texts:
 Santo quickly grew into one of Mexico's most popular national celebrities of the 20th century, while the sport of Lucha Libre thus received an unparalleled degree of mainstream attention.Following the mammoth success of El Santo, <mask> then frequently pushed additional masked superstar characters, such as the Black Shadow, the Blue Demon, Mil Mascaras, and the Villano's (among others); and to this day, Lucha Libre remains associated with high-flying masked superstars, with Rey Mysterio, Jr., Psicosis, Silver King, and La Parka representing the latest generation of masked luchadores. The <mask> Family continues to serve as Lucha Libre's most powerful promoters while steering the dominant EMLL organization. In addition his stable of emmascarados, Lutteroth also built a roster of legendary performers, including the likes of Gory Guerrero, Cavernario Galindo, Tarzan Lopez, Perro Aguayo, René Guajardo, Dorrel Dixon, Mil Máscaras, Rito Romero, Médico Asesino, Sugi Sito and others, while holding a virtual monopoly on the country's wrestling landscape. Moreover, EMLL achieved international recognition for presenting a distinctive in-ring wrestling style that featured dazzling high-risk maneuvers and superior work rate in contrast to the increased brawling style that was employed in the U.S. Consequently, Mexican Lucha Libre (along with Japanese Puroresu) eventually gained world renown as a significant foreign alternative to American-style professional wrestling. Later years
However, by the mid-1950s, an aging <mask> began to cede control of the EMLL to his son <mask> "Chavo" <mask> II, who commanded the same level of respect from the wrestlers. Obtaining the recognition from the National Wrestling Alliance

masks: Lutteroth Lutteroth Lutteroth Salvador Lutteroth


type: original

texts:
 (NWA), for the welterweight and light-heavyweight world titles for Mexico, which brought him great pride as a promotion in that time was done without television because of the mayor of Mexico City, Lic. Ernesto Uruchurtu banned the wrestling matches from being televised, and yet ticket sales at the arena averaged 90% with a maximum capacity of 16,500 seats; wrestlers were brought from Spain, England, Argentina, France, Japan, Korea, and Jamaica among others.As a result, on January 16, 1975, NWA Light Heavyweight Champion Ray Mendoza broke away from the new EMLL management, and with the backing of arena promoters Francisco Flores and Benjamin Mora Jr., started a competing federation known as Lucha Libre Internacional, S. C., which has since become known as the Universal Wrestling Association(and the eventual home of longtime champion El Canek). <mask> Jr. retired in 1987; and his grandson Paco Alonso has since taken control of EMLL, which remains the world's oldest wrestling federation while continuing to compete with the UWA and Antonio Peña's AAA promotion. With its fast-paced, athletic style, Lucha Libre is now entrenched among Mexico's top attractions, ranking with soccer and baseball as its most popular pastimes. Moreover, in recent years, Mexican stars like Eddie Guerrero, Rey Mysterio, Jr., Konnan, and Vampiro have also been top draws in the U.S. as well. Championships and accomplishments
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2013)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)

References

1897 births
1987 deaths
Professional wrestling promoters
People from Mexico City
People of the Mexican Revolution
Lucha libre
Professional wrestling in


texts: <mask> (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was an American politician and engineer who served as the 31st president of the United States from 1929 to 1933 and a member of the Republican Party, holding office during the onset of the Great Depression. Before serving as president, <mask> led the Commission for Relief in Belgium, served as the director of the U.S. Food Administration, and served as the third U.S. secretary of commerce. <mask> was born to a Quaker family in West Branch, Iowa, but he grew up in Oregon. He took a position with a London-based mining company after graduating from Stanford University in 1895. After the outbreak of World War I, he became the head of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, an international relief organization that provided food to occupied Belgium. When the U.S. entered the war, President Woodrow Wilson appointed <mask> to lead the Food Administration, and <mask> became known as the country's "food czar". After the war, <mask> led the American Relief Administration, which provided food to the inhabitants of Central and Eastern Europe.<mask>'s wartime service made him a favorite of many progressives, and he unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in the 1920 presidential election. President Warren G. Harding appointed <mask> as Secretary of Commerce in 1920, and he continued to serve under President Calvin Coolidge after Harding died in 1923. <mask> was an

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Herbert Clark Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover


texts: unusually active and visible Cabinet member, becoming known as "Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments". He was influential in the development of air travel and radio. He led the federal response to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927. <mask> won the Republican nomination in the 1928 presidential election, and defeated Democratic candidate Al Smith in a landslide. In 1929 <mask> assumed the presidency during a period of widespread economic stability.However the economy would take a drastic turn when the stock market crashed. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression. The Great Depression dominated <mask>'s presidency and he pursued a variety of policies in an attempt to lift the economy. <mask> strongly opposed directly involving the federal government in relief efforts. In the midst of the economic crisis, <mask> was decisively defeated by Democratic nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. <mask>'s retirement was over 31 years long, one of the longest presidential retirements. He authored numerous works and became increasingly conservative in retirement.He strongly criticized Roosevelt's foreign policy and New Deal domestic agenda. In the 1940s and 1950s, public opinion of <mask> improved largely due to his service in various assignments for presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, including chairing the

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


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 influential Hoover Commission. Nevertheless, <mask> is often regarded as a below-average U.S. president, and most polls of historians and political scientists rank him as one of the worst presidents in US history. Early life

<mask> was born on August 10, 1874, in West Branch, Iowa. His father, <mask>, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner of German, Swiss, and English ancestry. <mask>'s mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was raised in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, before moving to Iowa in 1859. Like most other citizens of West Branch, Jesse and Hulda were Quakers.Around age two "Bertie", as he was called during that time, contracted a serious bout of croup, and was momentarily thought to have died until resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn. As a young child he was often referred to by his father as "my little stick in the mud" when he repeatedly got trapped in the mud crossing the unpaved street. <mask>'s family figured prominently in the town's public prayer life, due almost entirely to mother Hulda's role in the church. As a child, <mask> consistently attended schools, but he did little reading on his own aside from the Bible. <mask>'s father, noted by the local paper for his "pleasant, sunshiny disposition", died in 1880 at the age of 34. <mask>'s mother died in 1884, leaving <mask>, his older brother, Theodore, and his younger sister, May, as orphans. <mask> lived the next 18 months with his

masks:
Herbert Hoover
Herbert Hoover
Jesse Hoover
Hoover
Herbert
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover


texts: uncle <mask> at a nearby farm.In November 1885, <mask> was sent to Newberg, Oregon, to live with his uncle John Minthorn, a Quaker physician and businessman whose own son had died the year before. The Minthorn household was considered cultured and educational, and imparted a strong work ethic. Much like West Branch, Newberg was a frontier town settled largely by Midwestern Quakers. Minthorn ensured that <mask> received an education, but <mask> disliked the many chores assigned to him and often resented Minthorn. One observer described <mask> as "an orphan [who] seemed to be neglected in many ways". <mask> attended Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University), but dropped out at the age of thirteen to become an office assistant for his uncle's real estate office (Oregon Land Company) in Salem, Oregon. Though he did not attend high school, <mask> learned bookkeeping, typing, and mathematics at a night school.<mask> was a member of the inaugural "Pioneer Class" of Stanford University, entering in 1891 despite failing all the entrance exams except mathematics. During his freshman year, he switched his major from mechanical engineering to geology after working for John Casper Branner, the chair of Stanford's geology department. During his sophomore year, to reduce his costs, <mask> co-founded the first student housing cooperative at Stanford, "Romero Hall". <mask> was a mediocre student, and he spent much

masks:
Allen Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
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Hoover


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 of his time working in various part-time jobs or participating in campus activities. Though he was initially shy among fellow students, <mask> won election as student treasurer and became known for his distaste for fraternities and sororities. He served as student manager of both the baseball and football teams, and helped organize the inaugural Big Game versus the University of California. During the summers before and after his senior year, <mask> interned under economic geologist Waldemar Lindgren of the United States Geological Survey; these experiences convinced <mask> to pursue a career as a mining geologist.Mining engineer

Bewick, Moreing

When <mask> graduated from Stanford in 1895, the country was in the midst of the Panic of 1893, and he initially struggled to find a job. He worked in various low-level mining jobs in the Sierra Nevada Mountains until he convinced prominent mining engineer Louis Janin to hire him. After working as a mine scout for a year, <mask> was hired by Bewick, Moreing & Co., a London-based company that operated gold mines in Western Australia. <mask> first went to Coolgardie, then the center of the Eastern Goldfields. Though <mask> received a $5,000 salary (), conditions were harsh in the goldfields. <mask> described the Coolgardie and Murchison rangelands on the edge of the Great Victoria Desert as a land of "black flies, red dust and white heat". <mask> traveled constantly

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


texts: across the Outback to evaluate and manage the company's mines.He convinced Bewick, Moreing to purchase the Sons of Gwalia gold mine, which proved to be one of the most successful mines in the region. Partly due to <mask>'s efforts, the company eventually controlled approximately 50 percent of gold production in Western Australia. <mask> brought in many Italian immigrants to cut costs and counter the labour movement of the Australian miners. During his time with the mining company, <mask> became opposed to measures such as a minimum wage and workers' compensation, feeling that they were unfair to owners. <mask>'s work impressed his employers, and in 1898 he was promoted to junior partner. An open feud developed between <mask> and his boss, Ernest Williams, but company leaders defused the situation by offering <mask> a compelling position in China. Upon arriving in China, <mask> developed gold mines near Tianjin on behalf of Bewick, Moreing and the Chinese-owned Chinese Engineering and Mining Company.He became deeply interested in Chinese history, but gave up on learning the language to a fluent level. He publicly warned that Chinese workers were inefficient and racially inferior. He made recommendations to improve the lot of the Chinese worker, seeking to end the practice of imposing long-term servitude contracts and to institute reforms for workers based on merit. The Boxer Rebellion broke out shortly after


texts:
 <mask> arrived in China, trapping the <mask>s and numerous other foreign nationals until a multi-national military force defeated Boxer forces in the Battle of Tientsin. Fearing the imminent collapse of the Chinese government, the director of the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company agreed to establish a new Sino-British venture with Bewick, Moreing. After <mask> and Bewick, Moreing established effective control over the new Chinese mining company, <mask> became the operating partner of Bewick, Moreing in late 1901. As operating partner, <mask> continually traveled the world on behalf of Bewick, Moreing, visiting mines operated by the company on different continents.Beginning in December 1902, the company faced mounting legal and financial issues after one of the partners admitted to having fraudulently sold stock in a mine. More issues arose in 1904, after the British government formed two separate royal commissions to investigate Bewick, Moreing's labor practices and financial dealings in Western Australia. After the company lost a suit <mask> began looking for a way to get out of the partnership, and he sold his shares in mid-1908. Sole proprietor

After leaving Bewick, Moreing, <mask> worked as a London-based independent mining consultant and financier. Though he had risen to prominence as a geologist and mine operator, <mask> focused much of his attention on raising money, restructuring corporate

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


texts: organizations, and financing new ventures. He specialized in rejuvenating troubled mining operations, taking a share of the profits in exchange for his technical and financial expertise. <mask> thought of himself and his associates as "engineering doctors to sick concerns", and he earned a reputation as a "doctor of sick mines".He made investments on every continent and had offices in San Francisco; London; New York City; Paris; Petrograd; and Mandalay, British Burma. By 1914, <mask> was a very wealthy man, with an estimated personal fortune of $4 million (equivalent to $ million in ). He co-founded the Zinc Corporation to extract zinc near the Australian city of Broken Hill, New South Wales. The Zinc Corporation developed the froth flotation process to extract zinc from lead-silver ore and operated the world's first selective ore differential flotation plant. <mask> worked with the Burma Corporation, a British firm that produced silver, lead, and zinc in large quantities at the Namtu Bawdwin Mine. He also helped increase copper production in Kyshtym, Russia, through the use of pyritic smelting. He also agreed to manage a separate mine in the Altai Mountains that, according to <mask>, "developed probably the greatest and richest single body of ore known in the world".In his spare time, <mask> wrote. His lectures at Columbia and Stanford universities were published in 1909 as Principles of Mining, which

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


texts:
 became a standard textbook. The book reflects his move towards progressive ideals, as <mask> came to endorse eight-hour workdays and organized labor. <mask> became deeply interested in the history of science, and he was especially drawn to the De re metallica, an influential 16th century work on mining and metallurgy by Georgius Agricola. In 1912, <mask> and his wife published the first English translation of De re metallica. <mask> also joined the board of trustees at Stanford, and led a successful campaign to appoint John Branner as the university's president. Marriage and family

During his senior year at Stanford, <mask> became smitten with a classmate named Lou Henry, though his financial situation precluded marriage at that time.The daughter of a banker from Monterey, California, Lou Henry decided to study geology at Stanford after attending a lecture delivered by John Branner. Immediately after earning a promotion in 1898, <mask> cabled Lou Henry, asking her to marry him. After she cabled back her acceptance of the proposal, <mask> briefly returned to the United States for their wedding. They would remain married until Lou Henry <mask>'s death in 1944. Though his Quaker upbringing strongly influenced his career, <mask> rarely attended Quaker meetings during his adult life. <mask> and his wife had two children: <mask> Jr. (born in 1903) and Allan Henry <mask> (born in 1907). The <mask> family began

masks:
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Hoover
Herbert Hoover
Hoover
Hoover


texts:
 living in London in 1902, though they frequently traveled as part of <mask>'s career.After 1916, the <mask>s began living in the United States, maintaining homes in Palo Alto, California, and Washington, D.C.

World War I and aftermath

Relief in Europe

World War I broke out in August 1914, pitting Germany and its allies against France and its allies. The German plan was a quick victory by marching through neutral Belgium to capture Paris. That failed but the Germans did control nearly all of Belgium for the entire war. <mask> and other London-based American businessmen established a committee to organize the return of the roughly 100,000 Americans stranded in Europe. <mask> was appointed as the committee's chair and, with the assent of Congress and the Wilson administration, took charge of the distribution of relief to Americans in Europe. <mask> later stated, "I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life."By early October 1914, <mask>'s organization had distributed relief to at least 40,000 Americans. The German invasion of Belgium in August 1914 set off a food crisis in Belgium, which relied heavily on food imports. The Germans refused to take responsibility for feeding Belgian citizens in captured territory, and the British refused to lift their blockade of German-occupied Belgium unless the U.S. government supervised

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


texts:
 Belgian food imports as a neutral party in the war. With the cooperation of the Wilson administration and the CNSA, a Belgian relief organization, <mask> established the Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB). The CRB obtained and imported millions of tons of foodstuffs for the CNSA to distribute, and helped ensure that the German army did not appropriate the food. Private donations and government grants supplied the majority of its $11-million-a-month budget, and the CRB became a veritable independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills, and railroads. <mask> worked 14-hour days from London, administering the distribution of over two million tons of food to nine million war victims.In an early form of shuttle diplomacy, he crossed the North Sea forty times to meet with German authorities and persuade them to allow food shipments. He also convinced British Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George to allow individuals to send money to the people of Belgium, thereby lessening workload of the CRB. At the request of the French government, the CRB began delivering supplies to the people of German-occupied Northern France in 1915. American diplomat Walter Page described <mask> as "probably the only man living who has privately (i.e., without holding office) negotiated understandings with the British, French, German, Dutch, and Belgian governments". U.S. Food Administration

War

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover


texts: upon Germany was declared in April 1917 and American food was essential to Allied victory. With the U.S. mobilizing for war, President Wilson appointed <mask> to head the U.S. Food Administration, which was charged with ensuring the nation's food needs during the war. <mask> had hoped to join the administration in some capacity since at least 1916, and he obtained the position after lobbying several members of Congress and Wilson's confidant, Edward M. House.Earning the appellation of "food czar", <mask> recruited a volunteer force of hundreds of thousands of women and deployed propaganda in movie theaters, schools, and churches. He carefully selected men to assist in the agency leadership—Alonzo Taylor (technical abilities), Robert Taft (political associations), Gifford Pinchot (agricultural influence), and Julius Barnes (business acumen). World War I had created a global food crisis that dramatically increased food prices and caused food riots and starvation in the countries at war. <mask>'s chief goal as food czar was to provide supplies to the Allied Powers, but he also sought to stabilize domestic prices and to prevent domestic shortages. Under the broad powers granted by the Food and Fuel Control Act, the Food Administration supervised food production throughout the United States, and the administration made use of its authority to buy, import, store, and sell food. Determined to avoid rationing,

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


texts:
 <mask> established set days for people to avoid eating specified foods and save them for soldiers' rations: meatless Mondays, wheatless Wednesdays, and "when in doubt, eat potatoes". These policies were dubbed "Hooverizing" by government publicists, in spite of <mask>'s continual orders that publicity should not mention him by name.The Food Administration shipped 23 million metric tons of food to the Allied Powers, preventing their collapse and earning <mask> great acclaim. As head of the Food Administration, <mask> gained a following in the United States, especially among progressives who saw in <mask> an expert administrator and symbol of efficiency. Post-war relief in Europe

World War I came to an end in November 1918, but Europe continued to face a critical food situation; <mask> estimated that as many as 400 million people faced the possibility of starvation. The United States Food Administration became the American Relief Administration (ARA), and <mask> was charged with providing food to Central and Eastern Europe. In addition to providing relief, the ARA rebuilt infrastructure in an effort to rejuvenate the economy of Europe. Throughout the Paris Peace Conference, <mask> served as a close adviser to President Wilson, and he largely shared Wilson's goals of establishing the League of Nations, settling borders on the basis of self-determination, and refraining from inflicting a harsh punishment on


texts: the defeated Central Powers. The following year, famed British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote in The Economic Consequences of the Peace that if <mask>'s realism, "knowledge, magnanimity and disinterestedness" had found wider play in the councils of Paris, the world would have had "the Good Peace".After U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in mid-1919, <mask> transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. He also established the European Children's Fund, which provided relief to fifteen million children across fourteen countries. Despite the opposition of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other Republicans, <mask> provided aid to the defeated German nation after the war, as well as relief to famine-stricken Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. <mask> condemned the Bolsheviks, but warned President Wilson against an intervention in the Russian Civil War, as he viewed the White Russian forces as little better than the Bolsheviks and feared the possibility of a protracted U.S. involvement. The Russian famine of 1921–22 claimed six million people, but the intervention of the ARA likely saved millions of lives. When asked if he was not helping Bolshevism by providing relief, <mask> stated, "twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"Reflecting the gratitude of many Europeans, in July 1922, Soviet author Maxim


texts:
 Gorky told <mask> that "your help will enter history as a unique, gigantic achievement, worthy of the greatest glory, which will long remain in the memory of millions of Russians whom you have saved from death". In 1919, <mask> established the Hoover War Collection at Stanford University. He donated all the files of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, the U.S. Food Administration, and the American Relief Administration, and pledged $50,000 as an endowment (). Scholars were sent to Europe to collect pamphlets, society publications, government documents, newspapers, posters, proclamations, and other ephemeral materials related to the war and the revolutions that followed it. The collection was renamed the Hoover War Library in 1922 and is now known as the Hoover Institution Library and Archives. During the post-war period, <mask> also served as the president of the Federated American Engineering Societies. 1920 election

<mask> had been little known among the American public before 1914, but his service in the Wilson administration established him as a contender in the 1920 presidential election.<mask>'s wartime push for higher taxes, criticism of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's actions during the First Red Scare, and his advocacy for measures such as the minimum wage, forty-eight-hour workweek, and elimination of child labor made him appealing to progressives of both parties. Despite his service in


texts:
 the Democratic administration of Woodrow Wilson, <mask> had never been closely affiliated with either the Democrats or the Republicans. He initially sought to avoid committing to any party in the 1920 election, hoping that either of the two major parties would draft him for president at their national conventions. In March 1920, he changed strategy and declared himself a Republican; he was motivated in large part by the belief that the Democrats had little chance of winning. Despite his national renown, <mask>'s service in the Wilson administration had alienated farmers and the conservative Old Guard of the GOP, and his presidential candidacy fizzled out after his defeat in the California primary by favorite son Hiram Johnson. At the 1920 Republican National Convention, Warren G. Harding emerged as a compromise candidate after the convention became deadlocked between supporters of Johnson, Leonard Wood, and Frank Orren Lowden. <mask> backed Harding's successful campaign in the general election, and he began laying the groundwork for a future presidential run by building a base of strong supporters in the Republican Party.Secretary of Commerce (1921–1928)

After his election as president in 1920, Harding rewarded <mask> for his support, offering to appoint him as either Secretary of the Interior or Secretary of Commerce. Secretary of Commerce was considered a minor Cabinet post, with limited and vaguely


texts: defined responsibilities, but <mask> decided to accept the position. <mask>'s progressive stances, continuing support for the League of Nations, and recent conversion to the Republican Party aroused opposition to his appointment from many Senate Republicans. To overcome this opposition, Harding paired <mask>'s nomination with that of conservative favorite Andrew Mellon as Secretary of the Treasury, and the nominations of both <mask> and Mellon were confirmed by the Senate. <mask> would serve as Secretary of Commerce from 1921 to 1929, serving under Harding and, after Harding's death in 1923, President Calvin Coolidge. While some of the most prominent members of the Harding administration, including Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty and Secretary of Interior Albert B. Fall, were implicated in major scandals, <mask> emerged largely unscathed from investigations into the Harding administration.<mask> envisioned the Commerce Department as the hub of the nation's growth and stability. His experience mobilizing the war-time economy convinced him that the federal government could promote efficiency by eliminating waste, increasing production, encouraging the adoption of data-based practices, investing in infrastructure, and conserving natural resources. Contemporaries described <mask>'s approach as a "third alternative" between "unrestrained capitalism" and socialism, which was becoming increasingly popular in


texts:
 Europe. <mask> sought to foster a balance among labor, capital, and the government, and for this he has been variously labeled a corporatist or an associationalist. A high priority was economic diplomacy, including promoting the growth of exports, as well as protection against monopolistic practices of foreign governments, especially regarding rubber and coffee. <mask> demanded, and received, authority to coordinate economic affairs throughout the government. He created many sub-departments and committees, overseeing and regulating everything from manufacturing statistics to air travel.In some instances he "seized" control of responsibilities from other Cabinet departments when he deemed that they were not carrying out their responsibilities well; some began referring to him as the "Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments". In response to the Depression of 1920–21, he convinced Harding to assemble a presidential commission on unemployment, which encouraged local governments to engage in countercyclical infrastructure spending. He endorsed much of Mellon's tax reduction program, but favored a more progressive tax system and opposed the treasury secretary's efforts to eliminate the estate tax. Radio regulation and air travel

Between 1923 and 1929, the number of families with radios grew from 300,000 to 10 million, and <mask>'s tenure as Secretary of Commerce heavily influenced


texts: radio use in the United States. In the early and mid-1920s, <mask>'s radio conferences played a key role in the organization, development, and regulation of radio broadcasting. <mask> also helped pass the Radio Act of 1927, which allowed the government to intervene and abolish radio stations that were deemed "non-useful" to the public. <mask>'s attempts at regulating radio were not supported by all congressmen, and he received much opposition from the Senate and from radio station owners.<mask> was also influential in the early development of air travel, and he sought to create a thriving private industry boosted by indirect government subsidies. He encouraged the development of emergency landing fields, required all runways to be equipped with lights and radio beams, and encouraged farmers to make use of planes for crop dusting. He also established the federal government's power to inspect planes and license pilots, setting a precedent for the later Federal Aviation Administration. As Commerce Secretary, <mask> hosted national conferences on street traffic collectively known as the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety. <mask>'s chief objective was to address the growing casualty toll of traffic accidents, but the scope of the conferences grew and soon embraced motor vehicle standards, rules of the road, and urban traffic control. He left the invited interest groups to negotiate agreements among


texts:
 themselves, which were then presented for adoption by states and localities. Because automotive trade associations were the best organized, many of the positions taken by the conferences reflected their interests.The conferences issued a model Uniform Vehicle Code for adoption by the states, and a Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance for adoption by cities. Both were widely influential, promoting greater uniformity between jurisdictions and tending to promote the automobile's priority in city streets. <mask>'s image building
Phillips Payson O'Brien argues that <mask> had a Britain problem. He had spent so many years living in Britain and Australia, as an employee of British companies, there was a risk that he would be labeled a British tool. There were three solutions, all of which he tried in close collaboration with the media, which greatly admired him. First came the image of the dispassionate scientist, emotionally uninvolved but always committed to finding and implementing the best possible solution. The second solution was to gain the reputation of a humanitarian, deeply concerned with the world's troubles, such as famine in Belgium, as well as specific American problems which he had solved as food commissioner during the world war.The third solution to was to fall back on that old tactic of twisting the British tail. He employed that solution in 1925–1926 in the worldwide rubber crisis. The American

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 auto industry consumed 70% of the world's output, but British investors controlled much of the supply. Their plan was to drastically cut back on output from British Malaya, which had the effect of tripling rubber prices. <mask> energetically gave a series of speeches and interviews denouncing the monopolistic practice, and demanding that it be ended. The American State Department wanted no such crisis and compromised the issue in 1926. By then <mask> had solved his image problem, and during his 1928 campaign he successfully squelched attacks that alleged he was too close to British interests.Other initiatives

With the goal of encouraging wise business investments, <mask> made the Commerce Department a clearinghouse of information. He recruited numerous academics from various fields and tasked them with publishing reports on different aspects of the economy, including steel production and films. To eliminate waste, he encouraged standardization of products like automobile tires and baby bottle nipples. Other efforts at eliminating waste included reducing labor losses from trade disputes and seasonal fluctuations, reducing industrial losses from accident and injury, and reducing the amount of crude oil spilled during extraction and shipping. He promoted international trade by opening overseas offices to advise businessmen. <mask> was especially eager to promote Hollywood films overseas. His "Own Your Own


texts:
 Home" campaign was a collaboration to promote ownership of single-family dwellings, with groups such as the Better Houses in America movement, the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, and the Home Modernizing Bureau.He worked with bankers and the savings and loan industry to promote the new long-term home mortgage, which dramatically stimulated home construction. Other accomplishments included winning the agreement of U.S. Steel to adopt an eight-hour workday, and the fostering of the Colorado River Compact, a water rights compact among Southwestern states. Mississippi flood
The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 broke the banks and levees of the lower Mississippi River in early 1927, resulting in the flooding of millions of acres and leaving 1.5 million people displaced from their homes. Although disaster response did not fall under the duties of the Commerce Department, the governors of six states along the Mississippi River specifically asked President Coolidge to appoint <mask> to coordinate the response to the flood. Believing that disaster response was not the domain of the federal government, Coolidge initially refused to become involved, but he eventually acceded to political pressure and appointed <mask> to chair a special committee to help the region. <mask> established over one hundred tent cities and a fleet of more than six hundred vessels, and raised $17 million (equivalent to $ million in ).


texts:
 In large part due to his leadership during the flood crisis, by 1928, <mask> had begun to overshadow President Coolidge himself.Though <mask> received wide acclaim for his role in the crisis, he ordered the suppression of reports of mistreatment of African Americans in refugee camps. He did so with the cooperation of African-American leader Robert Russa Moton, who was promised unprecedented influence once <mask> became president. Presidential election of 1928

<mask> quietly built up support for a future presidential bid throughout the 1920s, but he carefully avoided alienating Coolidge, who was eligible to run for another term in the 1928 presidential election. Along with the rest of the nation, he was surprised when Coolidge announced in August 1927 that he would not seek another term. With the impending retirement of Coolidge, <mask> immediately emerged as the front-runner for the 1928 Republican nomination, and he quickly put together a strong campaign team led by Hubert Work, Will H. Hays, and Reed Smoot. Coolidge was unwilling to anoint <mask> as his successor; on one occasion he remarked that, "for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice—all of it bad". Despite his lukewarm feelings towards <mask>, Coolidge had no desire to split the party by publicly opposing the popular Commerce Secretary's candidacy.Many wary Republican leaders cast about for an alternative candidate, such as Treasury


texts: Secretary Andrew Mellon or former secretary of state Charles Evans Hughes. However, Hughes and Mellon declined to run, and other potential contenders like Frank Orren Lowden and Vice President Charles G. Dawes failed to garner widespread support. <mask> won the presidential nomination on the first ballot of the 1928 Republican National Convention. Convention delegates considered re-nominating Vice President Charles Dawes to be <mask>'s running mate, but Coolidge, who hated Dawes, remarked that this would be "a personal affront" to him. The convention instead selected Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas. <mask> accepted the nomination at Stanford Stadium, telling a huge crowd that he would continue the policies of the Harding and Coolidge administrations. The Democrats nominated New York governor Al Smith, who became the first Catholic major party nominee for president.<mask> centered his campaign around the Republican record of peace and prosperity, as well as his own reputation as a successful engineer and public official. Averse to giving political speeches, <mask> largely stayed out of the fray and left the campaigning to Curtis and other Republicans. Smith was more charismatic and gregarious than <mask>, but his campaign was damaged by anti-Catholicism and his overt opposition to Prohibition. <mask> had never been a strong proponent of Prohibition, but he accepted the Republican Party's plank in favor of


texts: it and issued an ambivalent statement calling Prohibition "a great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose". In the South, <mask> and the national party pursued a "lily-white" strategy, removing black Republicans from leadership positions in an attempt to curry favor with white Southerners. <mask> maintained polling leads throughout the 1928 campaign, and he decisively defeated Smith on election day, taking 58 percent of the popular vote and 444 of the 531 electoral votes. Historians agree that <mask>'s national reputation and the booming economy, combined with deep splits in the Democratic Party over religion and Prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory.<mask>'s appeal to Southern white voters succeeded in cracking the "Solid South", and he won five Southern states. <mask>'s victory was positively received by newspapers; one wrote that <mask> would "drive so forcefully at the tasks now before the nation that the end of his eight years as president will find us looking back on an era of prodigious achievement". <mask>'s detractors wondered why he did not do anything to reapportion congress after the 1920 United States Census which saw an increase in urban and immigrant populations. The 1920 Census was the first and only Decennial Census where the results were not used to reapportion Congress, which ultimately influenced the 1928 Electoral College and impacted the


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 Presidential Election. Presidency (1929–1933)

<mask> saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation—what he termed "volunteerism". He tended to oppose governmental coercion or intervention, as he thought they infringed on American ideals of individualism and self-reliance. The first major bill that he signed, the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, established the Federal Farm Board in order to stabilize farm prices.<mask> made extensive use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, and many of those commissions were sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions started by <mask>, the Research Committee on Social Trends, was tasked with surveying the entirety of American society. He appointed a Cabinet consisting largely of wealthy, business-oriented conservatives, including Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon. Lou Henry <mask> was an activist First Lady. She typified the new woman of the post–World War I era: intelligent, robust, and aware of multiple female possibilities. Great Depression

On taking office, <mask> said that "given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation". Having seen the fruits of prosperity brought by technological progress, many


texts: shared <mask>'s optimism, and the already bullish stock market climbed even higher on <mask>'s accession.This optimism concealed several threats to sustained U.S. economic growth, including a persistent farm crisis, a saturation of consumer goods like automobiles, and growing income inequality. Most dangerous of all to the economy was excessive speculation that had raised stock prices far beyond their value. Some regulators and bankers had warned Coolidge and <mask> that a failure to curb speculation would lead to "one of the greatest financial catastrophes that this country has ever seen," but both presidents were reluctant to become involved with the workings of the Federal Reserve System, which regulated banks. In late October 1929, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 occurred, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Great Depression. The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate, but <mask> viewed a lack of confidence in the financial system as the fundamental economic problem facing the nation. He sought to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads. He also feared that allowing individuals on the "dole" would permanently weaken the country.Instead, <mask> strongly believed that local governments and private giving should address the needs of individuals.


texts:
 Early policies

Though he attempted to put a positive spin on Black Tuesday, <mask> moved quickly to address the stock market collapse. In the days following Black Tuesday, <mask> gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21. <mask> also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance, and the Federal Reserve announced that it would cut interest rates. In early 1930, <mask> acquired from Congress an additional $100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies. These actions were collectively designed to prevent a cycle of deflation and provide a fiscal stimulus. At the same time, <mask> opposed congressional proposals to provide federal relief to the unemployed, as he believed that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments and philanthropic organizations.<mask> had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of the 1920s, but his attempt to raise agricultural tariffs became connected with a bill that broadly raised tariffs. <mask> refused to become closely involved in the congressional debate over the tariff, and Congress produced a tariff bill that raised rates for many goods. Despite the widespread


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 unpopularity of the bill, <mask> felt that he could not reject the main legislative accomplishment of the Republican-controlled 71st Congress. Over the objection of many economists, <mask> signed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into law in June 1930. Canada, France, and other nations retaliated by raising tariffs, resulting in a contraction of international trade and a worsening of the economy. Progressive Republicans such as Senator William E. Borah of Idaho were outraged when <mask> signed the tariff act, and <mask>'s relations with that wing of the party never recovered. Later policies

By the end of 1930, the national unemployment rate had reached 11.9 percent, but it was not yet clear to most Americans that the economic downturn would be worse than the Depression of 1920–21.A series of bank failures in late 1930 heralded a larger collapse of the economy in 1931. While other countries left the gold standard, <mask> refused to abandon it; he derided any other monetary system as "collectivism". <mask> viewed the weak European economy as a major cause of economic troubles in the United States. In response to the collapse of the German economy, <mask> marshaled congressional support behind a one-year moratorium on European war debts. The Hoover Moratorium was warmly received in Europe and the United States, but Germany remained on the brink of defaulting on its loans. As the worldwide economy worsened,


texts: democratic governments fell; in Germany, Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler assumed power and dismantled the Weimar Republic. By mid-1931, the unemployment rate had reached 15 percent, giving rise to growing fears that the country was experiencing a depression far worse than recent economic downturns.A reserved man with a fear of public speaking, <mask> allowed his opponents in the Democratic Party to define him as cold, incompetent, reactionary, and out-of-touch. <mask>'s opponents developed defamatory epithets to discredit him, such as "Hooverville" (the shanty towns and homeless encampments), "Hoover leather" (cardboard used to cover holes in the soles of shoes), and "Hoover blanket" (old newspaper used to cover oneself from the cold). While <mask> continued to resist direct federal relief efforts, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York launched the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to provide aid to the unemployed. Democrats positioned the program as a kinder alternative to <mask>'s alleged apathy towards the unemployed, despite <mask>'s belief that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments. The economy continued to worsen, with unemployment rates nearing 23 percent in early 1932, and <mask> finally heeded calls for more direct federal intervention. In January 1932, he convinced Congress to authorize the establishment of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC),


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 which would provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads, and local governments. The RFC saved numerous businesses from failure, but it failed to stimulate commercial lending as much as <mask> had hoped, partly because it was run by conservative bankers unwilling to make riskier loans.The same month the RFC was established, <mask> signed the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, establishing 12 district banks overseen by a Federal Home Loan Bank Board in a manner similar to the Federal Reserve System. He also helped arrange passage of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1932, emergency banking legislation designed to expand banking credit by expanding the collateral on which Federal Reserve banks were authorized to lend. As these measures failed to stem the economic crisis, <mask> signed the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, a $2 billion public works bill, in July 1932. Budget policy

After a decade of budget surpluses, the federal government experienced a budget deficit in 1931. Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget. In late 1931, <mask> proposed a tax plan to increase tax revenue by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the Revenue Act of 1932. The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the tax cut reduction program


texts:
 Mellon had presided over during the 1920s.Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s. The act also doubled the top estate tax rate, cut personal income tax exemptions, eliminated the corporate income tax exemption, and raised corporate tax rates. Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit. Civil rights and Mexican Repatriation

<mask> seldom mentioned civil rights while he was president. He believed that African Americans and other races could improve themselves with education and individual initiative. <mask> appointed more African Americans to federal positions than Harding and Coolidge had combined, but many African-American leaders condemned various aspects of the <mask> administration, including <mask>'s unwillingness to push for a federal anti-lynching law. <mask> also continued to pursue the lily-white strategy, removing African Americans from positions of leadership in the Republican Party in an attempt to end the Democratic Party's dominance in the South.Though Robert Moton and some other black leaders accepted the lily-white strategy as a temporary measure, most African-American leaders were outraged. <mask> further alienated black leaders by nominating conservative Southern judge John J. Parker to the Supreme Court; Parker's nomination ultimately failed in the Senate due to opposition from


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 the NAACP and organized labor. Many black voters switched to the Democratic Party in the 1932 election, and African Americans would later become an important part of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal coalition. As part of his efforts to limit unemployment, <mask> sought to cut immigration to the United States, and in 1930 he promulgated an executive order requiring individuals to have employment before migrating to the United States. Prohibition

On taking office, <mask> urged Americans to obey the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, which had established Prohibition across the United States. To make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition, he created the Wickersham Commission. <mask> had hoped that the commission's public report would buttress his stance in favor of Prohibition, but the report criticized the enforcement of the Volstead Act and noted the growing public opposition to Prohibition.After the Wickersham Report was published in 1931, <mask> rejected the advice of some of his closest allies and refused to endorse any revision of the Volstead Act or the Eighteenth Amendment, as he feared doing so would undermine his support among Prohibition advocates. As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and a grassroots movement began working in earnest for Prohibition's repeal. In January 1933, a constitutional amendment repealing the


texts:
 Eighteenth Amendment was approved by Congress and submitted to the states for ratification. By December 1933, it had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become the Twenty-first Amendment. Foreign relations

According to Leuchtenburg, <mask> was "the last American president to take office with no conspicuous need to pay attention to the rest of the world". Nevertheless, during <mask>'s term, the world order established in the immediate aftermath of World War I began to crumble. As president, <mask> largely made good on his pledge made prior to assuming office not to interfere in Latin America's internal affairs.In 1930, he released the Clark Memorandum, a rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary and a move towards non-interventionism in Latin America. <mask> did not completely refrain from the use of the military in Latin American affairs; he thrice threatened intervention in the Dominican Republic, and he sent warships to El Salvador to support the government against a left-wing revolution. Notwithstanding those actions, he wound down the Banana Wars, ending the occupation of Nicaragua and nearly bringing an end to the occupation of Haiti. <mask> placed a priority on disarmament, which he hoped would allow the United States to shift money from the military to domestic needs. <mask> and Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson focused on extending the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which sought to


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 prevent a naval arms race. As a result of <mask>'s efforts, the United States and other major naval powers signed the 1930 London Naval Treaty. The treaty represented the first time that the naval powers had agreed to cap their tonnage of auxiliary vessels, as previous agreements had only affected capital ships.At the 1932 World Disarmament Conference, <mask> urged further cutbacks in armaments and the outlawing of tanks and bombers, but his proposals were not adopted. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, defeating the Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army and establishing Manchukuo, a puppet state. The <mask> administration deplored the invasion, but also sought to avoid antagonizing the Japanese, fearing that taking too strong a stand would weaken the moderate forces in the Japanese government and alienate a potential ally against the Soviet Union, which he saw as a much greater threat. In response to the Japanese invasion, <mask> and Secretary of State Stimson outlined the Stimson Doctrine, which held that the United States would not recognize territories gained by force. Bonus Army

Thousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, DC, during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of bonuses that had been promised by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act in 1924; the terms of the act called for payment of the bonuses in 1945. Although offered


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 money by Congress to return home, some members of the "Bonus Army" remained. Washington police attempted to disperse the demonstrators, but they were outnumbered and unsuccessful.Shots were fired by the police in a futile attempt to attain order, and two protesters were killed while many officers were injured. <mask> sent U.S. Army forces led by General Douglas MacArthur to the protests. MacArthur, believing he was fighting a Communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force. Though <mask> had not ordered MacArthur's clearing out of the protesters, he endorsed it after the fact. The incident proved embarrassing for the <mask> administration and hurt his bid for re-election. 1932 re-election campaign

By mid-1931 few observers thought that <mask> had much hope of winning a second term in the midst of the ongoing economic crisis. The Republican expectations were so bleak that <mask> faced no serious opposition for re-nomination at the 1932 Republican National Convention.Coolidge and other prominent Republicans all passed on the opportunity to challenge <mask>. Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot of the 1932 Democratic National Convention, defeating the 1928 Democratic nominee, Al Smith. The Democrats attacked <mask> as the cause of the Great Depression, and for being indifferent to the suffering of millions. As Governor of New York, Roosevelt had


texts: called on the New York legislature to provide aid for the needy, establishing Roosevelt's reputation for being more favorable toward government interventionism during the economic crisis. The Democratic Party, including Al Smith and other national leaders, coalesced behind Roosevelt, while progressive Republicans like George Norris and Robert La Follette Jr. deserted <mask>. Prohibition was increasingly unpopular, and wets offered the argument that states and localities needed the tax money. <mask> proposed a new constitutional amendment that was vague on particulars.Roosevelt's platform promised repeal of the 18th Amendment. <mask> originally planned to make only one or two major speeches, and to leave the rest of the campaigning to proxies, as sitting presidents had traditionally done. However, encouraged by Republican pleas and outraged by Democratic claims, <mask> entered the public fray. In his nine major radio addresses <mask> primarily defended his administration and his philosophy of government, urging voters to hold to the "foundations of experience" and reject the notion that government interventionism could save the country from the Depression. In his campaign trips around the country, <mask> was faced with perhaps the most hostile crowds ever seen by a sitting president. Besides having his train and motorcades pelted with eggs and rotten fruit, he was often heckled while speaking, and on several


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 occasions, the Secret Service halted attempts to hurt <mask>, including capturing one man nearing <mask> carrying sticks of dynamite, and another already having removed several spikes from the rails in front of the president's train. <mask>'s attempts to vindicate his administration fell on deaf ears, as much of the public blamed his administration for the depression.In the electoral vote, <mask> lost 59–472, carrying six states. <mask> won 39.7 percent of the popular vote, a plunge of 26 percentage points from his result in the 1928 election. Post-presidency (1933–1964)

Roosevelt administration

Opposition to New Deal

<mask> departed from Washington in March 1933, bitter at his election loss and continuing unpopularity. As Coolidge, Harding, Wilson, and Taft had all died during the 1920s or early 1930s and Roosevelt died in office, <mask> was the sole living ex-president from 1933 to 1953. <mask> and his wife lived in Palo Alto until her death in 1944, at which point <mask> began to live permanently at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City. During the 1930s, <mask> increasingly self-identified as a conservative. He closely followed national events after leaving public office, becoming a constant critic of Franklin Roosevelt.In response to continued attacks on his character and presidency, <mask> wrote more than two dozen books, including The Challenge to Liberty (1934), which harshly criticized

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


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 Roosevelt's New Deal. <mask> described the New Deal's National Recovery Administration and Agricultural Adjustment Administration as "fascistic", and he called the 1933 Banking Act a "move to gigantic socialism". Only 58 when he left office, <mask> held out hope for another term as president throughout the 1930s. At the 1936 Republican National Convention, <mask>'s speech attacking the New Deal was well received, but the nomination went to Kansas Governor Alf Landon. In the general election, <mask> delivered numerous well-publicized speeches on behalf of Landon, but Landon was defeated by Roosevelt. Though <mask> was eager to oppose Roosevelt at every turn, Senator Arthur Vandenberg and other Republicans urged the still-unpopular <mask> to remain out of the fray during the debate over Roosevelt's proposed Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. At the 1940 Republican National Convention, <mask> again hoped for the presidential nomination, but it went to the internationalist Wendell Willkie, who lost to Roosevelt in the general election.World War II

During a 1938 trip to Europe, <mask> met with Adolf Hitler and stayed at Hermann Göring's hunting lodge. He expressed dismay at the persecution of Jews in Germany and believed that Hitler was mad, but did not present a threat to the U.S. Instead, <mask> believed that Roosevelt posed the biggest threat to peace, holding that Roosevelt's policies provoked Japan and


texts: discouraged France and the United Kingdom from reaching an "accommodation" with Germany. After the September 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany, <mask> opposed U.S. involvement in World War II, including the Lend-Lease policy. He was active in the isolationist America First Committee. He rejected Roosevelt's offers to help coordinate relief in Europe, but, with the help of old friends from the CRB, helped establish the Commission for Polish Relief. After the beginning of the occupation of Belgium in 1940, <mask> provided aid for Belgian civilians, though this aid was described as unnecessary by German broadcasts.In December 1939, sympathetic Americans led by <mask> formed the Finnish Relief Fund to donate money to aid Finnish civilians and refugees after the Soviet Union had started the Winter War by attacking Finland, which had outraged Americans. By the end of January, it had already sent more than two million dollars to the Finns. During a radio broadcast on June 29, 1941, one week after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, <mask> disparaged any "tacit alliance" between the U.S. and the USSR, stating, "if we join the war and Stalin wins, we have aided him to impose more communism on Europe and the world... War alongside Stalin to impose freedom is more than a travesty. It is a tragedy." Much to his frustration, <mask> was not called upon to serve after the United States entered World War II due to his


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 differences with Roosevelt and his continuing unpopularity. He did not pursue the presidential nomination at the 1944 Republican National Convention, and, at the request of Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey, refrained from campaigning during the general election. In 1945, <mask> advised President Harry S. Truman to drop the United States' demand for the unconditional surrender of Japan because of the high projected casualties of the planned invasion of Japan, although <mask> was unaware of the Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb.Post–World War II

Following World War II, <mask> befriended President Harry S. Truman despite their ideological differences. Because of <mask>'s experience with Germany at the end of World War I, in 1946 Truman selected the former president to tour Allied-occupied Germany and Rome, Italy to ascertain the food needs of the occupied nations. After touring Germany, <mask> produced a number of reports critical of U.S. occupation policy. He stated in one report that "there is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a 'pastoral state.' It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it." On <mask>'s initiative, a school meals program in the American and British occupation zones of Germany was begun on April 14, 1947; the program served 3,500,000 children. Even more important, in 1947 Truman appointed <mask> to lead the


texts: Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government a new high level study.Truman accepted some of the recommendations of the "Hoover Commission" for eliminating waste, fraud and inefficiency, consolidating agencies, and strengthening White House control of policy. Though <mask> had opposed Roosevelt's concentration of power in the 1930s, he believed that a stronger presidency was required with the advent of the Atomic Age. During the 1948 presidential election, <mask> supported Republican nominee Thomas Dewey's unsuccessful campaign against Truman, but he remained on good terms with Truman. <mask> favored the United Nations in principle, but he opposed granting membership to the Soviet Union and other Communist states. He viewed the Soviet Union to be as morally repugnant as Nazi Germany and supported the efforts of Richard Nixon and others to expose Communists in the United States. In 1949, New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey offered <mask> the Senate seat vacated by Robert F. Wagner. It was a matter of being senator for only two months and he declined.<mask> backed conservative leader Robert A. Taft at the 1952 Republican National Convention, but the party's presidential nomination instead went to Dwight D. Eisenhower, who went on to win the 1952 election. Though Eisenhower appointed <mask> to another presidential commission, <mask> disliked Eisenhower, faulting the latter's failure to


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 roll back the New Deal. <mask>'s public work helped to rehabilitate his reputation, as did his use of self-deprecating humor; he occasionally remarked that "I am the only person of distinction who's ever had a depression named after him." In 1958, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 yearly pension () to each former president. <mask> took the pension even though he did not need the money, possibly to avoid embarrassing Truman, whose precarious financial status played a role in the law's enactment. In the early 1960s, President John F. Kennedy offered <mask> various positions; <mask> declined the offers but defended Kennedy after the Bay of Pigs invasion and was personally distraught by Kennedy's assassination in 1963. <mask> wrote several books during his retirement, including The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson, in which he strongly defended Wilson's actions at the Paris Peace Conference.In 1944, he began working on Freedom Betrayed, which he often referred to as his "magnum opus". In Freedom Betrayed, <mask> strongly critiques Roosevelt's foreign policy, especially Roosevelt's decision to recognize the Soviet Union in order to provide aid to that country during World War II. The book was published in 2012 after being edited by historian George H. Nash. Death

<mask> faced three major illnesses during the last two years of his life, including an August 1962 operation in which a growth on


texts: his large intestine was removed. He died on October 20, 1964, in New York City following massive internal bleeding. Though <mask>'s last spoken words are unknown, his last known written words were a get well message to his friend Harry Truman, six days before his death, after he heard that Truman had sustained injuries from slipping in a bathroom: "Bathtubs are a menace to ex-presidents for as you may recall a bathtub rose up and fractured my vertebrae when I was in Venezuela on your world famine mission in 1946. My warmest sympathy and best wishes for your recovery."Two months earlier, on August 10, <mask> reached the age of 90, only the second U.S. president (after John Adams) to do so. When asked how he felt on reaching the milestone, <mask> replied, "Too old." At the time of his death, <mask> had been out of office for over 31 years ( days all together). This was the longest retirement in presidential history until Jimmy Carter broke that record in September 2012. <mask> was honored with a state funeral in which he lay in state in the United States Capitol rotunda. President Lyndon Johnson and First Lady Ladybird Johnson attended, along with former presidents Truman and Eisenhower. Then, on October 25, he was buried in West Branch, Iowa, near his presidential library and birthplace on the grounds of the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site.Afterwards, <mask>'s wife, Lou Henry <mask>, who had been


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 buried in Palo Alto, California, following her death in 1944, was re-interred beside him. <mask> was the last surviving member of the Harding and Coolidge Cabinets. John Nance Garner (he was Speaker of the House during the second half of <mask>'s term) was the only person in <mask>'s United States presidential line of succession he did not outlive. Legacy

Historical reputation
<mask> was extremely unpopular when he left office after the 1932 election, and his historical reputation would not begin to recover until the 1970s. According to Professor David E. Hamilton, historians have credited <mask> for his genuine belief in voluntarism and cooperation, as well as the innovation of some of his programs. However, Hamilton also notes that <mask> was politically inept and failed to recognize the severity of the Great Depression. Nicholas Lemann writes that <mask> has been remembered "as the man who was too rigidly conservative to react adeptly to the Depression, as the hapless foil to the great Franklin Roosevelt, and as the politician who managed to turn a Republican country into a Democratic one".Polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked <mask> in the bottom third of presidents. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked <mask> as the 36th best president. A 2017 C-Span poll of historians also ranked <mask> as the 36th

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


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 best president. Although <mask> is generally regarded as having had a failed presidency, he has also received praise for his actions as a humanitarian and public official. Biographer Glen Jeansonne writes that <mask> was "one of the most extraordinary Americans of modern times," adding that <mask> "led a life that was a prototypical Horatio Alger story, except that Horatio Alger stories stop at the pinnacle of success". Biographer Kenneth Whyte writes that, "the question of where <mask> belongs in the American political tradition remains a loaded one to this day. While he clearly played important roles in the development of both the progressive and conservative traditions, neither side will embrace him for fear of contamination with the other."Views of race

<mask> was known to hold racist attitudes towards black and mixed-race people. Many of his black contemporaries considered him a racist with W. E. B. Du Bois charging him as an "undemocratic racist who saw blacks as a species of 'sub-men'".Memorials
The <mask> Hoover Presidential Library and Museum is located in West Branch, Iowa next to the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site. The library is one of thirteen presidential libraries run by the National Archives and Records Administration. The <mask>–Minthorn House, where <mask> lived from 1885 to 1891, is located in Newberg, Oregon. His Rapidan fishing camp in Virginia, which he donated to the

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Herbert Hoover Hoover


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 government in 1933, is now a National Historic Landmark within the Shenandoah National Park. The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in 1919 in Stanford, California, is now the official residence of the president of Stanford University, and a National Historic Landmark.Also located at Stanford is the Hoover Institution, a think tank and research institution started by <mask>. <mask> has been memorialized in the names of several things, including the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River and numerous elementary, middle, and high schools across the United States. Two minor planets, 932 Hooveria and 1363 Herberta, are named in his honor. The Polish capital of Warsaw has a square named after <mask>, and the historic townsite of Gwalia, Western Australia contains the Hoover House Bed and Breakfast, where <mask> resided while managing and visiting the mine during the first decade of the twentieth century. A medicine ball game known as Hooverball is named for <mask>; it was invented by White House physician Admiral Joel T. Boone to help <mask> keep fit while serving as president. Other honors

<mask> was inducted into the National Mining Hall of Fame in 1988 (inaugural class). His wife was inducted into the hall in 1990.<mask> was inducted into the Australian Prospectors and Miners' Hall of Fame in the category Directors and Management. <mask> was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Charles University in Prague


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 and University of Helsinki in March 1938. The ceremonial sword is today on display in the lobby of the Hoover tower. See also
 Great Depression in the United States
 List of presidents of the United States
 Progressive Era
 Roaring Twenties

Notes

References
 Citations

Works cited

  Originally published as

  Book 1 in The Life of Herbert Hoover Series. Further reading

Biographies

 Best, Gary Dean. The Politics of American Individualism: <mask> in Transition, 1918–1921 (1975)
 Best, Gary Dean. The Life of <mask>: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964.Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Clements, Kendrick A. The Life of <mask>: Imperfect Visionary, 1918–1928 (2010). Edwards, Barry C. "Putting <mask> on the Map: Was the 31st President a Progressive?" Congress & the Presidency 41#1 (2014) pp 49–83 online
 Hatfield, Mark. ed. <mask> Reassessed (2002)
 .Jeansonne, Glen. The Life of <mask>: Fighting Quaker, 1928–1933. Palgrave Macmillan; 2012. Lloyd, Craig. Aggressive Introvert: A Study of <mask> and Public Relations Management, 1912–1932 (1973). Nash, George H. The Life of <mask>: The Engineer 1874–1914 (1983); in-depth scholarly study
 .
 .
 Nash, Lee, ed. Understanding <mask>: Ten Perspectives (1987); essays by scholars
 Smith, Richard Norton.An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of <mask>, (1987), biography concentrating on post 1932. Walch, Timothy. ed. Uncommon Americans: The Lives and

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 Legacies of <mask> and Lou Henry <mask>raeger, 2003. West, Hal Elliott. <mask>, the Fishing President: Portrait of the Man and his Life Outdoors (2005). Scholarly studies

 Arnold, Peri E. "The 'Great Engineer' as Administrator: <mask> and Modern Bureaucracy."Review of Politics 42.3 (1980): 329–348. .
 Barber, William J. From New Era to New Deal: <mask>, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921–1933. (1985)

 Brandes, Joseph. <mask> and Economic Diplomacy: Department of Commerce Policy, 1921-1928. (U of Pittsburgh Press, 1970). Britten, Thomas A. "<mask> and the Indians: the Case for Continuity in Federal Indian Policy, 1900–1933" Historian 1999 61'(3): 518–538. .
 Clements, Kendrick A<mask>, Conservation, and Consumerism: Engineering the Good Life.University Press of Kansas, 2000
 Dodge, Mark M., ed. <mask> and the Historians. (1989)
 Fausold Martin L. and George Mazuzan, eds. The Hoover Presidency: A Reappraisal (1974)
 Goodman, Mark, and Mark Gring. "The Radio Act of 1927: progressive ideology, epistemology, and praxis". Rhetoric & Public Affairs 3.3 (2000): 397–418. Hawley, Ellis."<mask> and the Historians—Recent Developments: A Review Essay" Annals of Iowa 78#1 (2018) pp. 75–86 DOI
 Hawley, Ellis. "<mask>, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an 'Associative State', 1921–1928". Journal of American History, (June 1974) 61#1: 116–140. Jansky Jr, C. M. "The contribution of <mask> to

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 broadcasting." Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 1.3 (1957): 241–249. Lee, David D. "<mask> and the Development of Commercial Aviation, 1921–1926."Business History Review 58.1 (1984): 78-102. Lichtman, Allan J. Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928 (1979)
 Lisio, Donald J. The President and Protest: <mask>, MacArthur, and the Bonus Riot, 2d ed. (1994)
 Lisio, Donald J. <mask>, Blacks, and Lily-whites: A Study of Southern Strategies (1985)
 Parafianowicz,Halina. '<mask><mask> and Poland: 1919–1933. Between Myth and Reality'
 Polsky, Andrew J., and Olesya Tkacheva."Legacies Versus Politics: <mask>, Partisan Conflict, and the Symbolic Appeal of Associationalism in the 1920s." International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 16.2 (2002): 207–235. online
 Short, Brant. "The Rhetoric of the Post-Presidency: <mask>'s Campaign against the New Deal, 1934-1936" Presidential Studies Quarterly (1991) 21#2   pp. 333–350 online
 Sibley, Katherine A.S., ed. A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and <mask> (2014); 616pp; essays by scholars stressing historiography
 Wueschner, Silvano A. Charting Twentieth-Century Monetary Policy: <mask> and Benjamin Strong, 1917–1927. Greenwood, 1999

Primary sources

 Myers, William Starr; Walter H. Newton, eds.(1936). The Hoover Administration; a documented narrative. Hawley, Ellis, ed. (1974–1977). <mask>: Containing the Public

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<mask> (13 February 1912 – 19 August 1943) was an Austrian Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II, a fighter ace credited with shooting down 189 enemy aircraft claimed in more than 700 combat missions. Born in Mannswörth, <mask> volunteered for military service in the Austrian Army in 1933. In 1935, he transferred to the Austrian Air Force and following the Anschluss, Austria's annexation into Nazi Germany, he served in the German Luftwaffe, initially with Jagdgeschwader 76 (JG 76—76th Fighter Wing) and later with Jagdgeschwader 54 (JG 54—54th Fighter Wing). He flew his first combat missions in the Invasion of Poland and claimed his first aerial victory during the "Phoney War" period on the Western Front. Following his 53rd aerial victory he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, the highest award in the military and paramilitary forces of Nazi Germany during World War II, on 19 June 1942 and the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 30 October 1942 after 100 victories. In early August 1943, <mask> was appointed Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of the 5. Staffel (5th squadron) of JG 54.<mask> was posted as missing in action after aerial combat near Vitebsk on 19 August 1943. He was promoted to Hauptmann (captain) posthumously. Early life and career
<mask> was born on 13 February 1912 in Mannswörth, at the time in Austria-Hungary. He was the son of a farmer and joined the military service in the Austrian Army (Bundesheer) on 7 April 1933. He initially served as a Gebirgsjäger with Alpenjäger-Regiment 11 in Klagenfurt. In 1935, he requested transfer to the Austrian Air Force (Österreichische

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 Luftstreitkräfte) and was transferred to Flieger-Regiment 2 in Graz. There, from 1 July to 23 November 1936, he was trained as a pilot.From 24 November 1936 to 5 May 1938, Stotz served with Flieger-Regiment 1 at Wiener Neustadt. At Wiener Neustadt, he was a member of the aerobatics squadron in 1937/38. Following the Anschluss, Austria's annexation into Nazi Germany on 12 March 1938, <mask> was accepted into the German Luftwaffe and became a pilot with 1. Staffel (1st squadron) of Jagdgeschwader 76 (JG 76—76th Fighter Wing), a squadron of I. Gruppe (1st group) under the command of Oberleutnant Dietrich Hrabak. World War II
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces invaded Poland. I. Gruppe of JG 76 participated in the invasion and returned to its home airfield at Wien-Aspern where it remained until end of October. On 26 October, the Gruppenstab and 1.Staffel were ordered to Frankfurt Rhein-Main where it was united again with 2. and 3. Staffel on 2 November. From Frankfurt Rhein-Main, the Gruppe flew fighter protection during the "Phoney War" for the Frankfurt, Rhine and Saar region. On 5 November, <mask> received the Iron Cross 2nd Class (). The next day, he claimed his first aerial victory over a Royal Air Force (RAF) Bristol Blenheim bomber near Völklingen. In April 1940, I. Gruppe moved to an airfield at Mainz-Finthen, originally named Fliegerhorst Ober-Olm. The Gruppe stayed at Ober-Olm until the Battle of France began.On 11 May, I. Gruppe moved from Ober-Olm to Wengerohr, present-day a suburb of Wittlich. From Wengerohr, the unit flew combat air patrols in the area of Montmédy,

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texts: Charleville-Mézières and Bastogne. On 14 May, I. Gruppe flew combat missions over the Meuse and Sedan area during the Battle of Sedan. In this action, Stotz claimed two Fairey Battle light bombers shot down over the Sedan combat area. Following the German advance into France, I. Gruppe was moved to a airfields at Bastogne and Nives on 15 May. On 19 May, <mask> claimed a Potez 63 and a Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 west of Laon. This earned him the Iron Cross 1st Class (), awarded to him on 1 June 1940.On 21 May, I. Gruppe moved to Charleville from where the unit flew missions in the Battle of Dunkirk. On 3 June, I. Gruppe participated in Operation Paula (Unternehmen Paula), an offensive operation to destroy the remaining units of the Armée de l'Air. That day, Stotz claimed the destruction of a Curtiss P-36 Hawk fighter west of Épernay. Three days later, he claimed two further Curtiss fighters northwest of Amiens. The Gruppe was moved to Conteville on 7 June, to Guise on 16 June, and then to Émerainville on 18 June. On 19 June, I. Gruppe was withdrawn from France and moved to Brussels on 22 June. On 26 June 1940, I. Gruppe of JG 76 was moved to the airfield at Waalhaven in the Netherlands and subordinated to Jagdgeschwader 54 (JG 54—54th Fighter Wing).There, the Gruppe was tasked with providing aerial protection over the Dutch coastal area. On 5 July, I./JG 76 was officially integrated into JG 54 and was renamed to II./JG 54. Three days later, <mask> claimed his last aerial victory on the Western Front over a Blenheim bomber south of Rotterdam. He was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe () on 20 September 1940. On 29 March 1941,


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 II./JG 54 was withdrawn from the English Channel and was ordered to Graz-Thalerhof. There the various squadrons were split up with 4. Staffel being subordinated to III.Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing) and ordered to Deta in Romania. On 6 April, 4. Staffel flew combat missions in the Invasion of Yugoslavia. The next day, the Staffel flew combat air patrols on the Hungarian-Yugoslavian border. On 9 April, II./JG 54 was united again at Kecskemét, Hungary and returned to Deta on 11 April. The Gruppe was withdrawn from this theater on 19 April and ordered to an airfield at Zemun near Belgrade. Operation Barbarossa

Following the surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April 1941, JG 54 received orders on 3 May 1941 to turn over all Bf 109-Es so they could receive the new Bf 109-F variant.Transition training was completed at Airfield Stolp-Reitz in Pomerania. Following intensive training, the Geschwader was moved to airfields in Eastern Prussia. II. Gruppe under command of Hauptmann Hrabak was moved to Trakehnen on 20 June 1941. The Wehrmacht launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, on 22 June with II. Gruppe supporting Army Group North in its strategic goal towards Leningrad. On 25 June, II.Gruppe was moved to an airfield at Kowno and was tasked with providing fighter escort for Panzer Group 4 advancing towards the Düna river. The next day, <mask> claimed his first aerial victory in this theater of operations over a Tupolev SB-2 bomber in the vicinity of Ostrov. Eastern Front
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texts: 3 (KG 3—3rd Bomber Wing) attacking the Soviet 6th and 8th Tank Corps at Sychyovka when they were intercepted by eight Yakovlev Yak-1 fighters from 32 IAP (32nd Fighter Aviation Regiment). In this encounter, Stotz claimed two Yak-1s shot down. On 16 August 1942, <mask> for the first time encountered the unknown to him Lavochkin La-5 fighter aircraft from 49 IAP (49th Fighter Aviation Regiment). That day, he claimed two aerial victories which were misidentified and filed as a Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3 and a Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. On 29 October 1942, <mask> was credited with his 100th aerial victory.He was the 29th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark. The next day, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves () for this achievement. He was the 137th member of the German armed forces to be so honored. The presentation was made by Adolf Hitler personally. On this account, he was also promoted to Leutnant (second lieutenant), backdated to 1 October 1942. On 30 December 1942, <mask> claimed 10 aerial victories, bringing his total to 129. <mask> was promoted to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant) on 1 February 1943.He was appointed Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 5. Staffel of JG 54 on 10 August 1943. He succeeded Leutnant Emil Lang who had temporarily led the Staffel after Oberleutnant Alfred Teumer had been transferred in July. Following aerial combat on 19 August 1943 with a large formation of Yakovlev Yak-9 fighters in the vicinity of Vitebsk, <mask> bailed out of his Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A-6 (Werknummer 550 201—factory)  north of Kirov and went missing in action. He was last seen drifting down over

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 Soviet held territory. Summary of career

Aerial victory claims
Matthews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found documentation for 182 aerial victory claims, plus one further unconfirmed claim. This number includes 174 on the Eastern Front and 8 on the Western Front.Victory claims were logged to a map-reference (PQ = Planquadrat), for example "PQ 28123". The Luftwaffe grid map () covered all of Europe, western Russia and North Africa and was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about . These sectors were then subdivided into 36 smaller units to give a location area 3 × 4 km in size. Awards
 Iron Cross (1939)
 2nd Class (5 November 1939)
 1st Class (1 June 1940)
 Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe (Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe) (28 September 1940)
 German Cross in Gold on 1 December 1941 as Oberfeldwebel in the 4./Jagdgeschwader 54
 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
 Knight's Cross on 19 June 1942 as Oberfeldwebel and pilot in the 5./Jagdgeschwader 54
 137th Oak Leaves on 30 October 1942 as Oberfeldwebel and pilot in the 5./Jagdgeschwader 54

See also
List of people who disappeared

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

1912 births
1940s missing person cases
1943 deaths
Aerial disappearances of military personnel in action
Austrian military personnel killed in World War II
German World War II flying aces
Luftwaffe pilots
Missing in action of World War II
People from Schwechat
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross


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<mask> (born Roy Harold Scherer Jr.; November 17, 1925 – October 2, 1985) was an American actor. One of the most popular movie stars of his time, he had a screen career spanning more than three decades. A prominent heartthrob of the Golden Age of Hollywood, he achieved stardom with his role in Magnificent Obsession (1954), followed by All That Heaven Allows (1955), and Giant (1956), for which he received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. <mask> also found continued success with a string of romantic comedies co-starring Doris Day: Pillow Talk (1959), Lover Come Back (1961), and Send Me No Flowers (1964). During the late 1960s, his films included Seconds (1966), Tobruk (1967), and Ice Station Zebra (1968). Unhappy with the film scripts he was offered, <mask> turned to television and was a hit, starring in the popular mystery series McMillan & Wife (1971–1977). His last role was as a guest star on the fifth season (1984–1985) of the primetime ABC soap opera Dynasty, until AIDS-related illness made it impossible for him to continue.Although discreet regarding his sexual orientation, it was a known fact amongst <mask>'s colleagues in the film industry that he was a gay man. In 1984, <mask> was diagnosed with AIDS. The following year, he became one of the first celebrities to disclose his AIDS diagnosis. <mask> was the first major celebrity to die from an AIDS-related illness, on October 2, 1985, at age 59. Early life
<mask> was born Roy Harold Scherer Jr. on November 17, 1925, in Winnetka, Illinois, the only child of Katherine (née Wood), a homemaker and later telephone operator, and Roy Harold Scherer Sr., an auto mechanic. His father was of German and Swiss descent, while his mother had English and Irish ancestry. He was raised as a Roman Catholic.During the Great Depression, <mask>'s father lost his job and abandoned the family. <mask>'s parents divorced when he was four years old; a few years later, in 1932, his mother married Wallace Fitzgerald, a former

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 Marine Corps officer whom young Roy despised. Fitzgerald adopted his stepson without his consent, and his legal name then became Roy Harold Fitzgerald. The marriage eventually ended in a bitter divorce and produced no children. <mask> attended New Trier High School in Winnetka. At some point during his teenage years, he worked as an usher in a movie theater and developed an interest in acting. He tried out for a number of school plays, but failed to win any roles because he could not remember his lines, a problem that continued to occur through his early acting career.He graduated from high school in 1943, and the following year enlisted in the United States Navy during World War II. After training at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station, he departed San Francisco aboard the troop transport SS Lew Wallace with orders to report to Aviation Repair and Overhaul Unit 2, then located on Samar, Philippines, as an aircraft mechanic. In 1946, he returned to San Francisco aboard an aircraft carrier, and was discharged the same year. <mask> then moved to Los Angeles to live with his biological father (who had remarried) and to pursue an acting career. Initially he worked at odd jobs, including as a truck driver. He applied to the University of Southern California's dramatics program, but was rejected due to poor grades. After he sent talent scout Henry Willson a picture of himself in 1947, Willson took him on as a client and changed the young actor's name to <mask>; later in life, <mask> admitted that he hated the name.The name was coined by combining the Rock of Gibraltar and the Hudson River. <mask> later named his independent film production company Gibraltar Productions. Politically, <mask> was a conservative Republican, he campaigned and voted for Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election. Career
<mask> made his acting debut with a small part in the Warner Bros. film Fighter Squadron (1948); according to a 21st-century source, it took 38 takes for <mask>

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 to successfully deliver his only line in the film. Universal-International
<mask> was signed to a long-term contract by Universal-International. There he received coaching in acting, singing, dancing, fencing, and horseback riding, and began to be featured in film magazines where, being photogenic, he was promoted. His first film at Universal was Undertow (1949), which gave him his first screen credit.He had small parts in Peggy (1950), Winchester '73 (1950) as an American Indian, The Desert Hawk (1950) (as an Arab), Tomahawk (1951), and Air Cadet (1951). <mask> was billed third in The Fat Man (1951), but back down the cast list for Bright Victory (1951). He had good parts as a boxer in Iron Man (1951) and as a gambler in Bend of the River (1952). He supported the Nelson family in Here Come the Nelsons (1951). Leading man
<mask> was promoted to leading man for Scarlet Angel (1952), opposite Yvonne De Carlo, who had been in Desert Hawk and Tomahawk. He co-starred with Piper Laurie in Has Anybody Seen My Gal? (1952), the first of his films directed by Douglas Sirk.In Horizons West (1952) <mask> supported Robert Ryan, but he was star again for The Lawless Breed (1953) and Seminole (1953). In 1953, he appeared in a Camel commercial that showed him on the set of Seminole. He and De Carlo were borrowed by RKO for Sea Devils (1953), an adventure set during the Napoleonic Wars. Back at Universal he played Harun al-Rashid in The Golden Blade (1953). There was Gun Fury (1953) and Back to God's Country (1953). <mask> had the title role in Taza, Son of Cochise (1954), directed by Sirk and produced by Ross Hunter. Magnificent Obsession and stardom
<mask> was by now firmly established as a leading man in adventure films.What turned him into a star was the romantic drama Magnificent Obsession (1954), co-starring Jane Wyman, produced by Hunter and directed by Sirk. The film received positive reviews, with Modern Screen Magazine citing <mask> as the most popular actor of the year. It made

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 over $5 million at the box office. <mask> returned to adventure films with Bengal Brigade (1954), set during the Indian Mutiny, and Captain Lightfoot (1955), produced by Hunter and directed by Sirk. In 1954, exhibitors voted <mask> the 17th most popular star in the country. Hunter used him in the melodramas One Desire (1955) and All That Heaven Allows (1955), which reunited him with Sirk and Wyman. He next acted in Never Say Goodbye (1956).Giant (1956)
<mask>'s popularity soared with George Stevens' film Giant (1956). <mask> and his co-star James Dean were nominated for Oscars in the Best Actor category. Another hit was Written on the Wind (1957), directed by Sirk and produced by Albert Zugsmith. Sirk also directed <mask> in Battle Hymn (1957), produced by <mask>, playing Dean Hess. These films propelled <mask> to be voted the most popular actor in American cinemas in 1957. He stayed in the "top ten" until 1964. <mask> was borrowed by MGM to appear in Richard Brooks' Something of Value (1957), a box-office disappointment.So too was his next film, a remake of A Farewell to Arms (1957). To make A Farewell to Arms, he reportedly turned down Marlon Brando's role in Sayonara, William Holden's role in The Bridge on the River Kwai, and Charlton Heston's role in Ben-Hur. A Farewell to Arms received negative reviews, failed at the box office and became the last production by David O. Selznick. <mask> was reunited with the producer, director and two stars of Written on the Wind in The Tarnished Angels (1958), at Universal. He then made Twilight for the Gods (1958) and This Earth Is Mine (1959). Romantic comedy star

Ross Hunter teamed <mask> with Doris Day in the romantic comedy Pillow Talk (1959), which was a massive hit. <mask> was voted the most popular star in the country for 1959 and was the second most popular for the next three years.Less popular was The Last Sunset (1961), co-starring Kirk Douglas. <mask> then made two hugely popular comedies: Come September (1961) with Gina

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 Lollobrigida, Sandra Dee and Bobby Darin, directed by Robert Mulligan; and Lover Come Back (1961) with Day. He made two dramas: The Spiral Road (1962), directed by Mulligan, and A Gathering of Eagles (1963), directed by Delbert Mann. <mask> still was voted the third most popular star in 1963. <mask> went back to comedy for Man's Favorite Sport? (1964), directed by Howard Hawks and the popular Send Me No Flowers (1964), his third and final film with Day. Along with Cary Grant, <mask> was regarded as one of the best-dressed male stars in Hollywood and received Top 10 Stars of the Year a record-setting eight times from 1957 to 1964.Decline as a star
Strange Bedfellows (1965), with Gina Lollobrigida, was a box-office disappointment. So too was A Very Special Favor (1965), despite having the same writer and director as Pillow Talk. <mask> next appeared in Blindfold (1966). Then, working outside his usual range, he starred in the science-fiction thriller Seconds (1966), directed by John Frankenheimer and co-produced through his own film production company Gibraltar Productions. The film may have been <mask>'s best performance. He also tried his hand in the action genre with Tobruk (1967), directed by Arthur Hiller. After the comedy A Fine Pair (1968) with Claudia Cardinale, he starred in the action thriller Ice Station Zebra (1968) at MGM, a role which remained his personal favorite.The film was a hit but struggled to recoup its large cost. <mask> dabbled in westerns, appearing opposite John Wayne in The Undefeated (1969). He co-starred opposite Julie Andrews in the Blake Edwards musical Darling Lili (1970), notorious for its huge cost. Television
During the 1970s and 1980s, he starred in a number of TV movies and series. His most successful television series was McMillan & Wife opposite Susan Saint James, which ran from 1971 to 1977. <mask> played police commissioner Stewart "Mac" McMillan, with Saint James as his wife Sally, and their on-screen chemistry helped make the show a


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 hit. During the series, <mask> appeared in Showdown (1973), a western with Dean Martin, and Embryo (1976), a science-fiction film.<mask> took a risk and surprised many by making a successful foray into live theater late in his career, and the best received of his efforts was I Do! I Do! in 1974. After McMillan ended, <mask> made the disaster movie Avalanche (1978) and the miniseries Wheels (1978) and The Martian Chronicles (1980). He was one of several stars in The Mirror Crack'd (1980) and co-starred in The Beatrice Arthur Special (1980). Later years

In the early 1980s, following years of heavy drinking and smoking, <mask> began having health problems which resulted in a heart attack in November 1981. Emergency quintuple heart bypass surgery sidelined <mask> and his new TV show The Devlin Connection for a year, and the show was canceled in December 1982 soon after it aired.His health issues forced him to turn down the role of Col. Sam Trautman in First Blood. <mask> recovered from the heart surgery but continued to smoke. He nevertheless continued to work with appearances in several TV movies such as World War III (1982). He was in ill health while filming the action-drama film The Ambassador in Israel during the winter months from late 1983 to early 1984. He reportedly did not get along with his co-star Robert Mitchum, who had a serious drinking problem and often clashed off-camera with <mask> and other cast and crew members. From December 1984 to April 1985, <mask> appeared in a recurring role on the prime time soap opera Dynasty as Daniel Reece, a wealthy horse breeder and a potential love interest for Krystle Carrington (played by Linda Evans), as well as the biological father of the character Sammy Jo Carrington (Heather Locklear). While <mask> had long been known to have difficulty memorizing lines, which resulted in his use of cue cards, his speech began to visibly deteriorate on Dynasty.He was slated to appear for the duration of the show's second half of its fifth