texts:
 the lower Godavari-Krishna valley, and appointed his younger brother 'Kubja' Vishnu-vardhana as the governor of the newly-conquered territory.The Chalukya conquest in this region is corroborated by Vishnu-vardhana's 631 CE Kopparam copper-plate inscription, which records a land grant in the Karma-rashtra region of present-day Andhra Pradesh. The Vishnukundina ruler defeated by Pulakeshin was probably Indravarman: he appears to have ultimately accepted <mask>'s suzerainty, and was allowed to rule as a Chalukya vassal. Pulakeshin assigned some of the newly-conquered territories to his own feudatories. For example, the Maruturu inscription states that the Aluka ruler Gunasagara, a Chalukya vassal, came from Mangalapura (identified with modern Mangalagiri in Guntur district) to Kallura after undergoing several hardships. Xuanzang's visit

The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Pulakeshin's kingdom in 641–642 CE. He calls the Chalukya kingdom "Mo-ho-la-cha" (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), and corroborates Pulakeshin's success against Harsha (see above). He had visited the Pallava kingdom before arriving in the Chalukya kingdom, but he doesn't mention any conflict between the two kingdoms, presumably because he was not aware of major political changes or because his main interest was Buddhism rather than politics.Xuanzang describes <mask> ("Po-le-ke-she") as "a man of farsighted resource and astuteness who extends kindness to all". The king's subjects were "tall and sturdy in nature and... proud


type: original

texts: and carefree by nature... grateful for kindness and revengeful for injustice". They preferred death to disloyalty, and called for a duel if they or their families were insulted. According to Xuanzang, the king was war-like and loved "military arts", because he was a Kshatriya by birth. His well-disciplined troops comprised several thousands of men, and several hundreds of elephants. The elephants, who were intoxicated with wine before battles, were used to break the enemy's front line. When his generals were defeated, they were not punished, but were humiliated by being ordered to wear women's dresses.The soldiers who lost a battle would commit suicide as a matter of honour. According to Xuanzang, the kingdom's capital (not named by Xuanzang) was situated to the east of a large river, around 1000 li from Bharukachchha (modern Bharuch). This description does not fit the Chalukya capital Vatapi (modern Badami). Modern scholars identify the city mentioned by Xuanzang as Nashik, although this identification is not conclusive. It is possible that Xuanzang spent some time in Nashik, which was an important centre of Buddhism, and mistook it as the kingdom's capital. Xuanzang mentions that there were five stupas in and around the capital city: these stupas had been built by the earlier king Ashoka, and were several hundred feet high. Around 5,000 Buddhist monks lived in over 100 monasteries in the kingdom; in particular, Xuanzang describes a large monastery identified with the Ajanta Caves by modern


texts:
 scholars.Xuanzang adds that the kingdom also had temples of "heretics" who "smeared dust on their bodies". War with the Pallavas and death

The Pallavas were the southern neighbours of the Chalukyas. The Vishnukundins were their allies at the time, and <mask>'s subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava king. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas fought several battles without conclusive results. The Aihole inscription states that the Pallava ruler opposed the rise of <mask>, who caused the enemy's splendour to be "obscured by the dust of his army" and forced the enemy to take shelter behind the walls of the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. The Kashakudi inscription of the Pallavas states that the Pallava King Mahendravarman defeated an unnamed enemy at Pallalura (modern Pullalur). These two accounts appear to refer to the same battle, which must have been inconclusive: the Pallava army was probably forced to retreat to Kanchipuram, but inflicted enough damage on the Chalukya army to force <mask> to retreat to Vatapi.The undated Peddavaduguru inscription records <mask>'s grant of the Elpattu Simbhige village in Bana-raja-vishaya ("Bana king's province") after the subjugation of Ranavikrama. Assuming that Ranavikrama was a Bana king, it appears that <mask> defeated the Banas. (An alternative theory identifies Ranavikrama as Mangalesha; see Early life section above.) The Banas appear to have been Pallava feudatories before their submission to Pulakeshin, as suggested by the name of

masks: Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin


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 the inscription's engraver: Mahendra Pallavachari. <mask>'s subjugation of a Pallava feudatory must have renewed his conflict with the Pallavas. The Aihole inscription suggests that <mask> won over the Chola, the Chera, and the Pandya kings as his allies in his struggle against the Pallavas. He marched towards Kanchipuram, but the Pallava inscriptions suggest that he suffered reverses in battles fought at Pariyala, Suramara, and Manimangala, near Kanchipuram.The Pallavas, during the reign of Narasimha-varman I, ultimately besieged the Chalukya capital Vatapi. <mask> was probably killed, when a Pallava force led by Shiruttondar Paranjoti captured Vatapi in c. 642–643 CE. The Pallava occupation of Vatapi is attested by an inscription found at the Mallikarjunadeva temple in Badami, dated to the 13th regnal year of Narasimha-varman. Succession

By 641 CE, during <mask>'s lifetime, his brother Vishnu-vardhana had carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of the Chalukya empire, resulting in the establishment of the Chalukya dynasty of Vengi. According to one theory, this arrangement may have happened with the approval of <mask>, who did not want his brother to wage a war of succession like Mangalesha. <mask> had multiple sons, and the order of succession after him is not clear from the available historical evidence:

 Adityavarman is attested by his Kurnool inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian T. V. Mahalingam theorizes that Adityavarman

masks: Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin


texts:
 was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded <mask>, and in turn, was succeeded by his son Abhinavaditya. Chandraditya is attested by the Nerur and Kochre grant inscriptions of his wife Vijaya-Bhattarika, which accord him imperial titles, but are dated in the regnal years of his wife. It is possible that Chandraditya held the throne after Abhinavaditya, and after his death, his wife acted as a regent for their minor son. His brother Vikramaditya I, appears to have restored Chalukya power as the supreme commander of the Chalukya army during this period, becoming the de facto ruler in the process. Ranaragha-varman is attested by the Honnur inscription dated to the 16th regnal year of his younger brother Vikramaditya. The inscription states that Ranaragha-varman's daughter was the wife of the Ganga prince Madhava, a subordinate of Vikramaditya. Vikramaditya I restored the Chalukya power, and recaptured Vatapi from the Pallavas.Dharashraya Jayasimha-varman, a younger brother of Vikramaditya, is attested by the 671 CE Navsari grant inscription. Extent of the kingdom

The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang attests that <mask> ruled an extensive, militarily powerful and economically prosperous kingdom through several loyal vassals. The Aihole inscription states that <mask>'s kingdom was bound by the oceans on three sides, suggesting that he ruled a vast portion of the Indian peninsula to the south of the Vindhyas.

masks: Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin


texts: However, there is no evidence that he was able to annex the extreme southern kingdoms of the Cholas, the Keralas (Cheras), and the Pandyas to his empire. After his victory over Harsha, <mask> appears to have acquired control of a large part of western Deccan to the south of the Narmada river. The Aihole inscription states that he gained control of the "three Maharashtras" which included 99,000 villages. The identity of these "three Maharashtras" is not certain: according to historian D. C. Sircar, they may have been the Maharashtra proper (a large part of present-day Maharashtra), Konkana, and Karnata.Pulakeshin could not administer this large kingdom centrally, and therefore, ruled through governors from the Chalukya family and loyal vassals, who included the rulers defeated by him. The Sendraka prince Sena-nanda-raja ruled the Konkana and neighbouring areas as his loyal feudatory. The family of Alla-shakti ruled the Khandesh and neighbouring areas as his vassal, as attested by the Abhona and Kasare inscriptions. After defeating the Vishnukundins, Pulakeshin acquired control of a large part of the eastern Deccan region, extending from Vishakhapatnam in north to Nellore and Guntur in the south. Pulakeshin appointed his younger brother Vishnu-vardhana, who had earlier served as his governor of the Velvola country, as the governor of Vengi in eastern Deccan. Vishnu-vardhana acknowledges Pulakeshin's suzerainty in his 631 CE Kopparam inscription, but asserts himself as an independent ruler in his 641 CE


texts:
 Chirupalli inscription. After Pulakeshin's death, the Chalukya governor Vijaya-varman, who ruled in the Lata region (in southern Gujarat), also seems to have asserted his independence.Vijaya-varman's 643 CE Kheda (Kaira) inscription records a land grant without any reference to a Chalukya overlord. Foreign relations

According to the 9th-century Persian historian Al-Tabari, <mask> ("Pharmis") maintained diplomatic relations with the Sasanian ruler Khosrow II of present-day Iran. Pulakeshin sent expensive presents and letters to Khusrow and his sons, during the 26th regnal year of the Sasanian monarch. This embassy can be dated to c. 625 CE. In the 1870s, architectural historian James Fergusson theorized that a painting at the Ajanta Cave 1 depicted a Sasanian embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian king sent a return embassy to the Chalukya kingdom. This theory was widely accepted by other scholars, but is no longer considered correct: the painting, which does indeed include the visit of foreigners in Persian or Sassanian dress, actually depicts a scene from the Maha-sudarsana Jataka, in which the enthroned king can be identified as the Buddha in one of his previous births as a King.The inclusions of numerous men in Sassanian clothing in the caves of Ajanta seems to reflect the great number of Sassanian traders or workers in Central India at that time, and the fact that they were an


texts:
 object of intense interest by the Indians. The good relations between Indian and the Sasanian Empire encouraged the migration to India of Zoroastrians, who were persecuted by the rise of Islam. They settled on the West coast of the Deccan and established the Parsi Community. Religion

<mask> was a Vaishnavite, as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of Vishnu"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to Vishnu, and bear seals with emblems that feature varaha, an incarnation of Vishnu. He was tolerant of other faiths: The construction of the Shaivite shrines now called the Upper Shivalaya, the Lower Shivalaya, and Malegitti Shivalaya, started during his reign. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentions that there were over 100 Buddhist monasteries in his kingdom; over 5,000 monks - both Mahayana and Hinayana - lived in these monasteries.The Meguti Jain temple at Vatapi was also built during his reign, by Ravikirrti, who composed the Aihole inscription engraved on the wall of this temple. Cultural activities

The Aihole inscription of <mask> states that he was generous in "bestowing gifts and honours on the brave and the learned". The inscription's composer Ravikirrti, a court poet of <mask>, describes himself as an equal of the famous Sanskrit poets Bhasa and Kalidasa. Inscriptions

Following inscriptions from <mask>'s reign have been

masks: Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin Pulakeshin


texts:
 discovered:

 The Yekkeri rock inscription, which was probably issued in <mask>'s first regnal year, contains land records in certain towns said to be owned by the god Mahadeva. The Hyderabad copper-plate grant inscription is dated to the Shaka year 532 (expired), and was issued during <mask>'s 3rd regnal year. It was issued during the solar eclipse on the Amavasya of the Bhadrapada month, which corresponds to 23 July 613. It records a village grant.The Maruturu grant inscription records the grant of the Maruturu village at the instance of the Aluka vassal ruler, and notices the occupation of Pishtapura. The Satara grant inscription of Vishnu-vardhana refers to him as the crown-prince. The Lohner (Nashik district) inscription is dated to the year 552 of an unspecified calendar era, which must be the Shaka era. It registers grant of the Goviyanaka village to a Brahmana named Dama Dikshita. The Kopparam copper-plate inscription, dated to <mask>'s 21st regnal year, records the grant of a village in Karma-rashtra region to a Brahmana. The Aihole prashasti inscription, composed by <mask>'s court poet Ravikirtti, records the construction of a Jinendra temple by Ravikirtti, and lists <mask>'s military achievements. The undated Tummeyanaru grant inscription of Pulakeshin bestows the title Paramaveshvara on him.The Chiplun copper-plate inscription record the grant of the Amravatavaka village in Avaretika vishaya (province) to a Brahmana named Maheshvara. It refers to <mask>'s maternal uncle and vassal king


texts: Shrivallabha Sena-nanda-raja, who belonged to the Sendraka dynasty. The Nerur inscription. The fragmentary Badami rock inscription refers to the "victorious metropolis" of Vatapi. The Hirebidri (Dharwar district) stone inscription records a land grant by Tiraka. A Kannada-language inscription from Bellary district "specifies the land measure and the coin to be used at Kurumgodu". The undated Peddavaduguru Ishvara temple stone inscription records <mask>'s grant of the Elpattu Simbhige village after his subjugation of Ranavikrama.The defeated ruler was probably a king of the Bana dynasty; alternatively, he may be identified with Mangalesha, who bore the title Ranavikrama. The Bijapur-Mumbai copper-plate grant inscription records a land grant to Nagasharman of Kaushika gotra, and includes a prashasti (praise) of the dynasty and its kings. The granted land was located in the Brahmana-Vataviya villages situated on the banks of the Godavari River (identified with modern Brahmangaon and Wadvali, east of Paithan, in Aurangabad district). The copper plates were purchased by Raghuvir Pai of Mumbai from a scrap-vendor of Bijapur in the 1990s. The inscription was unreadable because of corrosion, but Shreenand L. Bapat of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute cleaned it and published it in 2017. It is written in Sanskrit language and inscribed in a southern variety of the Brahmi script. It was issued on the occasion of a lunar eclipse on a full-moon day in the Vaishakha month of Pulakeshin's ninth regnal year,


texts:
 which corresponds to 4 April 619 CE.Following inscriptions are attributed to Pulakeshin's reign, but are considered spurious by modern scholars:

 The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to <mask>'s 5th regnal year, records the grant of the Pirigipa village on Revati island. It is considered spurious because its script features irregular characters and its language is very inaccurate. Additionally, its seal and opening matter are different from other Chalukya inscriptions, and it contains a faulty description of Pulakeshin. The Lakshmeshvara inscription records the grant of a field to the chaitya of Shankha Jinendra. It is considered spurious because of "late script and irregular dating". The Pimpalner copper-plate inscription, considered spurious for the same reasons as the Lakshmeshvara inscription, records the grant of the Pippalanagara to Nagarasvami Dikshita. See also
 History of South India
 Sivagamiyin sabadham, a historical novel featuring <mask>di Pulikeshi (film), a Kannada-language film based on the life of <mask> II

References

Bibliography

Early Chalukyas
640s deaths
7th-century Indian monarchs
Indian Hindus
Indian military leaders
Hindu

masks: Pulakeshin Pulakeshinmma Pulakeshin


texts:
<mask> (28 May 1881 – 1964), known professionally as C.F<mask>, was an American businessman and owner of Seabrook Farms, a family-owned frozen vegetable packing plant in New Jersey that at one point was the largest irrigated truck farm in the world. Seabrook Farms became famous for recruiting Japanese Americans from internment camps beginning in January 1944 and other immigrants displaced from World War II. He was nicknamed the "<mask> of agriculture" by B.C<mask>, the founder of Forbes magazine, and the town of Seabrook, New Jersey is named after him. Early life
<mask> was born in Cumberland County, New Jersey to parents Aurthur P. and Elizabeth (known as "Riley") <mask>. His father was an Englishman who started an unnamed farm truck in 1870.In 1893, his father bought a  piece of land in Upper Deerfield to expand his farming business. C.F<mask> left school at the age of 12 to work as a farmhand for his father's farm in Upper Deerfield, Cumberland County. He is often described as a "reluctant farmer", who had interests in engineering instead. Career
During the early 1920s, he briefly worked overseas in Europe as an engineering consultant for civil projects. Seabrook Farms

At the age of 14, <mask> was an early proponent of novel irrigation methods in farming. He installed a single pipe with punched holes that fed water droplets over a celery bed in 1907 that increased production by approximately 300% and continued to be used until the mid-1930s.In the 1910s, C.F. bought his father's farm and had it incorporated in 1913. The farm briefly was sold and renamed Del Bay Farms in 1919; however, <mask> bought back ownership as well as a local cannery

masks:
Charles Franklin Seabrook
. Seabrook
Henry Ford
. Forbes
Seabrook
Seabrook
. Seabrook
Seabrook
Seabrook


texts: business. He was instrumental in the creation of highways that linked New Jersey to larger cities where his produce was sold, such as Philadelphia and New York City. <mask> expanded his father's business of growing and selling fresh vegetables by buying out surrounding plots of land. In the 1930s, he expanded the company to include the production of canned and frozen vegetables. His frozen food venture led to a partnership with Clarence Birdseye.By the 1940s, Seabrook was operating one of the largest farm and food businesses in the United States. At its height, it was producing agriculture on over 54,000 acres of land across three states and employing over 4,000 workers. The company also pioneered the use of gasoline-powered tractors and trucks. Seabrook Farms became the supplier of frozen food for General Foods Corporation under their Birdseye brand, and under this name began supplying food for national and international markets. Seabrook had previously filled labor shortages with people of diverse backgrounds from the United States, including Italian immigrants and southern African Americans. During the Second World War, Seabrook worked with the War Relocation Authority to employ Japanese Americans released from internment camps. These laborers helped fill government orders of food to feed the troops overseas.After one year, over 1,000 Japanese Americans had relocated to south New Jersey to work for Seabrook. By 1947, Seabrook Farms employed over 2,500 Japanese Americans. Other employees included émigrés from Russia and German prisoners of war. In 1955, LIFE magazine called Seabrook Farms the "Biggest Vegetable Factory on Earth". Seabrook sold the


texts:
 company to Seeman Brothers in 1959. The company ceased operating under the name Seabrook Farms in 1963, when the name was changed to Seabrook Foods. Bridgeton Strike
In early April 1934, over 300 workers for Seabrook Farms who had formed a union, most of whom were Italian and African Americans, began a peaceful strike for higher wages.Donald Henderson, a former professor at Columbia University, was the organizer of the strike. Seabrook agreed to double the wages after four days. However, after a few months he laid off over 100 workers, the majority of African-American descent, and again lowered wages. This reversal led to picketing and protests by some workers. <mask> contacted police to end the strikes, which led to violent clashes on July 9. Eventually, these clashes made it to the front page of The New York Times. There was a photograph of the event taken, named Strikers at Seabrook Farms, Bridgeton, New Jersey (With a Stone in One Hand...), July 9, 1934, by an unknown photographer.The next day, a federal negotiator settled a deal with the strikers. Contrary to what was promised in the agreement, Seabrook Farms did not re-hire many of the workers who went on strike and many of its previous African-American workers remained unemployed afterwards. Personal life
<mask> married Norma Dale Ivins on November 22, 1905. He and his wife had three sons: Belford, <mask>, and John "Jack" Martin. Belford Seabrook was in charge of the engineering and construction of new Seabrook Farms plants. <mask> <mask> was born in 1909 and died in Woodstown, New Jersey while visiting a friend's house on October 4, 2003. He was in charge of sales.Jack earned a degree in

masks:
Seabrook
Seabrook
Charles Courtney
Charles Courtney
Seabrook


texts:
 chemical engineering at Princeton University and started working as a general manager at Seabrook Farms after graduation. Jack was nicknamed the "Spinach King" for his work at Seabrook Farms. On 3 October 1941, Seabrook had a stroke. He continued to have health problems into the 1950s until his death in 1964. Honors and awards
The town of Seabrook, New Jersey is named after him. The town has a Pre-K to 3rd grade elementary school named after him called the <mask> F. Seabrook School. The town also has the Seabrook Educational and Cultural Center (SECC), a museum that houses historical information about the community that was created in Seabrook in 1994.The museum was founded by Japanese Americans whose families had moved to South Jersey to work in Seabrook Farms. The Princeton Theological Seminary houses "The Charles F. Seabrook Manuscript Collection". It was established in 1996 from donations made by <mask>, one of <mask>'s son. The seminary also created the C.F. <mask> Director of Music and Lecturer in Church Music position in his honor. His son, John M<mask> wrote a biography about his father and Seabrook Farms, entitled <mask> of Agriculture: <mask><mask> 1881–1964 and Seabrook Farms 1893–1959. The New Jersey Historical Commission also produced a radio documentary about Seabrook called "Seabrook at War" with author Kurt Vonnegut as the narrator.References

External links
 "Invisible Restraints: Life and Labor at Seabrook Farms," New Jersey Digital Highway Exhibition on Seabrook Farms' Labor History
 Rutgers University Community Repository
 Densho Encyclopedia entry

20th-century American businesspeople
1881 births
1964 deaths
People from Cumberland

masks:
Charles
John Seabrook
Charles Seabrook
Seabrook
. Seabrook
Henry Ford
Charles F
. Seabrook


texts:
<mask> (born November 26, 1960) is an American politician and former prosecutor serving as the Mayor of Miami Beach, Florida. He served in the Florida Legislature from 2000 to 2010 and was the Democratic nominee for Attorney General of Florida in 2010. <mask> represented the 106th district in the Florida House of Representatives from 2000 to 2008, also serving as House Minority Leader in his last term. He then served in the Florida Senate, representing the 35th district from 2008 to 2010. He ran for Attorney General of Florida in 2010, losing the general election to Republican Pam Bondi. In 2012, he co-founded the law firm of Gelber Schachter & Greenberg, P.A. along with Adam Schachter and Gerald Greenberg.The firm handles complex civil litigation and white-collar criminal defense cases in Florida and across the country. <mask> was reelected mayor, without opposition, on September 6, 2019, after no other candidate qualified to challenge him by the filing deadline. His second term began in November 2019 and is slated to end in 2021. Early life and family
<mask> was born to Jewish parents <mask> (1919-2019) and Edith Schwitzman <mask> (1924-2006). The elder <mask> served as Miami Beach's 33rd mayor, from 1991 to 1997. <mask> grew up in Miami Beach, Florida and is a graduate of Miami Beach Senior High School. <mask> has a BA from Tufts University and a Juris Doctorate from University of Florida College of Law where he was a Harry S. Truman Scholar.When he was 24, he co-founded a summer camp for children with cancer where he volunteers every summer as a bunk counselor and provides support services for patients and their families. <mask> has been a Big Brother volunteer since 1985, and is a former president

masks:
Daniel Saul Gelber
Gelber
Gelber
Dan Gelber
Seymour Gelber
Gelber
Gelber
Dan Gelber
Gelber
Gelber


texts:
 of the board of directors of Big Brothers Organization. <mask> introduced Judge Marilyn Milian (of the TV show The People's Court) to her husband John Schlesinger at a local bar one Friday night. Currently, <mask> lives in Miami Beach with his wife, Joan Silverstein, a federal prosecutor, and their three children: Sophie, Hannah, and Max. Public service

<mask>'s career in public service started at the age of twenty-five, when he was appointed as one of the youngest federal prosecutors in the nation. After nearly a decade prosecuting public corruption and civil rights cases, <mask> was selected by United States Senator Sam Nunn to be Chief Counsel and Staff Director of the U.S. Senate's Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations where he directed U.S. Senate investigations into global terrorism and weapons of mass destruction. <mask> was first elected to the Florida House of Representatives in 2000 from District 106.As a member of the Florida Legislature, <mask> frequently sparred with former governor Jeb Bush. The Wall Street Journal referred to <mask> as Bush's "chief nemesis." Nevertheless, <mask> earned the respect of the former governor, who once told the St. Petersburg Times that <mask> "would be a very well qualified Governor." In 2005, <mask> took charge of the Florida House Democratic Caucus' political operation. Under his leadership, despite the Democrats losing the Governor's mansion, state house Democrats have picked up nine Republican seats, their first net gain in the lower chamber in sixteen years, his party's best ever showing in a single cycle, and the fifth best overall gain in the nation. In 2008, <mask> was elected to the Florida Senate from the 35th District. Legislative

masks: Dan Dan Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber


texts:
 record

<mask> has worked to increase fairness in the Florida tax code.In 2009, <mask> sponsored and helped pass a bill that closed a real estate loophole that allowed high end developers to evade taxes. He also worked to stop multistate corporations from avoiding Florida taxes. <mask> is critical of recent budget cuts that leave Florida last in per student spending. He has fought spending cuts to the state university system. He is also a vocal critic of the FCAT, believing that "[y]ou shouldn't have a school system where the ceiling is the floor." Drawing on his experience prosecuting corruption as a US Attorney, <mask> has been active in cleaning up government. Sen. <mask> sponsored a bill that provides criminal penalties for official misconduct, criminal misuse of official position and bid tampering.This bill passed in HB 847 and was signed into law. 2010 Attorney General campaign

On June 8, 2009, <mask> announced his candidacy for Florida Attorney General. Reminiscent of Senator Bob Graham's Workdays, Gelber performed community service across Florida, which included serving meals to the homeless, cleaning up the Wekiva River, and joining elementary school students in writing letters to veterans. <mask> soundly won the August 24, 2010 primary election, defeating his Democratic opponent fellow state senator Dave Aronberg by 18 points. His campaign has been endorsed by many top public servants, including Republican state senator J. Alex Villalobos, former United States Attorney General Janet Reno, former Florida Education Secretary Betty Castor, former Congressman Jim Davis, Congresswoman and DNC Vice Chair Debbie Wasserman Schultz and Tampa Mayor Pam Iorio, as well as the Florida Police Benevolent

masks: Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber Gelber


texts:
 Association, the state's largest law enforcement union. Ultimately, <mask> lost the election to the Republican candidate, Pam Bondi. Mayor of Miami Beach

On November 7, 2017, <mask> was elected mayor of Miami Beach with 82 percent of the vote over three other candidates.His main competitor, former commissioner Michael Grieco, withdrew from the election and eventually resigned from office amid a campaign finance scandal that led to criminal charges. Committee assignments
Committee Membership
Commerce, vice chair
Higher Education Appropriations, vice chair
Policy and Steering Committee on Social Responsibility
Policy and Steering Committee on Ways and Means
Communications, Energy, and Public Utilities
Judiciary
Select Committee on Florida's Economy
Joint Committee on Public Counsel Oversight

See also
 List of mayors of Miami Beach, Florida

References

Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations

External links
<mask> for Attorney General:
<mask>'s official legislative bio: member bio
Wall Street Journal: A Tale of Two GOP's
St. Petersburg Times: Governor Gelber? Palm Beach Post: FCAT role in schools' fate may be demoted
St. Petersburg Times: Florida Democrats Grab a Role

External links
Florida House of Representatives – <mask>

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1960 births
Florida Democrats
Living people
Jewish American people in Florida politics
Jewish mayors of places in the United States
Members of the Florida House of Representatives
Tufts University alumni
Fredric G. Levin College of Law alumni
Candidates in the 2010 United States elections
21st-century American politicians
People from Miami Beach, Florida
Florida lawyers
Florida state senators
20th-century American lawyers
21st-century American lawyers
21st-century

masks:
Gelber
Gelber
Dan Gelber
Dan Gelber
Dan Gber


texts:
<mask> was an American screenwriter, editor, radio scenario writer, and art critic in the early 20th century. She was one of the youngest scenario editors of the silent era and was credited with writing over 40 productions. Early life
Born around 1898, <mask> spent her childhood on an island at Squirrel Lake, Wisconsin. Coming from a family of writers, <mask> made her decision to be a writer at the age of 6. She moved out to Chicago, Illinois, at a young age, starting a career that would lead her to be one of the youngest scenario editors in the film industry. Career
At the age of 18, <mask> wrote her first film, Too Late, which launched her formal writing career with the production company Selig Polyscope. Her talent for writing and formatting entertainment pieces became apparent when <mask> translated a German play into English, as well as formatted the production aspects to fit a natural setting on the American stage.In 1921, <mask> made the big move out to Hollywood to continue the expansion of her career with Sawyer-Lubin Productions. It was there that her 1922 production of Quincy Adams Sawyer (1922) was edited and titled, and also where she wrote a screen adaptation of Your Friend and Mine (1923) by Willard Mack. In February 1923, <mask> began a new position with Metro Pictures, later known as Metro Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, with formal tasks of a scenario editor. It wasn't long before <mask> was known as one of the "busiest scenario editors in Hollywood." A 1924 story in The Los Angeles Times quotes <mask> encouraging

masks:
Winifred Dunn
Winifred Dunn
Dunn
Winifred Dunn
Dunn
Dunn
Dunn
Dunn
Dunn


texts: other writers to read many newspapers in order to "keep a metaphorical finger on the pulse of life everywhere." With her quickly growing popularity, <mask> was recruited by actress Mary Pickford in 1925 to work collaboratively on future projects. The first collaboration of <mask> and Pickford was the 1926 hit Sparrows.The role played by Pickford was out of the ordinary for her often lighthearted work, and therefore was a significant driver for its success. The film was later criticized for copyright issues by Harry Hyde, who claimed the plot of Sparrows was eerily similar to his film The Cry of the Children, and sued both <mask> and Pickford for $100,000. This was also the year <mask>'s film Twinkletoes was released. <mask> had tough competition for her production of Twinkletoes to be performed by famous actress Colleen Moore. Based on the Thomas Burke book Twinkletoes: A Tale of the Limehouse, <mask> had to dig deep into her creative mind to create a film story that fit Moore, while staying relatively true to the original narrative. <mask> beat out the competition and production began a few weeks later. Toward the close of 1926, <mask> signed a contract for long-term employment of writing scenarios with First National Pictures.It was here that she wrote the scenario for The Patent Leather Kid. To prepare for this assignment, she sat at a boxing ring every Friday night to gain a feel for what the production should be like. In April 1928, <mask> resigned from First National in order to pursue writing pieces with "more

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 sentiment and less sentimentality." <mask> remained a freelance writer into the sound era and continued her talents through other mediums as well. <mask> was hired to ghostwrite Osa Johnson's autobiography, I Married Adventure: The Lives and Adventures of Martin and Osa Johnson, which was released in 1940. <mask> applied her own spin to the facts found through extensive interviews and research of the story so readers could easily get "swept away." After its release, the book took off, selling 288,000 copies in the first eight months.Achievements
<mask> was of the youngest scenario editors in the film industry. In April 1928, <mask> took on the duties of chairman of the Women's Executive Committee of the Southern California Olympic Games. Later that year, <mask> was inducted into the writer's executive committee for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as the only female, and also served as a member of the Executive Board for the Writer's Guild. Personal life
In December 1928, <mask> <mask> announced her marriage to Harold Swartz, a successful sculptor. The ceremony was held in San Diego, and <mask>'s mother was present. Contrary to popular norms of the time, <mask> did not let her marriage stop her career and continued to work as a freelance writer. After <mask> filed for divorce against Swartz in May 1942, records of her life stopped appearing in periodicals for public viewing.Filmography
<mask> <mask> has been credited as a screenwriter in 41 productions, as editor in three, and both screenwriter and editor in

masks: Dunn Dunn Dunn Dunn Dunn Dunn Winifred Dunn Dunn Dunn Dunn Winifred Dunn


texts:
<mask> (19 March 1907 in Cologne – 19 May 2001 in Tübingen; pseudonym: Martin Seiler) was a German literary scholar. <mask> was also a jurist and social researcher and was internationally recognized as a critic, author and musicologist. Life
<mask> was born in an upper-class Jewish family. He was influenced in his youth by the writings of Georg Lukács and Karl Marx. He was a socialist. He studied jurisprudence, political science, history and philosophy in Cologne, Bonn and Berlin and received his doctorate in 1930 with a thesis titled "Die Krise der deutschen Staatslehre" (The Crisis of German Political Science). At the same time, he joined the SPD and worked on the magazine Der Rote Kämpfer (The Red Fighter).In 1931, he moved to the SAPD, which expelled him again one year later because of his sympathy for the KPD-O. Since he was a Jew and a Marxist and therefore banned from his profession in July 1933, he fled in August 1933 to France, where he worked for a short time as the chief editor of the Die Neue Welt ('The New World'), which was the daily newspaper of the Alsatian KPO. In 1934, <mask> had to flee to Geneva. Here, he received jobs from <mask> and Max Horkheimer as a social researcher. He left the KPD-O in 1935. Carl Jacob Burckhardt influenced his literary orientation during this time. From 1937 to 1939, <mask> was a member of the Collège de Sociologie, founded by Georges Bataille, Michel Leiris and Roger Caillois in 1937.There he held a lecture about the secret political societies in German Romanticism and demonstrated how these secret societies already anticipated Nazi symbolism. Other exiles at the Collège were Walter Benjamin and Paul L. Landsberg. After the end of the war, he returned to Germany in 1945. The Americans made him the cultural editor of the German news agency, DENA, the predecessor of the DPA, and later the chief political editor of Radio Frankfurt. In 1948, he and his friend Stephan Hermlin, went to the Soviet occupation zone. In Leipzig he accepted a professorship for literary studies and became an

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Hans Mayer
Mayer
Hans Mayer
Hans Mayer
Hans Kelsen
Mayer


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 influential critic of the new German literature. It was possible for him to cross between the East German and the West German world.In the East, he worked through his lectures and discussion circles, and in West Germany he was a welcome guest at meetings of Group 47. He was also in contact with Bertolt Brecht during this time. His relationship with those in power in the GDR was characterized by more friction as of 1956. He resigned in 1963 and did not return to the GDR after a visit to a publisher in Tübingen. In 1965, he was appointed to a newly created chair for German literature at the University of Hannover. He held this chair until his retirement in 1973. After that, he lived in Tübingen as an honorary professor.As he grew older, he lost his eyesight, but he was still able to dictate his texts. For that reason, his publications extend well into his old age. Work
The work of <mask> includes more than forty volumes. He studied Büchner, Thomas Mann, Montaigne, Robert Musil, James Joyce, Uwe Johnson, Günter Grass, <mask> Jahnn and others in his investigations on the history of literature. While he was in exile in 1936, he began the advance work for his great work about Georg Büchner. This work about Büchner was later recognized by the University of Leipzig as his postdoctoral thesis which was required to qualify as a professor. He released the collection of essays, Zur deutschen Literatur der Zeit, in 1962.In 1986, he followed this volume with the book, Das unglückliche Bewusstsein – Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte von Lessing bis Heine. Ein Deutscher auf Widerruf is the title of his three-volume memoires of 1982. The investigation, Außenseiter, which appeared in 1975, was considered by many to be his main work. In this volume, he deals with the literary portrayal of three groups, which have commonly been discriminated against in history: women, male homosexuals and Jews. He had his own experiences with belonging to two of these groups – as a Jew and as a homosexual. Der Turm von Babel of 1991 is an obituary on the GDR. Its key

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Hans Henny


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 sentence is frequently seen to be: "Das schlechte Ende widerlegt nicht einen möglicherweise guten Anfang" – "The bad end doesn't disprove a possibly good beginning."The GDR was the better of the two German states to him for a long time. The last book published by <mask> is Erinnerungen an Willy Brandt from 2001. Tributes and criticism

When it comes to acknowledging the work on <mask>, these points are especially emphasized:

In the middle of Stalinism, he defended authors such as Kafka, Proust, James Joyce and Ernst Bloch. In his lectures, it was important to him to investigate literature time after time with a view to whether it was suitable to promote humanity. His special attention for the non-compliant and Außenseiter (outsider) especially stands out. <mask> was an important supporter for many young authors (for example, for Uwe Johnson). <mask> was an honorary citizen of the city of Leipzig, had honorary doctorates from universities in Brussels, Wisconsin and Leipzig, was an honorary professor in Peking, was winner of the National Prize of East Germany, as well as the Bundesverdienstkreuz (Federal Cross of Merit) of the class "Großes Verdienstkreuz mit Stern und Schulterband" (Great Cross of Merit with Star and shoulder ribbon).He was honored with the Ernst-Bloch Prize in 1988. He was a member of the Akademie der Künste (Academy of the Arts) in Berlin and an honorary member of the
Sächsische Akademie der Künste (Saxon Academy of the Arts). <mask>, along with Walter Benjamin, who was also with him at the Collège de Sociologie, and some others, belongs to the most important literary critics of the 20th century. Perhaps there is some correlation to a former competitive situation, which Marcel Reich-Ranicki wrote about in an obituary, which shows <mask>'s life in an unflattering light. Reich-Ranicki describes the story of <mask>'s life as a tragic story, as the story of a person who did not find a home anywhere. Selected literary works
 Karl Marx und das Elend des Geistes. Studien zur neuen deutschen Ideologie.Westkulturverlag

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Mayer
Hans Mayer
Mayer
Hans Mayer
Hans Mayer
Mayer
Hans Mayer


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 Anton Hain, Meisenheim am Glan 1948. Richard Wagner, 1959
 Zur deutschen Literatur der Zeit, 1962
 Georg Büchner und seine Zeit, 1972
 Außenseiter, 1975
 Ein Deutscher auf Widerruf, 1982
 Wir Außenseiter, 1983
Widersprüche einer europäischen Literatur, 1984
 Das unglückliche Bewusstsein – Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte von Lessing bis Heine, 1986
 Der Turm von Babel, 1991
 Versuch über <mask> Jahnn, 1994
 Erinnerungen an Willy Brandt, 2001
 Briefe 1948–1963. Publ. and annotated by Mark Lehmstedt, Leipzig 2006

References

All references are in German

 Volker Ladenthin: <mask> und das "Unglückliche Bewußtsein". In: Volker Ladenthin: Moderne Literatur und Bildung. Hildesheim-New York 1991. pp. 136–162
 Clemens Berger: Der späte <mask>.Aspekte im Lebens-Werk eines Außenseiters, 2003 (dissertation, Vienna)
 Stephan Moebius: DIE ZAUBERLEHRLINGE. Soziologiegeschichte des COLLÈGE DE SOCIOLOGIE 1937-1939 (Georges Bataille, Michel Leiris, Roger Caillois, die Geheimgesellschaft 'Acéphale' und die Wirkungen auf Foucault, Lévinas, Nancy, Maffesoli, Baudrillard und Derrida). 552 pages, Constance: UVK, 2006,

External links

Obituary for Hans Mayer
 Recordings with <mask> in the Online Archive of the Österreichische Mediathek (Interviews in German). Retrieved 2 September 2019

1907 births
2001 deaths
Writers from Cologne
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Switzerland
Jurists from Cologne
German literary critics
German Marxists
Jewish socialists
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Socialist Workers' Party of Germany politicians
Communist Party of Germany (Opposition) politicians
People from the Rhine Province
University of Cologne alumni
University of Bonn alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Leipzig University faculty
University of Hanover faculty
University of Tübingen faculty
Heinrich Mann Prize winners
German gay writers
German essayists
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin
German male essayists
20th-century essayists
Gay

masks:
Hans Henny
Hans Mayer
Hans Mayer
Hans Mayer


texts:
<mask> is a cultural entrepreneur based in London. He is best known for developing the arts organisation Poet in the City. In 2014 he launched a second arts organisation, the Rimbaud and Verlaine Foundation, committed to cross-arts commissioning and to championing a new funding model for the arts. <mask> has also been involved in many other arts-related initiatives including the development of a public art consultancy, the creation of an international arts network and a campaign to create a new investment fund for the arts. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Somerset in 1964, was educated at Taunton School in Taunton  and Millfield School in Street, Somerset, and spent a year in Ontario, Canada before doing a history degree at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge between 1983 and 1986. Early career
<mask>’s career has spanned both the City of London and the arts. A qualified solicitor, he previously worked as a commercial litigation lawyer at one of the largest law firms based in the City of London, Clifford Chance.He took a sabbatical break from legal practice in 2000–01 to become a consultant in the specialist travel business in which he created and marketed specialist dance and music activity holidays for both Dance Holidays Ltd and WOMAD. In 2003 he produced Coach of Black Water, an exhibition of Cuban art photographs, which took place at the Menier Gallery in Southwark, the first sponsored exhibition to take place at this venue. In 2004 he launched The Company of Adventurers Ltd in an attempt to raise funding for independent arts and cultural documentary films. And in 2005 he was responsible for arranging the translation and publication of Kindred Spirits, a collected edition of poems by the Cuban poet Regino E Boti, known as "the poet of Guantanamo", which was published by Mango Publications. The Lorca case

In 2002, <mask> was the solicitor in charge of the high-profile case concerning ownership of the manuscript of the famous poetry collection Poet in New York by the Spanish poet Federico García Lorca, assassinated by Franco's militia at the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936. This

masks:
Graham Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Graham Henderson
Graham Henderson


texts:
 case resulted in a 10-day trial at the High Court in London, presided over by Judge Peter Smith. The case was a success for <mask> and his law firm, Morgan Cole, who were acting under a conditional fee agreement.<mask> was keen to celebrate the life and work of the poet and organised a special event in the Great Room at Christie’s on the eve of the auction of the manuscript. The event was attended by, amongst others, the ambassadors of all the main countries associated with the manuscript, Spain, Cuba and Mexico. In order that the event should be bipartisan in nature, he invited Poet in the City, a project founded in 1998 by City of London lawyers, to present the event on his behalf. The success of the event led Rosamund McCarthy, its founder and first chair, to invite <mask> to run Poet in the City. Poet in the City

Initially <mask> continued to run Poet in the City as a project of the Poetry Society, to which it was affiliated. However, he became increasingly interested in the opportunities it presented to reach out to new audiences for poetry and to access new sources of funding to support poetry education. Establishing Poet in the City as a separate charity in 2006, he obtained substantial sponsorships for it, including sponsorships from leading brands such as Lloyds TSB, HSBC, Pfizer, Linklaters and Lloyd's of London.He also achieved its selection as a National Portfolio Organisation by Arts Council England in 2010. Between 2006 and 2014, <mask> led on programming over 50 high-profile poetry events every year in London and South East England, together with a wide range of other poetry-related projects and activities, including short films, national poetry tours and public art commissions. After organising Poet in the City's successful transition to a new chief executive in April 2014, he remained as a trustee of the charity, and as its public art consultant, until April 2016. The Rimbaud and Verlaine Foundation

In 2007, <mask> became involved in the campaign to save the Regency property at 8 Royal College Street that had been occupied by the French poets Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine in 1873.

masks: Henderson Henderson Henderson Henderson Henderson Henderson


texts:
 <mask> persuaded the owner, Michael Corby, to leave the property as a legacy gift in his will. The Rimbaud and Verlaine Foundation was created to take advantage of this gift, and with the long-term goal of establishing a European-style "poetry house" at the property, providing a cultural and educational resource for the residents of the London Borough of Camden. Incubated inside of Poet in the City, the Foundation was launched as a separate organisation and as a registered charity in 2014.However, rather than just be a small house museum the Foundation decided to use the poets as an inspiration for a wider mission to champion the arts, create new sources of earned income, and provide platforms for talented up-and-coming artists across many different art forms. Becoming Chief Executive of the new Foundation in April 2014, <mask> delivered a programme of over 30 cross-arts events and original arts commissions during 2014–17 that featured opera, classical and rock music, theatre, film, sculpture and other art forms, as well as poetry and literature. <mask> has also been responsible for developing a new business model for the arts centred on the development of new sources of earned income, and for devising a new form of investment bond suitable as a means of attracting investment to arts organisation. Kindred Spirits – The European Poetry House Network

As part of his role in championing the idea of the "poetry house" as a new and streamlined business model for the arts, <mask> created an international collaboration, bringing together seven "poetry houses" in six different European countries. Kindred Spirits seeks to promote international cultural exchange and to develop new business and funding models for the arts, as well as being an arts network and a vehicle for celebrating a shared European culture. Social capital building
<mask> has long championed the arts as an important source of social capital, and as a fundamental building block of a healthy civil society. This has directly informed his work, both in promoting a new approach to public art and in seeking an innovative new funding model for arts

masks: Henderson Henderson Henderson Henderson Henderson


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 organisations.Public art

As public art consultant for Poet in the City, between 2014 and 2016, <mask> created important new sources of income for the arts. In 2015, working in partnership with Richmond upon Thames Council and the architectural design practice Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios, he conceived, designed, built and installed Pope's Urn, a contemporary piece of public art, inspired by the poetry of Alexander Pope. Enjoying a central position on the Twickenham riverside, the sculpture was commissioned to celebrate the 2015 Rugby World Cup, and was opened in a ceremony in September 2015. This work provided an important source of earned income for Poet in the City in 2015. Associated with this work, <mask> has also been involved in high-level advocacy for innovative approaches to public art, including an active role in the 2014 Farrell Review of Architecture and the Built Environment, writing the official essay in support of its findings, and continues to work with BEAM in promoting new approaches to the commissioning of public art. Limited profit investment fund for the arts
As an elected member of the Culture Forum in 2010, <mask> played an important part in developing innovative ideas for the funding of the arts, including an influential paper which led directly to the establishment in 2014 of an Arts Impact Fund. However, <mask> parted company with the Fund over the insistence on the part of some its funders that investment in arts organisations should also achieve so-called "social outcomes".He continues to campaign for the original funds that he proposed in 2010, a limited profit fund designed to help arts organisations to make money from their existing assets and intellectual property rights. <mask> argues that investment which allows arts organisations to develop their sources of earned income will release a great deal of entrepreneurial activity in the arts, particularly amongst small-medium enterprise arts organisations, and will lead to a much more resilient funding basis for the arts sector as a whole. Modern Poetry in Translation
<mask> has been an active board member of  the journal

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Graham Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Graham Henderson
Henderson
Graham Henderson


texts:
 Modern Poetry in Translation since 2008 and is now working with its editor, Clare Pollard, to deliver a programme of poetry and translation placements in Camden schools. Oxford Cultural Leaders programme

In 2015 <mask> was selected, along with 17 other leaders from the arts, cultural and museums sectors, to be part of a new residential programme, Oxford Cultural Leaders, delivered by Oxford University Museums in partnership with the Saïd Business School. The programme, held for the first time in 2015, brings together leaders to experiment and take risks, to explore new business models and ways of working and to develop innovative organisational cultures. <mask> now runs the alumni network for all those who have passed through the programme, encouraging them to continue to meet and to collaborate. Jan Patočka
<mask> has been interested for many years in the ideas of the Czech philosopher Jan Patočka (1907–1977).In particular, Patočka's ideas for "putting soul in the city", and of recapturing the relationship between the arts and social capital building (and between culture and political engagement) characteristic of the ancient Athenians, have been much used by <mask> in his own championship of the arts. As of 2018 he is involved in a project, working in partnership with the Jan Patočka Archive in Prague and with the phenomenologist Erin Plunkett, to publish, for the first time, an English-language edition of the philosopher’s selected works. Personal life
<mask> lives in Twickenham, south-west London. See also
 Poet in the City
Pope's Urn
 Rimbaud and Verlaine Foundation

References

External links
: Rimbaud and Verlaine Foundation
Kindred Spirits – European Poetry House Network
BEAM
Oxford Cultural Leaders Alumni
The Jan Patočka Archive

Living people
1964 births
20th-century English lawyers
21st-century English businesspeople
21st-century English lawyers
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
British arts administrators
English curators
English nonprofit executives
English solicitors
Founders of charities
People educated at Millfield
People educated at Taunton School
People from Somerset
Poetry

masks:
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Graham Henderson


texts:
Fahai, born Pei Wende, was a monk who lived in Tang Dynasty, and was identified as a compiler of Zen Buddhism according to the Dun-huang edition of the Platform Sutra. Fahai was a disciple of the Six Patriarch of Zen Buddhism, Hui-neng. Biography
Fahai was the son of Tang chancellor Pei Xiu, and the secular name of Fahai was Pei Wende. The young Pei Wende was sent by his father to Laoshan (Hunan province) to practice Zen Buddhism. Fahai's father, the then court chancellor donated to build Miyin Temple (located in Ningxiang County, Hunan Province). The Miyin Temple host gave the Pei Wende a Buddhist name "Fahai". Fahai's master, Master Lingyou ordered ascetic practice every day.Fahai spent nearly three years cutting firewood, and delivered water for more than five hundred monks for nearly three years. Soon after, the ascetic life of Zen Master Fahai came to a successful end and he began a three-year meditation. Master Lingyou went to the door to call the name "Fahai". The Zen master came out from his meditation room, and the doors and windows of the closed room were not damaged, which was a sign of perfection. After Fahai achieved enlightenment after three-year of meditation, the master was instructed to travel to Lushan, Jiangxi and other places, and finally resided in the Fu Mountain in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu. From the information given by local people, there was a dojo called Zexin Temple from East Jin Dynasty. Therefore, the master Fahai burned a section and vowed to rebuild the dojo and samghārama for all beings.So he started digging fields and working hard, and gradually won the support of the local


texts:
 people and began to build temples. At Zhenjiang, he helped locals with cultivation and gradually won the support of local people and began to build temples. Achievements
During a foundation excavation, a batch of gold was accidentally excavated, and Fahai decided to turn it over to Zhenjiang prefecture. The prefecture reported this matter to Emperor Tang Xuanzong, the emperor was deeply moved and ordered that gold be allocated directly to the temple as court support for construction. The emperor names the temple Jinshan Temple. Fahai became the first Zen master resided at Jinshan (Gold Mountain) Temple. Before the temple was built, the Zen master had been meditating in a cave next to Jinshan Temple, and later became a well-known Zen cave.When the Jinshan Temple was successfully completed in the end, it became the largest Zen Buddhism Temple in the Jiangnan region, and master Fahai was also called the "Kaishan Pei Zu" (honourable founder) of Jinshan Temple. Historically, Master Fahai was known by his enlightenment through asceticism practice and was admired by people throughout Jiangsu. As a patriarch of Zen Buddhism, Fahai was one of the editors of the Platform Sutra. Fahai contributed to the translation of the sutra and left editing notes in his version of the translation and warned haphazard transmission. A famous dialogue between Faai and the sixth patriarch Hui-Neng was recorded in the Platform Sutra:“The mind has always been the buddha, before I understood I deceived myself, knowing now how mediation and wisdom work, I cultivate both and transcend all things.”

Anecdotes

The story of the White


texts:
 Snake

The story of the "white snake" has historical archetypes, of which there are two versions. One way of saying this is according to the "Jinshanzhi" record:  There is a python cave, the side of the right front, is so treacherous and dangerous, and enters the depth of four or five feet. The white python came out to eat people.When Fahai came to Zhenjiang for the first time, the old temple was torn down and overgrown with weeds. A white python from the middle of the cliff often came out and hurt people. Fahai drove the white python into the river without harming others. Another version of this story has something to do with Jinshan Temple, but not Fahai himself. According to the Record of the High Monk, more than eighty years before Fahai came to Zhenjiang, there was a high monk named Lingtan who was the nephew of Empress Wu. He had once been a prince and later became a monk. Lingtan once drove a white python in the python cave of Jinshan.Later, people integrated these people and tales related to Jinshan Temple and Fahai which made up fiction, then the story of the white snake gradually became a household story. Leifeng Pagoda

In the legend of Leifeng Pagoda and the White Snake, monk <mask> was linked to being the guardian of the pagoda. Leifeng Pagoda was mostly known due to the love story between the White Snake (Bai Niangzi) and Xu Xian. In the historical records and literary works about Leifeng Pagoda, the character Xu Xian was called "Xu Xuan" in Ming and Qing novels and was not "renamed" to Xu Xian until the middle of the Republic of China. When Leifeng pagoda was built there was not a story


texts:
 of the White Snake. After the Wu Dynasty was descended from the Song Dynasty, the storytellers gradually evolved this legendary story. The outline of the story is basically consistent with the current legends, except that Xu Xian was renamed.Feng Menglong from Ming Dynasty recorded one of the earliest and more complete versions of the White Snake legend. The records in Feng Menglong's "Jing Shi Heng Yan", Xu Xian and Bai Niangzi (the white snake) met <mask> from Jinshan Temple by the dock at the West Lake, Hangzhou. Fahai became a figure in this legend. Fahai in Feng Menglong's writing is a positive figure and a monk with good morals. Later, in the version of the local drama "White Snake", Fahai was gradually shaped into a negative image that departed the couple, and eventually became a hypocritical spokesperson. Jinshan Temple in the story of the White Snake is located at Hangzhou where the story took place. Historically, the connection between Zhenjiang and Hangzhou has been quite frequent.During the Song and Ming dynasties, people who travelled along the Yangtze River to Hangzhou always took Zhenjiang as a transit point and a rest stop. At that time, Hangzhou, which was famous for silk and tea, was economic prosperity. Folk storytellers at the time pulled things familiar to the travellers into the content of the storytelling, Fahai in Jinshan Temple was then connected to Leifeng Pagoda. Fahai's figure

According to the historical record, there was a Fahai in the Tang Dynasty, who lived in the Jinshan Temple. In the cave which the master meditated, there was a python. Because Master Fahai possessed


texts:
 great virtues and morals, the python retreated and left. At this stage, in the context of the Tang Dynasty, he was a Zen master who helped built Jinshan Temple and respected by people.In the novel of Feng Menglong from the late Ming Dynasty, Fahai as a prototype in the story of had changed, and the recorded historical story was changed through folktales. Fahai in Feng Menglong's novel was still a positive image. Until modern times, many people still have the impression that Fahai is a life-saving monk. Since the 20th century of student movements till contemporary, "anti-feudalism" became mainstream advocacy of society. One of the values of "anti-feudalism" is a tribute to freedom of love and marriage. Fahai as a figure in widespread folk dramas “White Snake”, became a symbol of feudal forces. The famous Chinese author Lu Xun criticised that Leifeng Pagoda was going to fall, and he also believed that it was a symbol of the feudal system and hindered the free love between young men and women.As the story of the White Snake is widespread, the Xiang Opera, Han Opera, Sichuan Opera, Hui Opera, Yunnan Opera, Yu Opera, Cantonese Opera, Ping Opera, Hebei Xunzi, Qin Qiang and Qingping Opera all have this repertoire. Different perceptions of Fahai were received by people from different regions. As of the contemporary time, Fahai as a figure appeared in legends and novels adapted television works. In terms of literary and artistic creation, Fahai as a fictional figure is distant from his historical figure as a Buddhist monk. References

Citations

Sources

Year of birth unknown
Tang dynasty Buddhist


texts:
<mask> (August 6, 1904 – July 29, 1984), known by the nom de guerre Colonel Rémy, was a notable French secret agent active in World War II, and was known under various pseudonyms such as Raymond, Jean-Luc, Morin, Watteau, Roulier, Beauce and Rémy. Biography

<mask> was born in Vannes, France, the oldest child of a Catholic family of nine children. His father was a professor of Philosophy and English, and later the inspector general of an insurance company. He went to the Collège St-François-Xavier in Vannes, and after his studies he went to the Rennes faculty. His sisters were <mask> and Madeleine Cestari. A sympathizer of French Action in the Catholic and Nationalist line, he began his career at the Bank of France in 1924. In 1936, he began cinematic production and finances, and made J'accuse, a new version of the Abel Gance film.It was a resounding failure, but the many connections <mask> made during this period were very useful during the resistance. With armistice declared of June 18, 1940, he refused to accept Marshal Philippe Pétain and went to London with one of his brothers, on board a trawler which departed from Lorient. He was one of the first men to adhere to the calls of General Charles de Gaulle, and was entrusted by Colonel Passy, then captain and chief of the BCRA, to create an information network in France. In August of that year he met with Louis de La Bardonnie, and together they created the Notre-Dame Brotherhood, which would become NDT-Castille in 1944. Initially centered on the Atlantic coast, it ended

masks:
Gilbert Renault
Gilbert Renault
Maisie Renault
Renault


texts: up covering much of occupied France and Belgium. This network was one of the most important in the occupied zone, and its information allowed many military successes, as the attack on Bruneval and on Saint-Nazaire. Convinced that it was necessary to mobilize all forces against the occupation, he put the French Communist Party in touch with the exiled government of Free France in January 1943.<mask> later admitted it was Pierre Brossolette who got him in touch with political groups and trade unions. Awarded the Ordre de la Libération on March 13, 1942, he became a member of the executive committee of the Rally of the French People (RPF) from its creation, in charge of trips and demonstrations. He appeared in Carrefour, April 11, 1950, in an article entitled 'La justice et l'opprobre' (Justice and the Opprobrium), in which he preached the rehabilitation of Marshal Pétain. A short time afterwards, he adhered to the Association of defense of the memory of Marshal Pétain (ADMP). Repudiated by de Gaulle, he resigned from the RPF. He settled in Portugal in 1954 and returned to France in 1958 to be placed at de Gaulle's disposal, who refused. He was also very active from this time onwards in various associations, including ultra-conservative Catholic networks.He died in Guingamp, France, in 1984. <mask> wrote many works on his activities in the Resistance. Under the name of Rémy (one of his pseudonyms in clandestinity), he published his Mémoires d'un agent secret de la France libre et La Ligne de démarcation (adapted for cinema by

masks:
Gilbert Renault
Renault


texts:
 Claude Chabrol in 1966), which are regarded as important testimonies on the French Resistance. He had the writer Jean Cayrol under his orders. Decorations

 Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur
 Compagnon de la Libération - décret du 13 mars 1942
 Croix de guerre 1939-1945
 Médaille de la Résistance avec rosette
 Distinguished Service Order (G.B.) Officer of the Order of the British Empire (G.B.) Officer of the Legion of Merit (U.S.)
 Officier de la Couronne de Belgique
 Croix de Guerre Belge
 Commandeur du Mérite (Luxembourg)

Homage
Around 1993, a street in Caen (France) was named after Colonel Rémy, in a district close to the Mémorial pour la Paix museum, where a majority of streets commemorate personalities linked with World War II, the Résistance, and the subsequent making of the European Community.Portrayed in film and television
 Le Grand Charles - French television - portrayed by French actor Sam Spiegel. épisodes de la vie d'un agent du S.R. et du contre-espionnage français, Galic (J.A. Christophe Colomb
 1986: La Résistance, Hatier

Sources
(Mostly translated from the French article on <mask>)
 Grandmaison (Henri de), Le colonel Rémy, un héros de l'ombre, CMD, 2000. Perrier (Guy), Rémy - L'agent secret n° 1 de la France libre, Perrin, 2001. References

External links
 Ordre de la libération - Fiche de <mask>

1904 births
1984 deaths
French Resistance members
Officers of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Resistance Medal
Officers of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
University of Rennes

masks:
Gilbert Renault
Gilbert Renault


texts: <mask>-Siddiq (; 27 October 57323 August 634) was an Arab political and religious leader who founded the Rashidun Caliphate and ruled as its first caliph from 632 until his death in 634. He was the most prominent companion, closest advisor and a father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. <mask> is one of the most important figures in Islamic history. <mask> was born in 573 CE to <mask>a and Umm Khayr. He belonged to the tribe of Banu Taym. In the Age of Ignorance, he was a monotheist and condemned idol-worshipping. As a wealthy trader, <mask>r used to free slaves.He was an early friend of Muhammad and often used to accompany him on trading in Syria. After Muhammad's invitation of Islam, <mask>r became one of the first Muslims. He extensively contributed his wealth in support of Muhammad's work and also accompanied Muhammad, on his migration to Medina. By the invitations of <mask>r, many prominent Sahabis became Muslims. He remained the closest advisor to Muhammad, being present at almost all his military conflicts. In the absence of Muhammad, <mask>r led the prayers and expeditions. Following Muhammad's death in 632, <mask>r succeeded the leadership of the Muslim community as the first Rashidun Caliph, being elected at Saqifah.During his reign, he overcame a number of uprisings, collectively known as the Ridda wars, as a result of which he was able to consolidate and expand the rule of the Islamic state over the entire Arabian Peninsula. He also commanded the initial incursions into the neighboring Sassanian and Byzantine empires, which in the years following

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 his death, would eventually result in the Muslim conquests of Persia and the Levant. <mask> also had an essential role in the compilation of the Quran during his reign. The first finished codex of the Quran was kept with <mask>r. All modern versions of the Quran are derived from <mask>'s codex. <mask>'s caliphate lasted for only two years, ending with his death after an illness in 634. On his deathbed, he dictated his last testament to Uthman ibn Affan, in which he appointed Umar ibn al-Khattab as his successor.<mask>'s ghusl was performed by Ali ibn Abi Talib and the funeral prayer was performed by Umar. Along with Muhammad, <mask> is buried in the Green Dome at the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, the second holiest site in Islam. Though the period of his caliphate was short, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time, a remarkable achievement in its own right. He set in motion a historical trajectory that in a few decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. His victory over the local rebel Arab forces is a significant part of Islamic history. <mask> is widely honored among Muslims. Name, lineage and titles

<mask>'s full name was Abdullah ibn Abi Quhafa ibn Amir ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ().According to the traditions, the Taym clan, which <mask>r hailed, were descended from ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. <mask>'s birth name is disputed. Most sources record his birth name being Abdullah (). In Arabic, the name Abd Allah means "servant of Allah". However, other sources record

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 <mask>'s real name as Abdulkaaba (), meaning "servant of Kaaba". It has been reported that Abdullah was a title used by <mask>a for <mask>. <mask>r spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time, among the Bedouins who called themselves 'The People of Camel' (Ahl-i-Ba'eer), and developed a particular fondness for camels.In his early years he played with the camel calves and goats, and his love for camels earned him the title (kunya) "<mask>r", meaning the father of the young camel. Preceding his conversion to Islam, <mask>'s title was Atiq, meaning "saved one". Muhammad later restated this title when he said that <mask> is the "Atiq". He was called Al-Siddiq (the truthful) by Muhammad after he believed him in the event of Isra and Mi'raj when other people didn't, and Ali confirmed that title several times. <mask> is also referred to in the Quran as the "second of the two in the cave" and "companion" in reference to the event of hijra, where, with Muhammad, he hid in the cave in Jabal Thawr from the Meccan party that was sent after them. <mask> was also sometimes called Ibn Abi Quhafa meaning the 'son of <mask>a'. Origins and early life

<mask> was born in Mecca in 573, to a wealthy family of the Banu Taym tribe of the Quraysh tribal confederacy.His father <mask> was a prominent member of the Quraysh. <mask>'s mother Umm Khayr also belonged to the Banu Taym. Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, <mask>r was literate and never developed a fondness for poetry. He had great knowledge of the genealogy of the Arab tribes, their stories

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 and their politics. Regardless, it recorded that prior to converting to Islam, <mask>r practiced as a hanif and never worshipped idols. He also avoided alcohol. During the Age of Ignorance, <mask>r was appointed as a representative of the people of Quraysh for cases of ransom and penalty.Since <mask> was the most knowledgeable of family history of Arabs, he was called 'Scholar of Quraysh'. At the age of thirty eight, <mask> became a chief of the Banu Taym. Acceptance of Islam
 The historian Al-Tabari, in his Tarikh al-Tabari, quotes from Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas:{{blockquote|I asked my father whether <mask>r was the first of the Muslims. He said, 'No, more than fifty people embraced Islam before <mask>r; but he was superior to us as a Muslim. And Umar ibn Khattab had embraced Islam after forty-five men and twenty-one women. As for the foremost one in the matter of Islam and faith, it was Ali ibn Abi Talib.}} Shias and some of the Sunni believe that the second person to publicly accept Muhammad as the messenger of God was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first being Muhammad's wife Khadija.Ibn Kathir, in his Al Bidaya Wal Nihayah, disregards this. He stated that the first woman to embrace Islam was Khadijah. Zayd ibn Harithah was the first freed slave to embrace Islam. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first child to embrace Islam, for he has not even reached the age of puberty at that time, while <mask>r was the first free man to embrace Islam. Subsequent life in Mecca

<mask>r conversion to Islam initially remained a secret. After he announced his faith, he delivered a

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 speech at the Kaaba. This was the first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by <mask>r.In a fit of fury, the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at <mask> and beat him till he lost consciousness. Four members of the Banu Taym wrapped <mask> in a mantle and took him to his house. Umm Khayr saw her son and washed his face. Following this incident, Umm Khayr converted to Islam. His preaching brought many people to Islam as he persuaded his intimate friends to convert. Many Sahabis, prominently including Uthman, Zubayr, Talha, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, <mask>, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, <mask> ibn al-Mughirah and many others converted to Islam by the invitations of <mask>. <mask>'s acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission.As slavery was common in Mecca, many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves, however, there was no such protection and they commonly experienced persecution. <mask>r felt compassion for slaves, so he purchased eight slaves, four men and four women, and then freed them, paying 40,000 dinar for their freedom.Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk 3/ 426 The slaves were Bilal ibn Rabah, <mask>, Ammar ibn Yasir, Lubaynah, Al-Nahdiah, Harithah bint al-Muammil and Umm Ubays. Most of the slaves liberated by <mask>r were either women or old and frail men. Almost all of <mask>'s family converted to Islam except his father <mask>, his son Abdul-Rahman, and his wife Qutaylah. Last years in Mecca

<mask>'s daughter Aisha was

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 betrothed to Muhammad; however, it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later.In 620 <mask>r was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (Night Journey). Life in Medina
Migration to Medina

In 622, on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans the Muslims had taken out, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh, led by Ikrima, attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile, <mask>r accompanied Muhammad to Medina. Due to the danger posed by the Quraysh, they did not take the road, but moved in the opposite direction, taking refuge in a cave in Jabal Thawr, some five miles south of Mecca. Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr, the son of <mask>r, would listen to the plans and discussions of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave.Asma bint Abi <mask>, the daughter of <mask>, brought them meals every day. Aamir, a servant of <mask>, would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night, where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to see them. Due to this, Quran verse  was revealed. Aisha, <mask> al-Khudri and Abdullah ibn Abbas in interpreting this verse said that <mask> was the companion who stayed with Muhammad in the cave. Aisha was a wife of Muhammad.After staying at the cave for three days and three nights,

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 <mask> and Muhammad proceed to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina. Life in Medina

In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by <mask>r. The Muslims, including <mask>wi at the site. <mask> was paired with Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari (who was from Medina) as a brother in faith. <mask>'s relationship with Khaarijah was most cordial, which was further strengthened when <mask> married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah. Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari lived at Sunh, a suburb of Medina, and <mask> also settled there.After <mask>'s family arrived in Medina, he bought another house near Muhammad's. While the climate of Mecca was dry, the climate of Medina was damp and because of this, most of the migrants fell sick on arrival. <mask> contracted a fever for several days, during which time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. In Mecca, <mask> was a wholesale trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He opened his new store at Sunh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished. Early in 623, <mask>'s daughter Aisha, who was already married to Muhammad, was sent on to Muhammad's house after a simple marriage ceremony, further strengthening relations between <mask> and Muhammad.Military campaigns under Muhammad

Battle of Badr

In Sunni accounts, during one such attack, two discs from <mask>'s shield penetrated into Muhammad's cheeks. <mask> went forward with the intention of extracting these discs but <mask> ibn

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 al-Jarrah requested he leave the matter to him, losing his two incisors during the process. In these stories subsequently <mask>, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety. Battle of Uhud

In 625, he participated in the Battle of Uhud, in which the majority of the Muslims were routed and he himself was wounded. Before the battle had begun, his son Abdul-Rahman, at that time still non-Muslim and fighting on the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. <mask> accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad. Later, Abdul-Rahman approached his father and said to him "You were exposed to me as a target, but I turned away from you and did not kill you."To this <mask> replied "However, if you had been exposed to me as a target I would not have turned away from you." In the second phase of the battle, Khalid ibn al-Walid's cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat. "Uhud", Encyclopedia of Islam Online Many fled from the battlefield, including <mask>r. However, according to his own account, he was "the first to return". Battle of the Trench

In 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Invasion of Banu Qurayza. In the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad divided the ditch into a number of sectors and a contingent was posted to guard each sector. One of these contingents was under the command of <mask>r.The enemy made frequent assaults in an attempt to cross the ditch, all of which were repulsed. To commemorate this event a mosque, later known as 'Masjid-i-Siddiq', was

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 constructed at the site where <mask> had repulsed the charges of the enemy. Battle of Khaybar

<mask>r took part in the Battle of Khaybar. Khaybar had eight fortresses, the strongest and most well-guarded of which was called Al-Qamus. Muhammad sent <mask> with a group of warriors to attempt to take it, but they were unable to do so. Muhammad also sent Umar with a group of warriors, but Umar could not conquer Al-Qamus either. Some other Muslims also attempted to capture the fort, but they were unsuccessful as well.Finally, Muhammad sent Ali, who defeated the enemy leader, Marhab. Military campaigns during final years of Muhammad

In 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal, followed by <mask> ibn al-Jarrah in response to a call for reinforcements. <mask> and Umar commanded an army under al-Jarrah, and they attacked and defeated the enemy. In 630, when the Muslims conquered Mecca, <mask> was part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father <mask>a converted to Islam. Battles of Hunayn and Ta'if

In 630, the Muslim army was ambushed by archers from the local tribes as it passed through the valley of Hunayn, some eleven miles northeast of Mecca. Taken unaware, the advance guard of the Muslim army fled in panic.There was considerable confusion, and the camels, horses and men ran into one another in an attempt to seek cover. Muhammad, however, stood firm. Only nine companions remained around him, including <mask>r. Under Muhammad's instruction, his uncle Abbas shouted at the top of his voice, "O Muslims, come to the Prophet of Allah". The call was

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 heard by the Muslim soldiers and they gathered beside Muhammad. When the Muslims had gathered in sufficient number, Muhammad ordered a charge against the enemy. In the hand-to-hand fight that followed the tribes were routed and they fled to Autas.<mask> was commissioned by Muhammad to lead the attack against Ta'if. The tribes shut themselves in the fort and refused to come out in the open. The Muslims employed catapults, but without tangible result. The Muslims attempted to use a testudo formation, in which a group of soldiers shielded by a cover of cowhide advanced to set fire to the gate. However, the enemy threw red hot scraps of iron on the testudo, rendering it ineffective. The siege dragged on for two weeks, and still there was no sign of weakness in the fort. Muhammad held a council of war.<mask>r advised that the siege might be raised and that God make arrangements for the fall of the fort. The advice was accepted, and in February 630, the siege of Ta'if was raised and the Muslim army returned to Mecca. A few days later Malik bin Auf, the commander, came to Mecca and became a Muslim. <mask>r as Amir-ul-Hajj

In 631 CE, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way and appointed <mask> as the leader of the delegation. The day after <mask> and his party had left for the Hajj, Muhammad received a new revelation: Surah Tawbah, the ninth chapter of the Quran. It is related that when this revelation came, someone suggested to Muhammad that he should send news of it to <mask>r. Muhammad said

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 that only a man of his house could proclaim the revelation.Muhammad summoned Ali, and asked him to proclaim a portion of Surah Tawbah to the people on the day of sacrifice when they assembled at Mina. Ali went forth on Muhammad's slit-eared camel, and overtook <mask>. When Ali joined the party, <mask>r wanted to know whether he had come to give orders or to convey them. Ali said that he had not come to replace <mask>r as Amir-ul-Hajj, and that his only mission was to convey a special message to the people on behalf of Muhammad. At Mecca, <mask> presided at the Hajj ceremony, and Ali read the proclamation on behalf of Muhammad. The main points of the proclamation were:

Henceforward the non-Muslims were not to be allowed to visit the Kaaba or perform the pilgrimage. No one should circumambulate the Kaaba naked.Polytheism was not to be tolerated. Where the Muslims had any agreement with the polytheists such agreements would be honoured for the stipulated periods. Where there were no agreements a grace period of four months was provided and thereafter no quarter was to be given to the polytheists. From the day this proclamation was made a new era dawned, and Islam alone was to be supreme in Arabia. Expedition of <mask>r As-Siddiq

<mask>r led one military expedition, the Expedition of <mask>r As-Siddiq, which took place in Najd, in July 628 (third month 7AH in the Islamic calendar). <mask>r led a large company in Nejd on the order of Muhammad. Many were killed and taken prisoner.The Sunni Hadith collection Sunan <mask>d mentions the event. Expedition of Usama bin

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 Zayd

In 632, during the final weeks of his life, Muhammad ordered an expedition into Syria to avenge the defeat of the Muslims in the Battle of Mu'tah some years previously. Leading the campaign was Usama ibn Zayd, whose father, Muhammad's erstwhile adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah, had been killed in the earlier conflict. No more than twenty years old, inexperienced and untested, Usama's appointment was controversial, becoming especially problematic when veterans such as <mask>, <mask> ibn al-Jarrah and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas were placed under his command. Nevertheless, the expedition was dispatched, though soon after setting off, news was received of Muhammad's death, forcing the army to return to Medina. The campaign was not re-engaged until after <mask>'s ascension to the caliphate, at which point he chose to reaffirm Usama's command, which ultimately led to its success. Death of Muhammad

In Muhammad's final days, he was confined to bed by <mask>r.As Muhammad was nearing death, he found himself unable to lead prayers as he usually would. He instructed <mask>r to take his place, ignoring concerns from Aisha that her father was too emotionally delicate for the role. <mask>r subsequently took up the position, and when Muhammad entered the prayer hall during the Fajr prayers, <mask>r attempted to step back to let him to take up his normal place and lead. However, Muhammad sat next to <mask>r, allowing him to continue. Then Muhammad reportedly ascended the pulpit and addressed the congregation, saying, "God has given his servant the choice between this world and that

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 which is with God and he has chosen the latter." <mask>r, understanding this to mean that Muhammad did not have long to live, responded "Nay, we and our children will be your ransom." Muhammad consoled his friend and ordered that all the doors leading to the mosque be closed aside from that which led from <mask>r's house, "for I know no one who is a better friend to me than he."Sunnis use this to reinforce the great friendship and trust which existed between him and <mask>r. Upon Muhammad's death, the Muslim community was unprepared for the loss of its leader and many experienced a profound shock. Umar was particularly affected, instead declaring that Muhammad had gone to consult with God and would soon return, threatening anyone who would say that Muhammad was dead. <mask>r, having returned to Medina, calmed Umar by showing him Muhammad's body, convincing him of his death. He then addressed those who had gathered at the mosque, saying, "If anyone worships Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If anyone worships God, God is alive, immortal", thus putting an end to any idolising impulse in the population. He then concluded with a verse from the Quran: "Muhammad is no more than an apostle, and many apostles have passed away before him."Caliphate

Election

In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina) took place in the Saqifah (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the

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 intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate. Upon learning of the meeting, <mask>r hastened to the gathering. After arriving, <mask>r addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, would likely result in dissension, as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. The companion Habab ibn Mundhir suggested that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. As <mask>r noticed the bitterness in the meeting, he took Umar and <mask>, by his hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices.The orientalist William Muir gives the following observation of the situation:

Umar took <mask>'s hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, which was followed by the gathered men. The meeting broke up when a violent scuffle erupted between Umar and the chief of the Banu Sa'ida, Sa'd ibn Ubadah. This may indicate that the choice of <mask>r may not have been unanimous, with emotions running high as a result of the disagreement. <mask>r was almost universally accepted as head of the Muslim community, under the title of caliph, as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention because of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Among Shia Muslims, it is also

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 argued that Ali had previously been appointed as Muhammad's heir, with the election being seen as in contravention to the latter's wishes. <mask>r later sent Umar to ask allegiance from Fatimah, which resulted in an altercation that may have involved violence.However, after six months the group made peace with <mask>r and Ali pledged him his allegiance. After Ali pledged his allegiance, Ali used to help <mask>r on government and religious matters. Administration
<mask> was a constitutional ruler. He held the caliphate to be a sacred trust. He declared jihad against traitors. <mask>r regarded all men, either rich or low, as equal. The caliphate was neither theocracy nor democracy.<mask>r's close associates Umar, Uthman, Ali and Zayd ibn Thabit acted as his secretaries. He also had an advisory council. Ridda Wars

Soon after <mask>'s election, several Arab tribes launched revolts, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. These insurgencies and the caliphate's responses to them are collectively referred to as the Ridda Wars ("Wars of Apostasy"). The opposition movements came in two forms, one which challenged the political power of the caliphate, with the other being the acclamation of rival religious ideologies, headed by political leaders who claimed prophethood. Some of the revolts of this type took the form of tax rebellions in Najd among tribes such as the Banu Fazara and Banu Tamim. Other dissenters, while initially allied to the Muslims, used Muhammad's death as an opportunity to attempt to restrict the growth of the new Islamic

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texts: state.They include some of the Rabīʿa in Bahrayn, the Azd in Oman, as well as among the Kinda and Khawlan in Yemen. <mask>, likely understanding that maintaining firm control over the disparate tribes of Arabia was crucial to ensuring the survival of the state, suppressed the insurrections with military force. He dispatched Khalid ibn Walid and a body of troops to subdue the uprisings in Najd as well as that of Musaylimah, who posed the most serious threat. Concurrent to this, Shurahbil ibn Hasana and Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami were sent to Bahrayn, while Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl, Hudhayfah al-Bariqi and Arfaja al-Bariqi were instructed to conquer Oman. Finally, Al-Muhajir ibn Abi Umayya and Khalid ibn Asid were sent to Yemen to aid the local governor in re-establishing control. <mask> also made use of diplomatic means in addition to military measures. Like Muhammad before him, he used marriage alliances and financial incentives to bind former enemies to the caliphate.For instance, a member of the Banu Hanifa who had sided with the Muslims was rewarded with the granting of a land estate. Similarly, a Kindah rebel named Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, after repenting and re-joining Islam, was later given land in Medina as well as the hand of <mask>'s sister Umm Farwa in marriage. At their heart, the Ridda movements were challenges to the political and religious supremacy of the Islamic state. Through his success in suppressing the insurrections, <mask>r had in effect continued the political consolidation which had begun under Muhammad's leadership with relatively little interruption. By

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 wars' end, he had established an Islamic hegemony over the entirety of the Arabian Peninsula. Battles against Tulayha

Few days after <mask>'s election, in July 632, Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid, from the Banu Asad tribe, was preparing to launch an attack on Medina. <mask> raised an army primarily from the Banu Hashim.He appointed Ali ibn Abi Talib, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, each as commander of one-third of the newly organized force. Tulayha's forces was defeated and driven to Zhu Hussa. Though, few months after, Tulayha again launched an attack on the Muslim forces. <mask>r appointed Khalid ibn al-Walid as the main commander. Khalid had an army of 6,000 men whereas Tulayha had an army of 30,000 men. However, Tulayha's forces were crushed by Khalid ibn al-Walid and his forces. After the battle, Tulayha accepted Islam and asked forgiveness from <mask>.Though, <mask> forgave Tulayha, he refused to allow Tulayha to participate in wars on the Muslim side since Tulayha killed a Sahabi called Akasha ibn Mihsan in the battle. Battle of Yamama
Musaylimah, from the Banu Hanifa tribe, was one of the biggest enemies of <mask>r. He is denounced in Islamic history as "false prophet". Musaylimah, along with his wife Sajah from Banu Taghlib and Banu Tamim, claimed prophethood and gathered an army of 40,000 people to attack against <mask>. <mask>r appointed Khalid ibn al-Walid as the primary commander and appointed Ikrimah and Shurahbil as the commander of the corps. In the battle, Musaylimah's forces were crushed by Khalid and his forces. However, Musaylimah's

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 forces killed about 360 huffaz (memorizers of the Quran) were killed.Hasan, Sayyid Siddiq; Nadwi, <mask> Hasan Ali; Kidwai, A.R.(translator) (2000). The collection of the Qur'an. Karachi: Qur'anic Arabic Foundation. pp. 34–5. Wahshi ibn Harb killed Musaylimah in the battle. After the battle, Musaylimah's wife Sajah became a devout Muslim.Preservation of the Quran

<mask>r was instrumental in preserving the Quran in written form. After the Battle of Yamama in 632, numerous memorizers of the Quran had been killed. Umar fearing that the Quran may become lost or corrupted, Umar requested that <mask>r authorise the compilation and preservation of the scriptures in written format. The caliph was initially hesitant, being quoted as saying, "how can we do that which the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless and keep him, did not himself do?" He eventually relented, however, and appointed Zayd ibn Thabit, who had previously served as one of the scribes of Muhammad, for the task of gathering the scattered verses. The fragments were recovered from every quarter, including from the ribs of palm branches, scraps of leather, stone tablets and "from the hearts of men". The collected work was transcribed onto sheets and verified through comparison with Quran memorisers.The finished codex, termed the Mus'haf, was presented to <mask>, who prior to his death, bequeathed it to his successor Umar. Upon Umar's own death, the Mus'haf was left to his daughter Hafsa, who had been one of the wives of Muhammad. It was this volume, borrowed from Hafsa, which formed the basis of Uthman's

masks:
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Abu Bak
Abu Bak
Abu Bakr