texts:
<mask> (Oqutaq) <mask> (1936 - 2014) was a Cape Dorset (now Kinngait) based Inuk artist from southern Baffin Island. Mikkigak was involved with Cape Dorset printmaking in the program's early years, providing drawn designs for printing. Many of his works were printed and featured in the studio's annual collections, including Eskimo Fox Trapper and three pieces used in the Cape Dorset Studio's 40th anniversary collection. <mask>'s work has also been included in of over twenty group exhibitions and was the subject of multiple solo exhibitions, including a show held by Feheley Fine Arts called Ohotaq Mikkigak: Imagined Landscapes. Career

Formative years
Mikkigak drew for the Cape Dorset printmaking program when it was in its early stages of operation. His first printed work, Eskimo Fox Trapper, was realized in 1961. As the printmaking studio progressed, Mikkigak partially withdrew his participation, beginning to work full-time for numerous community-based agencies.Following his retirement from caretaking at the Peter Pitseolak School in Cape Dorset, Mikkigak returned to drawing, and three of his works were included in the Cape Dorset print studio's 40th anniversary collection (released in 1999). Three lithographed versions of his works used the chine collé technique, and were included in the Annual Print Collection of 2001. A print of Mikkigak's work called Three Ravens (2001-2005) was also included in 2001 catalogue for the West Baffin Eskimo Co-Operative (Kinngait Co-operative). Later career
<mask>'s first solo exhibition of drawings and prints was held in September 2010 at Feheley Fine Arts in Toronto, Ontario. He had another solo show at Feheley Fine Arts in November 2012 called Ohotaq Mikkigak: Imagined Landscapes. Also in 2012, Mikkigak exhibited several large-scale drawings alongside the works of fellow Canadian artist Jack Bush at the Justina M. Barnicke Gallery at the University of Toronto. It is noted that he did not look to colonial artists or art history for artistic inspiration.It has been observed that Inuit artists of Mikkigak's period drew significant inspiration from the apprenticeship structure of Arctic co-ops (such as the Cape Dorset printmaking studio). While Mikkigak was a practicing artist, he worked with James Houston and others based out of the Cape Dorsert (Kinngait) printmaking studio's first location, a government-issued building known as the sanaguavik. Houston was known for encouraging Inuit artists to draw based on their isumanniivit (their own thoughts), which is likely to have influenced Mikkigak's work. Style
Mikkigak's work covered a board spectrum of subjects and themes, and was often done in pencil crayon (a medium that was particularly prevalent among Inuit graphic artists). Mikkigak's work also consistently emphasized the sky and weather patterns, often using an aerial view for the composition. It was common for artists, including Mikkigak, to use Inuktitut syllabics at the bottom of a piece in order to explain the scene in detail, as well as to use larger formats and manipulate scale in order to convey the Arctic landscape's expansiveness. A theme in Mikkigak and other Inuit artists' work is the use of landscapes to represent memories connected to the represented land, rather than purely the reality of the scene depicted.Mikkigak's drawings did not seek to abstract the landscape, despite his later images taking on a more contemporary style and tone. Instead, he took inspiration from both imagined and real spaces in order to represent their expansive and all-encompassing nature, while focalizing Northern Canada as a fertile rather than barren landscape of colour and open space. He is noted for his autobiographical illustrations, and has said that he enjoyed making drawings filled with colour; especially landscapes, and scenes using animals (particularly birds) and people. Personal life
<mask> was married to Qaunak <mask> (sometimes spelled Haunak or Qaunak), an Inuk throat singer and carver. They lived the traditional Inuit lifestyle together before settling in Cape Dorset. Bibliography
 "Available Prints by <mask> Mikkigak." Dorset Fine Arts.Accessed March 16, 2018. http://www.dorsetfinearts.com/available-prints-by-ohotaq-mikkigak/. Campbell, Nancy. "Inuit Artist Ohotaq Mikkigak Draws on Landscapes of Ice and Memory." Canadian Art. November 2, 2012. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://canadianart.ca/features/the-colour-of-ice-ohotaq-mikkigak-and-the-landscape-of-memory/. "Mikkigak, Ohotaq."Canadian Art Prints and Winn Devon. Accessed March 16, 2018. http://capandwinndevon.com/brand/mikkigak-ohotaq/. "Ohotaq Mikkigak." Artsy. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://www.artsy.net/artist/ohotaq-mikkigak. "Ohotaq Mikkigak." DaVic Gallery of Native Canadian Arts.Accessed March 16, 2018. https://nativecanadianarts.com/artist/ohotaq-mikkigak/. "Ohotaq Mikkigak." Dorset Fine Arts. Accessed March 23, 2018. http://www.dorsetfinearts.com/ohotaq-mikkigak/. "Ohotaq Mikkigak." Inuit Art Zone. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://www.inuitartzone.com/collections/mikkigak-ohotaq."Ohotaq Mikkigak." National Gallery of Canada. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://www.gallery.ca/collection/artist/ohotaq-mikkigak. "Ohotaq (Oqutaq) Mikkigak (1936-2014)." Spirit Wrestler Gallery. 2013. Accessed March 16, 2018. http://www.spiritwrestler.com/catalog/index.php?artists_id=64.References

1936 births
2014 deaths
Inuit artists
Inuit from the Northwest Territories
Inuit from Nunavut
People from Kinngait
Canadian printmakers
20th-century Canadian printmakers
21st-century printmakers
Artists from Nunavut

masks: Ohotaq Mikkigak Mikkigak Mikkigak Mikkigak Mikkigak Ohotaq


type: original

texts:
<mask> (known as <mask>) is a Russian singer/musician. She was born in the city of Moscow in the Russian SFSR to a nuclear physicist father and a child psychologist mother. She has released 12 albums and has toured internationally, performing over 1,200 concerts. She currently lives in Los Angeles with her husband/co-writer, Nick Baker, and their daughter, Violetta, and regularly performs on Twitch. Early life
<mask> (<mask>vna <mask>) was born to a nuclear physicist father and a psychologist mother in Moscow, Russia. <mask> started singing and writing songs at an early age. Her father Gennadiy Verenikin is of Russian descent and her mother Irina is half Jewish (her family came from Belorussia in 1870s).<mask>'s middle name means "daughter of Gennadiy." <mask> started singing before she could talk, and writing songs at 4 years of age. Her mother arranged for formal music education, and <mask> attended classical music school each day after the regular school, from age 6 until age 14 (she graduated summa cum laude). When she was 10 years old, <mask> performed one of her original compositions for her piano teacher, who dismissed it as "nonsense." <mask> was discouraged and stopped writing for a while. At the time, the Soviet Union was falling apart and Western culture slowly started appearing on the market; therefore the only music <mask> was exposed to as a child was classical and Russian folk songs. After a friend gave <mask> a bootleg cassette of The Beatles, she was inspired to write songs again.She learned many Beatles songs, which also helped to improve her understanding of the English language. At 15, <mask> won a national competition, beating over 100,000 peers, for a fully funded scholarship (Future Leaders Exchange (FLEX)/Freedom Support Act – sponsored by US Senator Bill Bradley) to study in the United States. After living in Springfield, Illinois for a year, she returned to Moscow, and started working to save enough money to return to the US, where she felt a greater freedom for individual creativity. At the same time, <mask> learned that her mother was moving to Australia, and that the Russian school system would give her no credit for her time studying in America. After graduating from high school at 17, after saving money for a plane ticket, <mask> returned to Springfield, where she enrolled at Illinois College. During this time she battled with severe depression, and began to write more and more songs about her experiences and relationships, channeling her emotions into music. She started performing during her freshman year, and started touring the Midwest.She graduated cum laude with a combined degree in international studies and economics-business and a minor in Spanish. and together with her husband/co-writer, Nick Baker, moved to Los Angeles the week she graduated. Music career

Shortly after she turned 19, <mask> met guitarist Nick Baker, who inspired her to take her musical talents seriously; she sold her pickup truck and bought a piano. She entered in her college's talent competition and sang her original composition "Leaving," winning first prize. She decided then to start recording her music and was able to finance a recording session for her debut CD Let Me Dream through paid pre-orders from students and faculty members. Her first show, at a coffeehouse in Jacksonville, Illinois, was filled to capacity. <mask> and Baker began writing songs together and began touring around Illinois, enjoying considerable success.They decided to move together to Los Angeles, California where they currently reside. Virtually unknown in Los Angeles, <mask> and Baker accepted any gigs they could find — including a successful tour of several Borders Bookstores — and sent out hundreds of demos to anyone and everyone in the music industry. Eventually they caught the attention of David Krebs, a manager who has worked with Don McLean, Trans-Siberian Orchestra, AC/DC and Aerosmith, among others. In 2005, <mask> joined forces with Jack Douglas, whose discography ranges from John Lennon and George Harrison to Aerosmith. Douglas produced two tracks for her Simple Magic album: "Underneath Your Sky" and "Killing My Dream." In Sept 2006, <mask> released her first live album, "Live at SoundMoves," which was recorded in one session at SoundMoves recording studios in Burbank, CA. In 2006, <mask> and Nick Baker toured the Czech Republic and Slovakia.In January 2008, <mask> released "Modern Fairytale," recorded with Nick Baker, <mask>'s band & their friend/engineer Jared Brown at the home studio of legendary musician Graham Nash. In 2009, "Sunshine Guaranteed" from "Modern Fairytale" was featured on a popular iPhone game, Tap Tap Revenge2. The song "Pesnya o Tebe" appears in Direct Contact, a 2009 Danny Lerner film starring Dolph Lundgren. In January 2011, <mask> and Baker released My Star, produced by the Guy Erez (known for his work with the Gipsy Kings, Ryan Cabrera, Jennifer Love Hewitt). It was sponsored entirely by <mask>'s listeners. She raised $30,000 via marinav.com. One of the songs, "Killing My Dream," featured guitarist and former KISS member Bruce Kulick.In February 2011, <mask> and Nick were flown to London to receive an award from Bob Geldof for their song "You Make Me Beautiful", which was a finalist in the international song contest YouBloom. <mask> and Baker wrote the theme song for the 2012 film Truth About Kerry. In 2011, several of <mask>'s songs aired on NBC's soap opera, Days of Our Lives. In July 2011, <mask> released an EP entitled "Small Collection of Interesting Songs," which featured 3 of the featured in the programme. The crowd funded "Inner Superhero" album, featured the song "Hello," with a video filmed in her native Moscow, won the 2013 Entrepreneurs On The Move award. The album was unofficially released in 2013. In October 2014 <mask> appeared at The Grammy Museum In March 2015 <mask> released her first Tour Documentary, "Enjoy The Ride," filmed during her 2014 U.S. Summer Tour, C Minor To Shining Sea.In 2017 <mask> released her next fan-sponsored album, Born To The Stars. The official music video featured cameos from Steel Panther, David Ellefson of Megadeth, Thomas Ian Nicholas of American Pie and Jill Sobule, among many others. In December 2018 <mask> traveled to Moscow with the GRAMMY Museum team to open the first ever GRAMMY Museum exhibit in Russia. Awards
 In November 2009, <mask>'s song "You Make Me Beautiful" was nominated for Hollywood Music Awards
In December 2010, <mask>'s song "You Make Me Beautiful" won the YouBloom International Songwriting Award. Judges included Sir Bob Geldof who personally awarded <mask> her trophy at the Awards Ceremony in London in February 2011
 In September 2013 <mask>'s song "Begu" is featured in a Lifetime TV Movie "Taken: The Search for Sophie Parker"
 In October 2014 <mask> appeared at The Grammy Museum
 In December 2014 <mask> wins the Hollywood International Entertainment Award which recognizes artistic achievement & outstanding careers. In November 2019 <mask> and Dan Navarro win an award from Hollywood Music in Media Awards (HMMAs) for their duet rendition of "We Belong" by Pat Benatar, a 1984 hit penned by Lowen and Navarro. https://www.hmmawards.com/hmma-winners/

Discography

Albums
Let Me Dream (1999)
Lift (2001)
Something of My Own (2002)
Simple Magic (2005)
Marina V: Live at SoundMoves (2006)
Russian Bootleg (2006)
Modern Fairytale (2008)
My Star (2011)
Russian Bootleg Vol.

masks:
Marina Verenikina
Marina V
Marina V
Marina Gendie
Verenikina
Marina
Marina
Marina
Marina
Marina
Marina
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Marina
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Marina


texts:
<mask> (born 1965, in Freiburg in Breisgau) is a German economist, professor and director of the Chair of Strategy and Marketing at the WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Managementin Düsseldorf. Early life and education
<mask> was born in 1965 in Freiburg in Breisgau in Germany. Career

From 1990 to 1995, <mask> was an academic assistant at the Chair for Marketing of Hermann Simon (Manager) at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, getting his doctorate at the beginning of 1996. During this time he spent a semester as a visiting scholar at the Owen Graduate School of Management, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA. <mask> completed his studies at the University of Mannheim, getting his degree in Marketing and Industry (in German: Dipl.-Kfm.). From 2001 to 2003, <mask> was an associate professor at the Chair of Marketing at the University of Paderborn, after having worked as an assistant professor with Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Christian Homburg both at WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management – and the University of Mannheim.During his work as assistant professor he was visiting scholar at the McCombs School of Business, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA, and worked as a consultant on a freelance basis for "Homburg & Partner", later taking over the Management Education side of corporate consulting there. WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management

Since 2003, <mask> had held the Otto Beisheim Endowed Chair of Strategy and Marketing at the WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management. He is also the Speaker of the Marketing and Sales Group, Academic Director of the Center for Market-Oriented Corporate Management (Zentrums für Marktorientierte Unternehmensführung - ZMU), Advisory Board Chairman of the Henkel Center for Consumer Goods (HCCG) and Academic Director of the WHU MBA Program. <mask> is also consulted regularly as a strategic advisor to the consumer goods, retail, and service industries. From 2003 to 2010, <mask> was the academic director of two executive education programs for Metro Group. From 2007 to 2009, <mask> was Vice Dean of the  WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management, and was also Academic Director of the Department of Marketing and Communications, as well as Academic Director of the Master of Science Program. From 2013 until 2014, he was the Chairman of the Marketing Commission of the German Association of Economic Professors (Verband der Hochschullehrer für Betriebswirtschaft VHB).<mask> is a member of the Schmalenbach Society of Business Management (Schmalenbach-Gesellschaft für Betriebswirtschaft) in Cologne, Germany, the Erich Gutenberg Working Group (Erich-Gutenberg Arbeitsgemeinschaft), the German Association of Economic Professors (Verband der Hochschullehrer für Betriebswirtschaft VHB), the American Marketing Association (AMA), the Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) and the European Marketing Academy (EMAC). Research
The main research focus of <mask> and his team are in the areas of pricing, brand management, retail marketing and omnichannel business. <mask> is the author of numerous publications in national and international magazines and newspapers, the Journal of Business Economics, Schmalenbachs Journal of Business Economic Research (Schmalenbachs Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung), Journal of Marketing, Journal of Service Research, the Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing and the Journal of Business Research. Honours

Four years in a row, the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung listed Professor Dr. <mask> in its Economist Ranking among the 100 most influential economists in Germany. In 2017 he was ranked 56th, in 2018 64th, in 2019 68th and in 2020 he took 91th place. He has received several awards for his scientific work. His article "The Role of Soft Factors in Implementing a Service-Oriented Strategy in Industrial Marketing Companies" was voted "Outstanding Article of the Year 2003" by the editorial board of the Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing.His article "Quality of Electronic Services: Conceptualizing and Testing a Hierarchical Model" was awarded the "Best Paper Award" in the topic area "Service Marketing" at the 2005 Summer Marketing Educators' Conference of the American Marketing Association (AMA). The article "Consequences of web-based service quality: Uncovering a multi-faceted chain of effects" was listed as "Top Cited Article 2007-2011" by the Journal of Interactive Marketing. The article "The impact of external social and internal personal forces on consumers' brand community engagement on Facebook" was distinguished with the Highly Commended Paper 2017 award by the Journal of Product & Brand Management. For their book Preismanagement (Price Management) Hermann Simon and <mask> were awarded the Georg-Bergler-Preis für Absatzwirtschaft 2010. This prize is awarded every two years by the magazine "absatzwirtschaft", the German Marketing Association (Deutscher Marketing-Verband) and the German Society of Consumer Research, Nuremberg (Gesellschaft für Konsumforschung, GfK-Nürnberg e.V.) and, with prize money of 20,000 euros, is one of the highest endowed marketing textbook awards in Europe. Selected publications

 Schmitz, A.-K., <mask>, M., Schnabl, L. (2021): Spielraum für höhere Preise nutzen: Wegen der Inflation müssen Anbieter mehr Geld von Kunden verlangen.Aber wie?, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: FAZ, 18.10.2021, S. 16. Simon, H./Fassnacht, M. (2021): Price Management: 正版 价格管理:理论与实践 [德]赫尔曼 西蒙 [Chinese version], Beijing: China Machine Press. <mask>, M./Dahm, J.-M. (2021): Growing luxury brands by increasing the price: does the Veblen effect exist? in: Luxury Research Journal, 2021 Vol.2 No.1/2, pp.99 – 139. Lechermeier, J./Fassnacht, M./Wagner, T. (2020): Testing the influence of real-time performance feedback on employees in digital services, Journal of Service Management, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp.345-371. Schmitz, A.-K./<mask>, M (2020): Premiumization as a profit growth strategy. A framework of strategic options, in: Marketing Review St. Gallen, No. 3/2020, pp. 60-68. <mask>, M./Szajna, M. (2020): Plädoyer für das stationäre Geschäft, in: Lebensmittelzeitung, Ausgabe 4/2020, p. 42. <mask>, M./Mahadevan, J.(2019): Wachsende Handelsmacht, in: Lebensmittelzeitung, Ausgabe 20/2019, p. 28. Simon, H./Fassnacht, M. (2019): Price Management: Zarządzanie cenami [Polish Edition], Warsaw, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Simon, H./Fassnacht, M. (2019): Price Management: Прайс-менеджмент - Стратегия, анализ, решение и реализация, [Russian Version], Moscow: Byblos Publishing. Fassnacht, M./Beatty, S/Szajna, M. (2019): Combating the negative effects of showrooming: Successful salesperson tactics for converting showroomers into buyers, in Journal of Business Research, Vol. 102, pp. 131–139. Simon, H./Fassnacht, M. (2019): Price Management: Strategy, Analysis, Decision, Implementation [English Version], 1st ed.2019, Springer. <mask>, M./Dahm, J.-M. (2018): The Veblen effect and (in)conspicuous consumption – a state of the art article, in: Luxury Research Journal, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 343-371. Lechermeier, J./<mask>, M. (2018): How do performance feedback characteristics influence recipients’ reactions? A state-of-the-art review on feedback source, timing, and valence effects, in: Management Review Quarterly, No.1/2018, pp.1–49. Bergers, D./<mask>, M. (2017): Debiasing Strategies in the Price Management Process, in: Marketing Review St. Gallen, No. 6/2017, pp. 50–58. <mask>, M./Schmitz, A.-K. (2017): Digitization and the Retail Landscape – 10 Theses, in: Marketing Review St. Gallen, No. 5/2017, pp. 10–17.Lechermeier, J. / <mask>, M. / Wagner, T. (2017): The effects of immediate customer feedback on frontline employees´ engagement and service performance, in: Proceedings of the 26th Annual Frontiers in Service Conference, June 22–25, 2017, New York, USA. <mask>, M. (2017): Die Innovationskraft des Marketings. in: Absatzwirtschaft, Sonderausgabe zur dmexco 2017, S. 58–59. Simon, C./ Brexendorf, T.O./ Fassnacht, M. (2016): The impact of external social and internal personal forces on consumers’ brand community engagement on Facebook, in: Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 25 Iss 5 pp. 409 – 423.Simon, H./<mask>, M. (2016): Preismanagement: Strategie - Analyse - Entscheidung Umsetzung, 4. vollständig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler. Scharwey, A. C./Fassnacht M. (2016): Luxury-Specific Dimensions of Customer-Salesperson Relationships, in: Thieme, W. M. (Hrsg. ): Luxusmarkenmanagement: Grundlagen, Strategien und praktische Umsetzung, Wiesbaden: Springer, S. 421–436
 Fassnacht, M./Schmitz, A.-K. (2016): Leistungsbezogene Preisdifferenzierung bei Dienstleistungen, in: Corsten, H./Roth, S. (Hrsg. ): Handbuch Dienstleistungsmanagement, München: Vahlen, S. 789–807. Fassnacht, M./Unterhuber, S. (2016): Consumer Response to Online/Offline Price Differentation, in: Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services.Vol. 28, pp. 137–148. Goetz, D.M./<mask>, M. (2015): Brand Name Strategies for Successful Upward Extension, in: Marketing Review St. Gallen, Vol. 32, No. 5, pp. 26–35.Fassnacht, M./Königsfeld, J. A. (2015): Sales Promotion Management in Retailing: Tasks, Benchmarks, and Future Trends, in: Marketing Review St. Gallen, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 67–77. <mask>, M./Scharwey, A.(2015): Social Distance in Luxury Customer–Salesperson Relationships, in: Bartsch, S./Blümelhuber, C. (Hrsg. ): Always Ahead im Marketing, Festschrift für Prof. Dr. Anton Meyer, Wiesbaden: Gabler, S. 433–448. <mask>, M./Schmidt, T./Pannek, J. (2015): Determinants of Choice Satisfaction in a High-Involvement Product Choice, in: Journal of Management and Marketing Research, Vol. 19, pp. 1–19.Fassnacht, M./ Unterhuber S. (2015): Cross-Channel Pricing: What We Know and What We Need to Know, in: International Journal of Business Research, Vol. 15, Nr. 2, pp. 39–60
 Kluge, P.N./Fassnacht, M. (2015): Selling Luxury Goods Online: Effects of Online Accessibility and Price Display, in: International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, Vol. 43, No. 10/11, pp. 1065–1082
 Fassnacht, M./Szajna, M. (2014): Shoppen, ohne einzukaufen - Der Trend Showrooming im Einzelhandel, in: Gössinger, R./Zäpfel, G.(Hrsg. ): Management integrativer Leistungserstellung, Festschrift für Hans Corsten, Betriebswirtschaftliche Schriften Band 168, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, S. 287–304. Goetz, D. M./Fassnacht, M./Rumpf, K. (2014): Extending Downward is Not Always Bad: Parent Brand Evaluations After Brand Extension to Higher and Lower Price and Quality Levels, in: Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 303–324. Simon, C./Brexendorf, T. O./Fassnacht, M. (2013): Creating Online Brand Experience on Facebook, in: Marketing Review St. Gallen, Vol.30, No. 6, pp. 50–59. Möller, S./Ciuchita,R./Mahr, D./Oderkerken-Schröder, G./<mask>, M. (2013): Uncovering Collaborative Value Creation Patterns and Establishing Corresponding Customer Roles, in: Journal of Service Research, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 471–487.Fassnacht, M./El Husseini, S. (2013): EDLP vs. Hi-Lo Pricing Strategies in Retailing – A State of the Art Article, in: Journal of Business Economics (früher: Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft), Vol. 83, No. 3, S. 259–289. <mask>, M./Kluge, P.N./Mohr, H. (2013): Pricing Luxury Brands: Specificities, Conceptualization, and Performance Impact, in: Marketing ZFP – Journal of Research and Management, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 104–117.Kluge, P.N./Königsfeld, J.A./Fassnacht, M./Mitschke, F. (2013): Luxury Web Atmospherics: An Examination of Homepage Design, in: International Journal of Retailing & Distribution Management, Vol. 21, No. 11/12, pp. 901–916. Simon, H./Zatta, D./<mask>, M. (2013): Price Management, II. Strumenti operative e applicazioni settoriali [Italian Version], Milano: FrancoAngeli. Simon, H./Zatta, D./Fassnacht, M. (2013): Price Management.I. Strategia, analisi e determinazione del prezzo [Italian Version], Milano: FrancoAngeli. References

1965 births
German economists
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz alumni
Writers from Freiburg im Breisgau
Living people

masks:
Martin Fassnacht
Fassnacht
Fassnacht
Fassnacht
Fassnacht
Fassnacht
Fassnacht
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Fassnacht
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Martin Fassnacht
Martin Fassnacht
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texts:
Archduke <mask> of Austria, later <mask>-Lothringen (10 February 1895 – 18 August 1948), also known as Vasyl Vyshyvani (), was an Austrian archduke, a colonel of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, and a poet, a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. Biography

Background and early life

Archduke <mask> was the youngest son of Archduke Karl Stephan and Archduchess Maria Theresia, Princess of Tuscany. He was born in a family estate on the Lošinj island, Austrian Littoral (present day Croatia). During his arrest by the Soviet authorities he indicated the city of Pola (at the time of arrest in Italy, today Pula, Croatia). <mask> also indicated that his social class is "of landowners" (, pomeschik; Lord of the manor) and he has no occupation. The last one was not accurate as at the moment of arrest he was a businessman-entrepreneur. <mask> was growing up in parental estate located in Polish city of Żywiec, Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.His father was a patriot of Poland and had inferior feelings towards Ukrainian population. Accommodating the 19th-century rise of nationalism, he decided that his branch of the Habsburg family would adopt a Polish identity and would combine a loyalty to their Habsburg family with a loyalty to Poland. Accordingly, he had his children learn Polish from an early age and tried to instill in them a sense of Polish patriotism. His oldest son, Karl-Albrecht, would become a Polish officer who refused to renounce his Polish loyalty even under torture by the Gestapo. Karl Stephan's two younger daughters would marry into the Polish noble families of Radziwill and Czartoryski. <mask>, the youngest child, rebelled, and came to identify with the Poles' rivals, the Ukrainians. The younger <mask> was told about Ukrainians to be bandits and a tribe of robbers.In 1912 when he was 17 <mask> decided see this mysterious people firsthand. He boarded a train and incognito traveled to Worochta (Vorokhta) and then through number of Hutsul villages. Failing to find any robbers, he developed a fascination with Ukrainian culture that he kept for the rest of his life. This interest in the relatively impoverished Ukrainian people earned him the nickname of the "Red Prince". Eventually the Habsburgs came to accept and encourage this interest, and according to Timothy Snyder he was groomed by them to take a leadership role amongst the Ukrainian people in a manner similar to the one in which his father and older brother were to take amongst the Habsburgs' Polish subjects. World War I

As <mask> studied at the Vienna War College, there began the World War I. Upon graduation in 1915 he went to the frontlines starting his military service in a company of the 13th Galicia Lancer (Ulan) Regiment.The regiment was dominated by Ukrainians around Zoloczow (Zolochiv). While serving in the regiment <mask> started to read works of Mykhailo Hrushevsky, Ivan Franko, Taras Shevchenko and others. His soldiers gave him as a present a Ukrainian embroidered shirt-vyshyvanka which he carried under his uniform. Habsburg asked his soldiers to call him Vasyl and later for the embroidered shirt was nicknamed as Vyshyvanyi. During that period he repeatedly had to defend the Galician Ukrainians whom the local administration consisted predominantly of Poles were arresting under suspicion of disloyalty to Austria-Hungary. In 1916 <mask> was returned from the frontlines as reaching the age of 21 any member of the Habsburg House automatically were becoming a deputy of the Austria-Hungary parliament. In parliament he came to work closely with Ukrainian deputies to the parliament of the Austro-Hungary and Metropolitan bishop Andrei Sheptytsky and served as a liaison between the Ukrainian community leaders and Austria's emperor Charles I whom <mask> knew since childhood and was able to pay him official visit in the beginning of 1917.As the most acceptable course to solve the "Ukrainian issue", for <mask> it seemed a creation of autonomous Great Duchy of Ukraine within reformed on federalist principles Habsburg monarchy (see United States of Greater Austria). To that Duchy beside the Eastern Galicia and Bucovina could include Ukrainian lands that at that time belonged to the Imperial Russia and which had to be reconquest. Some researchers (i.e. Timothy Snyder) claim that in future <mask> saw himself as a head of state for the duchy as being an ideal candidate for the role first of all as a member of the ruling family, and second as one who already knows the language and has authority among Ukrainians. In similar way when in 1916 there was restored the Kingdom of Poland the father of <mask> was considered the main candidate for the crown. According to other historians, Vasyl Vyshyvanyi personally did not lay a claim to the "Ukrainian throne" and later wrote about it stating that he would lead Ukraine only in case if majority of its residents wanted. Ukrainian–Soviet War
Meanwhile the Russian Empire fell apart and there appeared the Ukrainian People's Republic and according to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (initiated by the Bolsheviks) Austria-Hungary and the German Empire signed to help Ukraine militarily in its struggle against Bolsheviks.Promoted to the rank of captain, Vasyl Vyshyvanyi was placed in charge of the "Battle Group Archduke Wilhelm", created by the Emperor Charles I, and provided with approximately 4,000 Ukrainian soldiers and officers under his command from the Austrian Legion of Sich Riflemen and was directed to the Ukrainian South where they fought Bolsheviks. At first the Austrian forces entered the already liberated Kherson and later for two months left in Aleksandrovsk (today Zaporizhia) where the Archduke launched a turbulent activity: building connections between the Galician riflemen and local population, cooperated with local public organization of Prosvita, to lift military spirit along with his subordinates he visited iconic places of the Cossack history. His troops occupied a small area near the site of the old Zaporozhian Sich, and were tasked with supporting the Ukrainian national cause in any way possible. This was done by screening officials by ethnicity, creating a newspaper, and engaging in cultural work with local peasants. <mask> mixed easily with the local peasants, who admired his ability to live simply like his soldiers. Within <mask>'s personal occupation zone, peasants were allowed to keep the lands that they had taken from the landlords in 1917, and <mask> prevented the Habsburg armed forces from requisitioning grain. Ukrainians who had resisted requisitioning elsewhere - including those who had killed German or Austrian soldiers - were given refuge within <mask>'s territory.During time the warriors of Vasyl Vyshyvanyi came in close cooperation with warriors-Skhidniaky (for "Easterners"), particularly members of Zaporizhia Corps of the Ukrainian Army. These actions outraged Germany and Austrian officials in Kiev, but increased his popularity among local Ukrainians, who referred to him as affectionately as "Kniaz Vasyl" (local correspondence to Archduke <mask>). In April 1918 in Ukraine took place a coup-d'état which overthrew the Ukrainian republican government and placed former Imperial Russian general of the Svita (H. I. M. Retinue) Pavlo Skoropadsky as the Hetman of Ukraine (local princely title). During the period of the Ukrainian State, the Germans feared that <mask> would create a coup and overthrow the Hetman. The Hetman was disliked by soldiers of the Zaporizhia Corps and Legion of Sich Riflemen. In circles of the Zaporizhia Division officers a plan was formed to overthrew now the Hetman and place Archduke <mask> a sovereign of Ukraine. Among the most active supporters of the idea was Colonel Petro Bolbochan (later executed on order of Symon Petlura).The Archduke was uncertain of the proposition and sought consultations of Charles I who did not approve it as it would lead into disagreement with Germans. According to some researchers, the Habsburgs hoped for Ukraine to be a politically self-sufficient ally in order to counter German power. <mask> and his soldiers were finally recalled out of Ukraine in October 1918 due to the revolutionary conditions there, moving to the Austrian Bukovina. In Czernowitz (today Chernivtsi) he was placed in hospital due to tuberculosis. Through his intervention, in October 1918 two regiments of mostly Ukrainian troops were garrisoned in Lemberg (modern Lviv). This would set the stage for the declaration of the West Ukrainian National Republic on 1 November. As he laid in the hospital, the World War I ended, Austria-Hungary fell apart, and the Habsburgs lost their throne.In the Eastern Galicia was proclaimed the West Ukrainian National Republic, while Ukrainians of Bucovina tried to unite their land with the new Ukrainian republic, but unsuccessfully. The Bucovina was occupied by the Romanian forces against whom fought Austria-Hungary and <mask> to avoid arrest fled to Lviv. As Lviv was occupied now by Polish forces, <mask> again was forced to leave it moving to the Carpathian region where he was hiding in local monasteries for almost half a year. Meanwhile while Germany was withdrawing its troops from Ukraine, the regime of Skoropadsky in Ukraine was overthrown by republican forces of "Directoria" led by Volodymyr Vynnychenko and Symon Petlura and already no one else was offering <mask> to become a sovereign of Ukraine. As a Habsburg, he had become a liability to the Ukrainian cause, which was being portrayed to the Allies by its Polish enemies as an Austrian plot. In June 1919 while traveling across Carpathians, <mask> was arrested by Romanian soldiers and detained for three months until on petition of the Ukrainian People's Republic he was released. He then left for Kamianets-Podilsky that served as a capital of Ukraine.After pledging loyalty to the Ukrainian People's Republic, he was made a colonel and headed a section of international relations of the General Staff Main Department within the Ukrainian Army. In protest at Petlura's peace treaty with Poland in 1920, which he considered to be a betrayal, he resigned and lived in exile in Vienna. Interbellum period
In an interview in a Viennese newspaper in January 1921, <mask> publicly rebuked Poland, condemning the pogroms in Lwów as something that would never happen in a civilized country, and referring to Poland and Poles as dishonorable. This caused a permanent, public estrangement between <mask> and his father Stephan. Formally he continued to be on payroll a colonel of the Ukrainian Army for a little while until the Austrian press published his anti-Polish declarations. Following that the Ukrainian government that temporarily moved to Poland officially fired him. In 1921 <mask> published a book of poetry in Ukrainian, Mynayut Dni (Минають дні - The days pass).In circles of Ukrainian political emigrants a hope was burning that the loss is not yet final and the Soviet regime could still be overthrown. In Vienna Habsburg became involved with pro Ukrainian monarchists who saw in him an opportunity, but nothing came out of it. According to laws of the newly formed Austrian Republic every Habsburg may become a citizen and as well as residency only if would officially abandon any claims to govern. <mask> chose not to abandon those claims and de jure lived in Vienna illegally. Finally in 1922 he managed to obtain an empty Austrian passport where he inscribed his new name as Vasyl Vyshyvanyi. Under his Ukrainian name Vasyl Vyshyvani, he left Austria for Spain in 1922 from which he hoped in vain to obtain financial support for his Ukrainian adventure from his cousin, King Alfonso XIII. After Spain became republic in 1931 Vyshyvanyi moved to Paris.In 1933 father of <mask> died and the <mask>'s brothers, who inherited a brewery and land lots in Żywiec, Poland, paid off <mask>'s debts and provided him a monthly stipend. In Paris Vyshavanyi renewed his communications with Ukrainians when members of the newly formed Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) found him. He twice met with head of OUN Yevhen Konovalets. Through <mask>, nationalists tried to find new sources of financing. In 1935 or 1934 he became enmeshed in a criminal case in which his girlfriend Paulette Couyba tried with a help of false bank check swindle a French investor (dealers of alcohol) of hundreds of thousands of Francs. <mask> was invited to the meeting between Couyba and the investor, possibly to built a trust. Himself as <mask> later claim did not understand what was taking place.The arrested woman at first pleaded guilty, but later began to shift the blame on <mask> stating that the ill-gotten money were supposed to go to return Habsburgs to power. The sensationalistic news was picked up by the French left-wing news media which was irritated by the mere surname of the Austrian. The press sentenced <mask> already before trial and fearing unjust verdict <mask> fled Paris for Vienna. An informant for the French police claimed that <mask> carried on a sexual relationship with two of his male assistants. The judges sentenced him to five years in prison, while Couyba was released. The American historian Timothy Snyder, an author of book about <mask> "Red Prince", considers him not guilty of that crime. The researcher as some contemporaries of <mask> do not exclude that it was a set diversion of some foreign intelligent forces (i.e.Poland, Czechoslovakia, Soviet Union) that supposed to strike the Habsburgs' reputation and prevent their restoration. That theory is supported by the fact that Couyba under a false name and fictitious pretext unsuccessfully tried to go to Austria, possibly publicize the scandal in Austria. By that time the Austrian authorities were more supportive for Habsburgs than in the 1920s and did not demand renunciation from them. <mask> finally was able to receive official Austrian citizenship and passport with his real name. For sometime <mask> considered himself a supporter of Austrian and Italian fascists, but by end of 1930s became more sympathetic towards German Nazis, which most of Habsburgs did not support and feelings were mutual. It seemed that the new war in Europe was imminent and it could give Ukrainians a chance to restore its sovereignty and also seemed that only Germany was interested in that to happen. <mask> greeted the 1938 Anschluss of Austria and officially recognized himself belonging to the German nation.Soon however, <mask> realized that the Hitlerites would not allow for creation of independent Ukraine even as a puppet state similar to Slovakia and Croatia. After he and his brother Karl Albrecht were arrested and interrogated by Gestapo, <mask> changed his political views and soon joined the local anti-Nazi resistance in Vienna. World War II, French resistance, and Banderites
It is uncertain when <mask> turned against Nazis, but according to Snyder he possibly already was spying for some intelligence services, possibly the British SIS which financed and supported resistance movements throughout whole Europe, by the start of 1942. Eventually he became a spy for the French resistance against the Nazis and then the Soviet Union. In 1944 he became acquainted with some French national Paul

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texts:
 Maas who in some documents mentioned as Masse, but possible the name is pseudonym in any case. Germans deported Maas from France to Vienna and forced him to work at the military aviation factory, creating blueprints. Maas had connections with British intelligence or French resistance movement (or possibly both).He handed over to his curators copies of factory blueprints for parts. <mask> accepted Maas' offer to fight the occupiers together. Thanks to his acquaintances with German officers, <mask> became a source of valuable information. From him the Frenchman was receiving information about the movement of Nazi troops as well as German war industry in Austria. Later at interrogations Habsburg said that he was driven exclusively by the hatred to Nazism. Also during the World War II, <mask> befriended with another Ukrainian Roman Novosad who was a student at the Vienna Music Academy. He lived close, knew Maas, and helped with some requests of Frenchmen.Through Novosad in 1944 <mask> heard about someone by name of Lidia Tulchyn who happened to be a contact for the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Bandera faction (her real name Hanna Prokopych). At the end of war the Ukrainian nationalists became aware that their chance to survive facing the Soviet threat was the union with western winning countries. The Americans, British, and French could have been interested in such union, as they worried about strengthening of the Soviet Union by results of the war. <mask> decided to become a middle man between OUN and those who stood after Maas. Through Novosad, <mask> was acquainted Lidia with the Frenchman who agreed to cooperate with the Ukrainian nationalists and gave Lidia her first task to find German documents for a British pilot who was downed in Austria. Lidia had accomplished it. Eventually from her <mask> became informed that to Vienna arrived someone very important from OUN.At first <mask> met with him at the Novosad's apartment where he became familiar that the person was called Dmytro-Volodymyr and later also introduced him to Maas. In reality Dmytro-Volodymyr was Myroslav Prokop who was one of leaders of OUN and Ukrainian Main Liberation Council (UHVR). In 1945 Abwehr arrested Maas, but despite torture he did not give away anyone. The Red Army soon entered Vienna and Maas was freed. However, soon he was arrested again by the Soviet SMERSH, but later released and left for his native France. Lidia also left Vienna and appeared in the camp of displaced persons in Bavaria, which was occupied by Americans. <mask> and Novosad decided to stay in Vienna, but risked falling into hands of the Soviets SMERSH.But soon the city was divided into occupation zones and their house appeared under British authority. Also during the war Habsburg received monetary compensation from the German Reich for a family property in Zywiec confiscated by Nazis. With these funds he founded three small companies in production of paint, varnish, and synthetic resin. He also joined the right-wing Austrian People's Party that won the first elections in the revived Austria and formed government. His Soviet dossier also contains a member certification of some post war Austrian Anti-Fascist Organization for <mask>-Lothringen. At some point Maas introduced <mask> to his colleague Jack Brier who in his turn in 1946 introduced Habsburg to French military officer Jean Pélissier. The latter informed that he was tasked by the French authorities revive contacts with Ukrainian nationalists who continued to fight the Soviet regime.Confrontation between yesterday's allies, the collective West and the Soviet Union, was becoming more obvious and eventually had grown into what now is known as the Cold War. The French representatives promised help with delivering by planes political agitation on the Soviet territory as well as Ukrainian militants who would join the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA). At first the French representatives requested to meet personally with Stepan Bandera, but since it was too complicated agreed to meet someone from his closer associates. After listening to Pélissier, <mask> thought of Lidia, but she was somewhere in camps and his connection with her had been lost. Then Habsburg and the Frenchman decided to send Novosad to find her and, even though it was dangerous, he agreed. From Pélissier Novosad received a pass to the French occupational zone in Austrian west where it was indicated that Novosad traveled to Innsbruck conduct at a concert. Novosad managed it, not only he reached Munich without drawing attention of Soviet military, but he also found in a camp Lidia-Hanna.As result after sometime in hotel of an Innsbruck suburb for two days met Pélissier, Mykola Lebed, Roman, Lidia, and Jack Brier. The negotiations were primarily held among Pélissier and Lebed and Novosad did not know which exactly agreements were reached, but heard from Frenchmen that they were satisfied. About at the same time through <mask> the French intelligence recruited another Ukrainian Vasyl Kachorovsky. Soviet arrest

In March 1947 at his apartment in the American occupational zone of Vienna Kachorovsky too loudly celebrated his birthday and upset neighbors called a police. The Austrian law officers handed the detained over the Soviet military or chekists. The Ministry of State Security (MGB) Counter-Intelligence Department (SMERSH) of the Central Group of Forces that was based in Austria was already interested in Kachorovsky and several months before tried to detain him, but the strong man then managed to fight them off and flee. After interrogations of Kachorovsky in MGB became aware who were Roman Novosad and Vasyl Vyshyvanyi, while the latter one obviously had previously been trapped in field of vision of the Soviet secret service.After several months of hunting after, they first detained Novosad and then Vyshyvanyi, de facto Novosad was detained on 14 June and Habsburg on 26 August. In most documents appear dates not detention, but rather arrest when against them have already taken preventive measures 26 June and 22 September respectively. Snyder writes that Kachorovsky soon was executed, while it is unclear from what source is that information. Novosad and Habsburg were held and interrogated in the Soviet MGB jail in Baden bei Wien. Against both of them opened one for two criminal case which to this day kept in the Kiev archive. Later Roman was recollecting that "relationship to <mask> as for chekists was quite proper", which leads to assume that he was not tortured. About relationship them to himself Novosad wrote nothing.The Archduke was given a personal plate for food, while other arrested of the jail had one plate for two. During his imprisonment on the question of his preferred language for testimony <mask> answered that he can do it in Ukrainian language, but nonetheless the protocols were written in Russian. Several earlier protocols end with a phrase "The protocol is written down from my words correctly. It was read to me in comprehendible Russian language", but later were switched from "Russian" to "Ukrainian". Novosad stated that can give in Russian and Ukrainian and the investigators stopped at his first choice. The investigators were pretty interested in the <mask>'s distant past and his personal contacts with figures of the First Liberation War i.e. Petro Bolbochan, Symon Petlura, Pavlo Skoropadsky, but the most attention was paid to cooperation with Maas, Pélissier, and Lidia Tulchyn.At his interrogation the Archduke tried to down play his role in the Ukrainian revolution, for example he claimed that in 1919 during times of Directoria in Kamianets-Podilsky he was an interpreter. Also in earlier protocols Habsburg said that the meeting near Innsbruck was dedicated to not making contacts between Frenchmen and OUN, but the fate of Ukrainians in the camps for displaced people. But with time recognized everything about what Novosad already managed to tell. Despite that suspects every time were placing their signatures under the phrase "written correctly from my words", some answers in protocols obviously were formulated by the investigators. "My stay in Ukraine was the result of an aggressive policy of Austria-Hungary imperialistic and ruling circles", hardly Habsburg spoke in such Soviet propagandistic clichés. This feature is characteristic of many protocols of the Stalin era. In November 1947 the chekists of the Central Group of Forces decided to transfer the case and the arrested to their Ukrainian colleagues and before the New Year they brought them to Kiev.The interrogations were renewed already in January 1948 after the holidays. The Ukrainian investigators did not start from beginning, but rather turned to the subject that interested them the most, the Brits. The chekists insisted that Novosad and Habsburg through Maas deliberately worked specifically for the Great Britain special services, not the French Resistance intelligence. At beginning Habsburg tried to resist and persuaded that Novosad told about Maas connections with Brits after the latter already returned to France, but later gave up and admitted (or "admitted"). Interrogation continued until May 1948, subsequently, the defendants were transferred from the MGB internal jail to the MVD jail #1, better known as Lukyanovska prison. Beside the testimonies of Habsburg, Novosad, Kachorovsky, to the case were also added as evidence filed the testimony of several others Ukrainian nationalists. One of them, for example, claimed that heard about contacts of Habsburg with the OUN.They also filed an extract from a book "Ukrainskie sechevye streltsy" that was published in Lwow in 1935 mentioning about the stay of William at the Ukraine's south in 1918. Indictment
In his indictment, <mask> was charged with the following:
 During World War I "carried out the aggressive plans of the Austro-Hungarian ruling circles and prepared to become the hetman of Ukraine"
 Fought against the Soviet Army in 1918 (in reality it was the Red Army)
 Served under Symon Petlura
 Launched nationalist activities in exile
 In 1944 he was recruited by the British intelligence and performed its tasks (A strange bullet as in the indictment it is nothing said about the role of Habsburg in establishing contacts between Maas and OUN, only with Germans.) In 1945 he was an agent of the French intelligence service, recruited agents, organized negotiations with OUN and Austrian People's Party

Timothy Snyder justly notes about the charges, "Soviet legislation was retroactive and extraterritorial, it was stretching for decades before formation of the Soviet Union and across lands over which Moscow never had its sovereignty". The Novosad's list was smaller: belonging to the nationalist organization "Sich" (in reality it was a society of Ukrainian students in Vienna established in 1868), connections with Habsburg and OUN, worked for English and French intelligence services. The indictment contains articles of two criminal codes at once: for the Penal Code of Russian SFSR relied chekists in Vienna, while for the Penal Code of Ukrainian SSR – in Kiev. Roman was charged with espionage and participation in counter-revolutionary organization, <mask> the same thing plus "armed uprising or invasion for counter-revolutionary purposes over the Soviet territory". These were all different paragraphs of the same "counter-revolutionary" article, in Ukrainian penal code it was the article 54, in Russian – 58.As most "counter-revolutionary" cases of that time, the fate of Habsburg and Novosad had to be decided not in court but by the MGB Special Meeting. It was an extrajudicial organ that carried out their decision in the mode of "conveyor belt", without any defendants, witnesses, or lawyers. In fact, the decision was made by Limarchenko who signed the indictment: he was asking the Special Meeting sentenced both to 25 years of forced labor camps. At that moment it was the maximum punishment as the year earlier the Soviet authorities for some time abolished the death penalty. Then Limarchenko issued a ruling according to which Roman and Vasily were to sit in a MVD special camp. The Special Meeting that held session in July 1948 decided, as the investigation requested, giving both the accused 25 years of imprisonment. At the same time, Roman had to serve his sentence in the camp, and Wilhelm - in prison, which was much more difficult.On 12 August, chekists in Moscow determined exactly where <mask> would sit, in the infamous Vladimir Central Prison (Vladimirsky Tsentral), which had a special status. But they ran out of time before officially announcing the decision of Special Meeting to <mask>, as on 1 July from the 17th chamber of the Lukyanovka Prison he was delivered to the prison hospital. The prisoner complained about weakness, dizziness, cough, and pain in heart and chest. The doctors discovered bilateral cavernous pulmonary tuberculosis in open form. At 23rd hour on 18 August 1948 <mask> died from tuberculosis after spending a month and half in the hospital. The documents do not inform where he was buried. There is an assumption that the nameless grave is located in the courtyard of the prison or the Lukyanovka Cemetery.Austria sent requests for the fate of its citizen to the Soviet Union. In response, there came only a certificate of sentence, while the death of the prisoner was hidden. There were even rumors throughout Vienna that <mask> was seen alive in the Soviet Union. In 1952, the authorities of the Austrian Republic decided: a passport was issued to him illegally in the 1930s - after all, he did not give up his right to the throne - and therefore revoked his citizenship. Rehabilitation

During the times of perestroika in 1989, the Soviet Office of Military Prosecutor fully rehabilitated both Habsburg and Novosad. It was Novosad who became the author of first publication about <mask> in the independent Ukraine, in 1992 his recollections printed the magazine "Ukrayina". By that time the name of Archduke was forgotten.In 1994 the declassified case of Habsburg and Novosad was transferred from the SBU Archive to the Central State Archive of public associations of Ukraine. In 2005 all personal documents and photographs of Habsburg that were kept in his dossier were transferred through the German Ambassador in Ukraine Dietmar Stüdemann to <mask>'s nephew and citizen of Germany Leo Habsburg-Lothringen. In dossier were kept copies of the documents. Ancestry

Notes

Further reading
 Timothy Snyder, The Red Prince: The Secret Lives of A Habsburg Archduke (Basic Books, 2008);

External links

 On the biography of <mask>
 HABSBURG–LOTRINGEN, Archduke <mask>
 Archduke <mask> Österreich-Toskana

1895 births
1948 deaths
People from Pula
Austrian people who died in prison custody
Austrian people who died in Soviet detention
Slavicization
Inmates of Lukyanivska Prison
20th-century Austrian poets
Ukrainian male poets
Austro-Hungarian people of World War I
Spies who died in prison custody
Western spies against the Eastern Bloc
Ukrainian War of Independence
Austrian princes
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria
Recipients of the Iron Cross, 2nd class
LGBT writers from Austria
LGBT poets
Theresian Military Academy

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<mask> or Boudicca (, ), also known as Boadicea (, also ) or Boudicea, and in Welsh as  (), was a queen of the British Iceni tribe who led an uprising against the conquering forces of the Roman Empire in AD 60 or 61. According to Roman sources, shortly after the uprising failed, she poisoned herself or died of her wounds, although there is no actual evidence of her fate. She is considered a British folk hero. <mask>'s husband Prasutagus, with whom she had two children whose names are unknown, ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome, and left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and to the Roman emperor in his will. However, when he died, his will was ignored, and the kingdom was annexed and his property taken. According to Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped. Cassius Dio explains Boudica's response by saying that previous imperial donations to influential Britons were confiscated and the Roman financier and philosopher Seneca called in the loans he had forced on the reluctant Celtic Britons.In AD 60 or 61, when the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning on the island of Mona (modern Anglesey) on the northwest coast of Wales, Boudica led the Iceni, the Trinovantes, and others in revolt. They destroyed Camulodunum (modern Colchester), earlier the capital of the Trinovantes but at that time a , a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers and site of a temple to the former Emperor Claudius. Upon hearing of the revolt, Suetonius hurried to Londinium (modern London), the 20-year-old commercial settlement that was the rebels' next target. He lacked sufficient numbers to defend the settlement, and he evacuated and abandoned Londinium. Boudica led a very large army of Iceni, Trinovantes, and others against a detachment of the , defeating them, and burning Londinium and Verulamium. An estimated 70,000–80,000 Romans and Britons were killed in the three cities by those following Boudica, many by torture. Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces, possibly in the West Midlands; despite being heavily outnumbered, he decisively defeated the Britons.The crisis caused Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from Britain, but Suetonius's victory over Boudica confirmed Roman control of the province. <mask> then either killed herself to avoid capture (according to Tacitus), or died of illness (according to Cassius Dio). Interest in these events was revived in the English Renaissance and led to <mask>'s fame in the Victorian era. Boudica has remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom. Name

Boudica has been known by several versions of her name. In the 16th century, Raphael Holinshed called her Voadicia, while Edmund Spenser called her Bunduca, a variation of which was used in the popular Jacobean play Bonduca of 1612. In the 18th century, William Cowper's poem Boadicea, an ode (1782) popularised an alternative version of the name.Her name was spelt Boudicca in the most complete manuscripts of Tacitus, which through investigation of the language of the Celts was also proven to be misspelt with the addition of the second 'c.' The misspelling by Tacitus was copied, and further deviations of her name began to appear. Along with the second 'c' becoming an 'e,' in place of the 'u' appeared an 'a;' this is where the medieval (and most common) spelling 'Boadicea' is derived from. In the later, and probably secondary, epitome of Cassius Dio in Greek she was , , and . Kenneth Jackson concludes, based on the later development in Welsh () and Irish (), that the name derives from the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective *boudīkā 'victorious', that in turn is derived from the Celtic word *boudā 'victory' (cf. Irish  (Classical Irish ) 'victory', Scottish Gaelic  'victorious; effective', Welsh ,  'victorious',  'victory'), and that the correct spelling of the name in Common Brittonic (the British Celtic language) is Boudica, pronounced . The Gaulish version is attested in inscriptions as Boudiga in Bordeaux, Boudica in Lusitania, and Bodicca in Algeria.The closest English equivalent to the vowel in the first syllable is the ow in "bow-and-arrow". John Rhys suggested that the most comparable Latin name, in meaning only, would be "Victorina". Alternatively, Graham Webster claims the name can be directly translated as "Victoria." History

Historical sources
There are two primary sources from the classical period which reported on Boudica specifically, namely Tacitus and Cassius Dio. Tacitus' mention of <mask> appears in only two of his vast number of works: the Annals, c.AD 115-117; and the Agricola, c. AD 98. Both were published many years after <mask>'s revolt, but Tacitus had an eyewitness at his disposal for the retelling of some of the events; his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola served in Britain three times as a military tribune under Suetonius Paulinus; it was during Suetonius' absence that Tacitus says the Britons began to congregate under <mask>. Cassius Dio's account, published over a century after <mask>'s death, is only known from an epitome, written by John Xiphilinus.Dio provides a considerable amount of information not found in the work of Tacitus, suggesting that the sources he used were lost long ago. It is generally agreed that Dio based his account on that of Tacitus, but simplifies the sequence of events. The abuses which Boudica and her daughters suffered at the hands of the Romans is not mentioned in Dio's account, instead he cites three different causes for the rebellion: the recalling of loans that were given to the Britons by Seneca; Decianus Catus' confiscation of money formerly loaned to the Britons by the Emperor Claudius; and Boudica's own entreaties. Tacitus depicts Boudica as a victim of Roman slavery and licentiousness, her fight against both of which made her a champion of barbarian and British liberty. It is also for this reason that Tacitus' narrative depicts Boudica as the standard of bravery as a free woman, rather than just a queen, sparing her the negative connotations associated with queenship in the ancient world. Both Tacitus (Tac. Annals.14.35) and Dio (Dio Cass. 62.3-6) incorporate fictitious speeches by <mask> in their work. These types of pre-battle speeches were invented by ancient historians as a means of arousing dramatic and rhetorical considerations from the reader. <mask>, being neither Greek nor Latin herself, would not have addressed her people in either language, and it is unlikely that either Tacitus or Dio would have been able to accurately recount any of her speeches. These speeches, though imaginary, portray an image of patriotism that laid the groundwork for the legend of <mask> to endure as the first real champion of the British people. Background

Cassius Dio describes her as very tall and most terrifying in appearance, she had tawny hair hanging down to below her waist, a harsh voice and a piercing glare. He writes that she habitually wore a large golden necklace (perhaps a torc), a colourful tunic, and a thick cloak fastened by a brooch.Boudica was the wife of King Prasutagus, ruler of the Iceni, a people who inhabited what is now modern Norfolk. When the Roman conquest of southern Britain began in AD 43 under the Emperor Claudius, Prasutagus allied his people with the Romans. The Iceni were proud of their independence, and had revolted in AD 47 when the then Roman governor Publius Ostorius Scapula planned to disarm all the peoples in the area of Britain under Roman control following a number of local uprisings. Ostorius defeated them and went on to put down other uprisings around Britain. The Iceni remained independent under Prasutagus, suggesting they were not absorbed into the Roman Empire after the first revolt. It is unknown whether he became the king only after Ostorius's defeat of the Iceni; but his status as a friendly king suggests he was a pro-Roman ruler, supporting the invasion of AD 43 and helping the Romans during the revolts in AD 47 to 48. Further evidence of Prasutagus' alliance with the Romans can be found in his will.Upon his death in AD 60/61, he left half of his fortune to his two daughters and the other half to the Roman Emperor Nero. Tacitus does not date the start of Prasutagus's reign and first mentioned him, as a long-reigning king who had died, when he wrote about <mask>'s rebellion. Tacitus mentions longstanding reasons for the Trinovantes (a tribe of people from what is now modern Essex) to hate Rome and join forces with the Iceni: "It was against the veterans that their hatred was most intense. For these new settlers in the colony of Camulodunum drove people out of their houses, ejected them from their farms, called them captives and slaves ...."

The immediate cause of the rebellion was gross mistreatment by the Romans. Tacitus wrote,"The Icenian king Prasutagus, celebrated for his long prosperity, had named the emperor his heir, together with his two daughters; an act of deference which he thought would place his kingdom and household beyond the risk of injury. The result was contrary – so much so that his kingdom was pillaged by centurions, his household by slaves; as though they had been prizes of war." He added that Boudica was lashed, her two daughters were raped, and that the estates of the leading Iceni men were confiscated.Cassius Dio wrote: "An excuse for the war was found in the confiscation of the sums of money that Claudius had given to the foremost Britons; for these sums, as Decianus Catus, the procurator of the island maintained, were to be paid back." He also said that another reason was "the fact that Seneca, in the hope of receiving a good rate of interest, had lent to the islanders 40,000,000 sesterces that they did not want, and had afterwards called in this loan all at once and had resorted to severe measures in exacting it. "Dio's apocryphal speech of Boudica includes an address to the Trinovantes. She stressed to them how much better their life was before Roman occupation, stressing to them that wealth cannot be enjoyed under slavery, and places the blame upon herself for not expelling the Romans as they had done when Julius Caesar previously came for their land. The willingness of the barbarians to sacrifice a higher quality of living under the Romans, in exchange for their freedom and personal liberty, is an important interpretation of what Dio considered as motivation for the rebellions. Uprising

Initial actions
In AD 60 or 61, the current governor and most senior Roman administrator in the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign against the island of  (modern Anglesey) in Wales, where he had been participating in campaigns long before this one. Mona was conquered by the Roman army, who then heard the news of Boudica's rising and had to march rapidly eastward again.Under Boudica's lead, the Iceni and the Trinovantes comprised an army 120,000 strong to fight their common enemy, the Romans. Dio claims that before the initial revolts, Boudica called upon the British goddess of victory, Andraste, to aid them in battle. The rebels' first target was Camulodunum (modern Colchester), a Roman  for retired soldiers. At

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 which a Roman temple was erected to the deified Claudius that, coupled with brutal treatment of the natives by the veterans, made Camulodunum an ideal target. Once the revolt was under way, the only troops available to provide assistance (aside from the few within the colony) were two hundred auxiliaries located in London who were not equipped to fight Boudica's troops, and the colony of Camulodunum was captured. Those who survived the initial attack managed to hold the temple of Claudius for two days before they died. A bronze statue to the emperor Nero, which probably stood in front of the temple, was decapitated and its head taken as a trophy by Boudica's army.The future governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the Legio IX Hispana, attempted to relieve the city, but suffered an overwhelming defeat. The infantry with him were all killed – only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped. After this defeat, Catus Decianus fled to Gaul. When news of the rebellion reached Suetonius, he hurried along Watling Street through hostile territory to Londinium. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petillius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province. The wealthy citizens and traders had fled after the news of Catus Decianus defecting to Gaul, and the rest of the inhabitants were left to their own fate. Londinium was abandoned to the rebels, who burnt it down, torturing and killing anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius.The municipium of Verulamium (modern St Albans) was next to be destroyed, although the extent of its destruction is unclear. In the three settlements destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed. Tacitus says that the Britons had no interest in taking or selling prisoners, only in slaughter by gibbet, fire, or cross. Dio's account gives more detail; that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, "to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste. Romans rally

While Boudica's army continued their assault in Verulamium (St. Albans), Suetonius regrouped his forces. According to Tacitus, he amassed a force including his own Legio XIV Gemina, some vexillationes (detachments) of the XX Valeria Victrix, and any available auxiliaries. The prefect of , Poenius Postumus, ignored the call, and a fourth legion, , had been routed trying to relieve Camulodunum, but nonetheless the governor now commanded an army of almost ten thousand men.Suetonius took a stand at an unidentified location, probably somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street, in a defile with a wood behind him – but his men were heavily outnumbered. According to Dio the rebels numbered 230–300 thousand. <mask>'s army was crushed and according to Tacitus neither the women or the animals were spared. The Roman slaughter of women and animals was unusual, as they could have been sold for profit, and point to the mutual enmity between the two sides. According to Tacitus in his Annals, <mask> poisoned herself, though in the  which was written almost twenty years before the Annals he mentions nothing of suicide and attributes the end of the revolt to  ("indolence"); Dio says she fell sick and died and then was given a lavish burial. Catus Decianus, who had fled to Gaul, was replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero's freedman Polyclitus.Fearing Suetonius's actions would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more conciliatory Publius Petronius Turpilianus. The historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain. No historical records tell what had happened to Boudica's two daughters. Location of her defeat
The location of Boudica's defeat is unknown. Some historians favour a site somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to High Cross, Leicestershire, on the junction of Watling Street and the Fosse Way, which would have allowed the Legio II Augusta, based at Exeter, to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces, had they not failed to do so. Manduessedum (Mancetter), near the modern town of Atherstone in Warwickshire, has also been suggested, and according to legend "The Rampart" near Messing, Essex and Ambresbury Banks in Epping Forest.More recently, a discovery of Roman artefacts in Kings Norton close to Metchley Camp has suggested another possibility. One individual has suggested the Cuttle Mill area of Paulerspury in Northamptonshire, where fragments of Roman pottery from the 1st century have been found. In 2009, it was suggested that the Iceni were returning to East Anglia along the Icknield Way when they encountered the Roman army in the vicinity of Arbury Banks, Hertfordshire. In March 2010, evidence was published suggesting the site may be located at Church Stowe, Northamptonshire. Legacy and legends
One of the earliest possible mentions of <mask> (excluding Tacitus' and Dio's accounts) was the 6th-century work On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain by the British monk Gildas. In it, he demonstrates his knowledge of a female leader whom he describes as a "treacherous lionness" who "butchered the governors who had been left to give fuller voice and strength to the endeavours of Roman rule." It is likely that Gildas is referring to Boudica in this statement.Polydore Vergil may have reintroduced her to British history as "Voadicea" in 1534. Raphael Holinshed also included her story in his Chronicles (1577) based on Tacitus and Dio. 16th–18th centuries
During the reign of Elizabeth I, Boudica began to be seen as an important figure in British history. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the works of Tacitus were rediscovered, and therefore interest in <mask> and her rebellion was triggered. It has been said that the Elizabethan era was a time where her popularity could flourish as Elizabeth, in 1588, was required to defend Britain from a possible invasion of Spanish Armada. Boudica had once defended Britain as well, however from the Romans. In 1610, Shakespeare's younger contemporaries Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher to write a play, Bonduca, said to have been inspired by Holinshed's Chronicles.A version of that play called Bonduca, or the British Heroine was set to music by Henry Purcell in 1695; one of the choruses, Britons, Strike Home!, became a popular patriotic song in the 18th and 19th centuries. William Cowper wrote a popular poem, "Boadicea, an ode", in 1782. 19th-20th century

Britain
It was in the Victorian era that <mask>'s fame took on legendary proportions as Queen Victoria came to be seen as <mask>'s "namesake", their names being identical in meaning. Victoria's Poet Laureate, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, wrote a poem, "Boadicea", and several ships were named after her. Boadicea and Her Daughters, a statue of the queen in her war chariot (anachronistically furnished with scythes after the Persian fashion) was executed by Thomas Thornycroft over the 1850s and 1860s with the encouragement of Prince Albert, who lent his horses for use as models. Thornycroft exhibited the head separately in 1864. It was cast in bronze in 1902, 17 years after Thornycroft's death, by his son Sir John, who presented it to the London County Council.They erected it on a plinth on the Victoria Embankment next to Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament, inscribed with the following lines from Cowper's poem:Regions Caesar never knew
Thy posterity shall sway. A statue of her now stands guard over the city she razed to the ground. The area of King's Cross, London was previously a village known as Battle Bridge which was an ancient crossing of the River Fleet. The original name of the bridge was Broad Ford Bridge. The name "Battle Bridge" led to a tradition that this was the site of a major battle between the Romans and the Iceni tribe led by Boudica. The tradition is not supported by any historical evidence and is rejected by modern historians. However, Lewis Spence's 1937 book Boadicea – warrior queen of the Britons went so far as to include a map showing the positions of the opposing armies.There is a belief that she was buried between platforms 9 and 10 in King's Cross station in London, England. There is no evidence for this and it is probably a post-World War II invention. At Colchester Town Hall, a life-sized statue of Boudica stands on the south facade, sculpted by L J Watts in 1902; another depiction of her is in a stained glass window by Clayton and Bell in the council chamber. Boudica was adopted by the Suffragettes as one of the symbols of the campaign for women's suffrage. In 1908, a "Boadicea Banner" was carried in several National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies marches. She appears as character in A Pageant of Great Women written by Cicely Hamilton, which opened at the Scala Theatre, London, in November 1909 before a national tour, and she was described in a 1909 pamphlet as "the eternal feminine... the guardian of the hearth, the avenger of its wrongs upon the defacer and the despoiler". Wales
Buddug has yet to be conclusively identified within the canon of medieval Welsh literature and she is not apparent in the , the  or Geoffrey of Monmouth's largely fictional History of the Kings of Britain.Boudica (Buddug) was also chosen by the Welsh public as one of eleven statues of historical figures to be included in the Marble Hall at Cardiff City Hall. The statue was unveiled by David Lloyd George on 27 October 1916. Unlike the London chariot statue, it shows her as a more motherly figure without warrior trappings. The popularity of Buddug alongside other Welsh heroes such as Saint David and Owain Glyndŵr was surprising to manyof the statues, Buddug is the most ancient, the only female, and the only antecedent from outside the modern Welsh nation. 21st century
Permanent exhibitions describing the Boudican Revolt are at the Museum of London, Colchester Castle Museum and the Verulamium Museum. At the Norwich Castle Museum, a dedicated gallery includes a reproduction of an Iceni chariot. A  long distance footpath called Boudica's Way passes through countryside between Norwich and Diss in Norfolk.See also

 List of women warriors in folklore
 Women in ancient warfare
 The Wrath of the Iceni
 Warrior Queen
 <mask>
 Boadicea and Her Daughters
 Boodikka

References

Further reading

External links

 The Iceni Hoard at the British Museum

Boudica
60s in the Roman Empire
61 deaths
60s conflicts
1st-century monarchs in Europe
1st-century women rulers
Ancient people who committed suicide
Briton rulers
Women warriors
Celtic women warriors
Iceni
Pagans
People from Norfolk
Queens regnant in the British Isles
Rebellions against the Roman Empire
British rebels
Wartime sexual violence
Women in 1st-century warfare
Women in ancient European warfare
Year of birth unknown
Women in war in Britain
Ancient

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Jesús Abraham "<mask><mask> (September 5, 1950 – November 1, 2013) was a Latino poet and playwright in the United States. Born <mask>, in Santurce, Puerto Rico, he moved to New York City at the age of ten, with his family, to reside in the Lower East Side. Throughout his life he was involved in various human rights organizations, but was best known as a renowned Nuyorican poet. An obituary for NBC Latino describes him as "one of the greatest representatives of the Nuyorican movement." Early years and education
<mask> was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico and moved to the Lower East Side of New York City in 1960 with his mother and siblings at the age of nine. He attended Catholic school in the United States where is teachers urged him to change his name to Abraham because they felt that Jesús was unfit for someone of Latino descent who did not understand English. As a result, he chose to go by the name "<mask>", a nickname given by his brother.After graduating high school in 1968, he studied at Cornell University and later at Brooklyn College. However, he never received a degree from either school. Instead, he committed the majority of his time to social and community work. Laviera served as the director of University of the Streets, a nonprofit organization focused on providing educational opportunities for underprivileged individuals. Additionally, he was a director of the Hispanic Drama Workshop, and a creative writing professor at Rutgers University. While still in Puerto Rico, his mother studied under Juan Boria, an acclaimed poet and performer who was inspired by Afro-Caribbean culture. This early exposure introduced him to the world of Puerto Rican poetry that he later infiltrated.<mask> initially began writing as a means of reestablishing the name that was taken from him earlier in his life. Personal life
Laviera had a daughter, Ruth Ella, and a son, Che Malik, who died in 2005. <mask> suffered from diabetes, which caused a complications and interruptions in his work. In 2004, he was deemed legally blind due to complications with diabetes. He then revisited his passion for community work, working with the American Association for diabetes, where his main initiative was promoting awareness representing Latinos who suffered from the disease. He even founded the Jesús A. Laviera One-Day with Diabetes Project which allowed him to incorporate his adoration for poetry. He hosted events during which poets could speak about how diabetes has affected their lives and offer support to the Hispanic community.Following some years of financial and health problems, Laviera fell into a diabetic coma. Shortly after he died, on November 1, 2013 at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan. Career
Laviera began writing poems and jingles at a very young age. He claims this lead him to discover the "wealth of characters and attitudes" that poetry contains. <mask>'s poetry, which is written sometimes in Spanish, sometimes in English, more often in Spanglish, addresses language, cultural identity, race, and memory, particularly as it affects the transculturated lives of Puerto Ricans in the United States. Laviera uses the sublets of each language to contribute to his rich symbolism and metaphor that are commonplace in his poetry. His mastery of both languages sets him apart from many Latino writers of his time.<mask> claims that the most important aspect of his poems is the title, explaining that "the words of the title are the ultimate essence." Laviera was keen on performing his works of poetry in front of audiences in a musical manner. Live recitation of poetry is an important aspect of the Nuyorican movement as it better portrays the spirit of the poems. Scholar William Luis describes Laviera's work as follows: "His poetry is full of the music of bomba and plena, and of rap and preaching. However, it is also socially minded and historical in content. Indeed, his poems are a conglomeration of voices, songs, dialects, and cultures producing a unique synthesis which is moving, instructive, and aesthetically appealing". Laviera prides himself in giving a voice to all of the people, cultures, and nations he represents through his poetry.Since he believes he belongs equally to two nations, the United States and Puerto Rico, he opted to focus on the positives of biculturalism, rather than adverse aspects like some of his counterparts. Nicolás Kanellos's Hispanic Literature of the United States: A Comprehensive Reference describes him as "the inheritor of the Spanish oral tradition, with all of its classical formulas, and the African oral tradition, with its wedding to music and spirituality." Famous works

La Carreta Made a U-Turn (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1979)

This was his first major book of poetry and was a response to René Marques' La Carreta in which he details the story of a family who ends up returning to Puerto Rico after migrating to the United States in search of more opportunities and a better life but instead is faced with a disheartening reality. Laviera disputes this view and instead "picks up where Marques left off" and portrays a more accurate story of the Puerto Rican migrant in which they do not return to their homeland, which is based on historical data. La Carreta Made a U-Turn was extremely successful and received well by its readers. In fact, shortly after its publication Laviera was invited by President Jimmy Carter to an event at the White House for distinguished American poets. Enclave (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1981)
In this poem, Laviera celebrates Puerto Rican heritage in New York.Unlike many of his other works which concentrate on larger scale events and take a collective perspective, Enclave is intentionally personal. Laviera focuses on the individual lives of those who inhabit the Puerto Rican enclave within New York. <mask> celebrates the Puerto Rican-American experience, through his soulful and powerful songs. This poem was a recipient of the American Book Award of the Before Columbus Foundation. This collection focusses on the individual and delivers a gallery of portraits of the unconquerable people of the enclave, whose lives are brought forth via the rhythmic songs “en clave.”

Mainstream Ethics—Ética Corriente (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1988)
Mainstream Ethics is a poem which explores the place that Hispanics hold in the United States. Amidst a pressure to conform to he standards of the bustling Metropolis culture, <mask> emphasizes the importance of his own culture as a Puerto Rican American. From his perspective, he asserts that Hispanic culture, art, and language are transforming the United States, rather than falling victim to it.This poem serves as a message to encourage Hispanic Americans to hold fast to their culture of origin, and individual identities. This text explores the terrestrial and verbal imperatives of Hispanics in the United States. Mainstream Ethics affirms that Hispanic linguistics, folklore, art and past are transforming the national culture and identity of the United States. It is not the role of Hispanics to follow the commands of a norm, an elusive mainstream, but to instead remain faithful to their communal and distinct identities to both lay claim to mainstream territory and to disprove its existence. AmeRícan (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1999)

In this poem, Laviera redefines his nationality and takes pride in being both a Puerto Rican and an American living in the United States. He establishes a new identity, called AmeRícan which is the harmonious blend of the two composed of "mainland and island traditions." <mask> uses the pronoun 'we' to signify the collective experience of multiculturalism for the entire generation of Puerto Rican-Americans.The first section of this collection celebrates the range of various traditions and cultures making up the American people. It is a plea for an end to prejudice. The latter two sections of the collection are built on the motifs of ethnic exchange and the place of the boriqueño in that greater scheme. Mixturao and Other Poems (Houston: Arte Público Press, 2008–09)
One of <mask> <mask> <mask> Papers are held at the Archives of the Puerto Rican Diaspora Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, Hunter College, CUNY. The collection "provides insight into <mask>'s life and career, as well as into the Nuyorican poetry movement, of which he was an early member. Consists of correspondence, manuscripts, typescripts, notebooks, press clippings, articles, flyers, event programs, posters, photographs, and audio and video recordings." See also

 List of Puerto Rican writers
 List of Puerto Ricans
 Puerto Rican literature
 Latino Poetry

Notes

References
 .
 . (JSTOR subscription required to access article online.) External links

 Biography from the Heath Anthology of American Literature

1950 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American poets
American Book Award winners
American male poets
American people of Puerto Rican descent
Brooklyn College alumni
People from Santurce, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican male writers
Puerto Rican poets

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