texts:
 for Free Press, a national media reform organization. In 2007 he moved to Washington, D.C., to become the Research Director of the Wireless Futures Program at the New America Foundation. As the Palmer Chair in telecommunications at Pennsylvania State University, he has authored a study researching access to reliable broadband connection across the state. Open Technology Institute
Meinrath launched the Open Technology Institute at the New America Foundation in 2008. Although  based in Washington, DC, staff extend to both coast of the United States as well as advisors and fellows in Europe. Major projects include Measurement Lab and Commotion Wireless.Newsweek highlighted the Open Technology Institute's efforts to develop open-source, low-cost community wireless networks, particularly in underserved areas. Measurement Lab
Together with Google and a wide range of academics, researchers and institutions, Meinrath launched Measurement Lab (M-Lab), an open, distributed server platform for researchers to deploy Internet measurement tools founded in 2009. The project has grown to have 99 servers at two-dozen locations around the globe supporting a range of broadband and computer networking measurement tools. All the data collected by M-Lab is made available to the research community. Commotion Wireless
Commotion, is an open source “device-as-infrastructure” communication platform that integrates users’ existing cell phones, Wi-Fi enabled computers, and other wireless-capable devices to create community- and metro-scale, peer-to-peer communications networks. The project builds on existing mesh wireless technologies and gained widespread attention when, in 2011, the State Department announced funding for Commotion to lower barriers for building distributed communications


type: original

texts:
 networks. The project has been described as the "Internet in a Suitcase" by the New York Times."Internet in a Suitcase". Community wireless networks have been deployed with local community organizations in communities such as Philadelphia, Detroit and Brooklyn in the United States as well as Dahanu and Dharamshala, India, and Somaliland, Ethiopia, Additionally, Commotion was deployed with Occupy DC as well in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy. Associations

As of 2020, Meinrath serves on the board of Defending Rights & Dissent. Opposition to SOPA and PIPA
Meinrath was a leading voice against the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the Protect IP Act (PIPA). He highlighted the human rights concerns raised by legislation including the likely collective punishment resulting from empowering law enforcement to take down an entire domain due to something posted on a single blog, as well as the implications for Internet freedom policies. In naming Meinrath to their Digital Power Index Top 100 Influencers, Newsweek noted his role as “one of the more prominent Internet culture leaders” to fight against the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and PROTECT IP Act. Following the defeat of SOPA and PIPA, Meinrath hosted the Washington, DC launch party for the Internet Defense League.International Summit for Community Wireless Networks
Meinrath hosts the regular International Summit for Community Wireless Networks (IS4CWN), a convening of leaders in community networks, mesh networking, and next-generation wireless technologies. The first summit was held in Urbana-Champaign, Illinois in 2004 launching the community wireless movement. Past locations have also included St.  Charles, Missouri, Washington, DC, and Vienna, Austria. The eighth and most recent IS4CWN was held in October, 2013


texts:
 in Berlin, Germany. Publications
2013: <mask> D<mask>, James Losy and Benjamin Lennett. Internet Freedom, Nuanced Digital Dividess, and the Internet Craftsman. Afterward.The Digital Divide: The internet and social inequality in international perspective. Eds. Massimo Ragnedda and Glenn W. Muscher. London and New York: Routeledge. 2011: <mask> D<mask>, James Losey, and Victor Pickard. Digital Feudalism: Enclosures and Erasures from Digital Rights Management to the Digital Divide. The CommLaw Conspectus: Journal of Communications Law and Policy.Volume 19, Issue 2 (2011). 2010. <mask> D<mask> and Victor Pickard. The Rise of the Intranet Era: Politics and Media in an Age of Communications (R)evolution. Chapter for Kevin Howley (Ed. ), Globalization and Communicative Democracy: Community Media in the 21st Century, London: Sage Publications. 2007.<mask> D<mask> and Victor Pickard. The New Network Neutrality: Criteria for Internet Freedom. Accepted for Publication: International Journal of Communications Law and Policy. 2007. S. Bradner, k.c. claffy, and <mask> D<mask>. The (un)Economic Internet.IEEE Internet Computing. Vol. 11(3). Pages 53–58. 2007 Sascha D. Meinrath and k.c. claffy. COMMONS Strategy Workshop Final Report: Cooperative Measurement and Modeling of Open Networked Systems.2006: <mask> <mask> and Ben Scott. Community Internet: Why Should Arts and Culture Funders Care. Grantmakers in the Arts Reader. 2003: Ben Scott and <mask> <mask>. Media Reform Explodes onto American Political Scene. Public i. Vol. 3(10).References

External links
http://saschameinrath.com

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
People in information technology
People from New Haven, Connecticut
Yale University alumni
University of Illinois alumni
Ashoka Fellows
Ashoka USA

masks:
Sascha
. Meinrath
Sascha
. Meinrath
Sascha
. Meinrath
Sascha
. Meinrath
Sascha
. Meinrath
Sascha
Meinrath
Sascha
Meinrath


texts:
<mask> (3 July 1952 – 16 March 2015) was an English songwriter and bassist. Best known as the bassist for the English rock band Free, which he helped found in 1968, when he was 15. And founding the English rock band Sharks after Free disbanded 1972. Peak years (1960s and 1970s)
<mask> was born in the Paddington area of Central London to a  Barbadian/Guyanese father of mixed European and African ancestry, and an English mother. His parents later divorced and, along with his three siblings, he was raised by his mother. He began playing the piano at the age of five. He was trained classically until twelve, when he switched to guitar.By thirteen he was playing in East End, West Indian clubs and after being expelled from St Clement Danes Grammar school in 1968 at the age of 15, enrolled at Hammersmith College of Further Education. There, another student, Sappho Korner, introduced him to her father, pioneering blues musician and radio broadcaster Alexis Korner, who became a father figure to him. Shortly thereafter, upon receiving a telephone call from John Mayall who was looking for a bass player, Korner suggested <mask>; still only 15, he was now in a professional band and earning £50 a week, although it ultimately turned out to be a brief tenure. Korner was also instrumental in <mask>'s next move, to the influential band Free, which consisted of Paul Rodgers (vocals), Paul Kossoff (guitar) and Simon Kirke (drums). <mask> produced and co-wrote the song "All Right Now" with Rodgers, a No. 1 hit in over 20 territories and recognised by ASCAP in 1990 for garnering over 1,000,000 radio plays in the United States by late 1989. In October 2006, a BMI London Million-Air Award was given to Rodgers and <mask> to mark over 3 million radio and television plays of "All Right Now".Simon Kirke later recalled: "'All Right Now' was created after a bad gig in Durham. We

masks:
Andrew McIan Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser


texts:
 finished our show and walked off the stage to the sound of our own footsteps. The applause had died before I had even left the drum riser. It was obvious that we needed a rocker to close our shows. All of a sudden the inspiration struck <mask> and he started bopping around singing 'All Right Now'. He sat down and wrote it right there in the dressing room. It couldn’t have taken more than ten minutes."<mask> also co-wrote two other hit singles for Free, "My Brother Jake" and "The Stealer". Free initially split in 1971, and <mask> formed a trio, Toby, with guitarist Adrian Fisher (later with Sparks), and drummer Stan Speake. Material was recorded but not released, and <mask> re-joined Free in December 1971. He left for the second time in June 1972. After leaving Free, <mask> formed Sharks with vocalist Snips (later Baker Gurvitz Army), guitarist Chris Spedding and drummer Marty Simon. Despite being well received by the critics, especially for Spedding's tasteful guitar work (Crawdaddy Lead Review, Bruce Malamut Vol. 27, 1973), <mask> left after their debut album, First Water (1973).He then formed the <mask> Band, a trio with Kim Turner on drums and Nick Judd on keyboards. They released two albums, Andy Fraser Band and In Your Eyes, both in 1975, before that also folded. Attempts to form a band with Frankie Miller came to nothing, and <mask> relocated to California to concentrate on songwriting. He wrote hits for Robert Palmer, Joe Cocker, Chaka Khan, Rod Stewart and Paul Young. He married Henrietta (Ri) from Australia in 1974. In that year their first daughter Hannah was born in England, and after moving to California they had a second child, Jasmine in 1977

<mask>'s most famous compositions remain "All Right Now" and "Every Kinda People", which Robert Palmer recorded in 1978 for his Double Fun album. Later period (1980s–2015)
In 1984, <mask> released

masks:
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Andy Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser


texts: another album of his own.Fine, Fine Line featured ex-Back Street Crawler drummer Tony Braunagel, Bob Marlette (keyboards), Michael Thompson (guitar) and David Faragher (bass), with <mask> contributing vocals. One of the songs on the album, "Do You Love Me" — a cover of the Berry Gordy Jr.-penned song — spent five weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 82 in March 1984. Having been diagnosed with HIV, he was later diagnosed with Kaposi's sarcoma, a form of cancer that had been very rare until the onset of the AIDS epidemic. This time-line was called into question by <mask>'s subsequent revelation that he was homosexual. He played bass with former Free colleague Paul Rodgers at Woodstock '94, but otherwise kept a low profile until 2005, when a new release, Naked and Finally Free, appeared. At the time of the new album's release, <mask> was interviewed by Dmitry M. Epstein for the DME website and revealed: "To be quite honest, I never thought of myself as a bass-player. I actually only used the bass-guitar because the other kids in our school-band wanted to be the singer, or drummer, or guitarist.I have always thought of myself as doing whatever was necessary to make the whole thing work. I’m happy adding piano, or tambourine, or anything that helped". In early 2006, writing for Vintage Guitar magazine, Tom Guerra conducted a comprehensive interview with <mask>, covering his career, influences and instruments and, in April, <mask> responded to the revival of interest in his music by announcing two rare live shows at Southern California's Temecula Community Arts Theatre on 4 May. The shows, accompanied by an eight-piece band, were his first live performances since the 1994 Woodstock reunion. In 2008, he wrote and sang the song "Obama (Yes We Can)", to support the campaign to elect Barack Obama as president of the United States. Founded by <mask>,

masks: Fraser Fraser Fraser Fraser Fraser Fraser


texts:
 Mctrax International was incorporated as Mctrax International Corporation in California in 2005. Headquartered in southern California, Mctrax International and its subsidiaries MctraxMedia, MctraxMotion and MctraxStudios were originally created as an outlet for his prolific songwriting.In May 2010, <mask> was interviewed for BBC Two's documentary series titled Rock 'n' Roll. The project includes a five-part documentary, narrated by British music show anchor-man Mark Radcliffe plus online and radio content. "The documentary aims to explain the success of some of the greatest bands of the past 50 years, including the Who, the Police, the Doors, Bon Jovi and the Foo Fighters". In mid-2013, <mask> played a supporting role as bassist in the band of protege Tobi Earnshaw for a short series of UK dates. Accompanying Tobi Earnshaw and <mask> was a veteran ally, guitarist Chris Spedding. <mask> produced and mentored Earnshaw on a number of album releases. Death
<mask> died on 16 March 2015 at his home in California of a heart attack caused by atherosclerosis.<mask> is survived by his daughters <mask> and <mask> and ex-wife Ri <mask>. Discography

References

External links

 Two-part exclusive interview with <mask> on music and life. At DME
<mask> bass guitar goes on exhibit at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum
Gibson Bass interview with <mask>

1952 births
2015 deaths
English people of Guyanese descent
English people of Barbadian descent
People from Paddington
People educated at St. Clement Danes School
English expatriates in the United States
English rock bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
English songwriters
John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers members
Free (band) members
LGBT songwriters
English gay musicians
20th-century English musicians
21st-century English musicians
Musicians from London
People with HIV/AIDS
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century

masks:
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Fraser
Hannah Fraser
Jasmine Fraser
Fraser
Andy Fraser
Andy Fraser
Andy Fraser


texts:
<mask> (born 1964, New York, NY) is a painter, curator, art critic, and writer who is known for his conceptually rich and visually graphic works that address modern life and artmaking. He is currently represented by DC Moore Gallery, New York. Biography
<mask> was born on May 13, 1964, in New York City to parents Robert and <mask>. His mother worked as a social worker, and his father founded a college textbook publishing company. <mask> attended the Yale School of Art, earning a BA in 1986. After attending Maine's Skowhegan School of Art in 1989, he received his MFA from the School of Fine Art at Boston University in 1993. In 1997 <mask> married architect Erika Belsey, who also attended Yale.They currently live in Brooklyn with their two sons. Painting

<mask> is preoccupied with the tension between painting and photography. From his artist's statement: "Twenty years ago, we thought photography was already ubiquitous. But in fact, we’re living through a new immersion, akin to the first one of the 1850s. For painting, what does this new immersion mean? More reasons for pessimism, of course. More reasons to indulge our favorite fatalist fantasy, that we are living in painting’s dusk, a last twilit hour."His paintings deal with art historical questions about viewpoint and representation. They feature symbolically charged subject matter such as hands, apples, shadows, and cameras. His scenes are frequently blocked by a foregrounded object so that realistically rendered imagery is simplified into abstract, geometric compositions. Roberta Smith of The New York Times describes this effect: "The quirky realism, deliberate surfaces and modulated colors ... indicate an attention to ultra-conscious abstract painting." His stylized figures have been

masks:
Alexi Worth
Alexi
Blaikie Forsyth Worth
Worth
Worth
Worth


texts:
 described as reminiscent of Pixar or claymation. The formal arrangements of body parts often create ambiguous interpersonal relationships between the characters in his paintings. Recently, he has been painting with acrylic on nylon mesh; the unique surface has an odd depth and mimics the halftone of print media.Some of his new work deals with the unrest in the Middle East and the globalization of media scrutiny. Critical reaction

Critics praise <mask>'s humorous yet philosophically sophisticated paintings. A reviewer in The New Yorker described his paintings thus: “We’re blocked from seeing or interpreting at every turn, but the effect is engaging rather than frustrating." Jack Bankowsky of Artforum chose <mask> for the "Best of 2011," saying, "His subtle play of shadow and substance, of represented image and abstract invention, makes one's head turn circles around how a given picture was made- and what it means to make one." In The New York Times, Ken Johnson has said: "Painted with sensuous neatness in a nicely simplifying representational style, <mask> <mask>'s pictures present curious visual puzzles slyly charged with sexual undercurrents. ... It's hard to think of another painter these days who has such infectious fun with the philosophical analysis of modern painting."In an otherwise positive review of <mask>'s solo show "Couples," Roberta Smith noted that some of his paintings were "a little too cutely Disney." He is consistently praised for his technical ability and "academic finesse." Teaching
<mask> has been a senior critic at the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Fine Arts since 2001. In 2005 he participated in the Elizabeth Murray critics panel at Museum of Modern Art. He taught at Yale College in Spring 1996 and

masks: Worth Worth Alexi Worth Worth Worth


texts:
 University of New Hampshire from 1993 to 1995. Writing
<mask> does freelance writing for publications including The New Yorker, Artforum, T magazine, Art in America, ARTnews, and Slate. Recently he has written catalog texts for artists such as Martha Armstrong, Carroll Dunham, David Humphrey, James Hyde, Susan Jennings, Jackie Saccoccio, George Nick, Jim Nutt, and Philip Pearlstein.<mask>, <mask>, "Artschwagerian," Art in America, May 2013. "Gorky's Granddaughter" blog, May 5, 2013 Alexi Worth Video
2012
Broadwayworld.com, “Yaddo to Hold PAPER TRAILS Benefit Auction,” May 2012. Walleston, Aimee, "Carroll Dunham Opens Windows for New Talent." Art in America, 12 Mar 2012, illus. .
2011
Bankowsky, Jack. “<mask> <mask>: Show of Hands,” Artforum, December 2011: 209. Kunitz, Daniel. "Give Us a Hand," Modern Painters, December 2011/January 2012: 22.2010
“Smith, Roberta. It’s Not Dry Yet,” The New York Times. March 28, 2010. 2009
The New Yorker, January 5
Johnson, Ken. The New York Times, January 2
2008
“Art Listings,” Time Out New York, December 18 – 31, 2008, p. 92
Taylor, Morgan. “<mask> <mask> at DC Moore,” artcritical.com, December
2007
Wilkin, Karen. “At the Galleries,” The Hudson Review, Vol.LIX, No.4, Winter
2006
Alpers, Svetlana. "<mask> <mask>: Couples," (exhibition announcement) New York: DC Moore Gallery, 2006, illus. “<mask> <mask>,” The New Yorker, September 11. Cohen, David. "Men & Cartoons," The New York Sun, September 7. “Visioni multiple,” Kult Magazine
Johnson, Ken. “For a Broad Landscape An Equally Wide Survey,” The New York Times, May 31
Smith, Roberta.“<mask> <mask> “Couples,” The New York Times, September 15
The New Yorker, October 2
Killeen, Michael. “”<mask>’s Odd Coupling,” Bloomberg.com, October 6
Humphrey,

masks: Worth Worth Alexi Alexi Worth Alexi Worth Alexi Worth Alexi Worth Alexi Worth Worth


texts: <mask> mac <mask> (died 1064/1065) was a dominant figure in the eleventh-century Irish Sea region. At his height, he reigned as king over Dublin, the Isles, and perhaps the Rhinns of Galloway. The precise identity of Echmarcach's father, Ragnall, is uncertain. One possibility is that this man was one of two eleventh-century rulers of Waterford. Another possibility is that Echmarcach's father was an early eleventh-century ruler of the Isles. If any of these identifications are correct, Echmarcach may have been a member of the Uí Ímair kindred. Echmarcach first appears on record in about 1031, when he was one of three kings in northern Britain who submitted to Knútr Sveinnsson, ruler of the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire.Echmarcach is recorded to have ruled over Dublin in 1036–1038 and 1046–1052. After losing Dublin for the final time, he appears to have been seated in the Isles on Mann. In 1061, about a decade after his final defeat in Dublin, Echmarcach appears to have been expelled from the Isles, and may have then fallen back into Galloway. Echmarcach appears to have forged an alliance with the powerful Uí Briain. A leading member of this kindred, Donnchad <mask>riain, King of Munster, was married to Cacht ingen Ragnaill, a woman who could have been closely related to Echmarcach. Certainly, Echmarcach's daughter, Mór, married one of Donnchad's Uí Briain close kinsmen. Echmarcach's violent career brought him into bitter conflict with a particular branch of the Uí Ímair who had held Dublin periodically

masks:
Echmarcach
Ragnaill
mac B


texts:
 from the early eleventh century.This branch was supported by the rising Uí Cheinnselaig, an Irish kindred responsible for Echmarcach's final expulsion from Dublin and apparently Mann as well. In about 1064, having witnessed much of his formerly expansive sea-kingdom fall into the hands of the Uí Cheinnselaig, Echmarcach accompanied Donnchad—a man who was himself deposed—upon a pilgrimage to Rome. Possibly aged about sixty-five at this point in his life, it was here that Echmarcach died, in either 1064 or 1065. In the decades following his demise, the Uí Briain used Echmarcach's descendants as a means to dominate and control Dublin and the Isles. One of his grandsons eventually ruled as king. Uncertain parentage

Echmarcach was the son of a man named Ragnall. Whilst Echmarcach bore a Gaelic name, the name of his father is ultimately derived from Old Norse, a fact that serves to exemplify the hybrid nature of the eleventh-century Irish Sea region, The identity of Echmarcach's father is uncertain.One possibility is that Ragnall was a member of the dynasty that ruled the Norse-Gaelic enclave of Waterford in tenth- and eleventh centuries. If so, Echmarcach may have been the son of one of two Waterfordian rulers: Ragnall mac Ímair, King of Waterford, or this man's apparent son, Ragnall ua Ímair, King of Waterford. Another possibility is that Echmarcach belonged to a family from the Isles, and that his father was Ragnall mac Gofraid, King of the Isles, son and possible successor of Gofraid mac Arailt,


texts:
 King of the Isles. As a descendant of either of the aforesaid families, Echmarcach would appear to have been a member of the Uí Ímair, a royal dynasty descended from the Scandinavian sea-king Ímar. Echmarcach and the imperium of Knútr Sveinnsson

Knútr and the three kings

Echmarcach appears to first emerge in the historical record in the first half of the eleventh century, when he was one of the three kings who met with Knútr Sveinnsson, ruler of the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire comprising the kingdoms of Denmark, England, and Norway. The event itself is noted by Knútsdrápa, a contemporary drápa composed by Sigvatr Þórðarson, an eleventh-century Icelandic skald. Although Sigvatr's composition fails to identify the three kings by name, it does reveal that Knútr met them in Fife.The ninth- to twelfth-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also notes the meeting. The "D" version of the chronicle records that Knútr went to Rome in 1031, and soon after travelled to Scotland where he received the submission of an unnamed Scottish king. The later "E" version provides more information, stating that, after his return from Rome in 1031, Knútr went to Scotland and received the submission of three kings named: "Mælcolm", "Mælbæþe", and "Iehmarc". The latter name appears to be a phonetic form of the Gaelic Echmarcach, a relatively uncommon name. The three men almost certainly refer to: Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Scotland, Mac Bethad mac Findlaích, and Echmarcach himself. Of the three kings, Máel Coluim appears to


texts: have been the most powerful, and it is possible that Mac Bethad and Echmarcach were underkings or clientkings of his. Mac Bethad appears to have become Mormaer of Moray in 1032 after the slaying of his kinsman, Gilla Comgáin mac Máel Brigti, Mormaer of Moray.Previous rulers of Moray are sometimes styled as kings by various Irish annals, a fact which may explain why Mac Bethad was called a king when he met Knútr. Although the apparent date of Mac Bethad's accession to the mormaership (1032) appears to contradict the date of the kings' meeting (1031), this discrepancy can be accounted for in two ways. One possibility is that Gilla Comgáin was actually slain in 1031 but only recorded in 1032. Another possibility is that Knútr merely returned from Rome in 1031, but actually met with the kings in 1032, after Gilla Comgáin's demise and Mac Bethad's accession. There is further evidence that could cast doubt on the date of the meeting. Although the aforesaid versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle date Knútr's pilgrimage to 1031, he is otherwise known to have visited Rome in 1027. Whilst it is possible he undertook two pilgrimages during his career, it is more likely that the chronicle has misdated his journey.In fact, it possible that the chronicle failed to account for the time in which Knútr spent on the continent and Scandinavia after having visited Rome. Further confusion about Knútr in Scottish affairs comes from a continental source. At some point before about 1030, the eleventh-century Historiarum


texts: libri quinque, by Rodulfus Glaber, records that Knútr fought a long campaign against Máel Coluim, and that hostilities were finally brought to a close by the intervention of Knútr's wife, Emma, and her brother, Richard II, Duke of Normandy. If Rodulfus' account is to be believed, this conflict must have taken place before Richard's death in 1026, and could refer to events surrounding Máel Coluim's violent annexation of Lothian early in Knútr's reign. Despite uncertainties surrounding the reliability of Rodulfus' version of events, unless the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has misdated Knútr's meeting in Scotland, Rodulfus' account could be evidence that Knútr involved himself with Scottish affairs before and after 1026. The record of Echmarcach in company with Máel Coluim and Mac Bethad could indicate that he was in some sense a 'Scottish' ruler, and that his powerbase was located in the Isles. Such an orientation could add weight to the possibility that Echmarcach was descended from Ragnall mac Gofraid.As for Máel Coluim, his influence in the Isles may be evidenced by the twelfth-century Prophecy of Berchán, which could indicate that he resided or exerted power in the Hebrides, specifically on the Inner Hebridean islands of Arran and Islay. Further evidence of Máel Coluim's influence in the Isles may be preserved by the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster and the fourteenth-century Annals of Tigernach which record the death of a certain Suibne mac Cináeda in 1034. These particular sources


texts:
 style Suibne "" and "". The Gaelic  (plural ) is primarily a linguistic term referring to speakers of Gaelic. The Gaelic term , literally meaning "Stranger-", was attributed to the population of mixed Scandinavian and Gaelic ethnicity in the Hebrides. The fact that Máel Coluim and Suibne died the same year and share patronyms could be evidence that they were brothers. If the two were indeed closely related, Suibne may have been set up by Máel Coluim as a subordinate in an area of Scandinavian settlement.One possibility is that the account of Máel Coluim preserved by the Prophecy of Berchán could be evidence that this region encompassed the lands surrounding Kintyre and the Outer Clyde. This source, combined with the other accounts of Knútr's meeting, could indicate that Máel Coluim was then overlord of the Isles. Context of the concordat with Knútr

The rationale behind the meeting of the four kings is uncertain. One possibility is that it was related to Máel Coluim's annexation of Lothian, a region that likely encompassed an area roughly similar to the modern boundaries of Berwickshire, East Lothian, and possibly parts of Mid Lothian. The considerable span of years between this conquest and Knútr's meeting, however, could suggest that there were other factors. There appears to be evidence that the violent regime change in Moray (which enabled Mac Bethad to assume the mormaership) prompted Knútr to meet with the kings. Echmarcach and Máel Coluim may thus have been bound to keep the peace with Mac


texts: Bethad's troubled lordship.Certainly, the accounts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle record that Knútr met the kings in "Scotland", a region that likely refers to land north of Firth of Forth. Another possibility is that Máel Coluim aimed to gain Knútr's neutrality in a Scottish campaign against Mac Bethad, and sought naval support from Echmarcach himself. The absence of the King of Strathclyde from the assembled kings, and the possibility that Echmarcach's powerbase was situated somewhere in the Isles beyond Kintyre, could indicate that Knútr's main focus was on the troubled region of Moray, and the rulers whose lands it bordered. Another possibility is that the nonappearance of a Strathclyde representative is evidence that this Cumbrian realm had been recently annexed by the Scots which in turn drew a response from Knútr. Knútr may have sought the submission of the assembled kings in an attempt to protect his northern borders. Additionally, he may have sought to prevent these kings from allowing military aid to reach potential challengers to his authority. If Echmarcach's father was indeed a son of Ragnall mac Gofraid, it would have meant that he was a nephew of Lagmann mac Gofraid.The latter was closely associated with Óláfr Haraldsson, and together both lent military assistance to Richard II in the early eleventh century. There is also evidence to suggest that the predecessors of Ragnall mac Gofraid and Lagmann possessed connections with the Normans. In consequence, there is reason to suspect that


texts: Knútr sought to counter a potential association between <mask> and Richard II. Knútr and Óláfr were certainly at odds. In 1028, only a few years before the meeting of kings, Knútr seized control of Norway after defeating Óláfr. Knútr proceeded to appoint his own nephew, Hákon Eiríksson, as regent in Norway. Unfortunately for Knútr, Hákon perished at sea in late 1029 or early 1030.About three years later, Knútr's overlordship in Norway was challenged by a certain Tryggvi Óláfsson. This man seemingly possessed connections with Dublin and the Isles, as saga-tradition appears to reveal that his mother, Gyða, was a daughter of Amlaíb Cuarán. Although Tryggvi apparently enjoyed considerable local support when he landed in Norway in about 1033, he was nonetheless overwhelmed by forces loyal to Knútr and killed. Tryggvi is unlikely to have been Knútr's only challenger, and the episode itself evinces the way in which potential threats to Knútr could emerge from the Scandinavian settlements in Britain and Ireland. Close connections between the rulers of Orkney and the family of Óláfr may well have posed a potential threat to Knútr. The concordat between Knútr and the three kings could, therefore, have been a calculated attempt to disrupt the spread of Orcadian power, and an attempt to block possible Orcadian intervention into Norway. Specifically, Knútr may have wished to curb the principal Orcadian, Þórfinnr Sigurðarson, Earl of Orkney.In fact, Þórfinnr appears to have been in open conflict with Mac


texts: Bethad. This violence may be evidenced by (chronologically suspect) saga-tradition, which appears to indicate that Mac Bethad and his father warred with Orcadian earls. Saga-tradition may also reveal that Echmarcach suffered from Þórfinnr's military advances. For example, the thirteenth-century Orkneyinga saga states that, after Þórfinnr's consolidation of Orkney and Caithness—an action that likely took place after the death of his brother Brúsi—Þórfinnr was active in the Isles, parts of Galloway and Scotland, and even Dublin. The saga also reveals that Brúsi's son, Rǫgnvaldr, arrived in Orkney at a time when Þórfinnr was preoccupied with the after-effects of such campaigns, as it states that he was "much occupied" with men from the Isles and Ireland. Another source, Óláfs saga helga, preserved within the thirteenth-century saga-compilation Heimskringla, claims that Þórfinnr exerted power in Scotland and Ireland, and that he controlled a far-flung lordship which encompassed Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides. Further evidence of Þórfinnr's activities in the region may be preserved by Þórfinnsdrápa, composed by the contemporary Icelandic skald Arnórr Þórðarson, which declares that Þórfinnr raided throughout the Irish Sea region as far south as Dublin.It is possible that Knútr took other actions to contain Orkney. Evidence that Knútr installed Hákon as overlord of the Isles may be preserved by the twelfth-century Ágrip af Nóregskonungasǫgum. The historicity of this event is uncertain, however, and


texts: Hákon's authority in the Isles is not attested by any other source. Be that as it may, this twelfth-century text states that Hákon had been sent into the Isles by Óláfr, and that Hákon ruled the region for the rest of his life. The chronology outlined by this source suggests that Hákon left Norway at about the time Óláfr assumed the kingship in 1016. The former is certainly known to have been in Knútr's service soon afterwards in England. One possibility is that Knútr installed Hákon as overlord of Orkney and the Isles in about 1016/1017, before handing him possession of the Earldom of Worcester in about 1017.If this was the case, Hákon would have been responsible for not only a strategic part of the Anglo-Welsh frontier, but also accountable for the far-reaching sea-lanes that stretched from the Irish Sea region to Norway. It seems likely that Knútr was more concerned about Orkney and the Isles, and the security of the sea-lanes around Scotland, than surviving sources let on. Hákon's death at sea would have certainly been a cause of concern for Knútr's regime, and could have been directly responsible to the meeting between him and the three kings. If Hákon had indeed possessed overlordship of the Isles, his demise could well have paved the way for Echmarcach's own rise to power. Having come to terms with the three kings, it is possible that Knútr relied upon Echmarcach to counter the ambitions of the Orcadians, who could have attempted to seize upon Hákon's fall and renew their influence in the


texts:
 Isles. Uí Briain alliance and the conquest of Dublin

Following his meeting with Knútr, Echmarcach appears to have allied himself with the Uí Briain, the descendants of Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig, High King of Ireland. In 1032, the eleventh- to fourteenth-century Annals of Inisfallen states that Donnchad <mask>, King of Munster married the daughter of a certain Ragnall, adding: "hence the saying: 'the spring of Ragnall's daughter'".This woman is elsewhere identified as Cacht ingen Ragnaill. Like <mask> himself, Cacht's patronym could be evidence that she was a near relation of the Ragnalls who ruled Waterford, or else a descendant of Ragnall mac Gofraid. She could have therefore been a sister or niece of Echmarcach himself. At about the time of his union with Cacht, Donnchad aspired to become High King of Ireland. With powerful maritime forces at his command, Echmarcach would have certainly been regarded as an important potential ally. Clear evidence of an alliance between Echmarcach and the Uí Briain exists in the record of a marriage between Echmarcach's daughter, Mór, and Toirdelbach Ua Briain's son, Tadc, preserved by the twelfth-century Banshenchas, a text which records the marriage of Echmarcach's daughter, Mór, to Tadc, son of Toirdelbach Ua Briain. Annalistic evidence of such an alliance is found well into the late eleventh century.In fact, kinship between Echmarcach's descendants and the Uí Briain even led to the accession of one of Echmarcach's maternal grandsons, Domnall mac Taidc, to

masks:
mac Briain
Echmarcach


texts: the kingship of the Isles at about the turn of the twelfth century. If Echmarcach was a son of Ragnall mac Gofraid, this alliance with the Uí Briain would have been a continuation of amiable relations between the two families. For example, the father of Ragnall mac Gofraid appears to have combined forces with Brian Bóruma in 984, and Ragnall <mask> himself is recorded to have died in Munster, the heartland of the Uí Briain. If, on the other hand, Echmarcach and Cacht were descended from the Waterford dynasty, an alliance between the Uí Briain and this family may have been undertaken in the context of a struggle between the Uí Briain and the Uí Cheinnselaig. The contemporary leader of the latter kindred was Donnchad's principal opponent, Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó, King of Leinster. Whilst the Uí Briain certainly allied themselves to Cacht and Echmarcach, Diarmait appears to have backed the descendants of Amlaíb Cuarán, a man whose family appear to have opposed Echmarcach at a latter date. In 1036, <mask> replaced Amlaíb Cuarán's son, Sitriuc mac Amlaíb, as King of Dublin.The Annals of Tigernach specifies that Sitriuc fled overseas as Echmarcach took control. An alliance with Donnchad could explain Echmarcach's success in seizing the kingship from Sitriuc. Although Donnchad and Sitriuc were maternal half-brothers—as both descended from Gormlaith ingen Murchada—Donnchad's hostility towards Sitriuc is demonstrated by the record of a successful attack he led upon the Dubliners in 1026. Another factor

masks:
mac Gofraid
Echmarcach


texts: behind Echmarcach's actions against Sitriuc could concern Knútr. Echmarcach's seizure of Dublin occurred only a year after the latter's death in 1035. There appears to be numismatic evidence, annalistic evidence, and charter evidence indicating that Knútr and Sitriuc had cooperated together in terms of trade and military operations in Wales. In contrast to this apparent congeniality, the relationship between Knútr and Echmarcach appears to have been less amiable.In fact, it is possible that Echmarcach's meeting with Knútr may have bound him from taking action against Sitriuc, and that the confusion caused by Knútr's demise may have enabled Echmarcach to exploit the situation by seizing control of the Irish Sea region. According to a poetic verse composed by the contemporary Icelandic skald Óttarr svarti, Knútr's subjects included Danes, Englishmen, Irishmen, and Islesmen. These Islanders could refer to either the folk of the Isles or Orkney, whilst the Irish seems to refer to the Dubliners. Although the poet's implication that Knútr possessed authority over Sitriuc is not corroborated by any other source, and may therefore be poetic hyperbole, the fact that Sitriuc had been able to undertake a pilgrimage and return home to an intact kingdom in 1028 may demonstrate the extent of influence that Knútr held over the Irish Sea region. This authority, and Sitriuc's apparent close connections with Knútr, could account for the security Sitriuc enjoyed during Knútr's reign. If Echmarcach was a member of


texts:
 the Waterford dynasty, his action against Sitriuc may have been undertaken in the context of continuous dynastic strife between Dublin and Waterford in the tenth- and eleventh centuries. This could mean that Echmarcach's expulsion of Sitriuc was a direct act of vengeance for the latter's slaying of Ragnall ua Ímair (then King of Waterford) the year before.Little is known of Echmarcach's short reign in Dublin other than an attack on Skryne and Duleek, recorded by the seventeenth-century Annals of the Four Masters in 1037. This strike could have been undertaken in the context of the Dubliner's gradual loss of power in Brega, and an attempt to regain authority of Skryne. Although there is no direct evidence that Echmarcach controlled Mann at this point in his career, Sitriuc does not appear to have taken refuge on the island after his expulsion from Dublin. This seems to suggest that the island was outwith Sitriuc's possession, and may indicate that Mann had fallen into the hands of Echmarcach sometime before. In fact, it is possible that Echmarcach may have used the island to launch his takeover of Dublin. Strife in the Isles, Ireland, and Wales

The evidence of Þórfinnr's power in the Isles could suggest that he possessed an active interest in the ongoing struggle over the Dublin kingship. Þórfinnr's predatory operations in the Irish Sea region may have contributed to Echmarcach's loss of Dublin in 1038.Just as Echmarcach may have seized upon Knútr's demise to expand, it is possible that the vacuum


texts: caused by Knútr's death allowed Þórfinnr to prey upon the Irish Sea region. Certainly, the corresponding annal-entry of the Annals of Tigernach—stating that Ímar mac Arailt succeeded Echmarcach as King of Dublin that year—appears to indicate that Echmarcach had been forced from the kingship. Ímar appears have been a descendant (possibly a grandson) of Amlaíb Cuarán, and thus a close relative of the latter's son, Sitriuc, whom Echmarcach drove from the kingship only two years before. It is possible that Ímar received some form of support from Knútr's son and successor in England, Haraldr Knútsson, King of England. The latter was certainly in power when Ímar replaced Echmarcach, and an association between Ímar and Haraldr Knútsson could explain why the Annals of Ulster reports the latter's death two years later. The fact that Ímar proceeded to campaign in the North Channel could indicate that Echmarcach had held power in this region before his acquisition of Mann and Dublin. Whatever the case, Ímar's reign lasted only eight years.In 1046, the Annals of the Four Masters records that he was expelled by Echmarcach, who was then elected king by the Dubliners. The Annals of Tigernach, on the other-hand, simply state that <mask> succeeded Ímar. Echmarcach may well have controlled Mann throughout his second reign in Dublin. Silver hoards uncovered on Mann, dated by their coins to the years 1030s–1050s, may well be the by-product of the intense conflict over control of the island. There is evidence


texts: indicating that, at some point in the early eleventh century—perhaps in the 1020s–1030s—a mint may have developed and functioned on Mann. Coins that appear to have been minted on the island roughly coincide with Echmarcach's rule. These coins are very similar to those produced in Dublin, and may be evidence that Echmarcach attempted to harmonise the coinage utilised within his realm.The production of coins on Mann appears to be evidence of a sophisticated economy in the Isles. In fact, the wealth and sophistication of commerce in Echmarcach's realm could in part explain why the constant struggle for control of Dublin and the Isles was so bitter, and could account for Þórfinnr's apparent presence in the region. During his second reign, Echmarcach may have been involved in military activities in Wales with Gruffudd ap Rhydderch. For instance in the year 1049, English and Welsh sources record that Norse-Gaelic forces were utilised by Gruffudd ap Rhydderch against his Welsh rivals and English neighbours. Specifically, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Brut y Tywysogyon, and the twelfth-century Chronicon ex chronicis record that a Norse-Gaelic fleet sailed up the River Usk, and ravaged the surrounding region. These sources further reveal that Gruffudd ap Rhydderch and his Norse-Gaelic allies later surprised and routed the English forces of Ealdred, Bishop of Worcester. Since Echmarcach's extensive imperium appears to have spanned the Irish Sea region, it is possible that


texts:
 he was regarded as a threat by Siward, Earl of Northumbria.There is reason to suspect that, by the mid eleventh century, this Anglo-Danish magnate extended his authority into what had previously been the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Echmarcach's apparent descent from the Uí Ímair—a dynasty that once reigned over York as kings—combined with Echmarcach's accumulation of power after Knútr's demise, could well have been a cause of concern to the York-based earl. Such unease could partly account for Siward's extension of power into the Solway region, a sphere of insecure territory which may have been regarded as vulnerable by Echmarcach. Downfall in Dublin and Mann

In 1052, Diarmait drove Echmarcach from Dublin. The event is documented by the Annals of the Four Masters, the Annals of Tigernach, the Annals of Ulster, and Chronicon Scotorum. These annalistic accounts indicate that, although Diarmait's conquest evidently began with a mere raid upon Fine Gall, this action further escalated into the seizure of Dublin itself. Following several skirmishes fought around the town's central fortress, the aforesaid accounts report that Echmarcach fled overseas, whereupon Diarmait assumed the kingship.With Diarmait's conquest, Norse-Gaelic Dublin ceased to be an independent power in Ireland; and when Diarmait and his son, Murchad, died about twenty years later, Irish rule had been exercised over Fine Gall and Dublin in a degree unheard of before. In consequence of Echmarcach's expulsion, Dublin effectively became the


texts:
 provincial capital of Leinster, with the town's remarkable wealth and military power at Diarmait's disposal. The fact that in 1054, Ímar mac Arailt is styled on his death "rí Gall", a title meaning "king of the foreigners", could indicate that Diarmait reinserted him as King of Dublin after Echmarcach's expulsion. Murchad appears to have been granted the kingship by 1059, as evidenced by the title tigherna Gall, meaning "lord of the foreigners", accorded to him that year. Murchad was evidently an energetic figure, and in 1061 he launched a successful seaborne invasion of Mann. The Annals of the Four Masters, and the Annals of Tigernach further reveal that Murchad extracted a tax from Mann, and that the son of a certain Ragnall (literally "mac Raghnaill" and "mac Ragnaill") was driven from the island. The gathering of cáin or tribute was a mediaeval right of kingship in Ireland.In fact, Murchad's collection of such tribute from the Manx could be evidence that, as the King of Dublin, Murchad regarded himself as the rightful overlord of Mann. If the vanquished son of Ragnall was Echmarcach himself, as seems most likely, the record of Murchad's actions against him would appear to indicate that Echmarcach had seated himself on the island after his expulsion from Dublin. Another possibility is that <mask> had only been reestablished himself as king in the Isles after Ímar mac Arailt's death in 1054. Magnús Haraldsson and Ælfgar Leofricson

In 1055, after being outlawed for treason in the course of a


texts: comital power-struggle, English nobleman Ælfgar Leofricson fled from England to Ireland. Ælfgar evidently received considerable military aid from the Irish to form a fleet of eighteen ships, and together with Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, King of Gwynedd and Deheubarth invaded Herefordshire. Although this campaign ultimately secured Ælfgar's reinstatement, Ælfgar (then Earl of Mercia) was again exiled from England in 1058, and proceeded to ally himself with Gruffudd ap Llywelyn and a Norse fleet. Notwithstanding the fact that Scandinavian sources fail to report this operation, the Annals of Tigernach reveals that the leader of the fleet was Magnús, son of Haraldr Sigurðarson, King of Norway, and further reports that Magnús' forces were composed of Orcadians, Islesmen, and Dubliners.Exactly who Ælfgar received aid from in the Irish Sea region is uncertain. It is conceivable that, after his flight from England in 1055, Ælfgar was outfitted in Dublin, then ruled by Murchad (with Diarmait as overlord). Likewise, since Diarmait's forces had previously driven Echmarcach from Dublin in 1052, and apparently from Mann in 1061, the joint campaign of Ælfgar and Magnús in 1058—which utilised Islesmen and Dubliners—could well have involved Diarmait's cooperation as well. That being said, there are several reasons to doubt a part played by Diarmait in Ælfgar's military undertakings. For instance, Diarmait seems to have lent assistance to Ælfgar's enemies—the Godwinsons—in the 1050s and 1060s. Diarmait also appears to


texts: have previously backed Cynan ab Iago, a man who was a bitter rival and seemingly the eventual slayer of Ælfgar's ally and son-in-law, Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. Ælfgar's Irish confederate of 1055 is not identified in any source, and it is not clear that Diarmait had a part to play in the aforesaid events of that year.In fact, it is possible that Ælfgar received aid not from Diarmait, but from Donnchad—Diarmait's enemy and Echmarcach's associate—a man who then controlled the Norse-Gaelic enclaves of Limerick and possibly Waterford. Furthermore, although Diarmait appears to have gained overlordship of Mann by 1061, Echmarcach presumably enjoyed overlordship of at least part of the Hebrides in 1058. Since Magnús utilised Islesmen during his English campaign of that year, it is conceivable that Echmarcach may have played a prominent part in these operations. If Echmarcach was indeed involved in the campaign, the enmity between him and Diarmait could indicate that these two were unlikely to have cooperated as allies. The prime motivation behind Magnús' cooperation with Ælfgar is uncertain. One possibility is that he was attempting to establish Norwegian authority in the west as a means to prepare an invasion of England. In so doing, Magnús may have backed the cause of a local faction that opposed Echmarcach.Certainly, the thirteenth- to fourteenth-century Chronicle of Mann records that Ímar's apparent son, Gofraid Crobán—a future ruler of Dublin and the Isles—backed the Norwegian invasion of England led by


texts:
 Magnús' father in 1066. Pilgrimage and death in Rome

In 1064, <mask> seems to have accompanied by Donnchad upon a pilgrimage to Rome. By this time the two may well have been of an advanced age, and both appear to have died in the city soon afterwards. Surviving sources give conflicting dates for <mask>'s passing, and it is uncertain whether he died in 1064 or 1065. The Annals of Inisfallen, the Annals of Loch Cé, and the Annals of Ulster indicate that he died in 1064. The eleventh-century Chronicon of Marianus Scotus records that Echmarcach died in 1065, in a statement which implies that <mask> and Donnchad travelled to Rome together. Donnchad himself seems to have died in 1064, as a multitude of sources report his pilgrimage to Rome and demise that year.Several of these sources appear to indicate that Donnchad died at Santo Stefano Rotondo, an ancient basilica on the Caelian Hill. This building was an important place of pilgrimage to contemporaries, and apparently housed both Echmarcach and Donnchad before they died. Pilgrimages such as those of <mask> and Donnchad were not unheard of amongst high-ranking Gaelic and Norse-Gaelic contemporaries, and several such high-status figures are known to have perished undertaking pilgrimages of their own to Rome. If Echmarcach's father was indeed Ragnall mac Gofraid, and if Echmarcach had been born only a few years before his father's death, Echmarcach would have thus been about sixty-five when he himself was laid to rest. Marianus Scotus' account of

masks: Echmarcach Echmarcach Echmarcach Echmarcach


texts: Echmarcach accords him the Latin title "rex Innarenn". On one hand, this may be a garbled form of the Latin "rex insularum", meaning "King of the Isles". If so, the titles "ri Gall" and "rí Gall" accorded to him by the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Inisfallen in 1064 could indicate that he was still regarded as ruler of Mann.On the other hand, "rex Innarenn" could instead mean "King of the Rhinns", in reference to the Rhinns of Galloway. During Echmarcach's floruit, the Rhinns appears have also included what is today known as the Machars. The entire region would have thus stretched from the North Channel to Wigtown Bay, and would have likely encompassed an area similar to the modern boundaries of Wigtownshire. Earlier in the century, the entire region may have formed part of Sitriuc's realm, and various Irish and Welsh sources indicate that it may have been held by one of the latter's two sons named Amlaíb. If Echmarcach was indeed the son of Ragnall mac Gofraid, and succeeded his father sometime in the 1030s, Echmarcach may well have first gained control of the Rhinns when he apparently began his domination of the Irish Sea region in 1036 (the year he first seized Dublin). Even if such a chronology is correct it does not necessarily mean that Echmarcach owed his rule in the Rhinns to ancestral connections in the Isles—it could have instead derived from his new-found position in Dublin. Although in practice, the collection of cáin could be undertaken without the displacement of an underking,


texts:
 if "rex Innarenn" indeed refers to the Rhinns it could reveal that, after having been defeated by Murchad on Mann, the defeated Echmarcach fled to this mainland region.Furthermore, if Echmarcach was a native of what is today the south-west of Scotland, the title could be evidence that, on the collapse of Echmarcach's once expansive kingdom, Echmarcach proceeded to entrench himself in the protection of his native home. Margaðr and Guthormr Gunnhildarson

Echmarcach has sometimes been identified as a certain Margaðr who appears in various mediaeval sources documenting the contemporary Irish Sea adventures of Margaðr and Guthormr Gunnhildarson. One such source is Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar, within Heimskringla. According to this source, Margaðr was King of Dublin, and a close friend of Guthormr, an accomplished man who was a nephew of the Norwegian kings Óláfr and Haraldr Sigurðarson. Late one summer, the saga relates that Margaðr and Guthormr took part in particularly successful raid in Wales. As their loot of silver was being assessed, Margaðr demanded Guthormr's share, forcing the latter to fight for his portion of the plunder. Although outnumbered sixteen ships to five, the saga relates that, through the miraculous intervention of God and Guthormr's saintly uncle (Óláfr), Guthormr was able to defeat and slay Margaðr and all his followers in the ensuing battle.The fateful encounter between Margaðr and Guthormr is sometimes dated to 1052 on the presumption that Margaðr is identical to Echmarcach,


texts:
 and that the event must have taken place at the conclusion of Echmarcach's second reign in Dublin. In fact, the Old Norse personal name Margaðr is a form of the Gaelic personal name Murchad, and the aforesaid accounts of Margaðr likely refer to Echmarcach's nemesis Murchad, rather than Echmarcach himself. Although the saga claims that a thankful Guthormr donated a portion of his looted silver to the shrine of his saintly uncle at Niðaróss, it is unlikely that any church would have accepted property known to have been looted from Christians. Instead, it is possible that Guthormr's hoard of silver was actually the tax that Murchad which had collected from Mann in 1061 during the expulsion of Echmarcach. Such a date corresponds to the implied date of about 1061 given by Heimskringla. Notes

Citations

References

Primary sources

Secondary sources

External links
Iehmarc 1 (Male) at Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England

11th-century Irish monarchs
11th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
11th-century monarchs in Europe
11th-century Scottish people
Monarchs of Dublin
Monarchs of the Isle of Man
Rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
Uí Ímair
Lords of


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<mask> is an Indian film scholar, historian, critic, curator and writer from Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. He worked as consultant content developer for the National Museum of Indian Cinema set up by the National Council of Science Museums in Mumbai. He was actively involved with India’s film society movement and was secretary of Screen Unit, and Regional Secretary of Federation of Film Societies’ Western Region. Curator of Experimenta (first in Mumbai and now in Bangalore), Shai Heredia in an interview with <mask>, draws the history of Screen Unit and the film society movement in India over the years; he is credited to have been one of the pioneers in ushering in the serious film appreciation in Mumbai. He has also been holding film appreciation workshops all over Gujarat and at various educational and institutional spaces in India. <mask> has been working in the field of cinema in various capacities for over three decades. He has been part of production and creative teams of numerous feature, documentary, short films and video installations by artists from Europe and Scandinavia.For the past several years, he has been engaged with his new theoretical-philosophical concept Cinema of Prayoga or Cinema Prayoga. Cinema of Prayoga: A New Concept
<mask> <mask> has been responsible for coining, developing and theorizing his new theoretical concept of 'Cinema of Prayoga' or 'Cinema Prayoga'  that aims at substituting and expanding the generally accepted Euro-American-centric term the 'Experimental Film' while celebrating the cinematographic idiom deeply located in the polyphony of Indian philosophy and cultural imagination,

masks:
Amrit Gangar
Amrit Gangar
Gangar
Amrit
Gangar


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 including the perception of 'time' and 'space'. Since his first public presentation of 'Cinema of Prayoga' at the Experimenta, Mumbai in 2005, he has been presenting it at various venues and fora in India and abroad. Films by Amit Dutta, Ashish Avikunthak, Vipin Vijay, Kabir Mohanty and Arghya Basu fall within the ambit of this concept. Authorship: Books – English, and other Indian languages (Original or Tr.) Roopantar, adaptations from literature to cinema, Arunodaya Prakashan, Ahmedabad – in Gujarati, 2014. Walter Kaufmann: The Music that Still Rings at Dawn, Every Dawn, Goethe Institute, Mumbai, 2013.Cinema Vimarsh, Gujarat Sahitya Akademi, Gandhinagar – in Gujarati, 2012. Mumbai 24 x 7, essays on the city of Mumbai, Arunodaya Prakashan, Ahmedabad – in Gujarati, 2 011. Cinema. Culture. Capital. Context: India, Monfakira, Kolkata, 2010. Sohrab Modi: The Great Mughal of Historicals (in the series, the Legends of Indian Cinema), Wisdom Tree, New Delhi, 2008.Paul Zils and the Indian Documentary, Goethe Institute, Mumbai, 2003. Satyajit Ray Ani Tyanche Chitrapat (Marathi), Lokvangmaya Griha, Mumbai, 2002. (Tr. from original English)
 Franz Osten and the Bombay Talkies: A Journey from Munich to Malad, 2001, Goethe Institute, Mumbai. seven Parichay Pustika (Introductory Booklets), Parichay Trust, Mumbai - in Gujarati (2000-2013)
 Bimal Roy
 Sohrab Modi
 Bharatiya Cinema ma Navo Juval (The New Wave in Indian Cinema)
 Yadgar Dastaveji Chitro (Memorable Documentary Films)
 Bharat na Uttam Balchitro (The Best of Indian Children’s Films)
 Charlie Chaplin
 Rashtriya Film Sangrahalaya (The National Film Archive of India)
 National


texts:
 School of Drama
 Bharatiya Cinema ni Shatabdi (100 Years of Indian Cinema)

Editorship, Co-Editorship: Books – English, Gujarati, Danish (Tr.) Art in India: A mighty river of the unique and the universal, ARTiT (Japan’s first bilingual art quarterly), special number on Indian contemporary art, co-ordination and co-editing with Johan Pijnappel, 2007. Jainism: Walking into Eternity, Eds.Birthe Molhave, <mask> <mask>, Kuntal <mask> and Kristian Molhave (Danish), 2001, Systime, Aarhus, Denmark.Indian Cinema: A Visual Voyage (with Virchand Dharamsey), 1998, Publication Division, New Delhi. (contd.) Edited the National Film Development Corporation’s monthly bulletin, 1995. The Rigour of Austerity: Robert Bresson and Luis Buñuel, 1989, Federation of Film Societies of India, Mumbai. Ed. Andrei Tarkovsky: A Homage, 1987, Screen Unit, Mumbai. Ed.Ritwik Ghatak: Arguments / Stories (with Ashish Rajadhyaksha), 1984, Screen Unit, Mumbai. Also published Ritwik Ghatak: A Return to the Epic, the first major book in English on Ritwik Ghatak by Ashish Rajadhyaksha on behalf of Screen Unit,                                 Bombay,1982
 Gujarati Cinema: At 1982 (with Manilal Gala), Screen Unit, Mumbai. Edited the main and retrospective catalogues of the Mumbai International Festival for Documentary, Short and Animation Films from
1990 uptil1998, as also of the Children’s Film Festival of India, and of the National Film Development Corporation. Part of Publications
 Unveiling Desire: Fallen Women in Literature, Culture, and Films of the East, Eds. Devaleena Das and Colette Morrow, Rutgers – Forthcoming
 The Unposted Letter, A collection of

masks: Amrit Gangar Gangar


texts:
 articles by and on Shri Goverdhan Panchal, an expert on Sanskrit Theatre, Architecture, Ed. Hasmukh Baradi, TMC, Ahmedabad, 2014. Kalaveethi, Eds.Ajaysingh Chouhan, et al., Pranav Prakashan, Ahmedabad, 2013. Ritwik Ghatak: A Return to the Epic, Ashish Rajadhyaksha, Screen Unit, Mumbai, 1982. Essays, Poems contributed to Books, Catalogues and Journals: English, Gujarati, Kachchhi, Marathi, Bengali, Malayalam, Tamil, French, Spanish, Finnish, Danish, Norwegian, German, Swish, Swedish, Russian, Persian (Tr.) (Select)
 Buddhadeb Dasgupta: Poet of Celluloid, Federation of Film Societies of India, Kolkata, 2014. Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinema, Eds. K. Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake, Routledge, London, 2013. Moving Image Review & Art Journal (MIRAJ), London, Ed.Catherine Elwes, 2012. Swarnim Gujaratno Swapnadrashta: Veer Narmad, Ed. Jagdish Gurjar, Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Surat, 2011. The Chawls of Mumbai: Galleries of Life, Ed. Neera Adarkar, imprint One, New Delhi, 2011. Focus: Design & Informal Cities, Indian Architect and Builder, Mumbai, 2010. Revisioning Mumbai: Conceiving a Manifesto for Sustainable Development, Eds.Vimal Shah, Pankaj Joshi, The Asiatic Society, Mumbai, 2010. Asian Film Journeys, Eds. Rashmi Doraiswamy, Latika Padgaonkar, Wisdom Tree, New Delhi 2010.
 the kernel is a fact, Kabir Mohanty, Gallery SKE, Bangalore, 2010. Girls and Girlshood at Threshold of Youth & Gender, Ed. Vibhuti Patel, The Women Press, Delhi, 2009. INDIA: Cine de , documental independiente y ideocreacion (1899-2008, La Casa Encendida, Madrid, 2008. (Spanish) .Espace Croise 1994–2006, cahier # 2, Roubaix,


texts:
 France, 2008. (French)
 Vishva na Yadgar Pravachano, Ed. Suresh Dalal, Mahesh Dave, Image Publications Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, Ahmedabad, 2008. (Gujarati)
 Masala: Bollywood – sa furnkar det, Ed.Katarina Przybtl, Ostasiatiska Museet, Stockholm, Sweden, 2008. (Swedish)
 India Express: Sacred and Popular, Eds. Erja Pusa, et al., Helsinki City Art Museum, Helsinki, Finland.(Finnish, Swedish, English)
 Song for an Ancient Land, Kabir Mohanty, Gallery SKE, Bangalore, 2006. Bollywood in Switzerland, Ed. Alexandra Schneider, The Museum of Design, Zurich, Switzerland, 2005. (German)
 The Best of Speaking Tree, Vols. 1 and 4, The Times of India, 2004, 2007. Enduring Legacy: Parsis of the 20th Century (in 4 parts), Ed. Nawaz B. Mody, K.R.Cama Oriental Institute, Mumbai 2005. The Best of Speaking Tree, Vol. 4, The Times of India, 2007. Ardhi Sadi ni Vachanyatra, Ed. Mahendra Meghani, Lok Milap Trust, Bhavnagar, 2006. (Gujarati)
 Film & Philosophy, Ed. K. Gopinathan, University of Calicut, 2003.
 International Film, an Iranian Film Quarterly, Ed.Houshang Golmakani Tehran, Iran, 2001.Frames of Mind: Reflections on Indian Cinema, Ed. Aruna Vasudev, ICCR, UBS, New Delhi, 1995. Bombay: Mosaic of Modern Culture, Eds. Alice Thorner and Sujata Patel, OUP, 1995. Bombay and Mumbai: The City in Transition, Eds. Sujata Patel and Jim Masselos, OUP, 2003. Indomania, Ed.Dominique Paini, Cinematheque Francais, Paris, 1996. (French)
 Figures, Facts, Feeling: A Direct Diasporic Dialogue, Parthiv Shah, 2000. Images of India in European Cinema, Goethe Institute, Mumbai, 2000. (long essay)
 Germany in Upheaval: A Series of Documentary Films, Goethe


texts:
 Institute, Mumbai, 1999 (long essay)
 DEFA: Documentary Films, Goethe Institute, Mumbai, 1998. (long essay). Voices of Emergency: An All India Anthology of Protest Poetry of the 1975-77 Emergency, Ed. John Oliver Perry, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1983.Essays and poems published in numerous other catalogues, journals and dailies (English, Gujarati, Malayalam, etc.) including the Cinemaya, Osian’s Cinemaya, Art India, Lensight, the journal of the Film & Television Institute of India, Danish Film Institute Journal, Farbas Trimasik, Etad, Tathapi, Pratyaksha, Sameepe, Mumbai Samachar, Janmabhoomi Pravasi, Nav Gujarat Times, etc. Conceptualization and Curatorship of Programs (Select): India and Abroad
 Cinema of Prayoga, Kochi-Muziris Biennale, 2014
 Film Programs, Tapi Festival, Surat, India, 2014. Kshaya of Akasa is also the Kshyaya of Chetana: Some Reflections on the shrinking of Sky in Cinema, Pondicherry, 2016. Cinema of Prayoga, Danish Film Institute, Copenhagen: Indian Film Program, March 2012 . Tribute to Mani Kaul, 12th Osian’s Cine-Fan Film Festival, 2012, New Delhi. For the first time the practitioners (camerapersons, soundpersons, editors and production persons) came together to discuss aesthetics and the philosophy of Mani Kaul’s cinematography.Hosted and curated (along with Neville Tuli) Deewar: Celebrating 100 Years of Cinematic Heritage of India, 12th Osian’s Cine-Fan Film Festival, 2012, New Delhi. Cinema of Prayoga, Conference at the Viswabharati University, Santiniketan, 2011. Chelsea College of Art & Design, University of the Arts London, Moving Image Art and Global Media Spectacle, June 2011. Centre


texts: Pompidou, Paris: Indian Experimental Films, June 2011. Saat Sarjak. Saat Samvad (Seven Creators. Seven Dialogues), a seven-month-long (monthly) program on Cinema of Prayoga, National Centre for the Performing Arts (NCPA), Mumbai, 2008.National Centre for the Performing Arts, Mumbai: Short Films about Sufism (2006). Arts Reverie, Ahmedabad:  Fana’a, 2007 – Sufi Soul: A Bouquet of International Short Films; Sufi Films, Ahmedabad Art Festival, 2012 (shown at the National Institute of Design). Katha Centre for Film Studies, Mumbai: Curatorial Workshops-numerous. Katha Centre for Film Studies, Mumbai: Chalchitra Chawlchitra: Conceived and curated a program of films around Mumbai’s chawls. Bollywood Film Posters: Worked with the Norwegian Film Institute, Oslo, Norway in putting together hand painted billboards and writing a lead article for its exhibition, continuing from August 2007. INDIA: Bollywood and Living Gods: Worked with the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm, Sweden in putting together visual material pertaining to popular Hindi cinema within the exhibition (September 2007 – March 2008) concept. Cinema of Prayoga (the term he coined to substitute the Anglo-American Experimental or Avantgarde Film.)Tate Modern, London presented this program along with a seminar in which he also spoke, 2006. Devi Diva - Images of woman in Indian cinema, a short compilation of film excerpts, with Berenice Ellena, during an exhibition at Musee des Arts Asiatiques, Nice, France, 2006. Kali: A program of Indian cutting edge short films about Kali presented at Gallery Espace Croise, Roubaix, France. It was part of the bigger


texts: event about Mumbai / India in Lille, France,2007. India Express: Presented an Indian film program in aesthetical context at the exhibition of Indian popular art at the Helsinki City Art Museum, Finland. Also helped organize a workshop by the Bollywood billboard painters during the exhibition. Bollywood in Switzerland: Presented a film program in historical context and helped the exhibition organized by the Museum of Design in Zurich, Switzerland, 2001.Dogma film program for the International Film Festival of Kerala in Trivandrum, Kerala. Experimenta 2005:  First time presented his new theoretical concept of Cinema of Prayoga, at this first of its kind cutting edge film festival in Mumbai. Kala Ghoda Artfest: Curated film programs continuously for four years until 1998. Was commissioning editor for several short films on Kala Ghoda area made by different professional and amateur filmmakers, Mumbai, 1999. Mumbai International Film Festival of Documentary, Short & Animation Films (MIFF). Curated retrospective programs from 1990 until 1996. Curatorial Advisor, National Curatorial Program initiated by the India Foundation for the Arts and the Katha Centre for Film Studies, Mumbai.125th Birth Anniversary of Charlie Chaplin and the Chaplin Town, Adipur, Kachchh, 2014. Five Devdas Films and One Novella, National Book Fair, Ahmedabad, 2014. Indian Cinema: One Hundred Years of Fortitude, Hyderabad Literary Festival, 2014. Indian Cinema: One Hundred Years of Fortitude, Whistling Woods International Film School, Mumbai, 2013. Indian Cinema:  One Hundred Years of Fortitude, as part of the Key-Note Address, International Seminar on


texts:
 Cinema, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai, 2013. Cinematographic Symbiosis: Germany and India, Excellence on Tour, DWIH, Kolkata, 2014, Ahmedabad 2013, Mumbai 2013. Cinematographic Symbiosis: Germany and India, Indo-German Chamber of Commerce, Mumbai 2013.Cinematographic Symbiosis: Germany and India, Max Mueller Bhavan, Mumbai, 2013. Cinema of Prayoga: Contemplating a Cinematographic Moment, York University, Toronto, Canada, 2013. Cinema of Prayoga, No Cultural Boundaries, York University and SAVAC, Toronto, Canada, 2013. The Moving Image Looped to be Mukt! – the Cinema of Prayoga conscience, the University of the Arts, London, 2011. Film Workshops in India and Elsewhere
 Over the years, conducted film appreciation and film and literature related workshops in Surat, Palanpur, Bharuch, Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Sadra, Bombay and other places. Several other such workshops are underway.National seminar ‘Roopantar’ (Literature to Cinema) organized in Nadiad was the outcome of the ‘Roopantar’ series in the journal Pratyaksha. Delivered the key-note address at the Nadiad conference. Was invited to Asmita Parva-14 (14 – 18 April 2011) at Mahua by Morari Bapu to present a talk on film kala nu anubhavan with reference to cinematographic experience. The program was televised internationally on Astha channel. Conducted several Indian film workshops in different gymnasiums (schools) and institutions in Denmark. Program Consultant
 Goethe Institute, Max Mueller Bhavan, Mumbai. Cultural Centre of Russia, Mumbai.2012: One of the active members of the organizing group on ‘Classic Incantations: The German Film Orchestra Babelberg performs A.R.


texts:
 Rahman,’ a massive musical that showcased over a hundred orchestral musicians from the German Film Orchestra Babelsberg and KM Music Conservatory, Chennai and travelled across five Indian metros. It was exclusively presented by Lapp Group; conceived and coordinated by Goethe Institute, Mumbai. Awards
 2007:  University of Mumbai, a silver plaque for his contribution to the book “Photobiography of the University of Mumbai.”
 2007: A trophy from Naval Dockyard Mumbai for discovering and preserving the documentary film “India’s Struggle for National Shipping.”
 2005: Taramati Visanji Award for contribution to art and culture. 2002: Cinematographers’ Combine honored him with a trophy (miniature Mitchel camera) for his writing and curatorial work for the cinema. 1989: The International Federation of Film Clubs honored him with a plaque in Germany for his persistent and imaginative work in the Indian film society movement. Indian Correspondent

ARTiT, a bilingual (English, Japanese) quarterly on contemporary art published from Tokyo.Film International, Tehran. Film Festival Juries and Committees

Nomination on several film festival juries and selection committees in India and abroad. Select list:
 2017 Chairperson, SiGNS Film Festival, Kochi, Kerala. 2017 Selection, International Cinema, IFFK, Trivandrum, Kerala
 2017 Member, National, Indian Documentary Producers’ Association. 2014: Cinema Verite, Tehran, Iran. 2010: Chairperson, Int. Jury of the International Film Festival of Ahmedabad.2009: Member, International Jury, Oberhausen Short Film Festival, Germany. 2008: Member National Jury, Indian Documentary Producers’


texts:
 Association. 2007: Member, Indian Documentary Producers’ Association, National Jury. 2007: Member, International Jury, International Short Film Fest, Tehran, Iran. 2006: Chairperson, Int. Jury, International Short Film Fest, Tehran, Iran. 2005: Member, Indian Documentary Producers’ Association, National Jury.2005: Member, International Jury, Three-Continent Film Festival
 2008: Member, Advisory Committee, NCPA, Mumbai. 1990-1995: Various national committees of the Mumbai International Film Festival for Documentary, Short & Animation Films. 1989: Member, National Short Film Jury, National Film Festival, India. Academic - Lectures / Conferences
 John Abraham Memorial Lecture, SiGNS Film Festival, Kochi, Kerala. Cinema of Prayoga: The Rigour of Austerity, Junoon, Kitabkhana, Mumbai. Students’ Centre, Zagreb, Croatia – Cinema of Prayoga and Indian Experimental Films. Royal College of Art, Copenhagen, Denmark; Yale University, New Haven, USA; Columbia University, New York, USA.Shri Rajmohan Gandhi’s Asia Plateau, Panchgani, Maharashtra – lectured on Indian cinema to students from various North American universities. Asmita Parva – 14, Mahua, Gujarat, a presentation on anubhāvan of cinema. Goethe Institute (Max Mueller Bhavan), Mumbai. University of the Arts London, June 2011. Georges Pompidou Centre, Paris, June 2011
Kalabhavana, Santiniketan, August 2011. Several conferences and seminars in India and abroad, including in Australia, Sri Lanka, Iran, etc. Archiving / Databasing
 Was responsible for discovering and restoring the historic and rare documentary India’s Struggle for National Shipping by Paul Zils
 Conceived,


texts:
 developed and set up a comprehensive easy-to-retrieve database of the Films Division’s library of documentary films, etc.from 1948 to 1993, about 9000 documentary, short and animation films (with Subhash Chheda). Film Directorship
 Mumbai and the Informal City, presented at the International Conference of Architects and Town Planners, Mumbai, 2010. Harbour Line Stories, Etc., for Cell – Initiators of Incidents, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. About the city of Mumbai – including some historic episodes, e.g. explosion in a steamer in 1944 in Bombay harbour. Temples in Trains, produced and directed, a documentary about Mumbai’s local trains and commuters ingeniously create temples inside compartments and sing songs every morning. (contd.)Kandivli: A River Saga, produced and directed this 6-minute film about how a pure-water river has turned into a filthy nullah. Bandra in Bollywood. Compiling film excerpts from films that show Bandra as location as a historic document – for the Bandra Festival. Representation of Bombay in Films: An hour-long compilation of films recording and representing the city of Bombay, for the Urban Research & Development Institute. Film Production

 As production consultant, manager, line producer, researcher, etc. on various European, Scandinavian, Australian and other films over past two decades:
 Mumbai: In the Painter’s Courtyard (Mumbai, La Cour des Peintres), Louise de Champfleury, Dominique Dindinaud, Paris. Consultant.(a film on Bollywood billboard painters.) Mumbai, a documentary film on the city by Camilla Nielssen and Frederik Jacobi (as part of the Danish Film Institute’s series of


texts: four-film series Cities on Speed including Bogota, Cairo, Shanghai and Mumbai, First AD and Production Consultant / Controller. Bollywood Boy, a documentary on a child actor by Andre Hormann, Berlin. Shot entirely in Mumbai. Line Producer. Touch, a video installation by Marika Seidler. Produced entirely in Mumbai.Executive Producer. The Boot Cake, an Australian documentary on Charlie Chaplin by Katherine Millard shot in India. Production management and research. Five Obstructions, Lars von Trier and Jorgen Leth’s documentary, partly shot in Mumbai. Production-in-charge. After the Wedding, a Danish feature film by Susanne Bier, partly shot in Mumbai. Production manager, casting director and location scouting.Note: Both Five Obstructions and After the Wedding were nominated for the Academy Awards (Oscars) in the Foreign Language Film category. Sound of a Universe: Bollywood and its Music, a documentary by Nele Muenchmeyer, Berlin, for ARTE channel. Production consultant. Happiness and Misery, a video installation by Lars Mathisen. This was produced and shot entirely in Mumbai. Script Consultant, Line Producer. Bombay Lunch, a documentary on Mumbai’s dabbawallas (lunch box carriers) by Lau Leth Larsen.Line Producer. Total Masala Slammer, a dance-theatre production by Michael Laub for Hebbel Theatre, Berlin, Germany. A large part of this project was auditioned and organized in various parts of India. Artistic Consultant (India) with Marina Abramovoch (Europe). Walking Towards Eternity, a documentary on Jainism, with Birthe Molhave, Aarhus, Denmark. Production Consultant, Line Producer. Mumbai Mosaic, a documentary on the


texts:
 city of Mumbai, with the Molhaves, Denmark.Production Consultant, Line Producer. <mask> <mask> has been working on production of numerous projects by German Television (ZDF) besides productions from Denmark and several other countries. Positions held
 Consultant Content Developer of National Council of Science Museums for the project National Museum of Indian Cinema, Ministry of I&B, Government of India. Hon. Secretary, Screen Unit, Mumbai. Hon. Secretary, Western Region, The Federation of Film Societies of India.Founder Director, Datakino, Mumbai. Member, Procurement Committee, National Museum of Indian Cinema, Ministry of I&B, Government of India. Member, Script Committee, the Children's Film Society of India, Ministry of I&B, Government of India
 Director, Osian’s Film Archive. Editorial Board
 MIRAJ (Moving Image Review & Art Journal), a new magazine being published by the University of Arts, London, Ed: Catherine Elwes. References

 Goa Arts & Literary Festivalhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150528073503/http://www.goaartlitfest.com/galf2014/speakers2014.php%7B%7Bcommons category|<mask> Gangar}}
 The Hindu newspaperhttp://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/a-carnival-sans-cash/article5623294.ece

Living people
Indian film critics
Year of birth missing (living

masks: Amrit Gangar Amrit


texts:
General <mask> (December 27, 1864 – April 13, 1955) was a United States Army officer who served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army from 1918, during the final year of World War I, until 1921. He is largely responsible for designing the powerful role of the Chief of Staff in the 20th century. Early life and education
<mask> was born on December 27, 1864 in Easton, Pennsylvania, to <mask> and Mildred (<mask><mask>. His father was a college professor, and is regarded as the principal founder of modern comparative linguistics in Old English. His mother descended from Thomas Stone, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and was Moncure D. <mask>'s sister. <mask> attended Lafayette College, where his father occupied the first chair of English language and comparative philology in the United States. While at Lafayette College, <mask> was a member of the Rho chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon.After graduating with honors in 1884, he was appointed to West Point and graduated in 1888, ranked 10th in a class of 44. Among his classmates there were several men who would, like <mask> himself, eventually attain the rank of general officer, such as James W. McAndrew, William M. Morrow, William Robert Dashiell, Robert Lee Howze, <mask> Harris, Eli Alva Helmick, <mask> McKinstry, Henry Jervey Jr., William Voorhees Judson, John Louis Hayden, Edward Anderson, William H. Hart, <mask> Hedekin and William S. Peirce. Military career

After his initial assignment to the 3rd Artillery, <mask> was assigned to the 5th Artillery as a 1st lieutenant in 1894. He was sent to the Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Virginia in September 1896 and graduated in April 1898, at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War. As he was not immediately assigned, he watched

masks:
Peyton Conway March
March
Francis Andrew March
Conway
) March
Conway
Peyton March
March
March
Peter Charles
Charles Hedges
Charles Aloysius
March


texts: as his classmates went off to various commands, and began fearing he would not see combat. In early May, that changed when he was offered to lead what later became known as the Astor Battery, named so because it was personally financed by John Jacob Astor IV. He organized, equipped and subsequently commanded the battery when it was sent to the Philippines during the Spanish–American War.Historian <mask> Adamson has written about Henry Bidwell Ely (Adamson's great grandfather) who was placed in charge of The Astor Battery by John Jacob Astor IV, to give <mask> whatever he needed. <mask> credited Ely as having "an open check book" to purchase uniforms, mules and the cannons. After the battery returned from the Philippines in 1899, <mask> was assigned as the aide to Major General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. during the Philippine–American War. Later that year he was promoted to major. He continued to serve in the Philippines, participated as part of General Loyd Wheaton's expedition in battles at San Fabian, Buntayan Bridge and San Jacinto. He commanded the U.S. forces in the Battle of Tirad Pass, 2 December 1899, where General Gregorio del Pilar was killed, and received the surrender of General Venacio <mask>, Chief of Staff to Philippine President Aguinaldo at Cayan, 5 December 1899. He served as provincial governor of districts including Lepanto-Bontoc and Ilocos Sur from February to June 1900, and then the Abra Province from June 1900 to February 1901.He then served as Commissary General of Prisoners for the Philippine Islands through 30 June 1901, when he mustered out of the U.S. Volunteers. In 1903, he was sent to Fort Riley and commanded the 19th Battery of the Field Artillery. Later that year, he was sent to Washington, D.C. and served

masks:
Bruce Campbell
Peyton March
March
March
Conceción


texts:
 on the newly created General Staff. From 21 March to 30 November 1904, <mask> was one of several American military attachés serving with the Imperial Japanese Army in the Russo-Japanese War. Of the seventeen military attachés observing both sides of the Russo-Japanese War for the United States, eight were later promoted to be generals. In 1907, <mask> commanded the 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery.<mask> then served as adjutant of Fort Riley, Kansas and then served as adjutant at several other commands, including at the War Department. In 1916, he was promoted to colonel and commanded the 8th Field Artillery Regiment on the Mexican border during the Pancho Villa Expedition. World War I and Chief of Staff

In June 1917, shortly after the American entry into World War I, <mask> was promoted to brigadier general and commanded the 1st Field Artillery Brigade, 1st Division, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) and, accompanied by First Lieutenant Stanley E. Reinhart (later a major general in World War II) as his aide-de-camp, went to France with the 1st Division. Later that year, <mask> was promoted to major general and commanded the artillery units of the First United States Army and all non-divisional artillery units. In March 1918, he was recalled to Washington, took over as acting Army Chief of Staff on March 4 and was Army Chief of Staff on May 20, 1918. He was promoted to temporary general. Joseph M. Swing (a lieutenant general in World War II) was his new aide-de-camp.<mask> was highly critical of President Wilson's decision to send an American Expedition to North Russia and Siberia in 1918 during the Russian Civil War (the so-called Siberian Intervention) ostensibly to prop-up the White movement war effort, secure the railroads,

masks: March March March March March March


texts:
 support the Czech Legion trapped there, and stop the Japanese from exploiting the chaos in order to colonize Siberia. <mask> wrote after the pull-out of American forces in 1920:

In 1919, <mask> was admitted as an honorary member of the Virginia Society of the Cincinnati. He served as Chief of Staff until June 30, 1921. As Chief of Staff he reorganized the Army structure, and abolished the distinctions between the Regular Army, the Army Reserves, and the Army National Guard during wartime. He created new technical branches in the service including the United States Army Air Corps, Chemical Warfare Service, Transportation Corps, and Tank Corps. He also centralized control over supply. After the war ended, he supervised the demobilization of the Army.As Chief of Staff he often came into disagreement with General John J. Pershing, who wanted to conduct the AEF as an independent command. <mask> was a highly efficient and capable administrator who did much to modernize the American Army and prepare it for combat in the First World War. Retirement and death
<mask> retired as a major general in 1921 at the age of 56. In June 1930, <mask> was advanced to general on the retired list as the result of a law which enabled World War I generals to retire at the highest rank they had held. In December 1922, <mask> was elected honorary president of Delta Kappa Epsilon during the fraternity's 78th Annual Convention. After retirement, he travelled Europe, Africa and Turkey. In 1932, he published his war memoirs, The Nation at War.During World War II, reporters for Time and Life magazines regularly sought his opinions of events. He was a fan of the Washington Senators and regularly attended their home games. <mask> died at the Walter Reed Army Medical

masks: March March March March March March March


texts:
 Center on April 13, 1955, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. In his funeral marched "the escort commander and his staff; the United States Army Band; one battalion of cadets from the US Military Academy; one company of infantry; one battery of field artillery; one company of armor; the U.S. Marine Band; one company of Marines; one company of bluejackets; one squadron of airmen; and one composite company of servicewomen." The estimated total strength of the military escort was 1,200 soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines. At the grave "was a large group of military, civilian, and foreign dignitaries headed by Vice President Richard M. Nixon. Also in attendance were representatives of the Society of the Cincinnati, the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, and the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, to all of which General <mask> had belonged."Family
March married <mask> (née Smith, 18 December 1862 – 18 November 1904), the widowed daughter of his battery commander, Lieutenant Colonel Lewis Smith, on July 4, 1891. She died in November 1904, while <mask> was still observing the Imperial Japanese Army. Between 28 November 1917 and 8 June 1918, their daughters Mildred (1893–1967), Josephine (1895–1972) and Vivian (1899–1932) had all married army officers, Josephine marrying <mask>'s aide-de-camp in World War I, Joseph M. Swing. Josephine had a twin brother, named <mask>. who died ten days after their birth. <mask>'s second son, also named <mask>., was killed in a plane crash in Texas during World War I. March AFB in Riverside, California was named in his honor. A third son, Lewis Alden <mask>, was born in 1904 and died in 1928.While traveling in Italy, he met <mask> McEntee (1897–1964), and married her in

masks:
March
Josephine Cunningham
March
March
Peyton Jr
March
Peyton Jr
March
Cora Virginia


texts:
Kang Seul-gi (; born February 10, 1994), known mononymously as Seulgi, is a South Korean singer and dancer. She is a member of the South Korean girl group Red Velvet and its sub-unit Red Velvet - Irene & Seulgi. She is also a member of South Korean supergroup Got the Beat. Life and career

1994–2014: Early life and career beginnings

Kang Seul-gi was born on February 10, 1994, in Ansan, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Her family consists of her parents and an older brother. She studied in Ansan Byeolmang Middle School and attended School of Performing Arts Seoul. She can speak both Korean and Japanese.Kang began training in SM Entertainment in 2007. On December 2, 2013, she was one of the first three trainees introduced to the public through SM Entertainment's pre-debut project, SM Rookies, alongside now-NCT members Jeno and Taeyong. Various pre-debut clips of Seulgi were released by SM, one of which was a dance performance with Irene covering ‘Be Natural’, a song that was sung originally by S.E.S. In July 2014, she was featured in Henry Lau's song "Butterfly" from his second EP Fantastic. She also appeared in the music video of the single "Fantastic". On August 1, 2014, Kang made her official debut as a member of Red Velvet. 2015–present: Solo activities and sub-unit

In January 2015, she starred in an SM Entertainment musical School Oz, playing the lead role of Dorothy.From April to May, she was part of the JTBC variety show Off to School. In July 2016, she released the song "Don't Push Me" with Wendy as part of the soundtrack of the KBS2 drama, Uncontrollably Fond. In October 2016, Seulgi appeared on King of Mask Singer as a contestant under the alias Cinema Heaven. On November 18, Seulgi sang "You, Just Like That" (그대는 그렇게), as the theme song of NCSoft's MMORPG Blade & Soul. The song was later officially released as digital single in 2017. On December 30, Seulgi with bandmate Wendy and other SM artists released a


texts: digital single titled "Sound of Your Heart" for SM Station. In January 2017, she released the song "You're the Only One I See" with Wendy as part of the soundtrack of the KBS2 drama, Hwarang: The Poet Warrior Youth.She released a duet titled "Darling U" with Super Junior's Yesung on January 22, as part of SM Station. In February 2017, <mask> and Hwang Chi-yeul collaborated for the song "Our Story", which serves as the final single track for Hwang's girl group duet project 'Fall, in girl'. In March 2017, Seulgi featured in NCT Mark's "Drop", an original song performed on High School Rapper, a survival hip hop reality TV show. <mask>, alongside six other female idols, was cast in Idol Drama Operation Team that was aired on May 29, 2017, wherein they created their own drama series, 'Let's Only Walk the Flower Road', by becoming accredited scriptwriters as well as acting in the series as fictional versions of themselves in a girl group. Their group, called 'Girls Next Door', also released the song "Deep Blue Eyes" and held their debut stage on July 14, 2017 at Music Bank. On October 27, she, along with Kangta and Wendy, released a remake of the 2001 song "인형 (Doll)" by Shinhwa's Shin Hye-sung and Lee Ji-hoon as part of the second season of the SM Station project. Its music video used footage from their live performance of the song at the SMTOWN LIVE TOUR V in JAPAN and was released on the same day.In the same month, she featured in a duet "Heart Stop" with Taemin of Shinee released on his second full Korean album, Move. In February 2018, <mask> was confirmed as part of the cast for Law of the Jungle in Mexico. In April, <mask> was also confirmed as part of the cast of JTBC new variety show Secret Unnie together with Sunmi. Seulgi was also featured on Moonbyul's solo debut single "Selfish", which was released on May 23, 2018. In June 2018, <mask> and Wendy was announced filming in Austria for Battle Trip’s special

masks: Seulgi Seulgi Seulgi Seulgi Seulgi


texts: 100th episode themed ‘The Country I Want to Live in’, which first episode aired on July 21, 2018. In September 2018, she released a single "Wow Thing" as part of a mini group, Station Young, with (G)I-dle's Soyeon, GFriend's SinB, and solo artist Chungha. In October 2018, Seulgi was announced as cast of JTBC's new show Cool Kids, along with Yoo Jae-suk, Kim Shin-young, and other celebrity representatives.Each cast member was introduced with an aspect that is widely acknowledged about them, <mask> was the one on the "trend". On October 15, <mask> was featured on South Korean hip-hop and R&B artist Zion.T's single "Hello Tutorial", which peaked at number 2 on the Gaon Digital Chart. On February 12, 2019, Seulgi released “Always”, a ballad song about eternal love for the tvN drama The Crowned Clown. In November 2019, during their La Rouge concert in Seoul, Seulgi performed the song "Uncover", which was first revealed then for her solo stage. On April 20, 2020, SM confirmed that Seulgi, alongside member Irene, would form Red Velvet's first sub-unit. Red Velvet - Irene & Seulgi debuted on July 6 with the extended play Monster. This EP contained the full studio version of <mask>'s solo song "Uncover".She and Irene also starred in the spin-off version of their group's reality show the Level Up Project! On October 31, 2020, <mask> was one of the guests of Yoon Do-hyun of YB Band for his virtual Acoustic Forest tour. On November 23, 2020, <mask> was confirmed to debut as an art essay translator for the book series "Art Gallery By My Side: Love, Happiness, Sleep". On January 25, 2021, Seulgi was featured in the music video of TVXQ Yunho's "Eeny Meeny". On February 1, <mask> and rapper Bewhy's commercial MV for their Volkswagen "Born Confident" campaign was  officially released online. On March 30, it was announced that <mask> will be featuring in one of Wendy's solo album debut tracks titled, "Best Friend", to be

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 released on April 5, 2021. On April 2, it was announced that <mask> will co-host a web music program titled, The Wise Music Encyclopedia.On June 1, she also started hosting her own live show, Seulgi.zip, on Naver Now. On December 27, 2021, Seulgi was revealed as a member of supergroup Got the Beat alongside Red Velvet groupmate Wendy. The group debuted on January 3, 2022. Artistry

Arts and photography
In addition to being a skilled dancer and vocalist, <mask> is also recognized for her art and photography skills. Photos of her artworks have circulated on various online communities, with many viewers praising her work. In 2016, Seulgi was chosen as the honorary ambassador for the 18th Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival to further help spread the festival's mission, which was to improve public awareness on animated films so students and lesser known artists in the field would gain more opportunities. In 2019, Seulgi lent her voice to serve as an audio guide during M. Chat exhibit of world class graffiti artists at Seoul Arts Center.L'Occitane collaborated with <mask> in 2019 for their 'City Palette' campaign. Through that brand's concept, Seulgi herself designed a city map, which later produced into eco bags that conveys the message of coloring the beauty of nature in cities that are losing charm due to pollution. Due to her love for arts, the Art Museum By My Side (2020) series project by Maronie Books was offered to her to translate. The book series is a collection of 35 artworks for each theme: Love, Happiness, Sleep. Seulgi's translation of the book, originally in English by Shana Gozansky, presents both the original text and Seulgi's own feelings and interpretations. She also personally picked her favorite artworks and wrote her own thoughts and feelings. The series aims to serve as guide to those people who usually find it difficult to enjoy art due to lack of professional

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 knowledge.Fashion

Seulgi is also recognized for her fashion sense. Her casual yet chic and trendy attires made her an emerging leader in casual fashion, and a reference for MZ generation. Her influence was often highlighted on the rise of minimalist fashion trend among Koreans in their 20s and 30s. In her show Seulgi.zip, which is mainly a fashion-themed program, she would talk about fashion items, style points, and favorite styles with her guests, and would give advice to her listeners too. She has also proven her influence as a fashion icon in the global fashion world when she became the first K-pop star to be selected as a global ambassador for Italian luxury brand Salvatore Ferragamo. A representative of the brand said that they selected her in anticipation of even greater synergy with her for being a fashion icon, a globally popular kpop-star, and an influential entertainer who shows outstanding performances in various ways. Public image and influence
Seulgi is known as an all-rounder artist through her performances and artworks.Brands often cite her positive vibes, creativity, passion for her craft, and her unique sensibility and style on why they choose her to represent them— a cultural icon supported by millennials. In Gallup Korea's Idol Preference poll (before it was discontinued in 2020), Seulgi ranked as one of the topmost popular idols, both in 2018 and 2019. She had also topped the monthly ‘Individual Girl Group Members Brand Power Ranking’ published by the Korean Corporate Reputation Research Institute a couple of times. In a survey among soldiers doing mandatory military service in South Korea in 2019, Seulgi ranked as the fourth most popular female K-pop idol. Seulgi is also well-loved by Korea Queer Women Community, consistently ranking on the top of the annual poll, due to her girl crush image. Other ventures

Endorsements
Aside from various endorsements with her bandmates, Seulgi became


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 ambassadors of known big brands. On March 21, 2018, Seulgi was picked to model Nike's collection for South Korea national football team - The Red Devils 2018 Collection.Since August 2018, <mask> has been the face of Converse Korea, becoming their first female brand ambassador. Starting with the 'One Star Campaign' under the slogan 'no one can evaluate me', <mask> and Converse have campaigned for support on one's own values and standards. On December 23, 2019, she was announced, alongside with Park Bo-gum, as the face for Coca-Cola's 2020 campaign 'Little Big Moments'. On December 26, L'Occitane posted their new campaign that featured Seulgi, and two other artists, art director Cha In-cheol and illustrator Kim Se-dong. Seulgi is an ambassador for L'Occitane x OMY's 'City Palette' campaign for their shea butter hand cream. In January 2021, Seulgi became the new ambassador of Volkswagen. She is the face of a new campaign for their new T-Roc model, and promotes it with an original jingle and music video for their slogan 'Born Confident'.On February 24, <mask> was officially announced as South Korea's brand ambassador of the Italian luxury brand Salvatore Ferragamo through her photoshoot with Harper's Bazaar; and was later on announced on June 29 as their global brand ambassador through their shoe capsule collection campaign, 'Let's Dance'. On April 29, Seulgi was announced as the newest model for cosmetics brand AMUSE. Discography

Filmography

Film

Television series

Television shows

Web shows

Radio shows

Music videos

Theatre

Awards and nominations

Notes

References

External links

 Official website

Red Velvet (group) members
South Korean female idols
1994 births
Living people
SM Rookies members
South Korean guitarists
People from Seoul
South Korean women pop singers
South Korean female models
South Korean television personalities
South Korean dance musicians
South Korean musical theatre