texts: Lieutenant and drill instructor in the 3rd company. He participated in the First Battle of Bull Run while being assigned to the 1st company as part of the 4th Brigade of Colonel Jubal Early in the Army of the Potomac, and served as volunteer aide to his battalion commander Major <mask>. Walton. Dearing was promoted to 1st Lieutenant in July 1861; and to captain in April 1862 when he became commander of the reorganized Lynchburg ("Latham´s") Battery.<mask>'s (Virginia) Battery was attached to George E. Pickett's Brigade and supported it in the Peninsular Campaign, where Dearing was highly praised by Lieutenant General <mask>, and in the Second Battle of Bull Run. When Pickett was elevated to division command in Longstreet's First Corps in September <mask>'s battery was assigned to the division and fought in the Battle of Fredericksburg. Captain <mask> was promoted to Major in early 1863, and was appointed Chief of Artillery in Pickett's Division. In April his battalion - made up of the batteries of Captains Stribling ("Fauquier"), Caskie ("Hampden"), Macon ("Richmond Fayette") and Blount (Dearing's old Lynchburg) - was officially organized as 38th Battalion, Virginia Light Artillery. He led his unit with the division into Longstreet's Tidewater Operations and the Siege of Suffolk. At the Battle of Gettysburg Dearing's Battalion was in camp near Chambersburg and marched on morning of July 2. While his men were on the march Major <mask> rode ahead to the battlefield and offered his services to Lieutenant Colonel E. Porter Alexander of the corps reserve artillery.Alexander, who's battalion supported the division of

masks:
James B
Dearing
James Longstreet
Dearing
Dearing
Dearing


type: original

texts: Major General Lafayette McLaws in its assault of the Peach Orchard, gave <mask> the command of two of his batteries. Those batteries, Jordan's "Bedford" and Woolfolk's "Ashland", were on the right of Alexander's line; and participated in the charge of Barksdale and Kershaw. On July 3 <mask>'s battalion took part in the massive artillery barrage prior to Pickett's Charge, positioned right in the center supporting Pickett's division. Inflicting heavy damage Dearing's batteries suffered from counter-battery fire, but stayed in position and was reinforced by numerous guns and sections on Col. Alexander's orders. After the initial charge Dearing's guns supported the advance of Anderson's brigades and put shell against the counterattack of George Stannard's 2nd Vermont Brigade, wounding the later. Afterwards of Gettysburg Pickett was assigned to command the Department of Southern Virginia and North Carolina; and <mask> went with him. When Pickett needed a mounted force for his operations he selected Major <mask> to command it, and <mask> gathered some 200 men for a provisional battalion.On January 12, 1864, a new cavalry regiment was proposed for service with Pickett, and he recommended Dearing as the commanding officer. Secretary of war <mask>. Seddon approved it the next day and <mask>, officially a Lieutenant Colonel of artillery, was promoted to provisional Colonel of cavalry. His regiment, known as 8th Confederate  (or simply "Dearing´s Confederate") Cavalry, was composed of the former 12th North Carolina Cavalry Battalion and several other companies, as well as a battery of light artillery. In April 1864, while

masks:
Dearing
Dearing
Dearing
Dearing
Dearing
James A
Dearing


texts: <mask> participated in the operations again New Bern and Plymouth, he was ordered back to the Army of Northern Virginia with his official rank of Lieutenant Colonel; to take command of its horse artillery. Virtually at the same time the opening phases of the Siege of Petersburg changed Colonel <mask>'s service branch again. On April 29, 1864, he was slated for promotion to brigadier general; and though his promotion was not approved by the Congress of the Confederate States he served with that rank as commander of a cavalry brigade. Still in the Department of Southern Virginia and North Carolina, now under command of P.G.T.Beauregard, <mask> and his confederate brigade (with its own artillery) served as scout and fire brigade. In July <mask> was given a command in the ANV again, serving in the cavalry division of Major General W.H.F. "Rooney" Lee. His new brigade consisted of the 8th Georgia, 4th and 65th North Carolina cavalry regiments as well as the 16th North Carolina Battalion; later changed included the addition of the 7th Confederate Cavalry. He was falsely reported to be killed in the Battle of Boydton Plank Road. When Beauregard gained command of the Department of the West in winter 1864 he recommended Dearing for a division command, but his recommendation was not followed. During the Appomattox Campaign <mask> was given another brigade in the division of his old friend and West Point classmate Major General Thomas L. Rosser, composed of the 7th, 11th and 12 Virginia Cavalry regiments and the 35th Virginia Battalion.At the Battle of High Bridge on April 6, 1865, <mask> and his cavalry clashed with a union

masks: Dearing Dearing Dearing Dearing Dearing Dearing


texts:
 force of infantry and cavalry. He fought a close range pistol duel with the union commanders, Colonels Theodore Read and Francis Washburn. Read was killed on the spot, supposedly by Dearing. While Washburn was mortally wounded by a bullet through the mouth <mask> was mortally wounded himself when he was shot through the lungs, and he was taken prisoner. Brought to Lynchburg's old city hotel (christened "Ladies´ Relief Hospital"), on April 13 he was visited and paroled by his old West Point classmate, Brigadier General Ranald S. Mackenzie, then commanding in Lynchburg. <mask> died on April 22 (like Colonel Washburn), and is buried in Spring Hill Cemetery. See also

 List of American Civil War generals (Acting Confederate)

Notes

References
 War Department; The War of the Rebellion : a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies., Series I; Washington, D.C.; 1881-1901
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands.Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 Krick, Robert K. "<mask>." In The Confederate General, vol. 2, edited by William C. Davis and Julie Hoffman. Harrisburg, PA: National Historical Society, 1991. .
 Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts On File, 1988. .
 Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders.Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. . External links

1840 births
1865 deaths
Confederate States Army generals
People from Campbell County, Virginia
People of Virginia in the American Civil War
Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War
United States Military

masks:
Dearing
Dearing
James Dearing


texts:
<mask> (3 March 1909 – 15 July 1987) was a Polish soil scientist, agrophysicist, agronomist, academic, and professor at several Warsaw- and Lublin-based universities. As the Rector of the Lublin Higher School of Agriculture, he led the formation of the first Chair of Soil Science in Poland. <mask> was a pioneer of agrophysics in Poland, a founder and long-time director of the Institute of Agrophysics in Lublin, and the Polish Journal of Soil Science. He is a co-author of the official Table of Land Classes and criteria for valorisation of agricultural production areas. He was awarded a number of prizes and medals including The Commander's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta. Life and education
<mask> was born in Strutynka (), a village in the district of Ananiv Raion, in the province of Odessa Oblast, Ukraine. He was the son of <mask> and Zofia née Mianowska.His father was a property administrator. In 1922, he moved to Poland and settled in Puławy with his mother. His father died of typhus during the move. In 1929, after finishing high school in Puławy, he started his studies at the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry in Lviv Polytechnic (at the time, Lviv was part of Poland, nowadays it is in Ukraine). In 1933, after graduating, he worked as an agricultural instructor in the Lviv Agricultural Office. At the same time, he held a position as an assistant in the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Lviv Polytechnic, then headed by Arkadiusz Musierowicz, with headquarters in Dubliany near Lviv. In 1939, he obtained a PhD in Agricultural Science.That same year, after the invasion of the Red Army into Eastern Poland, he decided to remain at the university as a docent. In 1941, after the occupation of Lviv by the Nazi army, he moved to Podolia, where he worked in one of the forestry districts. At the end of 1944 he got employed by the Agricultural Office in Rzeszów, where he organized agricultural courses. After the war, Dobrzański

masks:
Bohdan Dobrzański
Dobrzański
Bohdan Dobrzański
Stanisław Dobrzański


texts: moved to Warsaw where he became an adjunct in the Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Around that time, he often traveled to Rzeszów, where from 1945 he was the director of the Agricultural Office. In 1946, after moving Prof. Jan Tomaszewski to Wrocław, to the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University (UMCS) in Lublin, the head position of the Department of Soil Science at the Faculty of Agriculture had become vacant. Dobrzański took it as assistant professor.At the same time, he became the curator of the Department of Plant Fertilization and Nutrition; he held this position until 1949. In 1949 he presented his habilitation thesis about loess soils of the northern edge of Podolia and their properties, and became doctor habilitatus. In 1951 he became an associate professor, and in 1956 full-time professor. In 1955 he joined the organization of the Lublin Higher School of Agriculture, which was established from the Faculty of Agriculture, Veterinary and Zootechnic UMCS (nowadays University of Life Sciences in Lublin). For the next four years he was the rector there. In 1955 he led the establishment of the first Chair of Soil Science in Poland, at the Faculty of Biology and Earth Sciences of the Lublin Higher School of Agriculture. Dobrzański also created and managed the Laboratory of Soil Science at the Institute for Land Reclamation and Grassland Farming in Lublin.From 1957 until 1962, he was the deputy secretary of Division 5 of the Polish Academy of Sciences. In 1960 he became a correspondent member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and in 1969 a full member. In 1968 <mask> initiated the founding of the Institute of Agrophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Lublin, where he served as director till 1980. There he created a new research field: the physics of plants and crops. In 1969, he was honored with the title of doctor honoris causa (honorary doctor) of the Lublin Higher School of Agriculture. In the same year, he became secretary general of


texts:
 the Polish Academy of Sciences and head of the Department of Soil Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Because of that he moved to Warsaw.In 1970 the Department became the Institute of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry; Dobrzański directed it until 1979. In 1980 he became the honorary doctor of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, and six years later of the Academy of Agriculture and Technology in Olsztyn. Dobrzański was also an honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the USSR and the Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the GDR. <mask> died on July 15, 1987, in Warsaw and was buried in the Powązki Cemetery. <mask> was the author or co-author of over 350 publications, including over 160 research papers. They were mainly about the genesis and evolution of soil, as well as human influences on their properties. He also dealt with soil cartography and co-authored every major cartographic study that appeared in Poland from 1949 to 1987.In 1968 he established the Polish Journal of Soil Science and managed it until 1987. He was also the co-author of the official Table of Land Classes and developed criteria for valorisation of agricultural production areas, which led to the creation of soil agricultural maps at various scales. Awards and decorations
 Award of the Scientific Secretary of the Polish Academy of Sciences
 Award of the Minister of Science and Higher Education
 Order of the Banner of Work
 The Knight's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
 The Commander's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta

References

1909 births
Polish soil scientists
20th-century Polish scientists
Lviv Polytechnic alumni
Members of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Order of the Banner of Work
Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1944–1989)
Knights of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Commanders of the Order of Polonia Restituta
1987 deaths
Burials at Powązki

masks:
Dobrzański
Work Dobrzański


texts:
<mask> (born February 21, 1960), more commonly known as <mask>, is a Filipino lawyer and politician who is currently the Representative of the 1st Legislative District of Bohol since 2019. He previously served in that position from 2001 to 2010. He was also Governor of the Province of Bohol for three terms from 2010 to 2019. Biography and career
<mask>, nicknamed <mask> or Eddie, was born on February 21, 1960 in Malate, Manila, Philippines. He is the son of the late <mask>. A consistent honor student, he finished both his elementary and secondary education at the Divine Word College of Tagbilaran (now Holy Name University), in 1973 and 1979 respectively. He finished  Bachelor in Economics at the University of the Philippines School of Economics in Diliman, Quezon City in April 1981.He attended the Ateneo de Manila University for his Bachelor in Laws (1984–1988) and graduated at the Holy Name University in 1988. He finished his Masters in Government Management at the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila Graduate School of Business and Management as a DILG-LGA scholar in April 1998. In 1991, he finished the Local Administration and Development Course at the University of the Philippines. He also attended the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in Massachusetts, U.S. in 1999. <mask> was faculty member of the Divine Word College of Tagbilaran from 1981 to 1982. He is married to Maria Pureza <mask> (nee Veloso) with whom he has one daughter, Esther Patrisha Veloso <mask>. Chatto, with Call Sign DW7BDC, holds a Technician Class Amateur Radio License.Political career
He started his political career as board member of the Province of Bohol representing the youth sector when he served as president of the Kabataang Barangay from 1980 to 1986. In 1988, he was elected  as municipal mayor of the municipality of Balilihan, Bohol and served until 1995. He became Vice Governor of the province of Bohol and served as vice governor from 1995

masks:
Edgardo Migriño Chatto
Edgar Chatto
Edgardo Migriño Chatto
Edgar
Eladio Chattogriño Chatto
Chatto
Chatto
Chatto


texts:
 - 2001. From 2001 up to 2010, he was a member of the House of Representatives as representative of the first district of Bohol. In the May 10, 2010 elections, he won as the 25th Governor of the Province of Bohol, Philippines. Committee Membership
As a congressman from 2001 to 2010, <mask> was the Chairman of the House Committee on Tourism and Senior Vice Chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture, Food and Fisheries. He also had memberships in the House Committees on Accounts; Basic Education and Culture; Ethics; Foreign Affairs; Games and Amusement; Higher and Technical Education; Labor and Employment; Legislative Franchises; Local Government; Public Works and Highways; Revision of Laws; Ways and Means; and Justice.Since 2019, he is the current Chairman of the House Committee on Climate Change and Vice Chairman of the House Special Committee on Persons with Disabilities, and on Tourism. He is also a member for the majority in the House Committee on Economic Affairs. Awards
 National Centennial Lingkod Bayan Awardee for Outstanding Work Performance (2000) - Civil Service Commission
 National Dangal Ng Bayan Award (2011) - Civil Service Commission
 Doña Aurora Aragon Quezon Award for Highly Distinguished Leadership in Promoting Humanitarian Objectives (1997) - Philippine National Red Cross
 One of the Ten Outstanding Boholanos Around the World (1998) - Confederation of Boholanos in the USA and Canada and the First Consolidated Bank
 Most Outstanding Vice Governor of the Philippines (1997) - League of Vice Governors of the Philippines
 Most Outstanding Mayor of the Philippines (1991)
 National Presidential Leadership Award for Outstanding Youth Leaders (1985) - Parangal sa Pamumuno
 Most Outstanding Alumnus for  Government Service (1996) - Ship for Southeast Asian Youth Program (SSEAYP)
 Lesage Award, Most Outstanding Alumnus for Government Service (1997) -  Holy Name University (formerly Divine Word College of Tagbilaran)
 Most Outstanding


texts:
 Youth Leader of Bohol - Philippine National Red Cross
 Leadership Awards from different institutions:
 Holy Name University
 Gerry Roxas Foundation
 Science Foundation of the Philippines
 Kabataang Barangay
 Local Admin. & Dev’t Program Alumni Association of the Philippines
 National And Regional Recognitions by:
 National Gold HAMIS Award (Health and Management Information System)
 Galing Pook Award
 Clean and Green Contest

References

*Curriculum vitae Congressman <mask> M. Chatto
Personal Information
Political Information

Further reading
 List of House Bills authored by Congressman <mask>tto
 House Bills Download Center
 House Committee Meetings
 Chatto: “Pretty boy” of honesty, sincerity Bohol Sunday Post 17 January 2007. Dwight Ebojo. Livestock auction center can spur development - Chatto Bohol Sunday Post. 2 April 2006.Die-hard supporters of <mask> strike back The Bohol Times. January 8, 2007
 Ric V. Obedencio <mask>'s supporters strike back The Bohol Chronicle. January 21, 2007
 Impeachment 2006: How they voted GMA News. 24 August 2006. House Resolution 593 ASEM ASEAN 2005. 16 February 2005. GMA would depend on Divine wisdom in carrying out her program for the next 6 years Office of the Press Secretary.3 July 2004
 Ben Cal. How to combat poverty, rebellion The Manila Times. December 4, 2006. CPG honored at 110th b-day VGO News November 5, 2006
 Avigail Olarte Impeachment 2005 - 2006: How the congressmen voted Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. 24 August 2006. External links
<mask>tto Official Website
Makati Business Club Congress Watch

1960 births
Living people
Governors of Bohol
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila alumni
Members of the House of Representatives of the Philippines from Bohol
Members of the Bohol Provincial Board
Mayors of places in Bohol
People from Malate, Manila
People from Bohol
Boholano people
University of the Philippines Diliman alumni
Ateneo de Manila University

masks:
Edgardo
Edgar Cha
Chatto
Chatto
Edgar Cha


texts:
<mask> (21 January 1898 — 2 June 1974) was an American ballet, vaudeville, and jazz dancer, as well as a choreographer and pioneering jazz critic. He formed the first extensive collection of photographic portraits of Vaslav Nijinsky. Self-taught, his original thinking contributed to the understanding of the relationship of jazz to classical music and to dance. He endeavored to break down barriers between jazz and other 'serious' art forms and build the respect it deserved. <mask>’s taste in jazz was formed in 1924, initially from listening to recordings of Fletcher Henderson and others, then refined when Miguel Covarrubias, newly arrived from Mexico and already ensconced in the Harlem Renaissance, introduced <mask> to recordings of Bessie Smith. Jazz inspired <mask> to crystalize a unique style of white American dance, whereupon he choreographed dances to Duke Ellington's recordings with James "Bubber" Miley among others. For years, he performed these pieces in multiple locations in New York, brought a dance trio to perform in Paris, and filmed several of these numbers years later, c1937.His performance career ended in 1942 due to a back injury. Early life

<mask> was born in Paris during one of the family’s extended sojourns. His father, American muralist William de Leftwich <mask>, a first place laureate of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, would visit to paint and exhibit at the Salon, often residing in Giverny. Upon their return, <mask> spent his childhood in Setauket, near Stony Brook on Long Island. He attended the Phillips Brooks School in Philadelphia, followed by The Pennington School in New Jersey, but quit before graduating. Later the family moved to Greenwich Village. Dance

Education

In 1916, <mask>’s Ritz-Carlton ballroom social dance partner introduced him to ballet—Les Ballets Russes starring

masks:
Roger Pryor Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge


texts:
 Vaslav Nijinsky.This pivotal experience inspired <mask> to study classical ballet, attend performances of and study with Fokine and Fokina in 1919-1920, experience the Isadora Duncan Dancers (“Isadorables”), and shortly thereafter, to leave for Paris to continue his ballet studies with Nikolai Legat, one of Nijinsky's teachers, Lyubov Yegorova, who had partnered with Nijinsky, and Léo Staats, the maître de ballet at the Paris Opera. Upon his return to New York in 1921, <mask> continued studying with Michel Fokine (1922). His desire to explore dance expression beyond ballet inspired him in 1922 to study eurhythmics at the Dalcroze School, Isadora Duncan technique with Elise Dufour, and modern dance with Michio Itō. Nijinsky photographs

Nijinsky’s career ended in 1917. As he had never been filmed, <mask> realized that the only available means to experience Nijinsky’s greatness would be through photography. While in Paris taking ballet lessons and with the foresight to preserve a photographic record, <mask> proceeded to order prints from the photographers who had taken studio portraits of Nijinsky in his various roles. At times skipping meals to afford them, he assembled the most comprehensive collection of photographic images of Vaslav Nijinsky.By 1937 memory of Nijinsky had faded, prompting <mask> to help revive interest by donating his collection to the Dance Collection of the New York Public Library. Practically every book on Nijinsky has borrowed from the <mask> collection, beginning in 1934 with Nijinsky by his wife Romola.After <mask>'s numerous failed attempts to publish a book of his entire collection, in 1975 Lincoln Kirstein produced Nijinsky Dancing, drawing from half of <mask>’s collection. Under Acknowledgements, Lincoln Kirstein writes:

Kirstein comments on viewing <mask>'s performance to

masks: Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge


texts:
 Ellington's "Black and Tan Fantasy" in 1935:

Dance partners (selection)
<mask> created his earliest choreography in 1922 for all-male ensembles. In 1930, <mask> formed a male trio with Jack Nile, and Arthur Mahoney who he had met during their engagements at the Metropolitan Opera House. The same year, <mask> met Mura Dehn, a recent Russian émigré, when they each presented their jazz dance numbers in the Billy Rose Show “Sweet and Low.” As Dehn states, their pieces were “A daring jump into the Modern-Grotesque for the producer: a first such experiment in a commercial musical.”

They formed a professional dance relationship and appeared in each other’s choreography. <mask> filmed their dances c1937. They frequented the Harlem and Savoy Ballrooms, “and always had tumultuous discussions about art, dance, theatre, comedy.He rarely accepted other people’s understanding of his theories, even if they repeated them ‘verbatim’. He suspected it to be a superficial echo, rather than an inner experience.<mask> was instrumental in Dehn’s appreciation of the importance of film for dance. Dance performances (selection)

Films (selection)
<mask> opened a studio at 52 E. 8th Street mid-1930s where he filmed dancers: "See Yourself As Others See You...Have Your Act or Dance Filmed"

<mask> filmed a number of his dances with Mura Dehn and other partners. Video transfers are available in the Dance Division of the New York Public Library. (see also External links)

Roger Pryor Dodge Archive: films of Léo Staats, Nikolai Legat, Léonide Massine, Maria-Theresa Kruger (Duncan), Elise Dufour, Arthur Mahoney, Jack Nile, Alfred Leagins, Anita Avila, Susan Remos, Joe Frisco, Bill Matons and others

A Day in the Life of a Ballerina, about Lisa Parnova by <mask>, 1937

Bunk Johnson, Mrs. Johnson, and William Russell in Washington Square

masks:
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
” Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge


texts:
 Park, New York, 1946 (silent film)

In a Jazz Way: Portrait of Mura Dehn, by Louise Ghertler and Pamela Katz, 1987, includes <mask>'s color film with Dehn dancing to Ellington's "The Mooche" (1937)

Teaching

Modern jazz dance
Chester Hale School, New York 1935
De Revuelta Dance Studio, New York 1941
Fred Le Quorne Studio, New York 1942

Tap dance
Private studio, 52 East 8th Street, New York

Writing

Jazz

Enthusiastic reception of "Rhapsody in Blue" in 1924 prompted <mask> to attend its second New York performance at Carnegie Hall. In his first article, “Negro Jazz,” a response to reviews at the time, <mask> argued that "the word 'jazz' is being used too loosely and too indiscriminately by persons who have little perception of the true nature of the embryonic form now developing amongst us," and that “Gershwin selected that stalest of decadent forms the rhapsody; an episodic form that allows the furthest possible departure from the logical carrying to completion to a single musical idea, and hence, probably the form more remote from the genuine jazz ideal than any other.”

In response to the great importance accorded written jazz, either composed or arranged, in 1934 Dodge offered an appreciation of the improvised solo in "Harpsichords and Jazz Trumpets." He maintained that “improvisation is absolutely imperative to the development of an art form such as music and dancing,” and referring to contemporary evidence from 1639 for support, he quoted André Maugars’ experience in Rome:

André Maugars:

To illustrate the potential for the future of jazz, Dodge asserted that “jazz has reached the highest development of any folk music since the early Christian hymns and dances grew into the most developed contrapuntal music known to history.” Considering current taste, he added, “When I hear an early record of

masks: Dodge Dodge Dodge


texts:
 Bessie Smith and then listen to a Cab Calloway and see how much more the Negro now enjoys the latter, I realize that the blues have been superseded and white decadence has once more ironed out and sweetened a vital art.”

Classical music
In response to the vital swing Dodge felt missing in interpretations of Baroque music during its early-to-mid 20th century revival, and in an effort to identify a reliable common style element applicable to various period genres, in 1955 he
published “The Importance of Dance Style in the Presentation of Early Western Instrumental Music.” (view article at External links)

Articles on jazz (selection)
1929 Negro Jazz.London:The Dancing Times (October) (written in 1925, titled Jazz Contra Whiteman)

1934 Harpsichords and Jazz Trumpets. Harvard:Hound & Horn (July-September)

1936 Negro Jazz as Folk Material for Our Modern Dance. New York:National Dance Congress (May)(proceedings: Cambridge University Press)

1939 Consider the Critics (chapter). Jazzmen, ed. Frederic Ramsey, Jr., Charles Edward Smith, New York:Harcourt Brace and Co. "Perhaps the most interesting part of all is the last chapter, in which <mask> <mask> dissects the past sins of a number of jazz critics, and succeeds in establishing, if not a set of standards, at least a good critical attitude." 1941 Bubber. New York: H.R.S.Society Rag (October) "...one of the greatest artists of our time. He was a musician packed with half-formed ideas for written composition." 1942 Jazz in the Twenties. New York:JAZZ (July)

1943 Duke Ellington. New York:JAZZ (January)
Correspondence on Lu Watters. New York:JAZZ (May)
Louis Armstrong. New York:JAZZ (December)

1944 Jazz Critic Looks at Anthropologist (Ernest Borneman).New York:The Record Changer (October)

1945 The Dance-Basis of Jazz. New York:The Record Changer (March &

masks:
Roger Pryor
Dodge


texts:
 April)
Categorical Terms in Jazz: Improvisation versus Arranged Jazz. New York:The Record Changer (June) "Armstrong sells very good. Maybe he went a little commercial in order to do so. But what do we mean by 'going commercial'? It is very possible that the change in Armstrong's playing made him sell well, or will it be said that in order to sell well he changed, then it is 'going commercial,' but if one changes with none but a musical motive and because of it sells well, I cannot see that we are justified in calling that person commercial." 1946 The Psychology of the Hot Solo.London:Jazz Forum I (May or June)
Attitude Towards Early and Late Jazz. New York:The Record Changer (February) (An earlier and shorter version of this; article appeared in The Atlantic Monthly, July 1944)
The Deceptive Nature of Sensuousness in Ensemble Playing – London:The PL Yearbook of Jazz, edited by Albert McCarthy

1949 France's Answer to Bebop. New Orleans:Playback (June)

1955 Jazz: Its Rise and Decline. New York:The Record Changer (March)
A Listener's Hierarchy in Jazz: Historical Precedents for the Future. New York:The Record Changer (September)

1958 Bubber Miley. New York:Jazz Monthly (May) "Everything about the 'twenties' is interesting, including Bubber's wa-wa. The period demonstrates what happens when an indigenous music is transplanted into artistically sterile ground and is commercially trimmed to popular taste.Bubber was one of the products of this period, a victim of it, but still a great man." 1959 Throwback. New York:The Jazz Review (May) (an appreciation of Elvis Presley)

Articles on dance, classical music, Cuban Sexteto, theater (selection)
1930 Serge Lifar: A Study. London:The Dancing Times (May) "He brought something new to the company [Diaghileff], a something I would call fine emotional expression


texts:
 through movement—not to be confused with pantomime. Strictly speaking, Lifar is not a ballet dancer. He uses ballet, but does not do it." 1938 On Nijinsky Photographs.New York:The American Dancer (March)
Dance in the Cinema. New York:Dance Herald (April)

1943 Wanda Landowska. New York:JAZZ (March) "I say go and hear Wanda Landowska...who has a style of execution similar, no doubt, to the great harpsichordists of that other era—the harpsichordists whose rhythm at that time must have been as vital as the barrel-house and boogie-woogie piano of today." 1944 Dancing on Skates: Correspondence (Edwin Denby on Sonja Henie). New York Herald Tribune (February)

1946 A Non-Aesthetic Basis for the Dance. London:Jazz Forum II (September) (and Berkeley:Circle)"It is the dancers who can do difficult steps with the ease with which a child can skip, who not only receive but give the greatest pleasure." 1947 The Place of Space and Time in the Dance.London:Jazz Forum (January)
Alicia Markova and Alicia Alonso. The Ballet (March)

1950 Nijinsky: An Appreciation. New York:Dance Magazine (August)

1954 Landmark: Landowska Completes the "48" (Preludes & Fugues). Great Barrington:High Fidelity (November)

1955 The Importance of Dance Style in the Presentation of Early Western Instrumental Music. Cambridge:The Music Review (November)

1958 The Cuban Sexteto. New York:The Jazz Review (December). "the singing [is] something extraordinary in itself and [contains] the most glorious music...The most infectious part of Cuban music is the montuno."This article is informed by four trips to Cuba, 1938-1951, and Dodge's over 200 sexteto recordings. 1959 & 1960 Jazz Dance, Mambo Dance. New York:The Jazz Review (November 1959, January 1960) “I find folk expression alone far more significant than any individual expression that fails to


texts:
 take advantage of folk material. Folk expression seems to be the result of a built-in mechanism, like a bird’s nest-building instinct, which provides a powerful and unselfconscious driving force for the creation of strong and healthy art forms.”

1963 Letters Pro and Con. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism (Winter, 1963) In response to articles by George Beiswanger and Selma Jeanne Cohen: "I do say that the creativeness in the dance comes from the dancer and not the choreographer...[and] no group presentation, even with all the power it derives from a multitude of bodies in motion, can project the aesthetic impact of a great solo dancer." 1964 Tradition in Ballet: Les Sylphides. London:The Dancing Times (January)

1966 The Image and the Actor.English Miscellany: A Symposium of Literature, History and the Arts, Edited by Mario Praz, Vol. 17. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura (for the British Council). 175-209

1973 Shakespeare in Proper Dress. English Miscellany: A Symposium of Literature, History and the Arts, Edited by Mario Praz, Vol. 23. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura (for the British Council).75-112 "Bodily restriction channels expression more significantly than does bland comfort, and prompts the actor to express himself esthetically, rather than emotionally...An actor who can feel at ease in Elizabethan clothes is psychologically prepared to give a convincing reading of Shakespeare's lines." Unpublished articles (selection)

Illuminations by Martha Graham: The Poverty of the Contemporary Dance and the Inadequacy of Choreography. "When she dances everything else is forgotten; the other dancers, choreography and all." The Concert Dance: A Fugitive to be Captured
The Non-Esthetic Basis of Art
The Possibility of Comparison Within and Between the Arts
Towards a Science of Art
The


texts:
 Comedian Theatre: The True Art of the Theatre
Utility Basis of Architecture
Architecture Criticism
Byzantine Art: Its Origin

Unpublished criticism (selection)

Art as Experience, John Dewey
Aesthetic Judgement, D. W. Prall
Critique of Aesthetic Judgement, Immanuel Kant, 1911
A History of Aesthetic, Bernard Bosanquet, 1892

Sound recordings

1931. Private recording of “Bubber” Miley. "...one of the greatest artists of our time...he held a unique position among the jazz musicians of the late twenties..." <mask> recorded Bubber's variations on “King of the Zulus” and “Black and Tan Fantasy,” accompanied on piano by <mask> (<mask>’s first wife). 1954.Georgia Peach (born Clara Hudman), gospel singer. <mask> maintained that Georgia Peach’s singing was a truer expression of gospel than that of Mahalia Jackson. To promote her art, he produced the 12 inch LP: The Famous Georgia Peach: Gospel in the Great Tradition, Classic Editions, 16 tracks; Guitar/banjo: Danny Barker, piano: James Francis and John Ephraim. "Georgia Peach can claim the most subtle and ecstatic Negro religious voice of modern times." Attempts at revival
In 1960, <mask>’s son transcribed his father's favorite trumpet, clarinet and trombone solos for an ensemble that included clarinetist Joe Muranyi and trombonist Roswell Rudd. After rehearsals recorded on his Wollensak, <mask> would return disappointed, for the musicians tended to improvise in a contemporary rather than period style. Fundamental aspects of playing style were a concern <mask> also applied to early classical music performance.Last years
At the age of 75, thirty years after his last performance, <mask> intended to film himself in five Baroque solo court dances. His costume was based on a print of Faune in Le Triomphe de Bacchus, together with a home-made white papier mâché mask.

masks:
Dodge
Anne Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge


texts:
 Three dances were to be accompanied by excerpts from Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice, Bach's Wedding Cantata and a Handel Organ Sonata. The other two were a sarabande by Rameau and a dance by C. P. E. Bach. He did not live to see the project completed. He did perform these dances at home for Mura Dehn, and in addition, a new version of an early jazz dance composition. Dehn wrote that these pieces were a summation of his knowledge of and reflections on dance, performed with the style of an average middle-aged gentleman with artistry and taste.She could envision that George Washington would have danced in that manner. However his jazz piece was wild with abandon. Further reading
In an effort to republish <mask>’s jazz articles, Albert Murray introduced Oxford University Press to <mask>’s oeuvre, resulting in Hot Jazz and Jazz Dance: Collected Writings, 1929-1964. The book includes <mask>'s writing on dance, and jazz record reviews published in The Record Changer, The Jazz Record, JAZZ, and Jazz Forum. In the Introduction, Dan Morgenstern writes:

Appreciation by Stanley Crouch:

See also
The Spirit Moves by Mura Dehn
Institute of Jazz Studies: <mask>'s record collection of jazz and Cuban sexteto 78s was donated in 2007. Notes
"<mask> Dies; A Choreographer,” The New York Times (Obituary) (4 June 1974)
<mask>r <mask> Archive, held privately by <mask>'s son, <mask> <mask>. Contains photographs, performance programs and reviews, manuscripts, and 16mm films.References

External links
Vaslav Nijinsky—Creating a New Artistic Era Retrieved 19 July 2020. <mask> and Dehn dancing to East St. Louis Toodle-Oo, 1937 Retrieved 19 July 2020. The Importance of Dance Style in the Presentation of Early Western Instrumental Music, Music Review, 1955 Retrieved 19 July 2020. American choreographers
20th-century American ballet

masks:
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Roger Dodge
Roger Pryo
Dodge
Dodge
Pryor
Dodge
Dodge


texts: <mask> (; ; 25 January 1882 28 March 1941) was an English writer, considered one of the most important modernist 20th-century authors and a pioneer in the use of stream of consciousness as a narrative device. Woolf was born into an affluent household in South Kensington, London, the seventh child of Julia Prinsep Jackson and Leslie Stephen in a blended family of eight which included the modernist painter Vanessa Bell. She was home-schooled in English classics and Victorian literature from a young age. From 1897 to 1901, she attended the Ladies' Department of King's College London, where she studied classics and history and came into contact with early reformers of women's higher education and the women's rights movement. Encouraged by her father, Woolf began writing professionally in 1900. After her father's death in 1904, the Stephen family moved from Kensington to the more bohemian Bloomsbury, where, in conjunction with the brothers' intellectual friends, they formed the artistic and literary Bloomsbury Group. In 1912, she married <mask>, and in 1917, the couple founded the Hogarth Press, which published much of her work.They rented a home in Sussex and moved there permanently in 1940. Woolf had romantic relationships with women, including Vita Sackville-West, who also published her books through Hogarth Press. Both women's literature became inspired by their relationship, which lasted until Woolf's death. During the inter-war period, Woolf was an important part of London's literary and artistic society. In 1915, she had published her first novel, The Voyage Out, through her half-brother's publishing house, Gerald Duckworth and Company. Her best-known works include the

masks:
Adeline Virginia Woolf
Leonard Woolf


texts:
 novels Mrs Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927) and Orlando (1928). She is also known for her essays, including A Room of One's Own (1929).Woolf became one of the central subjects of the 1970s movement of feminist criticism and her works have since attracted much attention and widespread commentary for "inspiring feminism". Her works have been translated into more than 50 languages. A large body of literature is dedicated to her life and work, and she has been the subject of plays, novels and films. Woolf is commemorated today by statues, societies dedicated to her work and a building at the University of London. Throughout her life, Woolf was troubled by mental illness. She was institutionalised several times and attempted suicide at least twice. According to Dalsimer (2004) her illness was characterized by symptoms that today would be diagnosed as bipolar disorder, for which there was no effective intervention during her lifetime.In 1941, at age 59, Woolf died by drowning herself in the River Ouse at Lewes. Life

Family of origin

<mask> was born Adeline <mask> on 25 January 1882 at 22 Hyde Park Gate in South Kensington, London, to Julia (née Jackson) (1846–1895) and Leslie Stephen (1832–1904), writer, historian, essayist, biographer and mountaineer. Julia Jackson was born in 1846 in Calcutta, British India, to John Jackson and Maria "Mia" Theodosia Pattle, from two Anglo-Indian families. John Jackson FRCS was the third son of George Jackson and Mary Howard of Bengal, a physician who spent 25 years with the Bengal Medical Service and East India Company and a professor at the fledgling Calcutta Medical College. While John Jackson was an almost invisible presence, the

masks:
Virginia Woolf
Virginia Stephen


texts:
 Pattle family were famous beauties, and moved in the upper circles of Bengali society. The seven Pattle sisters married into important families. Julia Margaret Cameron was a celebrated photographer, while <mask> married Earl Somers, and their daughter, Julia Jackson's cousin, was Lady Henry Somerset, the temperance leader.Julia moved to England with her mother at the age of two and spent much of her early life with another of her mother's sisters, Sarah Monckton Pattle. Sarah and her husband Henry Thoby Prinsep, conducted an artistic and literary salon at Little Holland House where she came into contact with a number of Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Edward Burne-Jones, for whom she modelled. Julia was the youngest of three sisters, and Adeline <mask> was named after her mother's eldest sister Adeline Maria Jackson (1837–1881) and her mother's aunt <mask> (see Pattle family tree). Because of the tragedy of her aunt Adeline's death the previous year, the family never used <mask>'s first name. The Jacksons were a well educated, literary and artistic proconsular middle-class family. In 1867, Julia Jackson married Herbert Duckworth, a barrister, but within three years was left a widow with three infant children. She was devastated and entered a prolonged period of mourning, abandoning her faith and turning to nursing and philanthropy.Julia and Herbert Duckworth had three children:
 George (5 March 1868 – 27 April 1934), a senior civil servant, married Lady Margaret Herbert in 1904
 Stella (30 May 1869 – 19 July 1897), died aged 28
 Gerald (29 October 1870 – 28 September 1937), founder of Duckworth Publishing, married Cecil Alice Scott-Chad in 1921

Leslie Stephen was born in

masks:
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia Pattle
Virginia


texts: 1832 in South Kensington to Sir James and Lady Jane Catherine Stephen (née Venn), daughter of John Venn, rector of Clapham. The Venns were the centre of the evangelical Clapham Sect. Sir James Stephen was the under secretary at the Colonial Office, and with another Clapham member, William Wilberforce, was responsible for the passage of the Slavery Abolition Bill in 1833. In 1849 he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University. As a family of educators, lawyers, and writers the Stephens represented the elite intellectual aristocracy. While his family were distinguished and intellectual, they were less colourful and aristocratic than Julia Jackson's. A graduate and fellow of Cambridge University he renounced his faith and position to move to London where he became a notable man of letters.In addition, he was a rambler and mountaineer, described as a "gaunt figure with the ragged red brown beard...a formidable man, with an immensely high forehead, steely-blue eyes, and a long pointed nose." In the same year as Julia Jackson's marriage, he wed Harriet Marian (Minny) Thackeray (1840–1875), youngest daughter of William Makepeace Thackeray, who bore him a daughter, Laura (1870–1945), but died in childbirth in 1875. Laura was developmentally disabled and eventually institutionalised. The widowed Julia Duckworth knew Leslie Stephen through her friendship with Minny's elder sister Anne (Anny) Isabella Ritchie and had developed an interest in his agnostic writings. She was present the night Minny died and later, tended to Leslie Stephen and helped him move next door to her on Hyde Park Gate so Laura could have some companionship with her own children. Both


texts:
 were preoccupied with mourning and although they developed a close friendship and intense correspondence, agreed it would go no further. Leslie Stephen proposed to her in 1877, an offer she declined, but when Anny married later that year she accepted him and they were married on 26 March 1878.He and Laura then moved next door into Julia's house, where they lived till his death in 1904. Julia was 32 and Leslie was 46. Their first child, Vanessa, was born on 30 May 1879. Julia, having presented her husband with a child and now having five children to care for, decided to limit her family's growth. However, despite the fact that the couple took "precautions", "contraception was a very imperfect art in the nineteenth century": it resulted in the birth of three more children over the next four years. 22 Hyde Park Gate (1882–1904)

1882–1895
<mask> provides insight into her early life in her autobiographical essays, including Reminiscences (1908), 22 Hyde Park Gate (1921), and A Sketch of the Past (1940). Other essays that provide insight into this period include Leslie Stephen (1932).She also alludes to her childhood in her fictional writing. In To the Lighthouse (1927), her depiction of the life of the Ramsays in the Hebrides is an only thinly disguised account of the Stephens in Cornwall and the Godrevy Lighthouse they would visit there. However, Woolf's understanding of her mother and family evolved considerably between 1907 and 1940, in which the somewhat distant, yet revered figure of her mother becomes more nuanced and filled in. In February 1891, with her sister Vanessa, Woolf began the Hyde Park Gate News, chronicling life and events within the Stephen family, and


texts:
 modelled on the popular magazine Tit-Bits. Initially, this was mainly Vanessa's and Thoby's articles, but very soon <mask> became the main contributor, with Vanessa as editor. Their mother's response when it first appeared was "Rather clever I think". <mask> would run the Hyde Park Gate News until 1895, the time of her mother's death.The following year the Stephen sisters also used photography to supplement their insights, as did Stella Duckworth. Vanessa Bell's 1892 portrait of her sister and parents in the Library at Talland House (see image) was one of the family's favourites and was written about lovingly in Leslie Stephen's memoir. In 1897 ("the first really lived year of my life)" <mask> began her first diary, which she kept for the next twelve years, and a notebook in 1909. <mask> was, as she describes it, "born into a large connection, born not of rich parents, but of well-to-do parents, born into a very communicative, literate, letter writing, visiting, articulate, late nineteenth century world." It was a well-connected family consisting of six children, with two half brothers and a half sister (the Duckworths, from her mother's first marriage), another half sister, Laura (from her father's first marriage), and an older sister, Vanessa, and brother Thoby. The following year, another brother Adrian followed. The disabled Laura Stephen lived with the family until she was institutionalised in 1891.Julia and Leslie had four children together:
 Vanessa "Nessa" (30 May 1879 – 1961), married Clive Bell in 1907
 Thoby (9 September 1880 – 1906), founded Bloomsbury Group
 <mask> "Jinny"/"Ginia" (25 January 1882 – 1941), married <mask> in 1912
 Adrian (27 October 1883 – 1948),

masks:
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia
Leonard Woolf


texts:
 married Karin Costelloe in 1914

<mask> was born at 22 Hyde Park Gate and lived there until her father's death in 1904. Number 22 Hyde Park Gate, South Kensington, lay at the south-east end of Hyde Park Gate, a narrow cul-de-sac running south from Kensington Road, just west of the Royal Albert Hall, and opposite Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park, where the family regularly took their walks (see Map; Street plan). Built in 1846 by Henry Payne of Hammersmith as one of a row of single-family townhouses for the upper middle class, it soon became too small for their expanding family. At the time of their marriage, it consisted of a basement, two storeys, and an attic. In July 1886 Leslie Stephen obtained the services of J. W. Penfold, an architect, to add additional living space above and behind the existing structure. The substantial renovations added a new top floor (see image of red brick extension), with three bedrooms and a study for himself, converted the original attic into rooms, and added the first bathroom. It was a tall but narrow townhouse, that at that time had no running water.<mask> would later describe it as "a very tall house on the left-hand side near the bottom which begins by being stucco and ends by being red brick; which is so high and yet—as I can say now that we have sold it—so rickety that it seems as if a very high wind would topple it over." The servants worked "downstairs" in the basement. The ground floor had a drawing room, separated by a curtain from the servant's pantry and a library. Above this on the first floor were Julia and Leslie's bedrooms. On the next floor were the Duckworth children's rooms, and above them, the day and night nurseries of

masks: Virginia Virginia


texts: the Stephen children occupied two further floors. Finally, in the attic, under the eaves, were the servants' bedrooms, accessed by a back staircase. Life at 22 Hyde Park Gate was also divided symbolically; as <mask> put it, "The division in our lives was curious.Downstairs there was pure convention: upstairs pure intellect. But there was no connection between them", the worlds typified by George Duckworth and Leslie Stephen. Their mother, it seems, was the only one who could span this divide. The house was described as dimly lit and crowded with furniture and paintings. Within it, the younger Stephens formed a close-knit group. Despite this, the children still held their grievances. <mask> envied Adrian for being their mother's favourite.<mask> and Vanessa's status as creatives (writing and art respectively) caused a rivalry between them at times. Life in London differed sharply from their summers in Cornwall, their outdoor activities consisting mainly of walks in nearby Kensington Gardens, where they would play hide-and-seek and sail their boats on the Round Pond, while indoors, it revolved around their lessons. Leslie Stephen's eminence as an editor, critic, and biographer, and his connection to William Thackeray, meant his children were raised in an environment filled with the influences of a Victorian literary society. Henry James, George Henry Lewes, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Edward Burne-Jones, and <mask>'s honorary godfather, James Russell Lowell, were among the visitors to the house. Julia Stephen was equally well connected. Her aunt was a pioneering early photographer, Julia Margaret Cameron, who was also a visitor to the Stephen household. The two Stephen

masks: Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia


texts:
 sisters, Vanessa and <mask>, were almost three years apart in age.<mask> christened her older sister "the saint" and was far more inclined to exhibit her cleverness than her more reserved sister. <mask> resented the domesticity Victorian tradition forced on them far more than her sister. They also competed for Thoby's affections. <mask> would later confess her ambivalence over this rivalry to Duncan Grant in 1917: "indeed one of the concealed worms of my life has been a sister's jealousy – of a sister I mean; and to feed this I have invented such a myth about her that I scarce know one from t'other." <mask> showed an early affinity for writing. Although both parents disapproved of formal education for females, writing was considered a respectable profession for women, and her father encouraged her in this respect. Later, she would describe this as "ever since I was a little creature, scribbling a story in the manner of Hawthorne on the green plush sofa in the drawing room at St. Ives while the grown-ups dined".By the age of five, she was writing letters and could tell her father a story every night. Later, she, Vanessa, and Adrian would develop the tradition of inventing a serial about their next-door neighbours, every night in the nursery, or in the case of St. Ives, of spirits that resided in the garden. It was her fascination with books that formed the strongest bond between her and her father. For her tenth birthday, she received an ink-stand, a blotter, drawing book and a box of writing implements. Talland House (1882–1894)

Leslie Stephen was in the habit of hiking in Cornwall, and in the spring of 1881 he came across a large white house in St Ives, Cornwall, and took

masks: Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia


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 out a lease on it that September. Although it had limited amenities, its main attraction was the view overlooking Porthminster Bay towards the Godrevy Lighthouse, which the young <mask> could see from the upper windows and was to be the central figure in her To the Lighthouse (1927). It was a large square house, with a terraced garden, divided by hedges, sloping down towards the sea.Each year between 1882 and 1894 from mid-July to mid-September the Stephen family leased Talland House as a summer residence. Leslie Stephen, who referred to it thus: "a pocket-paradise", described it as "The pleasantest of my memories... refer to our summers, all of which were passed in Cornwall, especially to the thirteen summers (1882–1894) at St Ives. There we bought the lease of Talland House: a small but roomy house, with a garden of an acre or two all up and down hill, with quaint little terraces divided by hedges of escallonia, a grape-house and kitchen-garden and a so-called 'orchard' beyond". It was in Leslie's words, a place of "intense domestic happiness". <mask> herself described the house in great detail:

In both London and Cornwall, Julia was perpetually entertaining, and was notorious for her manipulation of her guests' lives, constantly matchmaking in the belief everyone should be married, the domestic equivalence of her philanthropy. As her husband observed, "My Julia was of course, though with all due reserve, a bit of a matchmaker." Amongst their guests in 1893 were the Brookes, whose children, including Rupert Brooke, played with the Stephen children.Rupert and his group of Cambridge Neo-pagans would come to play an important role in their lives in the years before the First


texts:
 World War. While Cornwall was supposed to be a summer respite, Julia Stephen soon immersed herself in the work of caring for the sick and poor there, as well as in London. Both at Hyde Park Gate and Talland House, the family mingled with much of the country's literary and artistic circles. Frequent guests included literary figures such as Henry James and George Meredith, as well as James Russell Lowell, and the children were exposed to much more intellectual conversations than at their mother's Little Holland House. The family did not return, following Julia Stephen's death in May 1895. For the children, it was the highlight of the year, and <mask>'s most vivid childhood memories were not of London but of Cornwall. In a diary entry of 22 March 1921, she described why she felt so connected to Talland House, looking back to a summer day in August 1890."Why am I so incredibly and incurably romantic about Cornwall? One's past, I suppose; I see children running in the garden … The sound of the sea at night … almost forty years of life, all built on that, permeated by that: so much I could never explain". Cornwall inspired aspects of her work, in particular the "St Ives Trilogy" of Jacob's Room (1922), To the Lighthouse (1927), and The Waves (1931). 1895–1904

Julia Stephen fell ill with influenza in February 1895, and never properly recovered, dying on 5 May, when <mask> was 13. It was a pivotal moment in her life and the beginning of her struggles with mental illness. Essentially, her life had fallen apart. The Duckworths were travelling abroad at the time of their mother's death, and Stella returned immediately to take charge and assume her role.That summer, rather than return


texts: to the memories of St Ives, the Stephens went to Freshwater, Isle of Wight, where some of their mother's relatives lived. It was there that <mask> had the first of her many nervous breakdowns, and Vanessa was forced to assume some of her mother's role in caring for Virginia's mental state. Stella became engaged to Jack Hills the following year and they were married on 10 April 1897, making <mask> even more dependent on her older sister. George Duckworth also assumed some of their mother's role, taking upon himself the task of bringing them out into society. First Vanessa, then <mask>, in both cases an equal disaster, for it was not a rite of passage that resonated with either girl and attracted a scathing critique by Virginia regarding the conventional expectations of young upper-class women: "Society in those days was a perfectly competent, perfectly complacent, ruthless machine. A girl had no chance against its fangs. No other desires – say to paint, or to write – could be taken seriously".Rather her priorities were to escape from the Victorian conventionality of the downstairs drawing room to a "room of one's own" to pursue her writing aspirations. She would revisit this criticism in her depiction of Mrs. Ramsay stating the duties of a Victorian mother in To the Lighthouse "an unmarried woman has missed the best of life". The death of Stella Duckworth on 19 July 1897, after a long illness, was a further blow to <mask>'s sense of self, and the family dynamics. Woolf described the period following the death of both her mother and Stella as "1897–1904 – the seven unhappy years", referring to "the lash of a random unheeding flail that pointlessly and brutally killed the two


texts:
 people who should, normally and naturally, have made those years, not perhaps happy but normal and natural". In April 1902, their father became ill, and although he underwent surgery later that year he never fully recovered, dying on 22 February 1904. <mask>'s father's death precipitated a further breakdown. Later, <mask> would describe this time as one in which she was dealt successive blows as a "broken chrysalis" with wings still creased.Chrysalis occurs many times in Woolf's writing but the "broken chrysalis" was an image that became a metaphor for those exploring the relationship between Woolf and grief. At his death, Leslie Stephen's net worth was £15,715 6s. 6d. (probate 23 March 1904)

Education
In the late 19th century, education was sharply divided along gender lines, a tradition that Virginia would note and condemn in her writing. Boys were sent to school, and in upper-middle-class families such as the Stephens, it involved private boys schools, often boarding schools, and university. Girls, if they were afforded the luxury of education, received it from their parents, governesses, and tutors. <mask> was educated by her parents who shared the duty.There was a small classroom off the back of the drawing room, with its many windows, which they found perfect for quiet writing and painting. Julia taught the children Latin, French, and history, while Leslie taught them mathematics. They also received piano lessons. Supplementing their lessons was the children's unrestricted access to Leslie Stephen's vast library, exposing them to much of the literary canon, resulting in a greater depth of reading than any of their Cambridge contemporaries, <mask>'s reading being


texts: described as "greedy". Later, she would recall  After public school, the boys in the family all attended Cambridge University. The girls derived some indirect benefit from this, as the boys introduced them to their friends. Another source was the conversation of their father's friends, to whom they were exposed.Leslie Stephen described his circle as "most of the literary people of mark...clever young writers and barristers, chiefly of the radical persuasion...we used to meet on Wednesday and Sunday evenings, to smoke and drink and discuss the universe and the reform movement". Later, between the ages of 15 and 19, <mask> was able to pursue higher education. She took courses of study, some at degree level, in beginning and advanced Ancient Greek, intermediate Latin and German, together with continental and English history at the Ladies' Department of King's College London at nearby 13 Kensington Square between 1897 and 1901. She studied Greek under the eminent scholar George Charles Winter Warr, professor of Classical Literature at King's. In addition she had private tutoring in German, Greek, and Latin. One of her Greek tutors was Clara Pater (1899–1900), who taught at King's. Another was Janet Case, who involved her in the women's rights movement, and whose obituary <mask> would later write in 1937.Her experiences led to her 1925 essay "On Not Knowing Greek". Her time at King's also brought her into contact with some of the early reformers of women's higher education such as the principal of the Ladies' Department, Lilian Faithfull (one of the so-called steamboat ladies), in addition to Pater. Her sister Vanessa also enrolled at the Ladies' Department (1899–1901). Although


texts:
 the Stephen girls could not attend Cambridge, they were to be profoundly influenced by their brothers' experiences there. When Thoby went to Trinity in 1899, he befriended a circle of young men, including Clive Bell, Lytton Strachey, <mask> (whom <mask> would later marry), and Saxon Sydney-Turner, whom he would soon introduce to his sisters at the Trinity May Ball in 1900. These men formed a reading group they named the Midnight Society. Relationships with family
Although <mask> expressed the opinion her father was her favourite parent, and although she had only turned thirteen when her mother died, she was profoundly influenced by her mother throughout her life.It was <mask> who famously stated that "for we think back through our mothers if we are women", and invoked the image of her mother repeatedly throughout her life in her diaries, her letters and a number of her autobiographical essays, including Reminiscences (1908), 22 Hyde Park Gate (1921) and A Sketch of the Past (1940), frequently evoking her memories with the words "I see her ...". She also alludes to her childhood in her fictional writing. In To the Lighthouse (1927), the artist, Lily Briscoe, attempts to paint Mrs. Ramsay, a complex character based on Julia Stephen, and repeatedly comments on the fact that she was "astonishingly beautiful". Her depiction of the life of the Ramsays in the Hebrides is an only thinly disguised account of the Stephens in Cornwall and the Godrevy Lighthouse they would visit there. However, Woolf's understanding of her mother and family evolved considerably between 1907 and 1940, in which the somewhat distant, yet revered figure becomes more nuanced and complete. While her father

masks:
Leonard Woolf
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia


texts: painted Julia Stephen's work in terms of reverence, Woolf drew a sharp distinction between her mother's work and "the mischievous philanthropy which other women practise so complacently and often with such disastrous results." She describes her degree of sympathy, engagement, judgement, and decisiveness, and her sense of both irony and the absurd.She recalls trying to recapture "the clear round voice, or the sight of the beautiful figure, so upright and distinct, in its long shabby cloak, with the head held at a certain angle, so that the eye looked straight out at you." Julia Stephen dealt with her husband's depressions and his need for attention, which created resentment in her children, boosted his self-confidence, nursed her parents in their final illness, and had many commitments outside the home that would eventually wear her down. Her frequent absences and the demands of her husband instilled a sense of insecurity in her children that had a lasting effect on her daughters. In considering the demands on her mother, Woolf described her father as "fifteen years her elder, difficult, exacting, dependent on her," and reflected that it was at the expense of the amount of attention she could spare her young children: "a general presence rather than a particular person to a child." She reflected that she rarely ever spent a moment alone with her mother: "someone was always interrupting." Woolf was ambivalent about it, yet eager to separate herself from this model of utter selflessness. In To the Lighthouse, she describes it as "boasting of her capacity to surround and protect, there was scarcely a shell of herself left for her to know herself by; all was so lavished and


texts: spent."At the same time, she admired the strengths of her mother's womanly ideals. Given Julia's frequent absences and commitments, the young Stephen children became increasingly dependent on Stella Duckworth, who emulated her mother's selflessness; as <mask> wrote, "Stella was always the beautiful attendant handmaid ... making it the central duty of her life." Julia Stephen greatly admired her husband's intellect. As Woolf observed "she never belittled her own works, thinking them, if properly discharged, of equal, though other, importance with her husband's." She believed with certainty in her role as the centre of her activities, and the person who held everything together, with a firm sense of what was important and valuing devotion. Of the two parents, Julia's "nervous energy dominated the family". While <mask> identified most closely with her father, Vanessa stated her mother was her favourite parent.Angelica Garnett recalls how <mask> asked Vanessa which parent she preferred, although Vanessa considered it a question that "one ought not to ask", she was unequivocal in answering "Mother" yet the centrality of her mother to <mask>'s world is expressed in this description of her "Certainly there she was, in the very centre of that great Cathedral space which was childhood; there she was from the very first". <mask> observed that her half-sister, Stella, the oldest daughter, led a life of total subservience to her mother, incorporating her ideals of love and service. <mask> quickly learned, that like her father, being ill was the only reliable way of gaining the attention of her mother, who prided herself on her sickroom nursing. Another issue the children had to deal with

masks: Woolf Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia


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 was Leslie Stephen's temper, Woolf describing him as "the tyrant father". Eventually, she became deeply ambivalent about him. He had given her his ring on her eighteenth birthday and she had a deep emotional attachment as his literary heir, writing about her "great devotion for him". Yet, like Vanessa, she also saw him as victimiser and tyrant.She had a lasting ambivalence towards him through her life, albeit one that evolved. Her adolescent image was of an "Eminent Victorian" and tyrant but as she grew older she began to realise how much of him was in her: "I have been dipping into old letters and father's memoirs....so candid and reasonable and transparent—and had such a fastidious delicate mind, educated, and transparent," she wrote 22 December 1940. She was in turn both fascinated and condemnatory of Leslie Stephen: "She [her mother] has haunted me: but then, so did that old wretch my father. . . . I was more like him than her, I think; and therefore more critical: but he was an adorable man, and somehow, tremendous." Sexual abuse
Woolf stated that she first remembers being molested by Gerald Duckworth when she was six years old. It has been suggested that this led to a lifetime of sexual fear and resistance to
masculine authority. Against a background of over-committed and distant parents, suggestions that this was a dysfunctional family must be evaluated.These include evidence of sexual abuse of the Stephen girls by their older Duckworth half-brothers, and by their cousin, James Kenneth Stephen (1859–1892), at least of Stella Duckworth. Laura is also thought to have been abused. The most graphic account is by Louise DeSalvo, but other authors and reviewers have been


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 more cautious. <mask>'s accounts of being continually sexually abused during the time that she lived at 22 Hyde Park Gate, have been cited by some critics as a possible cause of her mental health issues, although there are likely to be a number of contributing factors. Lee states that, "The evidence is strong enough, and yet ambiguous enough, to open the way for conflicting psychobiographical interpretations that draw quite different shapes of <mask>'s interior life". Bloomsbury (1904–1940)

Gordon Square (1904–1907)

On their father's death, the Stephens' first instinct was to escape from the dark house of yet more mourning, and this they did immediately, accompanied by George, travelling to Manorbier, on the coast of Pembrokeshire on 27 February. There, they spent a month, and it was there that <mask> first came to realise her destiny was as a writer, as she recalls in her diary of 3 September 1922.They then further pursued their newfound freedom by spending April in Italy and France, where they met up with Clive Bell again. <mask> then suffered her second nervous breakdown, and first suicidal attempt on 10 May, and convalesced over the next three months. Before their father died, the Stephens had discussed the need to leave South Kensington in the West End, with its tragic memories and their parents' relations. George Duckworth was 35, his brother Gerald 33. The Stephen children were now between 24 and 20. <mask> was 22. Vanessa and Adrian decided to sell 22 Hyde Park Gate in respectable South Kensington and move to Bloomsbury.Bohemian Bloomsbury, with its characteristic leafy squares seemed sufficiently far away, geographically and socially, and was a much cheaper

masks:
Virginia
Virginia Woolf
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia


texts: neighbourhood rentwise. They had not inherited much and they were unsure about their finances. Also, Bloomsbury was close to the Slade School which Vanessa was then attending. While Gerald was quite happy to move on and find himself a bachelor establishment, George who had always assumed the role of quasi-parent decided to accompany them, much to their dismay. It was then that Lady Margaret Herbert appeared on the scene, George proposed, was accepted and married in September, leaving the Stephens to their own devices. Vanessa found a house at 46 Gordon Square in Bloomsbury, and they moved in November, to be joined by <mask> now sufficiently recovered. It was at Gordon Square that the Stephens began to regularly entertain Thoby's intellectual friends in March 1905.The circle, which largely came from the Cambridge Apostles, included writers (Saxon Sydney-Turner, Lytton Strachey) and critics (Clive Bell, Desmond MacCarthy) with Thursday evening "At Homes" that became known as the Thursday Club, a vision of recreating Trinity College ("Cambridge in London"). This circle formed the nucleus of the intellectual circle of writers and artists known as the Bloomsbury Group. Later, it would include John Maynard Keynes (1907), Duncan Grant (1908), E.M. Forster (1910), Roger Fry (1910), <mask> (1911), and David Garnett (1914). In 1905, <mask> and Adrian visited Portugal and Spain. Clive Bell proposed to Vanessa, but was declined, while <mask> began teaching evening classes at Morley College and Vanessa added another event to their calendar with the Friday Club, dedicated to the discussion of and later exhibition of the fine arts. This introduced some new people into their circle,

masks:
Virginia
Leonard Woolf
Virginia
Virginia


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 including Vanessa's friends from the Royal Academy and Slade, such as Henry Lamb and Gwen Darwin (who became secretary), but also the eighteen-year-old Katherine Laird ("Ka") Cox (1887–1938), who was about to go up to Newnham. Although <mask> did not actually meet Ka until much later, Ka would come to play an important part in her life.Ka and others brought the Bloomsbury Group into contact with another, slightly younger, group of Cambridge intellectuals to whom the Stephen sisters gave the name "Neo-pagans". The Friday Club continued until 1913. The following year, 1906, <mask> suffered two further losses. Her cherished brother Thoby, who was only 26, died of typhoid, following a trip they had all taken to Greece, and immediately afterward Vanessa accepted Clive's third proposal. Vanessa and Clive were married in February 1907 and as a couple, their interest in avant-garde art would have an important influence on <mask>'s further development as an author. With Vanessa's marriage, <mask> and Adrian needed to find a new home. Fitzroy Square (1907–1911)
<mask> moved into 29 Fitzroy Square in April 1907, a house on the west side of the street, formerly occupied by George Bernard Shaw.It was in Fitzrovia, immediately to the west of Bloomsbury but still relatively close to her sister at Gordon Square. The two sisters continued to travel together, visiting Paris in March. Adrian was now to play a much larger part in Virginia's life, and they resumed the Thursday Club in October at their new home, while Gordon Square became the venue for the Play Reading Society in December. During this period, the group began to increasingly explore progressive ideas, first in speech, and then in

masks: Virginia Virginia Woolf Virginia Virginia


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 conduct, Vanessa proclaiming in 1910 a libertarian society with sexual freedom for all. Meanwhile, <mask> began work on her first novel, Melymbrosia, that eventually became The Voyage Out (1915). Vanessa's first child, Julian was born in February 1908, and in September <mask> accompanied the Bells to Italy and France. It was during this time that <mask>'s rivalry with her sister resurfaced, flirting with Clive, which he reciprocated, and which lasted on and off from 1908 to 1914, by which time her sister's marriage was breaking down.On 17 February 1909, Lytton Strachey proposed to <mask> and she accepted, but he then withdrew the offer. It was while she was at Fitzroy Square that the question arose of <mask> needing a quiet country retreat, and she required a six-week rest cure and sought the countryside away from London as much as possible. In December, she and Adrian stayed at Lewes and started exploring the area of Sussex around the town. She started to want a place of her own, like St Ives, but closer to London. She soon found a property in nearby Firle (see below), maintaining a relationship with that area for the rest of her life. Dreadnought hoax 1910

Several members of the group attained notoriety in 1910 with the Dreadnought hoax, which <mask> participated in disguised as a male Abyssinian royal. Her complete 1940 talk on the hoax was discovered and is published in the memoirs collected in the expanded edition of The Platform of Time (2008).Brunswick Square (1911–1912)
In October 1911, the lease on Fitzroy Square was running out and <mask> and Adrian decided to give up their home on Fitzroy Square in favour of a different living arrangement, moving to a

masks: Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia Virginia


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 four-storied house at 38 Brunswick Square in Bloomsbury proper in November. <mask> saw it as a new opportunity: "We are going to try all kinds of experiments," she told Ottoline Morrell. Adrian occupied the second floor, with Maynard Keynes and Duncan Grant sharing the ground floor. This arrangement for a single woman was considered scandalous, and George Duckworth was horrified. The house was adjacent to the Foundling Hospital, much to <mask>'s amusement as an unchaperoned single woman. Originally, Ka Cox was supposed to share in the arrangements, but opposition came from Rupert Brooke, who was involved with her and pressured her to abandon the idea. At the house, Duncan Grant decorated Adrian Stephen's rooms (see image).Marriage (1912–1941)

<mask> was one of Thoby Stephen's friends at Trinity College, Cambridge, and noticed the Stephen sisters in Thoby's rooms there on their visits to the May Ball in 1900 and 1901. He recalls them in "white dresses and large hats, with parasols in their hands, their beauty literally took one's breath away". To him, they were silent, "formidable and alarming". Woolf did not meet <mask> formally till 17 November 1904 when he dined with the Stephens at Gordon Square, to say goodbye before leaving to take up a position with the civil service in Ceylon, although she was aware of him through Thoby's stories. At that visit he noted that she was perfectly silent throughout the meal, and looked ill. In 1909, Lytton Strachey suggested to Woolf he should make her an offer of marriage. He did so, but received no answer.In June 1911, he returned to London on a one-year leave, but did not go back to Ceylon. In England again, Leonard renewed his

masks:
Virginia
Virginia
Leonard Woolf
Virginia


texts: contacts with family and friends. Three weeks after arriving he dined with Vanessa and Clive Bell at Gordon Square on 3 July, where they were later joined by <mask> and other members of what would later be called "Bloomsbury", and Leonard dates the group's formation to that night. In September, <mask> asked Leonard to join her at Little Talland House at Firle in Sussex for a long weekend. After that weekend, they began seeing each other more frequently. On 4 December 1911, Leonard moved into the ménage on Brunswick Square, occupying a bedroom and sitting room on the fourth floor, and started to see <mask> constantly and by the end of the month had decided he was in love with her. On 11 January 1912, he proposed to her; she asked for time to consider, so he asked for an extension of his leave and, on being refused, offered his resignation on 25 April, effective 20 May.He continued to pursue Virginia, and in a letter of 1 May 1912 (which see) she explained why she did not favour a marriage. However, on 29 May, <mask> told Leonard that she wished to marry him, and they were married on 10 August at the St Pancras Register Office. It was during this time that Leonard first became aware of Virginia's precarious mental state. The Woolfs continued to live at Brunswick Square until October 1912, when they moved to a small flat at 13 Clifford's Inn, further to the east (subsequently demolished). Despite his low material status (Woolf referring to Leonard during their engagement as a "penniless Jew"), the couple shared a close bond. Indeed, in 1937, Woolf wrote in her diary: "Love-making—after 25 years can't bear to be separate ... you see it is enormous pleasure being wanted: a wife.


texts: And our marriage so complete."However, Virginia made a suicide attempt in 1913. In October 1914, Leonard and <mask> moved away from Bloomsbury and central London to Richmond, living at 17 The Green, a home discussed by Leonard in his autobiography Beginning Again (1964). In early March 1915, the couple moved again, to nearby Hogarth House, Paradise Road, after which they named their publishing house. Virginia's first novel, The Voyage Out was published in 1915, followed by another suicide attempt. Despite the introduction of conscription in 1916, Leonard was exempted on medical grounds. Between 1924 and 1940, the Woolfs returned to Bloomsbury, taking out a ten-year lease at 52 Tavistock Square, from where they ran the Hogarth Press from the basement, where <mask> also had her writing room, and is commemorated with a bust of her in the square (see illustration). 1925 saw the publication of Mrs Dalloway in May followed by her collapse while at Charleston in August.In 1927, her next novel, To the Lighthouse, was published, and the following year she lectured on Women & Fiction at Cambridge University and published Orlando in October. Her two Cambridge lectures then became the basis for her major essay A Room of One's Own in 1929. <mask> wrote only one drama, Freshwater, based on her great-aunt Julia Margaret Cameron, and produced at her sister's studio on Fitzroy Street in 1935. 1936 saw another collapse of her health following the completion of The Years. The Woolf's final residence in London was at 37 Mecklenburgh Square (1939–1940), destroyed during the Blitz in September 1940; a month later their previous home on Tavistock Square was also destroyed. After that, they made

masks:
Virginia Woolf
Virginia
Virginia


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 Sussex their permanent home. For descriptions and illustrations of all <mask>'s London homes, see Jean Moorcroft Wilson's book Virginia Woolf, Life and London: A Biography of Place (pub.<mask>, 1987). Hogarth Press (1917–1938)

Virginia had taken up book-binding as a pastime in October 1901, at the age of 19, and the Woolfs had been discussing setting up a publishing house for some time, and at the end of 1916 started making plans. Having discovered that they were not eligible to enroll in the St Bride School of Printing, they started purchasing supplies after seeking advice from the Excelsior Printing Supply Company on Farringdon Road in March 1917, and soon they had a printing press set up on their dining room table at Hogarth House, and the Hogarth Press was born. Their first publication was Two Stories in July 1917, inscribed Publication No. 1, and consisted of two short stories, "The Mark on the Wall" by <mask> and Three Jews by <mask>. The work consisted of 32 pages, hand bound and sewn, and illustrated by woodcuts designed by Dora Carrington. The illustrations were a success, leading Virginia to remark that the press was "specially good at printing pictures, and we see that we must make a practice of always having pictures."(13 July 1917) The process took two and a half months with a production run of 150 copies. Other short short stories followed, including Kew Gardens (1919) with a woodblock by Vanessa Bell as frontispiece. Subsequently, Bell added further illustrations, adorning each page of the text. The press subsequently published Virginia's novels along with works by T.S. Eliot, Laurens van der Post, and others. The Press also commissioned works by contemporary

masks:
Virginia Woolf
Cecil Woolf
Virginia Woolf
Leonard Woolf


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 artists, including Dora Carrington and Vanessa Bell. Woolf believed that to break free of a patriarchal society women writers needed a "room of their own" to develop and often fantasised about an "Outsider's Society" where women writers would create a virtual private space for themselves via their writings to develop a feminist critique of society.Though Woolf never created the "Outsider's society", the Hogarth Press was the closest approximation as the Woolfs chose to publish books by writers that took unconventional points of view to form a reading community. Initially the press concentrated on small experimental publications, of little interest to large commercial publishers. Until 1930, Woolf often helped her husband print the Hogarth books as the money for employees was not there. <mask> relinquished her interest in 1938, following a third attempted suicide. After it was bombed in September 1940, the press was moved to Letchworth for the remainder of the war. Both the Woolfs were internationalists and pacifists who believed that promoting understanding between peoples was the best way to avoid another world war and chose quite consciously to publish works by foreign authors of whom the British reading public were unaware. The first non-British author to be published was the Soviet writer Maxim Gorky, the book Reminiscences of Leo Nikolaiovich Tolstoy in 1920, dealing with his friendship with Count Leo Tolstoy.Memoir Club (1920–1941)

1920 saw a postwar reconstitution of the Bloomsbury Group, under the title of the Memoir Club, which as the name suggests focussed on self-writing, in the manner of Proust's A La Recherche, and inspired some of the more influential books of


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 the 20th century. The Group, which had been scattered by the war, was reconvened by Mary ('Molly') MacCarthy who called them "Bloomsberries", and operated under rules derived from the Cambridge Apostles, an elite university debating society that a number of them had been members of. These rules emphasised candour and openness. Among the 125 memoirs presented, <mask> contributed three that were published posthumously in 1976, in the autobiographical anthology Moments of Being. These were 22 Hyde Park Gate (1921), Old Bloomsbury (1922) and Am I a Snob? (1936). Vita Sackville-West (1922–1941)

The ethos of the Bloomsbury group encouraged a liberal approach to sexuality, and on 14 December 1922 <mask> met the writer and gardener Vita Sackville-West, wife of Harold Nicolson, while dining with Clive Bell.Writing in her diary the next day, she referred to meeting "the lovely gifted aristocratic Sackville West". At the time, Sackville-West was the more successful writer as both poet and novelist, commercially and critically, and it was not until after Woolf's death that she became considered the better writer. After a tentative start, they began a sexual relationship, which, according to Sackville-West in a letter to her husband on 17 August 1926, was only twice consummated. The relationship reached its peak between 1925 and 1928, evolving into more of a friendship through the 1930s, though Woolf was also inclined to brag of her affairs with other women within her intimate circle, such as Sibyl Colefax and Comtesse de Polignac. This period of intimacy was to prove fruitful for both authors, Woolf producing three novels, To the Lighthouse (1927), Orlando (1928), and The Waves (1931)

masks: Virginia Woolf


texts: as well as a number of essays, including "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown" (1924) and "A Letter to a Young Poet" (1932). Sackville-West worked tirelessly to lift Woolf's self-esteem, encouraging her not to view herself as a quasi-reclusive inclined to sickness who should hide herself away from the world, but rather offered praise for her liveliness and wit, her health, her intelligence and achievements as a writer. Sackville-West led Woolf to reappraise herself, developing a more positive self-image, and the feeling that her writings were the products of her strengths rather than her weakness.Starting at the age of 15, Woolf had believed the diagnosis by her father and his doctor that reading and writing were deleterious to her nervous condition, requiring a regime of physical labour such as gardening to prevent a total nervous collapse. This led Woolf to spend much time obsessively engaging in such physical labour. Sackville-West was the first to argue to Woolf she had been misdiagnosed, and that it was far better to engage in reading and writing to calm her nerves—advice that was taken. Under the influence of Sackville-West, Woolf learned to deal with her nervous ailments by switching between various forms of intellectual activities such as reading, writing and book reviews, instead of spending her time in physical activities that sapped her strength and worsened her nerves. Sackville-West chose the financially struggling Hogarth Press as her publisher to assist the Woolfs financially. Seducers in Ecuador, the first of the novels by Sackville-West published by Hogarth, was not a success, selling only 1500 copies in its first year, but the next Sackville-West novel they


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 published, The Edwardians, was a best-seller that sold 30,000 copies in its first six months. Sackville-West's novels, though not typical of the Hogarth Press, saved Hogarth, taking them from the red into the black.However, Woolf was not always appreciative of the fact that it was Sackville-West's books that kept the Hogarth Press profitable, writing dismissively in 1933 of her "servant girl" novels. The financial security allowed by the good sales of Sackville-West's novels in turn allowed Woolf to engage in more experimental work, such as The Waves, as Woolf had to be cautious when she depended upon Hogarth entirely for her income. In 1928, Woolf presented Sackville-West with Orlando, a fantastical biography in which the eponymous hero's life spans three centuries and both sexes. It was published in October, shortly after the two women spent a week travelling together in France, that September. Nigel Nicolson, Vita Sackville-West's son, wrote, "The effect of Vita on Virginia is all contained in Orlando, the longest and most charming love letter in literature, in which she explores Vita, weaves her in and out of the centuries, tosses her from one sex to the other, plays with her, dresses her in furs, lace and emeralds, teases her, flirts with her, drops a veil of mist around her." After their affair ended, the two women remained friends until Woolf's death in 1941. <mask> also remained close to her surviving siblings, Adrian and Vanessa; Thoby had died of typhoid fever at the age of 26.Sussex (1911–1941)

Virginia was needing a country retreat to escape to, and on 24 December 1910, she found a house for rent in Firle, Sussex, near Lewes (see Map). She obtained a lease and


texts: took possession of the house the following month, naming it 'Little Talland House', after their childhood home in Cornwall, although it was actually a new red gabled villa on the main street opposite the village hall. The lease was a short one, and in October, she and Leonard Woolf found Asham House at Asheham a few miles to the west, while walking along the Ouse from Firle. The house, at the end of a tree-lined road was a strange beautiful Regency-Gothic house in a lonely location. She described it as "flat, pale, serene, yellow-washed", without electricity or water and allegedly haunted. She took out a five-year lease jointly with Vanessa in the New Year, and they moved into it in February 1912, holding a house warming party on the 9th. It was at Asham that the Woolfs spent their wedding night later that year.At Asham, she recorded the events of the weekends and holidays they spent there in her Asham Diary, part of which was later published as A Writer's Diary in 1953. In terms of creative writing, The Voyage Out was completed there, and much of Night and Day. Asham provided Woolf with well needed relief from the pace of London life and was where she found a happiness that she expressed in her diary of 5 May 1919 "Oh, but how happy we've been at Asheham! It was a most melodious time. Everything went so freely; – but I can't analyse all the sources of my joy". Asham was also the inspiration for A Haunted House (1921–1944), and was painted by members of the Bloomsbury Group, including Vanessa Bell and Roger Fry. It was during these times at Asham that Ka Cox (seen here) started to devote herself to Virginia and become very useful.While at Asham Leonard and <mask> found a


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 farmhouse in 1916, that was to let, about four miles away, which they thought would be ideal for her sister. Eventually, Vanessa came down to inspect it, and moved in in October of that year, taking it as a summer home for her family. The Charleston Farmhouse was to become the summer gathering place for the literary and artistic circle of the Bloomsbury Group. After the end of the war, in 1918, the Woolfs were given a year's notice by the landlord, who needed the house. In mid-1919, "in despair", they purchased "a very strange little house" for £300, the Round House in Pipe Passage, Lewes, a converted windmill. No sooner had they bought the Round House, than Monk's House in nearby Rodmell, came up for auction, a weatherboarded house with oak beamed rooms, said to be 15th or 16th century. The Leonards favoured the latter because of its orchard and garden, and sold the Round House, to purchase Monk's House for £700.Monk's House also lacked water and electricity, but came with an acre of garden, and had a view across the Ouse towards the hills of the South Downs. <mask> describes this view (and the amenities) as being unchanged since the days of Chaucer. From 1940, it became their permanent home after their London home was bombed, and <mask> continued to live there until her death. Meanwhile, Vanessa made Charleston her permanent home in 1936. It was at Monk's House that <mask> completed Between the Acts in early 1941, followed by a further breakdown directly resulting in her suicide on 28 March 1941, the novel being published posthumously later that year. The Neo-pagans (1911–1912)

During her time in Firle, <mask> became better acquainted with Rupert Brooke and his group of


texts: Neo-Pagans, pursuing socialism, vegetarianism, exercising outdoors and alternative life styles, including social nudity. They were influenced by the ethos of Bedales, Fabianism and Shelley.The women wore sandals, socks, open neck shirts and head-scarves. Although she had some reservations, Woolf was involved with their activities for a while, fascinated by their bucolic innocence in contrast to the sceptical intellectualism of Bloomsbury, which earned her the nickname "The Goat" from her brother Adrian. While Woolf liked to make much of a weekend she spent with Brooke at the vicarage in Grantchester, including swimming in the pool there, it appears to have been principally a literary assignation. They also shared a psychiatrist in the name of Maurice Craig. Through the Neo-Pagans, she finally met Ka Cox on a weekend in Oxford in January 1911, who had been part of the Friday Club circle and now became her friend and played an important part in dealing with her illnesses. <mask> nicknamed her "Bruin". At the same time, she found herself dragged into a triangular relationship involving Ka, Jacques Raverat and Gwen Darwin.She became resentful of the other couple, Jacques and Gwen, who married later in 1911, not the outcome <mask> had predicted or desired. They would later be referred to in both To the Lighthouse and The Years. The exclusion she felt evoked memories of both Stella Duckworth's marriage and her triangular involvement with Vanessa and Clive. The two groups eventually fell out. Brooke pressured Ka into withdrawing from joining Virginia's ménage on Brunswick Square in late 1911, calling it a "bawdy-house" and by the end of 1912 he had vehemently turned against


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 Bloomsbury. Later, she would write sardonically about Brooke, whose premature death resulted in his idealisation, and express regret about "the Neo-Paganism at that stage of my life". <mask> was deeply disappointed when Ka married William Edward Arnold-Forster in 1918, and became increasingly critical of her.Mental health

Much examination has been made of Woolf's mental health (e.g., see Mental health bibliography). From the age of 13, following the death of her mother, Woolf suffered periodic mood swings from severe depression to manic excitement, including psychotic episodes, which the family referred to as her "madness". However, as Hermione Lee points out, Woolf was not "mad"; she was merely a woman who suffered from and struggled with illness for much of her relatively short life, a woman of "exceptional courage, intelligence and stoicism", who made the best use, and achieved the best understanding she could of that illness. Psychiatrists today contend that her illness constitutes bipolar disorder (manic-depressive illness). Her mother's death in 1895, "the greatest disaster that could happen", precipitated a crisis of alternating excitability and depression accompanied by irrational fears, for which their family doctor, Dr. Seton, prescribed rest, stopping lessons and writing, and regular walks supervised by Stella. Yet just two years later, Stella too was dead, bringing on her next crisis in 1897, and her first expressed wish for death at the age of fifteen, writing in her diary that October that "death would be shorter & less painful". She then stopped keeping a diary for some time.This was a scenario she would later recreate in "Time Passes" (To the Lighthouse,


texts:
 1927). The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse, on 10 May, when she threw herself out a window and she was briefly institutionalised under the care of her father's friend, the eminent psychiatrist George Savage. Savage blamed her education—frowned on by many at the time as unsuitable for women—for her illness. She spent time recovering at the house of Stella's friend Violet Dickinson, and at her aunt Caroline's house in Cambridge, and by January 1905, Dr. Savage considered her "cured". Violet, seventeen years older than <mask>, became one of her closest friends and one of her more effective nurses. She characterised it as a "romantic friendship" (Letter to Violet 4 May 1903). Her brother Thoby's death in 1906 marked a "decade of deaths” that ended her childhood and adolescence.Gordon (2004) writes: "Ghostly voices spoke to her with increasing urgency, perhaps more real than the people who lived by her side. When voices of the dead urged her to impossible things, they drove her mad but, controlled, they became the material of fiction..."

On Dr. Savage's recommendation, <mask> spent three short periods in 1910, 1912, and 1913 at Burley House at 15 Cambridge Park, Twickenham (see image), described as "a private nursing home for women with nervous disorder" run by Miss Jean Thomas. By the end of February 1910, she was becoming increasingly restless, and Dr. Savage suggested being away from London. Vanessa rented Moat House, outside Canterbury, in June, but there was no improvement, so Dr. Savage sent her to Burley for a "rest cure". This involved partial isolation, deprivation of literature, and force-feeding, and after six weeks she was able to