texts:
 Mukerji, Saif Ali Khan, Arjun Rampal and Priyanka Chopra) in the "Temptation 2004" tour. Showcased in over 22 countries across the world, it became Bollywood's most prominent international concert.In 2006, <mask> was part of the "Heat 2006" world tour, along with Akshay Kumar, Saif Ali Khan, Sushmita Sen and Celina Jaitley. "The Unforgettable Tour" (2008) saw Zinta performing with the Bachchan family and Ritesh Deshmukh in a 40-day show staged in 11 cities across North America, Europe and the Caribbean. In December 2012, Zinta returned to the stage with the "Temptation Reloaded" concert in Jakarta (joined by Shah Rukh Khan, Rani Mukerji and Bipasha Basu). In 2011, <mask> made her television debut as the host of the show Guinness World Records – Ab India Todega on Colors Channel. An Indian version of Guinness Book of World Records, the show premiered on 18 March to an audience measurement of 3.3 rating points, which made it occupy the 7th position on the chart of celebrity-driven reality shows on Hindi entertainment channels. In a four-star review for Hindustan Times, critic Rachana Dubey wrote, "Preity is a riot. She's vivacious and knows exactly when she needs to be serious and when she can crack jokes."Later that year, <mask> started hosting the celebrity-based chat show Up Close & Personal with PZ, shot at her own penthouse in Mumbai and broadcast on the newly launched channel UTV Stars. The first episode aired on 3 September. In 2015, Zinta featured as a talent judge for the seventh season of the dance reality show Nach Baliye. Humanitarian work
During her years in the film industry, <mask> has been involved with different charitable organisations and has particularly supported women's causes in India, for instance protesting against female infanticide. She has also participated in AIDS awareness drives and campaigns to clean up Mumbai. In 2005, along with other Bollywood stars, Zinta performed at the "HELP! Telethon Concert" raising money for the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.The following year, as an ambassador of the Godfrey Phillips National Bravery Movement, Zinta attended a blood donation camp organised by the Rotary Club of Delhi and the Godfrey Phillips Awards. She lent her support to the cause of women's empowerment and promoted blood donation. She said, "Donating blood doesn't kill one but goes on to save somebody's life .... Once blood is donated it becomes universal and might be used by anyone in need, irrespective of community, caste or region. It binds people together." In 2007, as part of the NDTV show Jai Jawan, Zinta visited Hisar, Haryana, where she spent a day at the army training base to boost the morale of the jawan troops and met children with disabilities at a special school maintained by the army. In August, along with Mumbai-based artist Gurcharan Singh, Zinta painted for the cause of street children for the non-governmental organisation Khushi. In December, she joined the efforts of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) to curb human trafficking in India.She spoke on behalf of awareness against the practice, the need for protection and rehabilitation for those rescued from it, and punishment for perpetrators. In 2009, on her 34th birthday, Zinta adopted 34 girls from the Mother Miracle orphanage in Rishikesh and took the responsibility of financially supporting their education, food and clothing. She expressed her excitement at doing so and recounted her full commitment to their upbringing. In January 2010, <mask> was appointed the brand ambassador of The Loomba Trust, an organisation that works for the welfare of widows and their children. She said, having lost her father at 13, she could relate to the problems faced by widowed women. Later in the year, she joined the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) as their Goodwill Ambassador in India, to promote public awareness on HIV prevention, treatment and support, with emphasis on women and children, and combat discrimination against it. Speaking of her appointment, Zinta expressed hope to be "the voice for the voiceless" and bring about a "transformation in the minds of people" through collaborative work.In October 2010, <mask> was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Arts from the University of East London. It was awarded in honour of both her cultural contribution and her humanitarian work, with the citation describing her as "an international actress, pioneering star of Hindi cinema and devoted humanitarian. Preity has carved a path for women to follow." Ownership of cricket teams
Along with Ness Wadia, Mohit Burman and others, <mask> acquired ownership rights in 2008 for the Mohali-based Twenty20 cricket team of the Indian Premier League (IPL). The group paid $76 million to acquire the franchise, and named the team Kings XI Punjab (it was renamed Punjab Kings in 2021). Until 2009, <mask> was the only woman to own an IPL team, and was the league's youngest owner. She has been involved with launching ticket sales and promoting the team.She said, "My involvement with the team is total. I am extremely passionate about our team and I do believe that I am the team's good luck factor, so I want to be there for everything." In September 2017, she became the owner of the Stellenbosch Kings franchise team of South Africa's Mzansi Super League. Further business expansion took place in 2021 as <mask> and her Punjab Kings partners bought Saint Lucia's representative team in the Caribbean Premier League (CPL), which was rebranded as Saint Lucia Kings. Personal life
Zinta used to visit her native town Shimla when she was not busy shooting. In 2006, she moved into her own home in Mumbai. She does not identify with any particular religion.In an interview with The Times of India, she comments, "I believe in good deeds, in karma, I don't believe in going to temples. For me, religion is very personal. It's all about having faith ... We have heard and read that all religions are equal. Now I am increasingly believing in this." She narrowly escaped death twice in late 2004: first after an explosion at a Temptation concert in Colombo, Sri Lanka; and second during the Indian Ocean earthquake. Zinta has been the subject of several controversies. In 2003, as a witness in the Bharat Shah case, she testified against the Indian mafia.Bharat Shah, the financer of Chori Chori Chupke Chupke, was arrested in 2000 for having connections with Chhota Shakeel, a Mumbai underworld boss. Unlike several of her colleagues, <mask> repeated in court her earlier statement that she had received extortion threats from the mafia during the shooting of the film. After her testimony, she was given witness protection and was forced to stay out of the public eye for two months. Thirteen other witnesses before her, including celebrities Salman Khan and Shahrukh Khan, were witnesses in the case but later retracted their earlier statements. <mask> was the only witness who did not become hostile to the prosecution; the nation responded positively to her actions. Consequently, she was the first recipient of Godfrey's Mind of Steel Award at the annual Red and White Bravery Awards, given to her for the "courageous act" of standing against the Mumbai Underworld. On receiving the award, she said, "To be brave is not to be fearless.It is when you fear and you get over it, then you can be called brave. I am human. It is not that I fear nothing. But getting over a fear is a continuous process and I have been successful so far." Since 2006, <mask> has been the brand ambassador for the Godfrey Phillips Bravery awards. Tabloids have often linked Zinta romantically with other Bollywood stars, but she has strongly denied any such rumours. In 2000, Zinta began dating model Marc Robinson.They separated the following year, and according to Zinta remained on good terms. <mask> dated the Bombay Dyeing heir, businessman Ness Wadia from February 2005 until May 2009. Their relationship was often reported on by the media, with frequent speculation about an engagement or a break-up. On 13 June 2014, <mask> filed a complaint with the Mumbai police against Ness Wadia alleging he had molested, threatened, and abused her at an IPL match at the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai on 30 May. Wadia denied the allegations. In 2018, the Bombay High Court quashed this complaint after the issue was amicably settled. On 29 February 2016, <mask> married her American partner Gene Goodenough at a private ceremony in Los Angeles.Goodenough is Senior Vice-president for Finance at NLine Energy, a US-based hydroelectric power company. Zinta moved to Los Angeles following the marriage; she visits India on a frequent basis. In 2021, she and her husband became parents to twins, a boy and a girl, through surrogacy. Media image and artistry
<mask> Shah case, when she testified against the underworld; following this incident she was often called by journalists "The only man in Bollywood", a label she was unhappy with for its underlying misogynist connotations. Film actor Amitabh Bachchan, describing her as "frank and painfully honest", lauded her "drive and guts in a world that can be most cruel to a single girl".Author and columnist Shobhaa De, while commending her for lodging a molestation complaint against Ness Wadia in 2014, expressed concern regarding Zinta's repeated quest for justice, believing it could eventually play against her: "India is not terribly kind to strong-willed, outspoken women who are dubbed 'trouble makers' if they dare to raise their voices, especially against men. Zinta is such a woman." Her characteristic dimple has been cited by the media as her trademark. At the beginning of her career, she was often described by the press as having a vivacious personality and a bubbly, outgoing persona, an image she had confessed to disliking. According to film critic Sukanya Verma, Zinta's energetic nature extends from her real life into her screen appearances and is an integral part of her technique. Discussing Hindi film actresses and their flair for comedy, Verma wrote of Zinta: "What can you say about an actress who giggles non-stop in a tone that is anything but prim and propah? She is carefree.She is animated. She talks non-stop. She laughs all the time. She has a chilled out sense of humour. And a tomboyish streak too. <mask> Zinta is all that and more. All this greatly contributes to her style of acting."Director Tanuja Chandra ascribed Zinta's screen appeal to her lack of acting pretense, commenting, "She doesn't act, she's so real that you just can't look away from her." Reviewing Chori Chori Chupke Chupke (2001) for Hindustan Times, Vinayak Chakravorty noted that "there is an admirable zest that Preity pumps into every role she does". Farhan Akhtar, who directed her in two films, believes she is an actress who "can mould herself—the way she speaks, works and her body language—and adapt herself to roles", while Vidhu Vinod Chopra (director of the 2000 film Mission Kashmir) credits her with the ability to "make the viewer believe even in the most convoluted situation." In a review of Salaam Namaste, Australian film critic Jake Wilson observed, "While <mask> Zinta isn't the subtlest actress, she's quite a comedienne – for a Hollywood equivalent to her combination of beauty, high-strung emotion and facial gymnastics you might have to go back to Natalie Wood." American critic Derek Elley considers her to be "one of Bollywood's best pure actresses." Following her portrayal of such characters as those in Sangharsh (1999), Kya Kehna (2000), Chori Chori Chupke Chupke (2001), Salaam Namaste (2005) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006), Zinta was recognised for her versatility and gained a reputation for playing roles that go against Indian traditional mores. These roles were cited by critics as having helped to establish a new image for Indian screen women by means of departure from conventional parts previously played by leading actresses in mainstream Hindi films.Karan Johar describes her as "a new-wave actress" who has the advantage of working at a time when "films portray a woman who knows her mind". Author Monika Mehta notes the similarity between Zinta's public image as an independent and opinionated woman and her culturally defiant character in Salaam Namaste. According to Jennifer Thomas, who analysed Zinta's roles for a chapter in the book Once Upon a Time in Bollywood (2007), Zinta "resists patriarchal constraints through her modern lifestyle and the controversial roles she chooses". Zinta is one of the best-known celebrities in India; at her career peak she was one of Hindi cinema's most celebrated stars and was acknowledged for having managed a career without any traditional assistance or family relations in the film industry. She featured in Box Office India's top actress listing for seven years and ranked first for two consecutive years (2003–2004). In 2003, <mask> appeared in the number one spot on Rediff.com's "Top Bollywood Female Stars". She was ranked second for the following three years.She has been featured frequently on other Rediff.com lists, including "Bollywood's Most Beautiful Actresses", "Bollywood's Best Dressed Women" and "Women of Many Faces". Between 2006 and 2008 Zinta made three consecutive appearances at the Cannes Film Festival. At first she attended the 2006 Film Festival along with filmmaker Karan Johar to represent the Hindi film industry and promote Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna, returning in later years as the brand ambassador of Chopard, the maker of luxury watches and jewellery. In September 2006, the UK magazine Eastern Eye ranked her among "Asia's Sexiest Women". In 2010, Time magazine selected her as one of the candidates for its list of the world's 100 most influential people. She was the only Indian actress nominated for the poll and eventually did not make it to the final list, ranked at 144. This was followed, however, by a marked period of decline in her popularity when she restricted her work in films, which was further decreased with the debacle of her self-produced comeback vehicle.Film journalists like Khalid Mohamed and Subhash K. Jha have written columns in which they lament her absence from the movies and encourage her to return to acting. See also

 List of Indian film actresses
 List of people from Himachal Pradesh

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

1975 births
Living people
Indian film actresses
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Female models from Himachal Pradesh
Indian Premier League franchise owners
People from Shimla
Actresses from Himachal Pradesh
20th-century Indian actresses
21st-century Indian actresses
Cricket patrons
Filmfare Awards winners
Zee Cine Awards

masks: Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zinta Zintat Preity Preity Zinta


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<mask> (6 September 1816, Le Bourg-d'Oisans, Isère – 10 January 1882, Paris) was a nineteenth-century French soldier. He rose to général de division of infantry, saw colonial service in Algeria, and fought in the Second Italian War of Independence and the Franco-Prussian War. He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. Life

Early life
<mask> was the son of Capitaine (Captain) <mask> and Mademoiselle Garnier. <mask> enlisted in 1791 in the first battalion of Isère, then incorporated into the Army of the Alps. As a young corporal at the Battle of Rivoli on 14–15 January 1797, he and three comrades took 116 prisoners, and he received a sabre of honor for his feat of arms. From 1800 to 1815 he participated in all of Napoleon Bonaparte's campaigns from the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801 to the Waterloo campaign of 1815.He died in 1823. After <mask>'s death, the French Minister of War, Aimé, duc de Clermont-Tonnerre, toured Bataille's home province, Dauphiné. <mask>'s widow requested of Aimé that her son, <mask> <mask>, be admitted to the Collège Henri-IV de La Flèche, a military school. The younger Bataille was accepted. Military career
On 16 November 1834, Bataille entered the French military academy at Saint-Cyr. Graduating in October 1836, he was appointed a sous-lieutenant (second lieutenant) in the 22nd Line Infantry Regiment. On 30 January 1839, he embarked with his regiment for Algeria, where he was stationed until 10 September 1841.While there, he was promoted to lieutenant on 25 May 1840, and he later achieved the rank of capitaine on 12 March 1843. On 9 February 1847 he became adjutant major in the French Foreign Legion's 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment. In 1849, he was present at the Siege of Zaatcha of 16 July – 26 November 1849, where we was wounded in the shoulder. He was mentioned in orders by the Army of Africa. He became the commander of a battalion of native troops from Constantine and participated in the Kabylia campaign in 1850, most notably in action on 24 June 1850 at Djemaa Beni Habibi, and General Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud cited him in a report for his leadership of the battalion. He received the Knight's Cross of the Legion of Honour on 12 December 1850. Viewed in the French Army as a promising young officer, Bataille was made lieutenant colonel of the 56th Line Infantry Regiment on 8 August 1851.In 1853 he returned to Algeria to again serve with the 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment, beginning another four-year stay in Algeria that lasted until September 1857 and during which he often took part in or led expeditions into the Algerian countryside. During this tour of duty in Algeria he became colonel of the 45th Line Infantry Regiment on 7 February 1854 and was awarded the Officer's Cross of the Legion of Honour on 12 June 1856. On 12 August 1857, shortly before leaving Algeria, he was promoted to général de brigade. In April 1859, Bataille went to Italy for combat operations in the Second Italian War of Independence. Serving in the III Corps, he participated in the Battle of Magenta on 4 June 1859, performing so well that he was made a Commander of the Legion of Honour on 16 June 1859. On 16 August 1866, he was promoted to the rank of major general. When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in July 1870, Bataille was in command of the 2nd Division of général de division Charles Auguste Frossard's II Army Corps.His division led Frossard's forces in the war's opening battle, the Battle of Saarbrücken, on 2 August 1870. At the Battle of Spicheren on 6 August, Frossard placed <mask>'s division in reserve, but Bataille committed the division to action without orders from Frossard, splitting it into two parts to support the French line against the German attack and shoring up the French line, although denying Frossard any opportunity to maneuver by committing his reserve. Judging the threat on the French left to be growing, <mask> on his own initiative detached a regiment to reinforce the left, and at the end of the day had to extract the elements of his division on the French right around Stiring-Wendel under difficult circumstances as the French army pulled back from the battlefield. At the Battle of Mars-la-Tour on 16 August 1870, <mask>'s division held the part of the French line at Vionville and Flavigny-sur-Moselle. He was wounded in the stomach during the battle. He had two horses killed under him at the Battle of Gravelotte on 18 August 1870. In danger of losing his life, he was transported to Metz, which was surrounded by German forces on 19 August 1870 and eventually surrendered on 27 October 1870 after the 70-day Siege of Metz.<mask> was taken prisoner when Metz capitulated. The Franco-Prussian War ended in January 1871. Returning to France after his captivity in Germany, <mask> was appointed commander of the II Corps of the Army of Versailles in July 1871. He became a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour on 3 October 1871. In 1873, he was appointed head of the V Corps headquartered in Orleans, and he was awarded the Great Cross of the Legion of Honour on 11 January 1876. In 1879, the political left of the French Chamber of Deputies under the Chamber's president, Léon Gambetta, proposed to the President of France, Marshall of France Patrice de MacMahon, a decree which revolved around confiscating and diminishing the number of military commands held by certain generals, including <mask>, Charles-Denis Bourbaki, François Charles du Barail and Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot. MacMahon refused to sign it, and resigned on 30 January 1879.MacMahon's successor as president, <mask>, signed the decree on 11 February 1879. <mask> retired from the army at his own request on 19 September 1881. Later life
Bataille served as General Councillor for Le Bourg-d'Oisans for two years, then retired, as he did not enjoy political life. Awards and honors
 Knight of the Legion of Honour (12 December 1850)
 Officer of the Legion of Honour (12 June 1856)
 Commander of the Legion of Honour (16 June 1859)
 Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (3 October 1871)
 Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (11 January 1876)

References
Footnotes

Bibliography
 Narcisse Faucon, Le livre d'Or de l'Algérie, Challamel et Cie Éditeurs Librairie Algérienne et Coloniale, 1889 (in French). Gloires militaires de la France contemporaine  Maison de la bonne presse, Paris, c 1890 (in French). Howard, Michael. The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France''.New York: Dorset Press, 1961. .
 Hozer, H. M., ed., The Franco-Prussian War: Its Causes, Incidents, and Consequences, Volume I, London: William MacKenzie, 1870

External links
 Fichier d’autorité international virtuel (in French)
Gemeinsame Normdatei (in German)

1816 births
1882 deaths
People from Le Bourg-d'Oisans
French generals
French military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur

masks:
Henri Jules Bataille
Henri Jules Bataille
Georges Bataille
Georges Bataille
George Bataille
George Bataille
Henri Jules
Bataille
Bataille
Bataille
Bataille
Bataille
Bataille
Bataille
Jules Grévy
Bataille


texts:
<mask> (; ; born 14 October 1952) is a Finnish composer based in Paris, France. During the course of her career, <mask> has received commissions from the Lincoln Center for the Kronos Quartet and from IRCAM for the Ensemble Intercontemporain, the BBC, the New York Philharmonic, the Salzburg Music Festival, the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, and the Finnish National Opera, among others. In a 2019 composers' poll by BBC Music Magazine, <mask> was ranked the greatest living composer. <mask> studied composition in Helsinki, Freiburg, and Paris, where she has lived since 1982. Her research at the Institute for Research and Coordination in Acoustics/Music (IRCAM) marked a turning point in her music away from strict serialism towards spectralism. Her characteristically rich, polyphonic textures are often created by combining live music and electronics. Life and work
<mask> was born in Helsinki, Finland.She studied at the Sibelius Academy under Paavo Heininen. After attending the Darmstadt Summer Courses, she moved to Germany to study at the Hochschule für Musik Freiburg under Brian Ferneyhough and Klaus Huber. She found her teachers' emphasis on strict serialism and mathematical structures stifling, saying in an interview:

In 1980, <mask> went to the Darmstadt Summer Courses and attended a concert of the French spectralists Tristan Murail and Gerard Grisey. Hearing spectral music for the first time marked a profound shift in <mask>'s artistic direction. These experiences guided her decision to attend courses in computer music that were being given by IRCAM, the computer music research institute in Paris, by David Wessel, Jean-Baptiste Barrière, and Marc Battier. In 1982, she began work at IRCAM researching computer analyses of the sound-spectrum of individual notes produced by different instruments. She developed techniques for computer-assisted composition, experimented with musique concrète, and wrote her first pieces combining live performance with electronics.She also composed new works using IRCAM's CHANT synthesiser. Each of her Jardin Secret trilogy was created with the use of computer programs. Jardin secret I (1985), Jardin secret II (1986), and Nymphea (Jardin secret III) (1987). Her works with electronics were developed in collaboration with Jean-Baptiste Barrière, a composer, multimedia artist, and computer scientist who directed the IRCAM's department of musical research from 1984 to 1987. <mask> and Barrière married in 1984. They have two children. In Paris, <mask> developed an emphasis on slow transformations of dense masses of sound.Her first tape piece, Vers Le Blanc from 1982, and her orchestral and tape work, Verblendungen, are both constructed from a single transition: in Vers Le Blanc the transition is from one pitch cluster to another, while in Verblendungen, it is from loud to quiet. Verblendungen also uses a pair of visual ideas as its basis: a brush stroke which starts as a dense mark on the page and thins out into individual strands, and the word Verblendungen itself, which means "dazzlements, delusions, blindedness". Her work in the 1980s and 1990s was marked by an emphasis on timbre and the use of electronics alongside traditional instruments. Nymphéa (Jardin secret III) (1987), for example, is for string quartet and live electronics and contains an additional vocal element: the musicians whisper the words of an Arseny Tarkovsky poem, Now Summer is Gone. In writing Nymphea, <mask> used a fractal generator to create material. Writing about the compositional process, <mask> said:

<mask> has often talked about having a kind of synaesthesia, one that involves all of the senses, saying:

Another example is Six Japanese Gardens (1994), a percussion piece accompanied by a prerecorded electronic layer of the Japanese nature, traditional instruments, and chanting of Buddhist monks. During her visit to Tokyo in 1993, she expanded her original percussion conception into a semi-indeterminate piece.It consists of six movements that each represent a garden composed of traditional Japanese architecture, by which she was inspired rhythmically. Especially in movement IV and V, she explored many possibilities of complex polyrhythm in liberated instrumentation. She said:

In her book on Saariaho, musicologist Pirkko Moisala writes about the indeterminate nature of this composition:

On 1 December 2016, the Metropolitan Opera gave its first performance of L'Amour de loin, the second opera by a female composer ever to be presented by the company (the first was performed more than a century earlier, in 1903). The subsequent transmission of the opera to cinema on 10 December 2016 as part of the Metropolitan Opera Live in HD series marked the first opera by a female composer, and the first opera conducted by a female conductor (Susanna Mälkki), in the series. In 2002 the Santa Fe Opera presented L’Amour de Loin. In 2008, the Santa Fe Opera also presented her opera Adriana Mater. Awards and honours
 1986 – Kranichsteiner Prize at Darmstädter Ferienkurse
 1988 – Prix Italia for Stilleben
 1989 – Prix Ars Electronica for Stilleben and Io; one-year residency at the University of San Diego
 2000 – Nordic Council Music Prize for Lonh
 2003 – Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa by the Faculty of Arts, University of Turku
 2003 – Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa by the Faculty of Arts, University of Helsinki
 2003 – University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for L'Amour de loin
 2008 – Musical America "Musician of the Year 2008"
 2009 – Wihuri Sibelius Prize
 2010 – invited by Walter Fink to be the 20th composer featured in the annual Komponistenporträt of the Rheingau Musik Festival; the second female composer after Sofia Gubaidulina.Grawemeyer Foundation page on <mask> <mask>. 2003 honorary degree recipients at University of Turku
 English language biography of Jean-Baptiste Barrière
 Iitti, Sanna: "<mask> <mask>: Stylistic Development and Artistic Principles." International Alliance for Women in Music Journal, 2001. Seter, Ronit: <mask>'s L'amour de loin: First Woman Composer in a Century at the Metropolitan Opera. Musicology Now (American Musicological Society's blog), 15 June 2016. Seter, Roni: Getting Close with <mask> and L'amour de loin. NewMusicBox, 2 December 2016.Fiilin, Teemu: <mask> <mask> voted greatest living composer by BBC Music Magazine. Music Finland, 13 November 2019. 1952 births
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Finnish classical composers
Living people
Microtonal composers
Musicians from Helsinki
Rolf Schock Prize laureates
Waldorf school alumni
Finnish opera composers
Women classical composers
Sibelius Academy alumni
Grammy Award winners
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Knights of the National Order of Merit (France)
Recipients of the Léonie Sonning Music Prize
Women in classical music
Women in electronic music
Finnish expatriates in France
Women opera composers
Finnish women classical composers
20th-century women composers
21st-century women composers
Cedille Records artists

masks:
Kaija Anneli Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Kaija
Saariaho
Kaija
Saariaho
Saariaho
Saariaho
Kaija
Saariaho


texts:
<mask> (Dari/; November 1931 – 7 September 2014) was an Afghan socialist and Marxist-Leninist politician and a member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and the Revolutionary Council under the leadership of Babrak Karmal. One of the first women elected to the Afghan parliament, <mask> was deputy head of state from 1980 to 1986. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Guldara in Kabul Province. Her father was an advocate of Amanullah Khan's reforms. This led to his forced exile following the events of 1929 to Iran under the ruling period of Nader Khan. Ratezbad and her brother grew up without their father under poor conditions. She was married off at the age of 15 to Dr. Keramuddin Kakar, one of the very few foreign-educated Afghan surgeons of the time.<mask> had attended the francophone Malalaï Lycée in Kabul. She received a degree in nursing from the State University of Michigan, School of Nursing from 1950 to 1954. As Kabul University's Medical School allowed women to enroll for Medicine, she belonged to the first batch and graduated in 1962. Her political involvement led to an estrangement between her and her husband, Dr. Keramuddin Kakar, who did not approve of her political views and activities as he was considered loyal to Zahir Shah. <mask> moved out of their marital house in 1973. Though they never divorced officially, they lived separately and avoided contact. They had three children, one daughter and two sons.Only her daughter followed her political path and became a member of People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA); her sons remained critical of her political activities and decisions. Political life
<mask> was one of the first publicly outspoken social and political Afghan-women activists in the late 1950s and most of 60s in Afghanistan. She was also part of the first ever Afghan-women delegation representing the Kingdom of Afghanistan on international stage at the Asian Women's Conference in Ceylon in 1957. As veiling became optional  during the tenure of Daud Khan as prime minister, <mask> led a group of female nurses in 1957 to  Kabul's Aliabad Hospital to attend male patients. This marked the uncovering of women's faces for working purpose in urban Afghanistan. However, this and other events to follow led to her defamation in conservative circles of Afghan society. <mask> founded the Democratic Organisation of Afghan Women (DOAW) in 1964.The organisation did not follow a specific political ideology; in 2013 Rahnaward Zaryab wrote that "DOAW was an organisation founded in the 1340s (1960s CE) which was not foreign funded or supported. The members of the organisation were intellectual women volunteering to promote and work for women's rights on their own initiative." Comparing DOAW with present-day women's rights organisations inside Afghanistan, he added "they lack the outreach and effectiveness of DOAW." However, after the Saur Revolution of 1978 the organisation came under the supervision of the PDPA governmental. During the Khalq faction's power seizure it was headed by Dilaram Mahak from 1978 to 1979. After the power seizure by the Parcham faction, <mask> was elected as the chairwoman of DOAW at DOAW's general assembly in 1980. <mask> along with other members of DOAW organised a protest march on 8 March 1965 in Kabul marking the first celebration of  International Women's Day in Afghanistan.She became involved in leftist politics and, along with Khadija Ahrari, Masuma Esmati Wardak, and Roqia Abubakr, was one of the first four women elected to Afghan parliament in 1965, winning the Second District Kabul City seat. In 1965 <mask> helped found the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) becoming part of the Parcham faction. Her political views on women's right and her marxist political ideology made her a highly controversial figure, especially among other political parties and forces. Her close association with Babrak Karmal, the leader of the Parcham faction, brought her the label of "Karmal's mistress", some incorrect sources even counted him as her husband. She did not contest the 1969 elections, losing her seat in parliament. In the days leading to the Saur Revolution/ Coup d'état on 28–29 April 1978, <mask> was detained under house arrest in her apartment in Makroyan, while Karmal Ghulam Dastagir Panjsheri , Nur Muhammad Taraki and Saleh Mohammad Zeary were imprisoned and other PDPA prominent members (Khalq and Parcham) had gone underground. As the Khalq wing of PDPA seized power and Taraki became president, she was appointed as Minister of Social Affairs.She served at the post for four months. <mask> wrote the 28 May 1978 Kabul New Times editorial which declared: "Privileges which women, by right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy generation for building the future of the country ... Educating and enlightening women is now the subject of close government attention ". The two factions of Khalq and Parcham soon fell out again and prominent Parchamites, including <mask>, were appointed as ambassadors. <mask> served as ambassador to Belgrade (1978–1980). She was dismissed from her post as Hafizullah Amin came to power, who also launched a purge on Parchamites. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and power seizure by the Parcham wing, she was appointed as Minister of Education (1980–1981) and became permanent member of the PDPA's Politburo.In this position she had the responsibility of overseeing several Ministries, including Higher and Vocational Education, Information and Cultural, and Public Health. After Karmal was replaced by Mohammad Najibullah in 1986, who aimed at distancing himself from his leftist past and Marxist rhetoric upon Soviet advice, <mask> was discharged of her posts and withdrew from the Politburo. She was replaced as head of DOAW by Firuzah Wardak. Migration, later life and death
After 1986 she remained in Afghanistan until May 1992. <mask> and some members of her family were forced to escape the Mujahideen in-fighting. In 1995 she left for Sofia, Bulgaria and a year later after seeking political asylum, settled in Lünen, Germany. <mask> died of kidney failure at the age of 82.Her remains were taken back to Afghanistan and were buried in Kabul's Shohada-e-Sa'alehin. References

Arnold, Anthony. Afghanistan's Two-Party Communism: Parcham and Khalq. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1983. Afghan feminists
Afghan socialists
Afghan secularists
Afghan physicians
1931 births
2014 deaths
People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan politicians
Members of the House of the People (Afghanistan)
Communist government ministers of Afghanistan
Afghan women physicians
Ambassadors of Afghanistan to Yugoslavia
Afghan exiles
Afghan expatriates in India
Afghan expatriates in Bulgaria
Afghan expatriates in Germany
Women government ministers of Afghanistan
Afghan women ambassadors
20th-century Afghan women politicians

masks:
Anahita Ratebzad
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<mask> (born January 16, 1954) an American psychologist who is the Irene Blecker Rosenfeld Professor of Psychology at Cornell University. He has conducted research in social psychology, decision making, behavioral economics, and has written popular books on these subjects. <mask> has collaborated with Daniel Kahneman, Richard Nisbett, Lee Ross and Amos Tversky. His articles in peer-reviewed journals on subjects such as cognitive biases have been widely cited. In addition, <mask> has been quoted in the media on subjects ranging from the effect of purchases on happiness to perception of judgment in social situations. <mask> is a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Early history and education

<mask> earned his B.A.from the University of California, Santa Barbara and went to Stanford University originally wanting to be a lawyer. After taking psychology classes and hearing Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman give a lecture about judgment and decision making there, he decided he wanted to go into the field of psychology. He went on to earn his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford in 1981. Research in social and cognitive psychology

<mask> is best known for his research in heuristics and biases in the field of social psychology. He describes his research as dealing with "how people evaluate the evidence of their everyday experience to make judgments, form beliefs, and decide on courses of action, and how they sometimes misevaluate that evidence and make faulty judgments, form dubious beliefs, and embark on counterproductive courses of action." According to Google Scholar, he has an h-index of 72 for all his published academic papers, which is considered exceptional. In addition, he has written two textbooks, Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment (with Dale Griffin and Daniel Kahneman) and Social Psychology (with Serena Chen, Dacher Keltner and Robert Nisbett), both of which are used as textbooks in academic courses in psychology and social psychology throughout the USA.Summarizing the research in an interview when asked what the benefits are, he responded, "I think that field has an enormous amount to offer, because we make consequential decisions all the time, and they aren't always easy, we don't always do them well," and that his research program is about trying to figure out how the mind works so we "understand why some decisions are easy, and we tend to do certain things very well, and why some decisions are difficult, and we tend to do them poorly." He further explained that his hope is that he and his colleagues are "providing lots of information to help us understand those difficult decisions, and give people the tools so that they can make better decisions so they less often in life are going down paths that don't serve them well." <mask> condensed his academic research in judgement and decision making into a popular book, How We Know What Isn't So. Writing in Skeptical Inquirer, Carl Sagan called it "a most illuminating book" that "shows how people systematically err in understanding numbers, in rejecting unpleasant evidence, in being influenced by the opinions of others. We're good in some things, but not in everything. Wisdom lies in understanding our limitations." Reviewing the book for The New York Times, George Johnson wrote, "Over time, the ability to infer rules about the way the world works from skimpy evidence confers a survival advantage, even if much of the time the lessons are wrong.From evolution's standpoint, it is better to be safe than sorry." In an interview, <mask> summarized the thesis of How We Know What Isn't So as people "thinking we really have the evidence for things, [that] the world is telling us something, but in fact the world is telling us something a little more complicated, and how is it that we can misread the evidence of our everyday experience, and be convinced that something is true when it really isn't." He further elaborated on some of the erroneous beliefs his book discusses, including the sophomore jinx, the idea that things such as natural disasters come in threes, and the belief that the lines we are in slow down but the lines we leave speed up. In the same interview he called confirmation bias the "mother of all biases." Notable contributions in biases and heuristics research

Through his published work in biases and heuristics, <mask> has made notable contributions to the field through the following concepts:

Hot hands

<mask>'s research in the alleged "hot hand" effect, or the belief that success in a particular endeavor, usually sports, will likely be followed by further success, has been particularly influential. A paper he wrote with Amos Tversky in 1985 became the benchmark on the subject for years. Some of the research from the 1985 paper has been contested recently, with a new journal article arguing that <mask> and his coauthors themselves fell victim to a cognitive bias in interpreting the data from the original study.Specifically, that in a truly random situation, a hit would be expected to be followed by another hit less than 50 percent of the time, but if one hit followed another at 50 percent, that would be evidence for the hot hand. <mask> responded, "The larger the sample of data for a given player, the less of an issue this is...Because our samples were fairly large, I don’t believe this changes the original conclusions about the hot hand." Steven Novella discussed the controversy in a blog post, and stated he thought that <mask>'s point about the hot hand still basically holds up. Spotlight effect

The spotlight effect, the phenomenon where people tend to believe that they're noticed more than they really are, is a term <mask> coined. In a paper he wrote with two graduate students in 1999, he explained that "because we are so focused on our own behavior, it can be difficult to arrive at an accurate assessment of how much–or how little–our behavior is noticed by others. Indeed, close inspection reveals frequent disparities between the way we view our performance (and think others will view it) and the way it is actually seen by others." For the paper, <mask> and his coauthors conducted an experiment asking college students to put on a Barry Manilow shirt and walk into a room of strangers facing the door.The researchers predicted that the students would assume that more people would notice their T-shirt than was actually true. The results were as predicted, with participants thinking that roughly half the strangers would have recognized the Barry Manilow shirt, when in fact the number was closer to 20 percent. Bias blind spot

<mask> has contributed to an understanding of bias blind spot, or the tendency to recognize biases in other people, but not in ourselves. Several studies he coauthored found that people tend to believe that their own personal connection to a given issue is a source of accuracy and enlightenment, but that such personal connections in the case of others who hold different views are a source of bias. Similarly, he has found that people look to external behavior in evaluating biases in others, but engage in introspection when evaluating their own. Two examples he gave in a talk are that both older and younger siblings felt the other were held to a higher standard, and that Democrats and Republicans both felt that the electoral college helped the other side more than their own party. Clustering illusion

<mask> was an early author in the clustering illusion, which is closely related to the "hot hand" fallacy, and is the tendency to see "clusters" of data in a random sequence of data as nonrandom.In How We Know What Isn't So, <mask> explains how people want to see a sequences such as  as planned, even though it was arbitrary. In addition, he stated that people tend to misjudge randomness, thinking that rolling the same number on dice 4 times in a row is not truly random, when in fact it is. Illusion of transparency

Building on his research on the spotlight effect, <mask> helped to discover the illusion of transparency, or the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people telegraph their inner thoughts and emotions. In a study he conducted with two coauthors in 1998, individuals read questions from index cards and answered them out loud. They either lied or told the truth based on what the card said to do on a label only they could see. Half of the liars thought they had been caught, but in fact only a quarter were, hence the illusion of transparency. In addition, they found in the same study that in an emergency situation, people assumed the emergency and concern would show in their expression and behavior, but it didn't, which the authors believe partially explains the bystander effect: "When confronted with a potential emergency, people typically play it cool, adopt a look of nonchalance, and monitor the reactions of others to determine if a crisis is really at hand.No one wants to overreact, after all, if it might not be a true emergency. However, because each individual holds back, looks nonchalant, and monitors the reactions of others, sometimes everyone concludes (perhaps erroneously) that the situation is not an emergency and hence does not require intervention." Regret

<mask> has researched the causes of regret. A study he conducted in 1994 found that specific actions people wish they hadn't taken are regretted more in the short run, but ultimately, inactions are regretted more in the long run. He has continued to emphasize that people tend to regret the things they don't do more than the things they did. Anchoring

Following Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, <mask> and his colleagues have conducted research in anchoring, the tendency to anchor on information that comes to mind and adjust until a plausible estimate is reached when making decisions. A study he co-authored with Nicholas Epley found that anchoring is actually several different effects, and the multiple causes are at play.Another study that <mask> and Nicholas Epley coauthored found that once an anchor is set, people adjust away from it, though their adjustments tend to be insufficient, so their final guess is close to the initial anchor. Self-handicapping

In his social psychology research, <mask> discovered the phenomenon of self-handicapping, which he described as "attempts to manage how others perceive us by controlling the attributions they make for our performance." An example of self-handicapping, according to <mask>, would be drawing attention to elements that inhibit performance, and so discount failure in others' eyes, or make success the result of overcoming insurmountable odds. The self-handicapping can either be real (failing to study or drinking excessively), or faked (merely claiming that there were difficult obstacles present). <mask> has stated that the strategy is most common in sports and undergraduate academics, but that it often backfires. Research in behavioral economics

Besides his contributions to the field of social psychology, <mask>'s research in cognitive psychology has influenced the field of behavioral economics. <mask> has written a popular book condensing his academic research in the field, and which touches on many of the topics in How We Know What Isn't So, The Wisest One in the Room: How You Can Benefit from Social Psychology's Most Powerful Insights.In an interview with Brian Lehrer, <mask> discussed the book and the subjects it touches on, such as the difference between intelligence and wisdom, the latter being knowledge of other people and how to connect with them, the negative impact of income inequality on happiness, motivation, and what can create "virtuous cycles" in a university environment. Kirkus Reviews gave it a positive review, writing, "The authors leap from personal behavior and motivation in the first half into societal, cultural, and even international change in the second, offering suggestions, if not necessarily a working blueprint, for how to achieve goals such as global environmental responsibility. None of this is riveting reading, but it rarely lapses into academic jargon." Experiential purchases

A major recurring theme in <mask>'s work in behavioral economics is the importance of experience over ownership of material things. For instance, a paper he co-authored with Leaf Van Boven found that people overwhelmingly preferred "experiential purchases" to "material purchases." Writing for The Atlantic, James Hamblin noted the growing body of research, pioneered by <mask>, showing that experiences tend to bring people more happiness than possessions: "It's the fleetingness of experiential purchases that endears us to them. Either they're not around long enough to become imperfect, or they are imperfect, but our memories and stories of them get sweet with time.Even a bad experience becomes a good story." In a talk about barriers to gratitude, <mask> further noted that a survey of his students at Cornell found that they enjoyed their conversations about their experiences than their material purchases, and that happiness from experiential purchases is more enduring than that from material purchases. The reason being that experiences make for better stories, cultivate personal identity more, and connect people to each other. <mask> explained that the implication is that experiential purchases lead to more gratitude and thus to more pro-social behavior. In addition, <mask> has emphasized the importance of being active and seeking goals: "We evolved to be goal-striving creatures. You’ll regret more the things that you didn’t do rather than the things you did." Along similar lines, in one talk he urged his audience, "mind your peaks and ends.You won’t remember the length of your vacation experience, but you’ll remember the intensity. And do something special at the end." Publications

Books

<mask>, T., & Ross, L. (2015). The wisest one in the room: How you can benefit from social psychology's most powerful insights. New York: Simon & Schuster. <mask>, T., Keltner, D., & Nisbett, R.E. Social Psychology.New York: W.W. Norton. <mask>, T., Griffin, D. W. & Kahneman, D. (Eds.). (2002). Heuristics and Biases : The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. New York: Cambridge University Press. Belsky, G., & <mask>, T.  (1999).Why smart people make big money mistakes-and how to correct them: Lessons from the new science of behavioral economics. New York: Simon and Schuster. <mask>, T. (1991). How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life. New York: The Free Press. . Summary. Journal articles

Awards and recognition

 Fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 Fellow of the American Psychological Association
 Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science
 Fellow of the Society of Experimental Social Psychology
 Fellow of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology
 1998-99 Russell Distinguished Teaching Award at Cornell University

Personal life
<mask> is married to Karen Dashiff <mask>, with whom he has two daughters, Ilana and Rebecca.<mask> stated in an interview that the best part about being a scientist is going to work every day asking "what do I want to do today," and that the best quality of a scientist is knowing how to respond to failure. In addition, he credits Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman for getting him interested in the field of social psychology. References

External links

Faculty page at Cornell
Page at the Social Psychology Network

Cornell University faculty
Social psychologists
1954 births
Living people
American skeptics
American people of Serbian descent
Critics of alternative medicine
Critics of parapsychology
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
University of California, Santa Barbara alumni
Stanford University alumni

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<mask> (January 7, 1881 – January 10, 1947) was a Canadian physician, army officer and adventurer. Moving to New York and enlisting in the United States Army at an early age, he later returned to Canada to attend the University of Toronto before practising as a physician in a number of dangerous positions, such as the Chief of Medical Staff to Pancho Villa and the doctor for the Chinese Labour Corps, a workforce of over 200,000 men. After World War I, he traveled throughout the Middle East, treating venereal disease and operating an X-ray facility in Lod, Israel. After attempting to elope with one of his Middle East hospital patients, <mask> was deported to Canada but managed to jump ship in Morocco and join the Free State Army. In the 1930s, he traveled through 15 countries and dependencies performing medical duties, and served as a ship's doctor on a liner that crossed the Indian Ocean during World War II . From 1946 until his death, he assisted in the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) in China, saving many lives. By the end of his life, <mask> could speak six languages, had participated in seven wars, and was married to four women at the same time.His daughter Rosalind said that the character Indiana Jones was based on him. According to Rosalind, film producers George Lucas and Steven Spielberg contacted her after her father's death and conducted a series of interviews, during which she provided an account of his life. Early life

<mask> was born on January 7, 1881, in Tillsonburg, Ontario, a town named for his great-grandfather George. His grandfather, Edwin Delevan <mask>, was the builder of what is now the Annandale National Historic Site. As a child, <mask> was considered a troublemaker. On one occasion he locked his grandmother in her bedroom and on another became a local newspaper sensation after his attempt to travel to Cuba was discovered. In 1894, he was enrolled at the Upper Canada College in Toronto, but left the next year.At the age of 14, he ran away to join the 22nd Oxford Rifles militia, headquartered in Oxford County, but was returned home when it was discovered that he was underage. Soon after, he moved to New York City to join the United States Army Engineers and serve as part of the peacekeeping force in the Philippines after the defeat of Spain in 1898, and for a brief period to help put down the Boxer Rebellion in China. Mostly involved in the running of labor gangs building supply roads to remote areas, <mask> was involved in only one firefight. However, when his maternal grandfather, Edwin "E.D." <mask> (whose company evolved into Quaker Oats), discovered what the 20-year-old was doing, he used his connections to influence General Adna Chaffee into issuing a general order for the recall of <mask> from the field. While serving with the US Army, <mask> contracted cholera and returned to Canada. Using the inheritance he had received from his recently deceased grandfather, <mask> began attending the University of Toronto medical school before marrying Sybil Wilkin, a lawyer's daughter, in 1905.After his graduation from medical school in 1907, <mask> gained employment with the Hudson's Bay Company and began treating the Cree community of Alberta and acting as the local postmaster. Soon after, <mask> again moved his family to Washington, Idaho and finally Drewsey, Oregon, where he became a doctor, pharmacist, mayor, developer and rancher. In 1909, <mask> fathered a daughter, Rosalind, with his wife Sybil. In 1912, the Journal of the American Medical Association published an article written by <mask>, titled "Cesarean Section Under Difficulties", which documented a caesarean section he performed in a remote ranch-house lit by an oil lamp. Because of his restless nature, <mask> left his family in Oregon and traveled to London in 1913 to undergo postgraduate work in gynecology and obstetrics. When World War I began in 1914, <mask> assisted in the war effort in Belgium. While there, he met a Turkish woman named Eva, and married her without divorcing his first wife.In 1915, <mask> and his new wife traveled to El Paso, Texas, to settle down. North American conflict and World War I

Shortly after arriving in Texas, <mask> took the dangerous job of Chief of Medical Staff to Mexican revolutionary general Pancho Villa. In one situation, <mask> was captured by Villa's foe Venustiano Carranza, later the President of Mexico. The doctor was sentenced to death, but when Carranza became ill, <mask> was spared as he was the only qualified physician available. <mask> kept the general in a state of near-recovery, enabling him to escape and deliver military information to US forces stationed along the border. After a brief stay among the Mormon community of southern Utah, <mask> enlisted in the Canadian Army Medical Corps in 1917 and was stationed at a French hospital, where he tended to the needs of the Chinese Labour Corps. Quickly learning the language and customs of this group of some 200,000 men, <mask> successfully treated many bilharzia, catarrh and tuberculosis cases, significantly reducing the number of sick members of the Corps during the winter of 1917–18.Interwar period

After World War I, <mask> traveled the Middle East performing medical duties such as treating prostitutes afflicted with venereal disease in Constantinople and operating an X-ray facility in Lod, Israel. Although still not legally divorced from his first two wives, <mask> married Filomena Abela, a Maltese woman at Alexandria in 1920. However, the newlyweds could not find escape from the adventure that had followed <mask> all his life. <mask> and his new wife's train was ambushed by a band of Syrians disillusioned with a group of politicians. The quick thinking of the recently thrice-married physician prevented his new wife's broken leg from developing into gangrene. Still in charge of the Constantinople hospital, he attempted to elope with one of his patients, but was captured and tried for breach of conduct, as the female patient was in fact the wife of a Turkish officer. While being deported to Canada, <mask> escaped while his ship was docked in Morocco.Making his way to Ireland, <mask> posed as a Catholic and joined the Free State Army. After he was discovered, he quickly crossed to Wales to treat the coal miners there for silicosis. In 1923 <mask> married his fourth wife, Eva Olwen Bowen in Cardiff, still without divorcing his three previous wives, and set off with her on an adventure in the Caribbean. It is thought that <mask> deserted her sometime in the mid-1920s. During the 1930s <mask> worked in 15 countries and dependencies across Latin America and the Middle East. For one year, he served as the physician for a guerrilla army fighting the Japanese, who were then engaged in the Second Sino-Japanese War with China. After 1938, <mask> traveled to Shanghai using borrowed funds from a medical school classmate in Jamaica and from his own brother in Ontario, and set up a private medical practice, assisting the Chinese Red Cross wherever possible.World War II and beyond
Between 1941 and 1946, <mask> was the ship's doctor on board the Demodocus, a steam liner ferrying supplies to Allied forces across the Indian Ocean. After the war, <mask> wanted to assist the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), but had to falsify his records by subtracting seven years off his age to qualify for service. During this time, he served in China delivering much-needed supplies to a country devastated by the long Second Sino-Japanese War and once even saved the lives of 90 students by sheltering them from a Kuomintang officer. By donning an American army officer's uniform, <mask> was able to convince the Kuomintang officer to not check a barge which held the students hidden inside. On December 4, 1946, <mask> set out from Shanghai with approximately 50 tonnes of supplies. On this train journey, he was to be accompanied by a Russian UNRRA worker and Chinese welfare representatives. Due to repeated Kuomintang inspections, the train journey constantly suffered from delays.The first such delay occurred at Nanjing and lasted four days; the second such delay, at Xuzhou, was of equal duration. At one station, the medical supplies were unhooked from the train's engine car and left on a bleak plain. The two UNRRA workers did not have clean water to drink and were forced to boil ditch water which was polluted with human waste. To add to the dire situation, <mask>'s blanket and shoes were stolen, and due to the cold, he began to suffer from frostbite. Two weeks after <mask> left Shanghai, his train was permitted to move again, but there were problems still ahead. At each one of the 20 stations en route to Kaifeng, the train was delayed for up to three hours. Upon arrival at Kaifeng, the journey had to be completed by truck and ox cart.After completing one delivery, he returned to Kaifeng to pick up a second load, but could not continue past the Zhangqiu branch of the receiving hospital. <mask> died of exposure on January 10, 1947, near Kaifeng in China, aged 66. By the end of his life, <mask> <mask> could speak no less than six different languages, had participated in seven wars and, although this was not discovered for several years after his death, was married to four women at the same time. While he is virtually unknown in Canada, <mask> is widely honored in China. A statue in his likeness stands tall in Shanghai, his burial site at an Anglican compound in Kaifeng is home to the Dr. <mask> <mask> Memorial School, and the Harrison International Peace Hospital in Hengshui treats approximately 800 outpatients every day. The town of Tillsonburg, Ontario (named for <mask>'s great-grandfather) maintains a lasting relationship with the hospital, which was renamed as such from the previous name of Handan International Peace Hospital in 1947. In 1988, the Prime Minister of Canada, Brian Mulroney, sent a commemorative letter to the Chinese ambassador to mark the centenary of <mask>'s birth.However at that time it was not made clear that <mask> had falsified his age when enlisting in the UNRRA, and the celebrations took place seven years after the actual centenary. The same year, <mask>'s remains were re-interred in a large tomb in a public ceremony, which many Canadians were invited to attend. According to <mask>'s daughter, Rosalind, several decades after her father's death, film producers George Lucas and Steven Spielberg contacted her, and in a series of interviews, Rosalind provided an account of her father's illustrious life. This, she claims, became the inspiration for the highly successful Indiana Jones film series. In recent times, <mask> was the subject of a five-part CBC Radio Morningside dramatization of his life, written by Antanas Sileika. References

1881 births
1947 deaths
Canadian military doctors
Deaths from hypothermia
People from Tillsonburg
United States Army soldiers
University of Toronto alumni
People from Harney County, Oregon

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Tillson Lever Harrison
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<mask> (born January 29, 1943 in Houston, Texas) is the Chief Executive Officer of Legacy Deo (formerly known as the Lutheran Foundation of Texas). <mask> served as the 12th president of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), being elected to three terms in 2001, 2004 and 2007. He was defeated in his bid for a fourth term by the Rev. Matthew C. Harrison on July 13, 2010, at the 64th regular convention of the LCMS, and his presidency ended on August 31, 2010. <mask> and his wife, Terry, have two grown children and two grandchildren, all of whom live in Texas. Early career

<mask> attended Texas A&M University, graduating with a bachelor of science in 1964. He is a 1970 graduate of Concordia Theological Seminary in Springfield, Illinois (now located in Fort Wayne, Indiana), obtained his Master of Divinity in 1977 at Concordia in Fort Wayne, and received an honorary doctor of laws degree in 1996 from Concordia University in Austin, Texas.After his ordination in 1970, <mask> served as pastor at Good Shepherd Lutheran Church in Biloxi, Mississippi, until 1973; at Redeemer Lutheran Church in Beaumont, Texas, from 1973 to 1981; and at Faith Lutheran Church in Georgetown, Texas, from 1981 to 1986. He served the Texas District of the LCMS as a circuit counselor from 1978–1981 and as director of public relations from 1977-1986. <mask> was director of development at Lutheran Foundation of Texas from 1986–1988 and then served as its executive director from 1988-1991. In 1991, <mask> was elected president of the Synod's Texas District and served in that position until 2001. Under <mask>'s lead, membership in the Texas District grew by approximately 12 percent, even as LCMS membership numbers slipped nationally. In addition, from 1998 until his election as LCMS president, <mask> chaired the LCMS Commission on Theology and Church Relations and served on the program committee of the LCMS Council of Presidents. LCMS presidential election and first term

At the LCMS' 2001 convention in St. Louis, <mask> was elected to his first three-year term as president of the 2.6-million-member church.He won by 18 votes out of 1,182 total votes in the fourth round of balloting, defeating four other candidates. One of his leading opponents, Daniel Preus, went on to win the position of First Vice President. <mask>'s first presidential term was beset by controversy. On many matters, he faced the opposition of more conservative opponents within the church hierarchy, including four out of the five vice-presidents and a majority of the Board of Directors. Polarization in the LCMS dated back at least to the Seminex controversy of the early 1970s, but over the course of the 1990s, members of the LCMS' more conservative wing (who often dub themselves confessional Lutherans) and its more activist wing (who sometimes dub themselves "evangelicals" and who were somewhat aligned with the Church Growth and Megachurch movements) had both established a plethora of internal caucuses, organizations, and news services to promote their viewpoints and to campaign for Synod leadership candidates. Issues of disagreement ranged across the whole life of the church, including worship style, ecumenical fellowship with other church bodies, the role of women in the church, methods for training leaders and expanding congregations, approaches to scriptural interpretation, the proper relationship of the sacred and secular spheres, and the appropriate division of powers between the Synod and its constituent congregations. Interfaith issues
<mask> spent much of his time in office under fire for his support of Atlantic District president <mask>.The controversy quickly became an emblem for broader, longstanding disagreements within the church. In September 2001, <mask> had taken part in an interfaith prayer event at Yankee Stadium to commemorate the victims of the September 11, 2001, attacks on New York City. Daniel Preus and others in the Synod's "confessional" wing argued that <mask>, by participating in a prayer event alongside non-Lutheran clergy and leaders of non-Christian faiths, had engaged in practices that the Synod condemns as "unionism" and "syncretism", respectively. <mask> and his supporters replied that <mask>ke had given Christian witness in a permissible manner, and that the event was not a religious service. Several LCMS ministers moved to have <mask> removed as LCMS president, although the matter ended with <mask> surviving the ouster attempt and <mask> being cleared of the charges against him. For several years, the <mask>ke controversy left some LCMS members speaking of a "crisis in the Synod" and warning openly of the possibilities for a schism. Committee on Constitutional Matters
Displeased that <mask> had used the LCMS' Committee on Constitutional Matters (CCM) to overrule them on several occasions, the LCMS Board of Directors hired a law firm in early 2004 to determine its authority within the church under the laws governing not-for-profit entities in the state of Missouri.The Kieschnick wing responded by engaging its own legal counsel. Several on the Board of Directors considered filing action against the Synod in civil court as a way to re-assert their authority within the church. Reelection and second term
In 2004 <mask> won a re-match with first vice-president Daniel Preus, winning 53 percent of the vote to Preus' 32 percent, with two other Confessional Lutheran candidates placing third and fourth. A Kieschnick supporter, Oklahoma District President William R. Diekelman, then defeated Preus for the first vice-presidential slot in a somewhat narrower vote. Although <mask>'s supporters won control of four out of the five vice-presidential slots, the Board of Directors remained narrowly in the control of Synod conservatives. Reelection and third term
At the 2007 convention of the LCMS, <mask> was elected on the first ballot, receiving 52.3 percent of the total vote. 2008 radio program controversy

During Holy Week in 2008, the synod-sponsored, nationally syndicated talk radio program Issues, Etc.was canceled, initially without explanation. Issues, Etc. was the most popular program produced by the LCMS-owned radio station KFUO-AM and had been a regular part of the broadcast schedule for 15 years. Its cancellation, along with the firing of host Todd Wilken and producer Jeff Schwarz, created a firestorm of protest from traditionalists within the LCMS, including allegations of mishandling of radio station finances. Because KFUO-AM has never published financial information, charges could be neither proved nor disproved. In June 2008, Issues, Etc. returned as a listener-supported program on a competing St. Louis station, and on-line through internet streaming and podcast downloads.In an opinion piece in The Wall Street Journal, political commentator Mollie Hemingway wrote:

In a written response, President <mask> countered that the article presented a "distorted account of the reason for the discontinuation" and a "misleading picture" of the Synod "as a deeply divided church...." The fallout from the Issues, Etc. cancellation, and <mask>’s denial of discord within the LCMS, further widened the gap between conservative and moderate factions, motivating many previously silent traditionalists to speak out against perceived synodical heavy-handedness and doctrinal error. 2010 election
On July 13, 2010, <mask> was defeated for re-election by Rev. Matthew C. Harrison. The vote was 643 to 527. Post-presidency
On March 1, 2011, Concordia University Texas announced that it had hired <mask> to fill the newly created position of Presidential Ambassador for Mission Advancement, a position he held until 2015. In January 2016, <mask> returned to the Lutheran Foundation of Texas, becoming its CEO on January 1, 2017.In January 2017, under <mask>'s leadership, the Lutheran Foundation of Texas changed its name to Legacy Deo. References

Sources

Newspaper articles
 Patricia Rice, "Missouri Synod Elects Moderate as President," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 16 July 2001. "Houston native takes synod helm," Houston Chronicle, 21 July 2001. Tom Heinen, "Lutherans' doctrinal clash builds," Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 21 July 2001. Tim Townsend, "Church leader faces reelection fight," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 11 July 2004. Adam Jadhav, "Embattled Lutheran president wins vote," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 21 July 2004. "Amendment A falls short of affirmation," LCMS Reporter, March 2005.LCMS Q-&-A document on Amendment A (PDF), 2004. Mollie Ziegler Hemingway, "Radio Silence", Wall Street Journal 28 March 2008. External links
Official Kieschnick biography formerly on the LCMS website
LCMS homepage
Concordia Historical Institute biography

1943 births
Living people
American Lutheran clergy
Presidents of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod
Texas A&M University alumni
People from Houston
Concordia University Texas alumni
Concordia Theological Seminary alumni

masks:
Gerald Bryan Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
David Benke
Benke
Benke
Kieschnick
Ben
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Benke
Ben
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick
Kieschnick


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<mask> (September 25, 1803 – April 16, 1864) was an anti-slavery abolitionist who worked directly with escaped and former slaves in southwestern Ontario. He attempted to improve their living conditions and help them to be integrated into society by providing education and practical working skills. He established ten schools to educate free blacks in southwestern Ontario. <mask> worked extensively with Josiah Henson to establish the British-American Institute and the Dawn Settlement in 1841. He was a delegate to the World Anti-Slavery Convention of 1843 in London, England. He resigned from the British-American Institute and moved to St. Catharines, Ontario, where his home was a final terminal for the Underground Railroad. Early life and education
<mask>, the son of Polly McCoy and <mask>, was born on September 25, 1803, in Acworth, New Hampshire, where he was said to have "inherited the New England dedication to moral uplift."He attended the Oneida Institute in upstate New York, at that time the most abolitionist school in the country. Attending a manual labor college, he worked while gaining an education. In 1833, <mask> was part of the cohort that abandoned Oneida for the new Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati. <mask>'s stay would not last long, as the slavery debates divided the school and city. He left when the seminary's trustees disbanded the Anti-Slavery Society. <mask> did not participate in this debate but he would join the 72 Lane Rebels who left the school. The rebels demanded the right to discuss controversial topics and the students' rights to freedom of speech.Lane rebel Theodore Dwight Weld responded:

This group of students left Lane and journeyed to the new Oberlin Collegiate Institute, which replaced the financially troubled Oneida as the most abolitionist college in the country. At Oneida he met William G. Allen, who later taught for <mask> in the summer of 1841. Oberlin was very liberal and soon welcomed both women and negroes. <mask> received a Theology Degree from Oberlin Theological Seminary in 1836. After he graduated, the President of Oberlin, Charles Finney, was interested in the status of freedom seekers who settled in Upper Canada (Ontario) to escape slavery and discrimination. He gave <mask> $25 to travel to Upper Canada and to work with the free blacks. Career

Established schools
<mask> discovered that the living conditions in which the free blacks lived in, were very poor as there were no education opportunities available to improve blacks' lives.<mask> travelled through the province from the fall through the spring of that year and returned to the United States to act as a delegate of Upper Canada at a meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society. At this meeting, <mask> explained that the former fugitives faced a tremendous amount of discrimination; he believed education was essential. <mask>'s primary goal for Upper Canada was to establish schools for blacks, but open to anyone desiring an education. He established ten schools by 1839 with fourteen teachers from Oberlin. Gerrit Smith of Rochester, New York provided money, clothing and Bibles for the schools. Quaker philanthropist James Canning Fuller, from Skaneateles, New York was also interested in the strides that <mask> had made in Ontario. British-American Institute

June 1838, <mask> and Josiah Henson called a convention of Black Canadians to discuss building a school and what should be taught.Henson said "Our children could gain those elements of knowledge which are usually taught in a grammar-school." Henson also thought in addition to this, boys should be taught the practice of a mechanical art, such as millworking, carpentry, or blacksmithing; and girls be instructed in the domestic arts. The Canada Mission Board gave approval for <mask> and Henson to find a site that would be safe for fugitives. Dawn was the site chosen. Dawn was heavily forested, which provided for wetlands and grasslands which provided game to sustain the community. <mask> and Henson bought 200 acres of land near the Sydenham River to build the school. On December 12, 1841, <mask> <mask> joined Josiah Henson and James Canning Fuller to establish the British-American Institute, which served as a manual labor college in the Dawn settlement.By 1845, there were seventy students, who were taught by <mask>'s first wife, Hannah. By the 1850s, Dawn's population was predominately black. Internal conflicts and financial troubles developed because the Dawn Settlement revolved around the British-American Institute. Dawn filled the needs of the institute, instead of the reverse. During the first few years of Dawn settlement the population was almost 500. By the spring of 1847, <mask>'s wife Hannah had died; this affected <mask> tremendously. In 1847, the settlement was deep in debt and by the summer of 1848, no one had any credit left except for <mask>, who then resigned due to reasons of mismanagement, bad leadership, and the death of James Canning Fuller.There was never enough money to not only adequately sustain the settlement, but also to pull it out of debt, without donations from outside sources. The idea of a manual labour school seemed to be practical; however, the founders of the institute failed to secure long term finances and resources. <mask> wrote in 1850 that, "The Manuel Training Institute here ran well for a season, and accomplished much good; but since my resignation [in 1847] ...and the decease of James Cannings Fuller, one of the Trustees, it has run down, and can hardly be resuscitated again without a miracle". World Anti-Slavery Convention of 1843
In 1843, <mask> attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention, in London, where he was the "Central Corresponding Committee for the Coloured Population of Canada." At this convention he gathered with other slave abolishers from around the world, where he toured around Britain to raise funds. He accumulated $1100.00 and several hundred Bibles and Testaments. He met several people who promised to donate to the Dawn settlement.St. Catharines school
<mask> resigned from the Dawn Settlement and moved to St. Catharines, Ontario, where he worked to found a fugitive haven. He opened an American Missionary Association night school with his wife Mary (his first wife Hannah had died by this time). Between 1850 and 1856, he took into his house about 125 refugees. He established a Sunday school, which he operated until 1861. He gave food and clothing and bibles to the literate, to the rest a spelling book. There were 2,000 blacks in the St. Catharines area who arrived between September and December 1850, another 3,000 arrived from the United States in response to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. This school was a final terminal that Harriet Tubman used herself and for her passengers on the Underground Railroad.When Harriet Tubman arrived in St.Catharines in 1851 with eleven freedom seekers, she met <mask> at the AME Church or the Bethel Chapel, the first Black church in St. Catharines. In 1856, the church's name was changed to the British Methodist Episcopal (BME) Church otherwise known as Salem Chapel. It became the first National Historical site in St. Catharines. Benjamin Drew in 1855 wrote about <mask> and his family:

Throughout <mask>'s career, he was always "dogged by misadventure". Personal life
<mask> was married first to Hannah Maria Hubbard on 17 September 1838. They were married in Troy, New York at the Bethel Free Church. Prior to their marriage, Hannah taught black children in the 1830s in East Troy, New York.The Reverend Daniel A. Payne described her "as a woman of uncommon faith and powerful in prayer, well suited to be the wife of a missionary." Hannah died in the home of Josiah Henson at Dawn settlement. <mask> lived in St. Catharines with his second wife Mary A.H<mask> and his five children; John J<mask> (b. 1841), Lydia M<mask> (b. 1843), Mary E<mask> (b. 1845), and George S<mask> (b. 1847).In 1852, he also applied to be the guardian of Alavana Dicken, a former slave. <mask> died at his home on 16 April 1864 after having had an inflammation of the lungs. He was buried at Woodland Cemetery in Cleveland, Ohio. References

Sources

Further reading

1803 births
1864 deaths
Activists from New Hampshire
Canadian abolitionists
Deaths from lung disease
Lane Theological Seminary alumni
Underground Railroad people
History of Black people in Canada
People from Acworth, New Hampshire
Burials at Woodland Cemetery (Cleveland)
American expatriates in Canada
Oneida Institute alumni
Lane Rebels

masks:
Hiram Wilson
Wilson
Hiram Wilson
John Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Wilson
Hiram
Wilson
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. Wilson
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Wilson


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<mask>, the Elder (1704 – 23 May 1754) was an English architect, working mainly in Bath. In 1740 he surveyed Stonehenge and the Stanton Drew stone circles. He later wrote extensively about Bladud and Neo-Druidism. Because of some of his designs he is also thought to have been involved in the early years of Freemasonry. His notable work in Bath included: St John's Hospital, Queen Square, Prior Park, The Royal Mineral Water Hospital, the North and South Parades and The Circus. Wood also designed important buildings outside Bath, including the reconstruction of Llandaff Cathedral, Buckland House, The Exchange, Bristol, and Liverpool Town Hall. He has been described by Nikolaus Pevsner as "one of the outstanding architects of the day".Early life
Wood was born in Twerton near Bath, and baptised in St. James's Church (now demolished). He received a good but basic education at King Edward's School. His father George was a local builder. During his teenage years and early twenties, Wood worked for Robert Benson, the first Baron Bingley at his estate, Bramham Park, Yorkshire. He then became involved in speculative builds on the Cavendish estate in London. Style and vision
Through reading, site visits and practical experience Wood developed his unique ideas in order to create a master plan for his home town of such ambition it is almost overwhelming. Through his continual self-education, Wood refined his architectural beliefs and by his mid-twenties had combined his passion for Palladianism (a type of classical architecture) with his obsession with Ancient British history, and almost certainly Freemasonry.Wood set out to restore Bath to what he believed was its former ancient glory as one of the most important and significant cities in England. In 1725 he developed an ambitious plan for his home town, which due to opposition he developed outside the existing city walls. Wood created a distinctive image for the city, one that has greatly contributed to Bath's continuing popularity. Wood's grand plans for Bath were consistently hampered by the corporation (council), churchmen, landowners and moneymen. Instead he approached Robert Gay, a barber surgeon from London, and the owner of the Barton Farm estate in the Manor of Walcot, outside the city walls. On these fields Wood established Bath's architectural style, the basic principles of which were copied by all those architects who came after him. Wood created one of the greatest attractions in the world, recognised by UNESCO for embodying a number of outstanding universal values — including the deliberate creation of a beautiful and unified city.Speculative Building
At Queen Square, Wood introduced speculative building to Bath. This meant that whilst Wood leased the land from Robert Gay for £137 per annum, designed the frontages, and divided the ground into the individual building plots, he sub-let to other individual builders or masons. They had two years grace in which to get the walls up and the roof on, after which they had to pay a more substantial rent. As Bath was booming, most plots were reserved before the two years were up, providing the builder with the necessary income to complete the house. Ultimately this meant less work and risk for Wood; in addition he received £305 per annum in rents, leaving him a healthy profit of £168 – the equivalent today (in terms of average earnings) of £306,000. Bath architecture
Wood is known for designing many of the streets and buildings of Bath, such as St John's Hospital, (1727–28), Queen Square (1728–36), Prior Park (1734–41), The Royal Mineral Water Hospital (1738–42) the North (1740) and South Parades (1743–48), The Circus (1754–68), and other notable houses, many of which are Grade I listed buildings. In 1716 the architect William Killigrew was commissioned to rebuild the St John's Hospital, which had been founded around 1180, by Bishop Reginald Fitz Jocelin making it among the oldest almshouses in England.Construction continued after 1727 with <mask>, the <mask> undertaking the building, as his first work in Bath, when he was aged 23. Ralph Allen's Town House was commissioned by Ralph Allen who commenced building it in or shortly after 1727. Opinion is divided as to whether <mask> the Elder designed the "Town House", however the ostentatious decoration is not a style he uses elsewhere in Bath. Wood, in his "Essay towards the future of Bath", says — while Mr.Allen was making the Addition to the North Part of his House in Lilliput Alley he new fronted and raised the old Building a full Story higher; it consists of a Basement Story sustaining a double Story under the Crowning; and this is surmounted by an Attick, which created a sixth Rate House, and a Sample for the greatest Magnificence that was ever proposed by me for our City Houses. Queen Square was Wood's first speculative development. Wood lived in a house on the square. Numbers 21–27 make up the north side.Which was described by Nikolaus Pevsner as "one of the finest Palladian compositions in England before 1730". The west side (numbers 14 – 18 and 18A, 19 & 20) was designed by <mask> in 1830 and differs from Wood's original design as the central block is in Neo-Grecian style. 16–18 is now occupied by the Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution. The south side (numbers 5–13) which was originally left open is now occupied by a hotel. In 1742, Wood was commissioned to build a home for the mayor of Bath Ralph Allen, on a hill overlooking the city of Bath. This building is Grade I listed and has housed Prior Park College since 1830. The building for the Royal National Hospital for Rheumatic Diseases was designed by Wood and built with Bath Stone donated by Ralph Allen.It was later enlarged, firstly in 1793 by the addition of an attic storey and later in 1860 by a second building erected on the west side of the earlier edifice. It is a Grade II listed building. There is a fine pediment, in Bath stone, on 1860 building depicting the parable of the Good Samaritan. North Parade was part of a wider scheme to build a Royal Forum, including South Parade, Pierrepont and Duke Streets, similar to Queen Square, which was never completed. Wood designed the facade, of Bath Stone, after which a variety of builders completed the work with different interiors and rear elevations. Wood Street was built in 1778 an has been designated as a Grade I listed building. The street was designed by <mask>, the Elder and built by Thomas Baldwin in the same style as the adjacent Queen Square.His final masterpiece was the Circus, built on Barton Fields outside the old city walls of Bath, although he never lived to see his plans put into effect as he died less than three months after the first stone was laid. It was left to his son, <mask>, the Younger to complete the scheme to his father's design. Wood's inspiration was the Roman Colosseum, but whereas the Colosseum was designed to be seen from the outside, the Circus faces inwardly. Three classical Orders, (Greek Doric, Roman/Composite and Corinthian) are used, one above the other, in the elegant curved facades. The frieze of the Doric entablature is decorated with alternating triglyphs and 525 pictorial emblems, including serpents, nautical symbols, devices representing the arts and sciences, and masonic symbols. The parapet is adorned with stone acorn finials. He demonstrated how a row of town houses could be dignified, almost palatial.The uses of uniform facades and rhythmic proportions in conjunction with classical principles of unerring symmetry were followed throughout the city. Architecture outside Bath

Wood also designed important buildings outside Bath, the reconstruction of Llandaff Cathedral 1734–1749, The Exchange, Bristol 1741–43, Liverpool Town Hall 1749–54. Wood's work on the rebuilding of Llandaff Cathedral gained the nicknamed of the "Italian Temple". It was used for a hundred years but never completed and only a few stones remain. The Exchange in Bristol was built in 1741–43 by Wood, with carvings by Thomas Paty. Wood was also the architect of the Liverpool Exchange, which was completed in 1754 and gutted by fire in 1795. The London Exchange of Wood's day was also destroyed by fire in 1838.Bristol's Exchange is therefore unique, the only surviving 18th-century exchange building in England. When finished in 1743 the Exchange, as planned, had "the outward appearance of one grand structure," and the much-admired exterior remains today largely as built. The front of the building has Corinthian columns in the centre and pilasters to the sides. A central semicircular-arched doorway has cast-iron lion-head knockers. A frieze with human and animal heads symbolises trade, and a royal coat of arms is displayed in the tympanum. The rear of the building is symmetrical with pedimented windows and semicircular ground-floor arches. Liverpool Town Hall was built between 1749 and 1754 to a design by Wood replacing an earlier town hall nearby.An extension to the north designed by James Wyatt was added in 1785. The ground floor acted as the exchange, and a council room and other offices were on the upper floor. The ground floor had a central courtyard surrounded by Doric colonnades but it was "dark and confined, and the merchants preferred to transact business in the street outside". Following a fire in 1795 the hall was largely rebuilt and the portico and dome were added by James Wyatt who also redesigned the interiors. Buckland House is a large Georgian stately home and the manor house of Buckland in Oxfordshire built in 1757. Sir Robert Throckmorton, the fourth baronet of Coughton, who commissioned Wood to design the new Buckland House as a shooting lodge and weekend retreat. <mask>, the Younger substantially revised the plan and added the distinctive octagonal pavilions to the sides of the house.The final house is illustrated in the 1767 volume of Vitruvius Britannicus. Stonehenge and Stanton Drew surveys

Wood also left us the most important plan of Stonehenge ever made; his survey, carried out in 1740 and published in his Choir Gaure, Vulgarly Called Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain (1747), was annotated with hundreds of measurements, which he resolved on the ground to one half, sometimes even one quarter, of an inch. This work has been largely overlooked, partly due to criticisms made by the antiquarian William Stukeley. Wood's interpretation of the monument as a place of pagan ritual was vehemently attacked by Stukeley who saw the druids not as pagans, but as biblical patriarchs. Stukely also failed to see the significance of recording the stones in such detail. However, using Wood's original dimensions it has been possible to re-draw his work on a computer and compare the record with the modern plan of Stonehenge. His survey has immense archaeological value, for he recorded the stones fifty years before the collapse of the western trilithon (which fell in 1797 and was not restored until 1958).In the same year Wood surveyed and mapped the Stanton Drew stone circles, noting the different stones used and suggesting the layout was based on the Pythagorean planetary system. Freemasonry

Many of the buildings he designed are littered with icons and symbols associated with Freemasonry, leading many people who have studied his work to believe that he was a member of the organisation, even though there is no documentary proof. Wood wrote extensively about sacred geometry, and argued that the myths of the supposed founder of Bath, King Bladud, were based on truth. He claimed that ancient British stone circles were the remains of once more elaborate buildings designed by Bladud. It has been suggested that Wood (and his son, also <mask>) were connected to Freemasonry either via one of their building partnerships and/or via symbolism in their architecture. In his Masonic lecture and article, Stephen Ben Cox tentatively suggests an image for this as the square (Queen's Square), the circle (The Circus) and the crescent (The Royal Crescent): standing for Earth, Sun and Moon, and following the masonic path of the sun in the Lodge from east (the Master chair) to south (the Junior Warden) and exiting in the west (the Senior Warden) as a symbol of man's spiritual progress in life from the rough to the smooth ashlar. When viewed from the air, the Circus, along with Queens Square and the adjoining Gay Street, form a key shape, which is a masonic symbol similar to those that adorn many of Wood's buildings.Cox notes that there is no direct evidence of deliberate Masonic expression in the architecture (although there are plenty of carved signs and symbols which are important to Freemasonry). He goes on however to say that it is interesting to note that Queen Square is lower down the hill whilst The Circus overlooks it at the top of the hill, whilst to the west The Crescent faces out across the open space of the park sloping away from it. Media proprietor Felix Farley (c. 1708–1753) published Wood's The Origin of Building: Or, The Plagiarism of the Heathens Detected, In Five Books. Bladud and the druids

In many of Woods writings, and particularly The Essay towards a description of Bath, he describes Bladud, a legendary king of the Britons for whose existence there is no historical evidence, as the founder of Bath. Wood repeats and embellishes earlier stories that Bladud founded the city because while he was in Athens he contracted leprosy, and when he returned home he was imprisoned as a result, but escaped and went far off to go into hiding. He found employment as a swineherd at Swainswick, about two miles from the later site of Bath, and noticed that his pigs would go into an alder-moor in cold weather and return covered in black mud. He found that the mud was warm, and that they did it to enjoy the heat.He also noticed that the pigs which did this did not suffer from skin diseases as others did, and on trying the mud bath himself found that he was cured of his leprosy. He was then restored to his position as heir-apparent to his father, and founded Bath so that others might also benefit as he had done. Wood also writes about Neo-Druidism which had been popularised in the 17th and 18th centuries by writers such as <mask>, <mask> and William Stukeley in conjunction with exploration of the stone circles at Stonehenge and Stanton Drew. Like Inigo Jones before him, who had also surveyed Stonehenge, Wood's study of these two monuments had an important influence on his work in providing key dimensions for the Circus in Bath and confirming his interest in the local antiquity of circular and crescent forms. Death and legacy

Wood died in Bath on 23 May 1754, and was buried in the churchyard of St Mary's church, Swainswick. Many of his building projects were continued by his son <mask>, the Younger including; Royal Crescent, Bath Assembly Rooms and Buckland House. He also finished The Circus.Only two portraits of Wood are known to exist, one of which is a wooden bust which was carved from a death mask. There is an off-campus dormitory complex belonging to the University of Bath named <mask> Wood Complex, on Avon Street. Bath is now a World Heritage Site, at least partly as a result of the Woods' architecture. References

 Hart, Vaughan (1989). ‘One View of a Town. Prior Park and the City of Bath’, RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics, pp.140-157. 1704 births
1754 deaths
18th-century English architects
Architects from Bath, Somerset

masks:
John Wood
John Wood
Elder
John Wood
John Pinch
John Wood
John Wood
John Wood
John
John Aubrey
John Toland
John Wood
John