texts:
<mask> ( ; 1 January 1912 – 11 September 1997) was the Prime Minister of Nepal for two terms from 16 November 1951 to 14 August 1952 and again from 15 June 1953 to 11 April 1955. Personal life
<mask> was born to <mask> and his first wife <mask> in 1912 in Varanasi, British Raj. His brothers were <mask> and <mask>, who also served as the Prime Minister of Nepal, and politician and journalist <mask>. Political career

<mask> (M.P.) was an outstanding personality of Nepal, who dominated Nepali politics for a full eight years from 1947 to 1955. During the first four years he was supreme leader of the anti-Rana movement, and during the last four years he was the Prime Minister. His first four years were a story of success, whereas his last four years were a record of failure, though he was a powerful head of the government and enjoyed the
confidence of the King throughout most of those years.He led the
successful anti-Rana movement as its supreme commander, but his
activities as Prime Minister were controversial and a sign of failure. After 1955, his political career virtually ended, though King Mahendra
nominated him as a member of the upper house of parliament in 1959,
only to encounter the absolute majority of Nepali Congress. In the 1980s
M.P. once again tried to come back in politics through election to the
national legislature but he did not succeed. M.P. died in 1997, but now he is with us through his memoir entitled
A Role in a Revolution. I myself (along with some of my friends in the
History Department at Tribhuvan University) was fortunate enough to
have carried out a tape-recorded interview with M.P.for the Centre for
Nepal and Asian Studies (CNAS) in the 1980s. This interview covered
some crucial issues which he faced and tackled during the anti-Rana
movement and during his tenure of office as a Prime Minister. While
taking his interview, we were quite impressed by his sharp memory as
when he narrated the story of his father's activities, and also described his
own role during the anti-Rana movement and as Prime Minister. We
requested him to write a memoir to provide first-hand information about
this crucial period of the history of Nepal from 1947 to 1955. He smiled
and said, "Well, if the government puts me in jail for six months, my
memoir will be complete." We are glad to know that he wrote this
memoir, but, as mentioned in the preface of the book, a reputed (I would
like to say irresponsible) publisher from New Delhi lost his original
manuscript (p. vii). M.P.’s courage must be highly applauded because he
390 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
took great pains to rewrite his memoir, which has now been published in
book form.Prior to reviewing the contents of the book, we must congratulate and
thank Ganesh Raj Sharma for his painstaking efforts to produce this
volume, along with his ten-page preface which includes his own analyses
of one or two political issues. One, on the basis of his conversation with
M.P. Sharma, which has also been entrusted with this responsibility by
M.P.’s wife, as he had already produced a significant volume on the
autobiography of B.P<mask> (M.P.’s younger half brother) and on the
basis of his interview with B.P. himself. In a way, Sharma has become a
unique person by producing two volumes on two brothers, two Prime
Ministers and two big personalities of modern Nepal. M.P.’s memoir is not complete.As the name of the book suggests, it
contains M.P.’s experiences as a leader of the democratic movement
against the Ranas from 1947 to 1951, along with his own family
background and a critical overview of the Rana regime. A large number
of documents, ninety two in total, have been attached as an appendix in
part two of the book, from which we can extract a rough picture of the
political history of Nepal from 1951 to 1955, especially on issues in
which M.P. was involved. But for that to be useful, one must have a
detailed knowledge of the events of those fateful years. Divided into nine sections, the first part of the memoir focuses on
three main aspects of Nepali history. They are M.P.’s childhood and
youth along with his father's exiled life in India and afterwards; the
positive and negative aspects of Rana rule; and finally the democratic
movement starting with the formation of the NNC (Nepali National
Congress) and ending with the Delhi Compromise. M.P.admits that his father (<mask> <mask>) was very
sophisticated and lavish in his habits, but later on became very austere. He
would not smoke, though he was the sole distributor of all brands of
imported cigarettes in Nepal; he would never even touch a dice, shells or
cards, even though gambling was officially and openly permitted for
several days a year. But the irony of history is that such a man in just one
stake "gambled away his whole life's earnings" (p. 5), and chose to live an
exiled life in India. M.P. describes his father's miserable condition in
India and also his younger brother's (Hari) death of cholera at Bettia "for
want of proper treatment" (pp. 6–8). He appreciates his father's decision
to give up all facilities, including a house provided by the Maharaja of
Kolhapur, since he was fighting against the atrocities of a Maharaja (of
Nepal) (pp.8–10). M.P. recollects how, upon the death of Chandra
Book Reviews 391
Shamsher, the new Prime Minister immediately summoned his father to
Nepal, but tells us how he (<mask>) again suffered at the hands of
the next Prime Minister resulting in his painful death inside the jail. M.P. writes, "Albeit, the policemen surrounded even the dead body and stood
guard until his mortal remains were consumed by the funeral pyre and his
body was reduced to ashes" (pp. 68–69). Writing about himself, M.P.describes his school life in India
including his meeting with Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru as a
school boy. He gives a brief account of the national education of India
initiated by Gandhi and Tagore (pp. 47–48), and a glimpse of the civil
disobedience movement of 1930 in which he himself was involved
(pp. 51–58). His employment under the Rana regime, first as an
apprentice and then as translator, is discussed in detail, and an interesting
incident that took place on the day of his appointment is narrated in an
attractive way (pp. 63–64). He tells us how he was relieved from his job
two months after his father's arrest in 1942 and how the Prime Minister
subsequently reacted when the Director General, upon the advice of
M.P.’s English boss, requested reconsideration of his sacking, by saying
“Tell your Angrej (Englishman) it is our Nepali politics which he is
incapable of understanding" (p. 67).Giving a brief picture of the Rana regime, M.P. rightly calls it a time
of "plots, assassinations, and fights for power within the family," and says
that the ruling family looted the entire property of the nation, seeing it as
their own estate (p. 19). He gives the example of Padma Shamsher, who
was Prime Minister for less than three years and took more than six
million rupees in cash when he left for India (p. 21). But his mention of a
Rana having two million acres of land in birta holdings must be an
exaggeration (p. 21). M.P. is judicious in making a critical appreciation of the Rana Prime
Ministers. He gives credit to Jang Bahadur for granting political asylum
to Chand Kuwar and Hazrat Mahal, and taking back the Naya Muluk
lands in the Tarai from the British.He considers this as "permanent
achievements for the nation" (p. 24). He also has words of praise for other
Prime Ministers who undertook certain reform-oriented activities for the
country. So much so that he even appreciates the attempt of Mohan
Shamsher Rana in getting Nepal admitted to the United Nations in 1955
(p. 28). Not to forget that it was against Mohan that the Nepali Congress
launched the movement and ended Rana rule. Coming to the socio-political aspects of the Rana rule, M.P. narrates
some of his personal experiences with the Rana government, and
392 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
mentions how people (including high officials) lived in a state of terror. When <mask> Koirala told Juddha Shamsher that the Ranas were
interested only in "three B's," namely Bank, Birta and Building, his elder
brother (possibly Kali Dass Koirala), who was just promoted to Sardar
was very afraid that he might lose his job (pp.33–34). M.P. gives credit to the Prachanda Gorkha and Praja Parishad
organizations who revolted against the Rana regime before Nepali
Congress. Most historians argue that King Tribhuvan had a secret
connection with Praja Parishad and donated some money to it. But M.P. writes that King Tribhuvan "flatly denied (his) participation and
knowledge of it. The money he gave to Mr. Bhakta (Dharma Bhakta
Mathema – a leader of Praja Parishad) which was found during the
searches was for the specific purpose of Mr. Bhakta's marriage" (p. 37).However, he admits that "King Tribhuvan had moral sympathy with any
effort against the Ranas to set up a popular representation in the
governance of the country" (p. 37). To close his narration about the Rana rule, M.P. argues that the
“tallest claim the Rana clan has made is the preservation of independence
of the country" (p. 38). In reality, and ironically, "they kept the country
locked in, including its independence" (p. 41). The last four sections of the book form the most significant part of the
memoir as they are the most relevant to the title of the book. In over one
hundred pages, M.P. analyzes the history of the democratic movement,
especially focusing on his role in it.M.P. also mentions certain events
beyond his role in order to maintain coherence in the memoir. Although
these events have been discussed on the basis of secondary sources,
readers will still find new information in them (though this should still be
verified by primary sources). M.P. starts his analysis of the Nepali democratic movement with B.P<mask>'s press statement of October 1946 and the formation of the Nepali
National Congress (NNC) in January 1947. He, however, does not
mention the foundation of All India Nepali National Congress, which was
established on the last day of October 1946.M.P. gives great importance
to the Biratnagar Jute Mill Strike (1947). He claims that it was due to his
active role in the strike that he was made working president of NNC
without being a primary member of the party (p. 84). Most writers believe
that he was forced to resign just three months after his appointment,
because of opposition from members representing Kathmandu. But M.P. insists here that he voluntarily resigned. However, he admits that D.R.Regmi was made president to represent Kathmandu (p. 95). M.P. also
Book Reviews 393
argues that Shri Prakash Gupta prepared four different drafts of the 1948
Constitution (p. 94). This is new information and should be verified by
other sources. On the clash between B.P<mask> and D.R. Regmi, the author writes,
“while B.P.<mask> was insistent D.R. Regmi was no less a stickler. There was no honourable way out" (p. 98). However, M.P. joined the
Koirala group "finding the juridical side in B.P.’s favour and in
consideration that Mr. Regmi was more of an academic politician than a
man of action" (p. 99). Later on, after the NNC split into two factions,
M.P. tried to make a compromise with Regmi but it failed because
“Regmi was adamant" (p. 103).We have read in books that after NNC
was banned, a few youths from Kathmandu founded the Praja Panchayat
to fight against the Rana regime through constitutional means. M.P. claims that this organization was founded on his advice (p. 100). Similarly, our history books only mention that M.P. was elected president
of NNC in the Daravanga Convention of March 1949, but M.P. claims
that B.P<mask> and Gopal <mask>i were also candidates for the
post.The election was held by secret ballot, and M.P. won with an
overwhelming majority (p. 102). At about the same time, M.P. had talks
with a trusted Mir Subba from Mohan Shamsher for a compromise
between the Congress and the Ranas (pp. 102–103). This attempt failed
because of the negative attitude of the Rana premier. The merger of NNC and the Nepal Democratic Congress (NDC) that
took place in April 1950 is described in detail.M.P. has his own
arguments for his being chosen as the president of the new party – Nepali
Congress (NC) as against the claim of B.P<mask> (pp. 106–112). The
new party replaced the words "Constitutional and peaceful means" by "all
possible means" in their objectives (p. 110). M.P. reveals how NDC
leaders made a false claim that they had the royal seal by King Tribhuvan
to form a provisional parallel government (p. 112).M.P. admits that even before the Bairgania Conference (in September
1950), NC had collected sufficient quantity of arms, but he stood for
violence only "as a last recourse" and that also only in the form of mass
insurrections (p. 112). He presents K.I. Singh as an opponent of B.P<mask> from the beginning: He also mentions how Singh opposed the
idea of empowering a single man to launch the movement under the
assumption that B.P. would be that man (pp. 118–119).M.P. expresses
the difficulty he had in maintaining the secrecy of party decisions,
because of the presence of an undercover Rana agent in disguised form. However he refuses to mention his name as he says “I cannot furnish
394 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
specific proof or evidence for the same” (p. 118). M.P. also emphasizes
two incidents – getting the contact and commitment of Rudra Shamsher at
Palpa, which B.P<mask> successfully conducted (p. 124), and a mission
to create a feeling of terror among the Rana authorities in the capital led
by Ganesh Man and Sunder Raj, which, however, failed because of a
betrayal by a driver (p. 126). King Tribhuvan's refusal to give royal
assent to punish the culprits is also narrated (p. 127).When describing the royal

masks:
Matrika Prasad Koirala
Koirala
Krishna Prasad Koirala
Mohan Kumari Koirala
Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala
Girija Prasad Koirala
Tarini Prasad Koirala
Matrika Prasad Koirala
. Koirala
Krishna Prasad
Koirala
Krishna Prasad
Krishna Prasad
. Koirala
. Koirala
Koirala
. Koirala
Prasad Bhattara
. Koirala
. Koirala
. Koirala


type: original

texts:
 flight to the Indian Embassy in November
1950, M.P. confirms the rumor, through King Tribhuvan, that leaving
Gyanendra in the palace was intentional and not accidental (p. 128). He
also mentions a rumor that Mohan consulted the British envoy after the
royal flight, and when the latter assured him that the new king will be
recognized, Gyanendra was proclaimed the new ruler (p. 129). However
M.P. is not correct to say that Gyanendra remained King from 7 November 1950 to 14 February 1951 (p. 132), because after Mohan's
declaration of 8 January 1951 he remained Tribhuvan's representative
only. The author has presented Tribhuvan's side of the story regarding the
mistake committed by Mohan after the royal flight (p. 129), but in my
opinion his version is difficult to accept as at that time the King was a
prisoner at Indian Embassy, if not at the royal palace. In the chapter titled “Revolution” M.P.has analyzed in detail the story
of the 1950 Movement after the royal flight to Indian Embassy. The
reader is grateful for his ability to recollect day-to-day events. In the
beginning, the revolutionary force was unable to gain permanent control
of any major district, but later on it succeeded in capturing important
areas from government forces. M.P. is correct to say that “The close of
November was not very hopeful for us” (p. 152), but “the month of
December definitely brought us brighter beams of hope” (p. 161). Especially significant in this regard was the capture of Biratnagar in the
east and Nepalgunj in the west. M.P.also describes the surrender of
government forces at Palpa as "a great event in the history of the
insurrectionary upsurge led by the NC...the fall of Palpa shook the Ranas
to the roots" (p. 167). At that time, when revolutionary forces were losing
battles against the Rana army, the NC leaders wanted to meet the King at
New Delhi to get a press statement from him in support of the movement. NC leaders also wanted to meet Indian leaders to ask for their support in
logistics. "Both of our purposes were badly defeated," writes M.P. (p.
144). He indirectly questions the so-called favourable attitude of the
Indian government towards the NC, and writes, "we were in a deep pit
from where there was no escape. There certainly was a feeling amongst us
Book Reviews 395
that we had been brusquely let down, if not betrayed" (p. 144).Despite
the indifferent attitude of the then Indian government, the revolutionaries
were firmly committed to their duties. M.P. has duly acknowledged the
valuable contribution of a number of revolutionaries in the two-month
armed struggle against Rana rule, including the commanders of the Mukti
Sena such as Puran Singh, G.B. Yakthumba and others. M.P. has also written a translation of a revolutionary song which was
often played on Democratic Radio, established in Biratnagar (p. 162). But
his translation does capture the actual wording of the song.In my opinion,
the translation of the song should be as follows:-
O Nepalis! March forward! Waving the flag of revolution! Waving the flag of revolution
Come on elder and younger sisters
Come on elder and younger brothers
Let us work together for the salvation of our Nepal
Let all of us be united for the progress of our homeland
The NC started armed struggle against the Ranas with the support and
cooperation of the Indian government, but M.P. argues that Indian support
was half-hearted from the very beginning. When the Rana government,
realizing its helplessness, opened negotiations with the Indian
government, the attitude of India towards the NC completely changed. M.P.has portrayed this episode beautifully in the chapter entitled “The
Delhi Parley.” He points out the change in attitude of the Indian Prime
Minister after he met two Rana generals, sent by the Rana Prime Minister
to negotiate at Delhi. He also gives Nehru's statement in the Indian
parliament as evidence that the Indian leader “held the view that complete
old order was not possible but a completely new order also was not in his
mind” (p. 172). M.P. mentions NC helplessness in these words, “In Delhi,
we never sat across the table to iron out our differences and the so-called
tripartite conference as such never took place. The representatives of the
Government of India would convey to us the views of the Ranas and of
course the King was out of the picture till the finalisation of the parley”
(p. 176). But, even at this critical juncture, the NC, under M.P.,
successfully solved the question of political prisoners, ensured the party's
right to nominate all the popular representations in the interim cabinet,
and got significant portfolios of home and finance (pp. 178–179).Humiliated by the Indian government, M.P. was also defied by his
own partymen when they refused to accept him as their leader in the
interim cabinet. But M.P. rejects this allegation and writes, “In order to
396 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
keep the prestige of the Nepali Congress aloft and to keep the ranks
closed up and to pave an easier path for the inner political struggle now to
begin inside Nepal I had preferred to place myself out of power, and exert
my energy to the organisational wing only” (p. 182). He was further
disappointed, when his proposal to include either M.B. Shah or Surya
<mask> in the Cabinet was opposed by B.P<mask> and
Subarna Shamsher (p. 182).In name, M.P. was the supreme commander
of the revolution, but in practice his younger brother (B.P.) emerged as
the real hero. At this humiliating point, M.P. ends his memoir-cumautobiography. The author has given a list of events that occurred after the royal flight (pp. 168–169).However the list contains some mistakes. Gyanendra was installed as King on 7 November (not on 8 November);
M.P. gives the impression that the insurrection started even before
Tribhuvan reached Delhi, when it was not so. Mohan Shamsher's first
statement came on 24 December, (not on 24 November) and the first
batch of prisoners were released on 17 January 1951 (not on 13–14
January). Moreover, M.P. fails to mention that more than 50 percent of
released prisoners refused to come out of jail until the political settlement
was finalized. In addition, there is a major pen error on p. 130, where the
author writes “Padma” instead of “Mohan” (31st line).Part two of the book consists of ninety-two documents which are
given as appendices. All of them, except the first and the last, are related
to the history of Nepal from 1951 to 1955 – a period when M.P. became
Prime Minister three times. This part of the book may be read as a
supplement to the memoir sections dealing with the later part of M.P.’s
political career. These documents clearly show the Indian government's influence and
interference on Nepali affairs during the reign of King Tribhuvan. Three
documents are produced in original form. They are the cabinet proceeding
of April 1951 (pp.194–195), Tribhuvan's letter to M.P. in August 1952
(p. 260) and Mahendra's letter to M.P. as a crown prince in March 1955
(p. 370). The first two letters are in English, prepared by Indian personnel,
and the third is in Nepali, to demonstrate Mahendra's attempt to end
Indian involvement in Nepal's administration. Again there are some
letters written by Nehru to Tribhuvan (pp. 200–202, 229–230, 231–232),
addressing the latter as “My dear friend” forgetting formal protocol to
address the head of the state. Similarly, M.P.had sought permission of the
Indian advisor to Nepal, quoting provisions of the Indian Constitution, to
remove a minister from the cabinet (p. 241). Book Reviews 397
A number of letters had been exchanged between M.P. and Nehru on
different aspects of Nepali politics, which include (a) resolution of a
dispute between M.P. and B.P<mask> (pp. 208–210), (b) Tanka <mask>'s
demand for a coalition cabinet (p. 210), (c) Nehru's dissatisfaction on the
delay of Constituent Assembly election (p. 244), (d) M.P.’s detailed
information about the reorganization of administration in Nepal
(pp. 211–217) and (e) the discourtesy shown by an INA (Indian National
Army?)crew to the prime minister and ministers of Nepal (pp. 249–250). Many voices were raised against the Indian Ambassador, Chandeshwar
<mask> Singh, by Nepali leaders, including B.P<mask>, for his
active interference in Nepali affairs. However King Tribhuvan and M.P. repeatedly requested the Indian Prime Minister for his renewal, which is
new information for readers (pp. 258–259).It is worth mentioning one specific letter written by Nehru to M.P. on
8 May 1954, because it gives a number of instructions to M.P. as the
Prime Minister of Nepal, which include (a) Nehru's draft of an aidememoir for its approval by Nepal, (b) a warning to M.P. not to say
anything that would irritate China, (c) the presence of Indian
representatives in talks between Nepali and Chinese officials,
(d) instructions to the Nepal Government to give up extraterritorial rights
in Tibet as well as a 10,000 rupees tribute and (e) a threatening note to
remain careful about the U.S. (pp. 294–297). All these points clearly
demonstrate Nehru's dictatorial attitude towards Nepal. However, one
positive aspect of the letter should be mentioned, and that is Nehru's
instruction to Nepali ministers to keep in touch with their people (p. 297).There are also some letters written by Nepali ambassadors in New
Delhi (Vijaya Shamsher and Mahendra Bikram) which focus on proposed
diplomatic relations between Nepal and China. One remarkable point of
these letters is the desire or condition of China to hold the talks in
Kathmandu and in secret, against the instructions of Nehru. These letters
also mention some objectionable articles on Nepal published in two
newspapers, Searchlight and The Statesman, as well as the statement of
D.R. Regmi (foreign minister) on Tibet, which the Indian government
called a “silly” statement. But these documents do not mention the
contents of these articles or the statement. A number of brief letters (more than two dozen) written during the last
days of M.P.’s prime ministerial tenure have also been reproduced. They
deal with M.P.’s deteriorating relations with the Crown Prince and
ministers (Tanka <mask> and Bhadrakali Mishra) (pp.346–373). However
these letters do not give any new information to the reader. 398 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
On the whole, the documents produced in part two of the memoir give
scattered information on Nepali politics from 1951 to 1955. They may be
used by researchers as primary sources. A review of M.P.’s memoir is not complete until we mention the tenpage preface of Ganesh Raj Sharma, the undeclared editor of the book. Sharma argues that “M.P. was not as regular nor as expressive in his
response to ideas and events as B.P.was” (p. viii), but, instead, “was a
store house of knowledge about the personalities and events of Nepali
politics, which remained unrevealed unlike in the case of B.P<mask>”
(p. ix). In my opinion, the memoir is more regular, if not more expressive,
than B.P.’s Atmabrittanta, which is quite irregular in chronological terms. Sharma is correct to say that “M.P. was appointed Prime Minister in 1951
on the suggestion of Nehru,” but his claim that M.P. was removed from
office in 1955 because of India's displeasure, as he along with King
Tribhuvan opposed the aide-memoir sent by Nehru, is debatable (p. ix). He has produced a different version of the aide-memoir which reads,
“... especially on matters of Nepal's relationship with Tibet and China,
special advice will be sought from the Government of India” (p. xi),
whereas Nehru's draft of the same speaks only about “consultations” with
the Government of India (p. 298).On the basis of information supplied by M.P. and Rishikesh Shah,
Sharma argues that Nehru had given tacit consent to King Mahendra for
the royal takeover of December 1960, though it was limited only to the
removal of B.P<mask> and not the dissolution of the parliament (pp. xi–xii) This point also seems to be debatable, in view of Nehru's strong
public condemnation of the coup. There is one more debatable point in
the preface, and that is the so-called understanding between “King
Birendra and B.P<mask> to bring M.P<mask> to power as a stop-gap in
the transition from the partyless Panchayat system to a multiparty
parliamentary democracy” (p. xii).B.P.’s question about the possibility of
M.P.’s becoming Prime Minister (p. xii) prevents Sharma from reaching
such big conclusions. However, in the conclusion part of his preface, Sharma seems to have
strictly followed the duty (dharma) of an editor, when he says “The same
period and the leadership roles have been described somewhat differently
by his brother, B.P<mask>. As the person tasked with bringing the
memoir of both M.P. and B.P. into publication, I have been careful to
ensure that their words are held sacrosanct other than in basic editing, so
that both brothers reach out to the readers in their own words and as they
wished” (p. xv). Sharma, however, does not elaborate the points of
Book Reviews 399
difference between the two brothers, the narration of which would have
greatly benefited readers and researchers.To point out some technical shortcomings, the documents in part two
are not numbered, nor are the sections in part one. This may create
difficulties for researchers who wish to acknowledge them as sources. Similarly, readers may have been interested to see some rare photos of
those days, but the book contains none. Even so, the memoir is a
significant contribution to the study of the 1950 movement and the
following four years. It is especially helpful to researchers as a source
book. Tri Ratna Manandhar
Tribhuvan University

References

1912 births
1997 deaths
20th-century prime ministers of Nepal
Finance ministers of Nepal
M
Nepali Congress politicians from Province No. 1
People from Biratnagar
Politicians from Varanasi
Prime ministers of

masks:
Prasad Upadhaya
. Koirala
. Koirala
Prasad
Prasad Narayan
. Koirala
Prasad
. Koirala
. Koirala
. Koirala
. Koirala
. Koirala


texts:
<mask> (22 October 1879 – 18 December 1957) was an Italian-Austrian Jewish financier and banker, and was the wealthiest man in Central Europe during World War I. Nicknamed "Austrian Stinnes", he was active in aviation's pioneering days and invested in the arts. Castiglioni was credited as being instrumental to the founding of what would eventually become BMW AG. Early life
Castiglioni was born in Trieste, then part of Austria-Hungary, to the chief rabbi. It is not known when <mask> developed his interest in aviation, but it is known that he was passionate about flying. <mask>'s education was primarily law, gaining employment as an attorney and legal officer of a bank in Padua, quickly learning international finance and how to manage capital. He was the son of a rubber maker, so naturally <mask> found work with the Austro-American Gummiwarenfabrik AG (rubber products) in Vienna as an agent for the Kaufmann automobile tire division in Constantinople. Camillo found great success in this position, demonstrating his abilities to negotiate and structure financial deals.In fact, <mask> was so successful, he was promoted to director of the export department of the parent company in Vienna. Around 1901, along with Viktor Silberer and Franz Hinterstoissera <mask> helped to create the Viennese aero club (later Austrian aero club). He eventually was made deputy director, then in 1904 he was appointed to general director of the company. Through his experience in the rubber and tire production field, <mask> saw the birth of aviation as an industry, going from a ballooning hobby, to makeshift glider craft requiring tires, to fully operational aircraft operated by engines. He met many influential men in his business, and came to realize that aviation sparked not only his passion for flight, but also recognized the tremendous financial opportunity of aviation's potential as an industry. In order to draw from the arising enthusiasm for airplanes and ballooning, as well as to take advantage of the lucrative business the hobby generated, <mask> established one of his first companies, Luftfahrzeug-Gesellschaft, in 1907. Being a pure commercial firm – it acquired the Etrich balloon patents and sold balloon fliers in Austria Hungary.There were many contests that these inspired balloon drivers entered, and <mask> was no different- he bought his own balloon and successfully took his balloon driver examination on 24 August 1909. Aviation financing
During the First World War, he became one of the richest and most influential financiers in Central Europe. The first major investor in the series production of aircraft. In 1914, he purchased the German aircraft company Hansa- und Brandenburgische Flugzeugwerke, which employed Ernst Heinkel as its chief designer. Acquired a majority holding in Austro-Daimler with its chief designers Puch and Porsche. Press "czar" and sponsor of the arts (financed Max Reinhardt and helped him to organize the Salzburg Festival). After a series of setbacks, his financial empire broke up in 1926.He retired to Switzerland, then to Milan where he set up a private bank and once again amassed a considerable fortune. After the Second World War, negotiated a large US loan for his friend Josip Broz Tito in Yugoslavia. When Tito refused to pay his commission, Castiglioni succeeded in getting Yugoslavian assets in Italy worth millions sequestered. In 1916, he was awarded the Franz Joseph Order with ribbon on the Military Service Cross for his services to aviation and in 1918 with the St-Georges Order for his achievements in the war material production. Castiglioni became rich in ventures during the period of inflation, acquiring a majority interest in Alpine Montan AG. The Austrian aviation company Österreichische Luftfahrtsgesellschaft was founded by him. BMW influence
Castiglioni significantly influenced the development of BMW AG in its early years.The granting of a license agreement by Austro-Daimler to the Rapp-Werke in 1917 was partly attributable to Castiglioni. 1918 At Castiglioni's insistence the Wiener Bankverein (Vienna) acquired the majority of BMW's share capital. 1922 Castiglioni purchased all the equipment relating to engine construction, the associated know-how and the rights to the name "Bayerische Motoren Werke AG" from the BMW AG, which was renamed Süddeutsche Bremse AG. <mask> Castiglioni, who was facing problems of liquidity. Failed speculation and bankruptcy
In February 1924, Castiglioni partnered with Fritz Mannheimer, and later other influential bankers to speculate on the devaluation of the French franc. They shorted hundreds of millions of franc, eventually causing the franc to drop almost 40% in less than a month. By the beginning of March 1924, one United States dollar was worth 28 francs. Then, however, investment bank Lazard, on the behalf of Banque de France and powered by J.P. Morgan & Co., bought immense amounts of francs, causing the franc to rise again, to 15 franc per dollar. Castiglioni, Mannheimer and their partners lost millions.In September 1924, the Austrian Depositenbank, of which Castiglioni had been president, collapsed. A warrant for his arrest on a charge of fraud was issued, but Castiglioni had been taken care to be in Italy when the crash came. The Austrian State said that if he deposited $4,200,000 ($ in present-day value), he could return unmolested. Philanthropy
Castiglioni built up a large art collection and a theatre in Vienna. He was the richest man in Central Europe and much beloved by the Viennese whom he assisted financially on Sundays and odd occasions. He was also a patron of the arts and for some time supported the famed producer Max Reinhardt, for whom he built a theater. So fond was he of appearing in the public limelight that he lived with all the pomp and ceremony of royalty, even traveling in the Kaiser Karl's private parlor car, which he bought.Because of his famous banking activities, his life was documented in a 1988 movie on television titled <mask> Castiglioni oder die Moral der Haifische (in English: <mask> Castiglioni, or the morality of sharks), directed by Peter Patzak. See also
Fritz Mannheimer
History of BMW
Palais Miller von Aichholz

References

External links
 BMW Group archives

Austro-Hungarian Jews
Austrian bankers
Italian bankers
Italian Austro-Hungarians
Businesspeople from Trieste
1879 births
1957 deaths
Businesspeople from Vienna
Austrian transportation businesspeople

masks:
Camillo Castiglioni
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Castiglionillo
Camillo
Camillo


texts:
Henry A. (<mask><mask>, (September 8, 1927 - October 24, 2020), born in Brooklyn, was an expert in video communications technology and was involved in the broadcast, promotion, and distribution of notable boxing matches involving fighters including Muhammad Ali, Joe Frazier, and George Foreman during the 1970s. An authority in microwave and satellite technology, <mask> utilized his expertise to telecast major boxing events such as “The Rumble in the Jungle” in Zaire, “The Thrilla in Manila” in the Philippines, as well as other major events in Kingston, Jamaica; Caracas, Venezuela; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and Madison Square Garden in New York. <mask> has developed and designed systems for E.I. Dupont, Western Electric, Bell Telephone, Westinghouse Electric, Revlon, RCA and others. He also installed and designed the first cyclotron monitoring equipment for Columbia University's School of Engineering.From 1974 to 1978 <mask> served as Minister of Communications for the former Republic of Zaire. Personal and early life
Born in Brooklyn, NY, <mask> secured a scholarship to attend Stuyvesant High School, which was at the time one of the few science and technical-based schools in New York City.<mask> finished his four-year science program in three years and became acquainted with emerging radio wave electronic equipment, as well as video networking and related electrical power systems. Upon graduating from Stuyvesant High School, <mask> entered the United States Army as a military cadet in the Army's Specialized Training Program (ASTRP) for enlistees under seventeen years of age. While enrolled in ASTRP, <mask> studied at Norwich University (Northfield, Vermont), a private military cadet-based university and one of the top scientific universities combining Cavalry Training and research related to newer communication networking, supporting electronic and communication networks that could be delivered to any fighting front. <mask> became a second lieutenant and was assigned to oversee the physical education and cavalry related activities of an ASTRP platoon and ASTRP student soldiers. At the end of WWII, <mask> was honorably discharged from the US Army and gained acceptance into Brooklyn Polytech to finish his research. <mask> earned a license from the University of the State of New York allowing him to teach radio, television and communication systems. Sports Broadcasting
Schwartz's company, Video Techniques, provided event promoters new microwave and satellite technologies that were necessary to broadcast television signals throughout the world.Video Techniques also served as the worldwide distributor of several major international sports events and provided the missing link that enabled pay-per-view cable broadcast in the U.S. In the late 1960s <mask> was invited by Bruce Norris, owner of the Detroit Red Wings, to improve the broadcast quality of televised games. <mask> had previously participated in the live broadcast of several auto racing events and had developed expertise in the transmission of video communications signals to microwave towers. <mask>'s knowledge regarding both the technical side of international networking and the communications systems needed to transmit television signals worldwide led him to become involved in the international broadcasting of boxing matches. In 1971 Madison Square Garden hired Video Techniques to broadcast the historic fight between Joe Frazier and Muhammad Ali. In 1972 <mask> was invited by the Japanese television network ITV to advise the production crew and engineering staff for the global broadcast of the fight between Mac Foster and Muhammad Ali. By the time Ali fought Jerry Quarry and Oscar Bonevena, Video Techniques had hit its peak and was considered to be the leader in these new distribution technologies.In 1973, <mask> traveled to Jamaica to televise the fight between George Foreman and Joe Frazier, which was the first sporting event ever broadcast on HBO. In 1974 Video Techniques acted as the promoter and producer of The Rumble in the Jungle where Ali regained his title as World Heavyweight Champion; this also marked the first telecast from the former Republic of Zaire. Video Techniques also participated in the promotion and worldwide distribution of Foreman/Roman from Tokyo, Japan, Foreman-Norton in Caracas, Venezuela, Ali-Bugner in Kuala Lumpur, and Ali-Frazier in the Philippines (The Thrilla in Manilla), Ali-Wepner from Cleveland, Ohio, and Ali-Holmes from Caesar's Palace, Las Vegas. Some notable boxing events that were produced, marketed, and funded by <mask> includes: Ali/Mac Foster in Tokyo, Ali/Bob Foster in Las Vegas, Foreman/Frazier in Kingston, Ali/Foreman in Zaire, Ali/Frazier III in the Philippines, the 1980 Kenya Golden Gloves Olympics in Kenya, and the World Television Champions II in New York City. Satellite Involvement
Hank was involved in the launching of the foreign satellite in China through a contract signed with Wu Keli, the vice president of the China Great Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC). The “Long March-3 Rocket” was expected to launch in 1988 and would be used to put a Westar satellite in a geostationary orbit. <mask> developed the first TELEMISSION program for Egypt supported by both the United States Government Overseas Private Investor Company (OPIC) and the United Nations International Development Organization.He also served as Vice President of Shamark Closed Circuit TV Distribution, Director of Electronic Transmission Corporation, and Contributing Editor of Electronic Technician, the world's largest electronic services trade circulation. <mask> holds a number of patents and patent applications in the electronics and visual communications fields including, film juke boxes (CineBox (Italy) and the Colorsonics and VideoMate IIa color video projectors. January 22, 1973 was when the first championship boxing event ever was marketed and produced by Henry A<mask>. It was produced from a foreign country for distribution by the INTELSAT satellite system. The championship fight between Joe Frazier and George Foreman was sold to HBO and became the first Pay Per View program on TV cables which set the business stage for PPV events form there on to the present. It has tuned out to be millions of dollars collected through cable companies and program owners such as ESPN, FOX, HBO, etc. Only In America
<mask> is depicted by Jeremy Piven in the 1997 film Don King: Only in America, a biopic of boxing manager and promoter Don King.The film highlights <mask>'s role in the broadcast and promotion of international boxing championships through his affiliation with King. Writing
<mask> is the author of an upcoming memoir FROM THE CORNERS OF THE RING TO THE CORNERS OF THE EARTH: The Adventure behind the Champions (CIVOM 2010) [www.cornersofthering.com]. The book tells the real-life story of his involvement with the fighters, managers, and promoters of the heyday of the heavyweight championship during the 1970s. References

American businesspeople
1927 births
2020 deaths
People from Brooklyn

masks:
Hank
) Schwartz
Schwartz
Hank
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Hank
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Hank Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
. Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz


texts:
<mask>. (; June 16, 1923 – May 22, 1978) was the boss of the Colombo crime family, one of the Five Families of the American Mafia in New York City. <mask> was born in New York City, where his father was an early member of what was then the Profaci crime family. In 1961, the First Colombo War unfolded, instigated by the kidnapping of four high-ranking members in the Profaci family by Joe Gallo. Later that year, Gallo was imprisoned, and in 1962, family leader Joe Profaci died of cancer. In 1963, Bonanno crime family boss, <mask>o made plans with <mask> to assassinate several rivals on The Commission. When Magliocco gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Colombo, he revealed the plot to its targets. The Commission spared Magliocco's life but forced him into retirement, while Bonanno fled to Canada.As a reward for turning on his boss, <mask> was awarded the Profaci family. His only jail term would come in 1966, when <mask> was sentenced to 30 days in jail for contempt by refusing to answer questions from a grand jury about his financial affairs. In 1970, Colombo created the Italian-American Civil Rights League. Later that year, the first Italian Unity Day rally was held in Columbus Circle to protest the federal persecution of all Italians everywhere. In 1971, Gallo was released from prison, and <mask> invited Gallo to a peace meeting with an offering of $1,000, to which Gallo refused, instigating the Second Colombo War. On June 28, 1971, <mask> was shot three times by Jerome A. Johnson, once in the head, at the second Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle sponsored by the Italian-American Civil Rights League; Johnson was immediately killed by <mask>'s bodyguards. <mask> was paralyzed from the shooting.On May 22, 1978, <mask> died of cardiac arrest. Early life
<mask> Sr. was born into an Italian American family on June 16, 1923, in Brooklyn. His father, <mask>, was an early member of the Profaci crime family, which would eventually be renamed after his son. In 1938, he was found strangled in a car with his mistress. <mask> attended New Utrecht High School in Brooklyn for two years, then dropped out to join the U.S. Coast Guard. In 1945, he was diagnosed with neurosis and discharged from the service. His legitimate jobs included ten years as a longshoreman and six years as a salesman for a meat company.His final job was that of a real estate salesman. <mask> owned a modest home in Dyker Heights, Brooklyn and a five-acre estate in Blooming Grove, New York. He married Lucille Faiello in 1944, and had five children including sons <mask>, <mask> Jr. (1946–2014) and <mask> (1945–2017). First Colombo War
<mask> followed his father into the Profaci family. He became one of the family's top enforcers, and soon became a capo. On February 27, 1961, the Gallos kidnapped four of Profaci's top men: underboss Magliocco, Frank Profaci (Joe Profaci's brother), capo Salvatore Musacchia and soldier John Scimone. Profaci himself eluded capture and flew to sanctuary in Florida.While holding the hostages, Larry and Albert Gallo sent Joe Gallo to California. The Gallos demanded a more favorable financial scheme for the hostages' release. Gallo wanted to kill one hostage and demand $100,000 before negotiations, but his brother Larry overruled him. After a few weeks of negotiation, Profaci made a deal with the Gallos. Profaci's consigliere Charles "the Sidge" LoCicero negotiated with the Gallos and all the hostages were released peacefully. However, Profaci had no intention of honoring this peace agreement. On August 20, 1961 <mask>i ordered the murder of Gallo members <mask> "Joe Jelly" Gioielli and Larry Gallo.Gunmen allegedly murdered Gioilli after inviting him to go fishing. Larry Gallo survived a strangulation attempt in the Sahara club of East Flatbush by Carmine Persico and Salvatore "Sally" D'Ambrosio after a police officer intervened. The Gallo brothers had been previously aligned with Persico against Profaci and his loyalists; The Gallos then began calling Persico "The Snake" after he had betrayed them. the war continued on resulting in nine murders and three disappearances. With the start of the gang war, the Gallo crew retreated to the Dormitory. In late November 1961, Joe Gallo was sentenced to seven-to-fourteen years in prison for murder. On June 6, 1962, Profaci died and was succeeded by longtime underboss <mask>.In 1963, <mask>, the head of the Bonanno crime family, made plans to assassinate several rivals on the Mafia Commission—bosses Tommy Lucchese, Carlo Gambino, and Stefano Magaddino, as well as Frank DeSimone. Bonanno sought Magliocco's support, and Magliocco readily agreed. Not only was he bitter from being denied a seat on the Commission, but Bonanno and Profaci had been close allies for over 30 years prior to Profaci's death. Bonanno's audacious goal was to take over the Commission and make Magliocco his right-hand man. Magliocco was assigned the task of killing Lucchese and Gambino, and gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Colombo. However, the opportunistic Colombo revealed the plot to its targets. The other bosses quickly realized that Magliocco could not have planned this himself.Remembering how close Bonanno was with Magliocco (and before him, Profaci), as well as their close ties through marriages, the other bosses concluded Bonanno was the real mastermind. The Commission summoned Bonanno and Magliocco to explain themselves. Fearing for his life, Bonanno went into hiding in Montreal, leaving Magliocco to deal with the Commission. Badly shaken and in failing health, Magliocco confessed his role in the plot. The Commission spared Magliocco's life, but forced him to retire as Profaci family boss and pay a $50,000 fine. As a reward for turning on his boss, <mask> was awarded the Profaci family. At the age of 41, <mask> was one of the youngest crime bosses in the country.He was also the first American-born boss of a New York crime family. When NYPD detective Albert Seedman (later the NYPD chief of detectives) called <mask> in for questioning about the death of one of his soldiers, <mask> came to the meeting without a lawyer. He told Seedman, "I am an American citizen, first class. I don't have a badge that makes me an official good guy like you, but I work just as honest for a living." On May 9, 1966, <mask> was sentenced to 30 days in jail for contempt by refusing to answer questions from a grand jury about his financial affairs. Italian-American Civil Rights League
In April 1970, <mask> created the Italian-American Civil Rights League, the month his son <mask> Jr. was charged with melting down coins for resale as silver ingots. In response, <mask> Sr. claimed FBI harassment of Italian-Americans and, on April 30, 1970, sent 30 picketers outside FBI headquarters at Third Avenue and 69th Street to protest the federal persecution of all Italians everywhere; this went on for weeks.On June 29, 1970, 50,000 people attended the first Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle in New York City. In February 1971, <mask>. was acquitted of the charge after the chief witness in the trial had been arrested on perjury charges. Under <mask>'s guidance, the League grew quickly and achieved national attention. Unlike other mob leaders who shunned the spotlight, <mask> appeared on television interviews, fundraisers and speaking engagements for the League. In 1971, Colombo aligned the League with Rabbi and political activist Meir Kahane's Jewish Defense League, claiming that both groups were being harassed by the federal government. At one point, Colombo posted bail for 11 jailed JDL members. The Godfather movie
In the spring of 1971, Paramount Pictures started filming The Godfather with the assistance of Colombo and the League.Due to its subject matter, the film originally faced great opposition from Italian-Americans to filming in New York. However, after producer Albert Ruddy met with Colombo and agreed to excise the terms "Mafia" and "Cosa Nostra" from the film, the League cooperated fully. Shooting
In early 1971, Joe Gallo was released from prison. As a supposedly conciliatory gesture, Colombo invited Gallo to a peace meeting with an offering of $1,000. Gallo refused the invitation, wanting $100,000 to stop the conflict, which Colombo refused to pay. At that point, acting boss Vincenzo Aloi issued a new order to kill Gallo. On March 11, 1971, after being convicted of perjury for lying on his application to become a real estate broker, Colombo was sentenced to two and half years in state prison.The sentence, however, was delayed pending an appeal. On June 28, 1971, <mask> was shot three times by Jerome A. Johnson, with one bullet hitting him in the head, at the second Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle sponsored by the Italian-American Civil Rights League; Johnson was immediately killed by <mask>'s bodyguards. Death and aftermath
<mask> was paralyzed from the shooting. On August 28, 1971, after two months at Roosevelt Hospital in Manhattan, <mask> was moved to his estate at Blooming Grove. In 1975, a court-ordered examination showed that <mask> could move his thumb and forefinger on his right hand. In 1976, there were reports that he could recognize people and utter several words. On May 22, 1978, <mask> died of cardiac arrest at St. Luke's  Hospital (later St. Luke's Cornwall Hospital) in Newburgh, New York.<mask>'s funeral was held at St Bernadette's Catholic Church in Bensonhurst and he was buried in Saint John Cemetery in the Middle Village section of Queens. Although many in the <mask> family blamed Joe Gallo for the shooting, the police eventually concluded that Johnson was a lone gunman after they had questioned Gallo. Since Johnson had spent time a few days earlier at a Gambino club, one theory was that Carlo Gambino organized the shooting. <mask> refused to listen to Gambino's complaints about the League, and allegedly spat in Gambino's face during one argument. However, the Colombo family leadership was convinced that Joe Gallo ordered the murder after his falling out with the family. Gallo was murdered on April 7, 1972. After the Colombo shooting, <mask> became the acting boss for one year before Carmine Persico took over.In popular culture
 <mask> features in the first episode of UK history TV channel Yesterday's documentary series Mafia's Greatest Hits
 In "Christopher", an episode of The Sopranos, Silvio Dante claims that <mask> was the founder of the first Italian-American anti-defamation organization. However, the American Italian Anti-Defamation League was founded before <mask>'s Italian-American Civil Rights League
 In 2015, <mask>'s oldest son, <mask>, authored Colombo: The Unsolved Murder a biography/memoir with co-author Don Capria
 <mask>'s assassination attempt is featured in the 2019 Martin Scorsese film The Irishman. References

Further reading
 Capria, Don and <mask>. Colombo: The Unsolved Murder. New York: Unity Press, 2015,
 Reppetto, Thomas. Bringing Down the Mob. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2006.Moore, Robin and Barbara Fuca. Mafia Wife. New York: MacMillan, 1977,

1923 births
1978 deaths
American crime bosses
Bosses of the Colombo crime family
Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens)
Colombo crime family
Murdered American gangsters of Italian descent
People from Dyker Heights, Brooklyn
People murdered by the Colombo crime family
People murdered in New York (state)
People from Blooming Grove, New York
Burials in New York (state)
New Utrecht High School alumni

masks:
Joseph Anthony Colombo Sr
Colombo
Joseph Bonann
Joseph Magliocco
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Joseph Colombo
Anthony Colombo
Joe Colombo
Colombo
Christopher Colombo
Joseph Colombo
Anthony Colombo
Colombo
Joseph Profac
Joseph
Joseph Magliocco
Joseph Bonanno
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Joseph Colombo
Joseph Colombo
Colombo Jr
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Joseph Yacovelli
Colombo
Colombo
Colombo
Joe Colombo
Anthony Colombo
Colombo
Anthony Colombo


texts:
<mask> (born October 13, 1992) is an American professional tennis player. She has a career-high singles WTA ranking of No. 36, on 10 January 2022,  and a highest doubles ranking of No. 41 achieved on 21 February 2022. She has won six singles titles and one doubles title on the ITF Circuit. She won the Girls' National Championship at 17. Her best results as a professional came at the 2016 French Open and the 2020 US Open where she reached the quarterfinals.<mask> is noted for her victories against top-ranked players which include Simona Halep (No. 4) at the 2017 Australian Open, Serena Williams (No. 9) at the 2020 Top Seed Open and Ashleigh Barty (No. 1) at the 2021 US Open. <mask> is also undefeated against two-time Wimbledon champion Petra Kvitová, with wins at the 2016 French Open and 2020 US Open, the latter in which she saved four match points. Both are also the only instances in her career where she made the quarterfinals at the majors. Personal life
From Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, <mask> followed her sister, Sabra, into tennis at the age of six.She was quickly identified by her coaches for her natural athletic ability and started competing on the national stage by the age of eleven. Home-schooled during high school, <mask> was able to focus on her tennis and quickly started receiving scholarship offers from the top schools in the U.S. In 2009, she decided to forgo college and become a professional tennis player. On 15 August 2021, <mask> was awarded with a Bachelor of Science in psychology from Indiana University East in a ceremony at the Western Southern Open (WSO) tournament. Professional career

2009–15: Early years, first WTA final

<mask> made her ITF Women's Circuit debut at the $10K event in St. Joseph in July 2009. At the 2010 Charleston Open, she had a chance to reach her first WTA Tour main-draw, but she failed in qualifications. In May 2010, she reached her first ITF final at the $50K Indian Harbour Beach, but lost to Edina Gallovits-Hall.Later that year, she won the USTA 18s Girls National Championship to earn a wildcard into the US Open, that was her first appearance in the main draw of any Grand Slam tournament. She lost to Peng Shuai in the first round in three sets. In July 2012, she won her first ITF title at the $50K Yakima, defeating Samantha Crawford in the final. At the 2013 Internationaux de Strasbourg, she recorded her first win on the WTA Tour, defeating Marta Domachowska in the first round. She then earned another Grand Slam main-draw wildcard at the 2013 French Open, after winning the "Har-Tru USTA Pro Circuit Wild Card Challenge". With the wildcard, she won her first career Grand Slam match, over Irena Pavlovic. She then lost in the following round to the world No.20, Carla Suárez Navarro. After that, she done well at the ITF Women's Circuit. There she won $50K Lexington, and later $75K Albuquerque. The following year, she reached her first WTA final at the 2014 Gastein Ladies where she lost to Andrea Petkovic. There she also defeated two top-20 players, Carla Suárez Navarro and Sara Errani. Soon after that, she scored her first career top-ten win after beating Eugenie Bouchard in the second round of the Canadian Open. The following week, she debuted at the top 100.In September, she reached semifinal of the Tournoi de Québec, but then lost to Venus Williams. Despite not producing such good performances during the season of 2015, <mask> played in all four Grand Slam main draws for the first time in her career, and also reached her first Grand Slam third round at the US Open. 2016–17: French Open quarterfinal, breakthrough

Although she missed the Australian Open due to injury, <mask> began the year strongly by reaching her second career final on the WTA Tour, losing to Francesca Schiavone at the Rio Open on clay in February. Things then did not do well for <mask>, with early losses in the following three months. However, she then reached her first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the French Open. She became the first American other than Serena Williams to reach the quarterfinals since Venus Williams in 2006. Along the way, she defeated three seeded players including No.12, Petra Kvitová and No. 19, Karolína Plíšková. In the quarterfinal-round match, she lost to later champion Garbiñe Muguruza. With this run, she also rose to the top 60 for the first time. Despite making big progress, she then continued to struggle again with the results by the end of the year. During the season of 2017, she continued to progress. In the opening week, she defeated world top 10, Eugenie Bouchard, in the first-year match.She then participated at the Hobart International, where she reached the quarterfinals. At the Australian Open, she upset world No. 4, Simona Halep, 6–3, 6–1 in the first round. She started clay-court season with the quarterfinal of the Premier-level Charleston Open, where she also defeated compatriot and world No. 11, Madison Keys. After early losses at the Italian Open and Madrid Open, she reached the quarterfinals of the Internationaux de Strasbourg. She then followed with a third round showing at the French Open.At Wimbledon, she reached another Grand Slam third round, but then lost to world No. 1, Angelique Kerber. At the US Open, she also reached third round, where she was stopped by another top 10 player, Elina Svitolina. 2018–20: From injury to progress, US Open quarterfinal
After battling a knee injury for some time, <mask> underwent knee surgery in May 2018. From the start of the 2018, she played only at the Australian Open and Indian Wells Open, but was knocked out in the first round in both tournaments. She was out of play for the rest of the season. She returned to action at the Charleston Open in April 2019 and won her first match, defeating Evgeniya Rodina in straight sets.However, she lost her next match to Jeļena Ostapenko in three sets, after having been 5–1 up in the third set and having match points. Later, she reached second round of the French Open and Mallorca Open. In September 2019, she won the $60K Templeton, that was her first ITF title since September 2013. In October 2019, she reached the final of the $80K Macon, where she lost to her compatriot Katerina Stewart. She enjoyed a successful campaign on American hardcourts in the summer of the 2020. Firstly, she made the semifinals at the Top Seed Open, after upsetting Serena Williams in the previous round. Then, at the US Open, she beat Irina Khromacheva, 11th seed Elena Rybakina, Madison Brengle, and sixth seed Petra Kvitová before losing to Naomi Osaka in the quarterfinals.She returned to the top 60 rankings after that. 2021: Best season: Australian Open fourth round, French Open doubles quarterfinal, top 40, US Open fourth round
<mask> reached the fourth round of the Australian Open, her best showing at this major, where she was defeated by world No. 1 and top seed, Ash Barty. On April 12, 2021, <mask> raised to a career-high of world No. 46, after reaching the round of 16 of the Charleston Open where she lost again to Ash Barty. At the French Open, she reached the quarterfinals in doubles, partnering Petra Martić, defeating ninth seeded pair of Sharon Fichman and Giuliana Olmos. The pair reached also as alternates the quarterfinals of the 2021 Mutua Madrid Open.At Wimbledon, <mask> reached the third round for a second time, defeating 15th seed Maria Sakkari. This was her 16th victory over a top 20 player in her career. As a result, she reached a career-high of world No. 40. At the US Open, <mask> reached the round of 16 by defeating the top seed, Ash Barty. 2022: Australian Open doubles quarterfinal
In doubles, she reached the quarterfinals of the 2022 Australian Open partnering Petra Martić. Performance timelines

Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup and Olympic Games are included in win/loss records.Singles
Current through the 2022 Qatar Open. Doubles

WTA career finals

Singles: 2 (2 runner-ups)

Doubles: 1 (runner-up)

ITF Circuit finals

Singles: 10 (6 titles, 4 runner–ups)

Doubles: 6 (1 title, 5 runner–ups)

Head-to-head records

Record against top 10 players
<mask>'s record against players who have been ranked in the top 10. Active players are in boldface. Wins over players ranked No. 1

Wins over top 10 players

Notes

References

External links

1992 births
Living people
American female tennis players
Sportspeople from Charleston, South Carolina
Tennis people from South Carolina
21st-century American women

masks:
Shelby Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Shelby
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers


texts:
<mask> ( – ) was an English lawyer and historian, best known for his The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancastre and Yorke—commonly known as <mask>'s Chronicle—first published in 1548. He was also several times a member of the Parliament of England. Family
<mask>, born in 1497, was the son of <mask> (died 22 February 1528) of Northall in Kynnersley, Shropshire, a London grocer and Merchant of the Staple who resided in the parish of St Mildred in the Poultry. The surname <mask> appears in the records of the Worshipful Company of Grocers for several generations prior to <mask>'s birth, suggesting that members of the family had been London merchants for some time. <mask>'s father served as Warden of the Grocers in 1512. According to some sources, <mask>'s mother, Katherine Geddyng, was the daughter and coheir of Thomas Geddyng of Norfolk, while according to others she was the daughter of John Geddyng, great-grandson of William Geddyng of Lackford, Suffolk, and Mirabel Aspale, daughter and heiress of Sir John de Aspale. Katherine (née Geddying) <mask>'s burial on 19 June 1557 in the church of St Benet Sherehog was recorded by the diarist Henry Machyn.She appointed as executor of her will Sir William Garrard, and as supervisor Dame Joan Warren, the second wife of Sir Ralph Warren, Lord Mayor of London. According to some sources, Katherine was the 'Mistress <mask>' who in 1555 was imprisoned in Newgate for her faith under Queen Mary Tudor, and with whom the religious reformer John Bradford corresponded. <mask> had a brother, William, who survived him, but no other known brothers or sisters. Marriage and issue
There is no evidence as to whether <mask> ever married. His will, made in 1546–1547, makes no mention of a wife or children, and the only family members named are his brother, William, whom he appoints as executor of his will, and his mother, whom he appoints as overseer. In his will he requested burial in the Greyfriars, London, but he was instead buried in the church of St Benet Sherehog, which was subsequently destroyed in the Great Fire of London and not rebuilt. He left all his books in French and English to his brother, William, and his manuscript of his chronicle to Richard Grafton, entrusting him with its publication.Career
<mask> began his education at Eton College. In 1514 he was admitted to King's College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1518. At about the time of <mask>'s graduation from university, the second son of Robert Fabyan (died 1513) became apprentice to <mask>'s father, and according to Herman, it was perhaps through this connection that <mask> developed what became a lifelong interest in chronicling the events of English history. <mask> was a student at Gray's Inn by 1521, and became a lawyer by profession. He was Autumn Reader at his Inn in 1533, and Lent Reader in 1540. According to Herman, <mask> may have been first elected to Parliament as early as 1523. He was elected to represent Much Wenlock in 1529, and represented the borough again in 1539.In 1542, and again in 1545, he was elected for Bridgnorth. <mask> served as Common Serjeant of London from 17 March 1533 to 2 June 1535, and as Under-Sheriff from 2 June 1535 until his death. Chronicle

Hall's best-known work, The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancastre and Yorke, commonly called <mask>'s Chronicle, was published by the printer Richard Grafton in 1548, the year after <mask>'s death. A revised edition (printed for Grafton by Richard Jugge) appeared in 1550. Both included a continuation from 1532 compiled by Grafton from the author's notes. The only complete modern edition, entitled <mask>'s Chronicle, Containing the History of England During the Reign of Henry IV and the Succeeding Monarchs to the End of the Reign of Henry VIII, was prepared under the supervision of Sir Henry Ellis and published in 1809. A reprint was issued in 1965.In 1904, the concluding chapter dealing with the reign of Henry VIII was edited by Charles Whibley. The Chronicle begins with the accession of Henry IV to the English throne in 1399; it follows the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with Grafton's continuation carries the story down to the death of Henry VIII in 1547. <mask> presents the policy of this king in a very favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the Protestants. He has a lawyer's respect for ceremonial of all kinds, and his pages are often adorned and encumbered with the pageantry and material garniture of the story. The value of the Chronicle in its early stages is not great, but increases when dealing with the reign of Henry VII and is considerable for the reign of Henry VIII. To the historian it furnishes what is evidently the testimony of an eyewitness on several matters of importance which are neglected by other narrators, and to the student of literature it is of interest as one of the prime sources of Shakespeare's history plays. On 22 June 1940, Alan Keen, a dealer in antiquarian books, discovered an extensively annotated copy of <mask>'s Chronicle among the contents of a library from outside London which he had just purchased.Keen considered that the marginal annotations, most of which are found in the chapters covering the reigns of Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI, were made by Shakespeare. Keen published his findings in two journal articles, and in a book co-authored with Roger Lubbock in 1954, The Annotator. After his death Keen left the volume in the hands of trustees, who placed it in the British Library, where until 2007 it was catalogued as Loan MS 61. References

Footnotes

Bibliography

External links

 <mask> in The History of Parliament online, digitized from
Will of <mask> of Gray's Inn, Middlesex, proved 25 May 1547, PROB 11/31/518, National Archives Retrieved 24 June 2013
Will of <mask>, grocer, of London, proved 13 March 1529, PROB 11/23/60, National Archives Retrieved 24 June 2013
Will of Katheryn <mask>, widow, of Saint Benet Sherehog, City of London, proved 18 August 1557, PROB 11/39/329, National Archives Retrieved 24 June 2013
Hall's Chronicle, 1809 edition Retrieved 24 June 2013
Hall's Chronicle, 1965 reprint of 1809 edition, HathiTrust Digital Library Retrieved 24 June 2013. 16th-century English writers
16th-century historians
16th-century male writers
1496 births
1547 deaths
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Common Serjeants of London
English chroniclers
English historians
English judges
English MPs 1529–1536
English MPs 1539–1540
English MPs 1542–1544
English MPs 1545–1547
People educated at Eton College

masks:
Edward Hall
Hall
Edward Hall
John Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Hall
Edward Hall
Edward Hall
John Hall
Hall


texts:
<mask> (born 10 November 1993) is an English former professional footballer who played as a centre back<mask> is son of professional manager <mask> and brother of <mask>. He came through the Port Vale Academy and played a minor role as the club secured promotion out of League Two in the 2012–13 season. He left Port Vale to join Leicester City in June 2014. He was loaned out to Fleetwood Town in October 2015 before joining the club permanently three months later. He re-signed with Port Vale in June 2017 and was loaned out to York City in November 2018. He left Port Vale for Nantwich Town in March 2019, before retiring in June 2020 so as to pursue a career in the media.Career

Port Vale
<mask> started his career in the youth ranks at Port Vale in 2002. Described as a "natural born leader", he was handed a squad number for the 2010–11 season, making the first-team bench in October 2010. This came a month after a highly impressive reserve-team performance against Sheffield Wednesday. His debut came on 30 April 2011, as he came on as a substitute to replace Gareth Owen seventy minutes into a 7–2 home win over Morecambe. The 2011–12 season was the final year of his youth contract. He made his second appearance at senior level on 17 March, when he replaced Paul Marshall 49 minutes into a 3–2 defeat away to Crawley Town; manager Micky Adams put him on as centre-back Clayton McDonald had just been sent off. McDonald's subsequent suspension gave <mask> the opportunity to start against Hereford United three days later, Adams saying "he'll either sink or swim".He was voted man of the match after he produced "a disciplined defensive display beyond his tender years". However, he was sent off 69 minutes into the next match for a professional foul on Torquay United's Rene Howe; the penalty kick was converted to cost Vale a 2–1 away defeat. With Clayton McDonald facing legal issues, <mask> was given an extended run in the team towards the end of the 2011–12 season, thus securing the 18-year-old apprentice his first professional contract. At the end of the season he was given both the club's Youth and Young Player of the Year awards. He announced his intention to accept the club's offer of a new two-year contract in June 2012. Despite being one of the last of the 16 players offered contracts to commit his future to the club, Micky Adams said that the deal was "never in doubt" and told the media of the "excellent potential" he saw in the young defender. <mask> started the opening match of the 2012–13 season, a 3–1 home defeat to Burnley in the League Cup, but was substituted at half-time following a mistimed back-pass that allowed Charlie Austin to score for Burnley.His replacement, Clayton McDonald, then formed an impressive partnership with John McCombe to leave <mask> on the sidelines. Facing Northampton Town away on 27 October, Gareth Owen filled the gap left after McDonald picked up a one-match suspension, but was replaced by <mask> at half-time after picking up an injury; McCombe was also sent-off in the match, leaving <mask> to cope adequately at centre back alongside fellow teenager Kingsley James. Vale secured promotion at the end of the season with a third-place finish, though <mask> featured on only ten occasions. Having failed to make an appearance for Port Vale at the start of the 2013–14 season, he was loaned out to Conference Premier club Luton Town in November 2013. He played nine times for Luton, with the club winning seven and drawing two matches with <mask> in the team. Luton manager John Still requested an extension to the loan but Micky Adams recalled <mask> to provide cover for the injured Richard Duffy. On 11 January an injury crisis meant that he started in an inexperienced centre-back partnership with 19-year-old Jack Grimmer as Vale lost 2–0 away to league leaders Brentford.He was publicly praised by Adams for his performance in the match, and <mask> told the Sentinel that "I'm hoping to cement my place and get myself going again." He earned a place on the Football League team of the week for his performance as "a commanding figure" in a 0–0 draw at Shrewsbury Town on 15 February. Leicester City and Fleetwood Town
On 30 June 2014, <mask> signed for Premier League club Leicester City, who placed him in their development squad. He joined League One club Fleetwood Town on 3 October 2015 on a one-month loan, alongside Stoke City centre-back Dionatan Teixeira, following an injury crisis at the club. After impressing on his loan spell, <mask> signed for Fleetwood permanently on 11 January 2016 on a contract of undisclosed length for an undisclosed fee. He ended the 2015–16 season with 25 appearances to his name as Fleetwood posted a 19th-place finish, but played just eight times throughout the 2016–17 season. Return to Port Vale
<mask> negotiated his release from Fleetwood to re-sign for Port Vale, now in League Two, on 21 June 2017 on a two-year contract.Manager Michael Brown said that "Hopefully 'Morgs' will get into him early in pre-season and we will see if we can develop a footballer. He has good pedigree and we will see where that one can go." He picked up a thigh injury in September and was ruled out of action for three months, before he was recalled to the first team by new manager Neil Aspin in December to replace the suspended James Gibbons at right back. He was transfer-listed at the end of the 2017–18 season. He joined National League North club York City on 9 November 2018 on a short-term loan. He made his debut the following day, starting in a 2–1 defeat away to Swindon Town in the FA Cup first round. He returned to Vale on 11 January 2019 having made 10 appearances for York.New manager John Askey agreed a deal to release him from his contract early on 1 March. Nantwich Town
<mask> joined Northern Premier League Premier Division club Nantwich Town in March 2019. He won the Cheshire Senior Cup with the club after playing in the 5–2 victory over Cammell Laird 1907 in the final. He also helped Nantwich to reach the play-offs, where they were beaten by Warrington Town in the semi-final. The 2019–20 season was formally abandoned on 26 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with Nantwich sixth in the table. Style of play
Elder brother Harry described him as "a tough tackler... he'll put his head in anywhere". Defensive partner at Port Vale John McCombe added that "he's aggressive and reads the game well."Port Vale teammate Tom Pope added that <mask> is calm in possession and technically sound. Personal life
<mask> was born in Burnley, Lancashire. His father is former Crewe Alexandra manager <mask>, and his elder brother Harry played for Crewe, but is now at Grimsby Town – all three family members are defenders. On 22 February 2014, for 33 minutes of a match at Port Vale, Harry and <mask> played on opposite teams against each other, while their father watched as manager of Crewe. <mask> later stated that the experience had a negative psychological effect on him and also recalled that manager Micky Adams had previously banned him from the training ground in games against Crewe so that he wouldn't divulge tactics to his father. By June 2020, he was studying for a degree in Sports Writing and Broadcasting at Staffordshire University and writing a column in the Blackpool Gazette. Career statistics

Honours
Nantwich Town
Cheshire Senior Cup: 2018–19

References

1993 births
Living people
Footballers from Burnley
English footballers
Association football defenders
Port Vale F.C.players
Luton Town F.C. players
Leicester City F.C. players
Fleetwood Town F.C. players
York City F.C. players
Nantwich Town F.C. players
English Football League players
National League (English football) players
Northern Premier League players
English columnists
Alumni of Staffordshire University

masks:
Joseph Steven Davis
. Davis
Steve Davis
Harry Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Steve Davis
Joe Davis
Joe


texts:
<mask> ( ; June 28, 1941 – July 3, 2006) was an American computer scientist. He was professor of Computer Science at the University of California and University of Oxford, and held research positions at IBM and SRI International. In the 1960's, along with Lotfi Zadeh, Goguen was one of the earliest researchers in fuzzy logic and made profound contributions with lasting influence. In the 1970's Goguen's work was one of the earliest approaches to the algebraic characterisation of abstract data types and he originated and helped develop the OBJ family of programming languages. He was author of A Categorical Manifesto and founder and Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Consciousness Studies. His development of institution theory impacted the field of universal logic. Standard implication in product fuzzy logic is often called "Goguen implication".Goguen categories are named after him. He was married to Ryoko Amadee <mask>, who is a composer, pianist, and vocalist. Education and academic career
Goguen received his bachelor's degree in mathematics from Harvard University in 1963, and his PhD in mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1968, where he was a student of the founder of fuzzy set theory Lotfi Zadeh. He taught at UC Berkeley, the University of Chicago and University of California, Los Angeles, where he was a full professor of computer science. He held a Research Fellowship in the Mathematical Sciences at the IBM Watson Research Center, where he organised the "ADJ" group. He also visited the University of Edinburgh in Scotland on three Senior Visiting Fellowships. From 1979 to 1988, Goguen worked at SRI International in Menlo Park, California.From 1988 to 1996, he was a professor at the Oxford University Computing Laboratory (now the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford) in England and a Fellow at St Anne's College, Oxford. In 1996 he became professor of Computer Science at the University of California, San Diego. Research areas
Goguen's research interests included category theory (a branch of mathematics), software engineering, fuzzy logic, algebraic semantics, user interface design, algebraic semiotics, and the social and ethical aspects of science and technology. In the preface to a book dedicated to Goguen, Futatsugi, Jouannaud
and Meseguer stated that Goguen's work changed the way we think about concepts such as data types,
programming languages and software specification. In a review of Goguen's work on fuzzy sets Radim Belohlavek wrote that
In the early stages of the development of fuzzy systems, Goguen made profound contributions with
lasting influence. Lotfi Zadeh viewed Goguen's 1968 approach to "The Logic of Inexact Concepts" as seminal in the field of fuzzy logic. Goguen's PhD dissertation "Categories of fuzzy sets" was the first work to apply category theory to fuzzy logic, and led to Goguen categories being named after him.Goguen's research in the 1970s was one of the earliest approaches to the characterisation of computational automata from a categorical perspective. Goguen's research with Thatcher, Wagner and Wright (also in the 1970s) was one of the earliest works to formalise the algebraic basis for data abstraction. In the early 1990s Goguen and Rod Burstall developed the theory of institutions, a category-theoretic description of logical systems in computer science. Institution theory impacted the development of universal logic and became one of its most studied aspects. The term "Carnapian Goguenism" is used to refer to the application of institutions to ontologies. Goguen also studied the philosophy of computation and information, formal methods (especially hidden algebra and theorem proving), and relational and functional programming. He wrote a retrospective of his work and its context, Tossing Algebraic Flowers Down the Great Divide.Personal views
Goguen was a practitioner of Tibetan Buddhism. Specifically, since the early 1970s he was a student of Chögyam Trungpa and, after his death in 1987, of his son Sakyong Mipham. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, he was a faculty member of the science program at the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado. Books
 <mask>, <mask>., Algebraic Semantics of Imperative Programs, MIT Press (1996). .
 <mask>, <mask>., and Malcolm, Grant, Software Engineering with OBJ, Springer (2000). .
 Kokichi Futatsugi et al., Algebra, Meaning, and Computation: Essays Dedicated to <mask><mask>, Springer (2006).  . Selected publications
 <mask>, J.A., "L-fuzzy sets", Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications 18 (1): 145–174 (1967). <mask>, J.A., "The logic of inexact concepts", Synthese 19 (3/4): 325–373 (1969). <mask>, J.A.and J.W. Thatcher. "Initial algebra semantics", in Proceedings, Fifteenth Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory, IEEE, pages 63–77 (1974). <mask>, J.A., J. Thatcher, and E. Wagner. "An initial algebra approach to the specification, correctness and implementation of abstract data types", in Current Trends in Programming Methodology, vol. IV: Data Structuring, Raymond T. Yeh (Ed. ), Prentice Hall, pp.80–149 (1978). <mask>, J.A., "A Categorical Manifesto", Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 1 (1): 49–67 (1991). <mask>, J.A. (Ed. ), Art and the Brain, Journal of Consciousness Studies 6 (6/7) (1999). See also
 List of computer scientists

References

External links
 Home page
 Biographical information
 Publications

 Algebra, Meaning, and Computation. A Festschrift in Honor of <mask>n
 Reviews of the first issues of the Journal of Consciousness Studies
 Photograph

1941 births
2006 deaths
Harvard College alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
American computer scientists
Formal methods people
Fellows of St Anne's College, Oxford
Academic journal editors
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford
University of California, San Diego faculty
Naropa University faculty
IBM Fellows
American Buddhists

masks:
Joseph Amadee Goguen
Goguen
Goguen
Joseph A
Goguen
Joseph A
Joseph A
. Goguen
Goguen
Goguen
Goguen
Goguen
Goguen
Goguen
Joseph Gogue


texts:
<mask> (born 10 May 1966) is a Scottish film director and co-founder of the Glasgow-based production company Sigma Films. He has made ten feature films including Young Adam (2003), Hallam Foe (2007), Perfect Sense (2011) and Starred Up (2013). In 2016, <mask>'s film Hell or High Water premiered at Cannes and was theatrically released in the United States in August. The same year he executive produced Damnation, a TV pilot for Universal and USA Network. <mask> also directed Outlaw King (2018), a historical film for Netflix. <mask> and his films have been described as not fitting neatly into any particular genre or type. Life and career

After studying at Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design in Dundee, <mask> began his directorial career with a series of well-regarded shorts, the first being Dirty Diamonds (1994).After that came California Sunshine (1997), Somersault (1999) and Marcie's Dowry (2000). All were nominated for and won numerous awards internationally. <mask>'s debut feature film is titled The Last Great Wilderness (2002). His brother, actor Alastair <mask>, plays a character looking to exact revenge by burning down his wife's lover's house in the Highlands. The film begins as a comedy gangster thriller, then wanders into horror film territory before subverting all expectations and delivering something altogether different instead. It premiered at TIFF in 2002. He followed this with his acclaimed adaptation of Scots beat writer Alexander Trocchi's cult novel, Young Adam (2003).It features Ewan McGregor as a young drifter working on a river barge as he disrupts his employers' lives while hiding the fact that he knows more about a dead woman found in the river than he admits. Tilda Swinton, Peter Mullan and Emily Mortimer also star. The film premiered in the Un Certain Regard, Cannes 2003, and played TIFF and Telluride, winning Best Film and Best Director at the 2004 BAFTA Scotland awards. Tilda Swinton and Ewan McGregor both won Scottish BAFTAs for their performances. The film also won the Michael Powell Award for Best British Feature at EIFF, and British Newcomer of the Year at the London Critics Circle Awards and was nominated for four BIFA nominations and several European Film Academy Awards. In 2005 <mask> directed Asylum, adapted from Patrick McGrath's book and starring Natasha Richardson, Sir Ian McKellen, Hugh Bonneville and Marton Coskas. It follows Richardson's character as she becomes very curious about one of her psychiatrist husband's inmates, a man who was found guilty in the murder and disfigurement of his former wife.It was nominated for Berlin's Golden Bear and won the Prize of the Guild of German Art House Cinemas at the 2005 Berlin International Film Festival. Next, <mask> directed the highly regarded Hallam Foe, starring Jamie Bell and Sophia Myles. The film is adapted from the book by Peter Jinks and follows the voyeuristic title character as he runs away to Edinburgh and becomes transfixed by a beautiful woman who looks uncannily like his late mother. Again, this film won many awards including a Silver Bear in Berlin 2007, the Golden Hitchcock and Kodak Award for Cinematography at the Dinard Festival 2007, and the 2008 National Board of Review Award for Top Independent Film, as well as numerous other awards. In 2009 he directed the sex satire Spread, which marked <mask>'s first feature in the US. The film follows Ashton Kutcher's LA gigolo as he begins living with a rich older client played by Anne Heche. Spread had its premiere at Sundance.<mask> followed this by returning to Glasgow to make sci-fi romance Perfect Sense (2011). The film follows a burgeoning romance between Ewan McGregor and Eva Green against the backdrop of a global pandemic of people losing their senses one by one. The film premiered at Sundance Film Festival in 2011 and picked up awards at film festivals around the world including Edinburgh, Bratislava and Philadelphia International Film Festivals. After Perfect Sense, <mask> directed the comedy musical You Instead (2011) [released as Tonight You're Mine in the United States]. The film stars Luke Treadaway and Natalia Tena as two rival rock stars who get handcuffed together for 24 hours at a music festival where they're both due to perform. It was filmed over five days at the Scottish music festival T in the Park in 2010. The cast and crew had to adopt a kind of guerrilla filmmaking approach to shoot amidst the chaos of a music festival.It premiered at both T in the Park in 2011 and Austin based music and film festival SXSW. <mask>'s next film was the prison drama Starred Up (2013). It features Jack O'Connell as a young offender who is moved into an adult prison where his estranged and incarcerated father resides. O'Connell stars alongside Ben Mendelsohn and Rupert Friend. The film is based on the writer Jonathan Asser's experiences as a voluntary therapist in HM Prison Wandsworth. It premiered at Telluride 2013 and went on to win numerous awards, including the BAFTA Scotland 2014 Best Film and Best Director Awards, get nominated for seven BIFAs and holds a remarkable 99% Rotten Tomatoes score. <mask> returned to the States to make Hell or High Water (2016), starring Chris Pine, Jeff Bridges and Ben Foster.The film follows two brothers (Pine and Foster) as they go on a bank robbing spree across Texas, whilst being pursued by a Texas Ranger (Bridges) and his partner (Gil Birmingham). The film premiered in the 2016 Cannes Un Certain Regard competition, and was met with critical acclaim internationally. It was the highest grossing independent film of 2016 and its achievements have been recognised with four Academy Award nominations - including Best Picture - and several Golden Globe and BAFTA nominations. In late 2016, <mask> directed a TV pilot called Damnation for Universal Cable Productions and the USA Network. Described as an epic saga of the secret history of the 1930s American heartland, it chronicles the mythic conflict and bloody struggle between big money and the downtrodden, God and greed, charlatans and prophets. Damnation was picked up to series by the USA Network in May 2017 and will be released by Netflix outside of the US. In 2018 <mask>'s tenth feature, Outlaw King starring Chris Pine, Aaron Taylor-Johnson, Florence Pugh and Billy Howle, was released on Netflix.The film tells the true <mask> and Goliath story of Scottish king Robert the Bruce as he fights to repel the occupying English army. The film is produced by Gillian Berrie and Sigma Films. On 30 June 2020 <mask>'s short titled What is Essential? debuted on Netflix as part of their anthology series Homemade, which follows stories from 17 filmmakers from around the world during the COVID-19 pandemic. The short was co-devised with his daughter Ferosa and follows her experience turning 16 under lockdown. <mask> lives in Scotland with his partner Hazel Mall and their three children: Ferosa, Luke and Arthur. His father was Royal Navy Rear Admiral <mask> <mask> (3 October 1929 – 26 November 2015) who served from 1943 to 1984 and fought in Falklands War, and his mother was Ursula Sybil Balfour (31 January 1940 – 11 July 2015).They were married in 1965, until their deaths in 2015. Filmography

Film

Short films
 Dirty Diamonds (1994)
 California Sunshine (1997)
 Somersault (2000)
 Marcie's Dowry (2000)

Frequent collaborators

Awards

BAFTA Scotland Awards

British Independent Film Awards

Sigma Films
Along with producer Gillian Berrie, <mask> is a partner in Sigma Films. As well as producing <mask>'s own films, the company has produced other directors' pictures including Andrea Arnold's Red Road (2006), Jonathan Glazer's Under The Skin (2013), Lars von Trier's Dogville (2003) and Robert Carlyle's The Legend of Barney Thomson (2015). Sigma Films founded the production and post-production facility Film City Glasgow and runs Jumpcut, a new-entrants scheme dedicated to providing a fast-track into the screen industries for young and disadvantaged people. References

External links

Director bio

British film directors
1966 births
Alumni of the University of Dundee
Living people
People from Corbridge

masks:
David Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
David
Mackenzie
Mackenzie
David John
Mackenzie
David Mackenzie
Mackenzie