texts: Heart of Jesus in Tocumbo, Michoacán. 1987 Templo Mayor Museum, Mexico City. 1987 Amparo Museum, Puebla.1993 Industrial Technical School UANL Alvaro Obregon, with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano. Monterrey, Nuevo Leon. 1994 Marist University (Master Plan) "Y" in the Ajusco, with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano, Mexico City. 1994 Marist University (Master Plan) in the Ajusco Tulips, with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano, Mexico City.1995 Marist University (Master Plan) National Canal, Tláhuac, Mexico City, with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano. 1995 Marist University (Master Plan) Eje 10 Sur, Tláhuac, Mexico City, with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano. 1996 - 2000 Infotecas of the Autonomous University of Coahuila on their campuses: Saltillo, Monclova and Tower, with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano. 1997 Convention and Exhibition Centre, Merida.1999 Info Center of the University of Monterrey, Andrés Giovanini G Santa Lucia River project, Monterrey, with Arch., And Javier Ramirez Campuzano. 1999 Autonomous University of Coahuila "Seminars Unit" with the Arch. Andrés Giovanini g, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano. Monclova, Coahuila. 2004 Auditorio Siglo XXI Puebla. 2008 Autonomous Metropolitan University (Tower I Project), with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano.2008 International Convention Center Chetumal, Quintana Roo. 2008 Metropolitan Autonomous University, Campus Master Plan Cuajimalpa, with the Arch. Andrés Giovanini G, and Javier Ramirez Campuzano. 2010 Presidents Museum Coahuila, Saltillo. 2009 Metropolitan Autonomous University, Campus Master Plan Lerma, with Arqs. Giovanini Andrew G, and Javier Ramirez


type: original

texts:
 Campuzano. 2011 City Theatre in Piedras Negras, Coahuila (2011).Representative Unrealized projects

 1961 Headquarters Building Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). 1962 Border Museum of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico. 1969 Source of Olympism Chicago, Illinois. 1971 Symbol Tower office, Cuautitlan Izcalli, Mexico State. 1972 Building International Trade Center, and Public Square in Marseille, France. 1973 Museum of Anthropology, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 1975 National Museum of Iran.Tehran, Iran. 1975 Ecumenical Church in Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico. 1979 Museum Avery Brundage, Olympia, Greece. 1979 Square Urban Rescue Isabel the Catholic, Mexico. 1981 Mexican Cultural Center, Managua, Nicaragua. 1982 Project Arche de la Defense, Paris, France. 1982 Project to the Parc De La Villette, Paris, France.1985 Expansion Project Louvre, Paris, France. 1989 Project Museum Acropolis, Athens, Greece. 1989 Monumental Cruz de Manzanillo, Colima, Mexico. 1993 Eagle Tower, Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico. 1995 National Museum of Korea, Seoul. 1997 cultural and multipurpose center, Monte Carlo, Monaco. 1997 Expansion Project Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fatima, Fatima, Portugal.1999 Zoo Jalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. 1999 Cathedral of Christ the King, Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico. 2000 Square Mariana, Mexico City. 2004 Project to the Olympic Stadium Beijing, China. 2008 Project Bicentennial Monumental Arch, Mexico City. Main achievements in design

 1952 Club America logo FC (being <mask> Vázquez President of the Club). Cartel oficial Juegos Olímpicos México 1968, con sello y firma de registro de derecho de author
 1952 Design Exhibition for the Pan American Congress of Architects.1957 Corporate image of the Office of Architects <mask> and Mijares. 1958 Design museology Mexico Pavilion at the

masks:
Miguel Ramírez
Ramírez Vquez


texts: Universal Exhibition in Brussels, Belgium (won the gold star of the show). 1960 With Julio Prieto and Carmen Antunes, design Museology at the National Gallery of History (Museo del Caracol). 1962 Design museology Mexico Pavilion at the Universal Exhibition in Seattle, Washington, United States. 1964 With Mario Vazquez and Alfonso Soto Soria, museum planning and design of the National Museum of Anthropology and History. 1964 With Ruth Rivera, planning and design museum Musée National d'Art Moderne. 1967 Corporate identity of the Third International Sports Week.1968 Creator of Mexico 68 identity program and famous logo and strategic planning for the Olympic Games in Mexico, covering graphic design, furniture design and urban signage, exhibition design, film section, mass media advertising campaign, design of ceremonies, design Publishing, PR campaign, planning the route of the Olympic torch, etc. 1970 Corporate image of the Mexican Institute of Child Welfare. 1970 Commissioned by Guillermo Canedo, realization of typography for the logo Mexico 70. 1970 Different designs of silverware for TANE, Mexico. 1971 Signalling Design and Urban Furniture for Toluca Tollocan ride, and various municipalities of the State of Mexico. 1972 Furniture Design for Lopez-Morton SA. 1972 Grupo Televisa Corporate image.1972 Corporate image of the College of Civil Engineers of Mexico. 1973 Corporate image of the Autonomous Metropolitan University. 1974 Corporate Image Bank Atlantic. 1974 Corporate image of Hellenic Cultural Institute. 1974 Corporate image for Fertilizers of Central America SA. 1975 Corporate image La Salle University. 1975 Corporate image design, advertising and strategic communications for the presidential campaign of Lic.José López Portillo. 1975 Corporate image of Cementos


texts:
 APASCO. 1976 Corporate image DYNAMICS (Alpha Group). 1976 Corporate image BANCAM SA (Monterrey). 1976 Corporate image SICARTSA. 1977 Corporate image Sports Forecast for Public Assistance. 1977 NOVA Corporate image (Alpha Group).1977 Corporate Image for the National Sports Institute. 1980 Wallpaper Design for Living Council of FAO, Rome, Italy. 1985 Logo for the Mexican Health Foundation AC. 1985-1988 Designs printed on silk to the International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland. 1986 Design and development of urban atmospheres for the World Cup, and the Estadio Azteca. 1992 design museum Mexico Pavilion of the Universal Exhibition 92 Sevilla, Spain. 1997 With Iker Larrauri, planning and design museum Nubia Museum in Aswan Culture, Egypt.2007 Museografía exposure Latin Migration for Universal Forum of Cultures, Monterrey. 2010 logo Coahuilenses Presidents Museum, Saltillo, Coahuila. Until 2012, since 1956, different works in editorial design. Up to 2013 from 1969, designed glassware for Cristaluxus Monterrey, México, DAUM (France) and own. There are parts of his own in the Museums of DAUM, (Nancy, France), Museum of Glass Monterrey, México Museum of Death (Aguascalientes), México, Museo Amparo (Puebla), México Olympic Museum (Lausanne, Switzerland), Ski Museum Hollmenkollen, (Oslo, Norway), STAUBO Museum Collection (Hamar, Norway)

Furniture design
The creative spirit of <mask> Vázquez was not limited to architecture, because it also included furniture design, both indoors as urban furniture. This activity began in the 1950s, with the design of a wooden chair with leather. In the early 1970s, he developed a line of furniture in steel plate with different finishes, covering indoor and outdoor chairs, coffee tables and dining room tables.All in different designs,


texts:
 shapes and sizes, and some wooden furniture. With the same concept in steel plate designed benches for urban accessories, among them several models "you and me", or love seat characteristic can be found in the City of Yucatán, in Mexico. These designs also include street signs in large format, designs that were applied in the State of Mexico, during the government of Professor Carlos Hank Gonzalez. It was at this time when equipal contemporary designs inspired by traditional Mexican equipal, showing its principle expressed in current form, the cultural constants regarding typical furniture. These designs are still valid, now the Civic Plaza of the Chamber of Deputies in Mexico, is equipped with this type of seats. In turn, the furniture Ramirez Vazquez is now known in the design world of interior design, as it has been released by the magazine Wallpaper, New York Post, Metropolis Magazine, Architectural Digest, Paris Match, The Editor at Large, and the Wall Street Journal. Its main selling points are found in the United States.Art Object in glassware
In 1965, when <mask> designed the headquarters of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mexico, then Secretary Don. Antonio Carrillo Flores commissioned to design glassware for such dependence. Inspired by the "Glass pulquero of Tlatelolco" PRV designed crystal glasses with a similar shape, making a cut that similar to the shape of a maguey. From this design, he defined that working with glass was just as "making sculpture with light", as it is a material in which transparency all sides are visual at the same time, and depending on the cuts, reflexes are variable by the appearance of a piece of Glass, according to the view as it looks and the lighting it receives. He had a shop called "Cristal-Art" and installed a cutting


texts:
 workshop in his office, which still remains operating, and continues to produce <mask>´s designs, given that he left many of them in sketch. His pieces of art object in crystal, have been requested as awards from various institutions, such as Nadro, ANTAD, The International Olympic Committee, the WBC, the Mexican Foundation Health, etc. For its quality, there have been exhibitions in the Merk Up gallery, the Misratchi gallery, the Glass Museum in Monterrey, Mexico, the Museum of Modern Art in Mexico, the Museum of Anthropology Mexico City, and the Cabañas Cultural Institute, Guadalajara, Mexico.He performed with Salvador Dalí, and many other important artists, designs in glass paste (pâte du verre) for DAUM glassware. Other important personalities such as, Juan Antonio Samaranch, Manuel Espinosa Yglesias, Jose Lopez Portillo, (President of Mexico from 1976-1982), among others, had collection of pieces of <mask> Vazquez. He designed glassware for Cristaluxus Monterrey, Mexico different pieces for DAUM line (France), and lines for the same firm, Articles of crystal Macrisa, Nouvel Studio and own. There are pieces designed by himself in the Museums of DAUM, (Nancy, France), Museum of Glass Monterrey, Mexico, Museum of Death (Aguascalientes), Mexico, Amparo Museum (Puebla) Mexico, Olympic Museum (Lausanne, Switzerland), Museum of Coahuila Presidents Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico, Hollmenkollen Ski Museum (Oslo, Norway), Staubø Museum collection (Hamar, Norway). References

Articles in magazines

>

>

<

External links

 <mask> Vazquez official site
 Olympic Project for Human Rights
 1968 Summer Olympics

1919 births
2013 deaths
Mexican architects
International Olympic Committee members
Presidents of the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games
Architecture firms of

masks:
Ramírez Vzquez
Pedro Ramírez
Pedro Ramirez


texts:
<mask> known in Italy as Egìdio della Riviera  (Mechelen, c. 1535 - buried on 4 September 1602 in Rome) was a Flemish sculptor, restorer of ancient sculptures and antique dealer. His active career was spent in Italy, mostly in Rome. He produced both religious and secular sculpture including garden ornaments and tomb monuments. On some large projects he collaborated with other sculptors such as Nicolaes Mostaert, a Flemish sculptor active in Italy at the same time. His works are executed in the Northern Renaissance style which he had been trained in, in his native Flanders, but also intimate the advent of Baroque sculpture. Life
The biographical details about <mask>liete are scarce. It is believed that he was born in Mechelen as in a contract signed in Rome in 1597 he is referred to as 'Egidio  della  Riviera  Mechinense'.Nothing is known about his training. He is first recorded in 1567 when he is part of a group of Flemish artists working in Rome. He was a restorer of antique sculptures. Like many other Flemish sculptors in Italy, he also traded in antique statues. He was highly regarded and received various commissions. He made secular commissions such as the Fontana Della Madre Natura (Fountain of Mother Nature} made in 1568 for the garden of the Villa d'Este, a 16th-century villa in Tivoli, near Rome. He also executed various large-scale commissions in Roman churches.He created most of his known works in the Santa Maria dell'Anima in Rome. This shows that he was able to establish a long-term relationship with some of the leading figures at this Roman church. Some of these works were created in collaboration with Nicolas Mostaert with whom he may have shared a workshop. He married and had various children in the period from 1574 to 1597. His son <mask> <mask>, known as Pietro della Riviera, was born in Rome likely in

masks:
Gillis van den Vliete
van den V
Pieter van
den Vliete


texts:
 1583. Pietro was also active as a sculptor and was the heir of his father. <mask> <mask> <mask> was admitted on 14 June 1579 as a member of the Pontificia Insigne Accademia di Belle Arti e Letteratura dei Virtuosi al Pantheon, a pontifical academy in Rome established for the purpose of studying, cultivating and perfecting the fine arts.He owed this recognition to the creation of the funerary monument of Duke Karl Friedrich of Jülich-Cleves-Berg in the Santa Maria dell'Anima. He was also a member of the Università dei Marmorari, Rome's sculptors' guild. <mask> Vliete was active as an appraiser of the sculptural works of other sculptors. An example is the case of the work on the horses at Monte Cavallo executed from 1589 to 1590 by Flaminio Vacca, Pietro Paolo Olivieri and Lodovico Sormanno. He and his colleague <mask> di Bianchi provided an estimate in the amount of 2250 scudi for the work done. The papal office did not accept the estimate and reduced the amount to 1800 scudi. In 1597, <mask> entered into a contract with the Flemish architect and painter Wenceslas Cobergher for the decoration of a chapel dedicated to the Holy Spirit in the Santa Maria in Vallicella, where the founder of this chapel, Didacodel Campo, the Pope's physician, had recently been buried.In the contract, he is called 'Egidio della Riviera Mechinense' (of Mechelen). He was assisted in this commission by his son Pietro. Pietro was still living in 1623, according to a contract he made that year for a house in the Porta Pia. He died in Rome where he was buried on 4 September 1602 in San Lorenzo in Lucina. Work
<mask> Vliete is mainly known for his monumental projects and bas-reliefs created for the churches in Rome. Various works have been attributed to him based on contemporary documents, such as contracts or payments for commissions. As he

masks:
Gillis
van den
Vliete
Van den
Giovanni Battista
Gillis
Van den


texts: collaborated on some of his commissions with other sculptors, his exact contribution to such works cannot always be determined and art historians are not unanimous in their attributions.The identification of his oeuvre has remained problematic. His work shows his roots in Northern Mannerism and a development towards a more Baroque approach. In the Santa Maria dell'Anima in Rome he and Mostaert collaborated from 1576 to 1579 on marble reliefs for the tomb of Duke Karl Friedrich of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. This monument was designed by the Duke's tutor Stephanus Winandus Pighius. The monument was dismantled in 1750 and the remaining parts of it are now located at various locations in the church. The principal section shows, among other things, a scene of the Last Judgement, with some male nudes that cite the famous Laocoön and His Sons sculpture discovered in 1506. According to Baglione, the central relief with the Last Judgment was flanked by statues of religion and faith on the right and left, all set in columns, niches, frontons; above a bas-relief with the presentation of a staff of honor to the Duke and two putti to the side.On a sarcophagus, kneeling, was a statue of the Duke. The Last Judgment and the statue of the Duke are still there. The relief of the Last Judgment was worked in two parts. The lower part and the figure of the duke are by Mostard. In niches there are Wisdom and Christian Love, coming from a tomb of Cardinal Andrew of Austria. The second part of the tomb, a relief with the scene of the consecration of the consecrated sword by Gregory XIII, hangs today in the vestibule of the church. The inscription on it states that Karl Friedrich had a precocious sense of piety, was brilliant despite his youth and knew many things and many languages.<mask> Vliete and Mostaert collaborated round 1600 on a marble


texts: funerary monument for Cardinal and Margrave Andrew of Burgau (Andreas von Österreich) in the Santa Maria dell'Anima. The funerary monument of Count Egon von Fürstenberg in the Santa Maria dell'Anima, for which he was paid 360 scudi, was his work alone. He also made works in other Roman churches such as the Santa Maria Maggiore and the Santa Maria in Vallicella. In the past two bas-reliefs on the funeral monument of Pope Pius V in the Santa Maria Maggiore were attributed to <mask> Vliete. although some art historians have attributed these to Mostaert: one representing the pontiff giving a standard to Admiral Marcantonio Colonna, at the time of his departure for the battle of Lepanto (1571) where he commanded twelve galleys and the other showing the same pontiff handing the baton of command to the Count of Santa Fiore before his departure for France at the head of an army of the Holy See. In the same church, he has been traditionally credited with creating for the funeral monument of Pope Sixtus V, two bas-reliefs, one having as its subject the canonisation of Saint Didacus of Alcalá and the other, the pontiff's deputy sending Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini to Germany as a legate. The Coronation of Pius V in this monument is also attributed to <mask> Vliete.A further tomb monument in the same church has been attributed to <mask> Vliete. It is the tomb monument for Cardinal Francisco de Toledo, which he created in 1598 after a design by Giacomo della Porta. The monument is similar to other designs by della Porta in the church. The portrait of Toledo is similar to that of Sixtus V in the same church. It has been suggested that he was responsible for the Funeral monument for Maximilian von Pernstein in the basilica Santa Maria Maggiore. Von Pernstein was a Bohemian who served as papal chamberlain to Pope Clement VIII in

masks:
van den
van den
van den


texts:
 Rome. His tomb was in the choir, close to the tomb of Pope Hadrian VI in the right aisle of the basilica leaning against the wall between the Patrizi chapel and the entrance to the baptistery.This was likely its original location. The tomb monument was completed in 1597. For the garden of the Villa d'Este in Tivoli <mask> den Vliete created the Fontana Della Madre Natura which included a statue of Diana of Ephesus, the nature goddess. Sculpted in 1568, the statue was originally part of the Fountain of the Organ (Fontana dell’Organo). It was moved in the 17th century to another location as it was regarded as too overly pagan. The main element of the small fountain, surrounded by a luxuriant espalier of roses, is a statue of Artemis of Ephesus, which <mask> Vliete executed probably after a design by Pirro Ligorio or after an ancient statue formerly in the Farnese collection. The statue is surmounted by an arch with limestone concretions and from Diana Efesia's multiple breasts water gushes back into the basin below.A few other sculptures have been attributed to the artist, including a Lying warrior (Museo Bardini ) and a Andromeda (Sotheby's 8 July 2005 London lot 75). The latter is clearly inspired by classical sculpture which is tempered by a naturalism in the form and composition. <mask> Vliete also created the Tritons in the Fontana del Moro in the Piazza Navona. The marble basin of the Fontana del Moro was made in 1575 by Giacomo della Porta and was decorated with groups of tritons, dragons and masks by 16th-century artists including <mask> <mask>, Taddeo Landini, Simone Moschini and Giacobbe Silla Longhi to designs by della Porta himself, which were replaced in 1874 with copies by Luigi Amici. References

External links

1602 deaths
Flemish sculptors (before 1830)
16th-century Flemish sculptors
Artists from

masks:
van
van den
Van den
van den
Vliete


texts: <mask> () (also known by the epithet al-Faqih, "the canon-lawyer",  – 8 April 1302; reigned from 1273 until his death) was the second Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula, succeeding his father, <mask>. Already experienced in matters of state when he ascended the throne, he continued his father's policy of maintaining independence in the face of Granada's larger neighbours, the Christian kingdom of Castile and the Muslim Marinid state of Morocco, as well as an internal rebellion by his family's former allies, the Banu Ashqilula. After he took the throne, he negotiated a treaty with Alfonso X of Castile, in which Castile agreed to end support for the Banu Ashqilula in exchange for payments. When Castile took the money but maintained its support for the Banu Ashqilula, <mask> turned towards Abu Yusuf of the Marinids. The Marinids sent a successful expedition against Castile, but relations soured when the Marinids treated the Banu Ashqilula as <mask>'s equals. In 1279, through diplomatic manoeuvring, <mask> regained Málaga, formerly the centre of Banu Ashqilula power. In 1280, his diplomacy backfired when Granada faced simultaneous attacks from Castile, the Marinids and the Banu Ashqilula.Attacked by his more powerful neighbours, <mask> exploited the rift between Alfonso and his son Sancho, as well as receiving help from Volunteers of the Faith, soldiers recruited from North Africa. The threat subsided when Alfonso died in 1284 and Abu Yusuf in 1286; their successors (Sancho and Abu Yaqub, respectively) were

masks:
Muhammad II
Muhammad I
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad


texts:
 preoccupied with domestic matters. In 1288 the Banu Ashqilula emigrated to North Africa at Abu Yaqub's invitation, removing <mask>'s biggest domestic concern. In 1292, Granada helped Castile take Tarifa from the Marinids on the understanding that the town would be traded to Granada, but Sancho reneged on the promise. <mask> then switched to the Marinid side, but a Granadan–Marinid attempt to retake Tarifa in 1294 failed. In 1295, Sancho died and was succeeded by Ferdinand IV, a minor. Granada took advantage by conducting a successful campaign against Castile, taking Quesada and Alcaudete.<mask> also planned a joint offensive with Aragon against Castile, but he died in 1302 before the operation took place. During his 25-year rule, <mask> consolidated the state founded by his father and implemented administrative and military reforms. He instituted the Nasrid royal protocol and the court chancery, organized the Volunteers of the Faith—troops recruited from North Africa—and increased the importance of the office of the vizier in the government. He also directed the construction of a series of strongholds in strategic positions throughout his frontiers, which formed the backbone of Granadan border defences in the centuries to come. He expanded the Alhambra palace and fortress complex, and increased the emirate's trade with Christian Europe, especially with traders from Genoa and Pisa. His epithet al-Faqih reflects his high education as well as his preference for surrounding himself with scholars and poets. Early life
<mask> was born in 633 AH (1235 or 1236

masks:
Muhammad
Muhammad II
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad


texts: CE) to the Nasrid clan, which originated from the town of Arjona, then in Al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula.According to the later Granadan historian and vizier Ibn al-Khatib, the clan—also known as Banu Nasr or Banu al-Ahmar—was descended from Sa'd ibn Ubadah, a prominent companion of the Islamic prophet <mask>, from the Banu Khazraj tribe in Arabia; Sa'd's descendants migrated to Spain and settled in Arjona as farmers. He had at least two older brothers, Faraj (b. 628 AH/1230 or 1231 CE) and Yusuf, and two sisters named Mu'mina and Shams. In 1232, his father <mask> established the independence of the town, and it later grew to a sizeable independent state in the south of Spain, centred on Granada after the loss of Arjona in 1244. The Emirate of Granada became the last independent Muslim state in the Iberian peninsula. In 1257, after the death of Faraj, <mask> declared his sons <mask> and Yusuf as his new heirs. On August of the same year, the younger <mask> had his first son, the future <mask> III.He had another son, Nasr, and a daughter, Fatima. Fatima would later marry his father's cousin Abu Said Faraj, and their descendants would be the future rulers of Granada, replacing the direct male line after the ousting of Nasr in 1314. As heir, the future <mask> II was involved in matters of state, including war and diplomacy. He served as vizier for some time during his father's rule. He became the sole heir after the death of Yusuf, who did not leave a descendant, during their father's lifetime. By the time of his father's death in 1273, <mask> II was

masks:
Muhammad
Muhammad I
Muhammad I
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad


texts:
 aged 38 and an experienced statesman. Rule: 1273–1302

Background

Granada was located between two larger neighbours: the Christian kingdom of Castile to the north and the Muslim Marinid state centred in today's Morocco to the south.Castile's objectives were to keep Granada in check, prevent it from conducting raids and force it to continue paying tribute. The tribute amount was 300,000 maravedís—about half of Granada's revenue—and represented an important source of income for Castile, though Granada often suspended payments. On the other hand, the Marinids, following in the footsteps of their Almohad and Almoravid predecessors, saw the protection of the Muslims in the Iberian peninsula, as well as participation in jihad against the Christian expansion there—the so-called "Reconquista"—as their duty as Muslims and as a way to increase their legitimacy. By the time of <mask>la, another Arjona clan which was initially allied with the Nasrids, and whose military strength had helped establish the kingdom. They rebelled against <mask> I from at least 1266, and received assistance from Castile, then under the rule of Alfonso X, who wanted to keep Granada in check.Alfonso sent a force under Nuño González de Lara to help the Banu Ashqilula, but the Castilian nobleman had his own grievances against Alfonso; Nuño González ended up rebelling against his king, and was welcomed by <mask>. In the beginning of <mask>'s rule, the Banu Ashqilula's territories included Málaga—the second biggest city in the emirate after Granada and an important Mediterranean port—as well

masks:
Muhammadlu
Muhammad
Muhammad I
Muhammad II


texts:
 as Guadix. Accession and negotiation with Alfonso X
On 22 January 1273, <mask> fell from a horse and died of his injuries. The younger <mask> took the throne as <mask> II. As he was the designated heir, the transition of power went smoothly. His first order of business was to deal with the Banu Ashqilula rebellion and the Castilian rebels who had been allied to his father and welcomed in Granadan territories. Relations with the Castilian rebels, who were led by Nuño González and had been useful in checking both Castile and the Banu Ashqilula, weakened as both sides were concerned about losing each other's support after the succession.Alfonso was also interested in reconciling with some of the rebels. <mask> then entered into negotiations with Alfonso—if he could secure Castile's alliance, he would not need to worry about losing the support of the rebels. In late 1273, he and some of the rebel leaders visited Alfonso at his court in Seville, where they were welcomed with honour. Alfonso agreed to Granada's demands—to end his support for the Banu Ashqilula—in exchange for <mask>'s promise to be Alfonso's vassal, to pay 300,000 maravedís each year in tribute, and to end his co-operation with the rebels. However, once the payment was made, Alfonso reneged on his part of the bargain, maintained his support for the Banu Ashqilula and pressed <mask> to grant them a truce. Marinid expeditions against Castile

Frustrated by Alfonso, <mask> sought help from the Marinids, ruled by Abu Yusuf Yaqub. While Alfonso was away on a journey to meet Pope Gregory X,

masks:
Muhammad I
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad II
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad


texts: leaving his realm under his heir and the regent Ferdinand de la Cerda, <mask> sent envoys to the Marinid court.Abu Yusuf had expressed interest in fighting the Christians in Spain since 1245, and now, having gained control of the former Almohad capital of Marrakech and unified most of Morocco, he had the power and the opportunity to do so. In April 1275 Abu Yusuf mobilised an army which included 5,000 cavalry under the command of his son, Abu Zayyan Mandil. Three months later Abu Zayyan crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, landed at Tarifa and took over the town. Soon the governor of Algeciras seceded from Granada and yielded his town to Abu Zayyan. The Marinid prince established a beachhead between Tarifa and Algeciras, and began raiding Castilian territory up to Jerez. Amid the landings, <mask> attacked the Banu Ashqilula in Málaga on June 1275, but he was repulsed. Ferdinand de la Cerda marched to meet the Muslim forces, but he died on 25 July 1275 in Villareal, leaving Castile with uncertain leadership.With the beachhead established and the Castilian territories reconnoitred, Abu Yusuf sent more troops across, including his own household troops, ministers, officials and North African clerics. Abu Yusuf himself crossed to Spain on 17 August 1275. He then met with <mask> and the leader of the Banu Ashqilula, <mask>, who joined the Sultan with their armies. The Marinids treated the Nasrids and the Banu Ashqilula as equals, and <mask>, offended at being seen as an equal to his rebellious subjects, left the army after three days, although his forces remained.

masks:
Muhammad
Muhammad II
Muhammad
Abu Muhammad
Muhammad


texts: In September 1275 this army won a major victory against Castile at the Battle of Ecija. Nuño González, now fighting for Castile, was killed. According to Marinid chronicles, the Banu Ashqilula contributed much to this victory and their leaders were present, while Granadan forces contributed little, with <mask> himself staying in Granada.Abu Zayyan celebrated the victory in Algeciras and sent the head of Nuño González to Granada. This probably offended <mask>, who abhorred this type of cruelty and might have respected or even befriended his former ally. He embalmed the head in musk and camphor and sent it to Castile to be interred properly with his body. Marinid sources portrayed this as an attempt by <mask> to "court [Alfonso's] friendship". At this point, the Marinids became more friendly with the Banu Ashqilula and less sympathetic towards <mask>. After losing a naval battle off Tarifa, Abu Yusuf, wary of being cut off from Morocco, decided to return home. Abu Yusuf, <mask> and Castile agreed to a two-year truce in late December 1275 or early January 1276.Before Abu Yusuf left, <mask>'s secretary Abu Umar ibn Murabit wrote a poem expressing fear of Castile's power and appealing for the Marinids' continued help (see box). Abu Yusuf left Spain and landed at Ksar es-Seghir on 19 January. Abu Yusuf and the Marinids returned to Spain in June 1277. Initially they were joined by the Banu Ashqilula and campaigned without <mask> and the Nasrid forces. The Marinids defeated the Castilian forces outside Seville on 2 August and took several castles along the

masks: Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad


texts:
 Guadalquivir river before retiring to Algeciras on 29 August. Abu Yusuf marched again on 30 October, this time joined by <mask> near Archidona. They took the castle of Benamejí, encircled Córdoba and pillaged the surrounding towns.Either Alfonso or the towns affected by the war sued for peace, which was accepted by <mask> and Abu Yusuf. Abu Yusuf retired to Algeciras on 28 November, concluded a truce on 24 February 1278, and returned to Morocco in May. Although the Marinids had won a battlefield victory and the Muslim forces plundered multiple towns, they failed to take any major settlement or permanently annex Christian territories. On the other hands, the ports of Tarifa and Algeciras on the Strait, remained as the Marinids' outposts in the peninsula. Diplomatic manoeuvring up to 1280
During Abu Yusuf's second expedition, the Banu Ashqilula handed over Málaga—their centre of power—to their new ally. This action was motivated by the fear that they could not defend it against Granada. The Marinids occupied it in mid-February 1278, and Abu Yusuf appointed his uncle, Umar ibn Yahya, as governor.<mask> was alarmed at this Marinid encroachment on his domain, reminiscent of the actions of the Almoravids and Almohads, two previous North African Muslim dynasties which had annexed Al-Andalus after initially intervening against the Christians. He encouraged Yaghmurasen of Tlemcen to attack the Marinids in North Africa, and Castile to attack the Marinids' Spanish base at Algeciras. Abu Yusuf, overstretched and attacked on multiple fronts, pulled back from Málaga

masks: Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad


texts:
 and handed the city to <mask> on 31 January 1279. It was also alleged that Granada bribed Umar ibn Yahya by giving him the castle of Salobreña and fifty thousand gold dinars. <mask> named his cousin and close advisor Abu Said Faraj governor. With Málaga in his hands, <mask> then helped the Marinids defend Algeciras, possibly feeling guilty about the sufferings of the besieged Muslims in the city. Joint Marinid–Granadan forces defeated the Castilian besiegers in 1279.Castilian sources at the time seemed not to realise the Granadan involvement and thought they were defeated solely by the Marinids. War on two fronts
The manoeuvring that saw the gain of Málaga and prevented Castile from taking Algeciras angered both the Marinids and Castile. Both, together with the Banu Ashqilula, attacked Muhammad in 1280. The Marinids and Banu Ashqilula moved towards Málaga, unsuccessfully attacking the region of Marbella in the south. Castile attacked from the north, led by the infante (prince) Sancho (later Sancho IV), son of Alfonso, who was checked by the North African Volunteers of the Faith led by Ibn Muhalli and Tashufin ibn Mu'ti. The Volunteers were a component of Granada's military made up of warriors from North Africa, largely political exiles who migrated with their families and tribes. They still defended Granada against Castile despite Granada also being at war with the Marinid state which they came from.On 23 June, Granadan troops ambushed a large Castilian force at Moclín. In June 1281, Castile invaded again, led by Alfonso himself and accompanied by the


texts:
 Infantes Sancho, Peter and John. They defeated <mask> in a battle near Granada's walls on 25 June, but after the failure of the negotiations that followed, the Castilians left Granada. At the end of 1281, Alfonso sent Sancho to Granada for further negotiations and <mask> agreed to renew his vassalage to Castile. However, Alfonso accused Sancho of acting treacherously and of appropriating <mask>'s tribute. A rift broke out between the king and his son, which weakened the Castilian threat to Granada. Alfonso ended up asking for Abu Yusuf's help against Sancho, and the two monarchs campaigned together against Sancho's partisans in Castile.Meanwhile, <mask> sealed an alliance with Sancho at Priego in late 1282. At the end of 1283, Abu Yusuf attacked Málaga, forcing <mask> to sue for peace. Mediated by Abu Yusuf's son, Abu Yaqub Yusuf, they agreed to reconcile and attack the Christians together. Alfonso died in 1284, and was succeeded by Sancho. Sancho was friendly towards Granada and pulled back the Castilian troops, while <mask> declared his vassalage to him. In 1286 Abu Yusuf died and was succeeded by his son Abu Yaqub. At the beginning of his reign Abu Yaqub was more preoccupied with domestic affairs, and so withdrew his forces from the Iberian campaign.In 1288 Abu Yaqub offered the Banu Ashqilula lands in North Africa. The clan took up the offer and emigrated en masse from Granadan territory. Tarifa campaigns

The Marinids retained outposts in Iberia, including Tarifa, an important port town on the Strait of Gibraltar. In 1290, <mask> came to an


texts:
 arrangement with Sancho and the ruler of Tlemcen. Castile would attack Tarifa, Granada would attack other Marinid possessions, and Tlemcen would open hostilities against the Marinids in North Africa. According to the agreement, Castile would then hand Tarifa to Granada in exchange for six border fortresses. In November and December 1291, <mask> of Aragon met Sancho and agreed to join the war against the Marinids.In October 1292 Castile, with assistance from Aragon's navy and supplied by Granada, succeeded in taking Tarifa. Castile also took the six border fortresses from Granada as agreed, but refused to cede Tarifa even after <mask> met with Sancho in Córdoba in December. Granada, feeling cheated, then switched sides to the Marinids. <mask> travelled to North Africa and met Abu Ya'qub at Tangier on 24 October, bearing many gifts and asking his friendship and forgiveness. Both monarchs agreed to an alliance against Castile. In 1294, the Marinids and Granada unsuccessfully besieged Tarifa. The town would never again be in Muslim hands.After this failure, the Marinids decided to withdraw to North Africa. Granada proceeded to retake its former outposts, including Algeciras and—after some local resistance—Ronda. Final years and death

In 1295, Sancho died and was succeeded by his nine-year-old son Ferdinand IV. During his minority Castile was governed by a regency led by his uncle, Infante Henry. His cousin, Alfonso de la Cerda made a rival claim for the throne, supported by James of Aragon. <mask> exploited this situation to strike at Castile: in late 1295

masks:
James II
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad


texts: he captured Quesada and routed a Castilian army at the Battle of Iznalloz. Ferdinand was also attacked by Aragon, Denis of Portugal, and his uncle, Infante John.In 1296, Granada and Aragon concluded a pact of friendship and agreed to split their objectives: Murcia would go to Aragon and Andalusia to Granada. In June 1296, Infante Henry made peace overtures to <mask>, offering to hand over Tarifa, but this broke down when the town's commander, Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán, declared that he would not hand it over even if ordered to do so. Late that year, Granadan forces defeated Infante Henry near Arjona and nearly captured him. Henry's horse was captured, but <mask> ordered it returned in a gesture of chivalry. The Marinids joined the war to support Granada and defeated Castile in a major battle near Seville in May or June 1299; they then laid siege to Tarifa. Castile renewed the offer to yield Tarifa in exchange for an alliance with Granada, but this was again frustrated by Alfonso Pérez's refusal to comply. The war continued and <mask> took more border fortresses, including Alcaudete in June 1299, and raided Castilian cities including Jaén and Andújar.In April 1301, <mask> and James renewed their alliance, although James secretly sent supplies to the besieged Christians in Tarifa. On 6 September, Pope Boniface VIII declared Ferdinand the legitimate king of Castile, weakening the resolve and legitimacy of his Christian enemies. In September 1301, Granada and Aragon renewed their alliance at Zaragoza. They planned a new offensive against Castile and aligned

masks: Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad Muhammad


texts:
 their war goals; among others they agreed that Granada was to regain Tarifa and acquire several frontier towns. This agreement was ratified in January 1302, and subsequently Alfonso de la Cerda also joined the alliance and recognised <mask>'s rights to Tarifa. However, before the campaign started, <mask> died on 8 April 1302 (8 Shaban 701 AH). He was succeeded by his son, <mask>.There were allegations that <mask>, perhaps impatient to assume power, had poisoned his father, although this was never confirmed. Governance and legacy

<mask> built on the nascent state created by his father, and continued to secure his realm's independence by alternatively allying with other powers, especially Castile and the Marinids, and sometimes encouraging them to fight each other. A sense of identity also emerged in the realm, united by religion (Islam), language (Arabic), and an awareness of an ever-present threat to its survival from its Romance-speaking Christian neighbours. Historian Ibn Khaldun commented that these ties served as a replacement for asabiyyah or tribal solidarity, which Ibn Khaldun thought was fundamental to the rise and fall of a state. <mask> was the true organiser of the Nasrid state with his reforms to the administration and the army. His considerable legislative activity included the institution of the Nasrid royal protocol (rusūm al-mulk), and of the court chancery (al-kitāba), in which the chief figure of his reign was the future vizier Abu Abdallah ibn al-Hakim. His reign also saw the expansion and institutionalisation of the Volunteers of

masks:
Muhammad
Muhammad II
Muhammad III
Muhammad III
Muhammad
Muhammad II


texts: the Faith (also called ghazis in Arabic): soldiers recruited from North Africa to defend Granada against the Christians.Many of them were members of tribes or families which had been exiled from the Marinid state. Some of them settled in the city of Granada, establishing the quarter of Zenete (named after the Berber tribe of Zenata), and some in the western areas of the realm, such as Ronda and the surrounding area. They received payments from the state, but often came into conflict with the locals in the areas they settled. When, in the early 1280s, Granada came into conflict with the Marinids, the Volunteers remained loyal and defended Granada against Castile, when it attacked at the same time. Over time, the Volunteers became Granada's most important military force, numbering 10,000 at the end of <mask>'s rule and eclipsing Granada's locally recruited army. Their leader, the shaikh al-ghuzat, held an influential position in Granadan politics. Different men were named as the shaikh by <mask> at different points of his reign, including Ali ibn Abi Iyad ibn Abd al-Haqq, Tasfin ibn Mu'ti, Musa ibn Rahhu, Abd al-Haqq ibn Rahhu, and Ibrahim ibn Yahya.Territorially, <mask>la was eliminated, and <mask> not only saw off successfully the repeated Marinid attacks, but deprived them of their holdings in Al-Andalus as well. <mask> oversaw a large-scale fortification project for the kingdom's defences, building a series of strategically positioned and well-supplied strongholds from the west to the east, which formed the backbone of Granadan frontier defences in the

masks: Muhammad Muhammad Muhammadlu Muhammad Muhammad


texts: centuries to come. He worked with his own hands during the constructions of the moat (khandaq) in Alcaudete. The fortifications that he built also served to enforce royal authority because they were controlled by military governors (qa'ids) appointed and rotated by the court rather than by hereditary lords. They were often located in mountainous or other areas that were difficult to reach, and could only be conquered or breached by expensive siege warfare.<mask> increased the importance of the vizier in the Nasrid state. He had only one vizier throughout his long reign, Abu Sultan Aziz ibn Ali ibn al-Mun'im al-Dani, who became his trusted ally. He also served as <mask>'s ambassador to the Marinids, commanded some military operations, and co-signed many royal documents. <mask> also expanded the Alhambra, steadily establishing a royal residence zone in what was largely a fortress complex built by his father. He continued his father's constructions of a precinct wall surrounding the royal zone, as well as multiple residence buildings and bathhouses. The chronology for each part of the Alhambra during the early Nasrid period is not always clear—partly due to alterations and renovations under later Muslim or Christian rulers—but <mask> II definitely built the original palace that today becomes the Convent of San Francisco as well as the original Dar al-Mamlaka al-Saida in the Generalife. He also built the Tower of the Ladies (Torre de las Damas, the site of today's Partal Palace built by his son <mask>) and the Tower of the Points (Torre de los Picos).Further

masks:
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad III


texts: afield, the Nasrid palace structure now known as the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo, located on along the edge of what was Granada's southern walls, has been dated by scholars to his reign as well. Externally, <mask> pursued an increase in trade with Christian Europe, especially with Italian traders from Genoa and Pisa. On 18 April 1279, <mask> concluded a treaty with the ambassador of Genoa, granting the republic the rights to export Granadan goods with an especially low fee of 6.5% and to establish a trading post in the emirate, in exchange for supplying ships to Granada in the event of conflict against another Muslim power not allied to Genoa. <mask> II was known by the epithet al-Faqih, literally meaning "the canon-lawyer", but which can also be understood as "the Wise", and reflects not only his high education, but also his preference for surrounding himself with scholars and poets. Much like his contemporary, King Alfonso X of Castile, <mask> wrote poetry—he was a decent poet himself according to Ibn al-Khatib—and fostered significant cultural activity at his court. He competed with Alfonso in attracting learned men, especially Muslim men of science from territories conquered by the Christians. Among those he welcomed to his court were the mathematician-physician <mask>-Riquti and the astronomer-mathematician <mask> al-Raqqam, who migrated to Granada despite being offered substantial payments by Alfonso if they were to convert and stay in Christian territory.The Spanish historian Ana Isabel Carrasco Manchado writes, "al-Faqih is an unusual sobriquet

masks:
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad al
Muhammad ibn


texts:
 among Andalusi rulers; it underlined a political personality that intended to affirm itself through association with intellectual practice and with the faith, as well as with justice and legal norms, facets which overlap in the activity of the faqihs". References

Citations

Bibliography

Primary sources

Sultans of Granada
13th-century monarchs in Europe
1234 births
1302 deaths
13th century in Al-Andalus
13th-century


texts: <mask> (; 21 March 1806 – 18 July 1872) was an ardent Mexican liberal, trained as a lawyer, and an active and effective politician who served as the 26th president of Mexico from 1858 until his death in office in 1872. He was the first president of Mexico who was of indigenous origin, of Zapotec ethnicity. He wrote only briefly about his indigenous heritage, in Apuntes para mis hijos, describing his parents as "Indians of the country's primitive race." His vision of Mexico was that individual indigenous Mexicans would become full citizens of Mexico, equal before the law. "Everything that <mask> and the Liberal circle stood for militated against [his] identification" as an indigenous person. According to one biographer, he "has been the object of so much mythology that it is almost impossible to uncover the facts of his life.". The liberal exiles plotted a return to Mexico and the overthrow of Santa Anna.In 1854, <mask> helped draft the liberals' Plan of Ayutla, a document calling for Santa Anna's being deposed and for a convention to draft a new constitution. Faced with growing opposition, Santa Anna was forced to resign in 1855. <mask>'s time in New Orleans broadened his horizons, meeting not just fellow exile Mexican liberals, but also Cuban separatist exile, Pedro Santacicilia, who was later to marry <mask>'s oldest child. Cuba was still a Spanish colony, not gaining its independence until 1898, and Cuban nationalists sought independence. For Mexico, the existence of a Spanish colony geographically close to Mexico was a potential threat. It had been the springboard for Spain's unsuccessful attempt to reconquer Mexico. Santacicilia and his fellow Cuban business

masks:
Benito Pablo Juárez García
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez


texts:
 partner Domingo de Goicuría were important to the Mexican liberal cause, sending arms to Guerrero and acting on liberals' behalf in Veracruz in the War of the Reform.During the French Intervention (1862-67) Santacilia helped <mask>'s wife and children in their New York exile. Liberal Reform, 1855-1857

With Santa Anna's resignation, <mask> returned to Mexico from his exile in the U.S. and became part of the activist puro (pure) faction of Liberals. They formed a provisional government under General Juan Álvarez, the strong man of Guerrero state, inaugurating the period known as La Reforma, or Liberal Reform. <mask> served as Minister of Justice and ecclesiastical affairs. During this time, he drafted the law named after him, the Juárez Law, which declared all citizens equal before the law, and restricted the privileges (fueros) of the Catholic Church and the Mexican army. President Álvarez signed the draft into law in 1855. The Reform laws curtailed the power of the Catholic Church, under the Lerdo law forcing the sale of Church land as well as those of indigenous communities,  and restricting the military.They tried to create a modern civil society and capitalist economy based on the model of the United States. The Ley Juárez was subsequently incorporated into the Mexican Constitution of 1857. <mask> had no role in drafting the constitution, since he had returned to Oaxaca, where he served again as governor. The new liberal Constitution of 1857 was promulgated in February and the new president, Ignacio Comonfort, who appointed <mask> as Minister of Government in November 1857. He was elected as President of the Supreme Court of Justice, an office that virtually put

masks: Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez


texts:
 its holder as the successor to the President of the Republic. War of the Reform, 1858-1860

Conservatives rejected the new constitution, promulgated on 11 March 1857, and sought to overturn it. Led by General Félix María Zuloaga, Conservatives sought to nullify the constitution and issued the Plan of Tacubaya on 17 December 1857.Recently elected president, Ignacio Comonfort, a moderate Liberal, saw flaws in the constitution, which gave most power to Mexican states and further curtailed the power of the executive by making Congress superior to it. Comonfort signed onto the Conservatives' plan, which called for nullifying the constitution, drafting a new constitution, and leaving Comonfort as president with extraordinary powers in the interim. Comonfort "felt that by temporarily assuming dictatorial powers he could hold the extremists on both sides in check and pursue a middle course, always his object. It soon became obvious that such an assumption was mere wishful thinking." <mask>, Ignacio Olvera, and many other liberal deputies and ministers were arrested. For the conservatives, these actions did not go far enough, and on 11 January 1858, Zuloaga demanded Comonfort's resignation. Comonfort re-established the Congress, and liberated all prisoners including <mask>, before resigning as president.The conservative forces proclaimed Zuloaga as president on 21 January 1858. Under the terms of the 1857 Constitution, the President of the Supreme Court of Justice became interim President of Mexico until a new election could be held. With Comonfort's resignation, <mask> was acknowledged as president by liberals on 15 January 1858 and assumed leadership of the Liberal side of

masks: Juárez Juárez Juárez


texts: the civil war known as the War of the Reform (Guerra de Reforma), (1858–61). During this war, Mexico had rival governments of the liberals under <mask>, in a constitutional succession, and the conservatives under Félix María Zuloaga. The contest would be decided on the field of battle. With the conservatives in control of Mexico City, <mask> and his government evacuated and moved first to Querétaro and later to Veracruz, whose customs revenues were used to fund the government. On 4 May 1858, <mask> arrived in Veracruz where the government of Manuel Gutiérrez Zamora was stationed with General Ignacio de la Llave.His wife and children were waiting for his arrival on the dock at Veracruz's port, along with a large part of the population that had flooded the pier to greet him. <mask> lived many months in Veracruz without incident until conservative General Miguel Miramón's attack on the port on 30 March 1859. On 6 April, <mask> received a diplomatic representative of the United States Government: Robert Milligan McLane. The U.S. was seeking a route for transit from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean, and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec was the narrowest crossing in Mexico between the bodies of water. With <mask> needing allies against the conservatives, <mask> went forward with a formal treaty between the two governments. Melchor Ocampo signed for Mexico on McLane-Ocampo Treaty in December 1859. <mask> was saved implementation of the treaty and undermining Mexico's sovereignty because U.S. President James Buchanan was unable to secure ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate.Despite the failure of the treaty, <mask>'s government received aid from the US that enabled the

masks: Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez


texts:
 liberals to overcome the conservatives' initial military advantage. <mask>'s government successfully defended Veracruz from assault twice during 1860, and recaptured Mexico City on 1 January 1861. On 12 July 1859, <mask> decreed the first regulations of the "Law of Nationalization of the Ecclesiastical Wealth." This enactment prohibited the Catholic Church from owning properties in Mexico. Because of <mask>'s Law of Nationalization, the Catholic Church and the regular army supported the Conservatives in the Reform War. On the other hand, the Liberals had the support of several state governments in the north and central-west of the country, as well as that of President Buchanan's government. Due to the initial weakness of the <mask> administration, Conservatives Félix María Zuloaga and Leonardo Márquez had the opportunity to reclaim power.To counter this, <mask> petitioned Congress to give him emergency powers. The liberal members of Congress denied the petition, believing that they had to preserve their constitutional government achieved only after a damaging civil war. They did not believe that <mask>, who had implemented that constitution, should violate it by taking dictatorial powers. But, after two groups of Conservatives ambushed and killed major liberal politicians and intellectuals Melchor Ocampo and later Santos Degollado in 1861, the liberals were outraged. <mask> took "extreme measures" to deal with the conservatives. After the scandal of Ocampo's murder, the liberal-majority Congress gave <mask> the money and power that he needed to defeat the conservatives. Constitutional Presidency (1861–1862)

After the defeat of the Conservatives on the battlefield, in

masks: Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez


texts: March 1861 elections were held and <mask> was elected president in his own right under the Constitution of 1857.However, the Liberals' celebrations of 1861 were short-lived. The war had severely damaged Mexico's infrastructure and crippled its economy. Although the Conservatives had been defeated, they did not disappear, and the <mask> government had to respond to pressures from these factions. He was forced to grant amnesty to captured Conservative guerrillas still resisting the <mask> government, despite their executions of Ocampo and Degollado. In the wake of the civil war and the demobilization of combatants, <mask> established the Rural Guard or Rurales, aimed at bringing public security, particularly as banditry and rural unrest grew. Many brigands and bandits had allied themselves with the Liberal cause during the civil war. When that conflict was concluded and they were unable to gain jobs, many became guerrillas and bandits again.Juárez's Minister of the Interior, Francisco Zarco, oversaw the founding of the Rurales. The creation of the police force controlled by the President was done quietly because it violated federalist principles of traditional Liberalism, which gave little power to the central government and much more to Mexican states. The force's creation was an indication that <mask> was becoming more of a centralist as he confronted rural continuing unrest. As a pragmatic solution, the force consisted of former bandits converted into policemen. <mask>'s government also faced international dangers. In view of the government's desperate financial straits, <mask> canceled repayments of interest on foreign loans taken out by the defeated conservatives.

masks: Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez


texts:
 Spain, Britain and France, angry over unpaid Mexican debts, sent a joint expeditionary force that seized the Veracruz Customs House in December 1861.Spain and Britain soon withdrew. They realized that the French Emperor Napoleon III intended to overthrow the <mask> government and establish a Second Mexican Empire, with the support of remaining Conservatives. Thus began the French invasion in 1861 and the outbreak of an even longer war, with Liberals attempting to oust the foreign invaders and their Conservative allies and save the Republic. <mask> and the French Intervention (1862-67)

<mask>'s decision to cancel debt payments to European powers for loans that the defeated Conservatives had contracted was the trigger for the forced collection of debts. French Invasion challenged the political order in Mexico, but Republican forces under Ignacio Zaragoza won an initial victory over the monarchists on 5 May 1862, the Battle of Puebla, celebrated annually as Cinco de Mayo, forcing the French to retreat to the coast for a year. But the French advanced again in 1863 and captured Mexico City. <mask> and his elected government fled the capital and became a government in internal exile, with little power or territorial control.<mask> headed north, first to San Luis Potosí, then to the arid northern city of El Paso del Norte, present-day Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, and finally to the capital of the state, Chihuahua City, where he set up his cabinet. There he remained for the next two and a half years. Meanwhile, Maximilian von Habsburg, younger brother of Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria, was proclaimed Emperor as Maximilian I of Mexico on 20 April 1864, with the backing


texts: of Napoleon III and a group of Mexican conservatives. <mask>'s term as president expired on 1 December 1865, and arguably the head of the Supreme Court would succeed as president. Jesús González Ortega could legally claim the presidency. <mask> issued two decrees to undermine Ortega's claims and retain office. One decree extended the terms of the President and head of the Supreme Court until elections could be held.<mask> "believed he had the power to extend his term ... [and] became convinced that the nation would approve his continuing his term." <mask> exceeded his constitutional powers in remaining in office, but given the extraordinary times, he had considerable support. In response to the French invasion and the elevation of Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico, <mask> sent General Plácido Vega y Daza to California to gather Mexican American sympathy for republican Mexico. Maximilian offered <mask> amnesty and later the post of prime minister, but <mask> refused to accept a government imposed by foreigners, or a monarchy. The US government was sympathetic to <mask>, refusing to recognize Maximilian and opposing the French invasion as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Most of its attention was taken up by the American Civil War. <mask>'s wife, Margarita Maza, and their children spent the invasion in exile in New York, where she met several times with U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, who received her as the First Lady of Mexico.The careers of <mask> and Abraham Lincoln have been compared, because they were two presidents who shared humble social origins, a law career, a rapidly ascending political career in their home states, and a presidency that began under the

masks: Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez


texts: auspices of a civil war that made long-lasting reform a necessity. But they never met nor exchanged correspondence. Following the end of the American Civil War and Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson succeeded to the US presidency. He demanded that the French evacuate Mexico and imposed a naval blockade in February 1866. When Johnson could not get sufficient support in Congress to aid Juárez, he allegedly had the Army "lose" some supplies (including rifles) "near" (across) the border with Mexico, according to U.S. General Philip Sheridan's journal account. In his memoirs, Sheridan stated that he had supplied arms and ammunition to Juárez's forces: "... which we left at convenient places on our side of the river to fall into their hands". Faced with US opposition to a continuing French presence and a growing threat on the European mainland from Prussia, French troops began pulling out of Mexico in late 1866.Maximilian's liberal views had cost him support from Mexican conservatives as well. In 1867, the last of the Emperor's forces were defeated. Maximilian was sentenced to death by a military court, a retaliation for Maximilian's earlier orders for the execution of republican soldiers (although some historians point to the fact that the original "Black Decree" was from <mask> – who had people executed, without trial, for "helping" his enemies, whereas Maximilian often pardoned people who had fought against him). Despite national and international pleas for amnesty, <mask> refused to commute the sentence. Maximilian was executed by firing squad on 19 June 1867 at Cerro de las Campanas in Querétaro. His body was returned to Vienna for burial. Restored Republic

masks: Juárez Juárez


texts:
 (1867–1872)

The period following the expulsion of the French and up to the revolt of Porfirio Díaz in 1876 are now generally known in Mexico as the Restored Republic.The period includes the last years of the <mask> presidency and, following his death in office in 1872, that of fellow civilian politician Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. Under ordinary circumstances, <mask>'s presidential term would have ended in 1865 and elections held, but during French invasion, he continued in the presidency as head of state in domestic exile. With the ouster of the French in 1867, other liberals now objected to <mask>'s remaining in power without an electoral mandate. The broad liberal front against the French had splintered and rivals to <mask> emerged. Liberals had not been unified in their support of the Constitution of 1857, and with the exit of the French, the simmering conflicts between liberal factions in abeyance during the intervention, came to the fore. <mask> sought the legal means to extend his time in power, proposing that the Constitution be amended to allow for a third term and increase the power of the executive against that of the legislature. For <mask>'s opponents, this was confirmation that <mask> wished to keep a personal grip on power.The Constitution had been aimed at breaking the power of the Catholic Church and the army as an institution and invigorating the power of Mexican states against the power of the central government. The constitution also made the legislative branch superior to the executive, to forestall personalist power. During the intervention, the republic barely continued to exist and the structure of constitutional division of powers was


texts: inoperative. <mask> realized when he returned to the presidency in 1867 that presidential powers were diminished. In the face of opposition, <mask> built a set of alliances to strengthen the power of the central government and make the constitutional system work. His critics saw his actions as building a personal dictatorship. The Restored Republic was a politically unstable time in Mexico, with multiple insurrections.A perceived challenge to <mask> came early. In 1867, the liberals' former nemesis, General Antonio López de Santa Anna and President of Mexico multiple times, sought to return to Mexico from exile. The U.S. had pledged to support <mask>, and prevented Santa Anna from disembarking in Veracruz, his home region and political base. Veracruz was still in French imperial hands when Santa Anna attempted to land in June 1867, and the possibility that he might seize the port from them was a distinct possibility. This could have paved the way for a political comeback threatening <mask>. <mask>'s forces diverted the general, who landed in Sisal, Yucatán. He was arrested before a military court on 14 July 1867.He was accused of being a traitor to Mexico, and <mask> sought the use of the law of 25 January 1862 that mandated death for traitors, a fate for Maximilian and two of his generals. The military tribunal decided that Santa Anna should be sentenced to eight years of further exile. <mask> had been expecting a sentence of death and was proceeding to have all of Santa Anna's landed property confiscated and sold off. <mask> issued a general amnesty for all political opponents in October 1870, but explicitly excluded Santa Anna. The general responded angrily, listing


texts: his many heroic military deeds for his homeland, asking contemptuously where the civilian <mask> was then, and calling him a "dark Indian," a "hyena," and "a symbol of cruelty." But only after <mask> died in office was Santa Anna able to return to Mexico. The civil war of the Reform (1858–61) and the French Intervention (1862–67) had forestalled any serious implementation of the Liberal reforms.With the defeat of the French and their Mexican conservative allies the way seemed clear to institute changes. <mask> had turned the opposition to the French Intervention into a war of national liberation of the Republic from a foreign invader rather than as a victory of Mexican liberalism. For that reason, he had considerable political support which could be translated into actions. In a controversial move, <mask> ran for re-election in 1871. His loyal political ally, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada had expected to succeed <mask> in that election, since <mask> had already been criticized for apparently holding onto power. When Lerdo served in <mask>'s cabinet post-1867 and had forged political alliances with a number of state governors and with congressmen. It became clear that <mask> was going to run for re-election, Lerdo resigned from the cabinet.Lerdo and Díaz ran for the presidency with none of them achieving a majority on his own, but rivals Díaz and Lerdo together got more votes than <mask>. <mask> got 5,837 electoral votes, Díaz 3,555, and Lerdo 2,874, throwing the outcome for congress to decide. The decision in congress was for <mask> since it was packed with his supporters, and opponents considered the election fraudulent. Defeated opposition candidate Díaz issued the Plan

masks: Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez Juárez


texts:
 of la Noria call to arms against <mask>. Díaz had not be involved in the many insurrections that broke out after 1867 and had it not gathered other opponents of <mask> it would just one more insurrection. Although <mask> was not whole heartedly supported, many political opponents did not want civil war as a means to power. <mask> kept the loyalty of key military figures and was able to outlast the rebellion.Díaz's plan was not a compelling argument for violence. Díaz showed himself at this juncture to be a flawed political and military leader. <mask> called Díaz a "latterday Santa Anna", invoking the liberals' archenemy. <mask> took the opportunity of the rebellion to attack entrenched groups within various states, using government forces to neutralize rebellious elements in state militias. Having outlasted Díaz's serious rebellion, <mask> again tried to institute constitutional reform, but congress blocked it. Personal life

On 31 October 1843, when he was in his late 30s, <mask> married Margarita Maza, the adoptive daughter of his sister's patron. Margarita was 20 years younger than the judge.Her father Antonio Maza Padilla was from Genoa and her mother Petra Parada Sigüenza was Mexican, of Spanish descent. They were part of Oaxaca's upper-class society. Margarita Maza accepted his proposal and said of <mask>, "He is very homely, but very good." With his marriage to a white woman, <mask> gained social standing. Although legal racial categories were abolished at independence, socially ethnic categories were still used. Their ethnically mixed (white/indigenous) marriage was unusual at the time, but it is not often noted in standard biographies. Their marriage lasted


texts: until Margarita's death from cancer in January 1871, when <mask> was planning his reelection.<mask> and Maza had ten children together, who were ethnically mixed mestizos, including twins María de Jesús and Josefa, born in 1854. Two boys and three girls died in early childhood. Two of their sons died while they were in exile in New York with their mother during the French Intervention. Their only surviving son was <mask> Narciso <mask> Maza, b. 29 October 1852, who was a diplomat and politician, and was Governor of Oaxaca 1911–12; he married but had no children. Their daughter Manuela married Cuban poet and separatist Pedro Santacilia in May 1863. <mask> also had other children.He had fathered a son and a daughter with Juana Rosa Chagoya before he married: Tereso, born about 1838, and Susana. His son became close to <mask> during his expatriations and fought in the Reform War. Chagoya died before <mask> married Margarita, when Susana was three years old. <mask> and his wife formally adopted Susana, who never married and was with her adoptive mother at her death. Margarita Maza <mask> was buried in the Juárez mausoleum in Mexico City.. Additionally, <mask> also had a relationship with Andrea Campa, with whom he had a daughter Beatriz <mask>  Beatriz <mask> married the New Orleans, french man, Robert Savage, with whom she had a son, named Carlos Savage <mask>. Carlos Savage <mask> became a cadet in Mexico's Heroic Military Academy, where he participated in the famous "Marcha de la Lealtad" or "March of Loyalty" of the Mexican ex-president Francisco I. Madero. Carlos Savage <mask> also had children: Carlos, Jesus, Alberto, and Rafael, who would become famous film

masks:
Juárez
Juárez
Benito Luis
Juárez
Benito Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Benito Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez


texts:
 editors.Carlos Savage (1919–2000) is a renowned Mexican film editor and actor who worked with his brothers in more than 1,000 award winning movies, films and documentaries. <mask> was a 33rd Scottish Rite Freemason and member of the directive of the Mexican brotherhood. He was initiated under the name of Guglielmo Tell. <mask>'s health suffered in 1870, but he recovered. His wife died in 1871 and his health began to fail in 1872. He suffered a heart attack in March 1872, the day before his birthday. He suffered another attack on July 8, and the fatal attack on 17 July.Death

<mask> died of a heart attack on 18 July 1872, aged 66. When <mask> died, Díaz's reasons for rebellion -- fraudulent elections, presidential coercion of states -- no longer existed. He was succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, the head of the Supreme Court. Porfirio Díaz was amnestied for his rebellion by Lerdo in November 1872. Legacy

Today <mask> is remembered as being a progressive reformer dedicated to democracy, equal rights for his nation's indigenous peoples, reduction in the power of organized religion, especially the Catholic Church, and a defense of national sovereignty. He is also remembered for his brutality and his executions of political opponents. The period of his leadership is known in Mexican history as La Reforma del Norte (The Reform of the North).It constituted a liberal political and social revolution with major institutional consequences: the expropriation of church lands, the subordination of the army to civilian control, liquidation of peasant communal land holdings, the separation of church and state in public affairs, and the nearly complete disenfranchisement of

masks:
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Benito Juárez


texts:
 bishops, priests, nuns and lay brothers, codified in the "Juárez Law" or "Ley Juárez". La Reforma represented the triumph of Mexico's liberal, federalist, anti-clerical, and pro-capitalist forces over the conservative, centralist, corporatist, and theocratic elements that sought to reconstitute a locally run version of the old colonial system. It replaced a semi-feudal social system with a more market-driven one. But, following <mask>'s death, the lack of adequate democratic and institutional stability soon resulted in a return to centralized autocracy and economic exploitation under the regime of Porfirio Díaz. The Porfiriato (1876–1911), in turn, collapsed at the beginning of the Mexican Revolution. Honors and recognition

Honors in his lifetime
On 7 February 1866, <mask> was elected as a companion of the 3rd class of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (MOLLUS). While membership in MOLLUS was normally limited to Union officers who had served during the American Civil War and their descendants, members of the 3rd Class were civilians who had made a significant contribution to the Union war effort.<mask> is one of the very few non-United States citizens to be a MOLLUS companion. On 11 May 1867, the Congress of the Dominican Republic proclaimed <mask> the Benemérito de la América (Distinguished of America). On 16 July 1867, the government of Peru recognized <mask>'s accomplishments and on 28 July of the same year the School of Medicine of San Fernando, Perú, issued a gold medal to honor him; the medal can be seen at the Museo Nacional de Historia. Place names
 Numerous cities, towns, streets, and institutions in


texts:
 Mexico are named after <mask>, including the former El Paso del Norte, now called Ciudad Juárez; see Juárez (disambiguation) for a partial list. Mexico City International Airport is better known in Mexico by its first official name Aeropuerto Internacional Benito Juárez, or internationally often as Mexico City Juárez. The Benito Juárez Partido in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, and the city of Benito Juárez, Buenos Aires are both named after Juárez, as a gesture of friendship between Argentina and Mexico. Benito Juarez Marg (marg means road in Sanskrit/Hindi) is a major road in South Delhi, India.Mexican currency
 <mask> is depicted on the 20-peso banknote. From the time of <mask>, Mexico's government has issued several notes with the face and the subject of <mask>. In 2000, $20.00 (twenty pesos) bills were issued: on one side is the bust of <mask> and to his left, the Juarista eagle across the Chamber. In 2018, new $500.00 (five hundred pesos) bills were released, also featuring the bust of <mask>. A caption directly below this says in Spanish, "President <mask>, promoter of the Laws of Reform, during his triumphant entrance to Mexico City on 13 July 1867, symbolizing the restoration of the Republic". <mask> appears to face a depiction of his entrance into Mexico City. His likeness appears on two bills simultaneously, and while both are blue in color, the 500-peso and 20-peso notes differ in size and texture.Monuments and statuary
<mask> is notable for the number of statues and monuments in his honor outside of Mexico. In Washington, D.C. is a monument of <mask> by Enrique Alciati, a gift to the US from Mexico. The sculptor Julian Martinez dedicated two works to

masks:
Benito Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Benito Juárez
Juárez
Benito Juárez
Juárez


texts:
 <mask>, a full sculpture in Chicago and a bust in Houston. In New York City is <mask> (2004), a sculpture by Mexican Moises Cabrera Orozco, installed in Bryant Park in Manhattan. Statue of <mask>árez (San Diego)
Statue of <mask>arez in New Orleans

Film and media
Franz Werfel wrote the play Juarez and Maximilian which was presented at Berlin in 1924, directed by Max Reinhardt. <mask> has been mentioned or featured in television and film. Juarez is a 1939 American historical drama film directed by William Dieterle, and starring Paul Muni as <mask>.Carleton Young portrayed <mask> in Zorro's Fighting Legion (1939)
In January 1959, the episode entitled "The Desperadoes" of the ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, Sugarfoot, starring Will Hutchins in the title role, focuses upon an imaginary plot to assassinate <mask>. Set at a mission in South Texas, the episode features Anthony George as a Catholic priest, Father John, a friend of the series character Tom "Sugarfoot" Brewster. The actor Jan Arvan (1913–1979) was cast as President <mask> in the 1959 episode, "A Town Is Born" on the syndicated television anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. Than Wyenn played Isaacs, a storekeeper in Nogales, Arizona Territory, who hides gold for the Mexican government in the fight against Maximilian. Jean Howell played his wife, Ruth Isaacs. Frank Sorello (1929–2013) portrayed <mask> in two episodes of Robert Conrad's The Wild Wild West, an American espionage adventure television program: "The Night of the Eccentrics" (1966), and "The Night of the Assassin" (1967). <mask> is a character in Harry Harrison's alternate history novels the Stars and Stripes

masks:
Juárez
Benito Juárez
Benito Ju
Benito Ju
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez


texts:
 trilogy

Other eponyms
 The Italian dictator <mask> was named after Juárez.In Sofia, Bulgaria, the municipal school Primary school Nr. 49 is named after <mask>. In Warsaw, Poland, the public school Szkoła Podstawowa Nr. 85 im. <mask> Juareza w Warszawie is named after <mask>. <mask> is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Mexican snake, Geophis juarezi. Juárez Complex National Palace
In the National Palace in Mexico City, where he lived while in power, there is a small museum in his honor.It contains his furniture and personal effects. Living room, dining room, study and bedroom of don <mask>

Quotes
<mask>'s quote continues to be well-remembered in Mexico: "Entre los individuos, como entre las naciones, el respeto al derecho ajeno es la paz", meaning "Among individuals, as among nations, respect for the rights of others is peace". The portion of this motto in bold is inscribed on the coat of arms of Oaxaca. A portion is inscribed on the <mask> statue in Bryant Park in New York City, "Respect for the rights of others is peace." This quote summarizes Mexico's stances towards foreign affairs. Another notable quote: "La ley ha sido siempre mi espada y mi escudo", or "The law has always been my shield and my sword", is a phrase often displayed inside court and tribunals buildings. See also

 List of heads of state of Mexico
 José María Jesús Carbajal Supporter of <mask>
 History of Mexico
 Statues of the Liberators
Liberalism in Mexico
War of the Reform
Reform laws
History of Roman Catholicism in Mexico

Further reading

Cadenhead, Ivie E., Jr. <mask>.1973. Hamnett, Brian. "<mask>árez", in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn

masks:
Benito Mussolini
Juárez
Benito
Juárez
Juárez
Benito Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Juárez
Benito Juárez
Benito Ju


texts:
 1997
Hamnett, Brian. Juárez (Profiles in Power). New York: Longmans, 1994. .
Krauze, Enrique, Mexico: Biography of Power.New York: HarperCollins 1997. Olliff, Donathan C. Reform Mexico and the United States: A Search for Alternatives to Annexation, 1854–1861. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press 1981. Perry, Laurens Ballard. Juárez and Díaz: Machine Politics in Mexico. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1978. Roeder, Ralph.<mask> and His Mexico: A Biographical History. 2 vols. 1947. Scholes, Walter V. Mexican Politics During the Juárez Regime, 1855–1872. Columbia MO: University of Missouri Press 1957. Sheridan, Philip H. Personal Memoirs of P. H. Sheridan. 2 vols.New York: Charles L. Webster & Co., 1888. .
Sinkin, Richard N. The Mexican Reform, 1855–1876: A Study in Liberal Nation-Building. 1979. Smart, Charles Allen. Viva Juárez: A Biography. 1963. Stevens, D.F. "<mask>árez".Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996. Weeks, Charles A. The Juárez Myth in Mexico. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press 1987. References

External links

 Mexico's Lincoln: The Ecstasy and Agony of Benito Juarez
 Historical Text Archive: Juarez, <mask>, on La Reforma
 Timeline
 Juárez Photos – Planeta.com

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1806 births
1872 deaths
1860s in Mexico
19th-century Mexican people
19th-century Mexican politicians
19th-century rulers in North America
19th-century Mexican lawyers
Anti-imperialism in North America
Governors of Oaxaca
Indigenous leaders of the Americas
Liberalism in Mexico
Mexican lawyers

Mexican secularists
People from Oaxaca
Presidents of Mexico
Second French intervention in Mexico
Zapotec

masks:
Juárez
Benito Ju
Benito


texts:
<mask> (February 21, 1880 – March 17, 1962) was an American actor born in Philadelphia. He is probably best remembered for his portrayal of Inspector Faraday in the 1951-1953 television series Boston Blackie. Career
By 1897, <mask> was performing in vaudeville with his wife, Ann Codee, in an act called "Codee and Orth". In 1909, he expanded into song writing, with songs such as "The Phone Bell Rang" and "Meet Me on the Boardwalk, Dearie". His first contact with motion pictures was in 1928, when he was part of the first foreign-language shorts in sound produced by Warner Bros. He and his wife also appeared together in a series of two-reel comedies in the early 1930s. Orth's first major screen credit was in Prairie Thunder, a Dick Foran western, in 1937.From then on, he was often cast as bartenders, pharmacists, and grocery clerks, and always distinctly Irish. He had a recurring role in the Dr. Kildare series of films and also in the Nancy Drew series as the befuddled Officer Tweedy. Among his better roles were the newspaper man Cary Grant telephones early in His Girl Friday, one of the quartet singing "Gary Owen" in They Died with Their Boots On (thereby giving Errol Flynn as Gen. Custer the idea of associating the tune with the 7th Cavalry), and as the little man carrying the sign reading "The End Is Near" throughout Colonel Effingham's Raid. However, <mask> is probably best remembered

masks:
Frank Orth
Orth
Orth


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 for his portrayal of Inspector Faraday in the 1951-1953 television series Boston Blackie. A short, plump, round-faced man, often smoking a cigar, <mask> as Faraday wore his own dark-rimmed spectacles, though rarely in feature films. In 1959, <mask> retired from show business after throat surgery. His wife died in 1961 after around fifty years of marriage.Death
Orth died on March 17, 1962. He is buried in Forest Lawn Cemetery in the Hollywood Hills next to his wife. Gluskoter
The Girl from Manhattan (1948) - Oscar Newsome
Family Honeymoon (1948) - Candy Butcher (uncredited)
Blondie's Secret (1948) - Mr. Philpotts
Make Believe Ballroom (1949) - Pop (uncredited)
Red Light (1949) - Stoner
Bride for Sale (1949) - Police Sergeant (uncredited)
The Great Rupert (1950) - Mr. <mask>gle
Cheaper by the Dozen (1950) - Higgins (uncredited)
Father of the Bride (1950) - Joe
The Petty Girl (1950) - Moody
Double Dynamite (1951) - Mr. Kofer
Something to Live For (1952) - Waiter (uncredited)
Houdini (1953) - Mr. Hunter
Here Come the Girls (1953) - Mr. Hungerford
Not as a Stranger (1955) - Greenville Patient (uncredited)
Hold That Hypnotist (1957) - Beedle - Man in Library (uncredited)

References

External links

American male film actors
1880 births
1962 deaths
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
Male actors from Philadelphia
Vaudeville performers
20th-century American male

masks:
Orth
Orth
Frank Din


texts:
Count , also known as Kiten, Count <mask> (December 25, 1849September 13, 1912), was a Japanese general in the Imperial Japanese Army and a governor-general of Taiwan. He was one of the commanders during the 1894 capture of Port Arthur from China. He was a prominent figure in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, as commander of the forces which captured Port Arthur from the Russians. He was a national hero in Imperial Japan as a model of feudal loyalty and self-sacrifice, ultimately to the point of suicide. In the Satsuma Rebellion, he lost a banner of the emperor in battle, for which he tried to atone with suicidal bravery in order to recapture it, until ordered to stop. In the Russo-Japanese War, he captured Port Arthur but he felt that he had lost too many of his soldiers, so requested permission to commit suicide, which the emperor refused. These two events, as well as his desire not to outlive his master (junshi), motivated his suicide on the day of the funeral of the Emperor Meiji.His example revitalized the samurai practice of seppuku ritual suicide. Early life
Nogi was born as the son of a samurai at the Edo residence (present day Tokyo) of the Chōfu clan from Chōshū (present day Yamaguchi Prefecture). He was born on November 11, 1849, according to the old Japanese lunar calendar, or Christmas day, according to the new one. His childhood name was Mujin, literally "no one", to prevent evil spirits from coming to harm him. On turning 18, he was renamed  Nogi Bunzō. Early military career
In November 1869, by the order of the Nagato domain's lord, he enlisted in Fushimi Goshin Heisha (lit. the Fushimi Loyal Guard Barrack) to be trained in the French style for the domainal Army.After completing the training, he was reassigned to the Kawatō Barrack in Kyoto as an instructor, and then as


texts: Toyōra domain's Army trainer in charge of coastal defense troops. In 1871, <mask> was commissioned as a major in the fledgling Imperial Japanese Army. Around this time, he renamed himself <mask> taking a kanji from the name of his father. In 1875, he became the 14th Infantry Regiment's attaché. The next year (1876), <mask> was named as the Kumamoto regional troop's Staff Officer, and transferred to command the 1st Infantry Regiment, and for his service in the Satsuma Rebellion, against the forces of Saigō Takamori in Kyūshū, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on April 22, 1877. In a fierce battle at that time, he lost the 14th Infantry Regiment's regimental banner, which was considered to be the property of the Emperor, to the enemy. Its loss was an extreme disgrace.Nogi considered this such a grave mistake that he listed it as one of the reasons for his later suicide. On August 27, 1876, Nogi married Shizuko, the fourth daughter of Satsuma samurai Yuji Sadano, who was then 20 years old. As Nogi was 28 years old, it was a very late marriage for that time, considering that the average age to marry was in the early 20s. On August 28, 1877, their first son Katsunori was born, and Nogi bought his first house at Niizakamachi, Akasaka, Tokyo. In 1879, his second son Yasunori was born. He was promoted to colonel on April 29, 1880. Promoted major general on May 21, 1885, in 1887 Nogi went to Germany with Kawakami Soroku to study European military strategy and tactics.In 1894, during the First Sino-Japanese War, Major-General <mask> commanded the First Infantry Brigade which penetrated the Chinese defenses and successfully occupied Port Arthur in only one day of combat. As such, he was a senior commander during the Port Arthur massacre. The following year, he was promoted to lieutenant general

masks: Nogi Maresuke Nogi Nogi


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 (April 29, 1895) and assigned to the Second Division, tasked with the invasion of Taiwan. <mask> remained with the occupation forces in Taiwan until 1898. In 1899, he was recalled to Japan, and placed in command of the newly formed 11th Infantry Brigade, based in Kagawa. Political career
After the war, he was elevated to danshaku (baron); and he was conferred with the Order of the Golden Kite, 1st class. <mask> was appointed as the third Japanese Governor-General of Taiwan from October 14, 1896 to February 1898.When moving to Taiwan, he moved his entire family, and during their time in Taiwan, his mother contracted malaria and died. This led Nogi to take measures to improve on the health care infrastructure of the island. However, unlike many of his contemporaries as officers, Nogi expressed no interest in pursuing politics. Russo-Japanese War

In 1904, Nogi was recalled to active service on the occasion of the Russo-Japanese War, and was promoted to army general in command of the Japanese Third Army, with an initial strength of approximately 90,000 men and assigned to the capture of the Russian-held Port Arthur on the southern tip of Liaodong Peninsula, Manchuria. Nogi's forces landed shortly after the Battle of Nanshan, in which his eldest son, serving with the Japanese Second Army, was killed. Advancing slowly down the Liaodong Peninsula, Nogi encountered unexpectedly strong resistance, and far more fortifications than he had experienced ten years earlier against the Chinese. The attack against Port Arthur quickly turned into the lengthy Siege of Port Arthur, an engagement lasting from August 1, 1904 to January 2, 1905, costing the Japanese massive losses.Due to the mounting casualties and failure of Nogi to overcome Port Arthur's defenses, there was mounting pressure within the Japanese

masks: Nogi Nogi


texts: government and military to relieve him of command. However, in an unprecedented action, Emperor Meiji spoke out during the Supreme War Council (Japan) meeting, defending Nogi and demanding that he be kept in command. After the fall of Port Arthur, Nogi was regarded as a national hero. He led his Third Army against the Russian forces at the final Battle of Mukden, ending the land combat phase of operations of the war. British historian Richard Storry noted that Nogi imposed the best of the Japanese samurai tradition on the men under his command such that "...the conduct of the Japanese during the Russo-Japanese War towards both prisoners and Chinese civilians won the respect, and indeed admiration, of the world". Both of Nogi's sons, who were army lieutenants during the war, were killed in action. Though Nogi's elder son Katsunori (August 28, 1879 – May 27, 1904) had been a sickly child, he had managed to enter the imperial military academy on his third try.He was hit in the abdomen at the Battle of Nanshan and died of blood loss while undergoing surgery at a field hospital. His second son Yasunori (December 16, 1881 – November 30, 1904), a second lieutenant at Port Arthur, fell on a rocky slope, striking his head and dying instantly. Yasunori received a posthumous promotion to lieutenant, and was buried by his father in the Aoyama cemetery. At the end of the war, Nogi made a report directly to Emperor Meiji during a Gozen Kaigi. When explaining battles of the Siege of Port Arthur in detail, he broke down and wept, apologizing for the 56,000 lives lost in that campaign and asking to be allowed to kill himself in atonement. Emperor Meiji told him that suicide was unacceptable, as all responsibility for the war was due to imperial orders, and that Nogi must remain alive, at least as long as he


texts:
 himself lived. Postwar career
After the war, Nogi was elevated to the title of count and awarded the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers, Grand Cordon, 1917.As head of the Peers' School from 1908 to 1912, he was the mentor of the young Hirohito, and was, perhaps, the most important influence on the life of the future emperor of Japan. Nogi spent most of his personal fortune on hospitals for wounded soldiers and on memorial monuments erected around the country in commemoration of those killed during the Russo-Japanese War. He also successfully petitioned the Japanese government to erect a Russian-style memorial monument in Port Arthur to the Russian dead of that campaign. Scouting
Nogi is significant to Scouting in Japan, as in 1911, he went to England in attendance on Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito for the coronation of King George V. The General, as the "Defender of Port Arthur" was introduced to General Robert Baden-Powell, the "Defender of Mafeking", by Lord Kitchener, whose expression "Once a Scout, always a Scout" remains to this day. Suicide

Nogi and his wife Shizuko committed suicide by seppuku shortly after the Emperor Meiji's funeral cortege left the palace. The ritual suicide was in accordance with the samurai practice of following one's master to death (junshi). In his suicide letter, he said that he wished to expiate for his disgrace in Kyūshū, and for the thousands of casualties at Port Arthur.He also donated his body to medical science. All four members of the <mask> family are buried at Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo. Under State Shinto, <mask> was revered as a kami and Nogi Shrine, a Shinto shrine in his honor, still exists on the site of his house in Nogizaka, Tokyo. His memory is also honored in other locations such as the Nogi Shrine in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, where


texts:
 mausoleum of Emperor Meiji is established. Legacy

Nogi's seppuku immediately created a sensation and a controversy. Some writers claimed that it reflected Nogi's disgust with the profligacy and decline in moral values of late Meiji Japan. Others pointed to Nogi's own suicide note, calling it an act of atonement for mistakes in his military career.In either case, <mask>'s suicide marked the end of an era, and it had a profound impact on contemporary writers, such as Mori Ōgai, Kuroiwa Ruikō and Natsume Sōseki. For the public, Nogi became a symbol of loyalty and sacrifice. The epic historical novel Saka no Ue no Kumo portrays Nogi as floundering at the Siege of Port Arthur and having to be relieved by Kodama Gentarō. Several books have been released in recent years rehabilitating Nogi's image and showing he was a competent leader. Man of letters
<mask> is also noted in Japan as a man of letters. His Kanshi poems (poems in the Chinese language) were especially popular among the Japanese during his time. Three of his Kanshi poems are famous.Right after the Battle of Nanshan of 1904, in which he lost his eldest son, he wrote:

After the battle of 203 Hill of 1904–05, in which he lost his second son, he lamented:

After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, he wrote:

Honors

Peerages
 1895: Baron (August 20)
 1907: Count (September 21)

Decorations
 1897: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure (June 26; Second Class: April 29, 1894)
 1906: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Kite (April 1) (Third Class: August 20, 1895)
 1906: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (April 1). (Second Class: August 20, 1895; Third Class: April 7, 1885)
 1905: Pour le Mérite (January 10)
 1907: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (April 16)
 1909: Chilean Gold Medal of Merit


texts:
 (April 28)
 1911: Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania (October 25)
 1911: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)
 1911: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Military Division (UK) (GCB) (January 1). Court order of precedence
 1871: Senior seventh rank (December)
 1873: Sixth rank (June 25)
 1879: Senior sixth rank (December 20)
 1880: Fifth rank (June 8)
 1885: Senior fifth rank (July 25)
 1893: Senior fourth rank (April 11)
 1896: Third rank (December 21)
 1904: Senior third rank (June 6)
 1909: Second rank (July 10)
 1916: Senior second rank (posthumous)

Portrayals
<mask> was portrayed by Tatsuya Nakadai in the 1980 Japanese war drama film The Battle of Port Arthur (sometimes referred as 203 Kochi). Directed by Toshio Masuda the film depicted the Siege of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War and starred Nakadai as General Maresuke, Tetsurō Tamba as General Kodama Gentarō, and Toshirō Mifune as Emperor Meiji. In the NHK television adaptation of Ryōtarō Shiba's epic Saka no Ue no Kumo, which aired from 2009 to 2011, Nogi was portrayed by actor Akira Emoto. In the NHK television adaptation of Monster, General Nogi is mentioned by the Turkish elder and community leader, Mr. Deniz, convincing the others to trust Dr. Kenzo Tenma and a local prostitute when they attempt to convince the leaders of Frankfurt's Turkish Quarter to be wary of an imminent arson attack by neo-Nazis, led by The Baby. Notes

References

 Bix, Herbert P. (2000).Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: HarperCollins. ;
 Buruma, Ian. (2004). Inventing Japan: 1853–1964. New York: Modern Library. ;
 Ching, Leo T.S.(2001). Becoming Japanese: Colonial Taiwan and the Politics of Identity Formation.. Berkeley: University of California


texts:
 Press. ; ;
 Connaughton, Richard. (1988). The War of the Rising Sun and the Tumbling Bear: a Military History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05.. London: Routledge. ;
 Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson and David L Bongard. (1992).Encyclopedia of Military Biography. London: I. B. Tauris & Co. ;
 Jukes, Geoffrey. (2002). The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ;
 Keene, Donald.Emperor Of Japan: Meiji And His World, 1852-1912 New York: Columbia University Press. ;
 Lyell, Thomas Reginald Guise. (1948). A Case History of Japan. London: Sheed & Ward. Noss, John Boyer. (1949).Man's Religions. New York: MacMillan. Storry, Richard. (1960). A History of Modern Japan. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books. Wolferen, Karel van.(1990). The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation. New York: Vintage. ;

External links

 Portrait of Nogi
 Nogi Shrine in Nogizaka, Tokyo. There is another in Shimonoseki and several others throughout Japan. 1849 births
1912 suicides
Governors-General of Taiwan
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Japanese generals
Japanese military personnel of the Russo-Japanese War
Japanese military personnel who committed suicide
Joint suicides
Kazoku
Mōri retainers
Scouting pioneers
People from Tokyo
People of Meiji-period Japan
People of the Boshin War
People of the First Sino-Japanese War
Recipients of the Order of the Golden Kite
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
Scouting in Japan
Seppuku from Meiji period to present
Suicides by sharp instrument in Japan
Imperial Japanese Army officers
Emperor Meiji
Deified Japanese people
1912