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Catherine "<mask>" O'Regan (born 17 September 1957) is a former judge of the Constitutional Court of South Africa. From 2013 to 2014 she was a commissioner of the Khayelitsha Commission and is now the inaugural director of the Bonavero Institute of Human Rights at the University of Oxford. Early life
O'Regan was born in Liverpool, England, into a large Catholic family of Irish immigrants. She moved to Cape Town when she was seven. Her mother was a dentist from a "very political household"; her father was a doctor who became active in poor Catholic communities and those subjected to forced removals. O'Regan studied at the University of Cape Town from 1975 to 1980, earning a BA and LLB. She was taught briefly by Arthur Chaskalson, who had recently founded the Legal Resources Centre, and ran UCT's legal aid project, working with Mahomed Navsa of the University of the Western Cape.After earning an LLM from the University of Sydney, she returned to South Africa and began her articles of clerkship at Bowman Gilfillan. She stayed on at Bowman for two years under John Brand, specialising in labour law and land rights and representing COSATU, NUM, NUMSA and the Black Sash. In 1985, O'Regan went to London to do a PhD at the London School of Economics on interdicts restraining strikes. On her return to South Africa in 1988, she worked at the Labour Law Unit and then became an associate professor at the University of Cape Town. She was a founder member of the Law, Race and Gender Research project and the Institute for Development Law at UCT; advised the African National Congress (of which she was a non-active member from 1991) on land claims legislation, working with Geoff Budlender, Aninka Claassens and Derek Hanekom; and served as a trustee of the Legal Resources Centre Trust. She co-edited No Place to Rest: Forced Removals and the Law in South Africa and contributed to A Charter for Social Justice: A Contribution to the South African Bill of Rights Debate. Judicial career
In 1994, O'Regan was appointed to the newly formed Constitutional Court of South Africa by Nelson Mandela.Aged only 37, O'Regan's appointment was surprising even to her. She and Yvonne Mokgoro were the only female judges on the Court for its first 13 years. O'Regan's first majority judgment was S v Bulwana; S v Gwadiso, where the Court for the first time suspended an order of constitutional invalidity. In 1998, she co-authored Fedsure Life Assurance Ltd v Greater Johannesburg Transitional Metropolitan Council, the Court's founding judgment on the rule of law and legality review. The first major judgment of which she was the sole author was Premier, Mpumalanga, still the leading authority on the doctrine of legitimate expectations (on which O'Regan also wrote in Ed-U-College, again in the context of the government's withdrawal of school subsidies). O'Regan's judgment in Dawood v Minister of Home Affairs, delivered in 2000, established for the first time that the right to family life is constitutionally protected and that the conferral of broad discretionary powers on government officials can be unconstitutional. But by far her most-cited contribution to administrative law is her 2004 judgment in Bato Star v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, which sets out South African law's approach to reasonableness review and judicial deference.O'Regan's judgment in ACDP v Electoral Commission, dealing with the African Christian Democratic Party's application to contest the 2006 local government elections, introduced the doctrine of substantial compliance into South African law. Her judgment in Richter v Minister of Home Affairs, also on political rights, extended the right to vote to South African citizens living abroad. O'Regan wrote several judgments on labour law, in which she had specialised as an attorney and academic. She wrote two judgments - one in 1999 and one in 2007 - in the ongoing litigation between the South African National Defence Union and the South African National Defence Force, as well as NUMSA v Bader Bop, a judgment dealing with the subject of her PhD thesis: the right to strike. Her 2001 judgment on the relationship between administrative law and labour law, Fredericks v MEC for Education and Training, Eastern Cape, has effectively been overturned - to almost unanimous disapproval by commentators. In Sidumo v Rustenburg Platinum Mines Ltd, O'Regan wrote separately to emphasise, in agreement with the majority judgment of Navsa AJ, her law-clinic colleague of thirty years earlier, that administrative law applies to labour law disputes. In the law of delict, O'Regan's contribution has been significant.In 2002, she wrote Khumalo v Holomisa, one of the Court's first judgments on defamation law and arguably its only judgment applying the Bill of Rights directly to private parties. In 2004, she delivered the Metrorail judgment, which holds that Metrorail has a duty to ensure the safety of commuters on its trains and is regarded as an "exemplar" by international commentators for its protection of the right to personal security. And in 2005, most famously, O'Regan gave judgment in K v Minister of Safety and Security, finding the state liable to compensate a plaintiff who was raped by a police officer. The judgment's radical expansion of the test for vicarious liability, following Bazley v Curry and Lister v Hesley Hall Ltd, was celebrated by women's rights groups but criticised by some academics. It has been approved and applied by the Court subsequently. The judgment is also still cited for its approach to the development of the common law and the use of comparative law. Finally, in Steenkamp NO v Provincial Tender Board, another case on the delictual liability of public authorities, O'Regan co-wrote a dissent (with Langa CJ) that would have held the state liable for pure economic loss caused to the winner of an unlawfully awarded tender.In discrimination law, O'Regan co-authored Prinsloo v Van der Linde, which established the connection between the right to equality and dignity, and penned a unanimous judgment in the 2003 follow-up to Satchwell v President of the Republic of South Africa. Better known are her two dissents. In Minister of Home Affairs v Fourie, she strongly criticised the majority for referring the regulation of same-sex marriage to Parliament rather than providing immediate relief. And her dissent in the earlier S v Jordan (co-authored with Sachs J) held that the criminalisation of sex work (and not its solicitation) unfairly discriminates on the basis of gender and is therefore unconstitutional. O'Regan's fifteen-year term ended in October 2009. Her last judgment for the Court, Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg, on the right to water, proved highly controversial. For some, it was a perceptively restrained summation of the Court's socio-economic rights jurisprudence; for others, it was a "disappointing" and "profoundly conservative" failure by the Court to come to the aid of South Africa's poorest communities.Nevertheless, O'Regan was hailed on her retirement as a "stalwart" of the Court, "among its most industrious, as well as progressive, members". In the view of Johann Kriegler, her long-standing colleague, she was "the most outstanding success of the Constitutional Court". Edwin Cameron has said she is "one of the finest minds ever appointed as a judge in South Africa". After O'Regan retired, along with Pius Langa, Yvonne Mokgoro and Albie Sachs, these four founding members of the Court were replaced by President Jacob Zuma's first raft of senior judicial appointees. This significant change in the Court's composition was seen by some as marking the start of its decline. Acting DCJ
From February to May 2008, O'Regan acted as Deputy Chief Justice in the absence of Dikgang Moseneke. It was during this period that John Hlophe allegedly approached judges Chris Jafta and Bess Nkabinde to influence their decision in litigation involving Jacob Zuma.Dalai Lama controversy
In March 2009 the South African government refused a visa to the Dalai Lama to attend a peace conference. This perceived capitulation by the ruling African National Congress to pressure from China was widely condemned, including by then Minister of Health Barbara Hogan. O'Regan also spoke out, publicly agreeing with Hogan and expressing her "dismay" that "human rights does not seem to enter into the picture of some foreign affairs decisions that are made". O'Regan was heavily criticised by the government and the Black Lawyers Association, which threatened to lay a misconduct complaint against her for "concern[ing] herself with politics". Other positions and awards

O'Regan is an honorary professor at the University of Cape Town and a visiting professor at the University of Oxford, and was a Hauser Global Visiting Professor at New York University. She has four honorary doctorates (from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, University of Cape Town, London School of Economics and University of South Africa), is an honorary bencher of Lincoln's Inn and was elected an honorary foreign member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. O'Regan is an ad hoc judge of the Namibian Supreme Court.In addition, she is the president of the International Monetary Fund Administrative Tribunal and a member of the World Bank Sanctions Board. She was the inaugural chairperson, from 2008 to 2012, of the United Nations Internal Justice Council. She is on the board of several human rights NGOs, including Corruption Watch, the Council for the Advancement of the South African Constitution, the Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law, the Equal Rights Trust and the Southern African branch of the Open Society Foundations. Since 2005, she has been closely involved with the establishment of the Southern African Legal Information Institute, a web-based law reporting system that is part of the Free Access to Law Movement. In 2013, O'Regan was appointed by Premier Helen Zille as a commissioner, with Vusi Pikoli, of the Khayelitsha Commission, tasked with investigating the alleged breakdown of policing in Khayelitsha township. The Commission released its report in August 2014. O'Regan has consistently criticised the slow pace of gender transformation in the South African judiciary.Personal life
O'Regan is married to advocate Alec Freund SC. They have two children. References

Living people
White South African people
South African people of Irish descent
Judges of the Constitutional Court of South Africa
Justices of the Supreme Court of Namibia
South African women judges
South African women in politics
University of Cape Town academics
University of Cape Town alumni
University of Sydney alumni
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Constitutional court women judges
South African women lawyers
20th-century South African lawyers
1957 births
20th-century South African judges
21st-century South African judges
20th-century women lawyers
20th-century women judges
21st-century women judges
Honorary Fellows of the British Academy


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<mask> (September 9, 1898—March 12, 1973), nicknamed "The Fordham Flash" or "The Old Flash", was an American Major League Baseball player and manager of the first half of the twentieth century. <mask> was a switch-hitting second baseman who threw right-handed. He played for the New York Giants (1919–1926) and St. Louis Cardinals (1927–1937). He managed the Cardinals (1933–1938), Pittsburgh Pirates (1940–1946) and Chicago Cubs (1949–1951). He is a member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum and the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum. He is tied with Yogi Berra for most World Series doubles at 10 and holds the record for the most World Series hits at 58 for a player who never played for the New York Yankees, exceeded only by Yogi Berra and Mickey Mantle. Early life
Born in the Bronx, New York City, <mask> attended Fordham Preparatory School, graduating in 1916.He went on to Fordham University where he continued to star in four sports: baseball, football, basketball and track. His speed earned him the nickname "The Fordham Flash". New York Giants

In 1919, <mask> left Fordham  to sign with the New York Giants of the National League, moving directly to the majors without playing in the minor leagues. He made an immediate impact, finishing third in the NL in stolen bases and seventh in RBI in 1920, his first full season. Manager John McGraw was so impressed by <mask> that he soon named him team captain, giving him advice in base-running and hitting. The Giants played <mask> at both third base and second base early in his career, but by 1923 he was installed as the team's full-time second baseman. <mask> batted over .300 in his last six seasons with New York.He was also an expert fielder and a skilled base-runner. In 1921, he led the National League with 48 steals, in 1923 in hits, and in 1924 in runs. With <mask> adding his fiery competitiveness to the team, the Giants won the World Series in 1921 and 1922, winning the NL pennant the following two seasons as well. <mask> is tied with Pablo Sandoval for the franchise post-season multi-hit games record of 15. St. Louis Cardinals
After the 1926 season, <mask> was traded—with pitcher Jimmy Ring—to the St. Louis Cardinals in exchange for star Rogers Hornsby. After an August 1926 loss in which <mask> had missed a sign, costing the Giants a run, McGraw had loudly berated <mask> in front of the team; <mask> responded by leaving the team, and his previously close relationship with McGraw virtually ended. Playing second base for the Cardinals, <mask> appeared in four more World Series (1928, 1930–31, 1934), bringing his career total to eight.He was the driving force of the "Gashouse Gang", the nickname for the Cardinals clubs of the early 1930s, which were built around him to reflect his no-holds-barred approach. The Cardinals had won only one pennant before <mask> joined the team; the Giants would win the pennant only once in <mask>'s nine seasons as the Cards' regular second baseman. <mask> played eleven seasons with the Cardinals. In 1931, he was voted the Most Valuable Player in the National League after batting .311 with 4 home runs, 82 RBI and leading the League in stolen bases with 28. The 1931 Cardinals also triumphed in the World Series, defeating Connie Mack's defending two-time champion Philadelphia Athletics in seven games. <mask> became player-manager of the Cardinals in 1933, and was named to the NL's first three All-Star teams from 1933 to 1935. In 1934, he managed the Cardinals to another seven-game World Series victory—this time over the Detroit Tigers.<mask> finished his playing career in 1937. His career statistics totaled a .316 batting average, still the highest ever for a switch hitter, with 2,880 hits, 1532 runs, 466 doubles, 138 triples, 105 home runs, 728 walks and 1,244 RBI over 2,311 games. He also stole 419 bases in his nineteen playing seasons. His hit total stood as the record for switch-hitters until Pete Rose surpassed it in 1977. <mask> also hit .300 for his career from both sides of the plate; the only other switch-hitter with more than 5,000 at-bats with this distinction is fellow Hall of Famer Chipper Jones. <mask> was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1947. After no players had been selected by the writers in the previous two years (the only elections since 1942), the rules were revised to limit eligibility to those players who had retired after 1921; <mask> was among the first four players to benefit from the more reasonable field of candidates.After his retirement as an active player, <mask> continued to manage the Cardinals, but was never able to capture another pennant. <mask> also had managerial stints with the Pittsburgh Pirates (1940–46) and the Chicago Cubs (1949–51), but without the success he had in St. Louis. <mask>'s career ledger as a manager shows a 1,138–1,078 (.514) mark, including the pennant in 1934. He also spent the first two months of the 1949 season as a New York Giants' coach, working under his old double-play partner, Leo Durocher, before leaving June 14 to replace Charlie Grimm as manager of the Cubs. Post-baseball career and death
<mask> also worked for several years as a baseball color commentator on radio and television. In 1939, he called games for the Boston Bees and the Boston Red Sox on the Colonial Network, a regional radio network serving five New England states. He also called Giants radio in 1947–48, then worked as a post-game host for the team's telecasts in the 1950s.His broadcasting trademark was worrying about pitchers walking batters: "Oh, those bases on balls!" After a heart attack in September 1956 forced <mask> to curtail his activities, Phil Rizzuto (recently released by Yankees as a player) filled in for him on Giants post-game shows for the rest of the season. From 1959 to 1961, <mask> teamed with Jack Whitaker to form the backup crew for Saturday Game of the Week coverage on CBS. A number of years after <mask> left the playing field as a manager, he became a member of the Hall of Fame's Committee on Baseball Veterans, which is responsible for electing players to the Hall of Fame who had not been elected during their initial period of eligibility by the Baseball Writers; he later became chairman of the committee. In the years just prior to his death, a number of <mask>'s Giants and Cardinals teammates were elected to the Hall; some notable writers, chiefly among them Bill James, have criticized these selections—including Jesse Haines, Dave Bancroft, Chick Hafey, Rube Marquard, Ross Youngs and George Kelly—which include some of the most widely questioned honorees in the Hall's history. Critics have pointed out that many of these selectees had accomplishments which were less outstanding than those of other players who were bypassed, and were only selected because of <mask>'s influence. <mask> died in Wilmington, Delaware from injuries suffered from a car accident near Elkton, Maryland a month earlier.He was 74 years old. <mask> had been returning to Rhode Island from the meeting of the Veterans Committee in Florida when he lost control of his car. <mask> died in the same manner as other N.Y. Giant Hall of Famers Mel Ott (1958) and Carl Hubbell (1988). He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City. During his lifetime, <mask> used 1898 as his year of birth, although other records (Social Security death index, Census records, World War I Draft registration, and passport application) indicate an 1897 birth. In 1999, he ranked number 88 on The Sporting News list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was a nominee for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.In January 2014, the Cardinals announced <mask> among 22 former players and personnel to be inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum for the inaugural class of 2014. <mask> is mentioned in the poem "Line-Up for Yesterday" by Ogden Nash:

Years later, Nash added a footnote to this stanza: "p.s. Thanks to Durocher, now everything's kosher." For many years, he lived at 184 Fenimore Road in the Bonnie Crest neighborhood of New Rochelle, New York. He had two hounds named Flash and Patches who kept him company. <mask> eventually moved to Charlestown, Rhode Island, devoting himself mainly to his interests in gardening and classical music. The Mosholu Baseball Field in Bedford Park, Bronx, was renamed to Frank Frisch Field in 1948.See also

 List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
 List of Major League Baseball player-managers
 List of Major League Baseball managers by wins
 List of St. Louis Cardinals team records
 List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders

Notes

References

External links

1898 births
1973 deaths
Accidental deaths in Maryland
Baseball players from New York (state)
Boston Braves announcers
Boston Red Sox announcers
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Chicago Cubs managers
Fordham Rams baseball players
Fordham Rams football players
Fordham Rams men's basketball players
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Major League Baseball player-managers
Major League Baseball second basemen
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
National League All-Stars
National League Most Valuable Player Award winners
New York Giants (NL) announcers
New York Giants (NL) coaches
New York Giants (NL) players
Pittsburgh Pirates managers
Road incident deaths in Maryland
Sportspeople from the Bronx
Sportspeople from New Rochelle, New York
St. Louis Cardinals managers
St. Louis Cardinals players
Vaudeville performers
<mask>isch
Fordham Preparatory School alumni
American men's basketball players

masks:
Frank Francis Frisch
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Frankie Frisch
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Frankie Fr


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<mask> (2 November 1928 – 19 July 2013) was a Swiss geologist, who made contributions to the understanding of the geological evolution of Europe and the North Atlantic borderlands, of intraplate tectonics and of plate tectonic controls on the evolution and hydrocarbon potential of sedimentary basins. Ziegler's career consists of 33 years as exploration geologist with the petroleum industry, 30 of which with Shell, and 20 years of university teaching and research. Life and work
Born in Winterthur, <mask> took a PhD degree at the University of Zurich in spring 1955 and immediately joined the petroleum industry. Following three years of fieldwork and well sitting in Israel, Madagascar and the Algerian Sahara with American and French oil companies, he joined Shell Canada in Calgary. For six years he was engaged in the exploration of the Cordilleran foothills of British Columbia, the Northwest Territories and the Yukon, as well as of the Pacific shelf. This involved extensive helicopter-supported fieldwork. In view of a growing family, he converted from a structurally oriented field-geologist to a more sedentary, stratigraphic trap hunting subsurface-geologist and chalked-up his first natural gas discoveries in the Alberta down-dip reef belt.After guiding an airborne excursion through the Cordillera during the 1967 Devonian Symposium of Calgary, his guidebook, summarizing “The Development of Sedimentary Basins in Western and Arctic Canada”, was published by the Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists in 1969. <mask> was transferred to Shell International in the Netherlands on 1 January 1970, where he supervised Shell's exploration activities in the North Sea area. As the North Sea success story unfolded, Shell and its partners were rewarded with numerous important oil and gas discoveries, including the giant Brent, Statfjord, and Troll fields. <mask>'s responsibilities as exploration adviser expanded stepwise to all Shell companies in Europe, then South America, and ultimately worldwide. Parallel to his operational responsibilities, <mask> compiled regional geological data to gain a better understanding of the hydrocarbon potential of hitherto little explored basins on the Atlantic seaboard and of basins behind the Iron Curtain. Presentations at various conferences and symposia prompted academia to propose to Shell to publish his set of palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic maps. In 1982 <mask>'s Geological Atlas of Western and Central Europe was published.In this volume he retraced the geological history, depositional environments and tectonics of Europe north of the Alps in greater detail than had ever been done before. In the same line, the American Association of Petroleum Geologists invited <mask> to tour the United States and Canada in 1986-1987 as distinguished lecturer, speaking on the Evolution of the Arctic-North Atlantic and Western Tethys. He died on 19 July 2013 in Binningen, Switzerland. Scientific career
In autumn 1988 <mask> retired from Shell and returned with his wife to Switzerland where he joined the University of Basel as lecturer. In short succession he published with Shell's support in late 1988 the AAPG Memoir 43, entitled “Evolution of the Arctic-North Atlantic and Western Tethys”, in 1989 a volume published by the Royal Geological and Mining Society of the Netherlands on “Evolution of Laurussia - A Study in Late Palaeozoic Plate Tectonics” and in 1990 for Shell's 100 years of Exploration Jubilee the 2nd edition of his “Geological Atlas of Western and Central Europe”. In addition he carried out consulting work, lectured regularly on Shell's behalf at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and participated in international research endeavors, such as the International Lithosphere Program (leader of working group 3: Intra-Plate Tectonics 1985-90: Bureau member 1991-94), EUROPROBE (1990–2002), the IGCP-369 Comparative evolution of Peri-Tethyan Rift Basins Project (1994–99) and the TRANSMED Atlas Project (2000–04). He initiated and coordinated the transnational EUCOR-URGENT Project (1999–2008) that dealt with the evolution and neotectonics of the Upper Rhine Graben.He contributed materially to the development of the follow-up TOPO-EUROPE Project, which addresses the neotectonic and topographic evolution of Europe. <mask> published widely in international journals and in thematic volumes on processes controlling extensional and compressional intraplate tectonics and on the evolution of the lithosphere. His publications found wide recognition and contributed enormously to narrowing the gap between academia and the industry. His work changed the way geologists look at depositional systems and tectonic processes controlling the evolution of sedimentary basins. Awards
In 1992 <mask> was appointed as Honorary Lecturer at University of Basel and in 1996 as Titular Professor for Global Geology. He was awarded Honorary Doctor Degrees by the Moscow State University (1997) and the Technical University Delft (2001). He was a recipient of the Foumarier medal of the Belgian Geological Society, the van Waterschot van der Gracht medal of the Royal Geological and Mining Society of the Netherlands, the William Smith medal of the Geological Society of London, the Neville George medal of the Geological Society of Glasgow, the Stephan Müller medal of the European Geosciences Union, the Leopold von Buch medal of the German Geological Society and the Leonidovici Kaptsa medal of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences.From the American Association of Petroleum Geologists he received the Robert Dott sr. Memorial Award for the publication of his Memoir 43, and later the Special Commendation Award for his regional synthesis of the geological evolution of Europe and for being a lively catalyst of the dialogue among Earth Scientists. Memberships
<mask> was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1984. He became a member of the Academia Europaea in 1990. <mask> was also a member of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences. He was a life member of the Bureau of the International Lithosphere Program and an honorary member of the Geological Society of London, the European Geosciences Union, the Geological Society of Poland and the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Honours
On the occasion of his 80th birthday the Swiss Geological Society honoured <mask> with a symposium on the theme “Deep Earth - from Crust to Core”, held in Lugano on 23 November 2008. Selected publications

References

 <mask>'s profile at the University of Basel

External links
 The International Lithosphere Program
 The EUROPROBE Program
 The TRANSMED Project
 The EUCOR-URGENT Project
 The TOPO-EUROPE Project

1928 births
2013 deaths
Members of Academia Europaea
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
People from Winterthur
20th-century Swiss geologists
University of Zurich alumni
University of Basel faculty

masks:
Peter Alfred Ziegler
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<mask> (August 3, 1871 – June 16, 1929) was an American literary historian and scholar. His three-volume history of American letters,  Main Currents in American Thought, won the Pulitzer Prize for History in 1928 and was one of the most influential books for American historians of its time. Career
Born in Aurora, Illinois, to a Republican family that soon moved to Emporia, Kansas, Parrington attended the College of Emporia and Harvard University, receiving his B.A. from the latter institution in 1893. He did not undertake graduate study. He was appalled by the hardships of Kansas farmers in the 1890s, and began moving left. After teaching English at the College of Emporia, he moved to the University of Oklahoma in 1897, where he taught British literature, organized the department of English, coached the football team, played on the baseball team, edited the campus newspaper, and tried to beautify the campus.He published little and in 1908 he was fired due to pressures from religious groups who wanted all "immoral faculty" fired. From there he went on to a distinguished academic career at the University of Washington. Intellectual on the left
<mask> moved to the much friendlier University of Washington in Seattle, Washington in 1908. He recalled in 1918, "With every passing year my radicalism draws fresh nourishment from large knowledge of the evils of private capitalism. Hatred of that selfish system is become the chief passion of my life. The change from Oklahoma to Washington marks the shift with me from the older cultural interpretation of life to the later economic." Founder of American Studies
<mask> founded the interdisciplinary American Studies movement with his 1927 work Main Currents in American Thought.The movement was expanded in the 1920s and 1930s by Perry Miller, F. O. Matthiessen, and Robert Spiller. The elements that these pioneers considered revolutionary were interdisciplinarity, a holistic culture concept, and a focus on the uniqueness of American culture. From the introduction to Main Currents of American Thought:

"I have undertaken to give some account of the genesis and development in American letters of certain germinal ideas that have come to be reckoned traditionally American—how they came into being here, how they were opposed, and what influence they have exerted in determining the form and scope of our characteristic ideals and institutions. In pursuing such a task, I have chosen to follow the broad path of our political, economic, and social development, rather than the narrower belletristic." Main Currents in American Thought

<mask> is best remembered as the author of Main Currents in American Thought (1927), a politics-centered 3-volume history of American letters from colonial times that won the 1928 Pulitzer Prize for History, which postulates a sharp divide between the elitist Hamiltonian current and its populist Jeffersonian opponents, making clear his identification with the latter. Parrington defined the three phases of U.S. history as Calvinistic pessimism, romantic optimism, and mechanistic pessimism, with democratic idealism as the main driving force. Parrington defended the doctrine of state sovereignty, and sought to disassociate it from the cause of slavery, claiming that the association of those two causes had proven "disastrous to American democracy," removing the last brake on the growth of corporate power in the Gilded Age as the federal government began shielding capitalists from local and state regulation.For two decades Main Currents in American Thought was one of the most influential books for American historians. Reising (1989) shows the book dominated literary and cultural criticism from 1927 through the early 1950s. Crowe (1977) calls it "the "Summa Theologica of Progressive history." Progressive history was a set of related assumptions and attitudes, which inspired the first great flowering of professional American scholarship in history. These historians saw economic and geographical forces as primary, and saw ideas as merely instruments. They regarded many dominant concepts and interpretations as masks for deeper realities. Reinitz (1977) stresses Parrington's heavy use of historical irony, which occurs when the consequences of an action emerge contrary to the original intentions of the actors.<mask> represented the Progressive School of historians which stressed the duality of good versus evil in the American past. Yet, in his final volume of Main Currents he concluded that the Jeffersonian farmer, the Progressives' traditional democratic hero, had joined forces with the greedy business community to produce a destructive form of capitalism which culminated in the 1920s. His progressive interpretation of American history was highly influential in the 1920s and 1930s and helped define modern liberalism in the United States. After receiving overwhelming praise and exerting enormous influence among intellectuals in the 1930s and 1940s, Parrington's ideas fell out of fashion before 1950. Richard Hofstadter says "the most striking thing about the reputation of V L Parrington, as we think of it today, is its abrupt decline....during the 1940s Parrington rather quickly cease to have a compelling interest for students of American literature, and in time historians too began to desert him." Hofstadter shows how Parrington's ideas came under heavy assault in the 1940s and 1950s, naming Lionel Trilling as especially influential in the attack. Harold Bloom says: "Parrington was, in turn, condemned to obscurity by critics like Lionel Trilling, who sharply criticized his literary nationalism and his insistence that literature should appeal to a popular constituency."Liberal historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., in his autobiography, says that the progressive histories of the 1920s such as Main Currents, "are little read and their authors largely forgotten." He adds that, "Main Currents impoverished the rich and complex American past. Parrington reduced Jonathan Edwards, Poe, Hawthorne, Melville, Henry James to marginal figures, practitioners of belles lettres, not illuminators of the American experience." Coaching career

<mask> was the second head coach of the University of Oklahoma football team, where he was the first OU faculty member to officially hold the position. He is credited with bringing a Harvard style of play and better organization to the OU football program. During his four-year stretch from 1897 to 1900 Parrington's teams played only twelve games, with 9 wins, 2 losses and 1 tie. <mask>'s span as head football coach was the longest of any of Oklahoma's first 5 coaches.The Parrington Oval at the University of Oklahoma and Parrington Hall at the University of Washington are named for <mask> <mask>. Head coaching record

Legacy
Hall finds that in the 1940s and 1950s English professors dropped Parrington's approach in favor of the "New Criticism" and focused on the texts themselves rather than the social, economic, and political contexts that intrigued Parrington. Meanwhile, historians shifted to a consensus model of the past that considered Parrington's dialectical polarity between liberal and conservative to be naive. During the 1950s the book lost its popularity, and was largely ignored by scholars. While dismissing its thesis, some commentators were still captivated by Parrington's politically committed writing style, as historian David W. Levy noted:
Readers and scholars of the rising generation may not follow Parrington's particular judgments or point of view, but it is hard to believe that they will not still be attracted, captivated, and inspired by his sparkle, his breadth, his daring, the ardor of his political commitment. Books
  The Connecticut Wits (1926)
  Main Currents in American Thought (1927)
 Sinclair Lewis, Our Own Diogenes (1927)

References

Sources

 The standard scholarly biography

 Summary of his ideas

External links

1871 births
1929 deaths
American studies
Harvard University alumni
Historians of the United States
Oklahoma Sooners football coaches
Pulitzer Prize for History winners
University of Oklahoma faculty
University of Washington faculty
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers
American literary historians
American male non-fiction writers

masks:
Vernon Louis Parrington
Parrington
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Parrington
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<mask> (born May 13, 1956) is an American actor, comedian, and writer. He is best known for portraying Sy Ableman in A Serious Man (2009), Sam Sotto in In a World... (2013), Bruce Ben-Bacharach in Lady Dynamite (2016–2017), and for having performed in seven films directed by Woody Allen, as well as his numerous appearances in other films and television shows. Early life
<mask> was born to a secular Jewish family in New York City, New York. His biological mother is actress/director Nancy Zala and his biological father, British psychoanalyst Stan Silverstone, was a relative of the prominent Adler acting family, including Luther and Stella Adler. He is the adopted son of Louis, a New York television producer, and Syma (Krichefsky) <mask>, a sometime actress and housewife. He attended the Hunter College Elementary School, a primary school for gifted children, and Riverdale Country School. His father worked with TV pioneer Nat Hiken on such shows as Car 54, Where Are You?and The Phil Silvers Show. When he was sixteen, his family had financial difficulties, and was forced to move to Hollywood, Florida. <mask> has said that he was raised in a non-believer Jewish family who never went to synagogue, except to attend a cousin's bar mitzvah. When he was asked if he wanted to attend Hebrew school, he said no, and thus had no religious training. However, he credits his non-religious upbringing as helping him to develop a belief in God later in life, as he had no "forced dogma to overcome." Career

Early career
He began his theatrical training at Hampshire College, where he worked with (and was heavily influenced by) Tina Packer, John Guare, Jean-Claude van Itallie, and members of The Living Theatre. <mask> then entered the Yale School of Drama.At Yale, he was a Samuel F. B. Morse College Graduate Fellow. He was also a nominee for the Irene Ryan Award, a prize conferred upon the most promising young actors in the United States. While still at Yale, he was an instructor at the well-known performing arts camp, Stagedoor Manor. After his training, he appeared on stage with several resident theatre companies, including The Guthrie Theater, the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, The Yale Repertory Theater, and on Broadway in the Tony Award-winning Amadeus. Following Amadeus, <mask> entered what he called "a period of personal darkness", during which he effectively stopped acting on stage. At the same time, with an insider's understanding of the industry and assistance from his agent, he became established as a voice actor, and continued to do film work. <mask>'s voice became a familiar presence on television, serving as the sound of the Olympics, Mercedes Benz, CBS Sports, USA Network, the Super Bowl, and numerous commercials and television programs.He became known within the industry as a voice actor, appearing in the Grand Theft Auto series, and dubbing several actors' entire performances in films. <mask>'s feature film debut was in Marshall Brickman's 1983 romantic comedy, Lovesick, starring Dudley Moore and Elizabeth McGovern. <mask>'s second film was Woody Allen's comedy-drama Hannah and Her Sisters (1986). In addition, <mask> has prolifically appeared in other Allen films. He has appeared in more Allen movies than any other actor besides Diane Keaton and Mia Farrow (and Allen himself). He has appeared in Radio Days (1987), Another Woman (1988), Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989), Shadows and Fog (1991), Husbands and Wives (1992), and Hollywood Ending (2000). During the 1980s <mask> played significant supporting roles in Roland Joffé's religious epic The Mission (1986), Elaine May's comedy Ishtar (1987).Also in 1987, he appeared in Peter Yates' legal mystery thriller Suspect (1987) starring Cher, Dennis Quaid, and Liam Neeson as well as the romantic comedy The Pickup Artist starring Robert Downey Jr. and Molly Ringwald. The following year he appeared in The Good Mother (1988), opposite Diane Keaton and Liam Neeson. 2010s
For his portrayal of "sensitive" villain Sy Ableman, in Joel and Ethan Coen's 2009 film, A Serious Man, which was nominated for Best Picture at the 2010 Academy Awards, he became widely known. About that character, Film Confessional said, "Sy Ableman is as great a contemporary movie villain as The Joker, Hans Landa, or Anton Chigurh.... The character <mask> contrives is the year's most brilliant force of destruction." For his performance in A Serious Man, <mask>, along with the Coen Brothers, and the film's Ensemble and Casting Directors won Film Independent's Independent Spirit Robert Altman Award. New York magazine listed <mask>'s work as among the Best Performances of the Decade, and Empire called Sy Ableman "One of The Best Coen Bros.Characters of All Time". Several leading U.S. critics, including A. O. Scott of The New York Times, Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune, and Roger Ebert all said his performance was worthy of Academy Award nomination. On television, <mask> starred with Maria Bamford in the Netflix comedy Lady Dynamite, on FX's Emmy Award-winning Fargo, Hulu's Golden Globe Award-nominated Casual, the Fox comedy New Girl, and Verizon Go90's sports send-up Now We're Talking. He is a present or past recurring guest star on USA Network's Benched, Showtime's House of Lies, HBO's Girls, Childrens Hospital, Blunt Talk, FX's Married, and Trial & Error. In previous seasons, he played Larry David's smug psychiatrist, Dr. Arthur Thurgood, on Curb Your Enthusiasm, tough-guy jurist Judge Alan Karpman on The Good Wife, and played himself in the CBS situation comedy The Crazy Ones with Robin Williams and Sarah Michelle Gellar. In 2017, he appeared as a special guest star in the acclaimed Fargo episode "The Law of Non-Contradiction". He also appeared in 2 episodes of Brooklyn Nine-Nine as fantasy author D.C. Parlov.<mask> appeared in the Sundance film Lemon (2017), a collaboration with Brett Gelman and Janicza Bravo, Brawl in Cell Block 99 opposite Vince Vaughn, Sean McGinly's Silver Lake, which he starred in with Martin Starr, and Dragged Across Concrete. <mask> had previously starred as Sam in Lake Bell's In a World..., winner of the Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award at the Sundance Film Festival, opposite Kurt Russell and Richard Jenkins in Bone Tomahawk, and re-teamed with the Coen brothers and co-stars George Clooney, Tilda Swinton, and Ralph Fiennes in Hail, Caesar! (2016). Prior, he had starred in Get on Up (2014), a bio-pic about the life of James Brown, and opposite Elliott Gould, as auteur/director Bob Wilson, in Fred Won't Move Out, a film about the decline of a stubborn patriarch and his family. Other 2010s appearances included The Dictator (2012), with Sacha Baron Cohen and Sir Ben Kingsley, where <mask> appeared in a cameo as the Director of the dictator's Nuclear Weapons Program, and Some Kind of Beautiful, where <mask> played a villain, opposite Pierce Brosnan and Jessica Alba. On Broadway in 2011, after a long hiatus from the theatre, <mask> originated the roles of The Father in Ethan Coen's Talking Cure, and Thomas Moran in Elaine May's George Is Dead, two of the one-act plays that comprised Relatively Speaking. Subsequently, <mask> took on the role of Vanya in the Guild Hall production of Uncle Vanya, about which The New York Times said he gave "an excellent (...) multi-layered performance (...) Mr. <mask> easily inhabits the comic, awkward lover, but also brings out Vanya's vast loneliness".As a writer, he has produced screenplays including Girl of the Perfume River, A Jones for Gash, The Asshat Project, and is currently at work on a long-form, television version of The Preservationist, a fictional drama inspired by the case of <mask>'s college friend, Edward Forbes Smiley III, a renowned cartographic expert and dealer, who admitted to having been the most brazen and prolific map thief of all time. In 2019, <mask> acted in the crime thriller Lying and Stealing alongside Theo James and Emily Ratajkowski. The film was a modest critical success with Dennis Harvey of Variety writing, "Lying and Stealing manages to be a retro escapist pleasure — one whose cleverness might actually have been muffled by flashier surface assets." 2020s
<mask> joined the Marvel Cinematic Universe in WandaVision as Arthur Hart, Vision's boss. In 2020 he appeared in Emma Seligman's directorial debut Shiva Baby. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and received critical acclaim. The following year he appeared in Nikole Beckwith's pregnancy comedy Together Together starring Ed Helms, and Patti Harrison.The film also received critical plaudits. In 2021, <mask> was named by a host of prominent critics and film professionals in Vulture and New York Magazine as one of "The 32 Greatest Character Actors Working Today". Personal life
<mask> moved with his wife, Leslee, and twin sons to Los Angeles in 2013. Both of the <mask> children were diagnosed with autism and he and his wife have been involved in advocacy for persons living with autism spectrum disorder and their families. <mask> and his wife divorced in 2021. Filmography

Film

Television

Theatre

Video games

Awards and nominations

References

External links

1956 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American adoptees
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American people of South African-Jewish descent
Autism activists
Hampshire College alumni
Hollywood Hills High School alumni
Jewish American male actors
Living people
Male actors from New York City
Yale School of Drama alumni
Riverdale Country School alumni
21st-century American Jews

masks:
Fred Melamed
Melamed
Melamed
Melamed
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Melamed
Melamed
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Fred Melamed
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<mask> AM (born 8 March 1942) is a former Australian politician. A member of the Liberal Party, she was a Senator for Queensland from 1974 to 1984 and a member of the House of Representatives from 1984 to 2001, holding the seat of Moncrieff. She broke Dorothy Tangney's record for the longest period of service in federal parliament by a woman, which was later surpassed by Bronwyn Bishop. She was the first woman to have served in both houses of parliament. Early life
<mask> was born Kathryn Jean Martin on 8 March 1942 in Brisbane, Queensland. She was the second of two daughters born to Edna (née Sproul) and Ian Martin. Her mother was a nurse and post office worker and her father was a bank officer.She grew up in country Queensland, attending primary schools in Mount Morgan, Kingaroy, Humpybong, and Camp Hill. Her secondary education was completed at Somerville House in Brisbane. She went on to complete a Bachelor of Arts (Hons.) degree in political science at the University of Queensland. Politics
Martin joined the Young Liberals in 1960 during her first year at university. She served as state secretary in 1961 and vice-president in 1963, and had received life membership by the time she graduated. Senate (1974–1984)
Martin was elected to the Senate at the 1974 federal election, a double dissolution.She was ranked in fifth position on the Liberal Party's joint ticket with the Country Party. At the time of her preselection she was asked to use the name "<mask>" rather than her full name as it was "friendlier", and also "to stop wearing knee-high boots and smoking cigars". In April 1975, Martin was chosen as the Liberal Party's assistant whip in the Senate. She was "a linchpin in keeping the Opposition senators in line" during the 1975 constitutional crisis, and retained the position after the Coalition won the 1975 federal election. She resigned as assistant whip in February 1977 after crossing the floor with nine other Liberal senators to oppose a procedural motion to expedite the government's constitutional amendment bills. Martin subsequently led the "No" campaign in Queensland against the simultaneous elections amendment, which was the only one of four not to pass. Her relationship with Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser deteriorated as a result and "destroyed her prospects for promotion while he remained party leader".Prior to the 1983 election, Martin offered to resign her place on the Liberal Senate ticket in favour of Neville Bonner, who had been demoted to the third position. Her offer was rejected and Bonner unsuccessfully stood as an independent. In the last years of the Fraser Government she had increasingly aligned herself with opposition to Fraser's leadership, supporting Andrew Peacock for the party leadership. Fraser resigned as leader after losing the 1983 election and was replaced by Peacock, who appointed Martin as Shadow Minister for Home Affairs and Administrative Services. She resigned from the Senate in November 1984 to seek a lower-house seat at the upcoming federal election, which followed an expansion in the number of House of Representatives seats. After her marriage the previous year she was known as <mask> or <mask> <mask>. In 2021, <mask> stated that a male colleague sexually assaulted her in her office in about 1983 or 1984.She said that the party's leader Andrew Peacock "clearly didn't believe" her account of the incident when she informed him, and that it was "one of the most devastating experiences of my life". <mask> made this allegation publicly known on 9 July 2021, almost three months after Peacock's death on 16 April. House of Representatives (1984–2001)
At the 1984 election, <mask> won the newly created Division of Moncrieff for the Liberal Party. She was the first woman to serve in both houses of federal parliament. She was also the first female Coalition MP to serve in the House since Kay Brownbill in 1969. <mask> was not retained in Andrew Peacock's shadow ministry after the 1984 election. She returned as a shadow parliamentary secretary in 1993 under John Hewson, holding the position until Hewson lost the leadership the following year.She returned to her former position as a deputy whip later in 1994, holding the position until the 1996 election. <mask> hoped to become Speaker of the House of Representatives when the Coalition won the 1996 federal election, but was defeated by Bob Halverson in an internal ballot. She was instead elected to the speaker's panel. Following a ministerial reshuffle, <mask> was appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Foreign Affairs in October 1997. She held the position until February 2000 when she announced her decision not to re-contest her seat at the 2001 federal election. She has been a vocal advocate for an increase in the number of women in parliament. Recognition
In 2003, she was made a Member of the Order of Australia, for service to the Parliament of Australia and to the community, particularly as an advocate for improved services and conditions affecting women.<mask> was a relatively low-profile MP but in 1993 received national attention when ALP Treasurer John Dawkins taunted her by calling her "sweetheart" in Parliament, which outraged female MPs from Dawkins' own party. According to a study by the Parliamentary Library, <mask> crossed the floor 20 times during her career, the most out of any woman during the period from 1950 to 2019. Each of those occasions occurred during her service in the Senate. Personal life
From 1965 to 1969 <mask> was married to Donald Maher. In 1972, he was sentenced to life in prison for the murder of a Brisbane hotel manager; he was released in 1987. <mask> re-married in 1975 to Jim Gray, continuing to use her maiden name in parliament. They divorced in 1978 and in 1983 she married <mask>, a former U.S. Marine.She was widowed in 2008. After the conclusion of her political career, <mask> has used the name "Kate" rather than "<mask>". References

1942 births
Living people
Members of the Australian House of Representatives
Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Moncrieff
Members of the Australian Senate
Members of the Australian Senate for Queensland
Women members of the Australian House of Representatives
Women members of the Australian Senate
Members of the Order of Australia
Recipients of the Centenary Medal
Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia
21st-century Australian politicians
21st-century Australian women politicians
20th-century Australian politicians
Australian schoolteachers
University of Queensland alumni
20th-century Australian women politicians

masks:
Kathryn Jean Martin Sullivan
Sullivan
Kathy
Kathy Sullivan
Kathy Martin
Sullivan
Sullivan
Sullivan
Sullivan
Sullivan
Sullivan
Sullivan
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Sullivan
Sullivan
Bob Sullivan
Sullivan
Kathy


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<mask> (June 22, 1866 – July 5, 1950), nicknamed "Gooseneck Bill", was an American politician, businessman, and banker of great influence in Texas during the late nineteenth century. Part of the Black and Tan faction, by 1892 he was elected to the Republican Party of Texas's state executive committee, as temporary chairman in 1896, and as permanent state chairman in 1898. During this period, <mask> was also elected as top leader of two black fraternal organizations, serving as Grand Secretary of the state's black Masons for 50 years. In 1906 he founded Fort Worth's first African-American-owned bank as an enterprise of the state Masons; under his management, the bank survived the Great Depression. The black chapters of Masons banked with him, <mask> made loans to black businessmen, and he became probably the first black millionaire in Texas. Early life and education

Named after <mask> and <mask>, <mask> was born on June 22, 1866 in College Mound, Texas, little more than a year after the end of the American Civil War. His father <mask> was a former slave from Tennessee.He was once held by Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest, according to a 2008 report by the Dallas Morning News. His mother was Flora (née Scott) <mask> of Alabama, described by one source as a "free woman of color" before the war, and by another as a "former slave." <mask> was a farmer and blacksmith. After Flora died when <mask> was a child, his father married Belle Crouch. As a teenager, <mask> went to work for rancher and lawyer Captain Z. T. Adams, who took an interest in him. He began teaching the youth about business and law. After graduating from high school in 1884, with the help of Adams and others, <mask> attended Roger Williams University in Nashville, Tennessee.It had been established by the Baptist Church of the North in 1866 as a black college, and was important for educating generations of African-American leaders in the South. Career

After returning to Texas, <mask> served as principal of an African-American high school in Forney, Texas, for several years, in a rural area outside Dallas. The Reconstruction-era legislature had established the state's first public school system. In order to gain approval, legislators agreed to let local boards determine whether schools would be racially segregated. Education was a high priority for freedmen and their children. <mask> married Alice Gibson, who was a teacher at his school. <mask> helped organized a black state fair in North Texas.<mask> became active in the Republican Party and encouraged blacks to vote; he helped organize the party in Kaufman County and the region. In 1892, <mask> was elected to the Republican Party of Texas's state executive committee. He was a power in state politics for more than thirty years, and became a leader of the "Black and Tan" faction, African Americans within the Republican Party. He teamed up politically with white businessman Ned Green of Fort Worth, the son of the wealthiest woman in America. Green supported the "Black and Tan" faction in Republican internal struggles. At the 1896 Republican National Convention, <mask> was given the nickname "Gooseneck Bill" by a Dallas Morning News reporter. In 1898 he was defeated for state chairman of the Republican Party by Henry Clay Ferguson; the continuing rivalry of their factions resulted in a decrease in black influence in the party.Through these years, <mask> had also been active in black fraternal organizations, which developed rapidly throughout Texas and the South after the war as blacks established independent networks. He was elected as the Supreme Grand Chief of the Seven Stars of Consolidation of America. In 1890, he also joined the Prince Hall Freemasonry. In 1899 he was elected as Right Worshipful Grand Secretary of the African-American Texas Masons, a position that provided operating direction to the group. Under his leadership, the Masons developed several business enterprises: started "a cotton mill, published a magazine, offered insurance to members, and established a bank in Fort Worth." He remained the Grand Secretary of the Texas Masons for 50 years. White Democrats regained power in the state legislature and passed laws making voter registration more difficult, requiring payment of poll taxes and, later, restricting minority participation by the use of white primaries.These actions resulted in effective disenfranchisement of blacks, Mexican Americans, and many poor whites in the state. More than 100,000 blacks voted statewide in elections of the 1890s, but by 1906, their number had dropped to 5,000. "Lily White" Republicans essentially drove the "Black and Tan" faction out of power in the party in 1900. <mask> and the Black and Tans temporarily regained power in 1912, before losing it again. <mask> continued to be a notable figure in the national Republican Party, however, attending many national conventions. <mask> turned his energies to business, though he retained an interest in politics. He moved to Fort Worth in 1906, where he became manager of the Fraternal Bank and Trust Company, founded by the Masons as the city's first African-American-owned bank.For a time, it was the bank used by most of the black Mason chapters in the state. With their deposits, <mask> had capital for providing loans to African-American entrepreneurs and could encourage development of their businesses. In that segregated era, blacks had great difficulty gaining financing from white-owned banks. Under <mask>'s management, the bank survived the Great Depression, when many other banks went under. According to a 2008 report by the Dallas Morning News, <mask> was "probably Texas' first black millionaire." Disappointed with Texas Republicans, <mask> increasingly exercised independence in supporting presidential candidates: favoring Progressive Robert M. La Follette, Sr. and Democrats Al Smith and Franklin D. Roosevelt. He returned to the Republican Party to support Thomas E. Dewey in his presidential bid against Harry Truman.<mask> died on July 5, 1950, in Fort Worth, where he was buried in Oakwood Cemetery. He was survived by his fifth wife. His only child, Harry Manack <mask>, had predeceased him by thirty years. Legacy and honors

In 2002, Forney, Texas, erected a historical marker to acknowledge native son <mask> and his achievements; its text includes the following: "Throughout his life, <mask> was a leader in the struggle for social justice, advocating persistence and civic and moral responsibility as the steps to equality." References

Further reading
Barr, Alwyn. Black Texans: A History of Negroes in Texas, 1528–1971 (Austin: Jenkins, 1973). Bundy, <mask>.Life of <mask> <mask>, Ph. D. dissertation, Bunker (1925). ASIN: B00085TUVW
Casdorph, Paul D. A History of the Republican Party in Texas, 1865–1965 (Austin: Pemberton Press, 1965). Glasrud, Bruce A. "<mask><mask>, Business and Fraternal Leader", Black Leaders: Texans for Their Times, ed. by Alwyn Barr and Robert A. Calvert, (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1981), pp. 83–112
Rice, Lawrence D. The Negro in Texas, 1874–1900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971).1866 births
1950 deaths
African-American businesspeople
American businesspeople
African-American people in Texas politics
People from Forney, Texas
Texas Republicans
20th-century African-American people

masks:
William Madison McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
William Shakespeare
James Madison
William Madison McDonald
George McDonald
McDonald
George McDonald
William
McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
McDonald
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William Oliver
William Madison
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William M
. McDonald


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<mask> (July 9, 1815May 19, 1898), was the 17th Governor of Texas from January 21, 1879 to January 16, 1883. He was a member of the Democratic Party. Roberts County, Texas, is named after him. Early life
<mask> was born in Laurens District, South Carolina. He studied at the University of Alabama, graduated in 1836, and was admitted to the bar the following year. After serving a term in the Alabama legislature, he moved to Texas, where he opened a successful law practice. In 1844, he was appointed a district attorney by Texas President Sam Houston.In 1846, after Texas had become a state, <mask> was appointed district judge by Governor James Pinckney Henderson. He also served as president of the board and was a well-respected lecturer in law for the University of San Augustine. In 1856, <mask> ran for and won a position on the Texas Supreme Court. He became a spokesman for states' rights, and when the secessionist crisis appeared in 1860, he was at the center of the pro-Confederate faction. American Civil War
In January 1861 he was unanimously elected president of the Secession Convention in Austin, a meeting that he had been influential in calling. Along with his colleagues, <mask> led the passage of the ordinance removing Texas from the Union in 1861. In 1862 he resigned his seat on the bench and entered the Confederate Army and was elected as colonel of the Eleventh Texas infantry with which he served as part of the Walker's Texas Division in the Trans-Mississippi Department during the greater part of the campaigns in Arkansas and Louisiana.In 1864, while he was with his command, <mask> was elected Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He held the position until he was removed along with other state incumbents in 1865. Postbellum
During Reconstruction, he was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1866. Along with David G. Burnet, he was elected by the state legislature to the US Senate. However, as the Reconstruction Act has become law, the states were subject to military rule, and none of the delegations of the southern states was seated. <mask> eventually returned to Gilmer, Texas, where he opened a law school in 1868. Among his students were a future Texas Supreme Court justice, Sawnie <mask>, and a Dallas district judge, George N. Aldredge.Upon the ascension of the Democrats to power in Austin in 1874, <mask> was appointed by Governor Richard Coke to his former position of Chief Justice of the Texas Supreme Court. Two years later, under the new Texas Constitution, he was elected to the same position. He served as chief justice for four years and was involved in rewriting much of Texas civil law. He resigned as Chief Justice after receiving a unanimous nomination from the Democratic Convention to run for governor. In 1878 he was elected governor of Texas and served two terms. He was elected governor of Texas on a platform of post-Reconstruction fiscal reform. His two gubernatorial terms were marked by a reduction in state expenditures.His plan for countering the high taxes and state debt of the Reconstruction years became known as "pay as you go." A major part of the plan involved the sale of public lands to finance the debt and to fund public schools. Though ultimately successful in both reducing the debt and increasing the public school fund, the decreased government appropriations under <mask> halted public school growth for a time. The present Capitol in Austin was contracted during <mask>'s terms, and the cornerstone for the University of Texas was laid in 1882. Railroad mileage increased across West Texas, and the frontier became more secure. In 1883, just before <mask>de" bestowed upon him by his students. In continuance of that legacy, the University of Texas named its alumni magazine "Alcalde" in his honor and, in 1963, built and named a residence hall after him. During his tenure at the university, <mask> wrote several professional works, among them a text, The Elements of Texas Pleading (1890), which was used for decades after his retirement from teaching. In 1893, he left the university and moved to Marble Falls, where he turned his attention to more general historical writings. Among his works were his essay The Political, Legislative, and Judicial History of Texas for its Fifty Years of Statehood, 1845–1895, which was published in an early general history of the state, Comprehensive History of Texas, 1685 to 1897 (1898), edited by Dudley G. Wooten; and chapters on Texas in volume eleven of C. A. Evans's Confederate Military History (1899). He participated in forming the Texas State Historical Association and served as its first president.<mask> was married to Frances W. Edwards of Ashville, Alabama, from 1837 until her death in 1883. They were the parents of seven children. In 1887 <mask> married Mrs. Catherine E. Border. He is buried at the Oakwood Cemetery in Austin, Texas. Further reading
 Texas, the Dark Corner of the Confederacy: Contemporary Accounts of the Lone Star State in the Civil War. U of Nebraska Press; 1994 [Retrieved 6 August 2017]. . pp. 235–237

External links

 Message of Gov.O. M<mask> on appropriations and expenditures under the control of the governor to the seventeenth legislature of the state of Texas, convened at the city of Austin, in regular session, January 11, 1881., hosted by the Portal to Texas History
 Entry about <mask> <mask> from the Biographical Encyclopedia of Texas published 1880, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
 Sketch of   O. M<mask> from A pictorial history of Texas, from the earliest visits of European adventurers, to A.D. 1879, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
 Roberts Hall Dormitory at the University of Texas. 1815 births
1898 deaths
Governors of Texas
Justices of the Texas Supreme Court
University of Texas at Austin faculty
Burials at Oakwood Cemetery (Austin, Texas)
Texas Democrats
University of Alabama alumni
Members of the Alabama House of Representatives
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Alabama Democrats
Confederate States Army officers
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American judges

masks:
Oran Milo Roberts
Roberts
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Robertson
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Siward ( or more recently ) or Sigurd (, )  was an important earl of 11th-century northern England. The Old Norse nickname Digri and its Latin translation Grossus ("the stout") are given to him by near-contemporary texts. It is possible Siward may have been of Scandinavian or Anglo-Scandinavian origin, perhaps a relative of Earl Ulf, although this is speculative and unclear. He emerged as a powerful regional strongman in England during the reign of Cnut ("Canute the Great", 1016–1035). Cnut was a Scandinavian ruler who conquered England in the 1010s, and Siward was one of the many Scandinavians who came to England in the aftermath of that conquest. Siward subsequently rose to become sub-ruler of most of northern England. From 1033 at the latest Siward was in control of southern Northumbria, that is, present-day Yorkshire, governing as earl on Cnut's behalf.He entrenched his position in northern England by marrying Ælfflæd, the daughter of Ealdred, Earl of Bamburgh. After killing Ealdred's successor Eadulf in 1041, Siward gained control of all Northumbria. He exerted his power in support of Cnut's successors, kings Harthacnut and Edward, assisting them with vital military aid and counsel. He probably gained control of the middle shires of Northampton and Huntingdon by the 1050s, and there is some evidence that he spread Northumbrian control into Cumberland. In the early 1050s Earl Siward turned against the Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ("Macbeth"). Despite the death of his son Osbjorn, Siward defeated Mac Bethad in battle in 1054. More than half a millennium later the adventure in Scotland earned him a place in William Shakespeare's Macbeth.Siward died in 1055, leaving one son, <mask>, who would eventually succeed to Northumbria. St Olave's church in York and nearby Heslington Hill are associated with Siward. Sources

Source material on Siward's life and career is scarce, and only a small and potentially unrepresentative amount of information exists. No contemporary or near-contemporary biography has survived, and narratives from around the time of his life such as the Encomium Emmae and the Vita Ædwardi Regis scarcely mention him; historians are therefore dependent on a few entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and comparable Irish sources. Later Anglo-Norman histories may or may not be reliable depending on their source material, but useful ones include the Chronicle of John of Worcester (compiled between 1124 and 1140), William of Malmesbury (writing between c. 1125 and 1142), Henry of Huntingdon (writing between c. 1133 and 1154), and Orderic Vitalis (writing between c. 1114 and 1141). Other sources include the material attributed to Symeon of Durham (compiled and written as extant between the late 11th century and the first half of the 12th century). Legendary material, such as that in hagiography or later medieval sources such as John of Fordun or Andrew of Wyntoun, is not generally regarded as useful beyond its limited potential for cleanly preserving earlier source material.Background
Siward's career in northern England spanned the reigns of four different monarchs. It began during the reign of Cnut, and lasted through those of Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut into the early years of Edward the Confessor. Most important was the reign of Cnut, in which so many new political figures rose to power that some historians think it comparable to the Norman conquest five decades later. These "new men" were military figures, usually with weak hereditary links to the West Saxon royal house that Cnut had deposed. As Cnut ruled several Scandinavian kingdoms in addition to England, power at the highest level was delegated to such strongmen. In England, it fell to a handful of newly promoted "ealdormen" or "earls", who ruled a shire or group of shires on behalf of the king. Siward was, in the words of historian Robin Fleming, "the third man in Cnut's new triumvirate of earls", the other two being Godwine, Earl of Wessex and Leofwine, Earl of Mercia.Northern England in the 11th-century was a region quite distinct from the rest of the country. The former kingdom of Northumbria stretched from the Humber and Mersey estuaries, northward to the Firth of Forth, where, passing the western Kingdom of Strathclyde, it met the Kingdom of Alba (Scotland). Northumbria had been united with the West Saxon English kingdom only in the 950s, by King Eadred, and subsequent control was exerted through the agency of at least two ealdormen, one to the north and one to the south of the River Tees. The former is associated with the stronghold of Bamburgh, while the latter is associated with the great Roman city of York. It was a politically fragmented region. The western part, from Lancashire to Cumberland, formed an older British stronghold and experienced links with and settlement of Gaels, while in the rest of Northumbria; British (predominantly in Yorkshire and further North) English and Anglo-Scandinavian(generally restricted to the eastern coasts) regional magnates—thegns, holds and high-reeves—exercised a considerable degree of independence from the ealdormen. One such example was the magnate Thurbrand, a hold in Yorkshire, probably based in Holderness, whose family were frequently at odds with the ruling earls at Bamburgh.Ancestry

Historians generally claim Siward to be of Scandinavian origin, a conclusion supported by the Vita Ædwardi Regis, which states that Siward was "[called] Digri in the Danish tongue" (Danica lingua Digara). Legendary material incorporated in the Vita et passio Waldevi comitis (or simply Vita Waldevi), the hagiographic biography of Siward's son <mask>, states that Siward was the son of a Scandinavian earl named Bjorn and provides a genealogy claiming that he was the descendant of a polar bear,  a commonplace piece of Germanic folklore. Historian Timothy Bolton has recently argued that the similarities between these genealogies is evidence of a shared family tradition between the descendants of Siward and Thorgil Sprakling. Bolton hypothesized that Siward's alleged father Bjorn was probably a historical figure, a brother of Thorgil Sprakling. Siward would then have been first cousin to Earl Ulf, the earl of Denmark who married Cnut's sister Estrith and founded the dynasty of Danish monarchs that eventually succeeded Cnut's. Bolton argued that the Sprakling family had only recently risen to prominence in Scandinavia, and so Siward's career in England was another indication of that family's success in Scandinavian politics. The Vita Waldevi provides further legendary detail of Siward's journey from Scandinavia to England.According to the Vita, Siward passed through Orkney, killing a dragon there before moving on to Northumbria. There he encountered another dragon, before meeting an Oðinn-like old man on a hill, who handed him a raven banner and instructed him to proceed to London to receive the patronage of the king of England. Career under Cnut, Harold and Harthacnut

The exact date and context of Siward's arrival in England are unknown, though the Vita Waldevi offers a legendary account. Charters dating to 1019, 1024, 1032, 1033 and 1035 mention a Si[ge]ward Minister, "the thegn Siward", but it is impossible to securely identify any of these names with the man who became Earl of Northumbria. The earliest certain contemporary record of Siward occurs in a charter of King Cnut to Ælfric Puttoc, Archbishop of York, in 1033. This charter attestation can be identified as Siward the earl because he is styled dux ("earl"). Although it is clear that Siward was earl by 1033, he may have attained the position somewhat earlier.His predecessor Erik of Hlathir last appeared in the historical sources in 1023, leaving a ten-year gap during which Siward could have taken the position. Although William of Malmesbury asserted that Erik was driven back to Scandinavia, Scandinavian tradition firmly maintained he died in England. Historian William Kapelle believed that Erik ceased to be earl in or soon after 1023, and that Carl son of Thurbrand was appointed hold or high-reeve (heahgerefa) for the king in Yorkshire. Carl retained this position, it was argued, even after Siward was installed as earl a few years later, but from then on he acted as a deputy to the earl rather than to the king. Richard Fletcher remained agnostic on the point, although he did argue that Erik must have been dead by 1028. Timothy Bolton, although rejecting Kapelle's argument concerning Carl son of Thurbrand, believed Erik died c. 1023 and that the earldom may have remained vacant for a period. Bolton argued that Cnut left the earldom of Northumbria empty and appears to have paid it little attention until the last years of his reign, and another northerner Ealdred son of Uhtred rose to power in the political vacuum.When Cnut died in 1035, there were a number of rival claimants for his throne. These included his son Harthacnut, and the nobleman Harold Harefoot, as well as Alfred Ætheling and Edward (later, King Edward the Confessor), the exiled sons of Æthelred the Unready. Isolated in Scandinavia, Harthacnut was unable to prevent Harold Harefoot seizing the crown for himself. Ruling England from 1035, Harold died in 1040 just as Harthacnut was preparing an invasion. Arriving soon after Harold's death, Harthacnut reigned in England only two years before his own death in 1042, a death that led to the peaceful succession of Edward. Frank Barlow speculated on Siward's political stance, guessing that during these upheavals Siward assumed "a position of benevolent or prudent neutrality". Siward is found in 1038, as Sywardus Comes ("<mask>ward"), witnessing a charter of King Harthacnut to the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds.He witnessed a confirmation granted by Harthacnut to Fécamp Abbey, between 1040 and 1042, of an earlier grant made by Cnut. In 1042, he witnessed grants by Harthacnut to Abingdon Abbey and to Ælfwine, Bishop of Winchester. Siward was, at some stage, married to Ælfflæd, daughter of Ealdred II of Bamburgh, and granddaughter of Uhtred the Bold. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle asserts that, in 1041 Eadulf, Earl of Bamburgh, was "betrayed" by King Harthacnut. The "betrayal" seems to have been carried out by Siward; since when the Libellus de Exordio and other sources write about the same event, they say that Siward attacked and killed Eadulf. It was thus that Siward became earl of all Northumbria, perhaps the first person to do so since Uhtred the Bold. It is possible that Siward used Ælfflæd's lineage to claim the earldom of Bamburgh for himself, although it is unclear whether the marriage took place before or after Siward killed Eadulf.Kapelle has pointed out that no ruler of Bamburgh after Uhtred is attested at the English royal court, which he argued "must mean they were in revolt" against the monarchy, and that Siward's attack may therefore have been encouraged by a monarch wishing to crush a rebellious or disloyal vassal. Siward however probably had his own interests too. Killing Eadulf eliminated his main rival in the north, and the marriage associated him with the family of Uhtred the Bold, and with Uhtred's surviving son Gospatric. There may nonetheless be a connection between the murder of Eadulf and events further south. For the same year the Chronicle of John of Worcester related that, because of an attack on two of Harthacnut's tax-collectors there, Siward took part in a reprisal on the city and monastery of Worcester. Harthacnut reigned only another year, dying on 8 June 1042. He was succeeded by the exiled English ætheling Edward.As an ætheling, a royal prince with a present or likely future claim on the throne, Edward appears to have been invited back by Harthacnut in 1041, fortuitously smoothing over the coming change in ruler. Edward was crowned king on Easter Day, 3 April 1043. English affairs under Edward the Confessor

Relations between Siward and King Edward appear to have been good. Neither Siward nor any associates of Siward were punished by Edward in later years. In fact, Siward appears to have been one of Edward's most powerful supporters. On 16 November 1043, Siward, along with Earls Godwine of Wessex and Leofric of Mercia, marched with King Edward against his mother, Queen Emma, helping the king to deprive the queen of her huge treasury. Edward then accused Emma of treason and deposed Stigand, Bishop of Elmham, from his position "because he was closest to his mother's counsel".The Norman propagandist and historian, William of Poitiers, claimed that Siward was among those who had sworn an oath to uphold Edward the Confessor's alleged declaration that William, Duke of Normandy (later King William I), was to be his heir. Others said to have made that oath were Earls Godwine of Wessex and <mask>ric of Mercia, along with Stigand, who had been pardoned in 1044, and raised to Bishop of Winchester in 1047. If this did happen, it was probably during or a little before spring 1051, when Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury, was journeying to Rome for his pallium. In 1051 Siward, along with Earls <mask>ric and Ralph the Timid,

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 mobilised forces in defence of the king against a rebellion by Earl Godwine and his sons. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that although Siward had to call up reinforcements, King Edward was successful and <mask>wine was temporarily exiled. <mask>wine remained a threat in exile, and the continued "belligerent support" of Siward and <mask>ric was thus vital to King Edward's safety. It was apparently, however, the reluctance of these two earls to fight <mask>wine that contributed to Godwine's re-establishment in England in 1052.There is evidence to suggest that Siward extended his power southward, bringing the shire of Northampton into his control in the 1040s and the shire of Huntingdon in the 1050s. The evidence comes from royal writs addressed to Siward as earl in these shires. Siward's predecessors as earl in these areas were other Scandinavians, Thuri and Bjorn son of Earl Ulf; the former was styled "earl of the Midlanders" (comes mediterraneorum), showing that this earldom represented the earlier polity of the Middle Angles of Mercia. It was this area, rather than Northumbria, to which Siward's descendants were most attached. Likewise, it has been argued that Siward brought Cumberland, thought by some historians to have been lost to Strathclyde, back under Northumbrian lordship. The evidence comes from a document known to historians as "Gospatric's Writ". This is a written instruction, issued either by the future Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria, or Gospatric, son of <mask>tred, that was addressed to all Gospatric's kindred and to the notables dwelling in the "all the lands that were Cumbrian" (on eallun þam landann þeo Cōmbres); it ordered that one Thorfinn mac Thore be free in all things (þ Thorfynn mac Thore beo swa freo in eallan ðynges) in Allerdale, and that no man is to break the peace which was given by Gospatric and Earl Siward.Historians such as Charles Phythian-Adams believed that such phraseology indicated that Siward conquered the region from its previous rulers, although others, like William Kapelle, believed that the region had come, were it ever lost, back into English power before Siward's time. A little can be said about Siward's relations with the Northumbrian church, in particular with regard to his relations with Durham. As a result of Siward's marriage to Ælfflæd, Siward gained possession of a group of estates in Teesside claimed by the bishops of Durham. Acquisition of these estates might have brought opposition from the Bishop of Durham, but Æthelric the incumbent had been expelled by the clergy of Durham in either 1045 or 1046 and, according to the Libellus de Exordio, only returned by bribing Siward. According to the Libellus, the clergy were "terrified and overwhelmed by the fearful power of the earl" and "were compelled willy nilly to be reconciled to the bishop, and to admit him into his episcopal see". Despite this, Siward escaped censure in the writings of later Durham monks, something which suggests relations between Siward and Durham were probably good in general. Siward can be found witnessing numerous charters during Edward's reign, though not as many as the Godwinsons; Siward usually comes third in lists of earls, behind Godwine and Leofric but ahead of Godwine's sons and the other earls.He witnessed at least seven, possibly nine, extant charters in 1044, six or seven in 1045, two in 1046, one in 1048 and one in 1049. A Dux ("earl") named Sihroþ and Sihroð witnessed two charters in 1050, and this may be Siward. There is another attestation in 1050, and his name appears in two dubious witness lists attached to charters dating to 1052 and 1054. Possibly Siward's last historical appearance in English legal documents is in the agreement made—probably at Lincoln—between Wulfwig, Bishop of Dorchester, and Earl <mask>ric, dating to between 1053 and 1055. Expedition against the Scots

Siward is perhaps most famous for his expedition in 1054 against Macbeth, King of Scotland, an expedition that cost Siward his eldest son, Osbjorn. The origin of Siward's conflict with the Scots is unclear. According to the Libellus de Exordio, in 1039 or 1040, the Scottish king Donnchad mac Crínáin attacked northern Northumbria and besieged Durham.Within a year, Macbeth had deposed and killed Donnchad. The failed siege occurred a year before Siward attacked and killed Earl Eadulf of Bamburgh, and though no connection between the two events is clear it is likely that they were linked. The Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham, written in the early 12th century, relate under the year 1046 that "Earl Siward with a great army came to Scotland, and expelled king Macbeth, and appointed another; but after his departure Mac Bethad recovered his kingdom". Historian William Kapelle thought that this was a genuine event of the 1040s, related to the Annals of Tigernach entry for 1045 that reported a "battle between the Scots" which led to the death of Crínán of Dunkeld, Donnchad's father; Kapelle thought that Siward had tried to place Crínán's son and Donnchad's brother Maldred on the Scottish throne. Another historian, Alex Woolf, argued that the Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham entry was probably referring to the invasion of Siward in 1054, but misplaced under 1046. During the invasion of 1054, a battle was fought somewhere in Scotland north of the Firth of Forth, a battle known variously as the "Battle of the Seven Sleepers" or the "Battle of Dunsinane". The tradition that the battle actually took place at Dunsinane has its origins in later medieval legend.The earliest mention of Dunsinane as the location of the battle is in the early 15th century by Andrew of Wyntoun. The earliest contemporary English account of the battle is found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, recension D:   John of Worcester, using a related version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, adds that Normans named Osbern Pentecost and Hugh, who had joined Macbeth earlier after fleeing from England, were killed in the battle. The battle is mentioned in the Irish annals too, briefly in the Annals of Tigernach and more extensively in the Annals of Ulster:

Dolfin is unidentified, but may have been a relation of Macbeth's enemy Crínán of Dunkeld, on the basis that some of Crínán's descendants may have borne this name. The purpose of Siward's invasion is unclear, but it may be related to the identity of the "Máel Coluim" (Malcolm) mentioned in the sources. The early 12th-century chronicle attributed to John of Worcester, probably using an earlier source, wrote that Siward defeated Macbeth and made "Máel Coluim, son of the king of the Cumbrians" a king (Malcolmum, regis Cumbrorum filium, ut rex jusserat, regem constituit). The identity of Máel Coluim and the reasons for Siward's help are controversial. The traditional historical interpretation was that "Máel Coluim" is Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, known sometimes today as Malcolm III or Malcolm Canmore, and that Siward was attempting to oust Macbeth in his favour.The traditional historical interpretation that "Máel Coluim" is Máel Coluim mac Donnchada derives from the Chronicle attributed to the 14th-century chronicler of Scotland, John of Fordun, as well as from earlier sources such as William of Malmesbury. The latter reported that Mac Bethad was killed in the battle by Siward, but it is known that Mac Bethad outlived Siward by two years. A. A. M. Duncan argued in 2002 that, using the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry as their source, later writers innocently misidentified Máel Coluim "son of the king of the Cumbrians" with the later Scottish king of the same name. Duncan's argument has been supported by several subsequent historians specialising in the era, such as Richard Oram, Dauvit Broun and Alex Woolf. It has also been suggested that Máel Coluim may have been a son of the Strathclyde British king Owain Foel, perhaps by a daughter of Máel Coluim II, King of Scotland. Duncan in fact believes that the Battle of the Seven Sleepers did not lead directly to a change of leadership in the Kingdom of Scotland.It has been suggested that the chief consequence of Siward's expedition was not the overthrow of Mac Bethad, but the transfer of British territory—perhaps previously lying under Scottish suzerainty—to Northumbrian overlordship. Alex Woolf has posited that, in such a context, Máel Coluim might have been a discontented Cumbrian prince who had been forced to "put himself under English protection". Evidence for Northumbrian control of Strathclyde in this period includes 11th-century Northumbrian masonry found at the site of Glasgow Cathedral as well as early 12th-century claims from the archbishopric of York that Archbishop Cynesige (1051–1060) had consecrated two Bishops of Glasgow. Death and legacy

The 12th-century historian, Henry of Huntingdon, in his Historia Anglorum, relates that when Siward was attacked by dysentery, fearing to die "like a cow" and wishing rather to die like a soldier, he clothed himself in armour and took to hand an axe and shield. Ennobled in such a manner, Siward died. This anecdote is of doubtful historicity, and is thought to be derived from the saga devoted to Earl Siward, now lost. The Vita Ædwardi Regis states that Siward died at York and was buried in "the monastery of St Olaf" at Galmanho, a claim confirmed by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, John of Worcester, and the Historia Regum.Material incorporated in two surviving sources is thought by some to attest to the existence of a lost saga or some other kind of literary tradition concerning Siward's life. The first source is the Vita et Passio Waldevi, a hagiographic history of Siward's cult-inspiring son Waltheof. This text contains an account of <mask>'s paternal origin, and in the process recounts certain adventures of his father Siward . The second major witness of the tradition is <mask> Huntingdon's Historia Anglorum, which contains extracts of saga-like material relating to Siward's invasion of Scotland (1054) and his death (1055). The Anglo-Saxonist Frank Stenton declared that Siward was "not a statesman, but a Danish warrior of the primitive type". Writers in the half-century after his death remembered Siward as a strong ruler who brought peace and suppressed brigandage. Siward died more than a decade before the death of Edward the Confessor, but despite this the Domesday Book recorded 4 manors, 3 in Yorkshire and 1 in Derbyshire, owned directly by Earl Siward in 1066, all of them subsequently held by Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester.This land was stated to have been worth £212, while his son Waltheof was said to have held £136 worth of land across 9 counties. Domesday records give an incomplete picture of Siward's holdings. In total it recorded property worth £348 for Siward and his son, which on its own would compare poorly with the £2493 in value recorded to have been held by the family of the earls of Mercia. Of the latter, however, Morcar of Mercia, Earl of Northumbria on the day of King Edward's death, possessed land worth £968, while Tostig, exiled earl at the time, had land worth £491; both may have come into possession of some of Siward's land in the course of becoming Earls of Northumbria. Moreover, the counties that would become Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were largely omitted from the survey, while, besides being only very poorly documented, the lands in Yorkshire had been severely devastated and devalued during the Harrying of the North. Siward is said to have built a church dedicated to St Olaf at Galmanho, York. The record of his burial in this church is the only notice of a non-royal lay burial inside a church in pre-Norman England.Siward's Howe, i.e., Heslington Hill near York, was most likely named after Earl Siward, although probably because Siward held popular courts there rather than because it was his burial place. One of Siward's sons is known to have survived him, <mask>, whose mother was Ælfflæd. <mask> later rose to be an earl in the East Midlands before becoming Earl of Northumbria. When Waltheof rebelled against William the Conqueror, however, the act led to his execution and to his subsequent veneration as a saint at Crowland Abbey. <mask>'s daughter married David I, King of the Scots, and through this connection Siward became one of the many ancestors of the later Scottish and British monarchs. Besides Ælfflæd, Siward is known to have been married to a woman named Godgifu, who died before Siward. The marriage is known from a grant she made of territory around Stamford, Lincolnshire, to Peterborough Abbey.Although no surviving children are attested, and no source states the name of Osbjorn's mother, this marriage has nonetheless raised the possibility that <mask> and Osbjorn were born to different mothers, and William Kapelle suggested that Siward may have originally intended Osbjorn to inherit his southern territories while Waltheof inherited those territories in the north associated with the family of his mother Ælfflæd. Notes

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Earls of Northumbria
Burials in York
1055 deaths
Year of birth

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