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 Belisarius considered potentially being cornered in Carthage, with the Vandals holding a superior naval position, his forces vulnerable to attack when landing, and no information on the position of the Vandals to be too dangerous.There also was the risk of unfavorable winds which had led to disaster in 468; they might be trapped in an unfavorable situation before even reaching Carthage. Instead the Byzantines landed at Caput Vada,  away from Carthage. <mask> ordered fortification to be constructed, guards to be posted and a screen of lightships to be deployed to defend the army and fleet, so that this invasion would not be a repeat of the Battle of Cape Bon where the Byzantines were defeated by fire ships. During the construction of the base, a spring was found, which Procopius called a good omen from God. When he heard of the Byzantine landing, Gelimer rapidly moved to consolidate his position. He had Hilderic and other captives executed, ordered his treasury to be put on a ship ready for evacuation to Visigothic Iberia if necessary, and began gathering his troops. He had already made a plan to ambush and encircle the Byzantines at Ad Decimum.Gelimer had instantly recognized that the Byzantines would move to Carthage via the coastal road, but still sent garrisons to guard other roads. At the same time that Gelimer was preparing his ambush, <mask> was gathering information on the local inhabitants and preparing to move to Carthage via the coastal road, as Gelimer expected. During the first night on African soil, some Byzantine soldiers had picked some fruit without asking the locals for permission, and <mask> had them put to death. Only after he had already ordered the soldiers to be executed did Belisarius gather his men and tell them how to behave. He warned his men that if they didn't have the support from the locals, the expedition would end in defeat. Next, he sent a unit of his personal guards under Boriades to the town of Syllectus (Salakta) to test the willingness of the locals to join his side. Boriades was denied entry to the town, but after three days eventually gained entry by joining a group of wagons entering the town.When the locals found out the Byzantines were in the town, they submitted without a fight. The Byzantines also captured a Vandal messenger who Belisarius decided to release. The messenger was paid to spread the message that Justinian was only waging war on the man who had imprisoned their rightful king, and not against the Vandal people. The messenger was too afraid of the possible repercussions to tell it to anyone but close friends. Even though this early attempt failed, <mask> made it well known throughout the campaign that he was only there to restore the rightful king. When Belisarius advanced again, he positioned his troops in such a way that he and his guards could rapidly reinforce any position that could be attacked, especially the flank, as the last known Vandal position was to the south and the army moved north. He also sent 300 guards ahead to scout while the 600 Huns guarded his left flank, and the fleet his right flank.When the army arrived in Syllectus, their civilized behavior caused the city to give their full support to the Byzantines. This positive reputation of the Byzantine army began immediately spreading, causing much of the population to support the Byzantines. Marching at the speed of around  to  a day, the Byzantines advanced on Carthage, their speed dictated by the need to build a fortified camp every day. When <mask> was  away from Carthage, he knew the Vandals would be near at this point and that they would act before he could reach Carthage, but he was not aware of the location and wanted to gather information of his situation first. Part of the rearguard encountered a Vandal force sent ahead by Gelimer, which gave <mask> the knowledge that at least some Vandal troops were behind his own force. His journey now became increasingly dangerous as the fleet had to sail around Cape Bon and the road curved inland so it became impossible to rapidly evacuate, which he could have done at any time he wanted until this point. Belisarius ordered Archelaus and the naval commander Calonymus remain at a distance of at least  from Carthage.He advanced on land with about 18,000 men himself. Soon he would encounter Gelimer at Ad Decimum. Battle of Ad Decimum

The Byzantines were located in between the Vandal forces in the north and the south. Gelimer needed a victory at Ad Decimum to unite his forces. Numbering about 10,000-12,000, the Vandals were outnumbered. The valley in which the ambush was to take place was narrow, and as two of the three roads to Carthage became one in the valley, it seemed like a great spot for an ambush to Gelimer. Ammatus, with 6,000-7,000 men, was ordered to block the northern exit and attack the Byzantines head-on, then drive them further back into the valley and cause disorder.Meanwhile, 5,000-6,000 Vandals under Gelimer were already advancing towards Belisarius from the south as the earlier clash showed; these would be in the near vicinity when <mask> entered the valley and would attack them from behind, after all the Byzantines had moved into the valley. Brogna states that this plan was doomed to fail, as coordination over dozens of miles was needed, however, Hughes disagrees and calls the plan "elegant and simple", but does state that the plan relied too much on hard to pull off timing and synchronization. The battle consisted of four separate stages. Four miles (6.5 km) from Ad Decimum, Belisarius found an ideal spot to camp. Leaving the infantry behind to build a camp, he rode out with his cavalry to meet the Vandals who he suspected were nearby. This way he left his infantry, baggage, and wife in a secure position. Unlike the large infantry force, he would easily be able to control this small force of cavalry, which was the main strength of the Byzantine army.When <mask> arrived at the battlefield, the first three stages of the battle had already taken place. The Byzantines sent ahead to scout and the Huns guarding the flank had routed the numerically superior forces opposing them. Before <mask> arrived at the field of battle, he encountered some units routed by Gelimer's army, who informed him of the situation in the third stage, when Gelimer himself arrived. As Belisarius arrived, Gelimer saw his brother Ammatus killed in combat. Mourning, he remained idle and allowed Belisarius to attack his force while it was in a disorganized state in the fourth and last stage of the battle. Carthage and Tricamarum
After this victory, <mask> marched on Carthage. He arrived at nightfall.He then camped outside the city as he was afraid of a Vandal ambush in its streets and of his troops sacking the city under the cover of darkness. When Calonymus heard of the victory, he used part of his fleet to rob a number of merchants. <mask> ordered him to give everything back, even though Calonymus secretly managed to keep it. The Vandals hiding in Carthage and the surrounding area were gathered in Carthage by <mask>, who guaranteed their safety. When Tzazo, the Vandal commander fighting the rebellion on Sardinia, sent a message of his victory to Carthage, the messenger was captured, providing <mask> with intelligence on the strategic situation. Belisarius also had Carthage's wall repaired. The news of the capture of Carthage had reached Iberia by then, and its king refused to make an alliance with the envoy Gelimer had sent earlier.Due to <mask>' benevolence, many cities of Africa changed sides, so it became impossible for Gelimer to fight a protracted campaign. Before making his next move, Gelimer had received reinforcements under Tzazo and tried to convince some of <mask>' forces to desert. Belisarius prevented their desertion, but for example, the Huns would not take part in the battle until after the winner had been practically decided. When a Carthaginian civilian was caught working for the Vandals, <mask> had him publicly executed. Later a second battle was fought at Tricamarum. In this battle, Belisarius played only an advisory role to John the Armenian as he arrived at the battlefield later on. After winning that battle, Belisarius sent John the Armenian to chase Gelimer.John was killed by accident and Gelimer managed to escape to Medeus, a town on Mount Papua (probably part of Mount Aurasius) The 400 Heruls under Pharis were to besiege it. Gelimer's treasure failed to depart and was captured and the king of the Visigoths, Theudis, refused an alliance with Gelimer. After a failed assault in which Pharis lost 110 men, Gelimer surrendered. Meanwhile, <mask> himself had been reorganizing the captured territory and had sent Cyril on a mission to capture Sardinia which would capture that island, and later also Corsica. The effort to locate and gather Vandal soldiers was still going on; in this way, the class on which the entire Vandal military and political systems were based could be wholly deported to the east and Vandal power forever broken. Jealous subordinates now contacted Justinian and claimed Belisarius wanted to rebel. Belisarius was presented with a choice by Justinian: he could either continue governing the new territory as its official governor or return to Constantinople and get a triumph.If he wanted to rebel he was sure to choose the governorship, but instead he chose the triumph, convincing Justinian of his loyalty once again. The entire war was over before the end of 534. While east, <mask> was not only awarded a triumph but also made consul. Mutiny
Sometime after <mask> left, a mutiny broke out in Africa. Soldiers angry about religious persecution by the Byzantines, and the inability of the empire to pay them rose up en masse and nearly broke Byzantine rule in the area. Belisarius would return for a short while, just before the Gothic War, to help fight the revolt. When the rebels heard of his arrival, they lifted the siege of Carthage, which at the beginning of the siege had numbered 9,000 plus many slaves.<mask> attacked them with just 2,000 troops, winning a victory in the Battle of the River Bagradas. During the battle, Stotzas, the rebel leader, tried to move his army into a new position in front of the Byzantine force. When the units moved, <mask> took advantage of their temporary disarray and launched a successful attack against them, which caused the entire rebel army to panic and flee. The rebels' power was broken and <mask> left for Italy. Gothic War

In 535, Justinian commissioned Belisarius to attack the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy. The Ostrogothic king Theodahad had gained the throne by marriage. Power had been held, however, by the pro-Byzantine queen Amalasuintha, until Theodahad had her imprisoned and then killed.Seeing internal division similar to that in Africa, Justinian expected the Goths to be weak. <mask> assembled 4,000 troops, which included regular troops and possibly foederati, 3,000 Isaurians, 300 Berbers and 200 Huns. In total, including his personal guards, his force numbered roughly 8,000. <mask> landed in Sicily and took the island in order to use it as a base against Italy, while Mundus recovered Dalmatia. Justinian wanted to pressure Theodahad into relinquishing his throne and to then annex his kingdom through diplomacy and limited military action. This worked at first, but the army in the Balkans retreated. and the war continued.Belisarius pushed on in Sicily. The only Ostrogothic resistance came at Panormus, which fell after a quick siege. Here <mask> used archer fire from the top of the masts of his ships to subdue the garrison. He made a triumphal entry to Syracuse on 31 December 535. The preparations for the invasion of the Italian mainland were interrupted in Easter 536 when <mask> sailed to Africa to counter an uprising of the local army (as described above). His reputation made the rebels abandon the siege of Carthage, and Belisarius pursued and defeated them at Membresa. Afterwards he returned to Sicily and then crossed into mainland Italy, where he captured Naples in November and Rome in December 536.Before reaching Naples, he had met no resistance as the troops in southern Italy were disgusted by Theodahad and switched sides. At Naples a strong Gothic garrison resisted the Byzantines using its strong fortifications. Belisarius could not operate safely at Rome with such a strong garrison in his rear. He could neither storm the strong fortifications nor conduct a lengthy siege which could be interrupted by Gothic reinforcements, while bribery and negotiation attempts also failed. He couldn't use his fleet either as there was artillery on the wall. Then Belisarius cut the aqueduct, but the city had enough wells, so he resorted to making many costly, failed assaults. After their failure, Belisarius planned on abandoning the siege and marching on Rome.By chance, however, an entrance to the city via an aqueduct was found and a small Byzantine force entered the city. When this force had entered the city, <mask> launched an all-out assault so the Goths couldn't concentrate against the intruders. Despite having taken the city by force, he showed leniency to the city and garrison, so as to entice as many other Goths to join his side or surrender later on; this way he would avoid costly action as much as possible and preserve his small force. The failure to reinforce the city caused Theodahad to be deposed. While the new Gothic king, Vitiges, had sent a garrison to Rome, the city was left undefended as the troops fled after noticing the pro-Byzantine attitude of the population. Much of Tuscany submitted willingly to Belisarius' troops at this point. Belisarius garrisoned towns on the supply lines from the Gothic heartland in the north to Rome, forcing Vitiges to besiege these towns before he could march on Rome.Siege of Rome

From March 537 to March 538 Belisarius successfully defended Rome against the much larger army of Vitiges. He inflicted heavy casualties by launching many successful sorties. While the range of the horse archers Belisarius used has often been credited with the success of these raids in the terrain around Rome, this wouldn't make sense. Instead, it was the Gothic unpreparedness and the command expertise of Byzantine officers which made sure the Goths were unable to respond. When Vitiges tried to post units to prevent these raids, Belisarius sent out bigger units that encircled them; the Gothic officers proved unable to counter this. Eighteen days into the siege, the Goths launched an all-out assault, and Belisarius ordered a number of archers to shoot at the oxen pulling the siege equipment. As a result, the assault failed with heavy casualties.When the Goths retreated from a certain section of the wall, <mask> launched an attack on their rear, inflicting extra casualties. However, when he tried to end the siege by sallying out with a large force, Vitiges used his numbers to absorb the attack and then to counter-attack, winning the battle. Regardless, Vitiges was losing the siege,

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 so he decided to make one last attempt on the wall which ran along the Tiber, where the wall was much less formidable. He bribed men to give the guards drugged wine, but the plot was revealed and Belisarius had a traitor tortured and mutilated as a punishment. An armistice had been signed shortly before, but with both the Goths and the Byzantines openly breaking it, the war continued. By then Byzantine forces had captured Ariminum (Rimini) and approached Ravenna, so Vitiges was forced to retreat. The siege had lasted from March 537 to March 538.Belisarius sent 1,000 men to support the population of Mediolanum (Milan) against the Goths. These forces captured much of Liguria, garrisoning the major towns in the region. Belisarius captured Urbinum (Urbino) in December 538, when the Gothic garrison ran out of water after a three-day siege. Deposition of Pope Silverius
During the siege of Rome, an incident occurred for which the general would be long condemned: <mask>, a Byzantine Rite Christian, was commanded by the monophysite Christian Empress Theodora to depose the reigning Pope, who had been installed by the Goths. This Pope was the former subdeacon Silverius, the son of Pope Hormisdas. <mask> was to replace him with the Deacon Vigilius, Apocrisarius of Pope John II in Constantinople. Vigilius had in fact been chosen in 531 by Pope Boniface II to be his successor, but this choice was strongly criticised by the Roman clergy and Boniface eventually reversed his decision.In 537, at the height of the siege, Silverius was accused of conspiring with the Gothic king and several Roman senators to secretly open the gates of the city. <mask> had him stripped of his vestments and exiled to Patara in Lycia in Asia Minor. Following the advocacy of his innocence by the bishop of Patara, he was ordered to return to Italy at the command of the Emperor Justinian, and if cleared by investigation, reinstated. however, Vigilius had already been installed in his place. Silverius was intercepted before he could reach Rome and exiled once more, this time on the island of Palmarola (Ponza), where by one account he is said to have starved to death, while others say he left for Constantinople. However that may be, he remains the patron saint of Ponza today. <mask>, for his part, built a small oratory on the site of the present church of Santa Maria in Trivio in Rome as a sign of his repentance.He also built two hospices for pilgrims and a monastery, which have since disappeared. <mask> and Narses
Belisarius ordered the cavalry garrison of Ariminum to be replaced by infantry. In this way the cavalry could join with other cavalry forces and use their mobility outside of the city, while the infantry under some obscure commander guarding the city would draw less attention to the city than a strong cavalry force under John. Vitiges sent a large army to retake Mediolanum while he moved to besiege Ariminum himself. Vitiges tried to hinder the Byzantine movement by garrisoning an important tunnel on the road to Ancona. This garrison was defeated, while Vitiges had to maneuver himself around a number of Byzantine garrisons to avoid losing time in fighting useless engagements. Ultimately, the Byzantines were successful in reinforcing Ariminum, however, John refused to leave the city.John managed to prevent the siege tower used by the Goths from reaching the walls which caused Vitiges to withdraw. John wanted to prevent this withdrawal and sallied out but was, like <mask> at Rome, defeated, which caused Vitiges to keep besieging the now weakened garrison. Needing fewer men, as no assault was to be made, Vitiges sent troops against Ancona and reinforced Auximus. <mask> could either take Auximus and move on Ariminum with a secure rear, or bypass Auximus to save time. If it took too long to get there, Ariminum might fall. The Byzantines were divided into two groups; one led by Narses wanted to move on Ariminum immediately, while the other wanted to first take Auximus. A message from John eventually convinced Belisarius to move to Ariminum.During this operation <mask> would station a part of his forces near Auximus to secure his rear. The arrival of a Byzantine relief force under <mask> and Narses compelled the Ostrogoths to give up the siege and retreat to their capital of Ravenna. The force had been too small to actually challenge the Goths, but through deception, <mask> had managed to convince the Goths otherwise. Belisarius had approached from multiple sides including over the sea, which convinced the Goths they faced a huge force. The troops were also ordered by <mask> to light more campfires than necessary to strengthen the deception. John made it a point to thank Narses for his rescue instead of <mask> or Ildiger, the first officer to reach the city. This might have been to insult <mask> or to avoid being indebted according to the Roman patronage tradition of which some remnants were probably still part of Byzantine culture.John (and Narses) might not have been convinced of <mask>' competence, as the Vandals and Goths were by then perceived as weak, while he had been relatively unsuccessful against the Persians. Narses' supporters tried to turn Narses against <mask>, claiming that a close confidant of the emperor should not take orders from a "mere general". <mask>, in turn, warned Narses that his followers were underestimating the Goths. He pointed out that their current position was surrounded by Gothic garrisons, and proposed to relieve Mediolanum and besiege Auximus simultaneously. Narses accepted the plan, with the provision that he and his troops would move into the region of Aemilia. This would pin down the Goths at Ravenna, and as such put <mask>' forces in a secure position, as well as preventing the Goths from reclaiming Aemilia. Narses claimed that if this wasn't done, the rear of the troops besieging Auximus would be open to attack.Belisarius ultimately decided against this, as he was afraid this would spread his troops too thin. He showed a letter from Justinian that said that he had absolute authority in Italy to act "in the best interests of the state" to force Narses into accepting the decision. Narses replied that Belisarius wasn't acting in the best interests of the state. From the later part of the siege of Rome onwards, reinforcements had arrived in Italy; during the siege of Ariminum, another 5,000 reinforcements landed in Italy, close to the siege where they were needed, clearly by design. The last group of reinforcements was 7,000 strong and led by Narses. After these arrived, the Byzantines had around 20,000 troops in Italy in total. John claimed that about half of the troops were loyal to Narses instead of Belisarius.Belisarius gave up his original plan and instead of sending forces to besiege Urviventus (Orvieto) and himself besieging Urbinus. Narses refused to share a camp with <mask> and he and John claimed the city could not be taken by force and abandoned the siege. As <mask> sent the assault forwards, the garrison surrendered, as the well in the city stopped working. Narses reacted by sending John to take Caesena. While that attack failed miserably, John quickly moved to surprise the garrison at Forocornelius (Imola), and so secured Aemilia for the Byzantines. Shortly after <mask>' arrival, the Urviventus garrison ran out of supplies and surrendered. In late December, shortly after the siege of Urbanus and Urviventus, Belisarius sent troops to reinforce Mediolanum.Unsure of the Gothic numbers, they requested aid from John and other troops under Narses. John and the other commanders refused to follow <mask>' order to assist, stating that Narses was their commander. Narses repeated the order but John fell ill and they paused for him to recover. Meanwhile, the revolt at Mediolanum was bloodily suppressed by the Goths. The desperate garrison had been promised safety in return for abandoning the city, which they subsequently did. As the population had revolted, they were considered traitors and many were slaughtered. Subsequently, the other cities in Liguria surrendered to avoid the same fate.Narses was subsequently recalled. Finishing the conquest
In 539, Belisarius set up siege forces around Auximum and sent troops to Faesulae, starving both cities to submission by late 539. He led the siege of Auximum himself; knowing he couldn't storm the city, he tried to cut the water supply but this failed. When the captured leaders from the Faesulae garrison were paraded in front of the city, its garrison too surrendered. If he moved on Ravenna his rear would now be secure. Vitiges hadn't been able to reinforce these places, as there was a food shortage throughout Italy and he couldn't gather enough supplies for the march. Belisarius stationed his army around the Ostrogothic capital of Ravenna in late 539.The grain shipment to the city hadn't been able to proceed to the city, so when the Byzantines advanced on Ravenna, the grain was captured. Ravenna was cut off from help on its seaward side by the Byzantine navy patrolling the Adriatic Sea. When <mask> besieged Ravenna, the Gothic nobles, including Vitiges, had offered the throne of the "western empire" to him. Belisarius feigned acceptance and entered Ravenna via its sole point of entry, a causeway through the marshes, accompanied by a comitatus of bucellarii, his personal household regiment (guards). He also prepared a grain shipment to enter the city when it surrendered. Soon afterward, he proclaimed the capture of Ravenna in the name of the Emperor Justinian. The Goths' offer raised suspicions in Justinian's mind and Belisarius was recalled.He returned home with the Gothic treasure, king and warriors. Later campaigns

Against Persia

For his next assignment, <mask> went to the east to fight the Persians. Unlike during the Gothic and Vandalic wars, he wasn't accompanied by his wife. The Byzantines expected that Khosrow, like in the previous year, would move through Mesopotamia, but instead, Khosrow attacked Lazica, where the population was treated poorly by the Byzantines. The Lazicans had invited Khosrow, who concealed his movement by claiming he was going to fight the Huns in the north while instead, the Huns assisted Khosrow. When <mask> arrived in the east he sent spies to gather information. He was told that the Persians were moving north to fight the Huns.Meanwhile, Belisarius had trained and organized his troops who had been terrified of the Persians before his arrival. He decided he could attack Persia in relative safety. Some of <mask>' officers protested, as staging an offensive would leave the Lakhmids free to raid the eastern provinces. Belisarius pointed out that the Lakhmids would be filling the next months with religious celebrations and that he would be back within two months. With the same reasoning he used in Italy for the siege of Auximus and other sieges and the marching column in Africa, he determined that Nisibis had to be taken first to secure his rear if he moved further into Persia. Meanwhile, the war was going poorly for the Byzantines to the north, Lazica was taken and a significant Byzantine garrison changed sides, possibly not having been paid for years. When Belisarius approached Nisibis he ordered a camp to be set up at a significant distance from the city.His officers protested at this, but he explained to them that this was so that if the Persians sallied out and were defeated, the Byzantines would have more time to inflict casualties during the retreat. At the battle of Rome, during the siege of Rome, Belisarius had been defeated, but much of his army was able to retreat the short distance back to the city, something which he did not want to occur when the roles were reversed. Some of his officers disagreed so vehemently that they left the main force and camped close to the city. Belisarius warned them that the Persians would attack just before the first Byzantine meal, but the officers still sent their men to get food at this time and as a result, were caught in disorder by an attack. Belisarius observed what was going on and was already marching to their aid before messengers requesting aid even arrived. He turned the tide and won the battle. Having defeated the garrison but still being not being in a strong enough position to storm the fortifications, he moved past the city.He didn't fear being attacked from the rear by the garrison anymore, mostly because their confidence was broken. While he besieged Sisauranon, he sent troops to raid the rich lands beyond the Tigris. While <mask>' assaults on the city were repulsed by its 800-strong garrison and suffered heavy losses, the city ran out of supplies and the garrison changed sides. At this point, the troops raiding Persia returned home without informing <mask>. At this point, up to a third of <mask>' forces had caught a fever, and the Lakhmids were about to take up arms again. As he did with other major decisions, Belisarius asked his officers' opinions; they concluded they should retreat. Procopius heavily criticized this, claiming that Belisarius could have marched on and taken Ctesiphon.He disregarded the fact that no information on Persian dispositions was available and <mask> hadn't been able to take Sisauranon by force, making it unlikely he could have stormed Ctesiphon. In the campaign of 542, <mask> got the Persians to call off their invasion using trickery. Khosrow had wanted to raid Byzantine territory again but Belisarius moved to the area. When Khosrow sent an ambassador, Belisarius took 6,000 of his best men with him for a meeting. Taking only hunting equipment with them, it seemed like it was a hunting party from a larger equally high-quality force. Fooled by the deception, the Persians, knowing that if they were defeated they would be trapped in Byzantine territory, retreated. Belisarius also sent 1,000 cavalry into the Persian retreat route; if an engagement was fought this might have pointed out Byzantine weakness.During the retreat, <mask> constantly kept the pressure on, preventing Khosrow from raiding. In return for the Persian withdrawal from imperial lands, the Byzantines sent ambassadors, as the Persian ambassador had requested from <mask> at their meeting. The meeting had been just a ruse to spy on the Byzantine troops, and as such, when <mask> took the pressure off, Khosrow attacked some Byzantine towns. Sacking Callinicum, Khosrow could claim success. Some claimed that by not harassing Khosrow, <mask> had made a serious error, but this view was not brought up in court. Despite Callinicum, <mask> was acclaimed throughout the East for his success in repelling the Persians. Crucial to the success of <mask>' deception had been Khosrow's fear of catching the plague if he remained in Byzantine territory for too long, which made maintaining a tactical position in Byzantine territory highly dangerous.By showing his best troops in the open, Belisarius made clear that his army was not weakened by the plague and seemingly not afraid to catch it. Return to Italy

While

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 <mask> was in the east, the situation in Italy had vastly deteriorated. The governor sent to the area, a man named Alexander, was corrupt. He trimmed the edges of coins and kept the trimmings of precious metal to increase his own wealth. He charged many soldiers with corruption and demanded they pay fines, and he decreased military spending and demanded that tax withheld from the Goths would be instead paid to the Byzantines. As a result, many Byzantine soldiers defected or mutinied. The command of the troops in Italy was divided by Justinian to prevent any commander from becoming too powerful.Most of the time these commanders refused to work together as Justinian's plague made it dangerous to leave the base. Meanwhile, the Goths under the brilliant and energetic leadership of Ildibad and Totila went on the offensive and recaptured all of northern Italy and parts of the south. Apparently Totila considered the opportunity to win an easy victory greater than the risk of losing his force due to plague. As a result, they won many engagements against the uncoordinated Byzantines including the Battle of Treviso, the siege of Verona, the Battle of Faventia, the Battle of Mucellium and the siege of Naples. But by now they weren't powerful enough to capture Rome. In 544, <mask> was reappointed to hold command in Italy. Before going to Italy, Belisarius had to recruit troops.When he finished his force numbered roughly 4,000 men. Justinian wasn't able to allocate significant resources, as most troops were still needed in the east and the plague had devastated the empire. During the upcoming campaign, Totila mostly wanted to avoid sieges. The Byzantines had proven themselves adept at sieges, but he had proven multiple times he could defeat them in open battle. Therefore, he razed the walls of towns he took; he wanted neither to be besieged there nor to have to besiege them later. <mask>, on the other hand, wanted to avoid battle; he had entirely avoided battle after the battle of Rome. With forces as small as his, he wanted to avoid losing too many men and instead avoid the Goths from making progress through other means.In Italy, many soldiers were mutinous or changed sides, which <mask> hoped would stop when he was reappointed; it didn't. The Byzantine garrison at Dryus were running out of supplies and made plans to surrender, but when <mask> arrived, he quickly arranged for supplies to be sent by ship. The Goths failed to notice the ships until it was too late and abandoned the siege. Now <mask> himself sailed to Italy, landing at Pola. Totila quickly heard of this and sent spies pretending to be Byzantine messengers. <mask> fell for the ruse, so Totila immediately knew the state of his army; he wouldn't be deceived like Khosrow. <mask> himself didn't remain idle and went to Ravenna to recruit extra troops.While people respected <mask>, they were smart enough to notice that a fair deal made with <mask> would be ruined by his often corrupt and incompetent successors. As a result, not a single man enlisted. This also meant that Belisarius' normal strategy of winning over the people through benevolence wouldn't work. Not wanting to remain idle, Belisarius sent troops into Aemilia. This was successful until the Illyrian troops went home to deal with a Hunnish incursion. The remaining Byzantines successfully ambushed a significant Gothic force, and the incursion ended in a victory. Next, Belisarius sent some men to assist the besieged Auximus, they succeeded but they were defeated while moving back.Still wanting to retain some initiative, Belisarius sent men to rebuild some nearby forts. Belisarius undertook no other operations, so despite winter arriving, Totila started the sieges of some towns, secure from the Byzantine threat. When requesting reinforcement, Belisarius asked for barbarian horse archers, as he knew the Goths were unable to counter these. Justinian was fighting wars on many fronts and the plague was devastating Constantinople for a second time; he was thus unable to provide even the equipment and money needed to re-equip and pay the forces already in Italy. Totila was enjoying great success in his recent sieges. Herodian, commander of a garrison, surrendered very quickly to the Goths, having seen the unfavorable treatment Justinian had given Belisarius after his recent Persian campaign. By now the Goths had acquired enough strength to move on Rome.Like Herodian, the commander of the Roman garrison, Bessas, was afraid of poor treatment or even being prosecuted after the siege was lifted. As a result, he remained idle when <mask> ordered him to assist in the relief of the city. When <mask> attempted to assist the city with supplies, he came up against a blockade on the Tiber. He overcame this using a siege tower with a boat on top. The boat was filled with burnable materials, so when it was thrown into one of the Gothic towers in the middle of the blockade, the entire garrison died either on impact or because of the fire. <mask> had left a force under Isaac the Armenian to guard Portus with orders not to leave the city under any circumstances. Now <mask> heard he had been captured and rushed back to Portus.Isaac had left the city and was captured outside its walls, and the city was safe. With surprise lost, no assistance from Bessas or John, who was blocked off in Calabria, and with little resources, Belisarius wasn't able to prevent Totila from eventually capturing the city. However, it is worth noting a letter that Belisarius wrote to Totila, according to Procopius, reportedly prevented Totila from destroying Rome:"While the creation of beauty in a city which has not been beautiful before could only proceed from men of wisdom who understand the meaning of civilization, the destruction of beauty which already exists would be naturally expected only of men who lack understanding, and who are not ashamed to leave to posterity this token of their character. Now among all the cities under the sun, Rome is agreed to be the greatest and the most noteworthy. For it has not been created by the ability of one man, nor has it attained such greatness and beauty by a power of short duration, but a multitude of monarchs, many companies of the best men, a great lapse of time, and an extraordinary abundance of wealth have availed to bring together in that city all other things that are in the whole world, and skilled workers besides. Thus, little by little, have they built the city, such as you behold it, thereby leaving to future generations memorials of the ability of them all, so that insult to these monuments would properly be considered a great crime against the men of all time; for by such action, the men of former generations are robbed of the memorials of their ability, and future generations of the sight of their works. Such then, is the facts of the case, be well assured of this, that one of two things must necessarily take place: either you will be defeated by the emperor in this struggle, or, should it so fall out, you will triumph over him.Now, in the first place, supposing you are victorious, if you should dismantle Rome, you would not have destroyed the possession of some other man, but your own city, excellent Sir, and, on the other hand, if you preserve it, you will naturally enrich yourself by a possession the fairest of all; but if in the second place, it should perchance fall to your lotto experience the worse fortune, in saving Rome you would be assured of abundant gratitude on the part of the victor, but by destroying the city you will make it certain that no plea for mercy will any longer be left to you, and in addition to this you will have reaped no benefit from the deed. Furthermore, a reputation that corresponds with your conduct will be your portion among all men, and it stands to wait for you according to you decide either way. For the quality of the acts of rulers determines, of necessity, the quality of the repute which they win from their acts. "Meanwhile, Totila had also been very successful in his other efforts. Famine had spread throughout much of Italy and as he did not have to fear Belisarius sending aid to besieged towns, he could take full advantage. <mask> had spent the winter in Epidamnus and when he sailed back (before attempting to relieve Rome) to Italy, he did so with reinforcements from Justinian. He split his force in two, one part successfully campaigning in Calabria under John nephew of Vitalianus, the other part, under <mask>' command, tried to lift the siege of Rome but failed.A force sent by Totila prevented John from leaving Calabria. After capturing Rome, Totila sought peace, sending a message to Justinian. He received the reply that <mask> was in charge of Italy. <mask> decided to march on Rome himself after Totila left the area. On the way, however, he marched into an ambush. Despite successfully ambushing <mask>, the fighting eventually turned in favor of the Byzantines. <mask> retreated, as it was obvious he wouldn't be able to surprise the city, but later marched on Rome again and took it.Totila marched on the city again but quickly abandoned the siege. Rome remained in Byzantine hands until after <mask> left. Following this disappointing campaign, mitigated by <mask>' success in preventing the total destruction of Rome, in 548–49, Justinian relieved him. In 551, after economic recovery (from the effects of the plague) the eunuch Narses led a large army to bring the campaign to a successful conclusion; Belisarius retired from military affairs. At the Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (553), Belisarius was one of the Emperor's envoys to Pope Vigilius in their controversy over The Three Chapters. The Patriarch Eutychius, who presided over this council in place of Pope Vigilius, was the son of one of Belisarius' generals. Last battle
The retirement of <mask> came to an end in 559, when an army of Kutrigur Bulgars under Khan Zabergan crossed the Danube River to invade Roman territory and approached Constantinople.Zabergan wanted to cross into Asia Minor as it was richer than the often ravaged Balkans. Justinian recalled <mask> to command the Byzantine army. <mask> got only 300 heavily armed veterans from the Italian campaign and a host of civilians, including or entirely consisting of 1,000 conscripted refugees fleeing from the Huns, to stop the 7,000 Huns. These were probably retired soldiers living in the region. Belisarius camped close to the Huns and had the civilians dig a trench for protection, and lit many torches to exaggerate their numbers. Determining the path the Hunnish advance would take, he stationed 100 veterans on each side and another 100 to block their advance. In the narrow defile the Huns wouldn't be able to maneuver, exploit their greater numbers.and use their arrow fire effectively. When 2,000 Huns attacked, Belisarius had his 100 veterans who were blocking the path charge, while the civilians made a lot of noise behind him. This confused the Huns, and when he struck their rear they were pressed together so tightly that they could not draw their bows. The Huns fled in disorder, and <mask> applied so much pressure to them during the retreat that they didn't even use the Parthian shot to harass their pursuers. After the defeat the Huns fled back over the Danube. In Constantinople Belisarius was once again referred to as a hero. Later life

In 562, Belisarius stood trial in Constantinople, having been accused of participating in a conspiracy against Justinian.His case was judged by the prefect of Constantinople, named Prokopius, and this may have been his former secretary Procopius of Caesarea. <mask> was found guilty and imprisoned but not long after, Justinian pardoned him, ordered his release, and restored him to favor at the imperial court, contrary to a later legend that Belisarius had been blinded. In the first five chapters of his Secret History, Procopius characterizes <mask> as a cuckolded husband, who was emotionally dependent on his debauched wife, Antonina. According to the historian, Antonina cheated on Belisarius with their adopted son, the young Theodosius. Procopius claims that the love affair was well known in the imperial court and the general was regarded as weak and ridiculous; this view is often considered biased, as Procopius nursed a longstanding hatred of <mask> and Antonina. Empress Theodora reportedly saved Antonina when Belisarius tried to charge his wife at last. <mask> and Justinian, whose partnership had increased the size of the empire by 45 percent, died within a few months of each other in 565.<mask> owned the estate of Rufinianae on the Asiatic side of the Constantinople suburbs. He may have died there and been buried near one of the two churches in the area, perhaps Saints Peter and Paul. Assessment

Tactics
During his first Persian campaign, <mask> was on the winning side once, at Dara. In his first few battles he didn't hold overall command and as he was promoted soon after these defeats, his performance was probably positive. At Dara, he won a resounding victory by predicting and influencing enemy movement. When the enemy concentrated and broke through, he moved against their rear and defeated them. At the next battle at Callinicum, he probably tried to copy his own success at Dara.However, he positioned himself at the low ground and was not able to see it when the enemy concentrated to breakthrough. He had created no reserve at all, so he wasn't able to plug the gap, despite superior numbers. <mask>' failure to position himself properly, make a cohesive plan, take advantage of the terrain and his failure to plug the created gap caused a disastrous defeat. Once the Persians had concentrated for a decisive attack, they held numerical superiority at the point of pressure, despite inferior numbers overall. In Africa, he walked accidentally into the battle of Ad Decimum. His ability to see an opportunity to gain the advantage and to take it, contrast positively with Gelimer's inactivity. As such, Hughes judges his generalship during that battle to be superior.In Italy, he mostly relied on sieges to defeat the Goths. At this he was so efficient that Totila refused to engage in them until <mask> was unable to take the initiative due to supply shortages. Strategies
In Italy, to deal with a changing situation, he made multiple strategies inside the span of a year. Meanwhile, his opponent Vitiges had no coherent strategy after the failure of the siege of Rome. <mask> tried to keep his strategic rear secure, besieging, for example, Auximus so he could safely move on Ravenna. When he saw fit, he sometimes did operate with a force in his strategic rear, like at the siege of Ariminum, or when he planned to move on Rome without having taken Naples. In the east, he understood that the Persian garrison of Nisibis would be afraid to give the battle a second time after being defeated in the open earlier.Here too, <mask> operated with a force in his strategic rear. He wanted not to split his forces into two small


texts:
 contingents, like Gelimer had been forced to do at Ad Decimum, so when Narses proposed a plan to operate with a secure strategic rear, Belisarius refused it with the reason that he would divide his forces too much. In Belisarius' campaigns, Brogna sees the overarching theme of the strategic offensive then tactical defense followed by offense. This forced his enemy to attack strong defensive positions, like the walls of Rome, suffering horrendous losses. Belisarius could then finish off the enemy with the main strength of his force, his cavalry, which contained horse archers to which the Goths and Vandals had no effective response. Helmuth von Moltke the Elder would come up with the idea to use so-called offensive-defensive campaigns in to defend Germany centuries later. In these he would also go on a strategic offensive, take up defensive positions on enemy supply lines, and have the larger Russian and French forces attack his strong position.In both cases, the purpose of this kind of strategy was to defeat larger enemy forces effectively. When using such tactics, the higher quality of Byzantine troops, compared to the "barbarians", was exploited to the fullest, as wave after wave of Goths, relying on brute force to win, was defeated, In the case of the [imperial] Germans this was also the goal, as they, like the Byzantines, could muster superior firepower because of their higher quality troops. In his assessment of the commander, Hughes concludes that <mask>' strategic abilities were unrivaled. Character
At both Thannuris and Callinicum, he fled before the battle was over. While not improving the battlefield situation, this did prevent his own troops from being destroyed. At the battle of Dara, he refused to duel with a Persian champion, and instead sent a champion of his own. At Rome, however, he fought at the frontline with his soldiers.While he was not willing to take an unnecessary risk in the form of a duel, he wanted, and was able, to inspire his men in combat, and seems not to have lacked bravery. Procopius' portrayal of Belisarius being weak-willed can often also be explained with a good understanding of politics; taking action against his wife, for example, would not have been appreciated by empress Theodora at all. Just like the weak-mindedness in relation to his wife, the influence his soldiers had on him was probably not enough to convince him to move out of Rome. Instead, it was probably overconfidence on his own part. For the rest of his career, he became a cautious commander, which is in line with the notion that Belisarius knew his limits and tried to act within them. He often moved out with only a small force, with which he would have no control and communication problems. Another example of this is when at the battle of Tricamerum he merely advised John, not taking full command.He recognized John was competent and knew more about the situation, and as such John remained in overall command, winning a great victory. One of the attributes of <mask>' campaigns was his benevolence towards soldiers and civilians alike. This caused the local population to support him, which was vital to winning, for example, the battle of Ad Decimum. Many enemy garrisons also changed sides, as they could expect leniency. It also put Gelimer under time constraints, and as such forced him to fight the battle of Tricamerum. He is also noted for his calmness in danger. At Rome, when a rumor spread that the Goths were already in the city, and his men begged him to flee, he instead sent men to verify whether the claim was true and made clear to the officers that it was his job and his alone to deal with such a situation.Overall performance
<mask> is generally held in extremely high regard among historians. This is mostly because of the victories at Dara, Ad Decimum and Tricamarum. Little attention has been paid to his defeats in the east and at the Battle of Rome. Brogna puts him among the best commanders in history, Hughes says of him that he remains behind Alexander the Great and Caesar, but not by much. Battle record

Timeline

Legend as a blind beggar

According to a story that gained popularity during the Middle Ages, Justinian is said to have ordered Belisarius' eyes to be put out, and reduced him to the status of a homeless beggar near the Pincian Gate of Rome, condemned to asking passers-by to "give an obolus to <mask>" (), before pardoning him. Most modern scholars believe the story to be apocryphal, though Philip Stanhope, a 19th-century British philologist who wrote Life of Belisarius believed the story to be true, based on his review of the available primary sources. After the publication of Jean-François Marmontel's novel Bélisaire (1767), this account became a popular subject for progressive painters and their patrons in the later 18th century, who saw parallels between the actions of Justinian and the repression imposed by contemporary rulers.For such subtexts, Marmontel's novel received a public censure by Louis Legrand of the Sorbonne, which contemporary theologians regarded as a model exposition of theological knowledge and clear thinking. Marmontel and the painters and sculptors depicted <mask> as a kind of secular saint, sharing the suffering of the downtrodden poor—for example, the bust of Belisarius by the French sculptor Jean-Baptiste Stouf. The most famous of these paintings, by Jacques-Louis David, combines the themes of charity (the alms giver), injustice (Belisarius), and the radical reversal of power (the soldier who recognizes his old commander). Others portray him being helped by the poor after his rejection by the powerful. In art and popular culture
Belisarius was featured in several works of art before the 20th century. The oldest of them is the historical treatise by his secretary, Procopius. The Anecdota, commonly referred to as the Arcana Historia or Secret History, is an extended attack on <mask> and Antonina, and on Justinian and Theodora, indicting <mask> as a love-blind fool and his wife as unfaithful and duplicitous.Other works include:

Belisarius as a character

Painting
 Belisarius: (late 1650s) by Salvator Rosa (1615–1673). Given to Lord Townshend in 1726 by King Friedrich William 1st of Prussia, and hung in the 'Belisarius Chamber' at Raynham Hall, Norfolk. Valued at 10,000 guineas in 1854 (2019 – £1.7m); sold for £273 (2019 – £33,500) in the 'Townshend Heritage Sale' at Christies in 1904 to Sir George Sitwell of Renishaw Hall, where it now hangs. Drama
 Belasarius: a play by Jakob Bidermann (1607)
 The life and history of Belisarius, who conquered Africa and Italy, with an account of his disgrace, the ingratitude of the Romans, and a parallel between him and a modern hero: a drama by John Oldmixon (1713)
 Belisarius: a drama by William Philips (1724)

Literature
 El ejemplo mayor de la desdicha: a play by Antonio Mira de Amescua (1625)
 Bélisaire: a novel by Jean-François Marmontel (1767)
 Belisarius: A Tragedy: by Margaretta Faugères (1795). Though she wrote it as a play, Faugères "intended [this work] for the closet," i.e., to be read and not performed. Her preface voices complaints about "maledictions" and long-winded rhetoric in popular tragic drama, which she says tend to bore and even outrage a reader, and announces her intent to "substitute concise narrative and plain sense." The drama's plot and character development are secondary to moral conflicts, mainly between vengeance and mercy/pity, respectively associated with pride and humility.Beliar: 18th-century poem by Friedrich de la Motte Fouque
 A Struggle for Rome: a historical novel by Felix Dahn (1867)
 Belisarius, 19th-century poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
 Count Belisarius: a novel by Robert Graves (1938); Ostensibly written from the viewpoint of the eunuch Eugenius, servant to Belisarius' wife, but actually based on Procopius' history, the book portrays Belisarius as a solitary honorable man in a corrupt world, and paints a vivid picture of not only his startling military feats but also the colorful characters and events of his day, such as the savage Hippodrome politics of the Constantinople chariot races, which regularly escalated to open street battles between fans of opposing factions, and the intrigues of the emperor Justinian and the empress Theodora. Lest Darkness Fall: a 1939 alternative history novel by L. Sprague de Camp. Belisarius appears first as the Roman opponent of the time traveler Martin Padway who tries to spread modern science and inventions in Gothic Italy. Eventually, Belisarius becomes a general in Padway's army and secures Italy for him. The Belisarius series: six books by Eric Flint and David Drake (1998–2006). Science Fiction/Alternative History. The character "Bel Riose" in Foundation and Empire by Isaac Asimov is based on Belisarius (1952)
 A Flame in Byzantium: a historical horror fiction novel by Chelsea Quinn Yarbro (1987)
The Last Dying Light (2020) by William Havelock, Book 1 of The Last of the Romans.Told from the perspective of Pharas (Varus) the Herulian, and recounts the chaos of the early-6th-century Roman Empire. Under Justinian's patronage, <mask> becomes one of the foremost generals of the Roman Army. The Last Dying Light discusses Belisarius' earliest years of generalship, while The Last of the Romans covers each of Belisarius' wars in turn. Belisarius: Military Master of the West: Book One: Nika: historical novel by Peter Keating Vanguard Press (2021) – written from the view point of Belisarius as he recounts his life after being discharged from the service of Justinian—it paints a different portrait of the man loyal to his emperor, but under the sway of the two most powerful women, the Empress Theodora and his wife Antonina. This work covers his rise to prominence in the service of Justinian, his initial military campaigns in the East, then dealing with the Nika riot and finally becoming the first Roman to completely defeat the Vandals in North Africa and then capture Sicily. Opera
 Belisario: tragedia lirica by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Salvatore Cammarano after Luigi Marchionni's adaptation of Eduard von Schenl's Belisarius (1820), scenography by Francesco Bagnara, premiered during the Stagione di Carnevale, 4 February 1836, Venezia, Teatro La Fenice. Music
 Let There Be Nothing: a 2020 album by Power Metal band Judicator following Belisarius' life

Films
 Belisarius was portrayed by Lang Jeffries in the 1968 German movie Kampf um Rom, directed by Robert Siodmak.Gaming
 The Archmagos <mask> Cawl of Warhammer 40,000 also draws his namesake and inspiration from Flavius Belisarius. <mask> appears as the playable main protagonist in the Last Roman campaign DLC for Total War: Attila as well as the Historical Battle of Dara, The player receives missions of historical context. Starting at the beginning of the Vandal Wars, he leads the Roman Expedition to reconquer the West (North Africa, Italy, Gaul, Spain), officially for Justinian, but there's always the option to Declare Independence and turn Belisarius himself the Emperor of the West and what he conquers. His name is mentioned, and his "ancient palace"/"sunken city" ruins—below a Mosque in Istanbul—are a playable level in Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb. See also

 Anastasian War
 Asinarius
 Aspar
 Battle of Taginae
 Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty
 Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty
 Conon (general under Justinian I)
 Constantinianus
 Cyprian (Byzantine commander)
 Flavius Aetius
 Liberius (praetorian prefect)
 Military deception
 Ostrogothic Kingdom
 Stilicho
 Strategikon of Maurice
 Teia
 Theodoric the Great
 Tribonian
 Uraias
 Vacis
 Vandal Kingdom
 Widin

Notes

References

Sources

Primary sources
 Procopius, The Secret History of the Court of Justinian, online at Gutenberg Project

Secondary sources
 "Belisarius" Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 Apr 2009

 R. Boss, R. Chapman, P. Garriock, Justinian's War: <mask>, Narses and the Reconquest of the West, Montvert Publications, 1993,

 Glanville Downey, Belisarius: Young general of Byzantium, Dutton, 1960
 Edward Gibbon has much to say on Belisarius in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 41 online. Lillington-Martin, Christopher 2006–2013:
 2006, "Pilot Field-Walking Survey near Ambar & Dara, SE Turkey", British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara: Travel Grant Report, Bulletin of British Byzantine Studies, 32 (2006), pp.40–45
 2007, "Archaeological and Ancient Literary Evidence for a Battle near Dara Gap, Turkey, AD 530: Topography, Texts and Trenches" in: BAR –S1717, 2007 The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest Proceedings of a colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy edited by Ariel S. Lewin and Pietrina Pellegrini, pp. 299–311
 2008, "Roman tactics defeat Persian pride" in Ancient Warfare edited by Jasper Oorthuys, Vol. II, Issue 1 (February 2008), pp. 36–40
 2009, "Procopius, Belisarius and the Goths" in: Journal of the Oxford University History Society,(2009) Odd Alliances edited by Heather Ellis and Graciela Iglesias Rogers. , pp. 1– 17, Issue 7 (Special Issue – Colloquium 2009) jouhsinfo
 2010, "Source for a handbook: Reflections of the Wars in the Strategikon and archaeology" in: Ancient Warfare edited by Jasper Oorthuys, Vol. IV, Issue 3 (June 2010), pp.33–37
 2011, "Secret Histories", Secret Histories, with Christopher Lillington-Martin
 2012, "Hard and Soft Power on the Eastern Frontier: a Roman Fortlet between Dara and Nisibis, Mesopotamia, Turkey, Prokopios' Mindouos?" in: The Byzantinist, edited by Douglas Whalin, Issue 2 (2012), pp. 4–5,
 2013a, "La defensa de Roma por Belisario" in: Justiniano I el Grande (Desperta Ferro) edited by Alberto Pérez Rubio, 18 (July 2013), pp. 40–45,
 2013b, "Procopius on the struggle for Dara and Rome" in: War and Warfare in Late Antiquity: Current Perspectives (Late Antique Archaeology 8.1–8.2 2010–11) by Sarantis A. and Christie N. (2010–11) edd. (Brill, Leiden 2013), pp. 599–630,

 Lord Mahon, The Life of Belisarius, 1848. Reprinted 2006 (unabridged with editorial comments) Evolution Publishing,
 Lord Mahon, The Life of Belisarius, J. Murray, 1829.With a new critical introduction and further reading by Jon Coulston. Westholme Publishing, 2005. Ancient Warfare magazine, Vol. IV, Issue 3 (Jun/Jul, 2010), was devoted to "Justinian's fireman: Belisarius and the Byzantine empire", with articles by Sidney Dean, Duncan B. Campbell, Ian Hughes, Ross Cowan, Raffaele D'Amato, and Christopher Lillington-Martin
 Hanson, Victor Davis. The Savior Generals: How Five Great Commanders Saved Wars That Were Lost. Bloomsbury Press, 2013.  online edition

External links

 Military History magazine article

500 births
565 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
6th-century Byzantine people
6th-century Roman consuls
Byzantine generals
Generals of Justinian I
Imperial Roman consuls
Magistri militum
People from Kyustendil Province
People of the Gothic War (535–554)
People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars
Vandalic War
Last of the

masks: Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius Belisarius


texts:
<mask> (April 21, 1870 – April 30, 1941) was an American film pioneer, most famous as a producer, director, studio manager and cinematographer with the Edison Manufacturing Company and the Famous Players Film Company. Of over 250 films created by <mask>, his most important include: What Happened on Twenty-third Street, New York City, (1901), (the 72-seconds long footage depicting the skirt-raising scene later used in The Seven Year Itch); Jack and the Beanstalk (1902); Life of an American Fireman (1903); The Great Train Robbery (1903); The European Rest Cure (1904); The Kleptomaniac (1905); Life of a Cowboy (1906); Rescued from an Eagle's Nest (1908); and The Prisoner of Zenda (1913). Birth and education
<mask> was born and raised in Connelsville, Pennsylvania, to <mask>, a merchant, and Mary (Clark<mask>; he was the fourth of seven children with four brothers (Chales W., Frank, John, and Everett Melbourne) and two sisters (Mary and Ada). Named Edward at birth, he later changed his name to <mask>, after <mask>, the Democratic politician from Ohio who had served as Abraham Lincoln's Secretary of War. After attending public schools in Connellsville, <mask> worked, among other odd jobs, as an exhibition skater, a sign painter, and a telegraph operator. He developed an interest in electricity at a young age, and shared a patent at age 21 for a lamp regulator. Eventually becoming a merchant tailor, <mask> was battered by the Panic of 1893.He filed for bankruptcy on June 15 and enlisted in the United States Navy four days later on June 19. He served three years as a gunner's mate, serving on the USS New York (ACR-2) and at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Career

Early career
He was employed initially in the electrical department of William Cramp & Sons, a Philadelphia ship and engine building company. During his three years' service he showed aptitude as an inventor of electrical devices to improve communications. <mask> entered motion picture work in 1896, the first year movies were commercially projected on large screens in the United States. He was briefly employed in New York City by Raff & Gammon, agents for the films and viewing equipment made by Thomas Edison, and then left to become a touring projectionist with a competing machine, Kuhn & Webster's Projectorscope. He traveled through the West Indies and South America, showing films at fairgrounds and in open fields.He later made a second tour through Canada and the United States. Returning to New York City in early 1898, <mask> found work at the Eden Musée, a Manhattan wax museum and amusement hall  which had become a center for motion picture exhibition and production and licensee of the Edison Manufacturing Company. While at Eden Musée, <mask> worked assembling programs of Edison films, most particularly exhibitions of films of the Spanish–American War, Edison productions which helped stir an outbreak of patriotic fever in New York City. As an exhibitor, <mask> had tremendous creative control over these programs, presenting a slate of films accompanied by a selection of music and live narration. <mask> joined the Edison Manufacturing Company in November 1900. Soon afterward he took charge of motion picture production at Edison's New York studios, operating the camera, directing the actors, and assembling the final print. He collaborated with several other filmmakers, including George S. Fleming.During the next decade <mask> became the most influential filmmaker in the United States. From his experience as a touring projectionist, <mask> knew what pleased crowds, and he began by making trick films and comedies for Edison. One of his early films was Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King, a satire made in February 1901 about the then Vice President-elect, Theodore Roosevelt. Like all early filmmakers, he took ideas from others, but rather than simply copying films he tried to improve on what he borrowed. In his Jack and the Beanstalk (1902) and Life of an American Fireman (1903) he followed earlier films by France's Georges Méliès and members of England's Brighton School, such as James Williamson. Instead of using abrupt splices or cuts between shots, however, <mask> created dissolves, gradual transitions from one image to another. In Life of an American Fireman particularly, the technique helped audiences follow complex outdoor movement.Uncle Tom's Cabin, was the first American film to use intertitles which helped the audience follow the story by identifying the scenes and some of the principal characters. The Great Train Robbery and after
<mask>'s next film, The Great Train Robbery (1903) took the archetypal American Western story, already familiar to audiences from dime novels and stage melodrama, and made it an entirely new visual experience. The one-reel film, with a running time of twelve minutes, was assembled in twenty separate shots, along with a startling close-up of a bandit firing at the camera. It used as many as ten different indoor and outdoor locations and was groundbreaking in its use of "cross-cutting" in film editing to show simultaneous action in different places. No earlier film had created such swift movement or variety of scene. The Great Train Robbery was enormously popular. For several years it toured throughout the United States, and in 1905 it was the premier attraction at the first nickelodeon.Its success firmly established motion pictures as commercial entertainment in the United States. After The Great Train Robbery Porter continued to try out new techniques. He presented two parallel stories in The Kleptomaniac (1905), a film of social commentary like his technically more conventional film of 1904, The Ex-Convict. In The Seven Ages (1905) he used side lighting, close-ups, and changed shots within a scene, one of the earliest examples of a filmmaker departing from the theatrical analogy of a single shot for each scene. He also directed trick films such as Dream of a Rarebit Fiend (1906), based on the comic strip by Winsor McCay. Between 1903 and 1907 he successfully demonstrated most of the techniques that were to become the basic modes of visual communication through film. For instance, he helped to develop the modern concept of continuity editing, notably in The Trainer's Daughter or A Race for Love (1907), and is often credited with discovering that the basic unit of structure in film was the "shot" rather than the scene (the basic unit on the stage), paving the way for D. W. Griffith's advances in editing and screen storytelling.Yet he seemed to regard them only as separate experiments and never brought them together in a unified filmmaking style. <mask> directed future filmmaker Griffith in Rescued from an Eagle's Nest (1908). Defender and Rex Film Companies

In 1909 after tiring of the industrial system set up to feed the booming nickelodeon business, <mask> left Edison and founded a company to manufacture Simplex motion picture projectors. In 1910 he founded Defender Film Company, which folded after one year. In 1911 he joined with others in organizing the Rex Motion Picture Company. In 1912 he sold out and accepted an offer from Adolph Zukor to become chief director of the new Famous Players Film Company, the first American company that regularly produced feature-length films. He directed stage actor James K. Hackett in their first feature film, The Prisoner of Zenda (1913).He also directed Mary Pickford in her first feature film, A Good Little Devil (1913), also directing Pauline Frederick and John Barrymore. 3D movie pioneer
But his directorial skills had not kept pace with rapid changes in motion picture art, although his technical skills were piqued by 3D. <mask>'s last film premiered on June 10, 1915, Niagara Falls, the first
anaglyph 3D movie. In 1916 he left Famous Players during a reorganization. Precision Machine Company
From 1917 to 1925 <mask> served as president of the Precision Machine Company, manufacturers of the Simplex projectors. After his retirement in 1925 he continued to work on his own as an inventor and designer, securing several patents for still cameras and projector devices. During the 1930s he was employed by an appliance corporation.Death

Aged 71, he died in 1941 at the Hotel Taft in New York City and was buried in Husband Cemetery, Somerset, Pennsylvania. He was survived by his wife, Caroline Ridinger, whom he had married on June 5, 1893; they had no children. Legacy

<mask> remains an enigmatic figure in motion picture history. Though his significance as director of The Great Train Robbery and other innovative early films is undeniable, he rarely repeated an innovation after he had used it successfully, never developed a consistent directorial style, and in later years never protested when others rediscovered his techniques and claimed them as their own. He was a modest, quiet, cautious man who felt uncomfortable working with the famous stars he directed starting in 1912. Zukor said of <mask> that he was more an artistic mechanic than a dramatic artist, a man who liked to deal with machines better than with people. See also
<mask><mask> filmography

References

External links

 Musser, Charles.Before the Nickelodeon: <mask><mask> and the Edison Manufacturing Company. Berkeley:  University of California Press,  c1991 1991. Free Online - UC Press E-Books Collection

1870 births
1941 deaths
19th-century American inventors
20th-century American inventors
Cinema pioneers
Edison Pioneers
People from Connellsville, Pennsylvania
Silent film directors
Western (genre) film directors
Fantasy film directors
Film directors from Pennsylvania
United States Navy sailors
Articles containing video clips

masks:
Edwin Stanton Porter
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Thomas Richard Porter
) Porter
Edwin Stanton
Edwin Stanton
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Edison Porter
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Edwin S
. Porter
Edwin S
. Porter


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<mask>, OBE (born 1931) is a retired Chief Petty Officer in the Royal Navy, a businessman and maritime history writer who is widely regarded as one of Britain's leading historic shipwreck experts. Life

Career at Sea
Born in Norfolk and raised in Great Yarmouth before being evacuated to Oxford during the Second World War, he went to a sea training school (TS. Mercury, Hamble) at the age of 14. <mask> taught himself to dive in 1947, using a German-made Dräger U-boat escape set in the River Thames. He then joined the Merchant Navy where he served his apprenticeship as a deck-officer with the South American Saint Line and eventually became 2nd Mate. In 1950 he transferred to the Royal Navy where he stayed for 22 years. As a Chief Petty Officer Mechanician/diver he served in Korea and initiated diving from Dragonfly helicopters to recover ram-jet un-manned gunnery target drone aircraft off Malta, being dropped into the sea wearing diving equipment with Petty Officer John Guppy, up to five miles offshore, to assist a rescue tug in recovering the targets intact.They were possibly the first divers in the Royal Navy to operate using diving apparatus from helicopters, long before SAR divers. He also participated in diving expeditions all over the world. <mask> then specialised in air-launched weapons, Firestreak, Redtop, Sidewinder, Bullpup, Mk.43 and 44 homing torpedoes, and the 2000lb HEMC nuclear bomb, and was Chief Petty Officer i/c the Guided Weapons Section on board HMS Hermes for three years, which required Positive Security Vetting to Top Secret - Atomic. In 1957 he became a BSAC member, and served as BSAC Deputy Diving Officer in 1961 and 1962. <mask> was also among the instigating members of the Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club (NATSAC), the Royal Navy Sub-Aqua Club, which was established in the early 1960s with Lieutenant Roy Graham as its first chairman, and <mask> as its Diving Officer. One of the club's first major projects, initiated by Larn's extensive research into the Scilly naval disaster of 1707, was to send a team of Royal Navy divers, based on board the minesweeper HM/XSV Puttenham, to the Isles of Scilly off the coast of Cornwall to find an historic fleet of sunken Royal Navy ships, led by HMS Association, a 90-gun Second Rate Ship of the Line lost in the 1707 disaster. In 1964 about ten NACSAC members, including <mask>, arrived on Scilly – thought at that time to be only the second group of divers ever to come there.Their initial dives sparked off a long chain of navy visits that continued for four years. The annual expedition in 1966 was announced as a search for the wreck of the Association. Plans to find it had existed before, but until then the dives in the Isles of Scilly had largely discovered modern wrecks. The divers could only get out to the Western Rocks, but hardly around the Gilstone Ledge, where a later expedition managed to locate the wreck of the Association in 1967; <mask> was not present in 1967 having been given a "pier-head jump" at the last minute to HMS Bulwark in Singapore. However, on his return he led NACSAC for its 1969, 1970 and 1971 expeditions to the islands, before leaving the Royal Navy. After the Navy
In 1972 <mask> left the Royal Navy as a Chief Petty Officer/ Weapons Electrical Mechanician to pursue a career in private business. After two years as Works Director for Partech Electronics International Ltd, Charlestown, helping the Company to move to Cornwall from Wellyn Garden City, he then founded a commercial diving training centre Prodive Ltd. initially in the Long Store, Charlestoiwn, then in Falmouth Docks, Cornwall, which aimed at improving the training standard of professional commercial deep sea divers in the oil and gas offshore industry.Prodive Ltd became one of only three diver training establishments in the UK approved to operate training to HSE Standards, and train Government sponsored students. In 1976 he established the Charlestown Shipwreck and Heritage Centre which grew out of his own collection of shipwreck artifacts which he ran until 1998 with his second wife, Bridget,. Living in Charlestown for 31 years, he was joint owner and curator of one of the largest collections of shipwreck artifacts on public display in Europe. <mask> and his wife Bridget then moved to the Isles of Scilly in 1986, where they lived from 1986 to 1991 during which they set up and ran the Longstone Heritage Centre. on the island of St. Mary's, retaining their interest in Charlestown. Lloyd's Register then offered <mask> a ten-year writing contract to produce a multi-volume series recording known shipwrecks around Gt. Britain & Ireland, which necessitated he and his wife selling their business in the Scillies and move back to the mainland.In 1982 he sold his shares in Prodive Ltd to his partner, Roger Parker, and spent the next four years treasure hunting, leading successful expeditions to recover thousands of silver Lion Daalder coins from the Dutch East India Company ship Campen, sunk off the Needles, isle of Wight, and then copper ingots, artifacts and literally millions of copper coins from the English East Indiaman Admiral Gardner, on the Goodwin Sands, Kent. Other shipwreck projects concerned historic wrecks including the Coronation, Ramillies, Dartmouth, Schiedam, Dollar Cove, Santo Christo de Castello, and the St.Anthony. <mask> is currently the Licensee for the Bartholomew Ledge wreck site, and the Tearing Ledge site (HMS Eagle) on the Isles of Scilly. Together with his wife he has written over 65 books and countless articles on maritime history and archaeology, shipwrecks and the sea. Their 'Shipwreck Index of the British Isles'(Vol's 1-6) a monumental work with details of 45,000 ships, for Lloyd's Register of Shipping, was used by the Royal Commission for Historic Monuments (now English Heritage)to establish the NMR(National Maritime Record), followed by a similar record for both the Scottish and Welsh Governments. In retirement, <mask> is still active in diving, mostly in the Isles of Scilly where he contributes a regular column on maritime history in the local magazines Scilly Now & Then and the Scillonian Magazine. His other interests include figurehead and ship carving, and model making.When in 2007 the council of Scilly commemorated the 300th anniversary of the great naval disaster of 1707, <mask> was among the principal organisers and also gave public lectures, as did Dava Sobel, author of Longitude, and Sir Arnold Wolfendale, the 14th Astronomer Royal. Honours
Besides receiving awards from diving and maritime history associations, <mask> was made a Cornish Bard by the Gorsedd of Cornwall at Redruth in 2006, taking the Bardic name 'Gonyas an Mor' Servant of the Sea. He started a company Shipwrecks.UK.Ltd, and has a web site www.shipwreckphotographs.com, still being developed. In the Birthday Honours 2009 he was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for "services to nautical archaeology and marine heritage". awarded the prestigious USA's 'Knight of Mark Twain'(1970). <mask>, one of the original founders, has been the President and News Letter Editor of IMASS (International Marine Archaeological & Shipwreck Society) since 2010, an organisation which holds the prestige Shipwreck Conference annually at Plymouth University, now in its 35th year. Publications
Note: this list is not complete
 Admiral Shovell's Treasure and Shipwreck in the Isles of Scilly.Peter McBride & <mask>. Shipwreck & Marine, 1999
 Charlestown – the History of a Cornish Seaport. Villiers Publications, 1994
 Cornish Shipwrecks – the Isles of Scilly. David & Charles, 1971 & 1979 (2nd ed.) Cornish Shipwrecks – the South Coast. <mask> & Clive Carter. David & Charles, 1969 & 1971 Pan paperback editions, 1973 & 1976
 Devon Shipwrecks.David & Charles, 1974 & 1977. Pan paper-back editions, 1974 & 1977
 Goodwin Sands Shipwrecks. David & Charles, 1977 & 1979
 Ships, Shipwrecks and Maritime incidents in the Isles of Scilly. Museum Pub. No. 3 (for the Isles of Scilly Museum Council), 1999
 Shipwrecks at Land's End Richard Larn & Edwin Mills Clark. Doble & Brendon, 1970
 Shipwrecks of Devon.Countryside Books, 1996 (2nd ed.) Shipwrecks of Great Britain & Ireland. David & Charles, 1981
 Shipwrecks of the Goodwin Sands. Beresford Books, 1995 (2nd ed.) Shipwrecks of the Isles of Scilly. Shipwreck & Marine, 1999 (4th ed.) Shipwrecks of the Isles of Scilly.Thomas & Lochar, 1993 (3rd ed.) Sir Clowdisley Shovell's Disaster in the Isles of Scilly <mask> & Peter McBride. Western Litho Plymouth, 1985
 The Cita – Scilly's own 'Whisky Galore' wreck. Shipwreck & Marine, 1997 & 1998 (2nd ed.) The Commercial Diving Manual. <mask> & Rex Whistler. David & Charles, 1984, 1989 & 1993 (3rd ed.)The Diver Guide to South Cornwall. Underwater Publications, 1983, 1987 & 1996
 The Diver Guide to the Isles of Scilly & North Cornwall.

masks:
Richard James Vincent Larn
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Richard Larn
Richard Larn
Richard Larn
Richard Larn


texts:
<mask> (born January 14, 1942) is an American nonprofit executive and former politician. She is chair of the board of the Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund (GCERF). Previously, she was director of the Peace Corps, executive director of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and president and CEO of World Learning. She is also the chair of children's rights advocacy organization ECPAT International, working to end the sexual exploitation of children. After three terms in the New York State Senate, she was the first woman to be elected to any citywide office in NYC as President of the New York City Council, a position she held until her unsuccessful bid for Mayor of New York in 1985; she was the second to last person to hold this position. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Plainfield, New Jersey in 1942, and raised in Scotch Plains, graduating from Scotch Plains-Fanwood High School in 1959. She attended Gettysburg College, where she was a member of Delta Gamma, and graduated in 1963.She earned her J.D. degree from New York University School of Law in 1968, and was a Peace Corps volunteer in Guatemala from 1963 to 1965.

Business career
<mask> was a managing director at Bear Stearns from 1990 to 1993, a Principal at Morgan Stanley from 1986 to 1990, and an associate in the New York law firm of Cravath, Swaine & Moore from 1968 to 1971. In 1968, she was to be one of the subjects of Jean-Luc Godard's film One A.M. (later released as One P.M. by D. A. Pennebaker) where she described her philosophy of using business to accomplish social change. Her speech was then satirized by Rip Torn wearing a US Civil War uniform in front of a Brooklyn middle school class. Political career

New York State Senate
<mask> was a member of the New York State Senate from 1973 to 1977, sitting in the 180th, 181st and 182nd New York State Legislatures. New York City Council
She mounted an uphill campaign for President of the New York City Council and, despite her initially low public profile, she managed to eclipse her main Democratic rivals, construction magnate Abe Hirschfeld and City Councilman Carter Burden. In the process, she earned the editorial support of the city's three major newspapers.While her opponents spent hundreds of thousands of dollars in their campaigns, <mask> carried on with barely $50,000 in funds, and won the Democratic primary in September 1977. In the November general election, she defeated Republican Paul O'Dwyer to become the first woman to be elected as President of the City Council. She held this position until her unsuccessful bid for Mayor of New York in 1985. Other positions
<mask> was a member of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Board until she resigned from the board at the behest of Governor Mario Cuomo in 1985. In 1982 she considered running for Governor of New York. In 1990 she was an unsuccessful candidate for New York State Comptroller. She served on the New York State Board of Regents, which oversees all state education activities and the state Department of Education, from 2005 to 2006.Peace Corps
From 1993 to 1995, <mask> was the director of the Peace Corps. Appointed by then US President Bill Clinton, she was the first director to have previously been a volunteer. GCERF
As of 2014 <mask> is the Chair of the Governing Board of the Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund which is the first global effort to support local, community-level initiatives aimed at strengthening resilience against violent extremist agendas, for example through job creation and empowering women and youth. As a public-private partnership operating in the fields of security and development, the fund works with governments, civil society, and the private sector in beneficiary countries to support national strategies to address the local drivers of violent extremism. UNICEF
<mask> was appointed to the position of executive director of UNICEF in 1995 by Boutros Boutros-Ghali, then the Secretary-General of the United Nations. She was granted a second five-year term in 2000 by Boutros-Ghali's successor, Kofi Annan. UN policy states that agency heads may serve no more than two five-year terms.<mask> is credited with having left behind a fiscally sound organization with strong  internal controls. She increased UNICEF's resources from roughly $800 million ($966 m in 2004 terms) in 1994 to more than $1.8 billion in 2004. NGOs
<mask> was appointed the President and CEO of the Brattleboro, Vermont-based World Learning and president of its School for International Training in 2005. World Learning is a global organization with operations in more than 75 countries that fosters global citizenship through experiential education and community-driven development programs. Organizations that fund World Learning include the Tides Foundation and Rockefeller Financial Services. On July 25, 2007, <mask> was elected chair of the board of directors of the Fair Labor Association (FLA). The FLA advocates for workers' interests by promoting international labor standards."For eight years the FLA has been strengthening its capacity to work with companies, factories, civil society organizations and others to end sweatshop labor and protect workers' rights. It is now moving beyond its rigorous monitoring program to focus greater attention on identifying the root causes of these problems and to develop sustainable compliance programs," said Bellamy in accepting the position. Other
In April 2009, <mask> was appointed as Chair of the International Baccalaureate (IB) Board of Governors. Between 2010 and 2013, <mask> was the chair of the Board of Directors of the Global Partnership for Education. <mask> is a member of the Board of the American University of Beirut. Honors
In 1981, she was selected to be one of the first Young Leaders of the French-American Foundation. <mask> is a former Fellow of the Harvard Institute of Politics at the John F. Kennedy School of Government and an honorary member of Pi Alpha Alpha.At its 1982 commencement ceremonies, Barnard College awarded <mask> the college's highest honor, the Medal of Distinction. <mask> received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Bates College in 2003. She returned to her alma mater, the NYU School of Law, to deliver a commencement day speech in May 2006. For her work with UNICEF, she was awarded Japan's Order of the Rising Sun in 2006. In 2009, she was recognized for her work by France with the Legion of Honour. References

External links

 The Fales Library Guide to the <mask> Papers

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1942 births
20th-century American women politicians
20th-century American politicians
American University of Beirut trustees
American expatriates in Guatemala
American humanitarians
Women humanitarians
American nonprofit executives
American officials of the United Nations
American women chief executives
American women lawyers
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Cravath, Swaine & Moore associates
Gettysburg College alumni
Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
Harvard Kennedy School staff
Lawyers from New York City
Living people
New York (state) Democrats
New York (state) lawyers
New York City Council members
New York University School of Law alumni
New York (state) state senators
Peace Corps directors
Peace Corps volunteers
People from Plainfield, New Jersey
People from Scotch Plains, New Jersey
Scotch Plains-Fanwood High School alumni
UNICEF people
Under-Secretaries-General of the United Nations
Women New York City Council members
Women nonprofit executives
Women state legislators in New York (state)
Young Leaders of the French-American Foundation
21st-century American women

masks:
Carol Bellamy
Bellamy
Bellamy
Bellamy
Bellamy
Bellamy
Bellamy
Carol Bellamy
Bellamy
Bellamy
Bellamy
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Bellamy
Carol Bellamy
Bellamy
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Carol Bellamy