texts:
 Syria.He studied philosophy at the University of Damascus, graduating in 1968. <mask> also spent some time in his 20s traveling and working in Europe as a grape picker and dish washer. Islamic Tendency Movement
In April 1981 <mask> founded the Islamic Tendency Movement ( ). The Movement described itself as specifically rooted in non-violent Islamism, and called for a "reconstruction of economic life on a more equitable basis, the end of single-party politics and the acceptance of political pluralism and democracy." By the end of July, <mask> and his followers were arrested, sentenced to eleven years in prison in Bizerte, and were tortured. Both the religious and secular community, including numerous secular political organizations, rallied in his support. While in prison he translated a number of works and wrote on topics such as democracy, women's rights, and Palestine.He also wrote his most noted work, Al‐Hurriyat al‐'Ammah (Public Liberties). He was released in 1984, but returned to prison in 1987 with a life sentence, then was again released in 1988. He moved to the United Kingdom as a political exile, where he lived for 22 years. He attended The Islamic Committee for Palestine conference in Chicago in 1989. Following the 1990 invasion of Kuwait, Al-Ghannushi denounced King Fahd of Saudi Arabia for the "colossal crime" of inviting the U.S. to deploy forces. He also called for a Muslim boycott of American goods, planes and ships. He has also been criticized for calling for jihad against Israel.<mask> continued to criticise Tunisian politics and the regime of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. Tunisian Revolution and after

Following popular unrest in which Ben Ali was ousted, <mask> returned

masks: Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi


type: original

texts: to Tunisia on 30 January 2011, after spending twenty two years exiled in London,  with thousands of people welcoming him. His party won  37.04% of the vote (more than the next four biggest vote-getting parties combined) in the 2011 Tunisian Constituent Assembly election. <mask> did not take a government position. Ennahdha's secretary-general Hamadi Jebali became Prime Minister. Ennahda formed a government which led Tunisia through the challenging and tumultuous aftermath of the Jasmine revolution. The government during this period was characterized by greater transparency, lack of corruption, and consensus-building.In March 2012, Ennahda declared it would not support making sharia the main source of legislation in the new constitution, maintaining the secular nature of the state. Ennahda's stance on the issue was criticized by hardline Islamists, who wanted strict sharia, but was welcomed by secular parties. The government was criticized for mediocre economic performance, not stimulating the tourism industry, and poor relations with Tunisia's biggest trading partner France. In particular it was criticized for tolerating efforts at aggressive Islamisation by radical Islamists who were demanding Sharia law and denouncing gender inequality and restrictions on polygamy, some of whom were responsible for the September 2012 ransacking and burning of the American embassy and school following the assassination of two leftist politicians Chokri Belaid (in February 2013) and Mohamed Brahmi (in July 2013). During this 2013–14 Tunisian political crisis enraged secularists demanded the government step down or even a Sisi-style coup, while Ennahda militants defiantly opposed early elections, even booing


texts:
 <mask>'s calls for sacrifice for national unity. Nonetheless Ghanouchi worked with secularist leader Beji Caid Essebsi to forge a compromise and on October 5 signed a "road map" whereby Ennahda would step down for a caretaker government after the new constitution was agreed upon and until new elections were held. Both leaders were heavily criticized by their party rank and file and <mask> received agreement from the Ennahda shura council only by threatening to resign.In January 2014, after the new Tunisian Constitution was approved, Ennahdha peacefully quit government and handed power to a technocratic government led by Mehdi Jomaa. Ennahda placed second in the October 2014 parliamentary election with 27.79% of the popular vote and formed a coalition government with the larger secularist party Nidaa Tounes despite rank-and-file opposition. Ennahda did not put forth a presidential candidate for the November 2014 election. Ghanouchi "hinted broadly" that he personally supported Beji Caid Essebsi (who won with over 55% of the vote). <mask> argued for these accommodating measures against more purist party members on the grounds that the country was still too fragile, and the economy too much in need of reform, for Ennahda to be in opposition. <mask> also gave his support to a crackdown on jihadi indoctrination at radical mosques (over 60 civilians, mostly tourists, were killed in 2015 by jihadis, devastating Tunisia's tourist industry). Despite his Islamist background, he had always been "reviled" by jihadis, according to Robert Worth, and now appeared near "the top" of the jihadi "wanted list".The Economist apology in 2011
On 22 October 2011, The Economist published an apology on their website for

masks: Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi


texts:
 previously publishing an article in which they attributed false statements to <mask>. The article claimed that <mask> "opposes the country's liberal code of individual rights, the Code of Personal Status, and its prohibition of polygamy". The article, also, claimed that <mask> "has threatened to hang a prominent Tunisian feminist, Raja bin Salama, in Basij Square in Tunis, because she has called for the country's new laws to be based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". The apology stated that "we accept that neither of these statements is true: Mr <mask> has expressly said that he accepts the Code of Personal Status; and he never threatened to hang Ms bin Salama. We apologise to him unreservedly." The Independent apology in 2012
On 9 October 2012, The Independent published an apology on their website for suggesting, in a previous article, that the party <mask> leads, Ennahdha (An Nahda) has been offered foreign funds. The apology stated: "we wish to make it clear that Mr <mask> and his party have not accepted any donation from a foreign state in breach of Tunisian party funding laws.We apologise to Mr Ghannouchi." BBC apology in 2013
On 17 May 2013, the BBC published an apology on their website for previously publishing inaccurate statements about Ghannouchi six months earlier on 21 November 2012. The article had accused <mask> of threatening to order troops on to the streets if the Ennahdha Party did not get the results he expected in the elections in 2011, and suggested he condoned the violent Salafist attack on the United States embassy and the burning of the American School in Tunis in September 2012. Acknowledging that none of these accusations and suggestions were in fact true,

masks: Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi


texts:
 the retraction concluded: "The BBC apologises to Mr <mask> for these mistakes and for the distress they caused him." Libel case in 2020
In 2020, the UK High Court ruled in favour of <mask>, in a libel case against Middle East Online and its editor Haitham El Zobaidi. The Middle East Online (MEO) and one of its editors had claimed that Ennahda "supported terrorism", a charge <mask> "vigorously denied". According to Ahmed Yusuf, the article was part of a ""a systematic campaign" against Ghannouchi from media backed by Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Egypt."Views and background
<mask>'s willingness to compromise with secularists in Tunisia and his country's unique success in maintaining a democratic system following the Arab Spring has been credited by at least one observer (Robert Worth) to his background. Unlike many Islamists, <mask> "lived abroad for decades, reading widely in three languages", including Western thinkers Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud and Jean-Paul Sartre. He admired the courage of leftists who protested in the streets against the dictatorship, were arrested and tortured in prison, and became willing to work with them. Watching the initial victory of the Algerian Islamists—while exiled in London—collapse into the slaughter, mayhem and defeat of the civil war, left a deep impact. According to Azzam S. Tamimi, he was influenced by Malik Bennabi and his treatise "Islam and Democracy", which laid "the foundations" for <mask>'s "masterpiece" Al‐Hurriyat al‐'Ammah (Public Liberties). In 2002, an unsympathetic Western source (Martin Kramer) described him as differing "from other Islamists" in his insistence "that Islam accepts multi-party democracy." In 2015, he told

masks: Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi Ghannouchi


texts:
 French journalist Olivier Ravanello that homosexuality should not be criminalized, though he opposed gay marriage.He has been interviewed by Michael Moore in Where to Invade Next and stated that homosexuality is a "private affair." Personal life
On 13 July 2021, the official TAP news agency reported that <mask>, already vaccinated tested positive for COVID-19. On 1 August, he was discharged a few hours after he was readmitted to a


texts:
<mask> (; January 12, 1856 – April 14, 1925) was an American expatriate artist, considered the "leading portrait painter of his generation" for his evocations of Edwardian-era luxury. He created roughly 900 oil paintings and more than 2,000 watercolors, as well as countless sketches and charcoal drawings. His oeuvre documents worldwide travel, from Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. Born in Florence to American parents, he was trained in Paris before moving to London, living most of his life in Europe. He enjoyed international acclaim as a portrait painter. An early submission to the Paris Salon in the 1880s, his Portrait of Madame X, was intended to consolidate his position as a society painter in Paris, but instead resulted in scandal. During the next year following the scandal, <mask> departed for England where he continued a successful career as a portrait artist.From the beginning, <mask>'s work is characterized by remarkable technical facility, particularly in his ability to draw with a brush, which in later years inspired admiration as well as criticism for a supposed superficiality. His commissioned works were consistent with the grand manner of portraiture, while his informal studies and landscape paintings displayed a familiarity with Impressionism. In later life <mask> expressed ambivalence about the restrictions of formal portrait work, and devoted much of his energy to mural painting and working en plein air. Art historians generally ignored artists  who painted  Royalty and "Society"  –  such as <mask>  – until the late 20th century. Early life
<mask> is a descendant of

masks:
John Singer Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent


texts: Epes <mask>, a colonial military leader and jurist. Before <mask> <mask>'s birth, his father, FitzWilliam (b. 1820 Gloucester, Massachusetts), was an eye surgeon at the Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia 1844–1854.After <mask>'s older sister died at the age of two, his mother, Mary Newbold <mask> (née <mask>, 1826–1906), suffered a breakdown, and the couple decided to go abroad to recover. They remained nomadic expatriates for the rest of their lives. Although based in Paris, <mask>'s parents moved regularly with the seasons to the sea and the mountain resorts in France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. While Mary was pregnant, they stopped in Florence, Tuscany, because of a cholera epidemic. <mask> was born there in 1856. A year later, his sister Mary was born. After her birth, FitzWilliam reluctantly resigned his post in Philadelphia and accepted his wife's request to remain abroad.They lived modestly on a small inheritance and savings, leading a quiet life with their children. They generally avoided society and other Americans except for friends in the art world. Four more children were born abroad, of whom only two lived past childhood. Although his father was a patient teacher of basic subjects, young <mask> was a rambunctious child, more interested in outdoor activities than his studies. As his father wrote home, "He is quite a close observer of animated nature." His mother was convinced that traveling around Europe, and visiting museums and churches, would give young <mask> a satisfactory education. Several attempts to have him formally schooled failed, owing mostly to their itinerant life.His mother was a capable

masks:
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
John
Singer
Singer
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent


texts:
 amateur artist and his father was a skilled medical illustrator. Early on, she gave him sketchbooks and encouraged drawing excursions. <mask> worked on his drawings, and he enthusiastically copied images from The Illustrated London News of ships and made detailed sketches of landscapes. FitzWilliam had hoped that his son's interest in ships and the sea might lead him toward a naval career. At thirteen, his mother reported that <mask> "sketches quite nicely, & has a remarkably quick and correct eye. If we could afford to give him really good lessons, he would soon be quite a little artist." At the age of thirteen, he received some watercolor lessons from Carl Welsch, a German landscape painter.Although his education was far from complete, <mask> grew up to be a highly literate and cosmopolitan young man, accomplished in art, music, and literature. He was fluent in English, French, Italian, and German. At seventeen, <mask> was described as "willful, curious, determined and strong" (after his mother) yet shy, generous, and modest (after his father). He was well-acquainted with many of the great masters from first hand observation, as he wrote in 1874, "I have learned in Venice to admire Tintoretto immensely and to consider him perhaps second only to Michelangelo and Titian." Training

An attempt to study at the Academy of Florence failed, as the school was re-organizing at the time. After returning to Paris from Florence <mask> began his art studies with the young French portraitist Carolus-Duran. Following a meteoric rise, the artist was noted for his bold technique and modern teaching methods; his influence would be pivotal

masks: Sargent John Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts: to <mask> during the period from 1874 to 1878.In 1874 <mask> passed on his first attempt the rigorous exam required to gain admission to the École des Beaux-Arts, the premier art school in France. He took drawing classes, which included anatomy and perspective, and gained a silver prize. He also spent much time in self-study, drawing in museums and painting in a studio he shared with James Carroll Beckwith. He became both a valuable friend and <mask>'s primary connection with the American artists abroad. <mask> also took some lessons from Léon Bonnat. Carolus-Duran's atelier was progressive, dispensing with the traditional academic approach, which required careful drawing and underpainting, in favor of the alla prima method of working directly on the canvas with a loaded brush, derived from Diego Velázquez. It was an approach that relied on the proper placement of tones of paint.This approach also permitted spontaneous flourishes of color not bound to an under-drawing. It was markedly different from the traditional atelier of Jean-Léon Gérôme, where Americans Thomas Eakins and Julian Alden Weir had studied. <mask> was the star student in short order. Weir met <mask> in 1874 and noted that <mask> was "one of the most talented fellows I have ever come across; his drawings are like the old masters, and his color is equally fine." <mask>'s excellent command of French and his superior talent made him both popular and admired. Through his friendship with Paul César Helleu, <mask> would meet giants of the art world, including Degas, Rodin, Monet, and Whistler. <mask>'s early enthusiasm was for landscapes, not portraiture, as

masks: Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts:
 evidenced by his voluminous sketches full of mountains, seascapes, and buildings.Carolus-Duran's expertise in portraiture finally influenced <mask> in that direction. Commissions for history paintings were still considered more prestigious, but were much harder to get. Portrait painting, on the other hand, was the best way of promoting an art career, getting exhibited in the Salon, and gaining commissions to earn a livelihood. <mask>'s first major portrait was of his friend Fanny Watts in 1877, and was also his first Salon admission. Its particularly well-executed pose drew attention. His second salon entry was the Oyster Gatherers of Cançale, an impressionistic painting of which he made two copies, one of which he sent back to the United States, and both received warm reviews. Early career

In 1879, at the age of 23, <mask> painted a portrait of teacher Carolus-Duran; the virtuoso effort met with public approval and announced the direction his mature work would take.Its showing at the Paris Salon was both a tribute to his teacher and an advertisement for portrait commissions. Of <mask>'s early work, Henry James wrote that the artist offered "the slightly 'uncanny' spectacle of a talent which on the very threshold of its career has nothing more to learn." After leaving Carolus-Duran's atelier, <mask> visited Spain. There he studied the paintings of Velázquez with a passion, absorbing the master's technique, and in his travels gathered ideas for future works. He was entranced with Spanish music and dance. The trip also re-awakened his own talent for music (which was nearly equal to his artistic talent), and which found

masks: Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts:
 visual expression in his early masterpiece El Jaleo (1882). Music would continue to play a major part in his social life as well, as he was a skillful accompanist of both amateur and professional musicians.<mask> became a strong advocate for modern composers, especially Gabriel Fauré. Trips to Italy provided sketches and ideas for several Venetian street scenes genre paintings, which effectively captured gestures and postures he would find useful in later portraiture. Upon his return to Paris, <mask> quickly received several portrait commissions. His career was launched. He immediately demonstrated the concentration and stamina that enabled him to paint with workman-like steadiness for the next twenty-five years. He filled in the gaps between commissions with many non-commissioned portraits of friends and colleagues. His fine manners, perfect French, and great skill made him a standout among the newer portraitists, and his fame quickly spread.He confidently set high prices and turned down unsatisfactory sitters. He mentored his friend Emil Fuchs who was learning to paint portraits in oils. Works

Portraits

Nineteenth-century portraits

In the early 1880s, <mask> regularly exhibited portraits at the Salon, and these were mostly full-length portrayals of women, such as Madame Edouard Pailleron (1880) (done en plein-air) and Madame Ramón Subercaseaux (1881). He continued to receive positive critical notice. <mask>'s best portraits reveal the individuality and personality of the sitters; his most ardent admirers think he is matched in this only by Velázquez, who was one of <mask>'s great influences. The Spanish master's spell


texts:
 is apparent in <mask>'s The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit, 1882, a haunting interior that echoes Velázquez's Las Meninas. As in many of his early portraits, <mask> confidently tries different approaches with each new challenge, here employing both unusual composition and lighting to striking effect.One of his most widely exhibited and best loved works of the 1880s was The Lady with the Rose (1882), a portrait of Charlotte Burckhardt, a close friend and possible romantic attachment. His most controversial work, Portrait of Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau) (1884) is now considered one of his best works, and was the artist's personal favorite; he stated in 1915, "I suppose it is the best thing I have done." When unveiled in Paris at the 1884 Salon, it aroused such a negative reaction that it likely prompted <mask>'s move to London. <mask>'s self-confidence had led him to attempt a risque experiment in portraiture—but this time it unexpectedly backfired. The painting was not commissioned by her and he pursued her for the opportunity, quite unlike most of his portrait work where clients sought him out. <mask> wrote to a common acquaintance:

It took well over a year to complete the painting. The first version of the portrait of Madame Gautreau, with the famously plunging neckline, white-powdered skin, and arrogantly cocked head, featured an intentionally suggestive off-the-shoulder dress strap, on her right side only, which made the overall effect more daring and sensual.<mask> repainted the strap to its expected over-the-shoulder position to try to dampen the furor, but the damage had been done. French commissions dried up

masks: Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts:
 and he told his friend Edmund Gosse in 1885 that he contemplated giving up painting for music or business. Writing of the reaction of visitors, Judith Gautier observed:

Prior to the Madame X scandal of 1884, <mask> had painted exotic beauties such as Rosina Ferrara of Capri, and the Spanish expatriate model Carmela Bertagna, but the earlier pictures had not been intended for broad public reception. <mask> kept the painting prominently displayed in his London studio until he sold it to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1916 after moving to the United States, and a few months after Gautreau's death. Before arriving in England, <mask> began sending paintings for exhibition at the Royal Academy. These included the portraits of Dr. Pozzi at Home (1881), a flamboyant essay in red and his first full-length male portrait, and the more traditional Mrs. Henry White (1883). The ensuing portrait commissions encouraged <mask> to complete his move to London in 1886.Notwithstanding the Madame X scandal, he had considered moving to London as early as 1882; he had been urged to do so repeatedly by his new friend, the novelist Henry James. In retrospect his transfer to London may be seen to have been inevitable. English critics were not warm at first, faulting <mask> for his "clever" "Frenchified" handling of paint. One reviewer seeing his portrait of Mrs. Henry White described his technique as "hard" and "almost metallic" with "no taste in expression, air, or modeling." With help from Mrs. White, however, <mask> soon gained the admiration of English patrons and critics. Henry James also gave the artist "a push to the best of my ability."


texts: <mask> spent much time painting outdoors in the English countryside when not in his studio.On a visit to Monet at Giverny in 1885, <mask> painted one of his most Impressionistic portraits, of Monet at work painting outdoors with his new bride nearby. <mask> is usually not thought of as an Impressionist painter, but he sometimes used impressionistic techniques to great effect. His Claude Monet Painting at the Edge of a Wood is rendered in his own version of the Impressionist style. In the 1880s, he attended the Impressionist exhibitions and he began to paint outdoors in the plein-air manner after that visit to Monet. <mask> purchased four Monet works for his personal collection during that time. <mask> was similarly inspired to do a portrait of his artist friend Paul César Helleu, also painting outdoors with his wife by his side. A photograph very similar to the painting suggests that <mask> occasionally used photography as an aid to composition.Through Helleu, <mask> met and painted the famed French sculptor Auguste Rodin in 1884, a rather somber portrait reminiscent of works by Thomas Eakins. Although the British critics classified <mask> in the Impressionist camp, the French Impressionists thought otherwise. As Monet later stated, "He is not an Impressionist in the sense that we use the word, he is too much under the influence of Carolus-Duran." <mask>'s first major success at the Royal Academy came in 1887, with the enthusiastic response to Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, a large piece, painted on site, of two young girls lighting lanterns in an English garden in Broadway in the Cotswolds. The painting was immediately

masks: Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts: purchased by the Tate Gallery. His first trip to New York and Boston as a professional artist in 1887–88 produced over 20 important commissions, including portraits of Isabella Stewart Gardner, the famed Boston art patron. His portrait of Mrs. Adrian Iselin, wife of a New York businessman, revealed her character in one of his most insightful works.In Boston, <mask> was honored with his first solo exhibition, which presented 22 of his paintings. Here he became friends with painter Dennis Miller Bunker, who traveled to England in the summer of 1888 to paint with him en plein air, and is the subject of <mask>'s 1888 painting Dennis Miller Bunker Painting at Calcot. Back in London, <mask> was quickly busy again. His working methods were by then well-established, following many of the steps employed by other master portrait painters before him. After securing a commission through negotiations which he carried out, <mask> would visit the client's home to see where the painting was to hang. He would often review a client's wardrobe to pick suitable attire. Some portraits were done in the client's home, but more often in his studio, which was well-stocked with furniture and background materials he chose for proper effect.He usually required eight to ten sittings from his clients, although he would try to capture the face in one sitting. He usually kept up pleasant conversation and sometimes he would take a break and play the piano for his sitter. <mask> seldom used pencil or oil sketches, and instead laid down oil paint directly. Finally, he would select an appropriate frame. <mask> had no assistants; he handled all the tasks, such


texts: as preparing his canvases, varnishing the painting, arranging for photography, shipping, and documentation. He commanded about $5,000 per portrait, or about $130,000 in current dollars. Some American clients traveled to London at their own expense to have <mask> paint their portrait.Around 1890, <mask> painted two daring non-commissioned portraits as show pieces—one of actress Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth and one of the popular Spanish dancer La Carmencita. <mask> was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and was made a full member three years later. In the 1890s, he averaged fourteen portrait commissions per year, none more beautiful than the genteel Lady Agnew of Lochnaw, 1892. His portrait of Mrs. Hugh Hammersley (Mrs. Hugh Hammersley, 1892) was equally well received for its lively depiction of one of London's most notable hostesses. As a portrait painter in the grand manner, <mask> had unmatched success; he portrayed subjects who were at once ennobled and often possessed of nervous energy. <mask> was referred to as "the Van Dyck of our times." Although <mask> was an American expatriate, he returned to the United States many times, often to answer the demand for commissioned portraits.<mask> exhibited nine of his portraits in the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. <mask> painted a series of three portraits of Robert Louis Stevenson. The second, Portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his Wife (1885), was one of his best known. He also completed portraits of two U.S. presidents: Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Asher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer living in London,

masks: Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts:
 commissioned from <mask> a series of a dozen portraits of his family, the artist's largest commission from a single patron. The Wertheimer portraits reveal a pleasant familiarity between the artist and his subjects. Wertheimer bequeathed most of the paintings to the National Gallery.In 1888, <mask> released his portrait of Alice Vanderbilt Shepard, great-granddaughter of Cornelius Vanderbilt. Many of his most important works are in museums in the United States. In 1897, a friend sponsored a famous portrait in oil of Mr. and Mrs. I. N. Phelps Stokes, by <mask>, as a wedding gift. Twentieth century portraits

By 1900, <mask> was at the height of his fame. Cartoonist Max Beerbohm completed one of his seventeen caricatures of <mask>, making well known to the public the artist's paunchy physique. Although only in his forties, <mask> began to travel more and to devote relatively less time to portrait painting.His An Interior in Venice (1900), a portrait of four members of the Curtis family in their elegant palatial home, Palazzo Barbaro, was a resounding success. But, Whistler did not approve of the looseness of <mask>'s brushwork, which he summed up as "smudge everywhere." One of <mask>'s last major portraits in his bravura style was that of Lord Ribblesdale, in 1902, finely attired in an elegant hunting uniform. Between 1900 and 1907, <mask> continued his high productivity, which included, in addition to dozens of oil portraits, hundreds of portrait drawings at about $400 each. In 1907, at the age of fifty-one, <mask> officially closed his studio. Relieved, he stated, "Painting a portrait would be quite amusing if one were


texts: not forced to talk while working…What a nuisance having to entertain the sitter and to look happy when one feels wretched." In that same year, <mask> painted his modest and serious self-portrait, his last, for the celebrated self-portrait collection of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy.<mask> made several summer visits to the Swiss Alps with his sisters Emily and Violet (Mrs Ormond) and Violet's daughters Rose-Marie and Reine, who were the subject of a number of paintings 1906–1913. As <mask> wearied of portraiture he pursued architectural and landscapes subjects. During a visit to Rome in 1906 <mask> made an oil painting and several pencil sketches of the exterior staircase and balustrade in front of the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus, now the church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. The double staircase built in 1654 is the design of architect and sculptor Orazio Torriani (fl.1602–1657). In 1907 he wrote: "I did in Rome a study of a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand facade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm...." The painting now hangs at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University and the pencil sketches are in the collection of the Harvard University art collection of the Fogg Museum. <mask> later used the architectural features of this stair and balustrade in a portrait of Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University from 1869 to 1909. <mask>'s fame was still considerable and museums eagerly bought his works.That year he declined a knighthood and decided instead to keep his American citizenship. From 1907 on, <mask> largely forsook

masks: Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts:
 portrait painting and focused on landscapes. He made numerous visits to the United States in the last decade of his life, including a stay of two full years from 1915 to 1917. In April 1917 <mask> was visiting the Miami estate of James Deering and was invited to cruise the Florida Keys with James and his brother Charles Deering aboard James' yacht Nepenthe. <mask> was much more interested in the "mine of sketching" that was the estate, not at all interested in fishing, and made the cruise "reluctantly," doing some watercolor sketches (including Derelicts, 1917). By the time <mask> finished his portrait of <mask>. Rockefeller in 1917, most critics began to consign him to the masters of the past, "a brilliant ambassador between his patrons and posterity." Modernists treated him more harshly, considering him completely out of touch with the reality of American life and with emerging artistic trends including Cubism and Futurism.<mask> quietly accepted the criticism, but refused to alter his negative opinions of modern art. He retorted, "Ingres, Raphael and El Greco, these are now my admirations, these are what I like." In 1925, shortly before he died, <mask> painted his last oil portrait, a canvas of Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston. The painting was purchased in 1936 by the Currier Museum of Art, where it is on display. Watercolors

During <mask>'s long career, he painted more than 2,000 watercolors, roving from the English countryside to Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. Each destination offered pictorial stimulation and treasure. Even at his leisure, in escaping the

masks:
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
John D
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent


texts:
 pressures of the portrait studio, he painted with restless intensity, often painting from morning until night.His hundreds of watercolors of Venice are especially notable, many done from the perspective of a gondola. His colors were sometimes extremely vivid and as one reviewer noted, "Everything is given with the intensity of a dream." In the Middle East and North Africa <mask> painted Bedouins, goatherds, and fisherman. In the last decade of his life, he produced many watercolors in Maine, Florida, and in the American West, of fauna, flora, and native peoples. With his watercolors, <mask> was able to indulge his earliest artistic inclinations for nature, architecture, exotic peoples, and noble mountain landscapes. And it is in some of his late works where one senses <mask> painting most purely for himself. His watercolors were executed with a joyful fluidness.He also painted extensively family, friends, gardens, and fountains. In watercolors, he playfully portrayed his friends and family dressed in Orientalist costume, relaxing in brightly lit landscapes that allowed for a more vivid palette and experimental handling than did his commissions (The Chess Game, 1906). His first major solo exhibit of watercolor works was at the Carfax Gallery in London in 1905. In 1909, he exhibited eighty-six watercolors in New York City, eighty-three of which were bought by the Brooklyn Museum. Evan Charteris wrote in 1927:

To live with <mask>'s water-colours is to live with sunshine captured and held, with the luster of a bright and legible world, 'the refluent shade' and 'the Ambient ardours of the noon.' Although not generally accorded

masks: Sargent Sargent Sargent Sargent


texts:
 the critical respect given Winslow Homer, perhaps America's greatest watercolorist, scholarship has revealed that <mask> was fluent in the entire range of opaque and transparent watercolor technique, including the methods used by Homer. Other work
As a concession to the insatiable demand of wealthy patrons for portraits, <mask> dashed off hundreds of rapid charcoal portrait sketches, which he called "Mugs".Forty-six of these, spanning the years 1890–1916, were exhibited at the Royal Society of Portrait Painters in 1916. All of <mask>'s murals are to be found in the Boston/Cambridge area. They are in the Boston Public Library, the Museum of Fine Arts, and Harvard's Widener Library. <mask>'s largest scale works are the mural decorations that grace the Boston Public Library depicting the history of religion and the gods of polytheism. They were attached to the walls of the library by means of marouflage. He worked on the cycle for almost thirty years but never completed the final mural. <mask> drew on his extensive travels and museum visits to create a dense art historial melange.The murals were restored in 2003–2004. <mask> worked on the murals from 1895 through 1919; they were intended to show religion's (and society's) progress, from pagan superstition up through the ascension of Christianity, concluding with a painting depicting Jesus delivering the Sermon on the Mount. But <mask>'s paintings of "The Church" and "The Synagogue", installed in late 1919, inspired a debate about whether the artist had represented Judaism in a stereotypical, or even an anti-Semitic, manner. Drawing upon iconography that was used in medieval


texts:
 paintings, <mask> portrayed Judaism and the synagogue as a blind, ugly hag, and Christianity and the church as a lovely, radiant young woman. He also failed to understand how these representations might be problematic for the Jews of Boston; he was both surprised and hurt when the paintings were criticized. The paintings were objectionable to Boston Jews since they seemed to show Judaism defeated, and Christianity triumphant. The Boston newspapers also followed the controversy, noting that while many found the paintings offensive, not everyone was in agreement.In the end, <mask> abandoned his plan to finish the murals, and the controversy eventually died down. Upon his return to England in 1918 after a visit to the United States, <mask> was commissioned as a war artist by the British Ministry of Information. In his large painting Gassed and in many watercolors, he depicted scenes from the Great War. <mask> had been affected by the death of his niece Rose-Marie in the shelling of the St Gervais church, Paris, on Good Friday 1918. Relationships and personal life
<mask> was a lifelong bachelor with a wide circle of friends including both men and women such as Oscar Wilde (whom he was neighbors with for several years ), lesbian author Violet Paget, and his likely lover Albert de Belleroche. Biographers once portrayed him as staid and reticent. However, recent scholarship has speculated that he was a homosexual man, as he had devoted significant time to renderings of nude male figure studies.This view is based on statements by his friends and associations, the overall alluring remoteness of his portraits, the way his works


texts: challenge 19th-century notions of gender difference, his previously ignored male nudes, and some nude male portraits, including those of Thomas E. McKeller, Bartholomy Maganosco, Olimpio Fusco, and that of aristocratic artist Albert de Belleroche, which hung in his Chelsea dining room.<ref>Ormond, Richard; Kilmurray, Elaine "<mask> <mask>, Complete Paintings, Volume 1 Yale University Press, 1998, p. 88</ref> <mask> had a long friendship with Belleroche, whom he met in 1882 and traveled with frequently. A surviving drawing speculatively may hint that <mask> might have used him as a model for Madame X, following a coincidence of dates for <mask> drawing each of them separately around the same time, and the delicate pose suggestive more of <mask>'s sketches of the male form than his often stiff commissions. It has been suggested that <mask>'s reputation in the 1890s as "the painter of the Jews" may have been due to his empathy with, and complicit enjoyment of their mutual social otherness. There is much evidence to conclude <mask>'s homosexuality; one such Jewish client, Betty Wertheimer, wrote that when in Venice, <mask> "was only interested in the Venetian gondoliers".Fairbrother, Trevor, <mask> <mask>: The Sensualist, Yale University Press, 2000, , p. 220, note 7 The painter Jacques-Émile Blanche, who was one of his early sitters, said after <mask>'s death that his sex life "was notorious in Paris, and in Venice, positively scandalous. He was a frenzied bugger." There remains little doubt that Sargent was indeed attracted to men, sexually and most probably romantically as well. There were many friendships with women: it has

masks:
John Singer
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
Sargent


texts:
 been suggested that those with his sitters Rosina Ferrara, Virginie Gautreau, and Judith Gautier may have tipped into infatuation.As a young man, <mask> also courted for a time Louise Burkhardt, the model for Lady with the Rose. <mask>'s friends and supporters included Henry James, Isabella Stewart Gardner (who commissioned and purchased works from <mask>, and sought his advice on other acquisitions), Edward VII, and Paul César Helleu. His associations also included Prince Edmond de Polignac and Count Robert de Montesquiou. Other artists <mask> associated with were Dennis Miller Bunker, James Carroll Beckwith, Edwin Austin Abbey and <mask> (who also worked on the Boston Public Library murals), Francis David Millet, Joaquín Sorolla and Claude Monet, whom <mask> painted. Between 1905 and 1914, <mask>'s frequent traveling companions were the married artist couple Wilfrid de Glehn and Jane Emmet de Glehn. The trio would often spend summers in France, Spain or Italy, and all three would depict one another in their paintings during their travels. Critical assessment

In a time when the art world focused, in turn, on Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism, <mask> practiced his own form of Realism, which made brilliant references to Velázquez, Van Dyck, and Gainsborough.His seemingly effortless facility for paraphrasing the masters in a contemporary fashion led to a stream of commissioned portraits of remarkable virtuosity (Arsène Vigeant, 1885, Musées de Metz; Mr. and Mrs. Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes, 1897, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) and earned <mask> the moniker, "the Van Dyck of our times." Still, during his life his work

masks:
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
John Elliott
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent


texts: engendered negative responses from some of his colleagues: Camille Pissarro wrote "he is not an enthusiast but rather an adroit performer," and Walter Sickert published a satirical turn under the heading "Sargentolatry." By the time of his death he was dismissed as an anachronism, a relic of the Gilded Age and out of step with the artistic sentiments of post-World War I Europe. Elizabeth Prettejohn suggests that the decline of <mask>'s reputation was due partly to the rise of anti-Semitism, and the resultant intolerance of 'celebrations of Jewish prosperity.' It has been suggested that the exotic qualities inherent in his work appealed to the sympathies of the Jewish clients whom he painted from the 1890s on. Nowhere is this more apparent than in his portrait Almina, Daughter of Asher Wertheimer (1908), in which the subject is seen wearing a Persian costume, a pearl encrusted turban, and strumming an Indian tambura, accoutrements all meant to convey sensuality and mystery. If <mask> used this portrait to explore issues of sexuality and identity, it seems to have met with the satisfaction of the subject's father, Asher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer.Foremost of <mask>'s detractors was the influential English art critic Roger Fry, of the Bloomsbury Group, who at the 1926 <mask> retrospective in London dismissed <mask>'s work as lacking aesthetic quality: "Wonderful indeed, but most wonderful that this wonderful performance should ever have been confused with that of an artist." And, in the 1930s, Lewis Mumford led a chorus of the severest critics: "<mask> remained to the end an illustrator ... the most adroit


texts:
 appearance of workmanship, the most dashing eye for effect, cannot conceal the essential emptiness of <mask>'s mind, or the contemptuous and cynical superficiality of a certain part of his execution." Part of <mask>'s devaluation is also attributed to his expatriate life, which made him seem less American at a time when "authentic" socially conscious American art, as exemplified by the Stieglitz circle and by the Ashcan School, was on the ascent. After such a long period of critical disfavor, <mask>'s reputation has increased steadily since the 1950s. In the 1960s, a revival of Victorian art and new scholarship directed at <mask> strengthened his reputation. <mask> has been the subject of large-scale exhibitions in major museums, including a retrospective exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1986, and a major 1999 traveling show that exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the National Gallery of Art Washington, and the National Gallery, London. In 1986, Andy Warhol commented to Sargent scholar Trevor Fairbrother that <mask> "made everybody look glamorous.Taller. Thinner. But they all have mood, every one of them has a different mood. "See Trevor Fairbrother," Warhol Meets <mask> at Whitney," Arts Magazine 6 (February 1987): 64–71. In a TIME magazine article from the 1980s, critic Robert Hughes praised <mask> as "the unrivaled recorder of male power and female beauty in a day that, like ours, paid excessive court to both. "Later life

In 1922 <mask> co-founded New York City's Grand Central Art Galleries together with Edmund Greacen, Walter Leighton Clark, and others. <mask> actively participated in the


texts:
 Grand Central Art Galleries and their academy, the Grand Central School of Art, until his death in 1925.The Galleries held a major retrospective exhibit of <mask>'s work in 1924. He then returned to England, where he died at his Chelsea home on April 14, 1925, of heart disease. <mask> is interred in Brookwood Cemetery near Woking, Surrey. Memorial exhibitions of <mask>'s work were held in Boston in 1925, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and at the Royal Academy and Tate Gallery in London in 1926. The Grand Central Art Galleries also organized a posthumous exhibition in 1928 of previously unseen sketches and drawings from throughout his career. SalesPortrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his Wife was sold in 2004 for US$8.8 million and is located at Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art at Bentonville, Arkansas. In December 2004, Group with Parasols (A Siesta) (1905) sold for US$23.5 million, nearly double the Sotheby's estimate of $12 million.The previous highest price for a <mask> painting was US$11 million. In popular culture
In 2018, Comedy Central star Jade Esteban Estrada wrote, directed and starred in Madame X: A Burlesque Fantasy, a story based on the life of <mask> and his famous painting, Portrait of Madame X. The works of <mask> feature prominently in Maggie Stiefvater's 2021 novel Mister Impossible. Citations

 General sources
 Davis, Deborah. <mask>'s Women, pages 11–23. Adelson Galleries, Inc., 2003. Fairbrother, Trevor: <mask> <mask>: The Sensualist (2001), , Page 139, Note 4.Joselit, Jenna Weissman. "Restoring the American 'Sistine Chapel' "  The Forward, August 13, 2010. Kilmurray, Elaine:

masks:
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent


texts:
 Sargent Abroad. Abbeville Press, 1997. Pages 57–8, 242. Lehmann-Barclay, Lucie. "Public Art, Private Prejudice."Christian Science Monitor, January 7, 2005, p. 11. "New Painting at Boston Public Library Stirs Jews to Vigorous Protest." Boston Globe, November 9, 1919, p. 48. Noël, Benoît et Jean Hournon:  Portrait de Madame X in Parisiana – la Capitale des arts au XIXème siècle, Les Presses Franciliennes, Paris, 2006. pp. 100–105. Ormond, Richard: "<mask>'s Art" in <mask> <mask>, pp. 25–7.Tate Gallery, 1998. Prettejohn, Elizabeth: Interpreting <mask>, page 9. Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 1998. Promey, Sally M.  "<mask> <mask>'s Triumph of Religion at the Boston Public Library." Rewald, <mask>: Camille Pissarro: Letters to his Son Lucien, page 183. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. Further reading

 Adelson, Warren; Gerdts, William H.; Kilmurray, Elaine; Zorzi, Rosella Mamoli; Ormond, Richard; Oustinoff, Elizabeth (2006).<mask>'s Venice. New Haven: Yale University Press.  .
Video <mask> <mask>: Secrets of Composition and Design, Jason Alster, 2013. Discusses use of Gestalt and design techniques in <mask>'s paintings. External links

 Biography, Style and Artworks
 <mask> <mask> – Gallery of 809 paintings. "Mrs. Edward Goetz" at [Brigham Young Museum of Art]
 <mask> <mask> Virtual Gallery
 <mask> at Harvard – archived searchable database by Harvard University Art Museums
 The Sargent Murals at Boston Public Library
 <mask> <mask> – News, biography and works
<mask> <mask>, Miss M. Carey Thomas, July 1899, oil on canvas, Bryn Mawr College Art and Artifact Collections
 <mask> <mask> Letters Online at the Smithsonian Archives of American

masks:
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
John
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent


texts:
 Art
 "Sargent and the Sea at the Royal Academy", review by Richard Dorment, The Guardian, July 12, 2010
 <mask> <mask> at Harper's Magazine''
 <mask> <mask> at Smithsonian American Art Museum
 <mask> <mask> exhibition catalogs
 A video discussion about <mask>'s Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose from Smarthistory at Khan Academy. <mask> <mask>'s interest in picture frames

 <mask> <mask> at the Jewish Museum
Joseph J. Rishel, In the Luxembourg Gardens in The John G. <mask> Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art digital scholarly catalogue (fully available as a free PDF)

1856 births
1925 deaths
Bisexual men
Bisexual artists
Painters from Florence
19th-century American painters
19th-century male artists
American male painters
20th-century American painters
American portrait painters
American watercolorists
American expatriates in France
American emigrants to England
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Burials at Brookwood Cemetery
National Academy of Design members
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
Alumni of the Académie Julian
Royal Society of Portrait Painters
Royal Academicians
Italian people of American descent
Gilded Age
Artists of the Boston Public Library
LGBT artists from the United

masks:
John Singer
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
John Singer
Sargent
Johnson


texts:
<mask> (January 14, 1943 – September 30, 2011) was a Canadian physician and medical researcher at Rockefeller University, who in 1973 discovered and named dendritic cells while working as a postdoctoral fellow in the laboratory of Zanvil A. Cohn, also at Rockefeller University. Steinman was one of the recipients of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Early life and education
<mask> was born into an Ashkenazi Jewish family in Montreal, one of four children of <mask> (d. 1995), a haberdasher, and <mask> (née Takefman, 1917–2016). The family soon moved to Sherbrooke, where the father opened and ran a small clothing store "Mozart's". After graduating from Sherbrooke High School, Steinman moved back to Montreal, where he stayed with his maternal grandparents Nathan and Eva Takefman. He received a bachelor of science degree from McGill University and received his M.D. (magna cum laude) in 1968 from Harvard Medical School.He completed his internship and residency at Massachusetts General Hospital. Awards
On October 3, 2011, the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine announced that he had received one-half of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for "his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity". The other half went to Bruce Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann, for "their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity". However, the committee was not aware that he had died three days earlier, on September 30, from pancreatic cancer. This created a complication, since the statutes of the Nobel Foundation stipulate that the prize is not to be awarded posthumously. After deliberation, the committee

masks:
Ralph Marvin Steinman
Ralph Steinman
Irving Steinman
Nettie Steinman


texts:
 decided that as the decision to award the prize "was made in good faith", it would remain unchanged. <mask>'s daughter said that he had joked the previous week with his family about staying alive until the prize announcement.Steinman said: "I know I have got to hold out for that. They don't give it to you if you have passed away. I got to hold out for that." Steinman had received numerous other awards and recognitions for his lifelong work on dendritic cells, such as the Albert Lasker Award For Basic Medical Research (2007), the Gairdner Foundation International Award (2003), and the Cancer Research Institute William B. Coley Award (1998). In addition, he was made a member of Institute of Medicine (U.S.; elected 2002) and the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.; elected 2001). In 2016, the city of Sherbrooke, Quebec, where Steinman lived during his childhood, named a new street rue <mask>man, in honor of the only Sherbrooke native ever to win a Nobel Prize. List of awards
 1998 – William B. Coley Award
 1999 – Robert Koch Prize
 2003 – Gairdner Foundation International Award
 2006 – Debrecen Award for Molecular Medicine
 2007 – Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
 2009 – Albany Medical Center Prize (Shared with Charles A. Dinarello and Bruce Beutler; )
 2010 – Heineken Prizes
 2011 – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with Bruce Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann)

Research

Immunology tries to understand resistance to infection.Infections are first resisted by innate immunity, followed by adaptive immunity, which has memory, so can prevent reinfection. Two questions that immunologists ask: 1) By what mechanisms do

masks:
Steinman
Ralph Stein


texts: innate and adaptive resistance come about? 2) How do these mechanisms contribute to other fields of medicine such as cancer, allergy, autoimmunity, etc.? In the 20th century,  two theories arose: 1) Macrophages contribute to innate resistance through phagocytosis and intracellular killing 2) Antibodies mediate adaptive resistance by neutralizing microbial toxins. <mask> discovered that dendritic cells link innate to adaptive immunity, including adaptive T cell-mediated immunity. He studied the initiation of antibody responses in tissue culture in the laboratory. As shown, he found out that antigens, lymphocytes, and "accessory cells" together create immune responses.Accessory cells contain a new cell type with probing cell process or "dendrites". These cells proved to be the missing link between innate and adaptive immunity. Several features were used to identify and purify dendritic cells from mouse spleen. Because dendritic cells were discovered among "adherent" accessory cells (i.e. those that attach to tissue culture surfaces), they had to be distinguished from macrophages, whose hallmarks were persistent phagocytosis and adherence to tissue culture surfaces. However, Steinman found that dendritic cells had a different morphology and expressed different molecules from macrophages. For example, they did not express FcR- receptors, but did express major components of the major histocompatibility complex II and did not adhere to surfaces or exploit phagocytosis.Macrophages, though, showed the opposite characteristics. The study was carried out in collaboration with Zanvil A. Cohn, who studied resistance to infectious diseases,


texts:
 especially the biology of macrophages. Some general features of T cell responses that are initiated by dendritic cells (DCs):
 Adaptive immunity develops in two stages: DCs present antigens and initiate the afferent limb, while the other antigen-presenting cells (APCs) mediate the effectors to eliminate the antigen or infection. In tissue cultures, immunity develops in clusters of DCs and lymphocytes. The onset of adaptive immunity could actually be observed in vitro. DCs were therefore considered "nature's adjuvants" for T cell immunity, meaning they helped induce T cells. DCs can produce protective substances such as cytokines, interferons, chemokines, and antimicrobial peptides.DCs can mobilize innate lymphocytes such as natural killer cells (which in turn produce cytokines or kill target cells upon recognition). However, unlike macrophages, DCs do not phagocytose or kill microbes. DCs capture, process and present antigens:
 Some receptors such as FcR death receptor can activate or inhibit DC function. Antigen processing and presentation of proteins and lipids seems efficient and can include cross presentation on MHC I and CD1. Uptake and processing are regulated by environmental stimuli. In vivo, dendritic cells process antigens to form peptide-MHC complexes in the steady state, especially in lymphoid organs. Most DCs in vivo in the steady state are immature, able to take up and present antigens, but areunable to adaptive T cell immunity.Environmental stimuli, e.g., microbial products, alter or mature DCs and/or act together with DCs to control the formation of different types of helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory types of T cells.


texts:
 Maturing DCs also carry out innate responses, particularly the formation of cytokines and chemokines. Maturation links are innate to adaptive immunity; and control the quality of the response that develops in DCs and lymphocytes that recognize presented antigens. The term "subset" refers to distinct DCs with different receptors for antigen uptake and maturation, and distinct functions in innate and adaptive immunity. They reside in the peripheral organs and induce different forms of antigen-specific peripheral tolerance. Antigens from the periphery are captured by DCs in lymphoid tissues, even in steady (not matured) state. In steady state, DCs induce tolerance so that DC maturation can lead to immunity to microbial antigen, but maturing DCs capture microbial, as well as self dying cells, thus resulting in autoreactivity and chronic inflammation.See also
 List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

External links
BBC - "Nobel winner <mask>'s quest to cure cancer - including his own"

1943 births
2011 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Canadian Nobel laureates
Academics from Montreal
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian immunologists
Canadian expatriate academics in the United States
Canadian medical researchers
Cell biologists
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Harvard Medical School alumni
Jewish physicians
Jewish Canadian scientists
McGill University alumni
Members of the National Academy of Medicine
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Posthumous Nobel laureates
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
Scientists from Montreal
Winners of the


texts: <mask> (9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. Following his appointment as First Quartermaster-general () of the Imperial Army's Great General Staff in 1916, he became the chief policymaker in a de facto military dictatorship that dominated Germany for the rest of the war. After Germany's defeat, he contributed significantly to the Nazis' rise to power. <mask> came from a family of the minor nobility in Ludendorff, located in the Prussian province of Posen. After completing his education as a cadet, he received his commission as a junior officer in 1885. Later in 1893, Ludendorff was admitted to the prestigious German War Academy and was recommended by its commandant to the General Staff Corps only a year later.By 1904, he had rapidly risen in rank to become a member of the Army's Great General Staff, where he oversaw the development of the Schlieffen Plan. Despite being temporarily removed from the Great General Staff for meddling in German politics, Ludendorff restored his standing in the army through his success as a commander in World War I. On 16 August 1914, he led the successful German assault on Liège, a feat for which he earned the Pour le Mérite. Upon being transferred to the Eastern Front under the command of General Paul von Hindenburg, Ludendorff proved instrumental in inflicting a series of crushing defeats against the Russians, including at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. By 29 August 1916, he had successfully lobbied for

masks:
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff
Erich Ludendorff


texts: Hindenburg's appointment as Supreme Commander of the German Army as well as his own promotion to Quartermaster General of the army high command. Once he and Hindenburg had established a military dictatorship in all but name, Ludendorff directed Germany's entire military strategy and war effort until the end of the conflict. In this capacity, he secured Russia's defeat in the east and launched a new wave of offensives on the Western Front resulting in advances not seen since the war's outbreak.However, by the end of 1918, all improvements in Germany's fortunes were reversed after its forces' decisive defeat in the Second Battle of the Marne and the Allies' Hundred Days Offensive. Faced with the war effort's collapse and a growing popular revolution, the German Emperor, Wilhelm II, forced Ludendorff to resign. After the war, Ludendorff became a prominent nationalist leader, and a promoter of the stab-in-the-back myth, which posited that Germany's defeat and the emasculating settlement reached at Versailles were the result of a treasonous conspiracy by Marxists, Freemasons and Jews. He also took part in the failed 1920 Kapp Putsch and 1923 Beer Hall Putsch before unsuccessfully running for President against Field Marshal Hindenburg, his wartime superior. Thereafter, he retired from politics and devoted his final years to the study of military theory. His most famous work in this field was  (The Total War), where he argued that a nation's entire physical and moral resources should remain forever poised for mobilization because peace was merely an interval in a never-ending chain of wars. Ludendorff died of


texts:
 liver cancer in Munich in 1937.Early life
Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Ludendorff near , in the Province of Posen and Kingdom of Prussia (now Kruszewnia,  County, Poland), the third of six children of August Wilhelm <mask> (1833–1905). His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had been raised to the status of a Junker. <mask>'s mother, Klara Jeanette Henriette von Tempelhoff (1840–1914), was the daughter of the noble but impoverished Friedrich August Napoleon von Tempelhoff (1804–1868) and his wife Jeannette Wilhelmine von Dziembowska (1816–1854), who came from a Germanized Polish landed family on the side of her father Stephan von Dziembowski (1779–1859). Through Dziembowski's wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh (1793–1862), <mask> was a remote descendant of the Counts of , the Dukes of Liegnitz and Brieg and the Marquesses and Electors of Brandenburg. Ludendorff had a stable and comfortable childhood, growing up on a small family farm. He received his early schooling from a maternal aunt and had a gift for mathematics, as did his younger brother Hans, who became a distinguished astronomer. Upon passing the entrance exam for the Cadet School at  with distinction, he was put in a class two years ahead of his age group, and thereafter he was consistently first in his class.The famous World War II General Heinz Guderian attended the same Cadet School, which produced many well-trained German officers. Ludendorff's education continued at the  at  near Berlin through to 1882. Pre-war military career

In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then

masks: Ludendorff Erich Erich


texts: at Wesel. Over the next eight years, he was promoted to lieutenant and saw further service in the 2nd Marine Battalion, based at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, and in the 8th Grenadier Guards at Frankfurt on the Oder. His service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations. In 1893, he entered the War Academy, where the commandant, General Meckel, recommended him to the General Staff, to which he was appointed in 1894. He rose rapidly and was a senior staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904.Next he joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen, Ludendorff directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904 to 1913. Soon he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer, who became a close friend. In 1910 at age 45 "the 'old sinner', as he liked to hear himself called" married the daughter of a wealthy factory owner, Margarethe Schmidt (1875–1936). They met in a rainstorm when he offered his umbrella. She divorced to marry him, bringing three stepsons and a stepdaughter. Their marriage pleased both families and he was devoted to his stepchildren. By 1911, Ludendorff was a full colonel.His section was responsible for writing the mass of detailed orders needed to bring the mobilized troops into position to implement the  Plan. For this they covertly surveyed frontier fortifications in Russia, France and Belgium. For instance, in 1911 Ludendorff visited the key Belgian fortress city of Liège. Deputies of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which became the largest party in the  after the German federal elections of


texts:
 1912, seldom gave priority to army expenditures, whether to build up its reserves or to fund advanced weaponry such as Krupp's siege cannons. Instead, they preferred to concentrate military spending on the Imperial German Navy. Ludendorff's calculations showed that to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan the Army lacked six corps. Members of the General Staff were instructed to keep out of politics and the public eye, but Ludendorff shrugged off such restrictions.With a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class, he vigorously lobbied the  for the additional men. In 1913 funding was approved for four additional corps but Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Düsseldorf. "I attributed the change partly for my having pressed for those three additional army corps." Barbara Tuchman characterizes Ludendorff in her book The Guns of August as Schlieffen's devoted disciple who was a glutton for work and a man of granite character but who was deliberately friendless and forbidding and therefore remained little known or liked. It is true that as his wife testified, "Anyone who knows Ludendorff knows that he has not a spark of humor...". He was voluble nonetheless, although he shunned small talk. John Lee, states that while Ludendorff was with his Fusiliers, "he became the perfect regimental commander ... the younger officers came to adore him."His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend. Liège
At the outbreak of war in the summer of 1914 Ludendorff was appointed Deputy Chief of


texts:
 Staff to the German Second Army under General Karl von Bülow. His assignment was largely due to his previous work investigating defenses of Liège, Belgium. At the beginning of the Battle of Liège, Ludendorff was an observer with the 14th Brigade, which was to infiltrate the city at night and secure the bridges before they could be destroyed. The brigade commander was killed on 5 August, so Ludendorff led the successful assault to occupy the city and its citadel. In the following days, two of the forts guarding the city were taken by desperate frontal infantry attacks, while the remaining forts were smashed by huge Krupp 42-cm and Austro-Hungarian Škoda 30.5-cm howitzers. By 16 August, all the forts around Liège had fallen, allowing the German First Army to advance.As the victor of Liège, Ludendorff was awarded Germany's highest military decoration for gallantry, the Pour le Mérite, presented by Kaiser Wilhelm II himself on 22 August. Command in the East
German mobilization earmarked a single army, the Eighth, to defend their eastern frontier. When two Russian armies invaded East Prussia earlier than expected the command of the Eighth Army, Maximilian von Prittwitz with Georg von Waldersee as Chief of Staff, performed subpar and reportedly panicked. They accordingly were dismissed from command by the  (OHL), the German Supreme Army Command. The War Cabinet chose a retired general, Paul von Hindenburg, as commander, while the OHL assigned Ludendorff as his new chief of staff. Hindenburg and Ludendorff first met on their private train heading east. They agreed that they must annihilate the nearest Russian


texts: army before they tackled the second.On arrival, they discovered that Max Hoffmann had already shifted much of the 8th Army by rail to the south to do just that, in an amazing feat of logistical planning. Nine days later the Eighth Army surrounded most of a Russian army at Tannenberg, taking 92,000 prisoners in one of the great victories in German history. Twice during the battle Ludendorff wanted to break off, fearing that the second Russian army was about to strike their rear, but Hindenburg held firm. The Germans turned on the second invading army in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes; it fled with heavy losses to escape encirclement. During the rest of 1914, commanding an Army Group, Hindenburg and Ludendorff staved off the projected invasion of German Silesia by dexterously moving their outnumbered forces into Russian Poland, fighting the battle of the Vistula River, which ended with a brilliantly executed withdrawal during which they destroyed the Polish railway lines and bridges needed for an invasion. When the Russians had repaired most of the damage the Germans struck their flank in the battle of Łódź, where they almost surrounded another Russian army. Masters of surprise and deft maneuver, the pair argued that if properly reinforced they could trap the entire Russian army in Poland.During the winter of 1914–15 they lobbied passionately for this strategy, but were rebuffed by the OHL. Early in 1915 Hindenburg and Ludendorff surprised the Russian army that still held a toehold in East Prussia by attacking in a snowstorm and surrounding it in the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. The OHL then


texts:
 transferred Ludendorff, but Hindenburg's personal plea to the Kaiser reunited them. <mask> Falkenhayn, supreme commander at the OHL, came east to attack the flank of the Russian army that was pushing through the Carpathian passes towards Hungary. Employing overwhelming artillery, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians broke through the line between  and  and kept pushing until the Russians were driven out of most of Galicia, in Austro-Hungarian Poland. During this advance Falkenhayn rejected schemes to try to cut off the Russians in Poland, preferring direct frontal attacks. Outgunned, during the summer of 1915 the Russian commander Grand Duke Nicholas shortened his lines by withdrawing from most of Poland, destroying railroads, bridges, and many buildings while driving 743,000 Poles,
350,000 Jews, 300,000 Lithuanians and 250,000 Latvians into Russia.During the winter of 1915–16 Ludendorff's headquarters was in Kaunas. The Germans occupied present-day Lithuania, western Latvia, and north eastern Poland, an area almost the size of France. Ludendorff demanded Germanization of the conquered territories and far-ranging annexations, offering land to German settlers; see . Far-reaching plans envisioned Courland and Lithuania turned into border states ruled by German military governors answerable only to the Kaiser. He proposed massive annexations and colonization in Eastern Europe in the event of the victory of the German Reich, and was one of the main supporters of the Polish Border Strip. Ludendorff planned to combine German settlement and Germanisation in conquered areas with expulsions of native populations;


texts:
 and envisioned an eastern German empire whose resources would be used in future war with Great Britain and the United States Ludendorff's plans went as far as making Crimea a German colony. As to the various nations and ethnic groups in conquered territories, Ludendorff believed they were "incapable of producing real culture"

On 16 March 1916, the Russians, now with adequate supplies of cannons and shells, attacked parts of the new German defenses, intending to penetrate at two points and then to pocket the defenders.They attacked almost daily until the end of the month, but the Lake Naroch Offensive failed, "choked in swamp and blood". The Russians did better attacking the Austro-Hungarians in the south; the Brusilov Offensive cracked their lines with a well-prepared surprise wide-front attack led by well-schooled assault troops. The breakthrough was finally stemmed by Austro-Hungarian troops recalled from Italy stiffened with German advisers and reserves. In July, Russian attacks on the Germans in the north were beaten back. On 27 July 1916, Hindenburg was given command of all troops on the Eastern Front from the Baltic to Brody in the Ukraine. Ludendorff and Hindenburg visited their new command on a special train, and then set up headquarters in Brest-Litovsk. By August 1916 their front was holding everywhere.Promotion to First Quartermaster-General

In the West in 1916 the Germans attacked unsuccessfully at Verdun and soon were reeling under British and French blows along the Somme. Ludendorff's friends at the OHL, led by Max Bauer, lobbied for him relentlessly. The balance was tipped when Romania


texts: entered the war on the side of the Entente, thrusting into Hungary. Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was again his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general, with the stipulation that he would have joint responsibility. He was promoted to General of the Infantry. Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warned the War Cabinet: "You don't know Ludendorff, who is only great at a time of success.If things go badly he loses his nerve." Their first concern was the sizable Romanian Army, so troops sent from the Western Front checked Romanian and Russian incursions into Hungary. Then Romania was invaded from the south by German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman troops commanded by August von Mackensen and from the north by a German and Austro-Hungarian army commanded by Falkenhayn. Bucharest fell in December 1916. According to Mackensen, Ludendorff's distant management consisted of "floods of telegrams, as superfluous as they were offensive." When sure that the Romanians would be defeated the OHL moved west, retaining the previous staff except for the operations officer, blamed for Verdun. They toured the Western Front meeting – and evaluating – commanders, learning about their problems and soliciting their opinions.At each meeting Ludendorff did most of talking for Hindenburg. There would be no further attacks at Verdun and the Somme would be defended by revised tactics that exposed fewer men to British shells. A new backup defensive line would be built, like the one they had constructed in the east. The Allies would call the new fortifications


texts:
 the Hindenburg Line. The German goal was victory, which they defined as a Germany with extended borders that could be more easily defended in the next war. Hindenburg was given titular command over all of the forces of the Central Powers. Ludendorff's hand was everywhere.Every day he was on the telephone with the staffs of their armies and the Army was deluged with "Ludendorff's paper barrage" of orders, instructions and demands for information. His finger extended into every aspect of the German war effort. He issued the two daily communiques, and often met with the newspaper and newsreel reporters. Before long the public idolized him as the German Army's brain. The Home Front
Ludendorff had a goal: "One thing was certain – the power must be in my hands." As stipulated by the Constitution of the German Empire the government was run by civil servants appointed by the Kaiser. Confident that army officers were superior to civilians, the OHL volunteered to oversee the economy: procurement, raw materials, labor, and food.Bauer, with his industrialist friends, began by setting overambitious targets for military production in what they called the Hindenburg Program. Ludendorff enthusiastically participated in meetings on economic policy – loudly, sometimes pummeling the table with his fists. Implementation of the Program was assigned to General Groener, a staff officer who had directed the Field Railway Service effectively. His office was in the (civilian) War Ministry, not in the OHL as Ludendorff had wanted. Therefore, he assigned staff officers to most government ministries, so he knew what was going on and


texts:
 could press his demands. War industry's major problem was the scarcity of skilled workers, therefore 125,000 men were released from the armed forces and trained workers were no longer conscripted. The OHL wanted to enroll most German men and women into national service, but the Reichstag legislated that only males 17–60 were subject to "patriotic service" and refused to bind war workers to their jobs.Groener realized that they needed the support of the workers, so he insisted that union representatives be included on industrial dispute boards. He also advocated an excess profits tax. The industrialists were incensed. On 16 August 1917, Ludendorff telegraphed an order reassigning Groener to command the 33rd Infantry Division. Overall, "unable to control labour and unwilling to control industry, the army failed miserably". To the public it seemed that Ludendorff was running the nation as well as the war. According to Ludendorff, "the authorities ... represented me as a dictator".He would not become Chancellor because the demands for running the war were too great. The historian Frank Tipton argues that while not technically a dictator, Ludendorff was "unquestionably the most powerful man in Germany" in 1917–18. The OHL did nothing to mitigate the crisis of growing food shortages in Germany. Despite the Allied blockade, everyone could have been fed adequately, but supplies were not managed effectively or fairly. In spring 1918, half of all the meat, eggs, and fruit consumed in Berlin were sold on the black market. In government
The Navy advocated unrestricted submarine warfare, which would surely bring the


texts: United States into the war. At the Kaiser's request, his commanders met with his friend, the eminent chemist Walther Nernst, who knew America well, and who warned against the idea.Ludendorff promptly ended the meeting; it was "incompetent nonsense with which a civilian was wasting his time." Unrestricted submarine warfare began in February 1917, with the OHL’s strong support. This fatal mistake reflected poor military judgment in uncritically accepting the Navy’s contention that there were no effective potential countermeasures, like convoying, and confidence that the American armed forces were too feeble to fight effectively. By the end of the war, Germany would be at war with 27 nations. In the spring of 1917 the Reichstag passed a resolution for peace without annexations or indemnities. They would be content with the successful defensive war undertaken in 1914. The OHL was unable to defeat the resolution or to have it substantially watered down.The commanders despised Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg as weak, so they forced his resignation by repeatedly threatening to resign themselves, despite the Kaiser's admonition that this was not their business. Bethmann-Hollweg was replaced by a minor functionary, Georg Michaelis, the food minister, who announced that he would deal with the resolution as "in his own fashion". Despite this put-down, the Reichstag voted the financial credits needed for continuing the war. Ludendorff insisted on the huge territorial losses forced on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, even though this required that a million German soldiers remain in the east. During the peace


texts:
 negotiations with Russia, his representative kept demanding the economic concessions coveted by German industrialists. The commanders kept blocking attempts to frame a plausible peace offer to the western powers by insisting on borders expanded for future defense. Ludendorff regarded the Germans as the "master race" and after victory planned to settle ex-soldiers in the Baltic states and in Alsace-Lorraine, where they would take over property seized from Balts and the French.One after another the OHL toppled government ministers they regarded as weak. "Peace Offensive" in the West
In contrast to the OHL's questionable interventions in politics and diplomacy, their armies continued to excel. The commanders would agree on what was to be done and then Ludendorff and the OHL staff produced the mass of orders specifying exactly what was to be accomplished. On the western front they stopped packing defenders in the front line, which reduced losses to enemy artillery. They issued a directive on elastic defense, in which attackers who penetrated a lightly held front line entered a battle zone in which they were punished by artillery and counterattacks. It remained German Army doctrine through World War II; schools taught the new tactics to all ranks. Its effectiveness is illustrated by comparing the first half of 1916 in which 77 German soldiers died or went missing for every 100 British to the second half when 55 Germans were lost for every 100 British.Ludendorff, with the Kaiser's blessing, helped Lenin and other 30 or so revolutionaries in exile return to Russia. Ludendorff agreed to send the Bolsheviks in


texts: Switzerland by train through Germany from where they would then travel to Russia via Sweden. Lenin, however, still took some convincing, insisting that he be sent on a sealed train. Lenin ultimately agreed on 31 March, and would depart Switzerland on 8 April. By February 1917 the OHL was sure that the new French commander, General Robert Nivelle, would attack, and correctly foresaw that he would try to pinch off the German salient between Arras and Noyon. So the OHL withdrew German forces to the segment of the Hindenburg line across the base of the salient in , leaving the ground they gave up as a depopulated waste land. The Nivelle Offensive in April 1917 was blunted by mobile defense in depth.Many French units mutinied, though the OHL never grasped the extent of the disarray. The British supported their allies with a successful attack near Arras and had another success in June 1917 at Messines Ridge in Flanders. Then at the end of July 1917, the British attacked Passchendaele Ridge. At first the defense was directed by General von Lossberg, a pioneer in defense in depth, but when the British adjusted their tactics, Ludendorff took over day-to-day control. The British eventually took Passchendaele Ridge at great cost. Ludendorff worried about declining morale, so in July 1917 OHL established a propaganda unit. In October 1917 they began mandatory patriotic lectures to the troops, who were assured that if the war was lost they would "become slaves of international capital".The lecturers were to "ensure that a fight is kept up against all agitators, croakers, and weaklings". Following the overthrow of


texts: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the new Russian government launched the Kerensky Offensive in July 1917, attacking the Austro-Hungarian lines in Galicia. After minor successes the Russians were driven back and many of their soldiers refused to fight. The counterattack was halted only after the line was pushed  eastwards. The Germans capped the year in the East by capturing the strong Russian fortress of Riga in September 1917, starting with a brief, overwhelming artillery barrage using many gas shells then followed by infiltrating infantry. The Bolsheviks seized power and soon were at the peace table. To bolster the wobbling Austro-Hungarian government, the Germans provided some troops and led a joint attack in Italy in October.They sliced through the Italian lines in the mountains at Caporetto. Two hundred and fifty thousand Italians were captured and the rest of Italian Army was forced to retreat to the Grappa-Piave defensive line. On 20 November 1917, the British achieved a total surprise by attacking at Cambrai. A short, intense bombardment preceded an attack by tanks, which led the infantry through the German wire. It was Ludendorff's 52nd birthday, but he was too upset to attend the celebratory dinner. The British were not organized to exploit their breakthrough, and German reserves counterattacked, in some places driving the British back beyond their starting lines. At the beginning of 1918 almost a million munition workers struck; one demand was peace without annexations.OHL ordered that all strikers fit to bear arms' be sent to the front, thereby degrading military service." With Russia out of the


texts: war, the Germans outnumbered the Allies on the Western Front. After extensive consultations, OHL planned a series of attacks to drive the British out of the war. During the winter all ranks were schooled in the innovative tactics proven at Caporetto and Riga. The first attack, Operation Michael, was on 21 March 1918 near Cambrai. After an effective hurricane bombardment coordinated by Colonel Bruchmüller, they slashed through the British lines, surmounting the obstacles that had thwarted their enemies for three years. On the first day they occupied as large an area as the Allies had won on the Somme after 140 days.The Allies were aghast, but it was not the triumph OHL had hoped for: they had planned another Tannenberg by surrounding tens of thousands of British troops in the Cambrai salient, but had been thwarted by stout defense and fighting withdrawal. They lost as many men as the defenders – the first day was the bloodiest of the war. Among the dead was Ludendorff’s oldest stepson; a younger had been killed earlier. The Germans were unable to cut any vital railway. When Ludendorff motored near the front he was displeased by seeing how: "The numerous slightly wounded made things difficult by the stupid and displeasing way in which they hurried to the rear." The Americans doubled the number of troops being sent to France. Their next attack was in Flanders.Again they broke through, advancing , and forcing the British to give back all of the ground that they had won the preceding year after weeks of battle. But the Germans were stopped short of the rail junction that was their goal. Next, to draw French


texts: reserves south, they struck along the . In their most successful attack yet they advanced  on the first day, crossing the Marne but stopping  from Paris. However each German triumph weakened their army and its morale. From 20 March 1918 to 25 June the German front lengthened from  to . Then the Germans struck near Reims, to seize additional railway lines for use in the salient, but were foiled by brilliant French elastic tactics.Undeterred, on 18 July 1918 Ludendorff, still "aggressive and confident", traveled to Flanders to confer about the next attack there. A telephone call reported that the French and Americans, led by a mass of tanks, had smashed through the right flank of their salient pointing toward Paris, on the opening day of the Battle of Soissons. Everyone present realized that surely they had lost the war. Ludendorff was shattered. OHL began to withdraw step by step to new defensive lines, first evacuating all of their wounded and supplies. Ludendorff's communiques, which hitherto had been largely factual, now distorted the news, for instance claiming that American troops had to be herded onto troop ships by special police. On 8 August 1918, the Germans were completely surprised at Amiens when British tanks broke through the defenses and intact German formations surrendered.To Ludendorff it was the "black day in the history of the German Army". The German retreats continued, pressed by Allied attacks. OHL still vigorously opposed offering to give up the territory they desired in France and Belgium, so the German government was unable to make a plausible peace proposal. Ludendorff became


texts:
 increasingly cantankerous, railing at his staff without cause, publicly accusing Hindenburg of talking nonsense, and sometimes bursting into tears. Bauer wanted him replaced, but instead a doctor,  Hochheimer, was brought to OHL. He had worked closely with Ludendorff in Poland during the winter of 1915–16 on plans to bring in German colonists. Before the war he had a practice in nervous diseases.Hochheimer "spoke as a friend and he listened as a friend", convincing Ludendorff that he could not work effectively with one hour of sleep a night and that he must relearn how to relax. After a month away from headquarters Ludendorff had recovered from the severest symptoms of battle fatigue. Downfall
On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff and Hindenburg suddenly told an incredulous Kaiser that they could not guarantee the integrity of the Western front "for two hours" and they must have an immediate armistice. A new Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden, approached President Woodrow Wilson but Wilson's terms were unacceptable to the German leadership and the Army fought on. The chancellor told the Kaiser that he and his cabinet would resign unless Ludendorff was removed, but that Hindenburg must remain to hold the army together. The Kaiser called his commanders in, curtly accepting Ludendorff's resignation and then rejecting Hindenburg's. Fuming, Ludendorff would not accompany the field marshal back to headquarters; "I refused to ride with you because you have treated me so shabbily".Ludendorff had assiduously sought all of the credit; now he was rewarded with all of the blame. Widely despised, and with revolution


texts:
 breaking out, he was hidden by his brother and a network of friends until he slipped out of Germany disguised in blue spectacles and a false beard and fake Finnish passport  settling in a Swedish admirer's country home, until the Swedish government asked him to leave in February 1919. In seven months he wrote two volumes of detailed memoirs. Friends, led by Breucker, provided him with documents and negotiated with publishers. Groener (who is not mentioned in the book) characterized it as a showcase of his "caesar-mania". He was a brilliant general, according to John Wheeler-Bennett he was "certainly one of the greatest routine military organizers that the world has ever seen", but he was a ruinous political meddler. The influential military analyst Hans Delbrück concluded that "The Empire was built by Moltke and Bismarck, destroyed by Tirpitz and Ludendorff."After the Great War
In exile, Ludendorff wrote numerous books and articles about the German military's conduct of the war while forming the foundation for the , the "stab-in-the-back theory," for which he is considered largely responsible, insisting that a domestic crisis had sparked Germany's surrender while the military situation held firm, ignoring that he himself had pressed the politicians for an armistice on military grounds. Ludendorff was convinced that Germany had fought a defensive war and, in his opinion, that Kaiser Wilhelm II had failed to organize a proper counter-propaganda campaign or provide efficient leadership. Ludendorff was extremely suspicious of the Social Democrats and leftists, whom he blamed for the humiliation of Germany


texts:
 through the Versailles Treaty. Ludendorff claimed that he paid close attention to the business element (especially the Jews), and saw them turn their backs on the war effort by—as he saw it—letting profit, rather than patriotism, dictate production and financing. Again focusing on the left, Ludendorff was appalled by the strikes that took place towards the end of the war and the way that the home front collapsed before the military front did, with the former poisoning the morale of soldiers on temporary leave. Most importantly, Ludendorff felt that the German people as a whole had underestimated what was at stake in the war; he was convinced that the Entente had started the war and was determined to dismantle Germany completely. Ludendorff wrote:

Political career in the Republic

Ludendorff returned to Berlin in February 1919.Staying at the Adlon Hotel, he talked with another resident, Sir Neill Malcolm, the head of the British Military Mission. After Ludendorff presented his excuses for the German defeat Malcolm said, "You mean that you were stabbed in the back?" ironically coining a key catchphrase for the German right wing. On 12 March 1920, 5,000  troops under the command of Walther von Lüttwitz marched on the Chancellery, forcing the government led by Friedrich Ebert and Gustav Bauer to flee the city. The putschists proclaimed a new government with a right-wing politician, Wolfgang Kapp as new "chancellor". Ludendorff and Max Bauer were part of the putsch. The Kapp Putsch was soon defeated by a general strike that brought Berlin to a standstill.The leaders fled, Ludendorff to Bavaria, where a


texts: right-wing coup had succeeded. He published two volumes of annotated  and in a few instances pruned  documents and commentaries documenting his war service. He reconciled with Hindenburg, who began to visit every year. In May 1923 Ludendorff had an agreeable first meeting with Adolf Hitler, and soon he had regular contacts with Nazis. On 8 November 1923, the Bavarian  Gustav von Kahr was addressing a jammed meeting in a large beer hall, the Bürgerbräukeller. Hitler, waving a pistol, jumped onto the stage, announcing that the national revolution was underway. The hall was occupied by armed men who covered the audience with a machine gun, the first move in the Beer Hall Putsch.Hitler announced that he would lead the Reich Government and Ludendorff would command the army. He addressed the now enthusiastically supportive audience and then spent the night in the War Ministry, unsuccessfully trying to obtain the army's backing. The next morning 3,000 armed Nazis formed outside of the Bürgerbräukeller and marched into central Munich, the leaders just behind the flag bearers. They were blocked by a cordon of police, and firing broke out for less than a minute. Several of the Nazis in front were hit or dropped to the ground. Ludendorff and his adjutant Major Streck marched to the police line where they pushed aside the rifle barrels. He was respectfully arrested.He was indignant when he was sent home while the other leaders remained in custody. Four police officers and 16 Nazis had been killed, including Ludendorff's servant. They were tried in early 1924. Ludendorff was acquitted, but Heinz Pernet, Ludendorff's


texts: stepson, was convicted of "aiding and abetting treason," given a fifteen-month sentence. Hitler went to prison but was released after nine months. Ludendorff's 60th birthday was celebrated by massed bands and a large torchlight parade. In 1924, he was elected to the Reichstag as a representative of the NSFB (a coalition of the German  Freedom Party (DVFP) and members of the Nazi Party), serving until 1928.In 1925, he founded the Tannenbergbund, a German nationalist organization which was both anti-Semitic and anti-Catholic, and published literature espousing conspiracy theories involving Jews, Catholics — especially Jesuits — and Freemasons. As his views became more extreme under the influence of his wife, Mathilde von Kemnitz, Ludendorff gradually began to part company with Hitler, who was surreptitiously working to undermine the reputation of his one serious rival for the leadership of the extreme right in Germany. Nonetheless, Ludendorff was persuaded to run for President of the Republic in the March 1925 election as the Nazi Party candidate, receiving only 1.1 per cent of the vote; there is some evidence that Hitler himself persuaded Ludendorff to run, knowing that the results would be humiliating. No one had a majority in the initial round of the election, so a second round was needed; Hindenburg entered the race and was narrowly elected. Ludendorff was so humiliated by what he saw as a betrayal by his old friend that he broke off relations with Hindenburg, and in 1927 refused to even stand beside the field marshal at the dedication of the Tannenberg memorial. He attacked Hindenburg abusively for


texts:
 not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion". The Berlin-based liberal newspaper  states in its article "Ludendorff's hate tirades against Hindenburg—Poisonous gas from Hitler's camp" that Ludendorff was, as of 29 March 1930, deeply grounded in Nazi ideology.Tipton notes that Ludendorff was a social Darwinist who believed that war was the "foundation of human society", and that military dictatorship was the normal form of government in a society in which every resource must be mobilized. The historian Margaret L. Anderson notes that after the war, Ludendorff wanted Germany to go to war against all of Europe, and that he became a pagan worshipper of the Nordic god Wotan (Odin); he detested not only Judaism, but also Christianity, which he regarded as a weakening force. Retirement and death

Ludendorff divorced and married his second wife Mathilde von Kemnitz (1877–1966) in 1926. They published books and essays to prove that the world's problems were the result of Christianity, especially the Jesuits and Catholics, but also conspiracies by Jews and the Freemasons. They founded the   (Society for the Knowledge of God), a small and rather obscure esoterical society of Theists that survives to this day. He launched several abusive attacks on his former superior Hindenburg for not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion". By the time Hitler came to power, Ludendorff was no longer sympathetic to him.The Nazis distanced themselves from Ludendorff because of his eccentric conspiracy theories. On 30 January 1933, the occasion of Hitler's appointment as Chancellor by President


texts:
 Hindenburg, Ludendorff allegedly sent the following telegram to Hindenburg:

Some historians consider this text to be a forgery. In an attempt to regain Ludendorff's favor, Hitler arrived unannounced at Ludendorff's home on his 70th birthday in 1935 to promote him to field marshal. Infuriated, Ludendorff allegedly rebuffed Hitler by telling him: "An officer is named General Field-Marshal on the battlefield! Not at a birthday tea-party in the midst of peace." He wrote two further books on military themes. Ludendorff died of liver cancer in the private clinic  in Munich, on 20 December 1937 at the age of 72.He was given—against his explicit wishes—a state funeral organized and attended by Hitler, who declined to speak at his eulogy. He was buried in the  in Tutzing in Bavaria. In popular culture
 The Ludendorff Bridge, also known as the Bridge at Remagen, was named after him. The 1974 British television drama Fall of Eagles features actor Michael Bates as Ludendorff. The 2003 Canadian TV miniseries Hitler: The Rise of Evil depicts the early relation between Hitler and Ludendorff, who is portrayed by Austrian actor Friedrich von Thun. A highly fictionalized version of Ludendorff, which bears little resemblance in terms of appearance or biography, is portrayed by Danny Huston in the 2017 Warner Bros./DCEU film Wonder Woman. In a second-season episode of the television series Babylon Berlin, members of the Black Reichswehr hatch a plan to overthrow the Weimar Republic and restore the German Empire with Ludendorff as Chancellor.Decorations and awards
He received the following honours:
 Knight of the Military