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<mask> (; 3 February 1898 – 11 May 1976) was a Finnish architect and designer. His work includes architecture, furniture, textiles and glassware, as well as sculptures and paintings. He never regarded himself as an artist, seeing painting and sculpture as "branches of the tree whose trunk is architecture." <mask>'s early career ran in parallel with the rapid economic growth and industrialization of Finland during the first half of the 20th century. Many of his clients were industrialists, among them the Ahlström-Gullichsen family. The span of his career, from the 1920s to the 1970s, is reflected in the styles of his work, ranging from Nordic Classicism of the early work, to a rational International Style Modernism during the 1930s to a more organic modernist style from the 1940s onwards. Typical for his entire career is a concern for design as a Gesamtkunstwerk, a total work of art, in which he – together with his first wife <mask> – would design the building, and give special treatment to the interior surfaces, furniture, lamps and glassware.His furniture designs are considered Scandinavian Modern, in the sense of a concern for materials, especially wood, and simplification but also technical experimentation, which led him to receiving patents for various manufacturing processes, such as bent wood. As a designer he is celebrated as the inventor of bent plywood furniture. The Alvar Aalto Museum, designed by <mask> himself, is located in what is regarded as his home city Jyväskylä. Biography

Life

<mask> <mask> was born in Kuortane, Finland. His father, Johan Henrik <mask>, was a Finnish-speaking land-surveyor and his mother, Selma Matilda "Selly" (née Hackstedt) was a Swedish-speaking postmistress. When <mask> was 5 years old, the family moved to Alajärvi, and from there to Jyväskylä in Central Finland. He studied at the Jyväskylä Lyceum school, where he completed his basic education in 1916, and took drawing lessons from local artist Jonas Heiska.In 1916, he then enrolled to study architecture at the Helsinki University of Technology. His studies were interrupted by the Finnish Civil War, in which he fought. He fought on the side of the White Army and fought at the Battle of Länkipohja and the Battle of Tampere. He built his first piece of architecture while a student; a house for his parents at Alajärvi. Later, he continued his education, graduating in 1921. In the summer of 1922 he began military service, finishing at Hamina reserve officer training school, and was promoted to reserve second lieutenant in June 1923. In 1920, while a student, <mask> made his first trip abroad, travelling via Stockholm to Gothenburg, where he briefly found work with architect Arvid Bjerke.In 1922, he accomplished his first independent piece at the Industrial Exposition in Tampere. In 1923, he returned to Jyväskylä, where he opened an architectural office under the name '<mask> <mask>, Architect and Monumental Artist'. At that time he wrote articles for the Jyväskylä newspaper Sisä-Suomi under the pseudonym Remus. During this time, he designed a number of small single-family houses in Jyväskylä, and the office's workload steadily increased. On 6 October 1924, <mask> married architect Aino Marsio. Their honeymoon in Italy was <mask>'s first trip there, though Aino had previously made a study trip there. The latter trip together sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the Mediterranean region that remained important to Aalto for life.On their return they continued with several local projects, notably the Jyväskylä Worker's Club, which incorporated a number of motifs which they had studied during their trip, most notably the decorations of the Festival hall modelled on the Rucellai Sepulchre in Florence by Leon Battista Alberti. After winning the architecture competition for the Southwest Finland Agricultural Cooperative building in 1927, the Aaltos moved their office to Turku. They had made contact with the city's most progressive architect, Erik Bryggman before moving. They began collaborating with him, most notably on the Turku Fair of 1928–29. Aalto's biographer, Göran Schildt, claimed that Bryggman was the only architect with whom Aalto cooperated as an equal. With an increasing quantity of work in the Finnish capital, the Aaltos' office moved again in 1933 to Helsinki. The Aaltos designed and built a joint house-office (1935–36) for themselves in Munkkiniemi, Helsinki, but later (1954–56) had a purpose-built office erected in the same neighbourhood – now the former is a "home museum" and the latter the premises of the Alvar Aalto Academy.In 1926, the young <mask> designed and had built for themselves a summer cottage in Alajärvi, Villa Flora. Death
Aino <mask> died of cancer in 1949. Aino and <mask> <mask> had two children, a daughter, Johanna "Hanni", Mrs Alanen (born 1925), and a son, Hamilkar <mask> (born 1928). In 1952, <mask> married architect Elissa Mäkiniemi (died 1994), who had been working as an assistant in his office. In 1952, he designed and built a summer cottage, the so-called Experimental House, for himself and his new wife in Muuratsalo in Central Finland. <mask> <mask> died on 11 May 1976, in Helsinki, and is buried in the Hietaniemi cemetery in Helsinki. His wife and the office employees continued the works of the office which were still in progress.In 1978 the Museum of Finnish Architecture in Helsinki arranged a major exhibition of <mask>'s works. Architecture career

Early career: classicism

Although he is sometimes regarded as among the first and most influential architects of Nordic modernism, closer examination reveals that <mask> (while a pioneer in Finland) closely followed and had personal contacts with other pioneers in Sweden, in particular Gunnar Asplund and Sven Markelius. What they, and many others of that generation in the Nordic countries shared, was a common classical education and an approach to classical architecture, that historians now call Nordic Classicism It was a style that had been a reaction to the previous dominant style of National Romanticism before moving, in the late 1920s, towards Modernism. Upon returning to Jyväskylä in 1923 to establish his own architect's office, <mask> designed several single-family homes designed in the style of Nordic Classicism. For example, the manor-like house for his mother's cousin Terho Manner in Töysa (1923), a summer villa for the Jyväskylä chief constable (also from 1923) and the Alatalo farmhouse in Tarvaala (1924). During this period he completed his first public buildings, the Jyväskylä Workers' Club in 1925, the Jyväskylä Defence Corps Building in 1926 and the Seinäjoki Civil Guard House building in 1924–29. He entered several architectural competitions for prestigious state public buildings, in Finland and abroad.This included two competitions for the Finnish Parliament building in 1923 and 1924, the extension to the University of Helsinki in 1931, and the building to house the League of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1926–27. <mask>'s first church design to be completed, Muurame church, illustrates his transition from Nordic Classicism to Functionalism. This was the period when <mask> was most prolific in his writings, with articles for professional journals and newspapers. Among his most well-known essays from this period are "Urban culture" (1924), "Temple baths on Jyväskylä ridge" (1925), "Abbé Coignard's sermon" (1925), and "From doorstep to living room" (1926). Early career: functionalism
The shift in <mask>'s design approach from classicism to modernism is epitomised by the Viipuri Library in Vyborg (1927–35), which went through a transformation from an originally classical competition entry proposal to the completed high-modernist building. His humanistic approach is in full evidence in the library: the interior displays natural materials, warm colours, and undulating lines. Due to problems about financing and a change of site, the Viipuri Library project lasted eight years.During that time he designed the Standard Apartment Building (1928–29) in Turku, Turun Sanomat Building (1929–30) and Paimio Sanatorium (1929–32). A number of factors heralded <mask>'s shift towards modernism: on a personal level, <mask>'s increased familiarization of international trends, especially after travelling throughout Europe, but in terms of completed projects it was the client of the Standard Apartment Building giving <mask> the opportunity to experiment with concrete prefabrication, the cutting-edge Corbusian form language of the Turun Sanomat Building, and these were then carried forward both in the Paimio Sanatorium and in the ongoing design for the library. Although the Turun Sanomat Building and Paimio Sanatorium are comparatively pure modernist works, they carried the seeds of his questioning of such an orthodox modernist approach and a move to a more daring, synthetic attitude. It has been pointed out that the planning principle for Paimio Sanatorium – the splayed wings – was indebted to the Zonnestraal Sanatorium (1925–31) by Jan Duiker, which Aalto visited while under construction. While these early Functionalist works by Aalto bear hallmarks of influences from Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and other key modernist figures of central Europe, in all these buildings <mask> nevertheless started to show his individuality in a departure from such norms with the introduction of organic references. Through Sven Markelius, <mask> became a member of the Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), attending the second congress in Frankfurt in 1929 and the fourth congress in Athens in 1933, where he established a close friendship with László Moholy-Nagy, Sigfried Giedion and Philip Morton Shand. It was during this time that he followed closely the work of the main driving force behind the new modernism, Le Corbusier, and visited him in his Paris office several times in the following years.It was not until the completion of the Paimio Sanatorium (1932) and Viipuri Library (1935) that <mask> first achieved world attention in architecture. His reputation grew in the US following the invitation to hold a retrospective exhibition of his works at the MOMA in New York in 1938, which was his visit to the US. The significance of the exhibition – which later went on a 12-city tour of the country – is in the fact that he was the second-ever architect – after Le Corbusier – to have a solo exhibition at the museum. His reputation grew in the US following the critical reception of his design for the Finnish Pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair, described by Frank Lloyd Wright as a "work of genius". It could be said that <mask>'s international reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion's influential book on Modernist architecture, Space, Time and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition (1949), in which <mask> received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of <mask>, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life and even national characteristics, declaring that "Finland is with <mask> wherever he goes". Mid career: experimentation
During the 1930s <mask> spent some time experimenting with laminated wood, sculpture and abstract relief, characterized by irregular curved forms.Utilizing this knowledge he was able to solve technical problems concerning the flexibility of wood and also of working out spatial issues in his designs. <mask>'s early experiments with wood and his move away from a purist modernism would be tested in built form with the commission to design Villa Mairea (1939) in Noormarkku, the luxury home of young industrialist couple Harry and Maire Gullichsen. It was Maire Gullichsen who acted as the main client, and she worked closely not only with <mask> but also Aino <mask> on the design, inspiring them to be more daring in their work. The original design was to include a private art gallery: this was not built. The building forms a U-shape around a central inner 'garden', where the central feature is a kidney-shaped swimming pool. Adjacent to the pool is a sauna executed in a rustic style, alluding to both Finnish and Japanese precedents. The design of the house is a synthesis of numerous stylistic influences, from traditional Finnish vernacular to purist modernism, as well as influences from English and Japanese architecture.While the house is clearly intended for a wealthy family, <mask> nevertheless argued that it was also an experiment that would prove useful in the design of mass housing. His increased fame led to offers and commissions outside Finland. In 1941 he accepted an invitation as a visiting professor to Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US. Because of the Second World War, he returned to Finland to direct the Reconstruction Office. Post war, he returned to MIT, where he designed the student dormitory Baker House, completed in 1949. The dormitory lay along the Charles River and its undulating form provided maximum view and ventilation for each resident. This building was the first building of <mask>'s redbrick period.Originally used in Baker House to signify the Ivy League university tradition, on his return to Finland <mask> used it in a number of key buildings, in particular, in several of the buildings in the new Helsinki University of Technology campus (starting in 1950), Säynätsalo Town Hall (1952), Helsinki Pensions Institute (1954), Helsinki House of Culture (1958), as well as in his own summer house, the Experimental House in Muuratsalo (1957). In the 1950s <mask> immersed himself in sculpting: wood, bronze, marble or mixed media. Among notable works from this period is the memorial to the Battle of Suomussalmi (1960). Located on the battlefield, it consists of a leaning bronze pillar on a pedestal. Mature career: monumentalism
The

masks:
Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto
Aalto
Aino Aalto
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Hugo Alvar
Henrik Aalto
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Alvar
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Alvar
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type: original

texts:
 early 1960s and 1970s (until his death in 1976) were marked by key works in Helsinki, in particular the huge town plan for the void in centre of Helsinki adjacent to Töölö Bay and the vast railway yards, and marked on the edges by significant buildings such as the National Museum and the main railway station, both by Eliel Saarinen. In his town plan <mask> proposed a line of separate marble-clad buildings fronting the bay which would house various cultural institutions, including a concert hall, opera, museum of architecture and headquarters for the Finnish Academy. The scheme also extended into the Kamppi district with a series of tall office blocks.<mask> first presented his scheme in 1961, but it went through various modifications during the early 1960s. Only two fragments of the overall plan were realized: the Finlandia Hall concert hall (1976) fronting Töölö Bay, and an office building in the Kamppi district for the Helsinki Electricity Company (1975). The Miesian formal language of geometric grids employed in the buildings was also used by <mask> for other sites in Helsinki, including the Enso-Gutzeit headquarters building (1962), the Academic Bookstore (1962) and the SYP Bank building (1969). Following <mask>'s death in 1976 his office continued to operate under the direction of his widow Elissa, completing works already (to some extent) designed. These works include the Jyväskylä City Theatre and Essen opera house. Since the death of Elissa <mask> the office has continued to operate as the Alvar Aalto Academy, giving advice on the restoration of Aalto buildings and organising vast archive material. Furniture career

Whereas <mask> was famous for his architecture, his furniture designs were well thought of and are still popular today.He studied Josef Hoffmann and the Wiener Werkstätte, and for a period of time, worked under Eliel Saarinen. He also gained inspiration from Gebrüder Thonet. During the late 1920s and 1930s he, working closely with Aino <mask>, also focusing much of his energy on furniture design, partly due to the decision to design much of the individual furniture pieces and lamps for the Paimio Sanatorium. Of particular significance was the experimentation in bent plywood chairs, most notably the so-called Paimio chair, which had been designed for the sitting tuberculosis patient, and the Model 60 stacking stool. The Aaltos, together with visual arts promoter Maire Gullichsen and art historian Nils-Gustav Hahl founded the Artek company in 1935, ostensibly to sell Aalto products but also other imported products. He became the first furniture designer to use the cantilever principle in chair design using wood. Awards
Aalto's awards included the Prince Eugen Medal in 1954, the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1957 and the Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects in 1963.He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1957. He also was a member of the Academy of Finland, and was its president from 1963 to 1968. From 1925 to 1956 he was a member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne. In 1960 he received an honorary doctorate at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). Works
<mask>'s career spans the changes in style from (Nordic Classicism) to purist International Style Modernism to a more personal, synthetic and idiosyncratic Modernism. <mask>'s wide field of design activity ranges from the large scale of city planning and architecture to interior design, furniture and glassware design and painting. It has been estimated that during his entire career <mask> designed over 500 individual buildings, approximately 300 of which were built, the vast majority of which are in Finland.He also has a few buildings in France, Germany, Italy and the USA. <mask>'s work with wood, was influenced by early Scandinavian architects. His experiments and departure from the norm brought attention to his ability to make wood do things not previously done. His techniques in the way he cut the beech tree, for example, and also his ability to use plywood as structural and aesthetic. Other examples include the rough-hewn vertical placement of logs at his pavilion at the Lapua expo, looking similar to a medieval barricade, at the orchestra platform at Turku and the Paris expo at the World Fair, he used varying sizes and shapes of planks. Also at Paris and at Villa Mairea he utilized birch boarding in a vertical arrangement. Also his famous undulating walls and ceilings made of red pine.In his roofing, he created massive spans (155-foot at the covered statium at Otaniemi) all without tie rods. His stairway at Villa Mairea, he evokes feelings of a natural forest by binding beech wood with withes into columns. <mask> claimed that his paintings were not made as individual artworks but as part of his process of architectural design, and many of his small-scale "sculptural" experiments with wood led to later larger architectural details and forms. These experiments also led to a number of patents: for example, he invented a new form of laminated bent-plywood furniture in 1932 (which was patented in 1933). His experimental method had been influenced by his meetings with various members of the Bauhaus design school, especially László Moholy-Nagy, whom he first met in 1930. <mask>'s furniture was exhibited in London in 1935, to great critical acclaim, and to cope with the consumer demand <mask>, together with his wife Aino, Maire Gullichsen and Nils-Gustav Hahl founded the company Artek that same year. Aalto glassware (Aino as well as Alvar) is manufactured by Iittala.<mask>'s 'High Stool' and 'Stool E60' (manufactured by Artek) are currently used in Apple Stores across the world to serve as seating for customers. Finished in black lacquer, the stools are used to seat customers at the 'Genius Bar' and also in other areas of the store at times when seating is required for a product workshop or special event. <mask> was also influential in bringing modern art to the knowledge of the Finnish people, in particular the work of his friends, Alexander Milne Calder and Fernand Léger. Taidemuseo, Jyväskylä, Finland
 1970–1973: Sähkötalo, Helsinki, Finland
 1978 (completed): Ristinkirkko, Lahti, Finland
 1959–1988: Essen opera house, Essen, Germany
 1986: Rovaniemi city hall, Rovaniemi, Finland

Furniture and glassware

Chairs
 1932: Paimio Chair
 1933: Model 60 stacking stool
 1933: Four-legged Stool E60
 1935–36: Armchair 404 (a/k/a/ Zebra Tank Chair)
 1939: Armchair 406
Lamps
 1954: Floor lamp A805
 1959: Floor lamp A810
Vases
 1936: <mask> Vase

Quotations
 "God created paper for the purpose of drawing architecture on it. Everything else is at least for me an abuse of paper." <mask> <mask>, Sketches, 1978, 104. "We should work for simple, good, undecorated things" and he continues, "but things which are in harmony with the human being and organically suited to the little man in the street."<mask> <mask>, speech in London 1957. <mask> has an early place in any alphabetical list, and in May 2020 his entry in the combined index of Who Was Who was second out of 131,546 entries. First was Robert Aagaard, a furniture maker. Critique of <mask>'s architecture
As already mentioned, <mask>'s international reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion's influential book on Modernist architecture, Space, Time and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition (1949), in which <mask> received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of <mask>, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life and even national characteristics, declaring that "Finland is with <mask> wherever he goes". However, a few more recent architecture critics and historians have questioned <mask>'s position of influence in the canonic history. Italian Marxist architecture historians Manfredo Tafuri and Francesco Dal Co put forward the viewpoint that <mask>'s "historical significance has perhaps been rather exaggerated; with Aalto we are outside of the great themes that have made the course of contemporary architecture so dramatic.The qualities of his works have a meaning only as masterful distractions, not subject to reproduction outside the remote reality [sic] in which they have their roots." Their viewpoint was propounded by their own priority given to urbanism, seeing <mask> as an anti-urban, and thus consequently disparaging what they regarded as peripheral non-urban areas of the world: "Essentially his architecture is not appropriate to urban typologies." Similarly concerned with the appropriateness of <mask>'s form language, at the other end of the political spectrum, American postmodernist critic Charles Jencks made a claim for the need for buildings to signify meaning; however, he then lifted out <mask>'s Pensions Institute building as an example of what he termed <mask>'s 'soft paternalism': "Conceived as a fragmented mass to break up the feeling of bureaucracy, it succeeds all too well in being humane and killing the pensioner with kindness. The forms are familiar red brick and ribbon-strip windows broken by copper and bronze elements – all carried through with a literal-mindedness that borders on the soporific." But also during <mask>'s lifetime he faced critique from his fellow architects in Finland, most notably Kirmo Mikkola and Juhani Pallasmaa; by the last decade of his life <mask>'s work was seen as idiosyncratic and individualistic, when the opposing tendencies of rationalism and constructivism – often championed under left-wing politics – argued for anonymous virtually non-aesthetic architecture. Mikkola wrote of <mask>'s late works: "<mask> has moved to his present baroque line..."

Memorials
<mask> has been commemorated in a number of ways:
 <mask> <mask> is the eponym of the Alvar Aalto Medal, now considered one of world architecture's most prestigious awards. Aalto was featured in the 50 mk note in the last series of the Finnish markka (before its replacement by the Euro in 2002).The centenary of <mask>'s birth in 1998 was marked in Finland not only by several books and exhibitions, but also by the promotion of specially bottled red and white Aalto Wine and a specially designed cupcake. In 1976, the year of his death, <mask>, a square named after <mask>, can be found in the Porta Nuova business district of Milan, Italy
 Aalto University, a Finnish university formed by merging Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki School of Economics and TaiK in 2010, is named after <mask> <mask>. An Alvar Aallon katu (Alvar Aalto Street) can be found in five different Finnish cities: Helsinki, Jyväskylä, Oulu, Kotka and Seinäjoki. In 2017, the Alvar Aalto Museum launched Alvar Aalto Cities, that is, a network of cities containing buildings by <mask> <mask>. The objective of the network is to increase awareness of <mask>to

References

Sources

Further reading
Göran Schildt has written and edited many books on <mask>, the most well-known being the three-volume biography, usually referred to as the definitive biography on <mask>. Other books

 Jormakka, Kari; Gargus, Jacqueline; Graf, Douglas The Use and Abuse of Paper. Essays on <mask> <mask>. Datutop 20: Tampere 1999. Aalto research
 The extensive archives of <mask> <mask> are nowadays kept at the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä, Finland.Material is also available from the former offices of Aalto, at Tiilimäki 20, Helsinki, nowadays the headquarters of the Alvar Aalto Foundation. Since 1995 the Alvar Aalto Museum and Aalto Academy has published a journal, Ptah, which is devoted not only to Aalto scholarship but also to architecture generally as well as theory, design and art. External links

Archives
 Alvar Aalto Foundation Custodian of Aalto's architectural drawings and writings. Institute of International Education, Kaufmann Conference Rooms architectural drawings and papers, 1961–1966.Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University. Resources

 <mask> <mask> biography at FinnishDesign.com
 Short Biographies: <mask> <mask>
 Aalto bibliography – From the official site
 Alvar Aalto – Design Dictionary Illustrated article about <mask> <mask>
 <mask> <mask> Aalto
 Modern Furniture and the history of Moulded Plywood Role played by <mask> Alto in the use of Moulded plywood for furniture. <mask> <mask> on Empty Canon

 Map of the Alvar Aalto works – Wikiartmap, the art map of the public space

Catalogs
 Artek.fi, Aalto furniture; company founded by Aalto. Alvar Aalto glassware, iittala.com
 Between Humanism and Materialism New York Museum of Modern Art exhibit site.Contains an especially useful timeline of his life and career. Buildings and reviews
 Checkonsite.com – <mask> Aalto architecture guide. "Ahead of the curve" The Guardian – Fiona MacCarthy recalls a shared lunch of smoked reindeer and schnapps in his elegant Helsinki restaurant
 Baker House
 North Jutland Museum
 S. Maria Assunta – Riola BO Italy

1898 births
1976 deaths
People from Kuortane
People from Vaasa Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
People of the Finnish Civil War (White side)
20th-century Finnish architects
Finnish furniture designers
Finnish industrial designers
Modernist architects
International style architects
Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne members
Modernist architecture in Finland
Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal
Aalto University alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin
Recipients of the Prince Eugen Medal
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Burials at Hietaniemi Cemetery
1939 New York World's Fair artists
Recipients of the AIA Gold Medal
Honorary Fellows of the American Institute of

masks: Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Alvar Aalto Alvar Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Aalto Alvar Aalto Aalto Aaltoalto Aalto Alvar Aalto Alvar Aalto Aaltoal Aalto Aalto Alvar Aalto Alvar Aalto Alvar Aalto Alvar Aalto Alvar Aalto Alvar Aaltovar Alvar Alvar Aalto Alvar


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Vice Admiral Sir <mask>,  (28 May 1901 – 15 April 1969) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). He served as Chief of Naval Staff (CNS), the RAN's highest-ranking position, from 1955 until 1959, and as Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC), forerunner of the role of Australia's Chief of the Defence Force, from 1959 until 1961. Born in northern New South Wales, <mask> entered the Royal Australian Naval College in 1915. After graduating in 1919 he went to sea aboard various Royal Navy and RAN vessels, and later specialised in gunnery. In 1937, he was given command of the sloop . Following the outbreak of World War II, he saw action in the Mediterranean theatre as executive officer of the Royal Navy cruiser , and survived her sinking by a German U-boat in March 1942. Returning to Australia, he served as Director of Plans and later Deputy Chief of Naval Staff before taking command of the light cruiser  in November 1944.His achievements in the South West Pacific earned him the Distinguished Service Order. <mask> took command of the RAN's first aircraft carrier, , in 1948. He became Chief of Naval Personnel in 1950, and Flag Officer Commanding HM Australian Fleet in 1953. Soon after taking up the position of CNS in February 1955, he was promoted to vice admiral and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath. As CNS he had to deal with shortages of money, manpower and equipment, and with the increasing role of the United States in Australia's defence planning, at the expense of traditional ties with Britain. Knighted in 1957, <mask> was Chairman of COSC from March 1959 until May 1961, when he retired from the military. In 1963 he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order and became Australian Secretary to Queen Elizabeth II, serving until his death in 1969.Pre-war career

<mask> <mask> was born on 28 May 1901 in Condong, a township on the Tweed River in northern New South Wales. His parents were sugar cane inspector <mask> and his wife Lily. The youth entered the Royal Australian Naval College (RANC) at Jervis Bay, Federal Capital Territory, in 1915. An underachiever academically, he excelled at sports, and became chief cadet captain before graduating in 1918 with the King's Medal, awarded for "gentlemanly bearing, character, good influence among his fellows and officer-like qualities". The following year he was posted to Britain as a midshipman, undergoing training with the Royal Navy and seeing service on  and . He was promoted to sub-lieutenant on 15 April 1921. By January 1923 he was back in Australia, serving aboard the cruiser .He was promoted to lieutenant on 15 March. In April 1924, Adelaide joined the Royal Navy's Special Service Squadron on its worldwide cruise, taking in New Zealand, Canada, the United States, Panama, and the West Indies, before docking in September at Portsmouth, England. There <mask> left the ship for his next appointment, training as a gunnery officer and serving in that capacity at . After returning to Australia in December 1926, <mask> spent eighteen months on  and , continuing to specialise in gunnery. In July 1928, he began instructing at the gunnery school in Flinders Naval Depot on Western Port Bay, Victoria. He married Jessie Blanch in Melbourne on 8 May 1930; they had two sons and three daughters. Jessie accompanied him on his next posting to Britain commencing in January 1931.<mask> was promoted to lieutenant commander on 15 March, and was appointed gunnery officer on the light cruiser  in May. He returned to Australia in January 1933, and was appointed squadron gunnery officer aboard the heavy cruiser  that April. The ship operated mainly within Australian waters over the next two years. In July 1935, <mask> took charge of the gunnery school at Flinders Naval Depot. He was promoted to commander on 31 December 1936. The following month, he assumed command of the newly commissioned Grimsby-class sloop , carrying out duties in the South West Pacific. Completing his tenure on Swan in January 1939, he was briefly assigned to the Navy Office, Melbourne, before returning to Britain in March for duty at HMS Pembroke, awaiting posting aboard the yet-to-be-commissioned anti-aircraft cruiser, .World War II
<mask> became executive officer on HMS Naiad when the ship was commissioned in 1940. Following service with the British Home Fleet, the cruiser transferred to the Mediterranean Station in May 1941, where she took part in the Battle of Crete. She was involved in action against German torpedo boats on the night of 20/21 May. On 22 May, after engaging a German destroyer with , Naiad was severely damaged by air attack. Following repairs, she became flagship of the 15th Cruiser Squadron and conducted shore bombardments in support of Allied troops during the Syrian campaign in June and July. She also escorted convoys resupplying Malta. In December, Naiad participated in the First Battle of Sirte against Italian naval forces.On 11 March 1942, she was torpedoed by a German U-boat off the Egyptian coast, and sank in just over twenty minutes. <mask> remained in the water for an hour and a half before being rescued by a destroyer. Having survived Naiads sinking, <mask> returned to Australia and was appointed Director of Plans at the Navy Office in July 1942. In September the following year he was made Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (DCNS) and raised to acting captain; his rank became substantive on 30 June 1944. As DCNS, he was involved in planning the post-war Navy's composition, which for the first time was to include aircraft carriers. He defined the functions of maritime power in October 1943 as:

In November 1944, <mask> was given command of the light cruiser , which had been undergoing repair and refit in Sydney since being torpedoed by a Japanese submarine in the Solomons on 20 July 1943. Dowling took her on her shakedown cruise to Melbourne on 30 December, before embarking for the South West Pacific Area in February 1945.The following month, Hobart supported the US forces that recaptured Cebu during the liberation of the Philippines. She bombarded Tarakan Island prior to the Allied invasion on 1 May and, later that month, covered the Australian 6th Division's operations at Wewak. The cruiser supported the Allied landings on Brunei in June, and on Balikpapan in July. For his "outstanding courage, skill and initiative" during these operations, <mask> was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO), gazetted on 6 November 1945. Post-war career

Dowling joined the Australian contingent at the surrender of Japan in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. Following the cessation of hostilities, Hobart became flagship of HM Australian Squadron, and Dowling flag captain and chief of staff to Commodore John Collins, the squadron commander. The war had taken a toll on Dowling's health, and he required leave before commencing his next appointment in May 1946 as Director of Ordnance, Torpedoes and Mines at the Navy Office.Rear Admiral James Goldrick, in the Australian Dictionary of Biography, observed that <mask> "was thrust into the highest positions of the RAN largely as a result of the heavy casualties of World War II". When John Armstrong—the only similarly qualified and more senior Navy captain—was pronounced unfit for seagoing duty, <mask> was given the chance to command Australia's first aircraft carrier, , commissioned in England on 16 December 1948. In April the following year, two months after the ship's belated acceptance into service due to teething troubles, Dowling embarked Sydney for Australia with two squadrons of fighters aboard. In June 1950, <mask> was promoted to commodore and appointed Second Naval Member and Chief of Naval Personnel, serving in this capacity until the end of 1952. His term coincided with the outbreak of the Korean War, and resultant increased demands on manpower. <mask> was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1953 New Year Honours, before travelling to London to attend the Imperial Defence College. Raised to rear admiral in July 1953, he returned home to take up the post of Flag Officer Commanding HM Australian Fleet that December, serving through the following year.He had  to preside over cutbacks to operations brought on by government stringency after the Korean War. On 24 February 1955, Dowling succeeded Vice Admiral Sir John Collins as First Naval Member, Australian Commonwealth Naval Board, and Chief of Naval Staff (CNS). He was promoted to vice admiral on 7 June, and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in the Queen's Birthday Honours two days later. On 15 June, he joined fellow chiefs of staff Lieutenant General Henry Wells and Air Marshal John McCauley, Prime Minister Robert Menzies, and senior government members in approving a draft directive for the role of the Far East Strategic Reserve (FESR); this made Commonwealth forces available for the fight against communist insurgents in Malaya, as well as for the security of Malaya and Singapore against external aggression. The Navy's contribution to the FESR was to be at least two destroyers or frigates on an ongoing basis, as well as a yearly visit by an aircraft carrier. The destroyers  and , already in the region on an exercise, were immediately committed, and Dowling flew to Singapore to personally announce the plan and the reasons for it to the ships' crews. Dowling was an early advocate for the establishment of an Australian submarine fleet; in 1963, after several false starts, the first of six Oberon-class submarines was ordered.As part of a general Western trend that viewed with alarm the increasing capability of the Soviet Navy's surface fleet, Dowling also worked to improve the offensive power of the Fleet Air Arm. In March 1956, he went so far as proposing purchase of nuclear weaponry for the RAN's De Havilland Sea Venoms. During much of <mask>'s remaining time as CNS, faced with the obsolescence of HMAS Sydney and in accordance with its two-carrier policy, the Navy tried unsuccessfully to acquire a new and larger aircraft carrier to augment . Believing in the maintenance of traditionally close ties between the RAN and the Royal Navy, he worked to coordinate his policies as CNS with those of Britain's First Sea Lord, Earl Mountbatten. Taking into account the provisions of the ANZUS treaty and the absence of suitable supplies from Britain, the RAN began to turn reluctantly towards the United States in terms of strategy and equipment, as Dowling explained to Mountbatten:

Other issues facing the RAN during Dowling's term as CNS were its relegation—since the beginning of the 1950s—to third place behind the other armed forces in terms of Federal budget allocations, its replacement by the RAAF as the country's first line of defence, and a shortage of manpower. Dowling himself considered "separation from families, lack of houses, over employment, high wages and overtime payment in civvie street" as the causes for the Navy's inability to attract and retain personnel; the Allison Report in 1958 led to improvements to service conditions, which helped reduce wastage. The RANC had moved to Flinders Naval Depot in 1930, and Dowling was pleased to be able to oversee its return to Jervis Bay in 1958, the year before he relocated the office of the CNS to Canberra.<mask> was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the 1957 New Year Honours, and completed his term as CNS on 23 February 1959. On 23 March he took over from Sir Henry Wells as Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC), a role foreshadowing that of the Chief of the Defence Force. He was succeeded as CNS by Vice Admiral Henry Burrell. Happily surprised by his appointment as Chairman of COSC, <mask> hoped to transform the position such that it would exercise command authority over the service chiefs, but in this he was to be disappointed. The position's rank remained the same as the heads of the Army, Navy and Air Force, and was only responsible for putting their views on military matters to the Minister for Defence. Other setbacks during his tenure included the Defence Department's decision—rescinded after his term—to disband the Fleet Air Arm, and the Federal government's failure to back him when he announced at a SEATO press conference in March 1961 that Australia was prepared to intervene militarily in the second Laotian crisis if it became necessary. In September 1959, during the first Laotian crisis, the Australian government had authorised Dowling to commit "an infantry battalion, a squadron of RAAF fighters, air transport, and two RAN destroyers" to support US and SEATO forces, but no intervention took place.Later life
<mask> retired from the military on 27 May 1961 and was succeeded as Chairman of COSC by Air Marshal Sir Frederick Scherger. Though keen to secure a diplomatic appointment, nothing was offered to him and, as a practising Anglican, he instead busied himself with church affairs in Canberra. In July 1962, the government gave him responsibility for organising Queen Elizabeth II's upcoming royal tour. In this role he was required to liaise with the state governments to plan the Queen's itinerary, and to become a member of the royal household for the duration of the tour, the first time an Australian tour planner had been given such close access to a visiting monarch. He was rewarded with appointment as a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) as of 27 March 1963, and became Australian Secretary to the Queen on 1 November the same year. <mask> was also the Australian Red Cross Society's Canberra chairman from 1962 to 1967; at the time he took over the chairmanship, Lady <mask> was acting president of the organisation, in the absence of Lady William Oliver. <mask> died of a heart attack on 15 April 1969 in Canberra Hospital.He was given a naval funeral at St John's Church, and cremated. His wife and five children survived him. Notes

References

1901 births
1969 deaths
Alumni of the Royal College of Defence Studies
Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Australian Companions of the Order of the Bath
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Australian Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order
Chairmen, Chiefs of Staff Committee (Australia)
Deputy Chiefs of Naval Staff (Australia)
Graduates of the Royal Australian Naval College
People from the Northern Rivers
Royal Australian Navy admirals
Royal Australian Navy personnel of World War II

masks:
Roy Russell Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Roy Russell
Dowling
Russell Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Dowling
Roy Dowling


texts:
<mask> (; born July 15, 1973) is an Armenian-American drummer and songwriter. He is best known as the drummer of System of a Down. <mask> is also the drummer for the band Indicator and former drummer for Scars on Broadway. <mask> ranked number 33 on Loudwire list of Top 200 Hard Rock + Metal Drummers of All Time. Early life
<mask> was born in Beirut, Lebanon, to Armenian parents. During the Lebanese Civil War, his family moved to California. <mask> first became interested in drums at the age of two.His father was a saxophone player and when his mother would take him to watch his father play, he would mimic his father's drummer. He learned to play the drums by putting on records and practicing for hours a day, and continued said practice for years. <mask> describes his musical style as one influenced by whatever he could get his hands on, including the jazz albums belonging to his father and the rock albums he shared with his friends. <mask> is a fan of The Who and cites Who drummer Keith Moon as his biggest influence. Other drummers that he cites as major influences include Led Zeppelin's <mask>, Stewart Copeland from The Police, and Rush's Neil Peart. System of a Down

<mask> joined System of a Down in 1997 after their original drummer, Ontronik "Andy" Khachaturian, left the band due to a hand injury. <mask> recorded five albums with System of a Down: System of a Down (1998), Toxicity (2001), Steal This Album!(2002), Mezmerize (2005) and Hypnotize (2005). Dolmayan won DRUM! Magazines 2006 Drummer of the year and was the feature story in their March edition. The band went on hiatus in 2006, but reunited in 2010 to occasionally tour. Scars on Broadway

After System of a Down went on hiatus in 2006 <mask> teamed up with Daron Malakian (System of a Down's guitarist/vocalist) to form a new band called Scars on Broadway, which recorded their eponymous debut album in 2007 and 2008. The album was released in the summer of 2008 and <mask>, Malakian, guitarist Franky Perez, bassist Dominic Cifarelli, and keyboardist Danny Shamoun performed concerts and prepared to embark on a tour in support of the album before Malakian suddenly cancelled the tour in October 2008. In August 2009, <mask>, Franky Perez, Danny Shamoun, and Dominic Cifarelli as Scars on Broadway traveled to Iraq for a USO tour across the U.S. army bases.Their setlist consisted of covers as well as a few Scars on Broadway songs. Scars on Broadway reunited with Malakian on May 2, 2010, and released a new single later that year. However, the project went dormant and <mask> was no longer involved when Malakian reformed the group in 2018. Other projects

<mask> recorded drums for Killing Joke's 2003 self-titled album, (although the band ended up going with Dave Grohl's tracks) as well as Scum of the Earth's debut album, Blah...Blah...Blah...Love Songs for the New Millennium. He also played drums on the Axis of Justice concert tour with various artists and on the Serj Tankian solo debut, Elect the Dead. In June 2009, <mask> formed a new rock band called Indicator with three friends from Southern California, members of the recently disbanded punk rock band If All Else Fails: Tom Capossela, Ryan Huber, and Ryan Murphy. The band played their first show at The Bitter End in San Diego on July 22, 2009, with <mask>'s fellow Scars on Broadway member Franky Perez joining the band for a few songs.Their second and final show took place at a strip club in Las Vegas. The band wrote 10-12 songs from 2009 to 2010; live and acoustic demos exist of them all. The four remain in contact although it is uncertain whether the songs will ever be properly recorded. <mask> performed with System of a Down bandmates Daron Malakian and bassist Shavo Odadjian and Scars on Broadway guitarist Franky Perez for Odadjian's Halloween show. <mask>, Malakian, and Odadjian performed together again in November 2009 during a charity show for Deftones bassist Chi Cheng. <mask> has devoted much of his life to the comic book retail industry, including launching Torpedo Comics out of Nevada. Torpedo Comics has two brick and mortar stores in addition to a significant online presence.In 2009, <mask> auditioned for The Smashing Pumpkins, in the absence of Jimmy Chamberlin. In 2014 <mask> started a Kickstarter to fund cover project, These Grey Men,. Releasing their first single, a cover of Radiohead's "Street Spirit," January 23, 2020. Avenged Sevenfold singer M. Shadows contributes vocals to the track; Tom Morello contributes the guitar solo at the song's close. The second single features System of a Down bandmate Serj Tankian in a cover of David Bowie's "Starman". Album is co-produced by James Hazley, who is also the lead guitarist on all tracks (expect Track 5, being Tom Morello). Personal life
<mask> is married to <mask>, who is the sister of Tankian's wife Angela, making them brothers-in-law.Gary Graff."<mask>'s Frustration With System of a Down Led to His New Solo Album" Feb. 27, 2020.Billboard.https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/9324365/system-of-a-down-john-dolmayan-these-grey-men-interview-premiere

On his social media accounts, Dolmayan is very politically active like his bandmates, but unlike some members of System of a Down, particularly Tankian, Dolmayan supported Donald Trump's presidency. Tankian has stated that it is "frustrating" to be politically opposite with his bandmate and brother-in-law. A long time comic book fan, Dolmayan owns a comic book shop, Torpedo Comics, in Las Vegas, Nevada. Discography

System of a Down
System of a Down (1998)
Toxicity (2001)
Steal This Album! (2002)
Mezmerize (2005)
Hypnotize (2005)

Serj Tankian
Elect the Dead (2007)

Scars on Broadway
Scars on Broadway (2008)

Axis of Justice
Concert Series Volume 1 (2004)

Scum of the Earth
Blah...Blah...Blah...Love Songs for the New Millennium (Guest Drums) (2004)

These Grey Men
These Grey Men (2020)

Equipment

<mask> uses Tama drums and hardware, Paiste cymbals, Evans Drumheads, LP percussion and his signature Vic Firth drumsticks.Drums – Tama Starclassic Bubinga
10"×8" Rack Tom
12"×9" Rack Tom
13"x10" Rack Tom
16"×14" Floor Tom
18"×16" Floor Tom
22"×18" Bass Drum
14"×6" John Dolmayan Signature SnareCymbals – Paiste
Traditionals 22" Medium Light Swish
RUDE 14" Hi-Hat
2002 6" Bell Chime
Signature 18" Fast Crash
Signature 10" Splash
Signature 8" Splash
RUDE 14" Hi-Hat
Signature 19" Full Crash
RUDE 24" Mega Power Ride
2002 24" Big Ride
2002 19" Wild ChinaSticks' – Vic Firth
John Dolmayan Signature 16" length, .580" diameter

Awards
In 2006, <mask> won Drum! Magazine's drummer of the year award. He also won the alternative rock drummer of the year award.References

External links

Stereokill Interview: May 2009
<mask> page at SOADFans
Torpedo Comics Website
<mask> page at drummerworld.com

1973 births
21st-century American drummers
Armenian rock musicians
California Republicans
System of a Down members
American heavy metal drummers
American musicians of Armenian descent
Lebanese emigrants to the United States
American experimental musicians
Alternative metal musicians
Musicians from Beirut
Living people
Progressive rock drummers
Grammy Award winners
Scum of the Earth (band) members
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
Daron Malakian and Scars on Broadway members
Nu metal drummers

masks:
John Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
John Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
John Bonham
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
John
Dolmayan
Dolmayan
Diana Dolmayan
John Dolmayan
John
John
John Dolmayan
John Dolmayan


texts:
<mask> (d. 1299 × 1300) was a thirteenth-century Scottish bishop. Probably from the MacDougall kindred of Argyll, <mask> had become a Dominican friar and presumably university graduate before being elected Bishop of Argyll, an election which took place sometime between 1262 and 1264. Although the election was quashed by the Pope in 1264, the Pope gave him a fresh provision to the bishopric. <mask> appears intermittently in the records during his three and a half decade episcopate, but his activities in his own diocese are badly recorded. He died as Bishop of Argyll sometime in either 1299 or 1300. Biography

Background
<mask> is given the cognomen <mask>rgardia in a late note written into the margins of the Chronicle of Melrose. It is simply the Latin for "of Argyll", a region encompassing (roughly) the west coast of central Scotland; it does suggest, especially if it is meant as a surname, that <mask> came from the family of the MacDougall Lords of Argyll, who used <mask> as a "surname" in the Latin documents of the period.<mask> was a Dominican friar by the time he became Bishop of Argyll in 1264, which meant he would have spent many of his earlier years abroad, and must have received a university education in the process. It is notable that during the long vacancy of the bishopric between the death of Bishop William in 1241 and the election of Bishop Alan 1248 × 1250, the bishopric was for several years under the custody of Clement, Bishop of Dunblane, himself a Dominican, the first Dominican to hold a bishopric in Scotland. This custody occurred in a period when, urged on by Bishop Clement, King <mask> of Scotland had become more assertive in the area, particularly in relation to overlordship over its MacDougall ruler, Eóghan of Argyll. The events of that decade thus may have induced Eóghan, at Clement's urging, to send a kinsman to be trained as a Dominican, and <mask> was indeed the first of three Dominican bishops of Argyll in the following century, another of whom appears to have been a MacDougall also. It might also be noted that the bishopric of Dunblane was partly dedicated to St Laurence, after whom <mask> may have been named. Bishop of Argyll

After the death of Bishop Alan in 1262, three compromissarrii (voting delegates) were selected by the cathedral chapter of the diocese of Argyll to elect a new bishop, and after the election of <mask>, the Dean of the chapter travelled to the papal curia to obtain confirmation. Pope Urban IV declared the election void on a technicality, but on 31 March 1264, issued a mandate to Gamelin, Bishop of St Andrews, and <mask> Inverkeithing, Bishop of Dunkeld, authorising them to confirm the election of <mask> to the bishopric of Argyll, and instructed them to arrange for his consecration, if they found him fit.Although it is not definitively known when <mask> was consecrated, he had received consecration by the date he is found witnessing charters of Bishop Gamelin of St Andrews at Loch Leven, namely on 20–28 June 1268. He is found at Ayr on 23 October 1269, confirming the rights of Paisley Abbey to some churches in the bishopric of Argyll; and is found at Paisley on 6 May – 9 July 1270, attaching his seal to two charters granted by a landowner from Cowal to the abbey. A papal mandate of 15 March 1273 named Bishop <mask> as one of the three bishops authorised to consecrate William Wishart as Bishop of St Andrews, though there is no direct proof he was present at the latter's consecration, which took place on 15 October, at Scone. In the summer of 1274 <mask> was one of the four bishop from the Kingdom of Scotland to attend the Second Council of Lyon, and his seal is found attached to one of the Council's acts, dated 13 July 1274. Later in the year he was chosen as a papal mandatory to help resolve a dispute between Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow, and the Glasgow cathedral chapter; at Muthill on 19 July 1275, <mask> and the other papal mandatory, <mask> Prebenda, Bishop of Dunblane, ordered the case to be heard later in that year, but details of the outcome have not survived. In 1275 he was named as one of the three bishops chosen to consecrate Archibald Herok as Bishop of Caithness, the other two being Archibald, Bishop of Moray, and <mask> Benin, Bishop of Aberdeen. Bishop <mask> is named as a papal mandatory once more on 5 April 1281, being authorised to legitimise a marriage of <mask> Abernethy to Maria, sister of <mask> of Argyll, <mask>'s probable kinsman.On 2 September 1284, he issued a charter to Paisley Abbey from Kilfinan in the diocese of Argyll; sometime between 1286 and 1292 his seal was appended to a charter issued to the same abbey by <mask>, Lord of Islay. On 3 October 1289, a papal mandate was issued to him regarding the relationship between Iona Abbey and the Bishop of the Isles, with the former seeking to be removed from the sphere of authority of the latter bishop, at that time Bishop Mark. <mask> is found among the prelates, magnates and barons of Scotland giving their assent to the Treaty of Birgham on 17 March 1290, but unlike most of Scotland's senior political figures, is not found giving King Edward I of England an oath of fealty before the Great Cause in 1291, nor at any time afterwards. He largely disappeared from the records in the 1290s, and his last known act was to send a proctor to argue on his behalf in front of a papal judge-delegate at Glasgow on 29 October 1299; he was dead by 18 December 1300, the date that the Pope provided and consecrated his successor Andrew. Notes

References
 <mask>, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History, 2 vols, (Edinburgh, 1922)
 <mask>, Alan Orr, Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, <mask> (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)
 Boardman, Stephen, The Campbells, 1250-1513, (Edinburgh, 2006)
 Cowan, Ian B. & Easson, David E., Medieval Religious Houses: Scotland With an Appendix on the Houses in the Isle of Man, Second Edition, (London, 1976)
 <mask>, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed.J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912)
 Lindsay, <mask>, Dowden, John, & Thomson, J. Maitland (eds. ), Charters, bulls and other documents relating to the Abbey of Inchaffray, chiefly from the originals in the charter chest of the Earl of Kinnoull, (Publications of the Scottish History Society ; v. 56; Edinburgh, 1908)
 Sellar, W. D. H., "MacDougall, Ewen, lord of Argyll (d. in or after 1268)", in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 , retrieved 17 Oct 2007
 Stevenson, Joseph (ed. ), Chronica de Mailros; E Codice Unico in Biblioteca Cottoniana Servato, Nunc Iterum in Lucem Edita. Notulis Indiceque Aucta., (Edinburgh, 1835)
 Turner, Dennis, "The Bishops of Argyll and the Castle of Achanduin, Lismore, AD 1180-1343", in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 128 (1998), pp. 645–53
 Watt, D. E. R., A Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Graduates to A. D. 1410, (Oxford, 1977)
 Watt, D. E. R., Fasti Ecclesiae Scotinanae Medii Aevi ad annum 1638, 2nd Draft, (St Andrews, 1969)

13th-century births
Year of death uncertain
13th-century Scottish Roman Catholic bishops
Bishops of Argyll
<mask>re, Scotland
Scottish Dominicans
Medieval Gaels from Scotland
People from Argyll and Bute

masks:
Laurence de Ergadia
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
de E
Laurence
de Ergadia
Laurence
Alexander II
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
Richard de
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
Robert de
Hugh de
Laurence
Hugh de
Alexander
Laurence
Alexander Óg
Laurence
Anderson
Anderson
Marjorie Anderson
Dowden
William Alexander
Laurence Lismo


texts:
<mask> (20 December 1915 – 21 May 1997) was an Irish politician who served as Minister for Health from 1948 to 1951 and Leader of the National Progressive Democrats from 1958 to 1963. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1948 to 1954, 1957 to 1973 and 1977 to 1982. He was a Senator for the Dublin University from 1973 to 1977. He holds the distinction of being one of only seven TDs to be appointed to the cabinet on the start of their first term in the Dáil. His controversial Mother and Child Scheme in effect brought down the First Inter-Party Government of Taoiseach John A. Costello in 1951. <mask> was a well-known, but at times highly controversial public representative, and managed to be a TD for five political parties (two of which he co-founded), as well as an independent TD. These were Clann na Poblachta (resigned), Fianna Fáil (expelled), National Progressive Democrats (co-founder), Labour Party (resigned) and the Socialist Labour Party (co-founder).Early life and career
<mask> <mask> was born in Waterford, but grew up in the Bogside area of Derry. The <mask> family also lived in Athlone and Ballinrobe for a period of time. His mother Mary Therese Cooney was born in 1885 in Hollymount, County Mayo; a plaque has been erected there in her memory. His father worked as an inspector for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and, partly as a result of this work, all of the <mask> family became infected with tuberculosis. Both parents died of the disease during the 1920s; his father was the first to die, leaving only £100 behind to support a wife and seven children. Fearing that if she and the children remained in Ireland that they would be forced into a workhouse, Mary (already by this point dying of TB) sold every possession the <mask>s' had and took the family to London, England. With two days of their arrival, Mary was dead, later buried in a pauper's grave.Of her seven children, six contracted tuberculosis. <mask> was only one of two <mask> children to survive into adulthood those bouts with TB. The only sibling who survived with him was his brother Jody, who developed both a hunchback and a cleft palate. Because of Jody's conditions, <mask> described Jody as completely unwanted by society, which led his sister to commit Jody to a workhouse. There, Jody later died on an operating table when, in <mask>'s own words, a doctor performed experimental plastic surgery on Jody. Jody too was buried in a pauper's grave. In 1929, he was admitted free of charge to St Anthony's, a preparatory school in Eastbourne, England.He then won a scholarship to Beaumont College, the Jesuit public school near Old Windsor, Berkshire, where he befriended Neville Chance, a wealthy boy from Dublin. Neville's father, the eminent surgeon Arthur Chance (son of surgeon Sir Arthur Chance), subsequently paid <mask>'s way through medical school at Trinity College Dublin. In 1940, while still a student, <mask> suffered a serious relapse of tuberculosis. His treatment at a sanatorium in Midhurst, Sussex was paid for by the Chance family. He recovered, passed his medical exams in 1942, and started his career as a medical intern at Dr Steevens' Hospital in Dublin, where he worked under Bethel Solomons He subsequently worked in numerous sanatoria throughout Ireland and England, witnessing the ravages of the disease. He soon concluded that politics was the only way in which he could make an attack on the scourge of tuberculosis. Entry into Politics
The poverty and tragedy that had shaped <mask>'s childhood deeply affected him.He considered both his survival and his level of education a complete fluke, a stroke of random chance that saved him when he was seemingly destined to die unknown and in poverty like the rest of his family. <mask> found this completely distasteful and was moved to enter politics as a means to ensure no one else would suffer the same fate that had befallen his family. <mask> joined the new Irish republican party Clann na Poblachta and was elected to Dáil Éireann for the Dublin South-East constituency at the 1948 general election. To the surprise of many, party leader Seán MacBride chose <mask> to be one of the party's two ministers in the new government. <mask> became one of the few TDs appointed a Minister on their first day in Dáil Éireann, when he was appointed Minister for Health. Minister for Health
A 'White Paper' on proposed healthcare reforms had been prepared by the previous government, and resulted in the 1947 Health Act. In February 1948, <mask> became Minister for Health and started the reforms advocated by the Paper and introduced by the Act.The health reforms coincided with the development of a new vaccine and of new drugs (e.g. BCG and penicillin) that helped to treat a previously untreatable group of medical conditions. <mask> introduced mass free screening for tuberculosis sufferers and launched a huge construction program to build new hospitals and sanitoria, financed by the income and accumulated investments from the Health Department-controlled Hospital Sweeps funds. This, along with the introduction of Streptomycin, helped dramatically reduce the incidence of tuberculosis in Ireland. As Minister for Health <mask> came into conflict with the bishops of the Catholic Church and the medical profession over the Mother and Child Scheme. This plan, also introduced by the 1947 Health Act, provided for free state-funded healthcare for all mothers and children aged under 16, with no means test, a move which was regarded as radical at the time in Ireland, but not in the rest of Europe. Virtually all doctors in private practice opposed the scheme, because it would undermine the "fee for service" model on which their income depended.The Church hierarchy, which controlled many hospitals, vigorously opposed the expansion of "socialised medicine" in the Irish republic (though they never objected to its provision via the British National Health Service in Northern Ireland). They claimed that the Mother and Child Scheme interfered with parental rights, and feared that the provision of non-religious medical advice to mothers would lead to birth control contrary to Catholic teaching. They greatly disliked <mask>, seeing him as a "Trinity Catholic" (one who had defied the Church's ruling that the faithful should not attend Trinity College Dublin, which had been founded by Protestants and for many years did not allow Catholics to study there). He was the only government Minister to attend the 1949 Church of Ireland funeral of Douglas Hyde, first President of Ireland. Under pressure from bishops, the coalition government backed away from the Mother and Child Scheme and forced <mask>'s resignation as Minister for Health. He gave his version of events in his resignation speech to the Dáil on 12 April 1951. In particular, he deplored that the government had referred his Scheme to the Church for approval, taking care to describe it to the Church as his plan and not as government policy, giving him no option but to resign as Minister.The Taoiseach, John A. Costello, immediately retorted that "I have seldom listened to a statement in which there were so many—let me say it as charitably as possible—inaccuracies, misstatements and misrepresentations", and delivered his full reply several hours later. Following his departure from government, <mask> embarrassed his opponents by arranging for The Irish Times to publish Costello's and MacBride's correspondence with the Catholic hierarchy, which detailed their capitulation to the bishops. The controversy over the Mother and Child Scheme led to the fall of the coalition government in which <mask> had served as a Minister. But Church opposition to socialised medicine continued under the subsequent Fianna Fáil-led government. The hierarchy would not accept a no-means-test mother-and-infant scheme even when Fianna Fáil reduced the age limit from sixteen years to six weeks, and the government again backed down. Later political career

After his resignation as Minister for Health, <mask> left Clann na Poblachta, but was re-elected to the Dáil as an Independent TD from Dublin South-East in the subsequent election. <mask> joined Fianna Fáil in 1953, but lost his Dáil seat at the 1954 general election and was later expelled from the party.At the 1957 general election he was re-elected for Dublin South-East as an Independent TD. In 1958, he founded the National Progressive Democrats with Jack McQuillan. <mask> held on to his seat at the 1961 general election, but in 1963, he and McQuillan joined the Labour Party, disbanding the National Progressive Democrats. However, <mask> lost his seat at the 1965 general election. He was re-elected as a Labour Party TD at the 1969 general election, again for Dublin South-East. He failed to be nominated by the Labour Party for the 1973 general election, but instead won a seat in Seanad Éireann. He remained in the Seanad until the 1977 general election, when he gained the Dublin Artane seat as an Independent Labour TD, having again failed to get the Party nomination.In 1977 <mask> was the first Irish parliamentarian to call for law reforms in regards to homosexuality (which was illegal at the time), and in 1979 was one of the few Irish politicians to attend the opening of the Hirschfeld Centre, Dublin’s first full-time LGBT community space. Upon its formation, <mask> identified with the new Socialist Labour Party and was briefly its only TD, securing election for Dublin North-Central at the 1981 general election. <mask> retired from politics at the February 1982 general election. Offer of presidential candidacy
In 1990, a number of left-wing representatives within the Labour Party, led by Michael D. Higgins, approached <mask> and suggested that he should be the party's candidate in the presidential election due later that year. Though in failing health, <mask> agreed. However, the offer horrified party leader Dick Spring and his close associates for two reasons. Firstly, the leadership had secretly decided to run Mary Robinson, a barrister and former senator.Secondly, many around Spring were "appalled" at the idea of running <mask>, believing he had "little or no respect for the party" and "was likely in any event to self-destruct as a candidate." When Spring informed <mask> by telephone that the party's Administrative Council had chosen Robinson over him, <mask> hung up the telephone. <mask> spent the remaining seven years of his life constantly criticising Robinson who had gone on to win the election, thus becoming the seventh President of Ireland, and who was considered highly popular during her term. During the campaign he also indicated support for the rival Fine Gael candidate, Austin Currie. Personality
Few figures in 20th-century Ireland were as controversial as <mask> <mask>. To his supporters he was a dynamic liberal who stood up to conservative and reactionary Catholicism. To his opponents he was an unstable, temperamental and difficult individual who was the author of most of his own misfortune.<mask> further alienated the middle ground in 1986, with the publishing of his autobiography Against the Tide which became what the Irish Times called a "publishing sensation" and sold over 80 thousand copies in short order. Historians like Dr. Ruth Barrington, who had written extensively about Irish health policy and had access to the files from the 1940s and 1950s, questioned the book's reliability. Writing a decade later, one of the chief officials of the Labour Party, Fergus Finlay, said <mask> had developed into a "bad tempered and curmudgeonly old man". Historian and political scientist Maurice Manning wrote that <mask> "had the capacity to inspire fierce loyalty, but many of those who worked with and against him over the years found him difficult, self-centred, unwilling to accept the good faith of his opponents and often profoundly unfair in his intolerance of those who disagreed with him". A riposte to these depictions appeared in 2000, based on a much earlier extensive interview with <mask>. However, some of this alleged "difficulty" arose from the fact that <mask> <mask> was deaf in one ear from an infection. After retiring from politics, <mask> moved with his wife Phyllis to Baile na hAbhann, County Galway, where he died on 21 May 1997, aged 81.Legacy
In a 2010 RTÉ public poll, he came in the top 10 of Ireland's Greatest. References

Sources
 <mask> <mask>, Against the Tide, Gill & Macmillan, . Ruth Barrington, Health, Medicine and Politics in Ireland 1900-1970, Institute of Public Administration, 1987, . Fergus Finlay, Snakes and Ladders, New Island Books, 1998, . Kurt Jacobsen, "An Interview with Dr <mask>" in Maverick Voices: Conversations wth Political and Cultural Rebels. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. Gabriel Kelly et al.(eds), Irish Social Policy in Context, UCD Press, 1999, . Maurice Manning, James Dillon: A Biography, Wolfhound Press, 2000, . Lorna Siggins, The Woman Who Took Power in the Park, Mainstream Publishing, 1997, . John Horgan, <mask> <mask>: Passionate Outsider, Gill & Macmillan, 2000, . 1915 births
1997 deaths
Labour Party (Ireland) TDs
Clann na Poblachta TDs
Fianna Fáil TDs
National Progressive Democrats TDs
Independent TDs
Members of the 13th Dáil
Members of the 14th Dáil
Members of the 16th Dáil
Members of the 17th Dáil
Members of the 19th Dáil
Members of the 13th Seanad
Members of the 21st Dáil
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Ministers for Health (Ireland)
Politicians from County Waterford
20th-century Irish medical doctors
Members of Seanad Éireann for Dublin University

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Noël Christopher Browne
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<mask> (November 27, 1884 - September 11, 1982) was a Spanish-born American artist, sculptor, and teacher known for modern sculpture in stone, metal, and wood, particularly figural works of women. His 16 ft bronze Alice in Wonderland sculpture climbing sculpture in Central Park is well known to both adults and children in New York City. He was an early adopter, and prominent exponent of the direct carving approach to sculpture. He also developed the technique of lead chasing, and was among the first to create modern sculpture from found objects. He taught at Black Mountain College, the Art Students League of New York, and the New School for Social Research. His works are in the Whitney Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art, the Smithsonian American Art Museum, and many other public and private collections. Early life
<mask> was born in Guadalajara, Spain, on November 27, 1884, to <mask> and Rosa Champane y Ortiz.Four years later the family moved to Barcelona. In 1890, when his father died leaving the family destitute, <mask>, his mother and two sisters moved in with an aunt. At six years of age, <mask> took his first job earning pennies by carrying stone and sand at the construction site of La Sagrada Familia, designed and built by the architect Antonio Gaudi. In 1895, <mask> began modeling religious figures in clay to sell at the Festival Santa Lucia, Barcelona, which he fired at home in his kiln and sold near the steps of the Cathedral of Barcelona. Two years later he began his first apprenticeship with the craftsman and imagier, Barnadas who carved religious figures in wood. A year later, he was apprenticed at the Artistic Foundry of Masriera & Campins, under the sculptor Mariano Benlliure, followed by studies with Manolo Hugué. In 1900, <mask> moved to Madrid and studied in the workshop of Don Augustin Querol Subirats, Official Sculptor of Spain.This was <mask>'s first experience with stone carving. He also studied drawing with Rafael Hidalgo and Gutierrez <mask>edes, and sculpture with Ignacio Zuloaga. The following year he worked as a draftsman for the Madrid Administration of Bridges and Roads, where he learned perspective and precision drawing. In 1902, he opened his first studio with a friend on "Calle Españoletto". At this time he observed the art work of a group of Eskimos (Inuit) in El Retiro Park which had a profound impact on his developing aesthetic. “The Eskimos impressed me with their simplicity and their directness of expression. With tiny pieces of ivory they made monumental sculptures that had strength, power and serenity, though they were less than hand-sized.” A year later, his first exhibition of portraits of children in clay and plaster was held at El Circulo de Bellas Artes in Madrid.In 1905, he moved to Paris. Upon the recommendation of Ignacio Zuloaga, and with the concurrence of Rodin, he entered the Académie Julian where he studied for two years. He opened his first studio at 14 rue Chamberry before establishing a second studio at the Bateau Lavoir in Montmartre, where he interacted with Pablo Picasso, Juan Gris, Manolo, and Pablo Gargallo, who also had studios there. During this period, <mask> befriended the artist <mask>. <mask> was awarded the Grand Prix in the 1906 Concours de Sculpture exhibition at the Académie Julian for his piece in clay, "Torso," which was the first recognition he had ever received for his work. After a time in Spain, he returned to Paris in 1909, where he exhibited for the first time at the Salon de la Société des Artistes Français, showing a bronze head of a man and a plaster bust of a child. From 1909 to 1928 he exhibited periodically at the Société des Artistes Français, Société d’Encouragement Aux Artes, Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, Salon d’Automne, Salon des Artes, Salon des Tuileries, Salon des Artes Indépendents, Exposición de Bellas Artes, Salon des Humoristes, and the Exposición de Artes Decorativas y Industriales Modernas.From 1911 to 1914 he was employed at the workshop of La Maison Greber, learning traditional techniques of reproducing sculpture in stone with pointing machines known as "mise aux point". In 1915, he eschewed the purely classical methods of sculpture which consisted of copying from plaster models and enlarging with a pointing machine. He began using the technique of "taille directe", or direct carving. He referred to this method of carving as “pure sculpture.” Inspired by modernism, <mask>ft destroyed all his previous casts, molds, and clay pieces. When he had destroyed all but two pieces, his friend <mask> Diego came to visit him. They took the remaining two sculptures outside to the traffic circle surrounding the Arc de Triomphe and placed bets on which car would hit which sculpture. De Creeft completed Barbare, his first direct sculpture in wood in 1915.The next year he produced a red granite head, his first in stone, and displayed it at the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts. He also completed his first portrait carved directly from life, Enigma, in Black Belgium Marble. The following year he taught his first group of private students from Mexico and South America. At the conclusion of World War I, there was a demand for artistic tributes to the heroes of the war, and in 1918, he was awarded a commission to carve a seven-foot granite war memorial of a French Infantryman. This sculpture, Le Poilu in Saugues (Puy-de-Dome), stands on a ten-foot base in the town square. He completed this work in 1921, and as a result was elected Officier de I’Instruction Publique, Paris. This led to his execution of twenty-one drawings for Twenty-one Meditations, a book by Albert Rid.In 1924, <mask>ft developed the process of chased lead, the first of several original techniques he employed. After casting the large, rough forms, he hammered, carved and incised the lead with typical chasing tools used in foundries for finishing work. Examples of sculptures made with this technique included Portrait of César Vallejo and Orchidia. Both works, made in 1924, featured solid forms with open spaces. At that time no other artists attempted to use this technique. In 1925, <mask> developed another new technique, now known as found object, or assemblage art, when he was asked to create a piece for the Gran Bal Español by the world-famous flamenco dancer <mask>. At the time, <mask> was bedridden with fever and flu.Upon being told the piece must be ready in days, <mask> dismantled his stove to create Le Picador, an eight-foot figure on horseback. Adding used tire tubes to depict the horse's intestines protruding from its belly, <mask>ft paraded his piece through the streets of Paris to great acclaim and the event received worldwide press coverage. It was the first time an artist turned scrap metal into sculpture. The inspiration for this piece came from his youth, when <mask> witnessed the mistreatment of horses. A relative took him behind the scenes at the bullfight arena where he saw people putting the intestines back in the horses, sewing them up with straw and sending them back to the bullfight. Le Picador was displayed at the Société des Artistes Independants the following year. It was at that time he met <mask>, who became his student in direct carving.Upon seeing <mask>'s mechanical toys, <mask> encouraged him to display them. <mask> put his Circus together for the first time in <mask>'s studio where he showed it to other artists. Later, <mask> and <mask> became lifelong friends after <mask> and his family moved to the United States. In 1927, <mask> moved to Mallorca, Spain, when he was commissioned by the painter, Roberto Ramonge to create sculptures for his fourteenth-century fortress, La Fortaleza. Granted complete artistic freedom, he undertook the work with such vigor and enthusiasm that in eighteen months he carved more than two hundred pieces in stone. While maintaining his residence in Mallorca he exhibited in Paris, and visited there periodically during the following year. Emigration to the United States

In 1929, <mask> married an American, Alice Robertson Carr, in London.She had been one of his private students in Paris. While in Paris, Alice Carr also studied etching with <mask>'s friend Stanley W. Hayter. Later, she became well known for her bronze portraits of show and race horses. Alice Carr and <mask> <mask> traveled to the United States in June, 1929. This was <mask>'s first trip to America, and the newly married couple stayed with Alice's father. In July, <mask> held his first solo exhibition in the United States at The Art Institute of Seattle, Washington State. The couple settled in New York City in September and <mask> established a studio at 1 Washington Square.In December, he had his first solo exhibition at the Ferargil Galleries in New York City which was to be his home for the next 54 years. Among the sculptures were The Portrait of Cesar Vallejo in chased lead, and The Silver Fox made of found materials. His second exhibit at the Ferargil Galleries in September, coincided with the stock market crash and as an unfortunate consequence, no sales resulted from the exhibition. In 1930, he took a studio at 22 Minetta Lane, and a residence at 1 Washington Place, in Greenwich Village. While in New York, he continued to innovate and developed a technique known as "Beaten Lead" which involved the creation of three-dimensional sculptures from one-quarter inch thick sheets of lead. His process involved suspending a lead sheet from the ceiling with clamps, and using ball peen hammers to work both sides of the sheet simultaneously. During this year he also created his first beaten lead portrait from life, Portrait of Jolas, and had solo exhibitions at the Arts Club of Chicago, and the 56th Street Gallery in New York City.1931, he traveled to Paris, and later returned to Mallorca, where he completed a life-size portrait bust of <mask> in beaten lead (collection of The Museum of the City of New York) that was exhibited at the opening of Lawrence's play, Can a Leopard? Throughout the 1930s, the family spent periods of time in France and Spain. Their son, William, was born in Paris in 1932. In the summer of 1932, <mask> took a group of American students to Mallorca, where he had a solo exhibition at the Galleria Costa Palma. In 1932, <mask> was also offered a position teaching sculpture at The New School for Social Research in New York, which he accepted. His first comprehensive exhibition was held at The New School that year. Alice gave birth to their daughter, Nina, in 1933.In 1936, while the <mask>fts were living in Mallorca, the Spanish Civil War erupted in Pollensa. The Fortaleza was bombed, damaging many of <mask>ft's sculptures. The family was separated. He was forced to flee, while Alice Carr <mask> and their two children were evacuated separately on an American ship. Upon his return to America, <mask> established himself in New York City, and that year became a founding member of the American Artists' Congress. He joined the Georgette Passedoit Gallery in New York City, where his first show included sculpture and watercolors of Mallorca and Connecticut. From 1936 to 1948, <mask> had eleven solo exhibitions at the Passedoit Gallery.In 1936, he took a group of students to Paris for instruction during the summer. Santa Barbara, California became his home for three months during 1937 while he visited his wife and children. During that stay trip he exhibited watercolors and sculpture at the Faulkner Memorial Art Gallery, Santa Barbara, California. In 1938 he became a founding member of the Sculptors Guild, an exhibiting group based in New York City. He and Alice Carr <mask>ft divorced in February 1939, and he relocated his studio to 218 Greene Street, New York. Eva Campos, one of <mask>reeft's private students, introduced her husband, Jules, to <mask>reeft. Jules Campos taught <mask>ft fencing, which they enjoyed together, and they became close friends.In 1940, at Campos’ urging, <mask> became a U.S. citizen. In 1945, Jules Campos wrote the book, The Sculpture of <mask> de Creeft (© 1945, 1972 Jules Campos, Kennedy Graphics, Da Capo Press Inc. NYC 1972). As war came to Spain and then the rest of Europe in the 1930s, many artists emigrated to the United States, and <mask> was reconnected with a number of his artist friends from Spain, including Esteban Vicente, Luis Quintanilla Isasi, Salvador Dalí. In 1940, <mask> resigned from the Artist's Congress due to its unquestioning support of the Soviet Union, and he formed the alternative Federation of Modern Painters and Sculptors. In 1940 and 1941, <mask> was a resident at the Yaddo Art colony in Saratoga Springs, New York. While there he became friends with Eudora Welty, who wrote an article about <mask>ft in 1944, in the Magazine of Art. In 1944, <mask> taught in the notable summer program at Black Mountain College, North Carolina.During that term, he met his future wife, Lorrie Goulet, of Los Angeles, CA. who was studying there. They were married the following November in a ceremony performed by Society of Ethical Culture. While at Black Mountain College, <mask> met the director and artist <mask>, his wife Annie and the architect Walter Gropius (all formerly of the Bauhaus school) as well as the Spanish architect <mask> Lluis Sert and the French artists Jean Charlot and Amédée Ozenfant. That same year he began teaching at The Art Students' League, was elected to Board of Directors of the Society of Independent Artists and had a solo exhibition at the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia. In 1946, <mask> and Goulet purchased a

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José Mariano de Creeft
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Mariano de Creeft y Masdeu
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Mateo Hernandez
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Vicente Escudero
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Alexander Calder
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José de
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Gertrude Lawrence
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Joseph Albers
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