876, under their three leaders Guthrum, Oscetel and Anwend, the Danes slipped past the Saxon army and attacked and occupied Wareham in Dorset. <mask> blockaded them but was unable to take Wareham by assault. He negotiated a peace that involved an exchange of hostages and oaths, which the Danes swore on a "holy ring" associated with the worship of Thor. The Danes broke their word, and after killing all the hostages, slipped away under cover of night to Exeter in Devon. <mask> blockaded the Viking ships in Devon, and with a relief fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes were forced to submit. The Danes withdrew to Mercia. In January 878, the Danes made a sudden attack on Chippenham, a royal stronghold in which <mask> had been staying over Christmas "and most of the people they killed, except the King <mask>, and he with a little band made his way by wood and swamp, and after Easter he made a fort at Athelney in the marshes of Somerset, and from that fort kept fighting against the foe".From his fort at Athelney, an island in the marshes near North Petherton, <mask> was able to mount a resistance campaign, rallying the local militias from Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire. 878 was the nadir of the history of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. With all the other kingdoms having fallen to the Vikings, Wessex alone was resisting. The cake legend
A legend tells how when <mask> first fled to the Somerset Levels, he was given shelter by a peasant woman who, unaware of his identity, left him to watch some wheaten cakes she had left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of his kingdom, <mask> accidentally let the cakes burn and was roundly scolded by the woman upon her return. There is no contemporary evidence for the legend, but it is possible that there was an early oral tradition. The first known written account of the incident is from about 100 years after <mask>'s death.Counter-attack and victory

In the seventh week after Easter (4–10 May 878), around Whitsuntide, <mask> rode to Egbert's Stone east of Selwood where he was met by "all the people of Somerset and of Wiltshire and of that part of Hampshire which is on this side of the sea (that is, west of Southampton Water), and they rejoiced to see him". <mask>'s emergence from his marshland stronghold was part of a carefully planned offensive that entailed raising the fyrds of three shires. This meant not only that the king had retained the loyalty of ealdormen, royal reeves and king's thegns, who were charged with levying and leading these forces, but that they had maintained their positions of authority in these localities well enough to answer his summons to war. <mask>'s actions also suggest a system of scouts and messengers. <mask> won a decisive victory in the ensuing Battle of Edington which may have been fought near Westbury, Wiltshire. He then pursued the Danes to their stronghold at Chippenham and starved them into submission. One of the terms of the surrender was that Guthrum convert to Christianity.Three weeks later, the Danish king and 29 of his chief men were baptised at <mask>'s court at Aller, near Athelney, with <mask> receiving Guthrum as his spiritual son. According to Asser,

At Wedmore, <mask> and Guthrum negotiated what some historians have called the Treaty of Wedmore, but it was to be some years after the cessation of hostilities that a formal treaty was signed. Under the terms of the so-called Treaty of Wedmore, the converted Guthrum was required to leave Wessex and return to East Anglia. Consequently, in 879 the Viking army left Chippenham and made its way to Cirencester. The formal Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, preserved in Old English in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (Manuscript 383), and in a Latin compilation known as Quadripartitus, was negotiated later, perhaps in 879 or 880, when King Ceolwulf II of Mercia was deposed. That treaty divided up the kingdom of Mercia. By its terms, the boundary between <mask>'s and Guthrum's kingdoms was to run up the River Thames to the River Lea, follow the Lea to its source (near

masks:
Alfred the Great
Æthelwu
Alfred
Alfred
Æthelberht
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred Smyth
Alfred
Alfred
Æthelstan
Alfred
Alfred
Æthelbald
Æthelberht
Alfred
Alfred
Æthelswith
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Æthelstan
Æthelbal
Æthelberht
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Charles the
Alfred
Ætheber
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred


texts:
 Luton), from there extend in a straight line to Bedford, and from Bedford follow the River Ouse to Watling Street.<mask> succeeded to Ceolwulf's kingdom consisting of western Mercia, and Guthrum incorporated the eastern part of Mercia into an enlarged Kingdom of East Anglia (henceforward known as the Danelaw). By terms of the treaty, moreover, <mask> was to have control over the Mercian city of London and its mints—at least for the time being. In 825, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle had recorded that the people of Essex, Sussex, Kent and Surrey surrendered to Egbert, <mask>'s grandfather. From then until the arrival of the Great Heathen Army, Essex had formed part of Wessex. After the foundation of Danelaw, it appears that some of Essex would have been ceded to the Danes, but how much is not clear. 880s

With the signing of the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, an event most commonly held to have taken place around 880 when Guthrum's people began settling East Anglia, Guthrum was neutralised as a threat. The Viking army, which had stayed at Fulham during the winter of 878–879, sailed for Ghent and was active on the continent from 879 to 892.There were local raids on the coast of Wessex throughout the 880s. In 882, <mask> fought a small sea battle against four Danish ships. Two of the ships were destroyed, and the others surrendered. This was one of four sea battles recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, three of which involved <mask>. Similar small skirmishes with independent Viking raiders would have occurred for much of the period as they had for decades. In 883, Pope Marinus exempted the Saxon quarter in Rome from taxation, probably in return for <mask>'s promise to send alms annually to Rome, which may be the origin of the medieval tax called Peter's Pence. The pope sent gifts to <mask>, including what was reputed to be a piece of the True Cross.After the signing of the treaty with Guthrum, <mask> was spared any large-scale conflicts for some time. Despite this relative peace, the king was forced to deal with a number of Danish raids and incursions. Among these was a raid in Kent, an allied kingdom in South East England, during the year 885, which was possibly the largest raid since the battles with Guthrum. Asser's account of the raid places the Danish raiders at the Saxon city of Rochester, where they built a temporary fortress in order to besiege the city. In response to this incursion, <mask> led an Anglo-Saxon force against the Danes who, instead of engaging the army of Wessex, fled to their beached ships and sailed to another part of Britain. The retreating Danish force supposedly left Britain the following summer. Not long after the failed Danish raid in Kent, <mask> dispatched his fleet to East Anglia.The purpose of this expedition is debated, but Asser claims that it was for the sake of plunder. After travelling up the River Stour, the fleet was met by Danish vessels that numbered 13 or 16 (sources vary on the number), and a battle ensued. The Anglo-Saxon fleet emerged victorious, and as Huntingdon accounts, "laden with spoils". The victorious fleet was surprised when attempting to leave the River Stour and was attacked by a Danish force at the mouth of the river. The Danish fleet defeated <mask>'s fleet, which may have been weakened in the previous engagement. A year later, in 886, <mask> reoccupied the city of London and set out to make it habitable again. <mask> entrusted the city to the care of his son-in-law Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia.The restoration of London progressed through the latter half of the 880s and is believed to have revolved around a new street plan; added fortifications in addition to the existing Roman walls; and, some believe, the construction of matching fortifications on the south bank of the River Thames. This is also the period in which almost all chroniclers agree that the Saxon people of pre-unification England submitted to <mask>. In 888, <mask>, the archbishop of Canterbury, also died. One year later Guthrum, or <mask> by his baptismal name, <mask>'s former enemy and king of East Anglia, died and was buried in Hadleigh, Suffolk. Guthrum's death changed the political landscape for <mask>. The resulting power vacuum stirred other power-hungry warlords eager to take his place in the following years. The quiet years of <mask>'s life were coming to a close.Viking attacks (890s)
After another lull, in the autumn of 892 or 893, the Danes attacked again. Finding their position in mainland Europe precarious, they crossed to England in 330 ships in two divisions. They entrenched themselves, the larger body at Appledore, Kent, and the lesser under Hastein, at Milton, also in Kent. The invaders brought their wives and children with them, indicating a meaningful attempt at conquest and colonisation. <mask>, in 893 or 894, took up a position from which he could observe both forces. While he was in talks with Hastein, the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck north-westwards. They were overtaken by <mask>'s eldest son, Edward and were defeated at the Battle of Farnham in Surrey.They took refuge on an island at Thorney, on the River Colne between Buckinghamshire and Middlesex, where they were blockaded and forced to give hostages and promise to leave Wessex. They then went to Essex and after suffering another defeat at Benfleet, joined with Hastein's force at Shoebury. <mask> had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed stronghold on the North Devon shore. <mask> at once hurried westward and raised the Siege of Exeter. The fate of the other place is not recorded. The force under Hastein set out to march up the Thames Valley, possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. They were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wiltshire and Somerset and forced to head off to the north-west, being finally overtaken and blockaded at Buttington.(Some identify this with Buttington Tump at the mouth of the River Wye, others with Buttington near Welshpool.) An attempt to break through the English lines failed. Those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. After collecting reinforcements, they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of Chester. The English did not attempt a winter blockade but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the district. Early in 894 or 895 lack of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of the year, the Danes drew their ships up the River Thames and the River Lea and fortified themselves  north of London.A frontal attack on the Danish lines failed but later in the year, <mask> saw a means of obstructing the river to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realised that they were outmanoeuvred, struck off north-westwards and wintered at Cwatbridge near Bridgnorth. The next year, 896 (or 897), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia. Those who had no connections in England returned to the continent. Military reorganisation

The Germanic tribes who invaded Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries relied upon the unarmoured infantry supplied by their tribal levy, or fyrd, and it was upon this system that the military power of the several kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England depended. The fyrd was a local militia in the Anglo-Saxon shire in which all freemen had to serve; those who refused military service were subject to fines or loss of their land.According to the law code of King Ine of Wessex, issued in about 694,

Wessex's history of failures preceding <mask>'s success in 878 emphasised to him that the traditional system of battle he had inherited played to the Danes' advantage. While the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes attacked settlements for plunder, they employed different tactics. In their raids the Anglo-Saxons traditionally preferred to attack head-on by assembling their forces in a shield wall, advancing against their target and overcoming the oncoming wall marshalled against them in defence. The Danes preferred to choose easy targets, mapping cautious forays to avoid risking their plunder with high-stake attacks for more. <mask> determined their tactic was to launch small attacks from a secure base to which they could retreat should their raiders meet strong resistance. The bases were prepared in advance, often by capturing an estate and augmenting its defences with ditches, ramparts and palisades. Once inside the fortification, <mask> realised, the Danes enjoyed the advantage, better situated to outlast their opponents or crush them with a counter-attack because the provisions and stamina of the besieging forces waned.The means by which the Anglo-Saxons marshalled forces to defend against marauders also left them vulnerable to the Vikings. It was the responsibility of the shire fyrd to deal with local raids. The king could call up the national militia to defend the kingdom but in the case of the Viking raids, problems with communication and raising supplies meant that the national militia could not be mustered quickly enough. It was only after the raids had begun that a call went out to landowners to gather their men for battle. Large regions could be devastated before the fyrd could assemble and arrive. Although the landowners were obliged to the king to supply these men when called, during the attacks in 878 many of them abandoned their king and collaborated with Guthrum. With these lessons in mind <mask> capitalised on the relatively peaceful years following his victory at Edington with an ambitious restructuring of Saxon defences.On a trip to Rome <mask> had stayed with <mask> Bald, and it is possible that he may have studied how the Carolingian kings had dealt with Viking raiders. Learning from their experiences he was able to establish a system of taxation and defence for Wessex. There had been a system of fortifications in pre-Viking Mercia that may have been an influence. When the Viking raids resumed in 892 <mask> was better prepared to confront them with a standing, mobile field army, a network of garrisons and a small fleet of ships navigating the rivers and estuaries. Administration and taxation
Tenants in Anglo-Saxon England had a threefold obligation based on their landholding: the so-called "common burdens" of military service, fortress work, and bridge repair. This threefold obligation has traditionally been called trinoda necessitas or trimoda necessitas. The Old English name for the fine due for neglecting military service was .To maintain the burhs, and to reorganise the fyrd as a standing army, <mask> expanded the tax and conscription system based on the productivity of a tenant's landholding. The hide was the basic unit of the system on which the tenant's public obligations were assessed. A hide is thought to represent the amount of land required to support one family. The hide differed in size according to the value and resources of the land and the landowner would have to provide service based on how many hides he owned. Burghal system

The foundation of <mask>'s new military defence system was a network of burhs, distributed at tactical points throughout the kingdom. There were thirty-three burhs, about  apart, enabling the military to confront attacks anywhere in the kingdom within a day. <mask>'s burhs (of which 22 developed into boroughs) ranged from former Roman towns, such as Winchester, where the stone walls were repaired and ditches added, to massive earthen walls surrounded by wide ditches, probably reinforced with wooden revetments and palisades, such as at Burpham in West Sussex.The size of the burhs ranged from tiny outposts such as Pilton in Devon, to large fortifications in established towns, the largest being at Winchester. A document now known as the Burghal Hidage provides an insight into how the system worked. It lists the hidage for each of the fortified towns contained in the document. Wallingford had a hidage of 2,400, which meant that the landowners there were responsible for supplying and feeding 2,400 men, the number sufficient for maintaining  of wall. A total of 27,071 soldiers were needed, approximately one in four of all the free men in Wessex. Many of the burhs were twin towns that straddled a river and were connected by a fortified bridge, like those built by <mask> Bald a generation before. The double-burh blocked passage on the river, forcing Viking ships to navigate under a garrisoned bridge lined with men armed with stones, spears or arrows.Other burhs were sited near fortified royal villas, allowing the king better control over his strongholds. The burhs were connected by a road system maintained for army use (known as herepaths). The roads allowed an army quickly to be assembled, sometimes from more than one burh, to confront the Viking invader. The road network posed significant obstacles to Viking invaders, especially those laden with booty. The system threatened Viking routes and communications making it far more dangerous for them. The Vikings lacked the equipment for a siege against a burh and a developed doctrine of siegecraft, having tailored their methods of fighting to rapid strikes and unimpeded retreats to well-defended fortifications. The only means left to them was to starve the burh into submission but this gave the king time to send his field army or garrisons from neighbouring burhs along the army roads.In such cases, the Vikings were extremely vulnerable to pursuit by the king's joint military forces. <mask>'s burh system posed such a formidable challenge against Viking attack that when the Vikings returned in 892 and stormed a half-built, poorly garrisoned fortress up the Lympne estuary in Kent, the Anglo-Saxons were able to limit their penetration to the outer frontiers of Wessex and Mercia. <mask>'s burghal system was revolutionary in its strategic conception and potentially expensive in its execution. His contemporary biographer Asser wrote that many nobles balked at the demands placed upon them even though they were for "the common needs of the kingdom". English navy
<mask> also tried his hand at naval design. In 896 he ordered the construction of a small fleet, perhaps a dozen or so longships that, at 60 oars, were twice the size of Viking warships. This was not, as the Victorians asserted, the birth of the English Navy.Wessex had possessed a royal fleet before this. <mask>'s older brother sub-king <mask> of Kent and Ealdorman Ealhhere had defeated a Viking fleet in 851 capturing nine ships and <mask> had conducted naval actions in 882. The year 897 marked an important development in the naval power of Wessex. The author of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle related that <mask>'s ships were larger, swifter, steadier and rode higher in the water than either Danish or Frisian ships. It is probable that, under the classical tutelage of Asser, <mask> used the design of Greek and Roman warships, with high sides, designed for fighting rather than for navigation. <mask> had seapower in mind; if he could intercept raiding fleets before they landed, he could spare his kingdom from being ravaged. <mask>'s ships may have been superior in conception, but in practice they proved to be too large to manoeuvre well in the close waters of estuaries and rivers, the only places in which a naval battle could be fought.The warships of the time were not designed to be ship killers but rather troop carriers. It has been suggested that, like sea battles in late Viking age Scandinavia, these battles may have entailed a ship coming alongside an opposing vessel, lashing the two ships together and then boarding the craft. The result was a land battle involving hand-to-hand fighting on board the two lashed vessels. In the one recorded naval engagement in 896, <mask>'s new fleet of nine ships intercepted six Viking ships at the mouth of an unidentified river in the south of England. The Danes had beached half their ships and gone inland. <mask>'s ships immediately moved to block their escape. The three Viking ships afloat attempted to break through the English lines.Only one made it; <mask>'s ships intercepted the other two. Lashing the Viking boats to their own, the English crew boarded and proceeded to kill the Vikings. One ship escaped because <mask>'s heavy ships became grounded when the tide went out. A land battle ensued between the crews. The Danes were heavily outnumbered,

masks:
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Æthelred
Athelstan
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Charles the
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Charles the
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Æthelstan
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred
Alfred