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<mask> (6 July 1900 – 18 April 1987) was a British zoologist, an authority on both natural and military camouflage, and a scientific illustrator and photographer. Many of his field studies took place in Africa, where he was especially interested in the Nile crocodile, the evolution of pattern and colour in animals. During the Second World War, <mask> worked as a camouflage expert for the British Army and helped to influence War Office policy on camouflage. His book Adaptive Coloration in Animals (1940), popular among serving soldiers, was the major textbook on camouflage in zoology of the twentieth century. After the war, he became a Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge. As a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London, he undertook expeditions to Africa and the Amazon to collect specimens, mainly reptiles and amphibians. Life and career

<mask> was born in Ashby Magna, Leicestershire, England, on 6 July 1900; his father was the rector there.He was schooled at Rugby. In 1919, he graduated from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and was commissioned into the Leicestershire Regiment. Between 1922 and 1925, he studied at Selwyn College, Cambridge. He had intended to become a priest, and went to Cambridge to read theology, but after his first year he went on the university expedition to South America, where he studied natural forms in eastern Brazil in 1923, led by the entomologist <mask> <mask>, where he became fascinated by natural history, and changed his studies to zoology on his return. He then went on an expedition to the lower Amazon (1925–1926), and on research trips to the Zambesi river area in Africa (1927), including Mozambique, Zambia and East Africa, and Lanzarote (1930). He married Joyce Radford in 1928. He was a lecturer in Zoology at Bristol University from 1928 until 1932, when he moved to Glasgow University.He studied under another advocate of military camouflage, John Graham Kerr. His thesis, which he completed in 1935 under a Carnegie Fellowship, was on 'adaptive coloration' – both camouflage and warning coloration – in the Anura (frogs). In 1938 he was made a Doctor of Science at Glasgow, and he became a Zoology lecturer at Cambridge University and Strickland Curator of Birds at the university's Museum of Zoology. <mask> served in the Leicestershire Regiment of the British Army as a camouflage expert from 1919 to 1922, and, during the Second World War, with the Royal Engineers as a camouflage instructor from 1939 to 1945. <mask> was chief instructor at the Camouflage Development and Training Centre at Helwan, Egypt, under filmmaker <mask> from its inception in November 1941. After the war, <mask> returned to Cambridge, becoming a Fellow of Selwyn College in 1945; he worked there until he retired in 1967. He gave the Fison Memorial Lecture of 1958 on 'Protective Coloration in Animals'.He continued to work from time to time after his retirement, for instance conducting a survey of crocodile nests on the Victoria Nile for the Uganda National Parks in 1972. He died at the age of 86 on 18 April 1987. Camouflage

While trying to photograph a hen partridge on her nest, <mask> waited for hours for the bird to return, finally taking some pictures of the empty nest before giving up. On developing the photographs, he realized the bird had been there all along, perfectly camouflaged. As a camouflage expert during the Second World War, <mask> likened the functions of military camouflage to those of protective coloration in nature. The three main categories of coloration in his book Adaptive Coloration in Animals are concealment, disguise, and advertisement. He studied, described and presented examples of such diverse camouflage effects as obliterative shading, disruption, differential blending, high contrast, coincident disruption, concealment of the eye, contour obliteration, shadow elimination, and mimicry.In his wartime lectures at Farnham Castle, he described nine categories of visual deception:

 merging, e.g. hare, polar bear
 disruption, e.g. ringed plover
 disguise, e.g. stick insect
 mis-direction, e.g. butterfly and fish eyespots
 dazzle, e.g. some grasshoppers
 decoy, e.g. angler fish
 smokescreen, e.g.cuttlefish
 the dummy, e.g. flies, ants
 false display of strength, e.g. toads, lizards

<mask>'s account of all this (illustrated by his own pen and ink drawings) is the 550-page book Adaptive Coloration in Animals (1940). It was proof-read by Kerr, who commented on its publication 'It is by far the finest thing of the kind in existence'. His co-workers' first-hand accounts of his work in military camouflage can be found in the memoirs of two of his fellow camoufleurs: Julian Trevelyan and Roland Penrose. Peter Forbes wrote of <mask>'s book:

The book was written as war loomed, and published in wartime. <mask> makes use of his knowledge of natural history to draw parallels between survival in nature and in war, and to advise on military camouflage, for example commenting:

Forbes notes that Adaptive Coloration in Animals is a narrative, short on the experimentation that followed after the war, but Forbes continues:

Cott attempted to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage techniques, including countershading.For example, in August 1940, with the Battle of Britain imminent, he painted two rail-mounted coastal guns, one in conventional style, one countershaded. In aerial photographs, the countershaded gun is essentially invisible. <mask> was triumphant, announcing:

However (like Kerr before him in the First World War), <mask> did not succeed in influencing policy on camouflage, and he resigned from the Camouflage Advisory Panel in 1940. Artwork

<mask> was a founding member of the Society of Wildlife Artists, and a fellow of the Royal Photographic Society. From material gathered in field expeditions, he made contributions to the Cambridge University zoological museum. <mask> possessed considerable artistic skill. Like Abbott Thayer, he used his artistry in his scientific work, including in Adaptive Coloration in Animals, to help argue the case he was making.For example, his black-and-white potoo shows this rainforest bird sitting motionless on a mottled tree trunk, its behaviour and disruptive pattern combining to provide effective camouflage. The philosopher and jazz musician David Rothenberg wrote of <mask>'s art:

Writings

In addition to Adaptive Coloration in Animals, <mask> wrote two essays on camouflage: “Camouflage in nature and in war” and ”Animal form in relation to appearance”. As a scientific illustrator and photographer, he also wrote three other books: Zoological photography in practice (1956); Uganda in black and white (1959); and Looking at animals: a zoologist in Africa (1975). He became interested in the relationship of bird colours with their role as warning colours, an idea that arose when he observed hornets attracted to some birds being skinned while ignoring others. This led him to study the palatability of birds and their eggs. Among his papers were several studies on the relative palatibility of the eggs based initially on the preferences of ferrets, rats and hedgehogs and later on the use of a panel of expert egg tasters. In one study he found that of 123 species of bird, the kittiwake eggs scored highly with 8.2 out of 10.Legacy

Forbes praised <mask>'s balance of science and artistry:

Over 60 years after its publication, Adaptive Coloration in Animals remains a core reference on the subject; the
evolutionary biologists Graeme Ruxton, Thomas N. Sherratt and Michael Speed conclude their book on animal coloration by writing

The biologist Steven Vogel commented that:

An exhibition of his art, writing, and photographs, 'Life, Lines & Illusion', was held at the Nature in Art gallery in Gloucester in September and October 2018. References

Bibliography

By Cott

 Books

 <mask>, <mask>. (1975). Looking at Animals: a Zoologist in Africa. Scribner. <mask>, <mask>. (1959).Uganda in Black and White. Macmillan. <mask>, <mask>. (1956). Zoological Photography in Practice. Fountain Press. Journals

 <mask>, <mask>.(1938). Wonder Island of the Amazon Delta; on Marajo Cowboys Ride Oxen, Tree-Dwelling Animals Throng Dense Forests. National Geographic Magazine. About Cott

External links
 Janus: <mask>'s papers
 Archives Hub: <mask>'s own copies of books, with personal annotations, at Cambridge University Museum of Zoology
 University of Glasgow Story: <mask> <mask>

Scientific illustrators
20th-century British zoologists
Photographers from Leicestershire
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Fellows of Selwyn College, Cambridge
British Army personnel of World War II
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
1900 births
1987 deaths
Royal Engineers officers
Camoufleurs
British naturalists
Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge
People from Harborough District
English nature writers
Camouflage researchers
20th-century naturalists

masks:
Hugh Bamford Cott
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Frank Balfour
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Geoffrey Barkas
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<mask> () is the current spouse of the Prime Minister of Pakistan Imran Khan. She and Khan married six months before he assumed office as Prime Minister. Early life
<mask> was born to a conservative, politically influential family from central Punjab. She belongs to the Wattoo clan, of whom the Manekas are a sub-clan. She originates from the town of Pakpattan, located 250 km southwest of Lahore. The town is known for being home to the Shrine of Baba Farid, of whom both she and Khan are spiritual followers, and where they first met. Personal life

First marriage
Before her marriage to Khan, <mask> was married to Khawar Maneka.Khawar Maneka was a senior Customs official and a son of Ghulam Muhammad Maneka, a former federal minister in Benazir Bhutto's cabinet. His brother Ahmad Raza Maneka is currently a member of the National Assembly of Pakistan, and is affiliated with the PML-N. They divorced in 2017. She has three daughters and two sons from her first marriage. Her sons Musa and Ebrahim Maneka graduated from the Aitchison College in Lahore in 2013, and pursued higher education abroad. Her eldest daughter Mehru Maneka is the daughter-in-law of politician Mian Atta Muhammad Manika. Another of her daughters is also married.On 6 August 2018, it was reported that Mehru Maneka had joined Khan's PTI following a meeting with him. Marriage to Imran Khan
Imran Khan and <mask> <mask> reportedly met for the first time in 2015. According to Dawn, Khan, noted for his increasing inclination towards Sufism in recent decades, was a frequent visitor of Baba Farid's shrine in Pakpattan, where he would pay homage to the renowned 12th century Sufi saint. He usually visited the town in the evening escorted by his private guards, and would later stay for a few hours at the Maneka family's residence, his local hosts, after which he would return to Islamabad. The Manekas were influential locally, and shared a "spiritual relationship" with Khan. Bushra, who was at that time married to Khawar Maneka, was a known and respected Sufi scholar, spiritual mentor and faith healer, also referred to as a pir or murshid, and this is what reportedly drew Khan closer to her. She has been described as a leader of pilgrimages to Baba Farid's shrine.During his visits, Khan would often consult her on spiritual matters whenever he found himself in a "difficult situation." According to Khan, the couple were introduced via <mask> Bibi sister Maryam Riaz Wattoo, who is a PTI member, whilst he was trying to understand the teachings of a 13th-century Sufi saint. He would visit <mask> Bibi house to receive counsel and advice on these and other religious matters, and "read the books she would recommend". According to sources, Khan interacted with <mask> <mask> shortly before the 2015 by-election in Lodhran for the NA-154 constituency. He became "very pleased" when his candidate Jehangir Tareen won that election, which she had correctly predicted, and started visiting and consulting her more regularly for guidance. According to a family source, Khan held "a lot of reverence for [Bushra] as a true follower." As the visits became more frequent, their personal understanding also grew.However, the prospect of marriage never surfaced until Khan learnt of <mask>'s divorce. In an interview after his marriage, Khan said he "did not catch a glimpse" of his wife's face until after they were married; "I proposed to her without seeing her because she had never met me without her face being covered with a full veil." He acknowledged that he had only seen an "old photograph" of her at her house prior to that. When he finally did see her, he was not disappointed and is "now happily married." Talking about how her life changed after marrying Imran, she said that before her marriage her life revolved around praying to God but Imran taught her that serving the helpless and needy is equally important. Khan, known for his previous relationships, insisted his attitude had changed over time and he came to believe that "the character of a person and the mind, the intellect, is much more important than the physical, because in my experience that has the smallest shelf life." He has referenced his respect to his wife based on her intellect and character.A few months after their marriage, the couple went on a pilgrimage to Makkah. <mask> has been described as an introvert who prefers to stay at home rather than attending social functions and gatherings very frequently, to which Khan admittedly has no objections, as he himself is "past the age of socialising". According to Khan, his two sons have met <mask>, while he has also had time to get to know Bushra's children following their marriage. With regards to her marriage with Imran, <mask> <mask> has clarified that, contrary to some reports in the media, her Nikkah with Imran took place seven months after the ‘Iddat period’ following the dissolution of her first marriage. <mask> <mask> has also clarified that she is not present on social media and any accounts attributed to her are fake. As First Lady
<mask> <mask> is reportedly the first veil-wearing spouse of a Pakistani Prime Minister. The decision to wear a veil, <mask> <mask> said, is her personal choice in line with religious teachings and she is not seeking to impose it on anyone else.Shortly after Khan took office, <mask> <mask> was quoted by the media as having commented, "I am sure Imran Khan will fulfill his promises to Pakistan. Allah has given us a great responsibility. Power comes and goes. Imran Khan aims to eliminate poverty from the country. He wants to improve the health and education system in Pakistan." <mask> <mask> has described Imran as an "extremely simple man". Talking about the PTI's slogan and promise of "change", she claimed that only Imran can bring about the promised change in the country but it would take time.See also
 Family of Imran Khan
 Bhumman Shah

References

Living people
Pakistani spiritual teachers
Pakistani Sufis

Sufi teachers
Imran Khan family
People from Okara District
People from Pakpattan District
1970s births
Spouses of prime ministers of Pakistan
Pakistani Muslims

masks:
Bushra Bibi Khan
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<mask><mask> (born 1948) is an American politician who served as the 39th Mayor of Burlington, Vermont. Prior to his tenure as mayor he was active in local politics with him serving on the school board and the city council. After his tenure as mayor he served in the Vermont Senate. He is the most recent Republican elected as mayor of Burlington. <mask> was born in New York City, and was educated at Choate Rosemary Hall, the University of Pennsylvania, and the University of Vermont. After serving in the United States Air Force he moved to Burlington, Vermont, where he would enter politics. He was elected to the city's school board in 1983, and again in 1986.<mask> was elected to the city council in a 1989 special election and reelected in the 1990 and 1992 elections. <mask> ran in the 1993 Burlington mayoral election against incumbent Progressive Coalition Mayor <mask> despite Clavelle's fundraising and campaign volunteer advantage. His victory was the first time a Republican held the mayoralty since Edward A. Keenan in 1965. <mask> lost reelection to Clavelle in 1995. He was elected to the state senate in the 1996 election and reelected in 1998, but lost renomination in 2000 due to his support for same-sex civil unions. Early life and education

<mask> was born in New York City, New York, in 1948, to Mary Hester Gaskill (1916–2007) and Lincoln C<mask> (1914–2010). Chauncey W<mask>, his great-grandfather, served as Secretary of State of Vermont and in the Vermont Senate.During his childhood he traveled between Long Island, New York and Saigon, South Vietnam, due to his father's business. <mask> graduated from Choate Rosemary Hall. He married Christina Bratton, who he had met while at the University of Pennsylvania, in Maryland in 1969. In 1970, he graduated from the University of Pennsylvania with a bachelor's degree in sociology, after having originally majored in chemical engineering, and graduated from the University of Vermont with a master's degree in business administration in 1978. He served in the United States Air Force for six years. He moved his family to Burlington, Vermont, in 1978. Brownell worked as a financial analyst for General Electric for fifteen years.Career

School board

Brownell attempted to gain a job on the Burlington police or airport commissions, but he was rejected every time. In 1983, Diana Gallagher, a member of the school board, ran for a seat on the city council from the 6th district. Brownell won the Republican nomination to succeed her on the school board from the 6th district by a unanimous vote and defeated independent Hans J. Puck in the general election. He did not seek reelection as he wanted to spend more time with his family in 1985, and Elizabeth Van Buren, a member of the Democratic Party, was unopposed to succeed him. <mask> won the Republican nomination to run for the school board from the 6th district in 1986, and won in the general election without opposition. He did not run for reelection in the 1988 election. During his tenure on the board he served as chair of the Finance committee and consider running for chair of the board in 1986, but he did not have enough support.City council

In 1989, David Thelander, a Republican member of the city council, resigned to work in Washington, D.C. for the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. <mask> received the Republican nomination and defeated Democratic and Progressive Coalition nominee Greg Guma in the special election. During the campaign Brownell raised $2,170 and spent $472 while Guma raised $875 and spent $640. He defeated Green Party nominee Bea Bookchin in the 1990 election. He won reelection without opposition in 1992. After <mask> was elected as mayor he resigned from the city council. A special election was held to fill the vacancy and it was won by Republican nominee Tom Ryan.During his tenure on the city council <mask> served on the Finance committee. Following the resignation of Jane Watson, a member of the city council from the 5th district, Browell became interested in running for chair of the city council as Watson's resignation left the Democrats without enough votes, but <mask> later declined to run. Mayoralty

Elections

The Republican Party had not ran a candidate in the 1985, 1987, 1989, and 1991 mayoral elections. <mask> announced on January 14, 1993, that he would run for the Republican nomination and won the nomination on January 20. <mask> defeated Clavelle in the election while only winning two of the city council wards despite Clavelle having outraised <mask> and Clavelle having 220 volunteers compared to Brownll's 20. <mask>'s victory ended the Progressive Coalition's control of the mayoral office that it had held since the 1981 election and he became the first Republican to hold the office since Edward A. Keenan left office in 1965. Clavelle stated that he had lost due to him passing legislation to have Burlington pay for the health care benefits for domestic partners of city workers.Former Republican Mayor Robert K. Bing was happy with <mask>'s victory while United States Representative Bernie Sanders, who served as mayor from 1981 to 1989, stated that he was disappointed by Clavelle's defeat. <mask> victory in the 1993 election is the most recent time the Republicans have won election as mayor of Burlington. <mask> announced on January 8, 1995, that he would seek reelection to another term. However, he was defeated in the general election by Clavelle. During the campaign Clavelle had raised $41,020 and spent $40,644, Brownell raised $22,263 and spent $16,527, and Paul Lafayette raised $16,152 and spent $16,040. Tenure

In 1993, Brownell made multiple appointments which was illegal under a rarely enforced section of Burlington's city charter which required all officials appointed by the mayor to be voters in Burlington. The city council voted to approve his nomination's despite complaints from councilor Maurice Mahoney.During his tenure as mayor <mask> made multiple trips to Montpelier to lobby for a $63.9 million capitol construction bill, which included $1.3 million to buy twenty-five acres of waterfront on Lake Champlain from a land trust. The city borrowed $1.2 million from the retirement fund to develop the waterfront which made the city pay $120,000 in interest per year. Brownell proposed leasing three to five acres of the waterfront to pay back the debt. <mask>'s 1993 budget reduced the city's budget by $1 million, eliminated ten positions in the city government, and reduced all general fund operating budgets while increasing property taxes by 2.8%. The budget was approved by the city council by a vote of seven to six. Brownell proposed merging the police and fire departments in 1994, but the city council voted twelve to two against the measure. On September 27, 1993, the city council voted seven to four in favor of passing legislation to create a new tax to pay for a citywide recycling program.All three Republican members of the city council voted against the tax and <mask> conducted his first veto in office against the legislation. However, the city council voted to overturn his veto on October 12, with only the Republican members voting to sustain his veto. In the 1993 election the Republicans gained one seat on the city council from the Democrats while the Progressives retained all of their seats bringing the composition of the city council to six Progressive Coalition members, four Democratic members, and three Republican members. The Republicans lost one seat on the city council in the 1994 election while the Progressive Coalition gained two seats on the fourteen-member city council. During the 1994 elections there were two ballot initiatives to increase taxes, one was a $3.5 tax increase and another was a $1.26 school tax increase, and <mask> supported both ballot measures, but both were defeated in the election. The Republicans gained two seats in the 1995 election. Vermont Senate

Elections

In 1991, <mask> had considered running for a seat in the Vermont House of Representatives to succeed Helen Riehle.After losing the mayoral election <mask> considered either running for a seat in the Vermont Senate or running for mayor again in the 1997 election. On July 11, 1996, he announced that he would run for one of six seats in the state senate from Chittenden County. <mask> placed second out of eight candidates in the Republican primary and fourth out of twelve candidates in the general election. Brownell spent $11,039 during the campaign. <mask> ran for reelection in the 1998 election, placed first out of six candidates in the Republican primary, and placed fourth out of fourteen candidates in the general election. Brownell spent $9,051 during the campaign. During the 2000 election <mask> and other state senators were targeted by Reverend David Stertzbach, an anti-gay pastor, due to Brownell's support for civil unions.<mask> lost renomination in the Republican primary after placing eighth out of eight candidates and it was stated that his defeat was caused by Stertzbach. Representatives John Edwards, Marion Milne, William Fyfe, and Robert Kinsey, who had also supported civil unions, also lost renomination. He chose to not run in the general election as an independent candidate. Tenure

<mask> endorsed John Carroll for the Republican nomination for lieutenant governor during the 1996 election. During his tenure in the state senate <mask> served on the General Affairs and Housing, and Education committees. <mask> considered running for a seat in the United States House of Representatives from Vermont's at-large congressional district in the 2000 election. During the 2000 presidential election <mask> supported Senator John McCain for the Republican nomination and served as McCain's campaign manager in Vermont.Later life

<mask>'s wife served as chair of the Voter Registration Board for three months in 1996, until she was replaced by Kathleen Butler, a member of the Progressive Coalition. His wife stated that she was removed as chair for political reason while Butler stated that Brownell's election as chair was only due to several members being absent. Kurt Wright, a member of the city council, proposed a resolution to call her removal "an extraordinary and high unusual vote", but it failed by a seven to six vote. His wife also served as treasurer of the Burlington Republican Party. <mask> married Linda B. Anderson on July 8, 2000. <mask> was selected to serve as director of administration for the Vermont State Board of Education in 2001. He declined to run for the Republican nomination for lieutenant governor in the 2002 election.Political positions

In 1990, the Burlington city council voted to end the city's advertising in The Burlington Free Press after the newspaper ended negotiations with its union workers. Brownell voted against ending advertisement in the newspapers stating that it was government intrusion into a private business. He supports abortion. The Burlington city council voted seven to five, with Brownell against, in favor of a resolution opposing military action against Iraq calling for President George H. W. Bush to find avoid military action in the defense of the Gulf countries against Iraq. However, the city council later voted seven to five, with Brownell in favor, in favor of a resolution, which was sponsored by <mask>, praising President Bush and gave support to the United States' soldiers in Saudi Arabia. In 1992, Brownell voted against making Arad, Israel, and Bethlehem sister cities of Burlington stating that he believes that it was "beyond the scope of what a small city should do". Bronwell supported school choice and was a member of the Vermonters for Educational Choice committee.<mask> and Senator Nancy Chard considered redistricting Vermont's school districts to decrease them from sixty-two to fourteen, which would have been one per county. The state senate voted seventeen to thirteen, with <mask> against, against legislation to amend the Constitution of Vermont to only allow marriages between one man and one woman. The state senate voted twenty-one to nine, with Brownell against, against amending the Vermont Constitution to overturn a ruling by the Vermont Supreme Court giving same-sex couples the rights and benefits of marriage. The state senate voted nineteen to eleven, with <mask> in favor, in favor of allowing civil unions for same-sex couples. Electoral history

References

External links
 <mask>'s 1993 inaugural address
 <mask>'s farewell address

1948 births
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Living people
Mayors of Burlington, Vermont
Politicians from Burlington, Vermont
University of Vermont alumni
Vermont Republicans

masks:
Peter C
. Brownell
Brownell
Brownell
Brownell
Peter Clavelle
Brownell
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. Brownell
. Brownell
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<mask> (; born 31 May 1971) is a German soprano who achieved international fame for her performances, primarily in opera, but also in concert and lieder. She has been successful in coloratura soprano roles since her early career, and gradually proceeded into heavier roles 19th-century Italian bel canto repertoire. Her signature roles include the Queen of the Night in The Magic Flute, Zerbinetta in Ariadne auf Naxos, Lucia in Lucia di Lammermoor, and Violetta in La traviata. Educated at the Hochschule für Musik Würzburg, she had been engaged at the opera companies in Würzburg, Mannheim, and Frankfurt. Since beginning her freelance career in 2002, she has been performing on leading stages frequently, such as the Bavarian State Opera, Vienna State Opera, and Metropolitan Opera, where she appeared in consecutive 12 seasons since her debut in 2005/06. She also leads concert performances with French bass-baritone Nicholas Testé, whom she married in 2010. Damrau has recorded dozens of opera and lieder recital albums since signing to EMI/Virgin Classics (absorbed into Warner/Erato Records in 2013).She was invested as Bavarian Kammersängerin and has been awarded the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art and the Bavarian Order of Merit. Early life
<mask> was born in Günzburg, Bavaria on 31 May 1971. She was inspired to become an opera singer after watching Zeffirelli's 1983 film of La traviata, which featured Plácido Domingo and Teresa Stratas. She began her operatic studies with  at the Hochschule für Musik Würzburg. During her studies, she developed an edema on a vocal cord. After consulting with several doctors, she decided to undergo an alternative therapy without surgery. The treatment lasted about one and a half years.After graduating from music conservatory she worked in Salzburg with Hanna Ludwig. Career

Early career, debuts, coloratura soprano roles
Damrau made her operatic debut in 1995 as Barbarina in The Marriage of Figaro at the Mainfranken Theater Würzburg. In the next two years, she was engaged at the same theatre, featuring as Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady, and then as the Queen of the Night in Mozart's The Magic Flute, her debut in that role, and in the world premiere of Salieri's Cublai, gran kan de' Tartari (1998). Next, she performed with the Mannheim National Theatre and Oper Frankfurt for two years each. She made her Bavarian State Opera debut in 1999 with Zerbinetta in Ariadne auf Naxos, and her Vienna State Opera debut with the Queen of the Night in 2000. In 2001, she made her Salzburg Festival debut, portraying the Naiad alongside Natalie Dessay's Zerbinetta; she became a regular in Salzburg and returned in the subsequent six editions. Since 2002, she embarked a freelance career, and had frequent engagements with the Bavarian State Opera in roles such as Adele in Die Fledermaus, Marzelline in Fidelio, and the Queen of the Night.She took part in the world premiere of Cehra's Der Riese vom Steinfeld in the role of Small Woman in Vienna. Her engagements in Salzburg consist exclusively of roles in Mozart operas: The Magic Flute (Queen of the Night, 2002), Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Blonde, 2003; Konstanze, 2004), The Marriage of Figaro (Susanna, 2007). In the 2006 edition, which celebrated Mozart's 200th anniversary, she played the Queen of the Night in the premiere of Pierre Audi's production of The Magic Flute, and Fauno in Ascanio in Alba. Damrau made her Royal Opera, London debut in January 2003, in David McVicar's new production of The Magic Flute, and then appeared in Arabella (Fiakermilli), Ariadne auf Naxos (Zerbinetta), and the world premiere of Maazel's 1984 in two consecutive seasons. At the Opera Frankfurt, she sang her first Konstanze in Die Entführung, a role she then repeated in Munich and Salzburg. In March 2004, she sang the role of Zdenka in Arabella for the first time in Munich. In December 2004, she was invited to sing the title role in Salieri's Europa riconosciuta, conducted by Riccardo Muti, for the reopening of La Scala in Milan.In 2005, she portrayed Gilda in the premiere of Doris Dörrie's controversial production of Rigoletto in Munich, and later in the year, made her Metropolitan Opera debut in New York City in the role of Zerbinetta. Transition, more lyric soprano and bel canto roles
Damrau sang her first Susanna in The Marriage of Figaro in February 2006 at La Scala, and subsequently in Vienna. Apart from Konstanze in a new production co-produced with the Burgtheater, she had been featured at the Vienna State Opera in three consecutive seasons with several other roles. Since her debut in the 2005/06 season, she appeared in consecutive seasons at the Met, where she starred in new productions of The Barber of Seville (Rosina, 2006), Die ägyptische Helena (Aithra, 2007), and Rossini's comic opera Le comte Ory (Countess Adèle, 2011), besides revivals of Die Enführung aus dem Serail, Lucia di Lammermoor (role debut as Lucia), La fille du régiment, Rigoletto, and L'elisir d'amore. She made Metropolitan Opera history in the 2007/08 season by appearing as both Pamina and the Queen of the Night in different performances of The Magic Flute in the same run, after which she retired from playing the Queen, a role that she had sung in more than 15 productions. She made guest appearances at the Teatro Real (Zerbinetta), Semperoper in Dresden (Gilda), Theater an der Wien (Pamina), Festspielhaus Baden-Baden (Sophie in Der Rosenkavalier). She continued to be associated with the Bavarian State Opera, with performances including a new production of Ariadne auf Naxos in 2008.In the 2008/09 season she returned to Royal Opera, London for Gretel in Hänsel und Gretel and Adina in L'elisir d'amore. The 2009/10 season saw her Rosina and role debut in the title role in Manon (Vienna State Opera), role debuts of Marie in La fille du régiment (San Francisco Opera) and Donna Anna in Don Giovanni (Grand Théâtre de Genève), and her last Konstanze at the Liceu, in the 2003 Christof Loy production she premiered. Damrau has furthered her exploration of the bel canto repertoire with highlights including role debut in Elvira in I puritani in Geneva in January 2011, and the title role in Donizetti's Linda di Chamounix at the Liceu. She has since brought her portrayal in Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor to Berlin and Vienna. She premiered in a new production of Strauss' Die schweigsame Frau at the 2010 Munich Opera Festival, and portrayed all four heroines in Offenbach's The Tales of Hoffmann in a new production at the Bavarian State Opera premiered in October 2011. In May 2012, she returned to Geneva for Philine in Ambroise Thomas' Mignon. Following the birth of her second child in autumn 2012, Damrau returned to the stage with a new production of Verdi's Rigoletto at the Metropolitan Opera in February 2013; this was followed by her role debut in the title role of Verdi's La traviata in the same house.In October 2013, she sang in the world premiere of Iain Bell's A Harlot's Progress at the Theater an der Wien. In March 2014 she sang in La sonnambula at the Metropolitan Opera. She debuted in the role of Countess d'Almaviva in the new production of The Marriage of Figaro at La Scala, which premiered on 26 October 2016. She took up the title role in Maria Stuarda at the Zürich Opera House in April 2018. In 2019 she debuted as Ophélie in Hamlet in concert performances at the Liceu and later at the Deutsche Oper Berlin. Concert career
As well as performing in operas, Damrau is a regular on the concert stage. She performed alongside Plácido Domingo at the concert program "3 Orchester und Stars" in Munich to mark the opening of the 2006 FIFA World Cup.She has performed lieder at Vienna's Musikverein, Carnegie Hall, Wigmore Hall, La Scala, the Schubertiade in Schwarzenberg, the Kissinger Sommer and both the Munich and Salzburg Festivals, especially with Xavier de Maistre as her accompanist. Her concert repertoire includes Mozart's Great Mass in C minor, Requiem and Exsultate, jubilate as well as Handel's Messiah. She has performed with conductors as James Levine, Zubin Mehta, Lorin Maazel, Sir Colin Davis, Christoph von Dohnányi, Leonard Slatkin, Pierre Boulez, Nikolaus Harnoncourt and Jesús López Cobos. Personal life
Damrau married French bass-baritone Nicolas Testé in May 2010. They have two sons, Alexander and Colyn, born respectively in October 2010 and October 2012. The official  was published by the Minor Planet Center on 9 January 2020 (). Discography
Early recordings include Verdi's canzoni, Mahler's Des Knaben Wunderhorn, and Schumann's Myrthen, Op.25, with the Telos label and live recordings of her summer 2005 Liederabend at the Salzburg Festival and her summer 2006 Liederabend at the Schubertiade are released on the Orfeo label. Damrau also appears on Deutsche Harmonia Mundi's release of Mozart's Zaide in the title role, and performs in the trio finale from Richard Strauss' Der Rosenkavalier alongside Adrianne Pieczonka on Elīna Garanča's first solo release with Deutsche Grammophon. Since 2007 Damrau has had an exclusive recording contract with EMI/Virgin. Arie di Bravura, her first release (2007) is a recital of Mozart, Righini and Salieri arias; Le Cercle de l'Harmonie, Jérémie Rhorer. Donna: Opera and Concert Arias by Mozart (November 2008) is a collection of Mozart opera and concert arias; Rhorer and Le Cercle de l'Harmonie. Coloraturas (November 2009). Munich Radio Orchestra, Dan Ettinger.Poesie: Richard Strauss Lieder (January 2011) is a collection of Richard Strauss' orchestral songs; Munich Philharmonic, Christian Thielemann. Liszt Lieder (October 2011) is a collection of classical songs by Liszt, accompanied by pianist Helmut Deutsch. Forever (2013) is a collection of operetta and musical theatre numbers; Royal Liverpool Philharmonic, David Charles Abell. Fiamma del belcanto (2015) is a collection of belcanto compositions by Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, Puccini and Leoncavallo; recorded with the Orchestra Teatro Regio Torino, Gianandrea Noseda. Meyerbeer: Grand Opera (2017) is a recording of pieces by Giacomo Meyerbeer; Orchestre de l'Opéra National de Lyon, Emmanuel Villaume. Robert Schumann: Myrthen Op. 25 (2018).Iván Paley, Stephan Matthias Lademann. (Profil/Hänssler)
 Hugo Wolf: Italienisches Liederbuch (2019) with Jonas Kaufmann, accompanied by Helmut Deutsch
Richard Strauss: Vier letzte Lieder, Lieder (2020). Mariss Jansons, Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Helmut Deutsch. Tudor Queens (2020). Antonio Pappano, Chorus and Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. Videography
DVDs are available of her performances in the following operas:

 Rossini's Le comte Ory (Metropolitan Opera)
 Verdi's Rigoletto (Semperoper Dresden, Metropolitan Opera)
 Strauss's Rosenkavalier (Baden Baden)
 Humperdinck's Hansel and Gretel (Covent Garden)
 Mozart's The Magic Flute (Covent Garden, Salzburg Festival)
 Mozart's Ascanio in Alba (Salzburg Festival)
 Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Oper Frankfurt)
 Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Liceu)
 Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro (La Scala)
 Lorin Maazel's 1984 (Covent Garden)

Streaming videos are available at Met Opera on Demand of her performances in the following operas:

 Rossini's Le comte Ory (9 April 2011)
 Verdi's Rigoletto (16 February 2013)
 Bizet's Les pêcheurs de perles (16 January 2016)
 Gounod's Roméo et Juliette (21 January 2017)
 Verdi's La traviata (15 December 2018)

Opera roles
Roles which have been fully performed on stage or in studio.

masks:
Diana Damrau
Damrau


texts:
<mask> (30 November 1016; , ; sometimes also known as <mask>) was King of the English from 23 April to 30 November 1016. He was the son of King Æthelred the Unready and his first wife, Ælfgifu of York. <mask>'s reign was marred by a war he had inherited from his father; his cognomen "Ironside" was given to him "because of his valour" in resisting the Danish invasion led by Cnut the Great. <mask> was not expected to be King of England; however, by June 1014 two elder brothers had died, making him heir apparent. At the end of the same year, England was conquered by Sweyn Forkbeard, who died shortly thereafter. Æthelred was able to reclaim the throne, despite opposition. Sweyn's son, Cnut, was defeated and returned to Denmark, where he assembled an invasion force to re-conquer England.It would not arrive for another year. After regaining the throne, the royal family set about strengthening its hold on the country with the assistance of Eadric Streona (<mask>'s brother-in-law). People who had sided with the Danes in 1014 were punished, and some were killed. In one case, two brothers, Morcar and Sigeferth, were killed and their possessions were taken by Æthelred. Sigeferth's widow  Ealdgyth was imprisoned within a monastery, but she had already captured <mask>'s attention. Cnut returned to England in August 1015. Over the next few months, Cnut pillaged most of England.<mask> joined Æthelred to defend London, but in 1016 <mask> unofficially named himself the Earl of the East Midlands and raised a revolt against his father. Without the king's permission he took Ealdgyth from the monastery, and married her; it would have been a politically advantageous marriage, since she was a member of one of the strongest families in the Midlands. Æthelred died on 23 April 1016, making <mask> king. It was not until the summer of 1016 that any serious fighting was done: <mask> fought five battles against the Danes, ending in his defeat on 18 October at the Battle of Assandun, after which they agreed to divide the kingdom, <mask> taking Wessex and Cnut the rest of the country. <mask> died shortly afterwards on 30 November, leaving two sons, Edward and <mask>; however, Cnut became the king of all England, and exiled the remaining members of <mask>'s family. Early life
The exact date of <mask>'s birth is unclear, but it could have been no later than 993 when he was a signatory to charters along with his two elder brothers. He was the third of the six sons of King Æthelred the Unready and his first wife, Ælfgifu, who was probably the daughter of Earl Thored of Northumbria.His elder brothers were Æthelstan (died 1014) and Egbert (died c. 1005), and younger ones, Eadred, Eadwig and Edgar. He had four sisters, Eadgyth (or Edith), Ælfgifu, Wulfhilda, and the Abbess of Wherwell Abbey. His mother died around 1000, after which his father remarried, this time to Emma of Normandy, who had two sons, Edward the Confessor and Alfred and a daughter Goda. Æthelstan and <mask> were close, and they probably felt threatened by Emma's ambitions for her sons. The Life of Edward the Confessor, written fifty years later, claimed that when Emma was pregnant with him, all Englishmen promised that if the child was a boy they would accept him as king. However that claim may just be propaganda. Warrior prince
When Sweyn Forkbeard seized the throne at the end of 1013 and Æthelred fled to Normandy, the brothers do not appear to have followed him, but stayed in England.Æthelstan died in June 1014 and left <mask> a sword which had belonged to king Offa of Mercia. His will also reflected the close relationship between the brothers and the nobility of the East Midlands. Sweyn died in February 1014, and the Five Boroughs accepted his son Cnut as king. However, Æthelred returned to England and launched a surprise attack which defeated the Vikings and forced Cnut to flee England. In 1015 Sigeferth and Morcar came to an assembly in Oxford, probably hoping for a royal pardon, but they were murdered by Eadric Streona. King Æthelred then ordered that Sigeferth's widow, Ealdgyth, be seized and brought to Malmesbury Abbey, but <mask> seized and married her in defiance of his father, probably to consolidate his power base in the East Midlands. He then received the submission of the people of the Five Boroughs.At the same time, Cnut launched a new invasion of England. In late 1015 <mask> raised an army, possibly assisted by his wife's and mother's links with the midlands and the north, but the Mercians under Eadric Streona joined the West Saxons in submitting to Cnut. In early 1016 the army assembled by <mask> dispersed when Æthelred did not appear to lead it, probably because of illness. <mask> then raised a new army and in conjunction with Earl Uhtred of Northumbria ravaged Eadric Streona's Mercian territories, but when Cnut occupied Northumbria Uhtred submitted to him, only to be killed by Cnut. <mask> went to London. King of England
Æthelred died on 23 April 1016, and the citizens and councillors in London chose <mask> as king and probably crowned him, while the rest of the Witan, meeting at Southampton, elected Cnut. <mask> then mounted a last-ditch effort to revive the defence of England.While the Danes laid siege to London, <mask> headed for Wessex, where the people submitted to him and he gathered an army. He fought inconclusive battles against the Danes and their English supporters at Penselwood in Somerset and Sherston in Wiltshire. He then raised the siege of London, which had been successfully resisted by the citizens, and defeated the Danes near Brentford. They renewed the siege while <mask> went to Wessex to raise further troops, returning to again relieve London, defeat the Danes at Otford, and pursue Cnut into Kent. Eadric Streona now went over to <mask>, but at the decisive Battle of Assandun on 18 October, Eadric and his men fled and Cnut decisively defeated <mask>. There may have been one further battle in the Forest of Dean, after which the two kings, persuaded by the Witan, negotiated a peace dividing the country between them. <mask> received Wessex while Cnut took Mercia and probably Northumbria.Death

On 30 November 1016, <mask> died. The location of his death is uncertain, though it is generally accepted that it occurred in London, rather than in Oxford where Henry of Huntingdon claimed it to be in his version of events, which included <mask>'s death from multiple stab-wounds whilst he was defecating on a privy. Geoffrey Gaimar narrates a similar occurrence with the weapon being a crossbow; but with a number of other medieval chroniclers, including the Encomium Emmae Reginae, not mentioning murder, it is thought <mask>'s cause of death may possibly have been wounds received in battle or some disease. It is certainly possible, however, that he was murdered. <mask> was buried near his grandfather King Edgar the Peaceful at Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset. However, the abbey was destroyed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century, and any remains of a monument or crypt may have been plundered; hence the location of his remains is unclear. Reputation
In the view of M. K. Lawson, the intensity of <mask>'s struggle against the Danes in 1016 is only matched by Alfred the Great's in 871, and contrasts with Æthelred's failure.<mask>'s success in raising one army after another suggests that there was little wrong with the organs of government under competent leadership. He was "probably a highly determined, skilled and indeed inspiring leader of men". Cnut visited his tomb on the anniversary of his death and laid a cloak decorated with peacocks on it to assist in his salvation, peacocks symbolising resurrection. Descendants
<mask> had two children by Ealdgyth: Edward the Exile and <mask>ling. According to John of Worcester, Cnut sent them to Sweden where he probably hoped they would be murdered and forgotten, but King Olof of Sweden instead forwarded them on to Kiev, where his daughter Ingegerd was the grand princess. The boys eventually ended up in Hungary where <mask> died but Edward prospered. Edward returned from exile to England in 1057 only to die within a few days of his arrival.His son Edgar Ætheling was briefly proclaimed king after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, but later submitted to William the Conqueror. Edgar lived a long and eventful life: fighting in rebellion against William the Conqueror from 1067 to 1075; fighting alongside the Conqueror's son Robert Curthose in campaigns in Sicily (1085–1087); and accompanying Robert on the First Crusade (1099–1103). He was still alive in 1125. In 1070 Edward the Exile's daughter, Margaret, became queen of Scotland. Through her and her descendants, <mask> is the ancestor of subsequent British monarchs. In culture

 <mask> is an Elizabethan play about him, which some critics believe to be a very early work by William Shakespeare. <mask> is played by John Horn in the 1970 television movie The Ceremony of Innocence.<mask> is one of the main characters in Justin Hill's novel Shieldwall (2011), first in the Conquest Trilogy. <mask> is a recurring character in the 2022 Netflix historical drama series Vikings: Valhalla, played by Louis Davison. See also
 House of Wessex family tree

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
 Clemoes, Peter. The Anglo-Saxons: Studies Presented to Bruce Dickins, 1959

External links

Monarchs of England before 1066
10th-century births
1016 deaths
Burials at Glastonbury Abbey
Anglo-Saxon warriors
10th-century English people
11th-century English monarchs
Christian monarchs
House of Wessex

masks:
Edmund Ironside
Edmund II
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund Æthe
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund Ironside
Edmund
Edmund
Edmund


texts:
<mask> "Trudi" Duby Blom (born <mask>; July 7, 1901 – December 23, 1993)  was a Swiss journalist, social anthropologist, and documentary photographer who spent five decades chronicling the Mayan cultures of Chiapas, Mexico, particularly the culture of the Lacandon Maya. In later life, she also became an environmental activist. Blom's former home Casa Na Bolom is a research and cultural center devoted to the protection and preservation of the Lacandon Maya and La Selva Lacandona rain forest. Europe 1901-1940
<mask> was born in the Swiss Alps, in the canton of Bern, Switzerland. She grew up in the village of Wimmis, where her father Otto Lörtscher was a minister and much of her childhood play was influenced by the wild west tales of Karl May. After completing a horticulture degree in 1918, Blom attended a school for social work in Zurich. There she became a member of the Socialist Party and developed an interest in journalism and politics.She left school and traveled throughout Europe, speaking and organizing on behalf of the Socialist Party. In 1925 she married Kurt Düby (1900–1951). Her marriage ended a few years later when Blom moved to Germany to report on Adolf Hitler and growing Nazi brutality for Swiss newspapers. Working as an anti-fascist organizer, speaker, and journalist led Blom to Paris, where she joined the international movement against Hitler's Germany. In 1939, after Blom was arrested and deported back to Switzerland, she planned to travel to New York and raise funds for war refugees, but a sudden change of heart led her to join the mass emigration of  pacifists, communists, labor leaders, artists and Jews welcomed to Mexico by President Lázaro Cárdenas. Mexico 1940-1969
In Mexico City, Blom was hired as a government social worker to study and report on the working conditions of Mexican women. Later, while researching women who had fought as zapatistas with Emiliano Zapata's revolutionary army, Blom bought her first camera to help document her work.In 1943, influenced by the adventures of French anthropologist Jacques Soustelle, whose book on jungle exploration she had read on the boat to Mexico, Blom convinced a government minister to let her join a Chiapas expedition going in search of the legendary and rarely photographed Lacandon Maya. Blom later credited her attractive appearance and the camera she wore around her neck for her place on this first official Lacandon expedition, which was to be conducted on horseback. Blom had never ridden a horse before. Not only did Blom become an expert horsewoman, photograph the Lacandon, and write a book about the 1943 expedition, she found in the Lacandon Mayan people and their jungle home her life's avocation. Later that year, on a second expedition to visit another Lacandon settlement, she met Frans Blom, a Danish archeologist and cartographer who was in the jungle searching for the Mayan ruin of Bonampak. They teamed up on several subsequent jungle explorations, which later provided the material for a two-volume study La Selva Lacandona. By 1951, Frans and <mask>lom had married.To be closer to the jungle, they moved from Mexico City to San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas. With an inheritance from Frans' mother, the Bloms purchased a neoclassical building on the outskirts of San Cristóbal de las Casas. It was built in 1891 and was originally intended to be a seminary. They restored the building and grounds and renamed it Casa Na Bolom, or House of the Jaguar. To support the household and Frans' Mayan studies, the Bloms took in paying guests for meals. Eventually, Casa Na Bolom evolved into an inn attracting visitors from all over the world, including archeologists from major American universities and guests as notable as Diego Rivera, François Mitterrand, Helen Hayes, and Henry Kissinger. For the next 12 years, until Frans <mask>'s death in 1963, the Bloms shared a passion for expeditions in search of Mayan ruins.On  these trips and sometimes as a paid jungle guide for others, <mask> continued photographing the Mayan people. She had little interest in the technical side of photography. Blom considered her camera a tool for documenting the people and culture of a rapidly changing place. Once a picture was taken, Blom often lost interest or forgot to develop prints. Mexico 1970-1993
In the early 1970s the direction of Blom's life changed yet again. She had become increasingly disturbed by the systematic deforestation of La Selva Lacandona by loggers, immigrant settlers, the petroleum industry, and the Mexican government. Blom decided she must speak out, and thus became one of the first environmental activists of the twentieth century.On her own, she made lecture tours with slide shows of her documentary photographs, traveling in Mexico, the United States, Germany and Switzerland to raise awareness of the irreparable damage being done to the jungle. She wrote hundreds of articles in three different languages protesting Mexican policies. Blom appeared on Mexican television shows and lobbied Mexican government officials. In 1975, within the grounds of Na Bolom, she started El Vivero, a tree nursery which has distributed thousands of free trees for reforestation. In her essay The Jungle is Burning, Blom writes "If mankind continues abusing the planet as we are today, the effects in the near future will be far worse than the devastation that would be caused by any atomic bomb." In 1983 Blom oversaw the first published collection of her photographs Gertrude Blom - Bearing Witness, a project sponsored by The Center for Documentary Studies, Duke University. Reina de la Selva, a film of Blom's life in which she appears, was made by Robert Cozens in 1989.Blom died at age 92. She was buried next to Frans Blom in the municipal cemetery of San Cristobal de Las Casas. In 2011, the remains of Frans and <mask>lom were disinterred and transported to the jungle village of Naha, Chiapas where Blom had kept a jungle camp for many years. The Bloms were finally laid to rest according to their wishes, in La Selva Lacandona and near the grave of Chan K'in Viejo, a Lacandon spiritual leader whom Blom considered her best friend. References

External links and other resources

 Documentary Photographs of <mask> Blom
 Casa Na Bolom and Na Bolom Cultural Association
 The house of the jaguar: The engaged anthropology of <mask> Blom at Museo Na Bolom by Mary L. Robison
 Traveler's Tales Mexico

 Blom, <mask>. Imagenes lacandones. Coneculta, Libros de Chiapas, 1999.Swiss women anthropologists
Social anthropologists
Swiss Mesoamericanists
Women Mesoamericanists
Mesoamerican anthropologists
Mayanists
20th-century Mesoamericanists
1901 births
1993 deaths
Swiss women photographers
Swiss women journalists
20th-century women scientists
20th-century women photographers

masks:
Gertrude
Gertrude Elisabeth Lörtscher
Gertrude Bm
Gertrude B
Blom
Gertrude Bm
Gertrude B
Gertrude Duby
Gertrude Duby
Gertrude Duby


texts:
<mask> (23 July 1824 – 5 July 1907) was a German philosopher, a historian of philosophy and a critic. Biography

After studying philosophy at Leipzig and Halle,
became a privatdocent at Heidelberg in 1850. The Baden government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching owing to his liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse considerable sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a professorship at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the dignity of his personal character. In 1872, on Eduard Zeller's move to Berlin, <mask> succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history of modern German literature at Heidelberg. He was a brilliant lecturer and possessed a remarkable gift for clear exposition. His fame rests primarily on his work as a historian and commentator of philosophy. As far as his philosophical views were concerned, he was, generally speaking, a follower of the Hegelian school.His writings in this direction, especially his interpretation of Kant, involved him in a quarrel with F. A. Trendelenburg, professor of philosophy at the University of Berlin, and his followers. In 1860, <mask>'s Kants Leben und die Grundlagen seiner Lehre (Kant's life and the foundations of his doctrine) lent the first real impulse to the so-called “return to Kant.”

In honor of his 80th birthday, celebrated in 1904, Otto Liebmann, Wilhelm Wundt, Theodor Lipps and others published Die Philosophie im Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. Festschrift für <mask> <mask> (Heidelberg, 1907). Philosophy
One of <mask>'s most significant and lasting contributions to philosophy was the use of the empiricism/rationalism distinction in categorising philosophers, particularly those of the 17th and 18th centuries. These include John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume in the empiricist category and René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and G.W. Leibniz in the rationalist category.Empiricism, it is said, claims that human knowledge is derived from sensation, i.e. experience, while rationalism claims that certain knowledge can be acquired before experience through pure principles. Although influential, in more recent times this distinction has been questioned as anachronistic in its failure to represent precisely the exact claims and methodologies of the philosophers it categorises. Reception
<mask> <mask>'s History of Modern Philosophy had a strong impact on Friedrich Nietzsche and his view on modern philosophy, particularly regarding Spinoza. Frege and W. Somerset Maugham were amongst his students. Hermann Weyl, writing about pre-WWII academic life in Germany, told the following anecdote about <mask>:

A little anecdote of German university life in the nineties may illustrate the point. <mask> <mask>, a second-rate philosopher at Heidelberg, was one day disturbed by the noise of workers who were putting in new cobblestones in the street before his house.He had at that time been offered a professorship in Berlin. So he opened his window and shouted to the workmen, "If you don't stop that noise at once, I'll accept the call to Berlin". Whereupon the foreman ran to the mayor, he summoned the Stadtbaumeister and they decided to postpone repair of the street until after the beginning of the academic vacation. Works
 De Parmenide Platonico. Stuttgart (thesis, 1847, online). Diotima. Die Idee des Schönen (Diotima, the idea of the beautiful; Pforzheim, 1849) (online)
 System der Logik und Metaphysik oder Wissenschaftslehre (System of logic and metaphysics, or doctrine of knowledge; 1852) (online)
 Das Interdict meiner Vorlesungen (The prohibition of my lectures; Mannheim, 1854)
 1854: Die Apologie meiner Lehre nebst Replik auf die „Abfertigung“ des Herrn Schenkel (online)
 Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (History of modern philosophy; 6 vols., Stuttgart-Mannheim-Heidelberg, 1854–77; new edition, Heidelberg, 1897–1901) This is considered by some to be his greatest work.It is written in the form of monographs on Descartes, Kant, Fichte, Schelling and other great philosophers down to Schopenhauer:
 erster Band: Descartes und seine Schule (1. Teil online, 2. Teil online)
 zweiter Band: Leibniz und seine Schule (online)
 dritter Band: Immanuel Kant und seine Lehre (online)
 vierter Band: Kant's System der reinen Vernunft (online: 2. Aufl. 1869, 3. neu bearb. Aufl. 1882, 4. ed.1899)
 fünfter Band: Fichte und seine Vorgänger (online)
 achter Band: Hegels Leben, Werke und Lehre (online: part 1 (1901), part 2 (1901))
 neunter Band: Schopenhauers Leben, Werke und Lehre (online (Jubiläumsausgabe 1898))
 Franz Baco von Verona (Leipzig, 1856 (2nd edition 1875); translated into English by J. Oxenford, London, 1857)
 Schiller als Philosoph (Frankfurt am Main, 1858; 2nd ed. by J. P. Mahaffy, London-Dublin, 1866; online)
 Descartes and his School (trans. by John P. Gordy, New York, 1887)

See also
 Fischer–Trendelenburg debate

Notes

References

 This work in turn cites:
 Alexander, A. B. D., “<mask> <mask>. An Estimate of his Life and Work” (in Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol. V, p. 57, New York, 1908)
 Falkenheim, H., <mask> <mask> und die Litterar-Historische Methode (Berlin, 1892)
 Goehring, H., “Von Kuno <mask>s Geistesart” (in Pädagogisches Magazin, Heft 317, Langensalza, 1907)
 Petsch, R., “<mask> <mask>, F. A., <mask> <mask> und sein Kant (Leipzig 1869)
 Vaihinger, H., “Der Streit zwischen Trendelenburg und <mask>” (in Commentar zu Kants “Kritik der Reinen Vernunft”, Vol.II, pp. 290 and 545, Stuttgart, 1882–92)
 Windelband, W., <mask> <mask> (Heidelberg 1907)

External links

 Short German text
 Francis Bacon of Verulam. Realistic Philosophy and its Age by <mask> <mask>, translated from the German by John Oxenford. London, 1857

1824 births
1907 deaths
19th-century philosophers
19th-century German philosophers
19th-century German people
People from the Province of Silesia
Leipzig University alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Heidelberg University faculty
University of Jena faculty
German historians of philosophy
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
Spinoza scholars

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<mask> (born October 28, 1934) is an American country singer-songwriter, musician, actor, and radio show host. He is a member of the Western Music Association Hall of Fame and the Country Music Disc Jockey Hall of Fame. Early life

<mask> was born <mask> in Two Harbors in Lake County in northeastern Minnesota but was primarily reared in Northfield in south central Minnesota. His father was an instructor and officer in several Civilian Conservation Corps camps, where <mask> spent some his earlier years. He also lived on Indian reservations along the Canada–United States border. When he was five years old, <mask>'s parents took him to see the western film Guns and Guitars, which starred the actor/singer Gene Autry. The young boy decided he wanted to be a singing cowboy.At the age of twelve, he received a guitar. Within a year, he was performing professionally. Musical career
<mask>'s professional career began as a young teenager, singing and playing rhythm guitar with a collegiate singing trio. He got a job on radio at the age of thirteen, a feat publicized in Billboard as the youngest disc jockey and singer on American radio. At age sixteen, <mask> began performing with the Sons of the Pioneers. He made his first professional recordings in the summer of 1952 in the studio of WCAL Radio station of St. Olaf College of Northfield, Minnesota. The six songs which resulted from those sessions were released on three singles on the local J-O-C-O label.After having played a supporting role in an episode of "Have Gun, Will Travel", Western wrote "The Ballad of Paladin" as a musical "thank-you-card" to Richard Boone. This landed a deal for him with Columbia Records. Between August 1958 and May 1963, Western recorded seven singles and one album (Have Gun, Will Travel, released in May 1962) for Columbia, until he was dropped from their roster. He then signed a contract with the Philips label, but only one single resulted ("Light The Fuse" b/w "Tender Years"). Have Gun Will Travel included the haunting Stan Jones song "Cowpoke", which members of the Western Writers of America chose as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time. The album was a mature work, redolent of Western lore. It also included Western's third version of "The Ballad of Paladin", a fine and introspective performance of "The Lonely Man", the gallows ballad "Hannah Lee", "The Streets of Laredo", "The Searchers" and "The Last Roundup".After this, <mask> was left without a recording contract. Over the years, he recorded various songs for small local labels such as Hep in Missouri or a promo-single for Dodge City. It was not until <mask> invited him to record at his House Of Cash recording studio that <mask> was able to compile enough material for another LP, which was released under the simple title of <mask> Western in 1981. Apart from the House of Cash recordings, it contained some unreleased songs <mask> had recorded for the Hep label. <mask>'s third album was recorded September 17–20, 1984 at Jack Clement Studio in Nashville, with Art Sparer producing. It was released under the title <mask> Western Sings 20 Great Classics & Legends. Amongst others, it contained a new version of <mask>'s own composition "The Gunfighter", featuring Harold Bradley on gut-string guitar, imitating the original "El Paso" sound, since <mask> had originally written that song with Marty Robbins in mind.His scarce recording output notwithstanding, <mask> remained a consistent performer for over sixty years and so his name was never lost on the general public. He performed with Gene Autry and was a part of the <mask> road show from 1958 until 1997. He wrote and performed the theme song "The Ballad of Paladin" for the CBS television program Have Gun – Will Travel, with Richard Boone. In collaboration with <mask>, he re-wrote the lyrics of NBC's Bonanza and the theme song, "The Rebel – Johnny Yuma", from the ABC series The Rebel, starring Nick Adams. In October 2013, <mask> announced that he would stop touring and giving concerts. Albums

Guest appearances

Acting career
Western has appeared in several television programs, including the westerns, Have Gun - Will Travel, Tales of Wells Fargo, Pony Express (in the 1960 episode "The Story of Julesburg"), and Boots and Saddles. He has had roles in several movies including The Night Rider, Fort Bowie, and The Dalton Girls.Radio career
In February 1986, Western returned to radio with a daily country music show on KFDI (1070 AM, later KFTI) a country music station calling itself "The Radio Ranch" in Wichita, Kansas. The station and sister station KFDI-FM were sold to Journal Broadcast Group in July 1999. In early April 2010, <mask> announced that he would retire from broadcasting. His last day on the air was Saturday, April 10, 2010. Just over a month and a half later the station would switch to an oldies format. The Johnny Western Theatre
The Johnny Western Theatre in Wild West World, a theme park located in Park City, Kansas near Wichita, had concerts scheduled to begin in October 2007. However, the park declared bankruptcy in July 2007.Western was never able to perform in his namesake theater, which now sits among the ruins of the Wild West World amusement park, just outside Wichita, Kansas. Awards and honors

 TV Theme Hall of Fame (1993)
 Country Music Disc Jockey Hall of Fame (2000)
 Old Time Country Music Hall of Fame (2000)
 Western Music Association Hall of Fame (2001)
 Wichita Professional Broadcasters Hall of Fame (2002)
 Kansas Cowboy Hall of Fame (2004)
 Kansas Western Swing Hall of Fame (2004)

References

External links

 <mask> Tour Information

1934 births
Living people
American country singer-songwriters
American male film actors
American radio personalities
American male television actors
Male Western (genre) film actors
People from Two Harbors, Minnesota
People from Northfield, Minnesota
Singers from Los Angeles
Male actors from Los Angeles
Singer-songwriters from Minnesota
Country musicians from California
Singer-songwriters from California

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<mask> (; 14 July 1889 – 28 December 1959) was a Croatian politician who founded and headed the fascist ultranationalist organization known as the Ustaše in 1929 and served as dictator of the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH), a fascist puppet state built out of parts of occupied Yugoslavia by the authorities of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, from 1941 to 1945. <mask> and the Ustaše persecuted many racial minorities and political opponents in the NDH during the war, including Serbs, Jews, Romani, and anti-fascists, becoming one of the key figures of the genocide of Serbs, the Porajmos and the Holocaust in the NDH. At the start of his career, <mask> was a lawyer and a politician of the Croatian Party of Rights in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia known for his nationalist beliefs and support for an independent Croatia. By the end of the 1920s, his political activity became more radical as he called on Croats to revolt against Yugoslavia, and schemed an Italian protectorate of Croatia separate from Yugoslavia. After King Alexander I declared his 6 January Dictatorship in 1929 and banned all political parties, <mask> went abroad and plotted with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) to undermine the Yugoslav state, which prompted the Yugoslav authorities to try him in absentia and sentence him to death. In the meantime, <mask> had moved to Fascist Italy where he founded the Ustaše, a Croatian nationalist movement with the goal of creating an independent Croatia by any means, including the use of terror. <mask> incorporated terrorist actions in the Ustaše program, such as train bombings and assassinations, staged a small uprising in Lika in 1932, culminating in the assassination of King Alexander in 1934 in conjunction with the IMRO.<mask> was once again sentenced to death after being tried in France in absentia and, under international pressure, the Italians imprisoned him for 18 months, and largely obstructed the Ustaše in the following period. At the behest of the Germans, senior Ustaša Slavko Kvaternik declared the NDH's establishment on 10 April 1941 in the name of <mask>. Calling himself the Poglavnik, or supreme leader, <mask> returned from Italy and took control of the puppet government. He created a political system similar to that of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The NDH, though constituting a Greater Croatia, was forced by the Italians to relinquish several territorial concessions to the latter. After taking control, <mask> imposed largely anti-Serbian and antisemitic policies that resulted in the deaths of over 100,000 Serbs and Jews in concentration and extermination camps in the NDH, murdering and torturing several hundred thousand Serbs, along with tens of thousands of Roma and Jews. These persecutions and killings have been described as the "single most disastrous episode in Yugoslav history".The racial policies of the NDH greatly contributed to their rapid loss of control over Croatia as they fed the ranks of both the Chetniks and Partisans and caused even the Nazis to attempt to restrain <mask> and his genocidal campaign. In 1945, he ordered the executions of prominent NDH politicians Mladen Lorković and <mask> Vokić on charges of treason when they were arrested for plotting to oust him and align the NDH with the Allies. Following the surrender of Germany in May 1945, <mask> ordered his troops to keep fighting even after the surrender. The remainder of the NDH government decided to flee to Austria on 3 May 1945, but <mask> instead ordered them to retreat to Austria over the former border of the Third Reich and have the Croatian Armed Forces surrender to the British Army. The British refused to accept the surrender and directed them to surrender to the Partisans. The Partisans began carrying out killings of the Ustaše when the latter attacked their position, killing them in the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators. <mask> himself fled to Austria, and later Argentina, whose president Juan Perón provided sanctuary for German war criminals and several Ustaše.On 10 April 1957, he was shot several times in a failed assassination attempt by the Serbian assassin Blagoje Jovović. <mask> survived the attempt and soon left Argentina for Spain. He died two and a half years later, on 28 December 1959, aged 70, from the injuries he sustained in the attempted assassination. Early life

Birth and education
<mask> <mask> was born in the Herzegovinian village of Bradina on the slopes of Ivan Mountain north of Konjic, roughly  southwest of Hadžići, then part of the Ottoman Empire occupied by Austrian-Hungarian Empire. His parents had moved to Bosnia and Herzegovina from the village of Krivi Put in the central part of the Velebit plain, in southern Lika (in today's Croatia), to work on the Sarajevo-Metković railway line. Searching for work, his family moved to the village of Jezero outside Jajce, where <mask> attended primary school, or maktab. Here <mask> learned Muslim traditions and lessons that influenced his attitude towards Bosnia and its Muslims.<mask> also attended a Jesuit primary  school in Travnik, growing up in a Muslim-majority city. Bosnian Muslim culture later became a major influence on his political views. <mask>'s sense of Croat nationalism grew from a visit to Lika with his parents, where he heard townspeople speaking Croatian, and realised it was not just the language of peasants. While attending school in Travnik he became an adherent of the nationalist ideologies of <mask> Starčević and his successor as the leader of the Party of Rights, Josip Frank. Health problems briefly interrupted his education in 1905. In summer he found work on the railway in Sarajevo and Višegrad. He continued his education in Zagreb, the home city of his elder brother Josip.In Zagreb, <mask> attended high school. His failure to complete his fourth-year classes meant he had to retake the exam. Early in his high school days, he joined the Pure Party of Rights as well as the Frankovci students' organization, founded by Josip Frank, the father-in-law of Slavko Kvaternik, an Austro-Hungarian colonel. Later he attended high school in Senj at the classical gymnasium, where he completed his fifth-year classes. Health problems again interrupted his education, and he took a job on the road in Istria, near Buzet. In 1909 he finished his sixth-year classes in Karlovac. His seventh-year classes were completed in Senj.<mask> graduated in Zagreb in 1910 and entered the Law Faculty of the University of Zagreb. In 1912 <mask> was arrested on suspicion of involvement in the attempted assassination of the Ban of Croatia-Slavonia, Slavko Cuvaj. He completed his law degree in 1914, and obtained his doctorate in July 1915. From 1915 until 1918 he worked as a clerk in the office of , president of the Party of Rights. After completing his clerkship, he became a lawyer in Zagreb. Political rise
During World War I, <mask> played an active role in the Party of Rights. As an employee and friend of its leader Horvat, he often attended important party meetings, taking over Horvat's duties when he was absent.In 1918, <mask> entered the party leadership and its Business Committee. After the unification of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs with the Kingdom of Serbia on 1 December 1918, the Party of Rights held a day of public protest claiming that the Croatian people were against having a Serbian king, and that their highest state authorities had not agreed to unification. Further, the party expressed their wish for Croatian republic in a program from March 1919, signed by president of the party, Vladimir Prebeg and <mask>. At the 1921 local elections in Zagreb, <mask> was elected member of the city assembly. In the name of the party, he contacted Nikola Pašić, the Yugoslav Prime Minister and member of the People's Radical Party, with the goal of weakening the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), the dominant Croatian party in the interwar period. <mask> was a member of the Frankovci faction of the Party of Rights. Ivica Peršić, a Croatian politician from the competing Milinovci faction, wrote in his memoir how <mask>'s 1921 election significantly raised the standing of his law office in Zagreb – a number of rich Jewish clients paid him to obtain Yugoslav citizenship, and <mask> subsequently started to make frequent visits to Belgrade, where he would procure those documents through his increasing number of connections to the members of the ruling People's Radical Party.In 1921, fourteen Party of Rights members, including <mask>, Ivo Pilar and Milan Šufflay, were arrested for anti-Yugoslav activities, for their alleged contacts with the Croatian Committee, a Croatian nationalist organization that was based in Hungary at the time. <mask> acted as the defence lawyer at the subsequent trial and was released. On 12 August 1922, in St. Mark's Church, Zagreb, <mask> married Maria Lovrenčević. They had three children, daughters Višnja and Mirjana and son Velimir. Maria was part Jewish through her mother's family and her father, Martin Lovrenčević, was a member of the Party of Rights and a well-known journalist. Later <mask> became vice-president of the Croatian Bar Association, the professional body representing Croatian lawyers. In his speeches to the Yugoslav Parliament he opposed Serbian nationalism and spoke in favor of Croatian independence.He was active with the youth of the Croatian Party of Rights and began contributing to the Starčević and Kvaternik newspapers. Serbian members of the Yugoslav Parliament disliked him and when a Serbian member said "Good night" to him in parliament, <mask> responded:

In 1927, <mask> became the vice-president of the party. In June 1927, <mask> represented Zagreb County at the European Congress of Cities in Paris. When he was returning from Paris, he visited Rome and submitted a memorandum in the name of HSP to the Italian ministry of foreign affairs in which he offered to cooperate with Italy in dismembering Yugoslavia. In order to obtained Italian support for Croatian independence, the memorandum effectively made any such Croatia 'little more than an Italian protectorate'. The memorandum also stated that the Party of Rights recognised the existing territorial settlements between Italy and Yugoslavia, thus giving up all Croatian claims to Istria, Rijeka, Zadar and the Adriatic islands which Italy had annexed after World War I. These areas contained between 300,000 and 400,000 Croats.Further, the memorandum also agreed to cede the Bay of Kotor and Dalmatian headlands of strategic importance to Italy, and agreed that a future Croatia would not establish a navy. As the most radical politician of the Croatian Bloc, <mask> sought opportunities to internationalize the "Croatian question" and highlight Yugoslavia's unsustainability. In December 1927, <mask> defended four Macedonian students in Skopje who were accused of belonging to the Macedonian Youth Secret Revolutionary Organization founded by Ivan Mihailov. During the trial, <mask> accused the court of setting them up and stressed the right to self-determination. This trial received public attention in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. Following his election as a member of the Croatian Bloc in the 1927 election, <mask> became his party's liaison with Nikola Pašić. He was one of two elected Croatian Bloc candidates alongside <mask> Trumbić, one of the key politicians in the creation of a Yugoslav state.From 1927 until 1929, he was part of the minuscule delegation of the Party of Rights in the Yugoslav Parliament. In 1927, he secretly contacted Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy and founder of fascism, and presented his separatist ideas to him. <mask> proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats. In summer 1928, the leaders of the Croatian Bloc, Trumbić and <mask>, addressed the Italian consul in Zagreb to gain support for the Croatian struggle against regime of King Alexander. On 14 July, they received a positive response, after which <mask> maintained contact. Historian Rory Yeomans claimed  that there are indications that <mask> had been considering the formation of some kind of nationalist insurgency group as early as 1928. After the assassination of Croatian politicians in the National Assembly, of which he was an eyewitness, <mask> joined the Peasant-Democratic Coalition and started to publish a magazine called  in which he advocated Croatian independence.His political party radicalised after the assassination. He found support in the Croatian Rights Republican Youth (Hrvatska pravaška republikanska omladina), a youth wing of the Party of Rights led by Branimir Jelić. On 1 October 1928 he founded an armed group with the same name, an act through which he openly called on Croatians to revolt. This group trained as part of a legal sport society. Yugoslav authorities declared the organization illegal and banned its activities. In exile
<mask> held the position of the Party of Rights secretary until 1929, the beginning of the 6 January Dictatorship in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. According to Croatian historian Hrvoje Matković, after the King declared his dictatorship <mask>'s house was under constant police watch.At this time, <mask> started to organize the Ustaša (Ustaša – Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret) as an organization with military and conspiratorial principles. Its official foundation was 7 January 1929. The Ustaša movement was "founded on the principles of racialism and intolerance". Because of the threat of arrest, <mask> escaped during a surveillance lapse and went to Austria on the night of 19/20 January 1929. According to Tomasevich, <mask> left for Vienna to "seek medical aid". Initial exile and trial
He contacted other Croatian emigrants, mainly political émigrés, former Austrian-Hungarian officers, who gathered around Stjepan Sarkotić and refused to return to Yugoslavia. After a short stay in Austria, alongside Gustav Perčec, <mask> moved to Budapest.In March 1929, the Ustaše commenced a campaign of terrorism within Yugoslavia with the assassination of Toni Schlegel in Zagreb. Schlegel was a pro-Yugoslav editor of the newspaper Novosti who was also a close confidante of King Alexander. After establishing contact with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization in April 1929, he and Perčec went to Sofia in Bulgaria. On 29 April 1929, <mask> and Ivan Mihailov signed the Sofia Declaration in which they formalized cooperation between their movements. In the declaration, they obligated themselves to separate Croatia and Macedonia from Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia protested to Bulgaria. <mask> was found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death in absentia along with Perčec on 17 August 1929.Because of the Yugoslav verdict, on 25 September 1929 <mask> was arrested in Vienna and expelled to Germany. <mask>'s stay in Germany was constrained by opposition from the German ambassador to Yugoslavia, Adolf Köster, a supporter of Yugoslavia. A friend of King Alexander, he did his best to prevent

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