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 work was published under the gender-neutral name "R. W<mask>" up to the second edition of  "Masculinities" in 2005.Since 2006 all her work has appeared under the name <mask> <mask>. <mask> has also written about transsexualism. Major contributions

Class and education
<mask> first became known for research on large-scale class dynamics ("Ruling Class, Ruling Culture", 1977 and "Class Structure in Australian History", 1980), and the ways class and gender hierarchies are re-made in the everyday life of schools ("Making the Difference", 1982). Gender

In the late 1980s she developed a social theory of gender relations ("Gender and Power", 1987), which emphasized that gender is a large-scale social structure not just a matter of personal identity. In applied fields she has worked on poverty and education ("Schools and Social Justice", 1993), sexuality and AIDS prevention, and labour movement strategy ("Socialism & Labor", 1978). Masculinity
<mask> is best known outside Australia for studies of the social construction of masculinity. She was one of the founders of this research field, and her book "Masculinities" (1995, 2005) is the most-cited in the field.The concept of hegemonic masculinity has been particularly influential and has attracted much debate. She has been an advisor to UNESCO and UNO initiatives relating men, boys and masculinities to gender equality and peacemaking. Southern theory
<mask> has developed a sociology of intellectuals that emphasizes the collective character of intellectual labour, and the importance of its social context. Her 2007 book Southern Theory extended this to the global dynamics of knowledge production, critiquing the "Northern" bias of mainstream social science which is predominately produced in "metropolitan" universities. In doing so, she argues, metropolitan social theory fails to adequately explain social phenomena in the Southern experience. She analyzed examples of theoretical work deriving from the global South: including the work of Paulin Hountondji, Ali Shariati, Veena Das, Ashis Nandy and Raúl Prebisch. <mask> has also explored the implications of Southern Theory on gender theory, neoliberalism, and other global knowledge projects.She continues to argue

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 in these contexts that historical power differentiations are maintained through imperialistic privileging of thought and that decolonizing this construction of knowledge can revolutionize societies across the globe. In her essay in Planning Theory for example, <mask> calls for social science to accept subaltern views that have traditionally been ignored so that modern resources can be maximized in various fields such as urban planning, geography, and youth studies. Criticism

In an essay titled "Under Southern Skies", <mask> responded to four other scholars of sociology, namely Mustafa Emirbayer, Patricia Hill Collins, Raka Ray, and Isaac Ariail Reed, who had all written critically about her work on Southern Theory. While acknowledging how <mask>'s work has sparked important discussion, the arguments of these sociologists included Ray claiming that Southern Theory marks a tipping point for postcolonial sociology rather than global sociology, Reed finding <mask>'s theoretical concepts to be underdeveloped, Emirbayer's view that <mask> tends to overgeneralize "Northern Theory" while making unfound claims about "Southern Theory", and Collins' identification of two issues: the centering of the North and the silencing of much of the Global South by only examining the theories of Southern educated elite. In her response, <mask> responds to certain points from each argument to stand by her work, countering their criticism by explaining the decisions behind her writing and affirming that her work is a jumping-off point for further discussion. Selected bibliography

References

External links

 A collection of papers by <mask> <mask>
  <mask>, <mask> (1944 – ) in The Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in Twentieth-Century Australia

1944 births
Living people
Gender studies academics
Australian sociologists
Transgender and transsexual writers
Transgender and transsexual scientists
Transgender and transsexual women
People educated at North Sydney Boys High School
LGBT writers from Australia
University of Sydney faculty
Men and masculinities scholars
Medical sociologists
Social constructionism
Writers from Sydney
University of Melbourne alumni
Transgender and transsexual academics
Transgender studies

masks: Connell Connell Connell Connell Connell Connell Raewyn Connellline Connell Raewyn


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<mask> (19 October 1669 – 30 October 1739) – in religious Angelo – was an Italian Roman Catholic priest and a professed member of the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor Capuchin in Cosenza. Falcone had a rough call to religious life after several entries and exits into the order and he later served as a noted preacher across southern Italian cities such as Catanzaro and Salerno after his first few sermons attracted little following. He became titled as both the "Angel of Peace" and the "Apostle of the South". Falcone became known for ecstasies during the celebration of Mass and was known for converting the hearts of thousands when he went about preaching. The friar possessed the gifts of visions and bilocation and was invited to start preaching in the Neapolitan region at the behest of Cardinal Francesco Pignatelli. He received beatification from Pope Leo XII on 18 December 1825 after being titled as a Servant of God in 1778 under Pope Pius VI and Venerable under Pope Pius VII on 17 June 1821. He is a patron of Acri and of missionaries.Pope Francis approved his canonization and it was determined at a gathering of cardinals on 20 April 2017 that Falcone would be named as a saint; the canonization was celebrated in Saint Peter's Square on 15 October 2017. Life
<mask> <mask> was born in Cosenza on 19 October 1669 to <mask> and Diana Enrico – poor parents of humble and pious stock. He had an uncle who was a priest. Falcone received the sacrament of Confirmation on 24 June 1674. In 1684 he met a charismatic friar <mask> da Olivadi – from the Franciscans proved to be decisive for him in realizing and pursuing his call to the religious life. He was admitted into the

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Luca Antonio Falcone
Luca Antonio
Falcone
Francesco Falcone
– Antonio


texts: Order of Friars Minor Capuchin in 1687 and was clothed in the habit in 1688 but a few months later returned home after the rigorous life frightened him. He believed at this time that he was being called to settle down and enter into the sacrament of marriage rather than pursue the religious life; his priest uncle encouraged this belief.He decided this was not for him and re-entered on 8 November 1689 but – after being scared once more – fled back home. On his knees before a Crucifix he begged: "Assist me with Your grace!" He requested for readmission for the third and final time on 12 November 1690 and began his novitiate. His theological studies spanned from 1695 until 1700. He completed his novitiate on 12 November 1691 at 6:00pm and made his profession to the novice master Giovanni d'Orsomarso while being elevated into the diaconate on 18 December 1694. He was ordained to the priesthood in the Cassano all'Jonio Cathedral on 10 April 1700. He consecrated each hour as a priest to some aspect of the Passion of Jesus Christ.He led a Lenten sermon in 1702 in the town of San Giorgio Morgeto at the behest of his provincial and began to address his people but could not remember what he was to continue with and so was forced to leave the pulpit confused. The Cardinal Archbishop of Naples Francesco Pignatelli soon learned of Falcone's prowess in 1711 and called him to preach in Naples and the surrounding areas that composed the archdiocese. He struggled with his first three sermons – which all turned out to be miserable – with people laughing at him at the first and almost no one at the following two. The worried parish priest begged Pignatelli to find another


texts:
 but the cardinal refused and put his trust in Falcone. At the fourth sermon more people turned up and at the end he asked the people to turn their hearts and minds to one who would soon die among them; as the people left a well-known man died of a stroke – who led opposition to his preaching – leading to his sermons gathering greater numbers. Overcoming this challenge led to him becoming a famous and sought after preacher. People requested him from all over in southern Italian cities and was known for the conversion of the hearts of thousands of people; he preached in places such as Taranto and Montecassino.His preaching earned him the two monikers of the "Angel of Peace" and the "Apostle of the South". He served as provincial father from 1717 until 1720 and was made general visitor in 1735; he served as novice master several times. Falcone possessed prophetic gifts as well as being able to receive visions while he possessed bilocation and could see into men's souls in the sacrament of confession. In 1724 he began construction of the convent of Cappuccinelle which opened on 17 June 1726. Falcone died on 30 October 1739 at the convent he was stationed at in Cosenza; he had become blind six months prior but regained his sight enough to continue to recite the Divine Office and celebrate Mass. His remains were relocated in the 1890s to the Basilica del Beato Angelo d'Acri – a church constructed in his honor. Canonization
The beatification process commenced in the local diocese on 10 October 1744 while the formal introduction for the cause came under Pope Pius VI on 22 May 1778.The process culminated on 17 June 1821 when Pope Pius VII named Falcone as being


texts:
 Venerable after confirming that the late friar had indeed lived a model life of heroic virtue. The recognition of three miracles attributed to his intercession on 20 November 1825 allowed for Pope Leo XII to preside over his beatification on 18 December 1825. The miracles involved:
 the cure of Marianna Bernaudo from Bisignano
 the cure of Pietro Sacco from Bisignano
 the cure of Francesco Sirimarco from Sant'Agata d'Esaro
The fourth miracle – the one that would be definitive for full sainthood – was investigated in a diocesan process from 14 March 2014 until 15 December 2014 before it later received validation from the Congregation for the Causes of Saints sometime later. Medical experts advising the C.C.S. met to discuss this miracle (after five previous sessions of other doctors examining it) approved the miracle on 15 December 2016. Theologians likewise approved this sometime later as did the C.C.S. before it was taken to the pope for his approval.Pope Francis approved this miracle on 23 March 2017 thus confirming that <mask> will be canonized in 2017; the date was formalized at a gathering of cardinals on 20 April. <mask> was proclaimed as a saint on 15 October 2017 in Saint Peter's Square. References

External links
 Hagiography Circle
 Saints SQPN

1669 births
1739 deaths
18th-century Christian saints
17th-century venerated Christians
18th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
17th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
18th-century venerated Christians
Beatifications by Pope Leo XII
Canonizations by Pope Francis
Capuchins
Franciscan missionaries
Franciscan saints
Italian Franciscans
Italian Roman Catholic saints
People from Cosenza
Venerated

masks: Falcone Falcone


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Sir <mask>  (20 August 180215 October 1894) was an Australian judge and Chief Justice of New South Wales. Early life
<mask> was born at St Christopher in the West Indies. His father, <mask> (1771–1833), was related to <mask>, became a barrister, and was Solicitor-General at St Christopher before his appointment as Solicitor-General of New South Wales in January 1824. He arrived at Sydney on 7 August 1824 and in September 1825 was made an acting judge of the Supreme Court. On 13 March 1826, his appointment as judge was confirmed. He resigned his position at the end of 1832 on account of ill-health and died on 21 December 1833. <mask> was educated at Charterhouse School and Honiton grammar school in Devon.He returned to St Christopher for some years and then went to London to study law. In November 1823 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and the following year sailed for Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). Van Diemen's Land
<mask> arrived at Hobart on 24 January 1825 and on 9 May was made Solicitor-General, and 10 days later, crown solicitor. He allied himself with Governor Arthur who had clashed with Joseph Tice Gellibrand, the Attorney-General. <mask>'s resignation of his position in August 1825, and his charges against his brother officer's professional and public conduct brought the matter to a head. <mask> always took an extremely high-minded attitude about his own conduct in this matter. In 1829 <mask> discovered a fatal error in land titles throughout the Australian colonies.The matter was rectified by royal warrant and the issuing of fresh titles in 1830. In January 1833 <mask> was gazetted attorney-general and showed great industry and ability in the position. He

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Alfred Stephen
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James Stephen
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 was forced to resign in 1837, his health having suffered much from overwork, but after a holiday he took up private practice with great success. New South Wales
On 30 April 1839, he was appointed as acting-judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales and he arrived in Sydney on 7 May. In 1841, when judge Willis went to Port Phillip, <mask> became a puisne judge and from 1839 to 1844 he was also a judge of the administrative court. He published in 1843 his Introduction to the Practice of the Supreme Court of New South Wales, and on 7 October 1844, he was appointed acting chief justice. His appointment as chief justice was confirmed in a dispatch from Lord Stanley dated 30 April 1845.He was to hold the position until 1873 and during that period not only carried out his judicial duties but advised the government on many complicated questions which arose in the legislature. In August 1852 he recommended that the second chamber under the new constitution should be partly nominated and partly elected. In May 1856 he was appointed President of the Legislative Council and held the position until January 1857. He was able to give the council the benefit of his experience by framing legislation dealing with land titles, the legal profession, and the administration of justice. He continued to hold his seat until November 1858 when judges were precluded from sitting in parliament. In February 1860 he obtained 12 months leave of absence and visited Europe. On his return, he gave much consideration to the question of criminal law and was principally responsible for a criminal law amendment bill which although first brought before parliament in 1872, did not actually become law until


texts:
 1883.He resigned his chief justiceship in 1873. He had administered the government between the departure of the Earl of Belmore in February 1872 and the arrival of Sir Hercules Robinson in June. He was appointed lieutenant-governor in 1875 and several times administered the government. He was a member of the legislative council from 1875 until 1890, taking an active part in the debates, and from 1880 he was president of the trustees of the national gallery. In 1883, with A. Oliver, he published Criminal Law Manual, comprising the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1883, and towards the end of his life interested himself in the amending of the law of divorce. Among his writings on the subject was an article in the Contemporary Review for June 1891 in reply to one by W. E. Gladstone in the North American Review. <mask> resigned from the legislative council in 1890 and lived in retirement.He was still comparatively vigorous when he passed his ninetieth birthday in August 1892 and never completely took to his bed. He faded quietly out of life on 15 October 1894, his intellect bright and clear to the last. Family
The <mask> family is a prominent legal dynasty in Australia. Sir <mask> was the son of <mask>, a judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales. <mask> married Virginia, daughter of Matthew Consett, who died in 1837, and Eleanor daughter of the Rev. William Bedford, who died in 1886. There were nine children of each marriage and at the time of <mask>'s death, he had 66 grandchildren.He was knighted in 1846 and was a made a CB in 1862,  in 1874, GCMG in 1884, and privy councillor in 1893. Of <mask>'s sons, <mask> <mask>, born in 1826, entered the Church and in 1869 became a

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Alfred
John Stephen
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Alfred Hewlett
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 canon of St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney. Another, Sir Matthew Henry <mask> (1828–1920), became a puisne judge of the supreme court of New South Wales in 1887, and a third son, Hon. Septimus <mask> (1842-1901) was a distinguished lawyer and New South Wales politician. Other sons held prominent positions in Sydney. Of his grandsons, Edward Milner <mask> was appointed a supreme court judge at Sydney in 1929 and Brigadier-general Robert Campbell <mask>, served with distinction in the 1914-18 war. A great-grandson, Lieutenant Adrian Consett <mask>, killed in the same war, showed much promise as a writer.His Four Plays and An Australian in the R.F.A. were published posthumously in 1918. <mask>'s brother, George Milner <mask> (1812 – 1894), was a barrister with a significant political career in South Australia and Victoria. Another brother, <mask>, (died 1854) was the earliest created alderman for the City of Melbourne. See also
List of judges of the Supreme Court of New South Wales

References

|-

1802 births
1894 deaths
Chief Justices of New South Wales
Lieutenant-Governors of New South Wales
Judges of the Supreme Court of New South Wales
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Members of the New South Wales Legislative Council
Presidents of the New South Wales Legislative Council
Directors and Presidents of the Art Gallery of New South Wales
People from Saint Kitts
Australian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of Lincoln's Inn
People educated at Charterhouse School
Colony of New South Wales judges
19th-century Australian politicians
Solicitors-General of Tasmania
19th-century Australian

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Alfred Stephen
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<mask>IE, FNI, FASc (15 June 1884 – 18 January 1963) was an Indian botanist, agronomist and plant geneticist who specialised in the study and hybridisation of sugarcane. He developed or supervised the development of numerous high-yield sugarcane cultivars, which established India as the world's second largest sugar producer and sustained the sugar industries of numerous other nations, including South Africa, Australia, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, and the United States. Early life and career
Venkataraman was born in Salem, Madras Presidency (now in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu) to an orthodox Tamil Brahmin family; though initially religious, he renounced religion by the age of 16. After graduating from a secondary school in Tiruchirapalli, where he was a brilliant scholar, he enrolled at Presidency College, Madras, where he decided to study botany over zoology, as he strongly disliked dissecting insects and other animals. In 1905, he graduated with a first-class honours B.A. in botany and briefly studied for an M.A. at Madras University before his appointment to the Agricultural College, Saidapet (now a constituent college of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University) as an assistant to Charles Alfred Barber, then a botanist in the Madras Presidency government service.In 1908, the college was moved to Coimbatore, where Venkataraman would spend the rest of his career. He soon demonstrated an aptitude for research, attempting to grow hybridised varieties of eggplant in his spare time. Research and development of the Coimbatore sugarcane cultivars
In the early 1900s, the extremely poor yields of Indian sugarcane varieties necessitated the import of sugar from the Netherlands East Indies, which was a heavy burden on the government exchequer. The British government eventually decided to establish a Sugarcane Breeding Institute to study sugarcane breeding and to develop an indigenous sugarcane industry. Coimbatore was selected due to its ideal climate, and Barber was appointed Government Sugarcane Expert

masks: Rao Bahadur Sir Tiruvadi Sambasiva Iyer Venkataraman C


texts: in October 1912, with Venkataraman as his assistant. According to Venkataraman's biographer and sole graduate student, J. Thuljaram Rao, the two scientists' observation of wild sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum) growing near the Agricultural College campus inspired them to use it in their trials. Though the first hybrid sugarcane crosses between the wild sugarcane and a cultivated sugarcane species, Saccharum officinarum, did not survive, by 1914, Venkataraman had succeeded in producing viable hybrid seedlings.As sugarcane breeding was a new field of research, Venkataraman relied on meticulous planning and observation along with the pioneering of new techniques, including artificial induction of flowering through photoperiodic treatments, nobilization and outcrossing plants to improve their genetic diversity. He also pioneered the detailed study of sugarcane root systems, which became vital in understanding the plants' yield potentials. In 1918, the first hybrid sugarcane variety produced by the Institute, Co. ("Coimbatore") 205, was recorded as generating yields 50% greater than those of indigenous varieties, which were entirely replaced by Co. 205 within 6–8 years. Along with another variant, Co. 285, the new varieties were soon commercially marketed in the Punjab, where they also proved capable of being cultivated under stressed conditions, including in waterlogged fields. Following those successes, Venkataraman developed a tri-species hybrid by crossing S. spontaneum and S. officinarum with Saccharum barberi, a North Indian variety which Barber had researched. The resulting hybrid, Co. 244, became commercially cultivated in Uttar Pradesh. Subsequently, tetra-species hybrids were also produced after a fourth parent, Saccharum robustum, was incorporated into the breeding programme.The hybrid cultivars, with a sugar content nearly 35 times that of their parent stocks, were soon recognised for being fast-maturing, for their ease of propagation and their resistance to waterlogging, drought and the


texts: red rot (Glomerella tucumanensis) and sereh diseases. In 1918, <mask> was promoted to full gazetted rank; he succeeded Barber as head of the Institute the following year, initially in an acting capacity while the British Indian government attempted to locate a European replacement to serve as director. After this proved unsuccessful, <mask> was eventually confirmed in his post and served as the permanent head of the Institute until his retirement. Over the next two decades, <mask> and his two research assistants, P. Thomas and N.L. Dutt, developed many more hybrid sugarcane varieties suitable for a wide range of environments and climatic conditions. While initial research had focused on developing hardy varieties that could sustain the colder winters in northern India, in 1926 research commenced into breeding plants for the South Indian and similar tropical climates. Apart from the successful Co. 205 and Co 285 cultivars, Co. 213, 421, 427 and 453 became popular in North India, notably in present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, while Co. 419, developed by Dutt, achieved tremendous success across South India and supported the region's sugarcane industries for four decades after its commercial introduction.In 1927, the Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, visited the Sugarcane Breeding Institute and praised Venkataraman's work, subsequently ordering all those connected with sugarcane cultivation to pay a visit. In 1928, Venkataraman presided over the agricultural section of that year's Indian Science Congress, delivering a lecture on "The Indian Sugar Bowl." He visited Java the following year to attend the annual meeting of the International Society of Sugarcane Technologists, presiding over the varietal section. In 1932, he was appointed to the Indian Agricultural Service. By the 1930s, Coimbatore sugarcane cultivars were in high demand and were being successfully grown around the world. In the United States, Co. 281 and Co. 290 supported the sugar industry in Louisiana; Co. 281 also sustained production in

masks: Venkataraman Venkataraman Venkataraman


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 South Africa and Cuba as it was readily adaptable and high-yielding even in poor soils and less forgiving climates. Co. 290 achieved popularity in Australia, while the tropical-friendly Co. 419 and Co. 421 became mainstays of sugarcane growers in Barbados, Trinidad and British Guiana (now Guyana).In later years, N. Co. 310, first cultivated in South Africa from seed exported from the Sugarcane Breeding Institute, became the most popular commercially-grown sugarcane cultivar in the world. At one point in the 1960s, Coimbatore-developed varieties were supporting the sugarcane industries of 22 countries. In the 21st century, Coimbatore cultivars continue to be cultivated and used as breeding stocks in Australia, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Pakistan. Research into intergeneric sugarcane hybrids
In 1930, Venkataraman successfully developed intergeneric hybrids of sugarcane and sorghum with the objective of producing short-duration sugarcane hybrids. Though the project was ultimately a commercial failure due to issues with sterility, his work subsequently helped inspire Janaki Ammal to develop a sugarcane-maize hybrid. In 1936, he attempted to develop a further intergeneric hybrid of sugarcane and the indigenous Bambusa arundinacea bamboo, intended to combine the height of the latter with the sugar percentage of the former. Under controlled conditions, sterile male sugarcane cultivars were used as pistil parents, which were dusted with bamboo pollen.Though some seedlings were produced to much acclaim amongst plant geneticists, with Venkataraman presenting his findings at the 1939 International Genetics Congress in Edinburgh, studies later suggested the seedlings were the result of apomixis, which was less understood at the time. In his researches, however, Venkataraman anticipated the modern development of intergeneric hybrids on a far wider scale. Later career and life
Venkataraman was elected President of the 1937 Indian Science Congress, delivering his address on "The Indian Village" and discussing the


texts:
 improvement of villages in the country as a priority: "Our duty then is clear, namely, to improve the village, the nucleus of our country life and inject its chief agent, the villager, with a chosen culture of the virus of [the] modern age through education and industrialisation." He again presided over the agricultural section of the Indian Science Congress in 1938, delivering a lecture on sugarcane hybridisation, and attended the 1939 International Genetics Congress at Edinburgh, where he was recognised as a "wizard" of sugarcane. Though he was scheduled to retire as head of the Sugarcane Breeding Institute in 1939, Venkataraman obtained a three-year extension and finally retired in 1942, when he was succeeded by his assistant Dutt. The year of his retirement, a Current Science article observed "the breeding work carried out by Venkataraman – aided by ample tariff protection – has been responsible for converting India from an importer of white sugar (1 million tons) to a position where the future of the Indian industry is in urgent need of securing export markets." By the end of his tenure at Coimbatore, it was estimated Venkataraman's efforts had saved India roughly 15 crore (150 million) rupees.Following his retirement, Venkataraman agreed to conduct a survey of sugarcane research in India, but gave it up on health grounds. He subsequently retired to Madras, where he spent his time reading philosophical works and frequently writing letters to The Hindu on various subjects. When the International Society of Sugarcane Technologists decided to hold its 1956 conference in India, he chaired the section on cane breeding; during the conference, a plaque commemorating the development of the Co. 205 cultivar was unveiled at the Sugarcane Breeding Institute. <mask> died in Madras on 18 January 1963, aged 78. He was married, and had one son, Ramamurti, who later became an assistant director of the National Physical Laboratory of India. Awards and honours
Venkataraman was extensively recognised for his


texts:
 achievements. In 1920, after the commercial success of the Co. 205 cultivar, he was given the title of Rao Sahib by the British government, and was raised to the title of Rao Bahadur in 1928.He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) in the 1937 New Year Honours list. In the 1942 New Year Honours list, he received a knighthood, becoming the first Indian agricultural scientist to be thus honoured, and was formally invested with his knighthood at the Viceroy's House (now Rashtrapati Bhavan) in New Delhi on 21 February 1942 by the then Viceroy, the Marquess of Linlithgow. In 1956, he was conferred the Padma Bhushan by the Indian government. Among his other distinctions, Venkataraman was conferred an honorary D.Sc. by Andhra University. In 1941, he was elected the first President of the Indian Society of Genetics and Plant Breeding, serving a single one-year term. He was elected as a Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences (FASc) in 1934, serving as its Vice-President in 1934–35, and was elected as a Foundation Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences of India (FNI, now the Indian National Science Academy) in 1935.He was also a member of the International Genetics Congress Association, the Indian Society of Genetics and Plant Breeding and the International Society of Sugarcane Technologists, and was an Honorary Fellow of the South African Sugar Technologists Association. References

Notes

Indian geneticists
Indian botanical writers
Indian agronomists
20th-century Indian botanists
Indian agriculturalists
Plant breeding
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in science & engineering
Indian knights
Knights Bachelor
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Rai Bahadurs
Rai Sahibs
Indian recipients of British titles
Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy
Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences
Indian Tamil people
Presidency College, Chennai alumni
Scientists from Tamil Nadu
People from Salem, Tamil Nadu
People from Salem district
1884 births
1963 deaths
People from


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<mask> (born November 25, 1946) is an American serial killer and rapist who murdered a minimum of 11 young women and girls in New York and New Jersey between 1967 to 1980 . He was nicknamed The Torso Killer and Times Square Torso Ripper after his dismemberment and decapitation of two victims on December 2, 1979, in a Travel Inn hotel on West 42nd Street and Tenth Avenue in the vicinity of Times Square. He tortured and murdered sex worker Deedeh Goodarzi, age 22, and a still unidentified teenage victim, severed their heads and hands, and set their torsos on fire. <mask> fled the scene with the severed heads and hands, which were never recovered. He was eventually apprehended on May 22, 1980, in a New Jersey motel in the act of torturing a teenage sex worker he had lured and driven to the location from New York City. In a series of trials in New Jersey and New York 1981 to 1984, <mask> was convicted of five murders, two in New Jersey and three in New York, plus multiple charges of kidnapping and sexual assault. In 2010, <mask> pleaded guilty to the 1967 murder of Nancy Vogel.He confessed under immunity to the murders of New Jersey school girls Jackie Harp, Irene Blase, and Denise Falasca in 1968–1969 in Bergen County, New Jersey. In 2021 he confessed and pleaded guilty in the double abduction rape/murders of Lorraine Marie Kelly, 16 and Mary Ann Pryor, 17. Officially, Cottingham killed 11 people, but he claims to have committed between 85 and 100 murders. <mask> is incarcerated in South Woods State Prison in Bridgeton, New Jersey. Early life and education
<mask> was born on November 25,

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Richard Francis Cottingham
Cottingham
Cottingham
Cottingham
Cottingham
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 1946, in The Bronx, New York City, the first of three children. In 1958, when he was 12, his family moved to River Vale, New Jersey. In 1964, <mask> graduated from Pascack Valley High School, in Hillsdale, New Jersey.Career
<mask> worked for his father at Metropolitan Life from 1964 to 1966 as a computer operator, while taking computer courses. In October 1966 he went to work as a computer operator at Blue Cross Blue Shield Association in New York until his arrest in 1980. Marriage
On May 3, 1970, Cottingham married his wife Janet at Our Lady of Lourdes Church in Queens Village, New York. First arrest and subsequent minor offenses

<mask> was arrested for several minor charges throughout his killing spree; the police were not aware of his murders at the time. On October 3, 1969, he was charged and convicted of drunk driving in New York City, and sentenced to 10 days in jail and a $50 fine. On August 21, 1972, <mask> was charged and convicted of shoplifting at Stern's Department Store in Paramus, New Jersey and was sentenced to pay a $50 fine. Murders
<mask>'s first known murder was the 1967 slaying of Nancy Schiava Vogel.He strangled the 29-year-old married mother of two, and her nude, bound body was found in her car in Ridgefield Park, New Jersey. She had last been seen three days earlier, when she left home to play bingo with friends at a local church. On December 2, 1979, firemen in New York responded to an alarm at a Travel Inn hotel near Times Square. Inside they found the bodies of Deedeh Goodarzi and another unidentified woman. Both bodies had their hands and heads removed, been

masks: Cottingham Cottingham Cottingham Cottingham Cottingham


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 doused with lighter fluid and set on fire. The missing body parts were never found. On May 5, 1980, police found the body of 19-year-old Valerie Ann Street in a Quality Inn in Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey.The victim's hands were tightly handcuffed behind her back. She was covered in bite marks and was beaten across the shins. Street had died of asphyxiation. This murder was later linked to an earlier murder in the same motel. The body of x-ray technician Maryann Carr, 26, was also found brutally beaten near the same hotel, but police could not positively link the crimes until after <mask>'s arrest. On May 15, Jean Reyner was strangled and her throat cut in the historic Seville Hotel. Starting in 2014, <mask> admitted to killing an additional three women (Jacalyn Harp, of Midland Park; Irene Blase, of Bogota; and Denise Falasca, of Closter, all of whom were strangled in the late 1960s).In April 2021 <mask> confessed to the unsolved 1974 double-abduction, rape and murder of teenagers Lorraine Marie Kelly and Mary Ann Pryor in Montvale, New Jersey. The confession was facilitated by Detective Robert Anzilotti of the Bergen County Prosecutor's Office shortly before his retirement. Anzilotti spent 15 years meeting with <mask>, working toward the confession, which raised the total number of victims attributed to Cottingham to 11. He claims to have committed between 85 and 100 murders. Arrest
On May 22, 1980, <mask> picked up 18-year-old Leslie Ann O'Dell, who was soliciting on the corner of Lexington Avenue and 25th Street. At some point she agreed to have sex with him for $100. Around dawn,


texts:
 they checked into the same Hasbrouck Heights Quality Inn where he had left his last mutilated victim.<mask> offered to give the girl a massage and she rolled over onto her stomach. Straddling her back, he drew a knife and put it to her throat as he snapped a pair of handcuffs on her wrists. He began torturing her, nearly biting off one of her nipples. She later testified that he said, "You have to take it. The other girls did, you have to take it too. You’re a whore and you have to be punished." O'Dell's muffled cries of pain became so loud that the motel staff, already spooked by the murder eighteen days earlier, called police and then rushed to the room demanding that Cottingham open the door.<mask> was apprehended by arriving police officers in the hallway. When arrested he had handcuffs, a leather gag, two slave collars, a switchblade, replica pistols and a stockpile of prescription pills. Charges
The charges listed in Cottingham's New Jersey indictment included kidnapping, attempted murder, aggravated assault, aggravated assault with deadly weapon, aggravated sexual assault while armed (rape), aggravated sexual assault while armed (sodomy), aggravated sexual assault while armed (fellatio), possession of a weapon, possession of controlled dangerous substances, Secobarbital and Amobarbital, or Tuinal, and possession of controlled dangerous substance, Diazepam or Valium. After his wife Janet initiated divorce proceedings on the grounds of "abandonment, non-support and mental cruelty" he resided in a basement apartment of the house they lived in on Vreeland Street in Lodi, New Jersey.

masks: Cottingham Cottingham


texts:
 After his arrest police found a few personal effects traced to two of his victims in his room and in the trunk of his car. Trials
<mask> had a working knowledge of forensics, and in the 13-year period during which he is known to have committed 11 murders, only one fingerprint belonging to him was recovered, from the ratchet mechanism of handcuffs left behind on one of the victims. A case based on 'signature pattern' was built against Cottingham along with the testimony of three surviving victims.In the early 1980s <mask> was convicted of five murders. In 2010 he pleaded guilty in the 1967 murder of Nancy Vogel, 29. In 2021, he pleaded guilty to kidnapping, raping and drowning a pair of teenage girls in 1974. He also confessed to three murders of New Jersey school girls in 1968–1969 in return for immunity from prosecution. See also
 List of serial killers in the United States
 List of serial killers by number of victims

References

External links

1946 births
Living people
American serial killers
Male serial killers
Criminals from New Jersey
American people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by New York (state)
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by New York (state)
1967 murders in the United States
20th-century American criminals
American male criminals
People from the Bronx
Criminals from New York City
Pascack Valley High School alumni
American people convicted of rape
American people convicted of sexual assault
People from Lodi, New Jersey
People from River Vale, New Jersey
Violence against women in the United


texts:
<mask>  is a Canadian social worker and documentary film producer. He is the founder of Sher Vancouver which is a registered charity for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) South Asians and their friends. <mask> was the first Sikh to become a Grand Marshal of the Vancouver Pride Parade. <mask> received the Meritorious Service Medal from Governor General Julie Payette in 2018 for his work founding Sher Vancouver. <mask>'s first short documentary film, My Name Was January, won 14 awards and garnered 66 official selections at film festivals around the world. <mask>'s debut feature documentary, Emergence: Out of the Shadows, was an official selection at Out on Film in Atlanta, Image+Nation in Montreal, and Reelworld in Toronto. The film was the closing night film at both the South Asian Film Festival of Montreal and the Vancouver International South Asian Film Festival where it picked up Best Documentary.Early life
<mask> was born in Gravesend, Kent, England. His birth name is Amar Singh <mask>. He was raised in metro Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, specifically Surrey and North Delta. His father, Dalbir <mask>, and his mother, Jaspal Kaur <mask>, are both of the Sikh faith from Punjab, India. <mask> was largely raised by his mother. His mother received a standing ovation for delivering a speech about embracing her gay son in 2018. <mask> has an older and younger brother, and a half-brother through his Dad's second marriage.Education and career
<mask> completed an MSc in Public Administration and Public Policy from the Department of Government from the London School of Economics. He has a Master of Social Work from Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, as well as a Bachelor of Social Work from the University of British Columbia with a First Class Standing. In addition, <mask> completed an Associate of Arts Degree at Douglas College in New Westminster, British Columbia, and graduated Grade 12 from Frank Hurt Secondary in Surrey. <mask> is a Registered Clinical Social Worker and a Registered Clinical Counsellor with a private

masks:
Alex Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Singh Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha
Sangha


texts:
 counselling practice in North Delta. He previously worked as an instructor, clinician, social worker, team leader, and youth counsellor. Personal life
<mask> identifies as a gay South Asian male and described his coming out experience as very alienating and isolating as a teenager, and he had a hard time with internalized homophobia. In November 2016, <mask> provided support and assistance for a Sikh international student from Punjab, India who was disowned by his family for being gay and who contacted Sher Vancouver for help.<mask> later referred to this student as part of the family. In May 2020, <mask> wrote a commentary which was published in The Times of India which described a "spiritual experience" he had when he was 19. The commentary further described the impact this experience had on his social work career and community service as a gay activist, as well as helping him come to terms with his sexuality as a gay Punjabi Sikh male. On October 10, 2020, on World Mental Health Day, the London School of Economics Alumni published on their internal communication channels and social media platforms a commentary <mask> wrote about being "blessed with bipolar," because it makes him live as a creative humanitarian. He is also the recipient of the Courage to Come Back Award from Coast Mental Health for 2021. In January 2022, <mask> wrote a commentary that was published in India that explained his "spiritual philosophy" on being gay, having children, and God. Sher Vancouver
<mask> founded Sher Vancouver in April 2008.He launched the Dosti project which was an anti-bullying, anti-racism, homophobia, and transphobia workshop that went into high schools. The project was unique because it included coming out stories from a South Asian perspective. <mask> launched the Out and Proud project which profiled amazing queer South Asians from around the world including from Canada, United States, United Kingdom, and India. Sangha developed a free crisis counselling program and peer support groups for Sher Vancouver members. In 2015, <mask> launched the January

masks: Sangha Sangha Sangha Sangha Alex Sangha Sangha Sangha Sangha


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 Marie Lapuz Youth Leadership Award to recognize youth from all over the world doing great work in the LGBTQ community. In 2016, <mask> became the first Sikh to become the Grand Marshal of the Vancouver Pride Parade. In 2017, <mask> led the Sher Vancouver contingent in the Vancouver Vaisakhi Parade and in doing so made history as the first LGBTQ South Asian organization to ever march in the parade.In 2018, <mask> celebrated the tenth anniversary of Sher Vancouver with the Desi-Q Cultural Celebration in Surrey. In 2019, <mask> successfully lobbied the City of Delta in British Columbia, on behalf of Sher Vancouver, to install rainbow park benches in the city to support diversity and inclusion. In July 2020, <mask>, on behalf of Sher Vancouver, released Queersome Desi Resources which is a specially curated comprehensive list of Queer South Asian Resources from around the world. As part of Pride celebrations in British Columbia in 2020, the CBC profiled <mask> as part of a Proud to Shine campaign to recognize his work as a social worker, filmmaker, and founder of Sher Vancouver. In September 2021, <mask> delivered the Paul Cheng Memorial Lecture to incoming social work students at the University of British Columbia. He was selected as the 2020 winner of the Inspiring Social Worker of the Year Award in part for his work in Sher Vancouver. The Sher Vancouver LGBTQ Friends Society became a registered charity on July 6, 2021.Dignity Seniors Society
Sangha is one of the founders of the Dignity Seniors Society which is a non-profit society that aims to support vulnerable LGBTQ seniors in Vancouver. The Dignity Seniors Society was originally the Dignity House Advisory Committee (DHAC) which was a Master of Social Work practicum project of Sangha. The intent of the DHAC was to build affordable housing for LGBTQ seniors. Sangha managed to secure sufficient funds from the Vancity Community Foundation and the United Way of the Lower Mainland to complete a market survey of the need and demand for affordable housing within the community. Books and writing
<mask> has

masks: Sangha Sangha Sangha Sangha Sangha Sangha Sangha Sangha


texts:
 been a contributor for The Times of India, Huffington Post Canada, Vancouver Observer, and Georgia Straight. His writings focus on social justice themes such as alleviating poverty, improving access to the legal system and democracy, LGBTQ rights, social affairs, issues that impact the South Asian community, and Canadian, British Columbian, and local politics from Surrey. <mask> has published three books through AuthorHouse.Imagine: Ideas that Challenge the Status Quo (2010),  The Modern Thinker:  Timeless Ideas, Inspiration, and Hope for the 21st Century (2011), and Catalyst:  A Collection of Commentaries to Get Us Talking (2013). Catalyst was a Finalist in the Current Events and Social Change category of the Next Generation Indie Book Awards of 2014. Films

Sangha produced a short documentary film directed by Elina Gress and Lenee Son, My Name Was January. It was about Sher Vancouver's late social coordinator, January Marie Lapuz, who was tragically murdered in New Westminster in September 2012. The film focuses on January's strengths and struggles and provides a platform for other trans women of colour to have a voice. My Name Was January was an official selection at the National Screen Institute Online Short Film Festival in Winnipeg, Manitoba. It was also a Finalist at the San Francisco Bay Area Sex Worker Film and Arts Festival.My Name Was January won 13 awards, and garnered 56 official selections at film festivals around the world. In 2018, the New West Record selected <mask> as one of the Top 10 people who had an impact in the arts in New Westminster. <mask>'s debut feature documentary film, this time directed by Vinay Giridhar entitled, Emergence: Out of the Shadows, is about gay and lesbian South Asian people and their coming out journey and the reactions of the parents. He received training and mentorship from the National Screen Institute in Winnipeg, Manitoba to help him with Emergence: Out of the Shadows. The film had its World Premiere at Cinema Diverse: The Palm Springs LGBTQ Film Festival where it picked up a Festival Favourite award,

masks: Sangha Sangha Sangha


texts:
 and started its festival run in other US festivals such as Out On Film in Atlanta which is an Academy Award qualifying festival and the Chicago South Asian Film Festival where it picked up a Special Mention for Director Vinay Giridhar for Best Feature Documentary. Emergence: Out of the Shadows was also an official selection at Image+Nation in Montreal, Reelworld Film Festival in Toronto, and was the closing night film at both the South Asian Film Festival of Montreal and the Vancouver International South Asian Film Festival where it picked up Best Documentary. The film was also nominated for three awards at the Vancouver Asian Film Festival including Best Canadian Feature Award, Best Director for Canadian Feature Award, and Best Cinematography for Canadian Feature Award for 2021.Emergence: Out of the Shadows entered the Canadian Screen Awards for Best Feature Documentary and Best Editing for 2022. Emergence: Out of the Shadows had its South Asian Premiere at Reel Desires:  Chennai International Queer Film Festival. Expo 2022
In 2019, <mask> and Upkar Tatlay delivered a presentation to Surrey City Council to bring a World Exposition to Surrey to celebrate the diverse cultures and heritage of the city. The Expo would have a focus on South Asian culture since Surrey has one of the largest South Asian diaspora communities outside of South Asia. Over twenty letters of support from stakeholders was provided to endorse the Expo including from Simon Fraser University and Vancity. Mayor Doug McCallum stated that the Expo “shows a lot of promise”  and City Council directed staff to prepare an initial report on the proposal. Honours and awards
Meritorious Service Medal from the Governor General of Canada
BC Community Achievement Award
Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal
2011 Top 25 Canadian Immigrants Award

References

External links
 Official Website of <mask>ha

LGBT people from Canada
Canadian social workers
Canadian documentary film producers
Living people
1972 births
21st-century LGBT people
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Decoration
Canadian

masks:
Sangha
Alex Sang


texts:
<mask>. (born June 6, 1956) is a television meteorologist and podcast host based in Birmingham, Alabama. He currently works for WBMA-LD (ABC 33/40), Birmingham's ABC affiliate. Spann has worked in the field since 1978. He is also the host of the weekly podcast WeatherBrains which he started in 2006. Early life
Spann was born on June 6, 1956 in Huntsville, Alabama to Max and <mask> (1932–2018). As a child, he and his family moved to Greenville in Butler County. His mother worked as a secretary at Greenville High School, while his father sold lumber.When Spann was 7, his father left the family, leaving Carolyn to raise him. After Spann finished the fourth grade, he and his mother moved to Tuscaloosa, so that his mother could complete her education at the University of Alabama and become a schoolteacher. Career
Spann began his broadcast career in Tuscaloosa in 1973 at WTBC radio. There, in high school, he worked the night shift, while former ABC 33/40 anchor Dave Baird worked mornings. Spann volunteered many hours following the 1974 Alabama tornadoes in Jasper. He began his television career in the summer of 1978 at 33/40 predecessor WCFT in Tuscaloosa, the "33" in 33/40. In fall 1978, Spann moved to WSFA in Montgomery as weekend sports anchor and part-time weatherman.After spending the summer of 1979 as afternoon-drive announcer at Top 40 station WHHY-FM ("Y102") in Montgomery, he was hired at WAPI-TV in Birmingham as chief weatherman, despite having no formal weather education. At the age of 23, he was one of the youngest chief weathermen in the country. Channel 13 was sold to Times Mirror in 1980 and renamed WVTM-TV, and Spann impressed his new bosses enough that they moved him to sister station KDFW in Dallas in 1984. In 1985, he was named the best weathercaster in

masks:
James Max Spann Jr
Carolyn Spann


texts: the Metroplex by the Dallas Press Club, defeating such competition as KXAS-TV's Harold Taft and WFAA-TV's Troy Dungan. After only two years, he returned to Alabama as part owner of a small AM-FM radio station combo in Demopolis with Dave Baird. He returned to television in October 1989 as chief weatherman at Birmingham's WBRC-TV. At the same time, he enrolled in Mississippi State University's meteorology program, earning the NWA and AMS seals of approval upon his graduation.Spann left WBRC in 1996 in a move that made local headlines. WBRC had just been purchased by News Corporation and was dropping its longtime affiliation with ABC in favor of Fox. <mask>, a devout Southern Baptist, was unhappy with Fox's then-steady diet of reality shows and other programming. Spann followed several of his former WBRC colleagues to the newly formed ABC 33/40, which had merged WCFT with WJSU-TV in Anniston and a new low-power repeater in Birmingham (WBMA-LD), and had replaced WBRC as Birmingham's ABC affiliate. He has been at ABC 33/40 ever since. Spann is the founder of The Weather Factory (formerly The Weather Company) which provides broadcast weather forecasts for a number of radio stations and weather data for industrial and business clients. Spann was the 33rd person in America to receive the AMS distinction as a Certified Broadcast Meteorologist.Spann remained on television for ten hours during a tornado warning for western Jefferson County on April 8, 1998. An F5 tornado struck Oak Grove High School before 8:00 that evening. The next day, Spann spoke from a helicopter about the warning and the high school's damage. Beginning in 2007, Spann could be heard by listeners of the Rick and Bubba Show, a popular syndicated radio show based in Birmingham but heard across the country,


texts: mainly in the Southeast. <mask>'s tenure began when the show switched flagship stations in Birmingham to WZZK-FM, where Spann's forecasts had been heard for some time beforehand. He is also the chairman and one of the founders of AllWorship.com, a non-profit organization webcasting three streaming radio stations which feature worship music in English and Spanish. The organization grew out of WRRS/Reality Radio, a commercial FM radio station that broadcast Contemporary Christian music in the Birmingham market from 2000 to 2001.In 2004, Spann hosted a television special about severe weather safety. He interviewed Goshen United Methodist Church's F4 tornado survivors of March 27, 1994 including the former pastor, Kelly Clem and her husband, Dale. Later, he spoke about the tragedy and safety instructions to Brian E. Peters, Warning Coordination Meteorologist from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in Calera's Shelby County Airport. He is also the host of WeatherBrains, a weekly weather podcast and board chairman of the Children's Hospital of Alabama. Formerly a longtime member of Hunter Street Baptist Church, Spann is the children's Sunday School teacher at Double Oak Community Church outside Birmingham. He won an Emmy Award with John Oldshue from the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences for live coverage of a deadly tornado in Tuscaloosa on December 16, 2000. (A camera mounted on the transmitter tower of the former Channel 33 captured live images of the tornado as it moved through the community.)The station won an Edward R. Murrow Award for this coverage. Spann received two major national awards following his live coverage of the April 2011 tornado super outbreak, which claimed over 250 lives, and had over 50 tornadoes. The National Weather


texts:
 Association named him Broadcaster of the Year, in recognition of his "passionate dedication to serving the Central Alabama community with critical weather information for over 30 years, especially during the deadly April 27, 2011, tornado outbreak". The American Meteorological Society also awarded Spann the Award for Broadcast Meteorology "for his tireless efforts to advance the public's awareness of, and engagement in, the science of meteorology, particularly severe weather forecasting and response." Spann has been named the state's best weather anchor nine times (as of 2007) by the Associated Press, and best weather anchor in Dallas-Fort Worth by the Dallas Press Club. Spann is also an alumnus member of Theta Tau – Mu Chapter. Global warming
In January 2007, Spann attracted worldwide publicity by disputing the theory that atmospheric temperature increases, better known as global warming, observed in the 1930s and since the 1970s were man-made.Instead, he asserts that they are naturally caused, as part of the climate's cyclical nature. Spann's views have been widely criticised. In a blog post for Inside Climate News, Katherine Bagley explained that the short-term models used by many TV weather forecasters are too short-term to demonstrate long-term climate patterns, and that most meteorology degrees do not include any education on climate or climate change. Spann asserts that it is money from research grants rather than genuine science that fuels support for the global warming hypothesis:

Billions of dollars of grant money is flowing into the pockets of those on the man-made global warming bandwagon. No man-made global warming, the money dries up. This is big money, make no mistake about it. Always follow the money trail and it tells a story.Even the lady at "The


texts:
 Weather Channel" probably gets paid good money for a prime time show on climate change. No man-made global warming, no show, and no salary. Nothing wrong with making money at all, but when money becomes the motivation for a scientific conclusion, then we have a problem. For many, global warming is a big cash grab. Spann was countering a statement made by Heidi Cullen, a staff meteorologist with The Weather Channel, who had written that those who disagreed with the view that global warming was caused by man-made events should not be given the Seal of Approval by the American Meteorological Society. Spann's remarks in his station's weather blog were linked to by the Drudge Report, which thrust Spann — a well-known personality in north and central Alabama, but little known outside that area — into the larger spotlight. As of 2011, Spann has the most followers on Twitter and the most fans on Facebook of any local television meteorologist.Spann is a signatory of the Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation's "An Evangelical Declaration on Global Warming". The declaration states:

We believe Earth and its ecosystems — created by God's intelligent design and infinite power and sustained by His faithful providence — are robust, resilient, self-regulating, and self-correcting, admirably suited for human flourishing, and displaying His glory. Earth's climate system is no exception. See also
 The Weather Channel: 2007 global warming controversy

References

External links
Spann's official web site
Spann's bio at ABC 33/40
<mask>nn article at BhamWiki.com

1956 births
Living people
Weather presenters
American television meteorologists
American Christians
People from Birmingham, Alabama
People from Greenville, Alabama
People from Tuscaloosa, Alabama
People from


texts: <mask> of Milan (; ), venerated as Saint <mask>, was the Bishop of Milan, a theologian and statesman. He expressed himself prominently as a public figure, fiercely promoting the Latin Church against Arianism and paganism. He left a substantial collection of writings, of which the best known include the ethical commentary De officiis ministrorum (377–391), and the exegetical  (386–390). His preachings, his actions and his literary works, in addition to his innovative musical hymnography, made him one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. <mask> was serving as the Roman governor of Aemilia-Liguria in Milan when he was unexpectedly made Bishop of Milan in 374 by popular acclamation. As bishop, he took a firm position against Arianism and attempted to mediate the conflict between the emperors Theodosius I and Magnus Maximus. Tradition credits <mask> with developing an antiphonal chant, known as Ambrosian chant, and for composing the "Te Deum" hymn, though modern scholars now reject both of these attributions.<mask>'s authorship on at least four hymns, including the well-known "Veni redemptor gentium", is secure; they form the core of the Ambrosian hymns, which includes others that are sometimes attributed to him. He also had notable influence on Augustine of Hippo (354–430), particularly in converting him to Christianity. Before the 16th century, Western Christianity identified <mask> as one of its four traditional Doctors of the Church. He is considered a saint by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, and various Lutheran denominations, and venerated as the patron saint of Milan and

masks: Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose


texts:
 beekeepers. Life and background

Legends about <mask> had spread through the empire long before his biography was written, making it difficult for modern historians to understand his true character and fairly place his behavior within the context of antiquity. Most agree he was the personification of his era. As such, <mask> was a genuinely spiritual man who spoke up and defended his faith against opponents, an aristocrat who retained many of the attitudes and practices of a Roman governor, while also being an ascetic who served the poor.Early life

<mask> was born into a Roman Christian family in the year 339. <mask> himself wrote that he was 53 years old in his letter number 49 which has been dated to 392. He began life in Augusta Trevorum (modern Trier) the capitol of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica in what was then northeastern Gaul and is now modern Germany. Who exactly his father was is disagreed upon by scholars. His father is sometimes identified with Aurelius Ambrosius, a praetorian prefect of Gaul; but some scholars identify his father as an official named Uranius who received an imperial constitution dated 3 February 339 (addressed in a brief extract from one of the three emperors ruling in 339, Constantine II, Constantius II, or Constans, in the Codex Theodosianus, book XI.5). What does seem certain is that <mask> was born in Trier and his father was either the praetorian prefect or part of his administration. There is a legend about <mask> as an infant contending that a swarm of bees settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind a drop of honey.His father is said to have considered this a sign of


texts:
 his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. For this reason, bees and beehives often appear in the saint's symbology. <mask>chi, and thus <mask> was cousin of the orator Quintus Aurelius Symmachus. The family had produced one martyr (the virgin Soteris) in its history. <mask> was the youngest of three children. His siblings were Satyrus, the subject of <mask>'s De excessu fratris Satyri,  and Marcellina, who made a profession of virginity sometime between 352 and 355; Pope Liberius himself conferred the veil upon her.Both <mask>'s siblings also became venerated as saints. Some time early in the life of <mask>, his father died, and at an unknown later date, his mother fled Trier with her three children, whereupon the family moved to Rome. There <mask> studied literature, law, and rhetoric. He then followed in his father's footsteps and entered public service. Praetorian Prefect Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus first gave him a place as his council, and then in about 372 made him governor of Liguria and Emilia, with headquarters at Milan. Bishop of Milan
In 374 the bishop of Milan, Auxentius, an Arian, died, and the Arians challenged the succession. <mask> went to the church where the election was to take place to prevent an uproar which was probable in this crisis.His address was interrupted by a call, "<mask>, bishop! ", which was taken up by the whole assembly. <mask> was known to be Nicene Christian in belief, but he was considered acceptable to Arians due to the charity he had shown in theological matters in this regard. At first he energetically refused the office, for which he felt he was in no way prepared: <mask> was a relatively

masks: Ambroseymma Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose


texts:
 new Christian who was not yet baptized nor formally trained in theology. <mask> fled to a colleague's home seeking to hide. Upon receiving a letter from the Emperor Gratian praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals worthy of holy positions, <mask>'s host gave him up. Within a week, he was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated as the next bishop of Milan.This was the first time in the West that a member of the upper class of high officials had accepted the office of bishop. As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, donating all of his land, making only provision for his sister Marcellina. This raised his popularity even further; it was his popularity with the people that gave him considerable political leverage throughout his career. Upon the unexpected appointment of <mask> to the episcopate, his brother Satyrus resigned a prefecture in order to move to Milan, where he took over managing the diocese's temporal affairs. Arianism
Arius was a Christian priest who asserted (around the year 300) that God the Father must have created the Son, making the Son a lesser being who was not eternal and of a different "essence" than God the Father was. This Christology was contrary to tradition, yet it quickly spread through Egypt and Libya and the other Roman provinces. Bishops engaged in "wordy warfare," and the people divided into parties, sometimes demonstrating in the streets in support of one side or the other.Arianism appealed to many high level leaders and clergy in both the Western and Eastern empires. Although the western Emperor Gratian supported orthodoxy, the younger

masks: Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose


texts: Valentinian II, who became his colleague in the Empire, adhered to the Arian creed. <mask> sought to theologically refute Arian propositions, but <mask> did not sway the young prince's position. In the East, Emperor Theodosius I likewise professed the Nicene creed; but there were many adherents of Arianism throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy. In this state of religious ferment, two leaders of the Arians, bishops Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum, confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that he complied without hesitation. However, <mask> feared the consequences and prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops.Accordingly, a synod composed of thirty-two bishops was held at Aquileia in the year 381. <mask> was elected president and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined. A vote was then taken and Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from their episcopal offices. <mask> struggled with Arianism for over half of his life in the episcopate. Unifying the church was important to the church, but it was no less important to the state, and as a Roman, <mask> felt strongly about that. Judaism was more attractive for those seeking conversion than previous scholars have realized, and pagans were still in the majority, so the edition of heresy created an age of religious ferment comparable to the Reformation of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Orthodox Christianity was determining how to define itself as it faced multiple


texts:
 challenges on both a theological and a practical level, and <mask> is seen as a crucial influence at a crucial time.Imperial relations
<mask> had good relations and varying levels of influence with the Roman emperors Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius I, but exactly how much influence, what kind of influence, and in what ways, when, has been debated in the scholarship of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Gratian
It has long been convention to see Gratian and <mask> as having a personal friendship, putting <mask> in the dominant role of spiritual guide, but modern scholars now find this view hard to support in the sources. The ancient Christian historian Sozomen is the only ancient source that shows <mask> and Gratian together in any personal interaction. In that interaction, Sozomen relates that, in the last year of Gratian's reign, <mask> crashed Gratian's private hunting party in order to appeal on behalf of a pagan senator sentenced to die. After years of acquaintance, this indicates <mask> could not take for granted that Gratian would see him, so instead, <mask> had to resort to such maneuverings to make his appeal. Gratian was personally devout long before meeting <mask>. Modern scholarship indicates Gratian's religious policies do not evidence capitulation to <mask> more than they evidence Gratian's own views.Gratian's devotion did lead <mask> to write a large number of books and letters of theology and spiritual commentary dedicated to the emperor. The sheer volume of these writings and the effusive praise they contain has led many historians to conclude that Gratian was dominated by <mask>, and it was

masks: Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose Ambrose


texts: that dominance that produced Gratian's anti-pagan actions. McLynn asserts that effusive praises were common in everyone's correspondence with the crown. He adds that Gratian's actions were determined by the constraints of the system as much as "by his own initiatives or <mask>'s influence". McLynn asserts that the largest influence on Gratian's policy was the profound change in political circumstances produced by the battle of Adrianople in 378. Gratian had become involved in fighting the Goths the previous year and had been on his way to the Balkans when his Uncle and the "cream of the eastern army" were destroyed at Adrianople. Gratian withdrew to Sirmium and set up his court there.Several rival groups, including the Arians, sought to secure benefits from the government at Sirmium. In an Arian attempt to undermine <mask>, whom Gratian had not yet met, Gratian was 'warned' that <mask>' faith was suspect. Gratian took steps to investigate by writing <mask> and asking him to explain his faith. <mask> and Gratian first met, after this, in 379 during a visit to Milan. The bishop made a good impression on Gratian and his court which was pervasively Christian and aristocratic much like <mask> himself. The emperor returned to Milan in 380 to find that <mask> had complied with his request for a statement of his faith – in two volumes – known as De Fide: a statement of orthodoxy, <mask>' political theology, and a polemic against the Arian heresy intended for public discussion. The emperor had not asked to be instructed by <mask>, and in De Fide <mask> states this clearly.Nor was he asked to refute the Arians. He was asked to justify his own

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 position, but in the end, he did all three. By 382, it seems clear that <mask> had replaced Ausonius to become a major influence in Gratian's court. <mask> had not yet become the "conscience" of kings he would in the later 380's, but he did speak out against reinstating the Altar of Victory. In 382, Gratian was the first to divert public financial subsidies that had previously supported Rome's cults. Before that year, contributions in support of the ancient customs had continued unchallenged by the state. Valentinian II
Gratian, who was childless, had treated his younger brother Valentinian II like a son.<mask>, on the other hand, had incurred the lasting enmity of Valentinian II's mother, the Empress Justina, in the winter of 379 by helping to appoint a Nicene bishop in Sirmium. Not long after this, Valentinian II, his mother, and the court left Sirmium; Sirmium had come under Theodosius' control, so they went to Milan which was ruled by Gratian. In 383 Gratian was assassinated at Lyon, in Gaul (France) by Magnus Maximus. Valentinian was twelve years old, and it left his mother, Justina, in a position of something akin to a regent. In 385 (or 386) the emperor Valentinian II and his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy, the laity, and the military, professed Arianism. Conflict between <mask> and Justina soon followed. The Arians demanded that Valentinian allocate to them two churches in Milan: one in the city (the Basilica of the Apostles), the other in the suburbs (St Victor's).<mask> refused to surrender the churches. He answered by saying that "What belongs to God, is outside the emperor's power". In this,

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texts: <mask> called on an ancient Roman principle: a temple set apart to a god became the property of that god. <mask> now applied this ancient legal principle to the Christian churches, and the bishop, as his representative, was guardian of his god's property. Subsequently, while <mask> was performing the Liturgy of the Hours in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give it up the to the Arians. <mask> again refused. Certain deans (officers of the court) were sent to take possession of the basilica by hanging upon it imperial escutcheons.Instead, soldiers from the ranks the emperor had placed around the basilica began pouring into the church assuring <mask> of their fidelity. The escutcheons outside the church were removed, and legend says the children tore them to shreds. <mask> refused to surrender the basilica, and sent sharp answers back to his emperor: "If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it." By Thursday, the emperor gave in, bitterly responding: "Soon, if <mask> gives the orders, you will be sending me to him in chains." In 386, Justina and Valentinian II received the Arian bishop Auxentius the younger, and <mask> was again ordered to hand over a church in Milan for Arian usage.<mask> and his congregation barricaded themselves inside the church, and again the imperial order was rescinded. There was an attempted kidnapping, and

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 another attempt to arrest him and force him to leave the city. Several accusations were made, but unlike John Chrysostum, no formal charges were brought. The emperor certainly had the power to do so, and probably didn't solely because of  <mask>' popularity with the people and what they might do. When Magnus Maximus usurped power in Gaul, and was considering a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent <mask> to dissuade him, and the embassy was successful. A second later embassy was unsuccessful. The enemy entered Italy and Milan was taken.Justina and her son fled, but <mask> remained, and had the plate of the church melted for the relief of the poor. After defeating the usurper Maximus at Aquileia in 388 Theodosius handed the western realm back to the young Valentinian II, the seventeen-year-old son of the forceful and hardy Pannonian general Valentinian I and his wife, the Arian Justina. Furthermore, the Eastern emperor remained in Italy for a considerable period to supervise affairs, returning to Constantinople in 391 and leaving behind the Frankish general Arbogast to keep an eye on the young emperor. By May of the following year Arbogast's ward was dead amidst rumours of both treachery and suicide...

Theodosius

While <mask> was writing De Fide, Theodosius published his own statement of faith in 381 in an edict establishing Catholic Christianity as the only legitimate faith. There is unanimity amongst scholars that this represents the emperor's own beliefs. The aftermath of Valen's death had left many questions for the church unresolved, and this edict can be seen as an effort to begin addressing those questions. Theodosius' natural

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texts: generosity was tempered by his pressing need to establish himself and to publicly assert his personal piety.On 28 February 380, Theodosius issued the Edict of Thessalonica, a decree addressed to the city of Constantinople, determining that only Christians who did not support Arian views were catholic and could have their places of worship officially recognized as "churches". Liebeschuetz and Hill indicate that it wasn't until after 388, during Theodosius' stay in Milan following the defeat of Maximus, that Theodosius and <mask> first met. After the Massacre of Thessalonica in 390, Theodosius made an act of public penance at <mask> behest. <mask> was away from court during the events at Thessalonica, but after being informed of them, he wrote Theodosius a letter. In that still existing letter, <mask> presses for a semi-public demonstration of penitence from the emperor, telling him that, as his bishop, he will not give Theodosius communion until it is done. Wolf Liebeschuetz says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when <mask> openly admitted him to communion". Some past scholars have credited <mask> with having an undue influence over the Emperor Theodosius I, from this period forward, prompting him toward major anti-pagan legislation beginning in February of 391.However, this interpretation has been heavily disputed since the late twentieth century. McLynn argues that Theodosius's anti-pagan legislation was too limited in scope for it to be of interest to the bishop. The fabled encounter at the door of the cathedral in Milan, with <mask> as the mitred prelate braced, blocking

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texts: Theodosius from entering, which has sometimes been seen as evidence of <mask>' dominance over Theodosius, has been shown by modern historians to be "a pious fiction". There was no encounter at the church door. The story is a product of the imagination of Theodoret, a historian of the fifth century who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record". The twenty-first century view is that <mask> was "not a power behind the throne". The two men did not meet each other frequently, and documents that reveal the relationship between the two are less about personal friendship than they are about negotiations between two formidable leaders of the powerful institutions they represent: the Roman State and the Italian Church.Cameron says there's no evidence <mask> was a significant influence on the emperor. For centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. This view was recorded by Theodoret, who is recognized as an undependable historian, in the century following their deaths. Theodosius's predecessors Constantine, Constantius, and Valens had all been semi-Arians. Therefore, it fell to the orthodox Theodosius to receive from Christian literary tradition most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity. Modern scholars see this as an interpretation of history by Christian writers more than as a representation of actual history. The view of a pious Theodosius submitting meekly to the authority of the church, represented by <mask>, is part of the myth that evolved within a generation of their deaths.Later years and


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 death

In April 393 Arbogast, magister militum of the West and his puppet Emperor Eugenius, marched into Italy to consolidate their position in regard to Theodosius I and his son, Honorius, whom Theodosius had appointed Augustus to govern the western portion of the empire. Arbogast and Eugenius courted <mask>'s support by very obliging letters; but before they arrived at Milan, he had retired to Bologna, where he assisted at the translation of the relics of Saints Vitalis and Agricola. From there he went to Florence, where he remained until Eugenius withdrew from Milan to meet Theodosius in the Battle of the Frigidus in early September 394. Soon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman Empire, Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and <mask> gave the eulogy. Two years later (4 April 397) <mask> also died. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by Simplician. <mask>'s body may still be viewed in the church of Saint Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated –  along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Saints Gervase and Protase.<mask> is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 7 December. Character
In 1960, Neil B. McLynn wrote a complex study of <mask> that focused on his politics and intended to "demonstrate that <mask> viewed community as a means to acquire personal political power". Subsequent studies of how <mask> handled his episcopal responsibilities, his Nicene theology and his dealings with the Arians in his episcopate, his pastoral care, his commitment to community, and his personal ascetism, have mitigated this view. All of <mask>' writings are works of


texts: advocacy of his religion, and even his political views and actions were closely related to his religion. He was rarely, if ever, concerned about simply recording what had happened; he did not write to reveal his inner thoughts and struggles; he wrote to advocate for his God. Boniface Ramsey writes that it is difficult "not to posit a deep spirituality in a man" who wrote on the mystical meanings of the Song of Songs and many extraordinary hymns. In spite of an abiding spirituality, <mask> had a generally straightforward manner, and a practical rather than a speculative tendency in his thinking.De Officiis is a utilitarian guide for his clergy in their daily ministry in the Milanese church rather than "an intellectual tour de force". Christian faith in the third century developed the monastic life-style which subsequently spread into the rest of Roman society in a general practice of virginity, voluntary poverty and self-denial for religious reasons. This life-style was embraced by many new converts, including <mask>, even though they did not become actual monks. The bishops of this era had heavy administrative responsibilities, and <mask> was also sometimes occupied with imperial affairs, but he still fulfilled his primary responsibility to care for the well-being of his flock. He preached and celebrated the Eucharist multiple times a week, sometimes daily, dealt directly with the needs of the poor, as well as widows and orphans, "virgins" (nuns), and his own clergy. He replied to letters personally, practiced hospitality, and made himself available to the people. <mask> had the ability to maintain good relationships with all kinds of


texts: people.Local church practices varied quite a bit from place to place at this time, and as the bishop, <mask> could have required that everyone adapt to his way of doing things. It was his place to keep the churches as united as possible in both ritual and belief. Instead, he respected local customs, adapting himself to whatever practices prevailed, instructing his mother to do the same. As bishop, <mask> undertook many different labors in an effort to unite people and "provide some stability during a period of religious, political, military, and social upheavals and transformations". Brown says <mask> "had the makings of a faction fighter". While he got along well with most people, <mask> was not averse to conflict and even opposed emperors with a fearlessness born of self-confidence and a clear conscience and not from any belief he would not suffer for his decisions. Having begun his life as a Roman aristocrat and a governor, it is clear that <mask> retained the attitude and practice of Roman governance even after becoming a bishop.His acts and writings show he was quite clear about the limits of imperial power over the church's internal affairs including doctrine, moral teaching, and governance. He wrote to Valentinian: "In matters of faith bishops are the judges of Christian emperors, not emperors of bishops." (Epistle 21.4). He also famously told to the Arian bishop chosen by the emperor, "The emperor is in the church, not over the church." (Sermon Against Auxentius, 36). <mask>'s acts and writings "created a sort of model which was to remain valid in the Latin West for the relations of the Church and the Christian State. Both


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 powers stood in a basically positive relationship to each other, but the innermost sphere of the Church's life--faith, the moral order, ecclesiastical discipline--remained withdrawn from the State's influence."<mask> was also well aware of the limits of his power. At the height of his career as a venerable, respected and well loved bishop in 396, imperial agents marched into his church, pushing past him and his clergy who had crowded the altar to protect a political suspect from arrest, and dragged the man from the church in front of <mask> who could do nothing to stop it. "When it came to the central functions of the Roman state, even the vivid <mask> was a lightweight". Attitude towards Jews
The most notorious example of <mask>'s anti-Jewish animus occurred in 388, when Emperor Theodosius the Great was informed that a crowd of Christians had retaliated against the local Jewish community by destroying the synagogue at Callinicum on the Euphrates. The synagogue most likely existed within the fortified town to service the soldiers serving there, and Theodosius ordered that the offenders be punished, and that the synagogue be rebuilt at the expense of the bishop. <mask> wrote to the Emperor arguing against this, basing his argument on two assertions: first, if the bishop obeyed the order, it would be a betrayal of his faith. Second, if the bishop instead refused to obey the order, he would become a martyr and create a scandal for the emperor.<mask>, referring to a prior incident where Magnus Maximus issued an edict censuring Christians in Rome for burning down a Jewish synagogue, warned Theodosius that the people in turn exclaimed "the


texts: emperor has become a Jew", implying Theodosius would receive the same lack of support from the people. Theodosius rescinded the order concerning the bishop. That was not enough for <mask>, and when Theodosius next visited Milan, <mask> confronted him directly in an effort to get the emperor to drop the entire case. McLynn argues that <mask> failed to win the emperor's sympathy and was mostly excluded from his counsels thereafter. The Callinicum affair was not an isolated incident. Generally speaking, <mask> presents a strong anti-Jewish polemic. While McLynn says this makes <mask> look like a bully and a bigot to modern eyes, scholars also agree <mask>' attitudes toward the Jews cannot be fairly summarized in one sentence, as not all of <mask>' attitudes toward Jews were negative.<mask> makes extensive and appreciative use of the works of Philo of Alexandria - a Jew - in <mask>' own writings, treating Philo as one of the "faithful interpreters of the Scriptures". Philo was an educated man of some standing and a prolific writer during the era of Second Temple Judaism. Forty–three of his treatises have been preserved, and these by Christians, rather than Jews. Philo became foundational in forming the Christian literary view on the six days of creation through Basil's Hexaemeron. Eusebius, the Cappadocian Fathers, and Didymus the Blind appropriated material from Philo as well, but none did so more than <mask>. As a result of this extensive referencing, Philo was accepted into the Christian tradition as an honorary Church Father. "In fact, one Byzantine catena even refers to him as 'Bishop Philo'.This high regard for Philo even led to a


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 number of legends of his conversion to Christianity, although this assertion stands on very dubious evidence". <mask> also used Josephus, Maccabees, and other Jewish sources for his writings. He praises some individual Jews. <mask> tended to write negatively of all non-Nicenes as if they were all one category. This served a rhetorical purpose in his writing and should be considered accordingly. Attitude towards pagans

Modern scholarship indicates paganism was a lesser concern than heresy for Christians in the fourth and fifth centuries, which was the case for <mask>, but it was still a concern. Writings of this period were commonly hostile and often contemptuous toward a paganism Christianity saw as already defeated in heaven.The great Christian writers of the third to fifth centuries attempted to discredit continuation in these "defeated practices" by searching pagan writings, "particularly those of Varro, for everything that could be regarded by Christian standards as repulsive and irreligious." <mask>' work reflects this triumphalism. {{efn|These Christian sources have had great influence on perceptions of this period by creating an impression of overt and continuous conflict that has been assumed on an empire-wide scale, while archaeological evidence indicates that, outside of violent rhetoric, the decline of paganism away from the imperial court was relatively non-confrontational. {{sfnm|Trombley|2001|1loc=Vol I|1pp=166-168|Trombley|2001|2loc=Vol II|2pp=335-336}}}}

Throughout his time in the episcopate, <mask> was active in his opposition to any state sponsorship of pagan cults. When Gratian ordered the Altar of Victory to be


texts: removed, it roused the aristocracy of Rome to send a delegation to the emperor to appeal the decision, but Pope Damasus I got the Christian senators to petition against it, and <mask> blocked the delegates from getting an audience with the emperor. Under Valentinian II, an effort was made to restore the Altar of Victory to its ancient station in the hall of the Roman Senate and to again provide support for the seven Vestal Virgins. The pagan party was led by the refined senator Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, who used all his prodigious skill and artistry to create a marvelous document full of the maiestas  populi  Romani.Hans Lietzmann writes that  "Pagans and Christians alike were stirred by the solemn earnestness of an admonition which called all men of goodwill to the aid of a glorious history, to render all worthy honor to a world that was fading away". Then <mask> wrote Valentinian II a letter asserting that the emperor was a soldier of God, not simply a personal believer but one bound by his position to serve the faith; under no circumstances could he agree to something that would promote the worship of idols. <mask> held up the example of Valentinian's brother, Gratian, reminding Valentinian that the commandment of God must take precedence. The bishop's intervention led to the failure of Symmachus' appeal. In 389, <mask> intervened against a pagan senatorial delegation who wished to see the emperor Theodosius I. Although Theodosius refused their requests, he was irritated at the bishop's presumption and refused to see him for several days. Later, <mask> wrote a letter to the emperor Eugenius complaining that some gifts the latter


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 had bestowed on pagan senators could be used for funding pagan cults.Theology

<mask> joins Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great as one of the Latin Doctors of the Church. Theologians compare him with Hilary, who they claim fell short of <mask>'s administrative excellence but demonstrated greater theological ability. He succeeded as a theologian despite his juridical training and his comparatively late handling of Biblical and doctrinal subjects. <mask>'s intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing doctrine of the Church and its sacerdotal ministry, while the prevalent asceticism of the day, continuing the Stoic and Ciceronian training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty standard of Christian ethics. Thus we have the De officiis ministrorum, De viduis, De virginitate and De paenitentia. <mask> displayed a kind of liturgical flexibility that kept in mind that liturgy was a tool to serve people in worshiping God, and ought not to become a rigid entity that is invariable from place to place. His advice to Augustine of Hippo on this point was to follow local liturgical custom."When I am at Rome, I fast on a Saturday; when I am at Milan, I do not. Follow the custom of the church where you are." Thus <mask> refused to be drawn into a false conflict over which particular local church had the "right" liturgical form where there was no substantial problem. His advice has remained in the English language as the saying, "When in Rome, do as the Romans do." One interpretation of <mask>'s writings is that he was a Christian universalist. It has been noted that <mask>'s theology was significantly influenced by that of


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 Origen and Didymus the Blind, two other early Christian universalists. One quotation cited in favor of this belief is:

One could interpret this passage as being another example of the mainstream Christian belief in a general resurrection (that both those in heaven and in hell undergo a bodily resurrection), or an allusion to purgatory (that some destined for heaven must first undergo a phase of purification).Several other works by <mask> clearly teach the mainstream view of salvation. For example: "The Jews feared to believe in manhood taken up into God, and therefore have lost the grace of redemption, because they reject that on which salvation depends." Giving to the poor
In De Officiis, the most influential of his surviving works, and one of the most important texts of patristic literature, he reveals his views connecting justice and generosity by asserting these practices are of mutual benefit to the participants. <mask> draws heavily on Cicero and the biblical book of Genesis for this concept of mutual inter-dependence in society. In the bishop's view, it is concern for one another's interests that binds society together. <mask> asserts that avarice leads to a breakdown in this mutuality, therefore avarice leads to a breakdown in society itself. In the late 380s, the bishop took the lead in opposing the greed of the elite landowners in Milan by starting a series of pointed sermons directed at his wealthy constituents on the need for the rich to care for the poor.Some scholars have suggested <mask>' endeavors to lead his people as both a Roman and a Christian caused him to strive for what a modern context would describe as a type


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 of communism or socialism. He was not just interested in the church but was also interested in the condition of contemporary Italian society. <mask> considered the poor not a distinct group of outsiders, but a part of a united people to be stood with in solidarity. Giving to the poor was not to be considered an act of generosity towards the fringes of society but a repayment of resources that God had originally bestowed on everyone equally and that the rich had usurped. He defines justice as providing for the poor whom he describes as our "brothers and sisters" because they "share our common humanity". Mariology
The theological treatises of <mask> of Milan would come to influence Popes Damasus, Siricius and Leo XIII. Central to <mask> is the virginity of Mary and her role as Mother of God.The virgin birth is worthy of God. Which human birth would have been more worthy of God, than the one in which the Immaculate Son of God maintained the purity of his immaculate origin while becoming human? We confess that Christ the Lord was born from a virgin, and therefore we reject the natural order of things. Because she conceived not from a man but from the Holy Spirit. Christ is not divided but one. If we adore him as the Son of God, we do not deny his birth from the virgin. ...But nobody shall extend this to Mary. Mary was the temple of God but not God in the temple. Therefore, only the one who was in the temple can be worshiped. Yes, truly blessed for having surpassed the priest (Zechariah). While the priest denied, the Virgin rectified the error. No wonder that the Lord, wishing to rescue the world, began his work with Mary. Thus she, through


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 whom salvation was being prepared for all people, would be the first to receive the promised fruit of salvation.<mask> viewed celibacy as superior to marriage and saw Mary as the model of virginity. Augustine
<mask> studied theology with Simplician, a presbyter of Rome. Using his excellent knowledge of Greek, which was then rare in the West, <mask> studied the Old Testament and Greek authors like Philo, Origen, Athanasius, and Basil of Caesarea, with whom he was also exchanging letters. <mask> became a famous rhetorician whom Augustine came to hear speak. Augustine wrote in his Confessions that Faustus, the Manichean rhetorician, was a more impressive speaker, but the content of <mask>'s sermons began to affect Augustine's faith. Augustine sought guidance from <mask>, and again records in his Confessions that <mask> was too busy to answer his questions. In a passage of Augustine's Confessions in which Augustine wonders why he could not share his burden with <mask>, he comments: "<mask> himself I esteemed a happy man, as the world counted happiness, because great personages held him in honor.Only his celibacy appeared to me a painful burden." Simplician regularly met with Augustine, however, and Augustine writes of Simplician's "fatherly affection" for him. It was Simplician who introduced Augustine to Christian Neoplatonism. It is commonly understood in the Christian Tradition that <mask> baptized Augustine. In this same passage of Augustine's Confessions is an anecdote which bears on the history of reading:

This is a celebrated passage in modern scholarly discussion. The practice of reading to oneself without vocalizing the text was


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 less common in antiquity than it has since become. In a culture that set a high value on oratory and public performances of all kinds, in which the production of books was very labor-intensive, the majority of the population was illiterate, and where those with the leisure to enjoy literary works also had slaves to read for them, written texts were more likely to be seen as scripts for recitation than as vehicles of silent reflection.However, there is also evidence that silent reading did occur in antiquity and that it was not generally regarded as unusual. Music

<mask>'s writings extend past literature and into music, where he was an important innovator in early Christian hymnography. His contributions include the "successful invention of Christian Latin hymnody", while the hymnologist Guido Maria Dreves designated him to be "The Father of church hymnody". He was not the first to write Latin hymns; the Bishop Hilary of Poitiers had done so a few decades before. However, the hymns of Hilary are thought to have been largely inaccessible by-way of their complexity and length. Only fragments of hymns from Hilary's Liber hymnorum exist, making those of <mask> the earliest extant complete Latin hymns. The assembling of <mask>'s surviving oeuvre remains controversial; the almost immediate popularity of his style quickly prompted imitations, some which may even date from his lifetime.There are four hymns for which <mask>'s authorship is universally accepted, as they are attributed to him by Augustine:

 "Aeterne rerum conditor"
 "Deus creator omnium"
 "Iam surgit hora tertia"
 "Veni redemptor gentium" (also known as "Intende qui regis