texts: Cosby could be sustained beyond a reasonable doubt". In November 2014 and through the November 2015 election, <mask>'s decision was heavily criticized, especially when other women came forward to accuse Cosby. Castor, however, assessed that none of these women known to him at the time would have been allowed to testify, making them legally irrelevant to the question of whether Castor should have arrested Cosby. On December 30, 2015, with the statute of limitations about to expire, Cosby was charged with felony sexual assault. At a preliminary hearing on February 2, 2016, Castor testified that he made a promise to never prosecute Cosby for the incident, but Judge Steven T. O'Neill ruled that the promise was not legally binding on the current district attorney, and ordered that the criminal case proceed. O'Neill further found that only <mask>’s word and no other evidence supported his contention and that the deal had never been memorialized in writing, and Castor was ultimately not a credible witness.O'Neill's ruling was reversed by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court on June 30, 2021, which held that Castor's non-prosecution pledge was in fact binding on Cosby's prosecutor; this ruling resulted in the overturning of Cosby's conviction and his release from prison. Dillon Cossey – Planned a Columbine-style attack on a local high school. Cossey was convicted in juvenile court. John Eichinger – The most prolific arrested serial killer documented in Montgomery County history. Eichinger murdered three young women and a small child. Two of the women had rejected his sexual advances and the other woman and child were witnesses. Eichinger received three death sentences and one sentence of life in prison.The case formed the basis for the production of a demo video for a proposed television show based on <mask>'s career called "Probable Cause," written and produced in 2007 by then Times Herald reporter Keith Phucas in Norristown,

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type: original

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 Pennsylvania. Caleb Fairley – Fairley sexually assaulted and murdered a mother and her child in his parents' shop, earning a double life sentence. The case was the first time DNA evidence was used to convict a killer in Montgomery County. The Fairley case formed the basis for the book Vampire Trap by Katherine Ramsland. <mask> is featured on the episode of Forensic Files ("Shopping Spree") devoted to the case. <mask> – Godschalk was convicted of rape in 1987 (before Castor was elected) and was freed in 2002 after DNA tests cast doubt on his guilt. Castor had fought against DNA testing, arguing that Godschalk did not have the legal right to it.Godschalk filed a lawsuit against the county, which was settled for approximately $1 million. In 2009, the United States Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in a similar case that convicts did not have a constitutional right to DNA testing. Craig Rabinowitz – Rabinowitz murdered his wife, Stefanie Newman, for the life insurance money to pay debts arising from a pyramid scheme, and to leave him free to pursue his obsession with a stripper. The case was front-page news for months and became the subject of multiple television programs and a book by Ken Englade called Everybody's Best Friend. He pleaded guilty to first degree murder and is serving a life sentence. Rafael Robb – Robb, a University of Pennsylvania professor of Game Theory, was accused of murdering his wife in a rage. Pleaded guilty to voluntary manslaughter and was sentenced to 5–10 years in prison, a sentence many believe was too lenient, with Castor arguing for a 20-year prison term.Guy Sileo – Sileo murdered his business partner in the General Wayne Inn, serving a life sentence for first degree murder. A highly circumstantial case, the "General Wayne Inn murder" has been the subject of numerous television portrayals. Attorney General race

<mask> ran for the GOP nomination for Pennsylvania Attorney General in 2004 against

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 Republican Tom Corbett. Furious that he had lost endorsements of the southeastern GOP chairmen, Castor attacked Corbett and the county chairmen with allegations of backroom deals with Bob Asher, the state's national GOP committeeman. <mask> and Asher had feuded for several years due to Asher's prior felony convictions for perjury, bribery, racketeering, and conspiracy in 1986 in the context of a political corruption scandal which also involved the State Treasurer, R. Budd Dwyer, leading to Dwyer's committing suicide at a press conference before his sentencing. Asher had been state GOP Chair during the scandal and was convicted for participating in the bribery of Dwyer. Asher's criminal past, connected to a political bribery scheme while he was the Republican state chair, became a subject of the campaign for the state's top law enforcement post.Castor was unable to produce proof of any conspiracy against him and ran without the party endorsement in all but two counties, his home base in Montgomery County and Monroe County. <mask> lost 52.8% to 47.2%, despite winning overwhelmingly the same southeastern counties whose chairmen had repudiated him, and his home in Montgomery County, where he took nearly 82.5% of the vote. Private practice
When his term as district attorney expired in January 2008, Castor took a position at the litigation firm of Elliott, Greenleaf & Siedzikowski in Blue Bell, Pennsylvania as a shareholder and director. One of his notable clients was professional basketball player Marko Jaric of the Memphis Grizzlies, who was accused of sexual assault in Philadelphia. Jaric was not charged in the case. In 2009, Castor represented Mark Sargent, who was investigated (but not charged) for patronizing a brothel while he served as dean of the Villanova University School of Law. In 2010, Castor represented his former boss, attorney Michael D. Marino, whose nephew accidentally shot and killed a man while

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 hunting.Marino, a former Montgomery County D.A., was present when the shooting occurred, despite knowing that his nephew was prohibited from owning and using firearms, owing to a felony conviction. Marino was not charged in the case. On July 1, 2013, Castor joined the law firm of Rogers & Associates (subsequently renamed Rogers Castor) as a civil-litigation lawyer in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, with former Lower Merion Commissioner and former Republican state senate nominee, Lance Rogers. Castor and Rogers Castor, renamed as Rogers Counsel, parted ways on December 31, 2020, and Castor joined the personal injury law firm of van der Veen, O'Neill, Hartshorn, and Levin. In 2017, Castor led the investigation into the Death of Tim Piazza at Pennsylvania State University. Montgomery County commissioner
In 2007, Castor challenged incumbent County Commissioner Tom Ellis, a one-time friend who had chaired Castor's campaigns in 1999 and 2003 but endorsed Corbett in 2004. Early in the campaign, Castor commissioned a poll showing that Ellis, who had been hobbled by negative press surrounding alleged domestic violence incidents, would lose in a general election.Ellis released his own poll to try to refute <mask>'s charges that he was unelectable. In a six candidate field, <mask> won the party endorsement on the first ballot, but his preferred running mate, former State Representative Melissa Murphy Weber, was narrowly defeated by incumbent Jim Matthews on the second ballot. Initially, Castor was reluctant to run with Matthews saying he believed Matthews was "untrustworthy." However, amid widespread pressure that he would be splitting the party, <mask> relented and ran with Matthews against former Democratic Congressman Joe Hoeffel and incumbent commissioner Ruth Damsker in the general election. During the campaign, some of Castor's earlier criticism of Matthews was raised by the Democrats, including financial support to Matthews from


texts: Bob Asher. Over Castor's objections who would not accept funds from a convicted felon, Matthews set up a separate campaign account from the Matthews/Castor account in order to collect contributions from Asher. On election day, Castor won, taking first place in the general election setting an electoral record at the time for the position.His running mate placed third, giving the GOP control of the commission. This was the first time in at least 140 years that a Republican failed to capture both the first and the second spot. Castor and Matthews served with Hoeffel, who finished second. It was immediately a rocky relationship with all Castor's earlier predictions about Matthews being "untrustworthy" coming true. Matthews and Hoeffel sided against Castor shutting him out of setting county policy. Castor responded by repeatedly making allegations of corruption against his fellow commissioners charging mismanagement of county finances, the hiring of unqualified people, and in the conduct of county business. A subsequent grand jury report found questionable behavior on Hoeffel's part for his participation in discussing county business at private breakfast meetings held with Matthews and senior aides–an alleged violation of state "sunshine" laws.However, unlike Matthews, who was later arrested for allegedly perjuring himself while testifying to the grand jury, Hoeffel was never charged with criminal wrongdoing. Nevertheless, Matthews and Hoeffel were unable to achieve endorsement for re-election and dropped out of the race, while GOP voters easily re-nominated Castor who was thus vindicated in his allegations of government corruption and mismanagement by Hoeffel and Matthews. On November 8, 2011, St. Rep. Josh Shapiro, Whitemarsh Twp. Supervisor Leslie Richards, and Castor were elected, marking the first time in county history Democrats controlled two of the three seats on the Board of Commissioners. Shapiro was elected


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 chairman unanimously on nomination from Castor. All three members of the commission later noted the improved level of civility and functionality on the board, with Castor expressing pride in working with Shapiro and Richards whom he considered "honest." The relationship amongst the three commissioners later prompted one columnist of The Philadelphia Inquirer to note that she owed Castor an apology for considering his complaints about the prior county administration "sour grapes".On November 3, 2015, Castor was defeated in his effort to return to the district attorney's post and Joe Gale was elected to succeed Castor as county commissioner. Upon retiring from county service after 30 years on January 4, 2016, Castor began practicing law full-time as a trial lawyer. Solicitor general and acting attorney general

On March 21, 2016, Castor took the oath of office as the first Solicitor General of Pennsylvania. Being summoned to her Scranton office by Pennsylvania Attorney General Kathleen G. Kane on March 4, 2016, without explanation, Castor met General Kane expecting her to request him to represent her in a private capacity. Instead, Kane offered him the newly created position of Solicitor General of Pennsylvania (later merged into the job of first deputy attorney general), and Castor accepted. The move was necessitated because the Attorney General had her license to practice law suspended by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. Castor was supposedly subordinate to Kane in all matters except for making legal decisions on behalf of Pennsylvania, though most observers considered him the de facto attorney general, a fact later confirmed upon Kane's resignation.In practice, Castor operated as a bridge between Kane and the remainder of the office of attorney general, in addition to being the final word on legal matters, in order to make the executive portion of the office function properly. However, following Democrat Kathleen


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 Kane's sudden resignation, Republican <mask> was sworn in as Acting Attorney General of Pennsylvania, no longer simply de facto attorney general, though later that week Democratic Governor Tom Wolf nominated Democratic Inspector General <mask> to serve the remainder of Kane's term. The Pennsylvania Senate confirmed the nomination quickly. After <mask> assumed the office of Acting Attorney General, he was the subject of criticism, and on August 30, 2016, <mask> succeeded <mask> as attorney general. <mask> resigned from the office of attorney general on September 9, 2016, reverting to first deputy attorney general and, finally, solicitor general. Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump

On January 31, 2021, Castor was appointed to take the lead for Donald J. Trump's defense team for his 2021 impeachment trial, alongside criminal law practitioner David Schoen. Castor's opening arguments on February 9, 2021, were widely reported to be confusing and rambling.Trump was reportedly "furious" about <mask>'s "rambling, almost somnambulant defense." Texas Republican U.S. Senator John Cornyn commented, "The president's lawyer just rambled on and on" and "I've seen a lot of lawyers and a lot of arguments, and that was not one of the finest I've seen." <mask> for his part suggested the former President did not criticize his performance. "Far from it," he said. References

External links
Montgomery County Commissioners

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1961 births
20th-century American lawyers
21st-century American lawyers
American prosecutors
Chestnut Hill Academy alumni
County commissioners in Pennsylvania
County district attorneys in Pennsylvania
Lafayette College alumni
Living people
Montgomery County Commissioners (Pennsylvania)
Solicitors General of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Attorneys General
Pennsylvania lawyers
Pennsylvania Republicans
People from Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Washington and Lee University School of Law alumni
Second

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Bruce Beemer
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Bruce Beemer
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<mask> () (Würzburg, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire; 5 December 1901 – Munich, Bavaria, Germany; 1 February 1976) was a German theoretical physicist and one of the key pioneers of quantum mechanics. He published his work in 1925 in a breakthrough paper. In the subsequent series of papers with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, during the same year, his matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially elaborated. He is known for the uncertainty principle, which he published in 1927. <mask> was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the creation of quantum mechanics". <mask> also made contributions to the theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic rays, and subatomic particles. He was a principal scientist in the German nuclear weapons program during World War II.He was also instrumental in planning the first West German nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe, together with a research reactor in Munich, in 1957. Following World War II, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which soon thereafter was renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics. He was director of the institute until it was moved to Munich in 1958. He then became director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics from 1960 to 1970. <mask> was also president of the German Research Council, chairman of the Commission for Atomic Physics, chairman of the Nuclear Physics Working Group, and president of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Early life and education

Early years
<mask> <mask> was born in Würzburg, Germany, to Kaspar Ernst August <mask>, and his wife, Annie Wecklein. His father was a secondary school teacher of classical languages who became Germany's only ordentlicher

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Werner Karl Heisenberg
Heisenberg
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 Professor (ordinarius professor) of medieval and modern Greek studies in the university system.<mask> was raised and lived as a Lutheran Christian. In his late teenage years, <mask> read Plato's Timaeus while hiking in the Bavarian Alps. He recounted philosophical conversations with his fellow students and teachers about understanding the atom while receiving his scientific training in Munich, Göttingen and Copenhagen. <mask> later stated that "My mind was formed by studying philosophy, Plato and that sort of thing". and that "Modern physics has definitely decided in favor of Plato. In fact the smallest units of matter are not physical objects in the ordinary sense; they are forms, ideas which can be expressed unambiguously only in mathematical language". In 1919 <mask> arrived in Munich as a member of the Freikorps to fight the Bavarian Soviet Republic established a year earlier.Five decades later he recalled those days as youthful fun, like "playing cops and robbers and so on; it was nothing serious at all;" his duties were restricted to "seizing bicycles or typewriters from 'red' administrative buildings", and guarding suspected "red" prisoners. University studies

From 1920 to 1923, he studied physics and mathematics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld and Wilhelm Wien and at the Georg-August University of Göttingen with Max Born and James Franck and mathematics with David Hilbert. He received his doctorate in 1923 at Munich under Sommerfeld. At Göttingen, under Born, he completed his habilitation in 1924 with a Habilitationsschrift (habilitation thesis) on the anomalous Zeeman effect. In June 1922, Sommerfeld took <mask> to Göttingen to attend the Bohr Festival, because Sommerfeld had a sincere interest in

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 his students and knew of <mask>'s interest in Niels Bohr's theories on atomic physics. At the event, Bohr was a guest lecturer and gave a series of comprehensive lectures on quantum atomic physics and <mask> met Bohr for the first time, which had a lasting effect on him. <mask>'s doctoral thesis, the topic of which was suggested by Sommerfeld, was on turbulence; the thesis discussed both the stability of laminar flow and the nature of turbulent flow.The problem of stability was investigated by the use of the Orr–Sommerfeld equation, a fourth order linear differential equation for small disturbances from laminar flow. He briefly returned to this topic after World War II. In his youth he was a member and Scoutleader of the Neupfadfinder, a German Scout association and part of the German Youth Movement. In August 1923 Robert Honsell and <mask> organized a trip to Finland with a Scout group of this association from Munich. Personal life
<mask> enjoyed classical music and was an accomplished pianist. His interest in music led to meeting his future wife. In January 1937, <mask> met Elisabeth Schumacher (1914–1998) at a private music recital.Elisabeth was the daughter of a well-known Berlin economics professor, and her brother was the economist E. F. Schumacher, author of Small Is Beautiful. <mask> married her on 29 April. Fraternal twins Maria and Wolfgang were born in January 1938, whereupon Wolfgang Pauli congratulated <mask> on his "pair creation"—a word play on a process from elementary particle physics, pair production. They had five more children over the next 12 years: Barbara, Christine, Jochen, Martin and Verena. In 1936 he bought a summer home for his family in Urfeld am Walchensee, in southern Germany. Academic career

Göttingen, Copenhagen

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 and Leipzig
From 1924 to 1927, <mask> was a Privatdozent at Göttingen, meaning he was qualified to teach and examine independently, without having a chair. From 17 September 1924 to 1 May 1925, under an International Education Board Rockefeller Foundation fellowship, <mask> went to do research with Niels Bohr, director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen.His seminal paper, "Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen" ("Quantum theoretical re-interpretation of kinematic and mechanical relations"), was published in September 1925. He returned to Göttingen and, with Max Born and Pascual Jordan over a period of about six months, developed the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. On 1 May 1926, <mask> began his appointment as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr in Copenhagen. It was in Copenhagen, in 1927, that <mask> developed his uncertainty principle, while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. On 23 February, <mask> wrote a letter to fellow physicist Wolfgang Pauli, in which he first described his new principle. In his paper on the principle, <mask> used the word "Ungenauigkeit" (imprecision), not uncertainty, to describe it. In 1927, <mask> was appointed ordentlicher Professor (professor ordinarius) of theoretical physics and head of the department of physics at the University of Leipzig; he gave his inaugural lecture there on 1 February 1928.In his first paper published from Leipzig, <mask> used the Pauli exclusion principle to solve the mystery of ferromagnetism. During <mask>'s tenure at Leipzig, the high quality of the doctoral students and post-graduate and research associates who studied and worked with him is clear from the

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texts: acclaim many later earned. At various times they included Erich Bagge, Felix Bloch, Ugo Fano, Siegfried Flügge, William Vermillion Houston, Friedrich Hund, Robert S. Mulliken, Rudolf Peierls, George Placzek, Isidor Isaac Rabi, Fritz Sauter, John C. Slater, Edward Teller, John Hasbrouck van Vleck, Victor Frederick Weisskopf, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Gregor Wentzel, and Clarence Zener. In early 1929, <mask> and Pauli submitted the first of two papers laying the foundation for relativistic quantum field theory. Also in 1929, <mask> went on a lecture tour of China, Japan, India, and the United States. In the spring of 1929, he was a visiting lecturer at the University of Chicago, where he lectured on quantum mechanics. In 1928, the British mathematical physicist Paul Dirac had derived his relativistic wave equation of quantum mechanics, which implied the existence of positive electrons, later to be named positrons.In 1932, from a cloud chamber photograph of cosmic rays, the American physicist Carl David Anderson identified a track as having been made by a positron. In mid-1933, <mask> presented his theory of the positron. His thinking on Dirac's theory and further development of the theory were set forth in two papers. The first, "Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons" ("Remarks on Dirac's theory of the positron") was published in 1934, and the second, "Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons" ("Consequences of Dirac's Theory of the Positron"), was published in 1936. In these papers <mask> was the first to reinterpret the Dirac equation as a "classical" field equation for any point particle of spin ħ/2, itself subject to quantization conditions involving anti-commutators. Thus reinterpreting it as a (quantum) field

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 equation accurately describing electrons, <mask> put matter on the same footing as electromagnetism: as being described by relativistic quantum field equations which allowed the possibility of particle creation and destruction. (Hermann Weyl had already described this in a 1929 letter to Albert Einstein.)Matrix mechanics and the Nobel Prize

<mask>'s paper establishing quantum mechanics has puzzled physicists and historians. His methods assume that the reader is familiar with Kramers-<mask> transition probability calculations. The main new idea, non-commuting matrices, is justified only by a rejection of unobservable quantities. It introduces the non-commutative multiplication of matrices by physical reasoning, based on the correspondence principle, despite the fact that <mask> was not then familiar with the mathematical theory of matrices. The path leading to these results has been reconstructed in MacKinnon, 1977, and the detailed calculations are worked out in Aitchison et al. In Copenhagen, <mask> and Hans Kramers collaborated on a paper on dispersion, or the scattering from atoms of radiation whose wavelength is larger than the atoms. They showed that the successful formula Kramers had developed earlier could not be based on Bohr orbits, because the transition frequencies are based on level spacings which are not constant.The frequencies which occur in the Fourier transform of sharp classical orbits, by contrast, are equally spaced. But these results could be explained by a semi-classical virtual state model: the incoming radiation excites the valence, or outer, electron to a virtual state from which it decays. In a subsequent paper <mask>–Sommerfeld model to explain the outstanding problem of the anomalous Zeeman effect, led <mask> to use

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texts: the virtual oscillator model to try to calculate spectral frequencies. The method proved too difficult to immediately apply to realistic problems, so <mask> turned to a simpler example, the anharmonic oscillator. The dipole oscillator consists of a simple harmonic oscillator, which is thought of as a charged particle on a spring, perturbed by an external force, like an external charge. The motion of the oscillating charge can be expressed as a Fourier series in the frequency of the oscillator.<mask> solved for the quantum behavior by two different methods. First, he treated the system with the virtual oscillator method, calculating the transitions between the levels that would be produced by the external source. He then solved the same problem by treating the anharmonic potential term as a perturbation to the harmonic oscillator and using the perturbation methods that he and Born had developed. Both methods led to the same results for the first and the very complicated second order correction terms. This suggested that behind the very complicated calculations lay a consistent scheme. So <mask> set out to formulate these results without any explicit dependence on the virtual oscillator model. To do this, he replaced the Fourier expansions for the spatial coordinates by matrices, matrices which corresponded to the transition coefficients in the virtual oscillator method.He justified this replacement by an appeal to Bohr's correspondence principle and the Pauli doctrine that quantum mechanics must be limited to observables. On 9 July, <mask> gave Born this paper to review and submit for publication. When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices, which he


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 had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes at Breslau University. Born, with the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan, began immediately to make the transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after <mask>'s paper. A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors. Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics. Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912 and Born had used them in his work on the lattice theory of crystals in 1921.While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. In 1928, Albert Einstein nominated <mask>, Born, and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics, The announcement of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 was delayed until November 1933. It was at that time that it was announced <mask> had won the Prize for 1932 "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen". Interpretation of quantum theory

The  development of quantum mechanics, and the apparent contradictory implications in regard to what is "real" had profound philosophical implications, including what scientific observations truly mean. In contrast to Albert Einstein and Louis de Broglie, who were realists who believed that particles had an objectively true momentum and position at all times (even if both could not be measured), <mask> was an anti-realist, arguing that direct knowledge of what is "real" was


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 beyond the scope of science. Writing in his book The Physicist's Conception of Nature, <mask> argued that ultimately we only can speak of the knowledge (numbers in tables) which describe something about particles but we can never have any "true" access to the particles themselves:We can no longer speak of the behaviour of the particle independently of the process of observation. As a final consequence, the natural laws formulated mathematically in quantum theory no longer deal with the elementary particles themselves but with our knowledge of them.Nor is it any longer possible to ask whether or not these particles exist in space and time objectively ... When we speak of the picture of nature in the exact science of our age, we do not mean a picture of nature so much as a picture of our relationships with nature. ...Science no longer confronts nature as an objective observer, but sees itself as an actor in this interplay between man and nature. The scientific method of analysing, explaining and classifying has become conscious of its limitations, which arise out of the fact that by its intervention science alters and refashions the object of investigation. In other words, method and object can no longer be separated. SS investigation
Shortly after the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932, <mask> submitted the first of three papers on his neutron-proton model of the nucleus. After Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, <mask> was attacked in the press as a "White Jew" (i.e.an Aryan who acts like a Jew). Supporters of Deutsche Physik, or German Physics (also known as Aryan Physics), launched vicious attacks against leading theoretical physicists, including Arnold Sommerfeld and <mask>. From the early 1930s onward, the anti-Semitic and


texts: anti-theoretical physics movement Deutsche Physik had concerned itself with quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity. As applied in the university environment, political factors took priority over scholarly ability, even though its two most prominent supporters were the Nobel Laureates in Physics Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark. There had been many failed attempts to have <mask> appointed as professor at a number of German universities. His attempt to be appointed as successor to Arnold Sommerfeld failed because of opposition by the Deutsche Physik movement. On 1 April 1935, the eminent theoretical physicist Sommerfeld, <mask>'s doctoral advisor at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, achieved emeritus status.However, Sommerfeld stayed in his chair during the selection process for his successor, which took until 1 December 1939. The process was lengthy due to academic and political differences between the Munich Faculty's selection and that of the Reich Education Ministry and the supporters of Deutsche Physik. In 1935, the Munich Faculty drew up a list of candidates to replace Sommerfeld as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich. The three candidates had all been former students of Sommerfeld: <mask>, who had received the Nobel Prize in Physics; Peter Debye, who had received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1936; and Richard Becker. The Munich Faculty was firmly behind these candidates, with <mask> as their first choice. However, supporters of Deutsche Physik and elements in the REM had their own list of candidates, and the battle dragged on for over four years. During this time, <mask> came under vicious attack by the Deutsche Physik supporters.One


texts: attack was published in "The Black Corps", the newspaper of the SS, headed by Heinrich Himmler. In this, Heisenberg was called a "White Jew" who should be made to "disappear".<ref>{{harvnb|Hentschel|Hentschel|1996|pp=152–157 Document #55 'White Jews' in Science (15 July 1937)}}</ref> These attacks were taken seriously, as Jews were violently attacked and incarcerated. <mask> fought back with an editorial and a letter to Himmler, in an attempt to resolve the matter and regain his honour. At one point, <mask>'s mother visited Himmler's mother. The two women knew each other, as <mask>'s maternal grandfather and Himmler's father were rectors and members of a Bavarian hiking club. Eventually, Himmler settled the <mask> affair by sending two letters, one to SS Gruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich and one to Heisenberg, both on 21 July 1938. In the letter to Heydrich, Himmler said Germany could not afford to lose or silence Heisenberg, as he would be useful for teaching a generation of scientists.To <mask>, Himmler said the letter came on recommendation of his family and he cautioned <mask> to make a distinction between professional physics research results and the personal and political attitudes of the involved scientists. Wilhelm Müller replaced Sommerfeld at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Müller was not a theoretical physicist, had not published in a physics journal, and was not a member of the German Physical Society. His appointment was considered a travesty and detrimental to educating theoretical physicists. The three investigators who led the SS investigation of <mask> had training in physics. Indeed, <mask> had participated in the doctoral examination of one of them at the Universität Leipzig. The most influential of the three was


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 Johannes Juilfs.During their investigation, they became supporters of <mask> as well as his position against the ideological policies of the Deutsche Physik movement in theoretical physics and academia. German nuclear weapons program

Pre-war work on physics
In mid-1936, <mask>, W. (1937) Theoretische Untersuchungen zur Ultrastrahlung, Verh. Dtsch. Phys. Ges. Volume 18, 50, as cited by <mask>, W. (1938) Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern, Nuovo Cimento Volume 15, 31–34; Verh.Dtsch. Phys. Ges. Volume 19, 2, as cited by  appeared in the next two years. In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to The Natural Sciences reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons and Otto Hahn concluded a bursting of the uranium nucleus; simultaneously, Hahn communicated these results to his friend Lise Meitner, who had in July of that year fled to the Netherlands and then went to Sweden. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted Hahn's and Strassmann's results as being nuclear fission. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939.In June 1939, <mask> traveled to the United States in June and July, visiting Samuel Abraham Goudsmit at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. However, <mask> refused an invitation to emigrate to the United States. He did not see Goudsmit again until six years later, when Goudsmit was the chief scientific advisor to the American Operation Alsos at the close of World War II. Membership in the Uranverein
The German nuclear weapons program, known as Uranverein, was formed on 1 September 1939, the day World War II began. The Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office) had squeezed the

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texts: Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council) out of the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM, Reich Ministry of Education) and started the formal German nuclear energy project under military auspices. The project had its first meeting on 16 September 1939. The meeting was organized by Kurt Diebner, advisor to the HWA, and held in Berlin.The invitees included Walther Bothe, Siegfried Flügge, Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Gerhard Hoffmann, Josef Mattauch and Georg Stetter. A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included <mask>, Klaus Clusius, Robert Döpel and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. The Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) in Berlin-Dahlem, was placed under HWA authority, with Diebner as the administrative director, and the military control of the nuclear research commenced. During the period when Diebner administered the KWIP under the HWA program, considerable personal and professional animosity developed between Diebner and <mask>'s inner circle, which included Karl Wirtz and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. At a scientific conference on 26–28 February 1942 at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, called by the Army Weapons Office, <mask> presented a lecture to Reichs officials on energy acquisition from nuclear fission. The lecture, entitled "Die theoretischen Grundlagen für die Energiegewinning aus der Uranspaltung" ("The theoretical basis for energy generation from uranium fission") was, as <mask> confessed after the Second World War in a letter to Samuel Goudsmit, "adapted to the intellectual level of a Reichs Minister". <mask> lectured on the enormous energy potential of nuclear fission, stating that 250 million electron volts could be released through the fission of an


texts: atomic nucleus.<mask> stressed that pure U-235 had to be obtained to achieve a chain reaction. He explored various ways of obtaining isotope  in its pure form, including uranium enrichment and an alternative layered method of normal uranium and a moderator in a machine. This machine, he noted, could be used in practical ways to fuel vehicles, ships and submarines. <mask> stressed the importance of the Army Weapons Office's financial and material support for this scientific endeavour. A second scientific conference followed. Lectures were heard on problems of modern physics with decisive importance for the national defense and economy. The conference was attended by Bernhard Rust, the Reichs Minister of Science, Education and National Culture.At the conference Reichs Minister Rust decided to take the nuclear project away from the Kaiser Wilhelm Society. The Reichs Research Council was to take on the project. In April 1942 the army returned the Physics Institute to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, naming <mask> as Director at the Institute. With this appointment at the KWIP, <mask> obtained his first professorship. Peter Debye was still director of the institute, but had gone on leave to the United States after he had refused to become a German citizen when the HWA took administrative control of the KWIP. <mask> still also had his department of physics at the University of Leipzig where work had been done for the Uranverein by Robert Döpel and his wife Klara Döpel. On 4 June 1942, <mask> was summoned to report to Albert Speer, Germany's Minister of Armaments, on the prospects for converting the Uranverein's research toward developing nuclear weapons.During the meeting, <mask> told Speer that a bomb could not be built before 1945, because it would

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 require significant monetary resources and number of personnel.Prof. <mask> <mask> (I662) . Stanford.edu

After the Uranverein project was placed under the leadership of the Reichs Research Council, it focused on nuclear power production and thus maintained its kriegswichtig (importance for the war) status; funding therefore continued from the military. The nuclear power project was broken down into the following main areas: uranium and heavy water production, uranium isotope separation and the Uranmaschine (uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor). The project was then essentially split up between a number of institutes, where the directors dominated the research and set their own research agendas. ; see the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entries for the HWA and the RFR in Appendix B. Also see p. 372 and footnote #50 on p. 372.The point in 1942, when the army relinquished its control of the German nuclear weapons program, was the zenith of the project relative to the number of personnel. About 70 scientists worked for the program, with about 40 devoting more than half their time to nuclear fission research. After 1942, the number of scientists working on applied nuclear fission diminished dramatically. Many of the scientists not working with the main institutes stopped working on nuclear fission and devoted their efforts to more pressing war-related work. In September 1942, <mask> submitted his first paper of a three-part series on the scattering matrix, or S-matrix, in elementary particle physics. The first two papers were published in 1943 as cited in  and the third in 1944. The S-matrix described only the states of incident particles in a collision process, the states of those emerging from the collision, and stable bound states;

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Werner Carl
Heisenberg
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 there would be no reference to the intervening states.This was the same precedent as he followed in 1925 in what turned out to be the foundation of the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics through only the use of observables. In February 1943, <mask> was appointed to the Chair for Theoretical Physics at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (today, the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin). In April, his election to the Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Prussian Academy of Sciences) was approved. That same month, he moved his family to their retreat in Urfeld as Allied bombing increased in Berlin. In the summer, he dispatched the first of his staff at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik to Hechingen and its neighboring town of Haigerloch, on the edge of the Black Forest, for the same reasons. From 18–26 October, he travelled to German-occupied Netherlands. In December 1943, <mask> visited German-occupied Poland.From 24 January to 4 February 1944, <mask> travelled to occupied Copenhagen, after the German army confiscated Bohr's Institute of Theoretical Physics. He made a short return trip in April. In December, <mask> lectured in neutral Switzerland. The United States Office of Strategic Services sent agent Moe Berg to attend the lecture carrying a pistol, with orders to shoot <mask> if his lecture indicated that Germany was close to completing an atomic bomb. In January 1945, <mask>, with most of the rest of his staff, moved from the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik to the facilities in the Black Forest. Post-Second World War
1945: Alsos Mission

The Alsos Mission was an Allied effort to determine if the Germans had an atomic bomb program and to exploit German atomic related facilities, research, material resources, and scientific personnel

masks: Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg


texts: for the benefit of the US. Personnel on this operation generally swept into areas which had just come under control of the Allied military forces, but sometimes they operated in areas still under control by German forces.Pash, Boris T. (1969) The Alsos Mission.Award. pp. 219–241. Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities. To limit casualties and loss of equipment, many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the latter years of the war. The Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) had been bombed so it had mostly been moved in 1943 and 1944 to Hechingen and its neighboring town of Haigerloch, on the edge of the Black Forest, which eventually became included in the French occupation zone. This allowed the American task force of the Alsos Mission to take into custody a large number of German scientists associated with nuclear research.On 30 March, the Alsos Mission reached Heidelberg, where important scientists were captured including Walther Bothe, Richard Kuhn, Philipp Lenard, and Wolfgang Gertner. Their interrogation revealed that Otto Hahn was at his laboratory in Tailfingen, while <mask> and Max von Laue were at Heisenberg's laboratory in Hechingen, and that the experimental natural uranium reactor that <mask>'s team had built in Berlin had been moved to Haigerloch. Thereafter, the main focus of the Alsos Mission was on these nuclear facilities in the Württemberg area. <mask> was smuggled out from Urfeld, on 3 May 1945, in an alpine operation in territory still under control by elite German forces. He was taken to Heidelberg, where, on 5 May, he met Goudsmit for the first time since the Ann Arbor visit in 1939. Germany surrendered just two days later.

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 <mask> would not see his family again for eight months, as he was moved across France and Belgium and flown to England on 3 July 1945.1945: Reaction to Hiroshima
Nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in Nuclear Physics Research Reports as members of the Uranverein were captured by Operation Alsos and incarcerated in England under Operation Epsilon. Ten German scientists, including <mask>, were held at Farm Hall in England. The facility had been a safe house of the British foreign intelligence MI6. During their detention, their conversations were recorded. Conversations thought to be of intelligence value were transcribed and translated into English. The transcripts were released in 1992. On 6 August 1945, the scientists at Farm Hall learned from media reports that the USA had dropped an atomic bomb in Hiroshima, Japan.At first, there was disbelief that a bomb had been built and dropped. In the weeks that followed, the German scientists discussed how the USA might have built the bomb. The Farm Hall transcripts reveal that <mask>, along with other physicists interned at Farm Hall including Otto Hahn and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, were glad the Allies had won World War II. <mask> told other scientists that he had never contemplated a bomb, only an atomic pile to produce energy. The morality of creating a bomb for the Nazis was also discussed. Only a few of the scientists expressed genuine horror at the prospect of nuclear weapons, and <mask> himself was cautious in discussing the matter. On the failure of the German nuclear weapons program to build an atomic bomb, <mask> remarked, "We wouldn't have had the moral courage to recommend to the Government in the spring of 1942 that they should employ 120,000 men just for


texts:
 building the thing up."Post-war research career

Executive positions at German research institutions
On 3 January 1946, the ten Operation Epsilon detainees were transported to Alswede in Germany. <mask> settled in Göttingen, which was in the British zone of Allied-occupied Germany. <mask> immediately began to promote scientific research in Germany. Following the Kaiser Wilhelm Society's obliteration by the Allied Control Council and the establishment of the Max Planck Society in the British zone, <mask> became the director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics. Max von Laue was appointed vice director, while Karl Wirtz, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Ludwig Biermann joined to help <mask> establish the institute. Heinz Billing joined in 1950 to promote the development of electronic computing. The core research focus of the institute was cosmic radiation.The institute held a colloquium every Saturday morning. <mask> together with  was instrumental in the establishment of the Forschungsrat (research council). <mask> envisaged for this council to promote the dialogue between the newly founded Federal Republic of Germany and the scientific community based in Germany. <mask> was appointed president of the Forschungsrat. In 1951, the organization was fused with the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (Emergency Association of German Science) and that same year renamed the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation). Following the merger, <mask> was appointed to the presidium. In 1958, the Max-Planck-Institut für Physik was moved to Munich, expanded, and renamed Max-Planck-Institut für Physik und Astrophysik (MPIFA).In the interim, <mask> and the astrophysicist Ludwig Biermann were co-directors of MPIFA. <mask> also became

masks: Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg


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 an ordentlicher Professor (ordinarius professor) at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. <mask> was the sole director of MPIFA from 1960 to 1970. <mask> resigned his directorship of the MPIFA on 31 December 1970. Promotion of international scientific cooperation
In 1951, <mask> agreed to become the scientific representative of the Federal Republic of Germany at the UNESCO conference, with the aim of establishing a European laboratory for nuclear physics. <mask>'s aim was to build a large particle accelerator, drawing on the resources and technical skills of scientists across the Western Bloc. On 1 July 1953 <mask> signed the convention that established CERN on behalf of the Federal Republic of Germany.Although he was asked to become CERN's founding scientific director, he declined. Instead, he was appointed chair of CERN's science policy committee and went on to determine the scientific program at CERN. In December 1953, <mask> became the president of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. During his tenure as president 550 Humboldt scholars from 78 nations received scientific research grants. <mask> resigned as president shortly before his death. Research interests
In 1946, the German scientist Heinz Pose, head of Laboratory V in Obninsk, wrote a letter to <mask> inviting him to work in the USSR. The letter lauded the working conditions in the USSR and the available resources, as well as the favorable attitude of the Soviets towards German scientists.A courier hand delivered the recruitment letter, dated 18 July 1946, to <mask>; <mask> politely declined. In 1947, <mask> presented lectures in Cambridge, Edinburgh and Bristol. <mask> contributed to the understanding of the phenomenon of superconductivity with a paper in 1947 and two papers

masks: Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg Heisenberg


texts: in 1948, cited in  one of them with Max von Laue. In the period shortly after World War II, <mask> briefly returned to the subject of his doctoral thesis, turbulence. Three papers were published in 1948 as cited in  and one in 1950., as cited in  In the post-war period <mask> continued his interests in cosmic-ray showers with considerations on multiple production of mesons. He published three papers as cited in  in 1949, two as cited in  in 1952, and one in 1955. In late 1955 to early 1956, <mask>ord Lectures at St Andrews University, in Scotland, on the intellectual history of physics.The lectures were later published as Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science. During 1956 and 1957, <mask> was the chairman of the Arbeitskreis Kernphysik (Nuclear Physics Working Group) of the Fachkommission II "Forschung und Nachwuchs" (Commission II "Research and Growth") of the Deutsche Atomkommission (DAtK, German Atomic Energy Commission). Other members of the Nuclear Physics Working Group in both 1956 and 1957 were: Walther Bothe, Hans Kopfermann (vice-chairman), Fritz Bopp, Wolfgang Gentner, Otto Haxel, Willibald Jentschke, Heinz Maier-Leibnitz, Josef Mattauch, Wolfgang Riezler, Wilhelm Walcher and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. Wolfgang Paul was also a member of the group during 1957. In 1957, <mask> was a signatory of the Göttinger Manifest, taking a public stand against the Federal Republic of Germany arming itself with nuclear weapons. <mask>, like Pascual Jordan, thought politicians would ignore this statement by nuclear scientists. But <mask> believed that the Göttinger Manifest would "influence public opinion" which politicians would have to take into account.He wrote to Walther Gerlach: "We will probably have to keep coming back to

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 this question in public for a long time because of the danger that public opinion will slacken." In 1961 <mask> signed the Memorandum of Tübingen alongside a group of scientists who had been brought together by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Ludwig Raiser. A public discussion between scientists and politicians ensued. As prominent politicians, authors and socialites joined the debate on nuclear weapons, the signatories of the memorandum took a stand against "the full-time intellectual nonconformists". From 1957 onwards, <mask> was interested in plasma physics and the process of nuclear fusion. He also collaborated with the International Institute of Atomic Physics in Geneva. He was a member of the Institute's scientific policy committee, and for several years was the Committee's chair.He was one of the eight signatories of the Memorandum of Tübingen which called for the recognition of the Oder–Neiße line as the official border between Germany and Poland and spoke against a possible nuclear armament of West Germany. In 1973, <mask> gave a lecture at Harvard University on the historical development of the concepts of quantum theory. On 24 March 1973 <mask> gave a speech before the Catholic Academy of Bavaria, accepting the Romano Guardini Prize. An English translation of his speech was published under the title "Scientific and Religious Truth", a quotation from which appears in a later section of this article. Philosophy and worldview
<mask> admired Eastern philosophy and saw parallels between it and quantum mechanics, describing himself as in "complete agreement" with the book The Tao of Physics. <mask> even went as far to state that after conversations with Rabindranath Tagore about Indian philosophy "some of the ideas that seemed so crazy


texts:
 suddenly made much more sense". Regarding the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, <mask> disliked Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus but he liked "very much the later ideas of Wittgenstein and his philosophy about language."<mask>, a devout Christian,Marganau, Henry (1985). "Why am I a Christian". Truth Journal, Vol. I wrote: "We can console ourselves that the good Lord God would know the position of the [subatomic] particles, thus He would let the causality principle continue to have validity," in his last letter to Albert Einstein. Einstein continued to maintain that quantum physics must be incomplete because it implies that the universe is indeterminate at a fundamental level. In lectures given in the 1950s and later published as Physics and Philosophy, <mask> contended that scientific advances were leading to cultural conflicts. He stated that modern physics is "part of a general historical process that tends toward a unification and a widening of our present world".When <mask> accepted the  in 1974, he gave a speech, which he later published under the title Scientific and Religious Truth. He mused:

Autobiography and death
<mask>'s son, <mask>, became a neurobiologist at the University of Würzburg, while his son Jochen <mask> became a physics professor at the University of New Hampshire. In his late sixties, <mask> penned his autobiography for the mass market. In 1969 the book was published in Germany, in early 1971 it was published in English and in the years thereafter in a string of other languages. <mask> had initiated the project in 1966, when his public lectures increasingly turned to the subjects of philosophy and religion. <mask> had sent the manuscript for a textbook on the unified field theory to the Hirzel Verlag and John Wiley & Sons

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Heisenberg
Heisenberg
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Martin Heisenberg
Heisenberg
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texts: for publication. This manuscript, he wrote to one of his publishers, was the preparatory work for his autobiography.He structured his autobiography in themes, covering: 1) The goal of exact science, 2) The problematic of language in atomic physics, 3) Abstraction in mathematics and science, 4) The divisibility of matter or Kant's antinomy, 5) The basic symmetry and its substantiation, and 6) Science and religion. <mask> wrote his memoirs as a chain of conversations, covering the course of his life. The book became a popular success, but was regarded as troublesome by historians of science. In the preface <mask> wrote that he had abridged historical events, to make them more concise. At the time of publication it was reviewed by Paul Forman in the journal Science with the comment "Now here is a memoir in the form of rationally reconstructed dialogue. And the dialogue as Galileo well knew, is itself a most insidious literary device: lively, entertaining, and especially suited for insinuating opinions while yet evading responsibility for them." Few scientific memoirs had been published, but Konrad Lorenz and Adolf Portmann had penned popular books that conveyed scholarship to a wide audience.<mask> worked on his autobiography and published it with the Piper Verlag in Munich. <mask> initially proposed the title Gespräche im Umkreis der Atomphysik (Conversations on atomic physics). The autobiography was published eventually under the title Der Teil und das Ganze (The part and the whole). The 1971 English translation was published under the title Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations. <mask> died of kidney cancer at his home, on 1 February 1976. The next evening, his colleagues and friends walked in remembrance from the Institute of Physics


texts:
 to his home, lit a candle and placed it in front of his door. <mask> is buried in Munich Waldfriedhof.In 1980 his widow, <mask>, published The Political Life of an Apolitical Person (de, Das politische Leben eines Unpolitischen). In it she characterized <mask> as "first and foremost, a spontaneous person, thereafter a brilliant scientist, next a highly talented artist, and only in the fourth place, from a sense of duty, homo politicus." Honors and awards
<mask> was awarded a number of honors:
 Honorary doctorates from the University of Brussels, the Technological University of Karlsruhe, and Eötvös Loránd University. Bavarian Order of Merit
 Romano Guardini Prize
 Grand Cross for Federal Service with Star
 Knight of the Order of Merit (Civil Class)
 Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1955
 Member of the Academies of Sciences of Göttingen, Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Sweden, Romania, Norway, Spain, The Netherlands (1939), Rome (Pontifical), the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Halle), the Accademia dei Lincei (Rome), and the American Academy of Sciences. 1932 – Nobel Prize in Physics "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen". 1933 – Max-Planck-Medaille of the Deutsche Physikalische GesellschaftResearch reports on nuclear physics
The following reports were published in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte (Research Reports in Nuclear Physics), an internal publication of the German Uranverein. The reports were classified Top Secret, they had very limited distribution, and the authors were not allowed to keep copies.The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic

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Heisenberg


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 Energy Commission for evaluation. In 1971, the reports were declassified and returned to Germany. The reports are available at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center and the American Institute of Physics. [English translation in: ] This is the first paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. The paper was received on 27 September 1925. [English translation in: ] This is the second paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. The paper was received on 16 November 1925.[English translation in: ] This is the third paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. The author was cited as being at Leipzig. The paper was received on 21 June 1934. The authors were cited as being at Leipzig. The paper was received on 22 December 1935. A translation of this paper has been done by W. Korolevski and H. Kleinert: arXiv:physics/0605038v1. The substance of this article was presented by <mask> in a lecture at Harvard University.Published books

 (full text of 1958 version)

In popular culture
<mask>'s surname is used as the primary alias for Walter White, the lead character in AMC's crime drama series Breaking Bad throughout White's transformation from a high-school chemistry teacher into a meth cook and a drug kingpin. In the spin-off prequel series Better Call Saul, a character named <mask> directs the construction of the meth lab belonging to antagonist Gus Fring that Walt cooks in for much of Breaking Bad. <mask> was the target of an assassination by spy Moe Berg in the film The Catcher Was a Spy, based on real events. <mask> is credited with building the atomic bomb used by the Axis in the Amazon Prime

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Heisenberg
Heisenberg
Werner
Werner Heisenberg
Heisenberg


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 TV series adaptation of the novel The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick. Atomic bombs in this universe are referred to as Heisenberg Devices. Daniel Craig portrayed Heisenberg in the 2002 film Copenhagen, an adaptation of Michael Frayn's play of that name. Heisenberg is the namesake of Resident Evil Village secondary antagonist <mask>.<mask>'s research on ferromagnetism served as inspiration for the character's magnetic abilities. See also

 List of things named after <mask>
 List of German inventors and discoverers
 The Physical Principles of the Quantum TheoryReferences
Footnotes

Citations

Bibliography

 See also

 The author was cited as being at Leipzig. The paper was received on 21 June 1934. The authors were cited as being at Leipzig. The paper was received on 22 December 1935. A translation of this paper has been done by W. Korolevski and H. Kleinert: arXiv:physics/0605038v1. [This book is a collection of 121 primary German documents relating to physics under National Socialism.The documents have been translated and annotated, and there is a lengthy introduction to put them into perspective.] External links

 Annotated Bibliography for <mask> from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
 MacTutor Biography: <mask> Heisenberg
 Heisenberg/Uncertainty biographical exhibit by American Institute of Physics. Key Participants: <mask> Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History''
 Nobelprize.org biography
 <mask>nberg: Atomic Physics Mentorees

1901 births
1976 deaths
Scientists from Würzburg
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
German Lutherans
German mountain climbers
German Nobel laureates
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of

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Karl Heisenberg
Heisenberg
Werner Heisenberg
Werner Heisenberg
Werner Karl
Werner Heisenbergus
Werner Heise


texts:
 Germany
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
Max Planck Society people
Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Nobel laureates in Physics
20th-century German physicists
Nuclear program of Nazi Germany
People from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Philosophers of science
Quantum physicists
Fluid dynamicists
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Scouting and Guiding in Germany
Theoretical physicists
University of Göttingen faculty
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Burials at Munich Waldfriedhof
Winners of the Max Planck Medal
Niels Bohr International Gold Medal recipients
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Operation Epsilon
People associated with CERN
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
Recipients of the Matteucci


texts:
<mask> (born 22 February 1979) is a footballer who plays for North Leigh as a striker. A journeyman, he has played for 40 different clubs, being transferred 43 times over a 20-year career. He has played in the English Football League for Oxford United, Bristol Rovers and Mansfield Town and is a former Dominica international. In September 2020 he signed for his 40th club, joining Beaconsfield Town from St. Albans City. Early life
<mask> was born in Harrow, and raised in Harlesden, London. He and his mother moved to Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, when he was 17. He played football for local clubs Risborough Rangers, Aylesbury United and Thame United before, in 2001, he was convicted of dangerous driving while disqualified and sentenced to a year's imprisonment.He served six months before being released from Woodhill Prison. Club career
<mask> joined Oxford United on an initial trial basis in February 2002 and impressed suitably to be handed a Football League debut, as a 78th-minute substitute for Dave Savage, in the club's final game of the season: a 2–1 home defeat to Darlington on 20 April 2002. Retained by the club, the following season he attracted much media attention when, having scored the winner in Oxford United's televised FA Cup Second Round clash with Swindon Town, he was captured naked live on television joyously celebrating the U's draw with the club, Arsenal, he supported as a boy. The club would go on to lose the tie, at Highbury, 2–0 with <mask> appearing as a 54th-minute substitute.

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Jefferson Lee Louis
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Louis


texts: Despite the attention, his manager Ian Atkins felt that he failed to progress in the second half of the season and he was transfer listed at the season's end. On 31 July 2003 he agreed to join Woking on loan, the deal seeing him sign for one month with immediate recall, then two further months with the option of making the move permanent. He was recalled from the loan on 15 September 2003, and earned a recall to the first team.On 27 August 2004 he joined Gravesend & Northfleet on a month's loan, before being recalled from his loan period on 24 September 2004 to enable him to sign for Forest Green Rovers on a free transfer. <mask> left Forest Green Rovers for Woking on 3 December 2004, the latter paying a nominal fee for his services. He remained at Woking until the end of the 2004–05 season, scoring 3 times in 23 league matches. He made 10 league and cup appearances for Second Division side Bristol Rovers between May and September 2005. After brief spells at Worthing and Stevenage Borough, he signed for Yeading in January 2006. He remained with the club until January 2007 but played only a handful of matches for the club. <mask> then spent six months at Havant & Waterlooville and another six months at Weymouth.<mask> spent a brief spell with Maidenhead United before joining Mansfield Town in January 2008 on a three-month contract. He was released on 2 May 2008 and joined Wrexham the following month. His spell at Wrexham was a successful one, scoring 15 goals in 42 appearances in the 2008–09

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texts: season. After having his contract with Wrexham terminated by mutual consent, he joined Crawley Town on 24 May 2009. He joined Rushden & Diamonds on loan on 12 November. However, he limped off on his debut after 17 minutes. He did well at Nene Park, and in the last game of his original loan deal he scored twice against Barrow, prompting manager Justin Edinburgh to keep him till the end of the season.He joined Gainsborough Trinity in June 2010, but in October moved on to Conference National club Darlington on loan until January 2011, with the intention of the deal then being made permanent. The deal fell through, so <mask> returned to Gainsborough at the end of the loan. Released by Gainsborough, he played once for former club Weymouth, as a substitute in a 2–1 win at Hemel Hempstead Town, then returned to the Conference with Hayes & Yeading United. Released by Hayes & Yeading at his own request in March, he rejoined Maidenhead United the following day. After spending the first half of the 2011–12 season with Brackley Town, <mask> joined Lincoln City on 31 January 2012. In June 2012 he agreed a deal to rejoin his former Rushden & Diamonds manager Justin Edinburgh at Newport County. In November 2012 he joined Whitehawk on loan until his contract with Newport County expired on 1 January 2013.He then returned to Brackley Town, making his second debut at the turn of the year against Droylsden on 5 January 2013. By the end of the season he had scored 7 goals in 24 Conference North appearances, including

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 the play-offs. He left Brackley at the end of the season and signed for Hendon in July 2013. In February 2014, <mask> joined Margate, before later playing for Lowestoft Town, his 30th team. <mask>' next club was Wealdstone, whom he joined in December 2014. He scored 18 goals for the club in 57 league matches. On 3 June 2016, Staines Town announced that <mask> had put pen to paper for them.On 13 October 2016, Oxford City manager Justin Merritt completed the signing of <mask>. Caretaker boss since December, Mark Jones, released <mask> at the end of the season after being appointed the permanent manager, and he subsequently joined local rivals Banbury United. During his time at United <mask> became the first ever Banbury player to score 6 league goals in his first 6 games, breaking a 50-year-old record previously held by United's all-time top goalscorer Tony Jacques. In December 2017 he moved to fellow Southern League Premier Division side Chesham United. He switched to Farnborough of the newly formed Southern Football League Premier South ahead of the 2018–19 season. On 15 September 2018 he returned to league rivals Chesham United for the 7th round of the season, as they were struggling at the bottom of the table. On 24 December 2019 he joined St Albans City.In the summer of 2020 he joined Southern Premier Division side Beaconsfield Town. In October 2021, he transferred to North Leigh. International career
<mask> represented Dominica in a 2010 World Cup qualifier against Barbados in March 2008,

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 which Dominica lost 1–0. <mask> played up front with his cousin Richard Pacquette in this match. References

External links

1979 births
Living people
Footballers from Harrow, London
English footballers
Dominica footballers
Dominica international footballers
Association football forwards
Aylesbury United F.C. players
Thame United F.C. players
Oxford United F.C.players
Woking F.C. players
Ebbsfleet United F.C. players
Forest Green Rovers F.C. players
Bristol Rovers F.C. players
Hemel Hempstead Town F.C. players
Lewes F.C. players
Worthing F.C.players
Stevenage F.C. players
Eastleigh F.C. players
Yeading F.C. players
Havant & Waterlooville F.C. players
Weymouth F.C. players
Maidenhead United F.C. players
Mansfield Town F.C.players
Wrexham A.F.C. players
Crawley Town F.C. players
Rushden & Diamonds F.C. players
Gainsborough Trinity F.C. players
Darlington F.C. players
Hayes & Yeading United F.C. players
Lincoln City F.C.players
Newport County A.F.C. players
Whitehawk F.C. players
English Football League players
Isthmian League players
Southern Football League players
National League (English football) players
English people of Dominica descent
Lowestoft Town F.C. players
Margate F.C. players
Hendon F.C. players
Brackley Town F.C. players
Wealdstone F.C.players
Staines Town F.C. players
Farnborough F.C. players
Oxford City F.C. players
Banbury United F.C. players
Chesham United F.C. players
Hampton & Richmond Borough F.C. players
St Albans City F.C.players
Beaconsfield Town F.C. players
North Leigh


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Roger Kynard "<mask>" <mask> (July 15, 1947 – May 31, 2019) was an American musician and singer-songwriter. He was a founding member and the leader of the 13th Floor Elevators and a pioneer of the psychedelic rock genre. Biography
<mask> was born in Dallas, Texas, to Roger and <mask>, and had four younger brothers. The nickname "<mask>", a contraction of his first and middle names, was given to him by his parents. His father, an architect and civil engineer, was stern and disapproving of Erickson's countercultural attitudes, once forcibly cutting his son's hair rather than allow him to grow it out Beatles-style. His mother was an amateur artist and opera singer, and encouraged Erickson's musical talent by taking guitar lessons herself so she could teach him. Erickson was interested in music from his youth, playing piano from age five and taking up guitar at 10.He attended school in Austin and dropped out of Travis High School in 1965, one month before graduating, rather than cut his hair to conform to the school dress code. Erickson wrote his first songs, "You're Gonna Miss Me" and "We Sell Soul", at age 15, and started a band with neighborhood friends which would evolve into his first notable group, the Spades. The Spades scored a regional hit with "We Sell Soul"; the song is included as an unlisted bonus track on <mask>'s 1995 album All That May Do My Rhyme and was adapted as "Don't Fall Down" by the 13th Floor Elevators for their debut album. The Spades' original version of "You're Gonna Miss Me", later a hit for the 13th Floor Elevators, was featured on the compilation album The Best of Pebbles Volume 1. The 13th Floor Elevators

In late 1965, at age 18, <mask> co-founded the 13th Floor Elevators. He and bandmate Tommy Hall were the main songwriters. Early in her career, singer Janis Joplin considered joining the Elevators, but Family

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 Dog's Chet Helms persuaded her to go to San Francisco instead, where she found major fame.The band released their debut album The Psychedelic Sounds of the 13th Floor Elevators in 1966. It contained the band's only charting single, <mask>'s "You're Gonna Miss Me". A stinging breakup song, the single was a major hit on local charts in the U.S. southwest and appeared at lower positions on national singles charts as well. Critic Mark Deming writes that "If <mask> <mask> had vanished from the face of the earth after The 13th Floor Elevators released their epochal debut single, "You're Gonna Miss Me", in early 1966, in all likelihood he'd still be regarded as a legend among garage rock fanatics for his primal vocal wailing and feral harmonica work." In 1967, the band followed up with Easter Everywhere, perhaps the band's most focused effort, featuring "Slip Inside This House", and a noted cover of Bob Dylan's "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue". The album Live was released in 1968 by the band's record label, International Artists, with little to no input from the band. It featured audience applause dubbed over studio recordings of cover versions, alternate takes, and older material.Bull of the Woods (1969) was the 13th Floor Elevators' final album on which they worked as a group and was largely the work of Stacy Sutherland. Erickson—due to health and legal problems—and Tommy Hall were only involved with a few tracks, including "Livin' On" and "May the Circle Remain Unbroken". Mental illness and legal problems
In 1968, while performing at HemisFair, Erickson began speaking gibberish. He was soon diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and sent to a Houston psychiatric hospital, where he involuntarily received electroconvulsive therapy. The Elevators were vocal proponents of marijuana and psychedelic drug use, and were subject to extra attention from

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 law enforcement agencies. In 1969, Erickson was arrested for possession of a single marijuana joint in Austin. Facing a potential ten-year incarceration, Erickson pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity to avoid prison.He was first sent to the Austin State Hospital. After several escapes, he was sent to the Rusk State Hospital in Rusk, Texas, where he was subjected to more electroconvulsive therapy and Thorazine treatments, ultimately remaining in custody until 1972. During his time at Rusk, he continued writing songs and poetry. Family and friends managed to smuggle out some of these poems and, in 1972, self published the book Openers, intending to use the proceeds to hire a lawyer. (Various sources claim approximately 1,000 copies of Openers were printed; how many copies were actually sold remains unknown.) Six tracks from the 1999 Erickson collection Never Say Goodbye were also recorded during his time at Rusk. Alien years
In 1974, after having been released from the state hospital, Erickson formed a new band which he called "Bleib Alien", Bleib being an anagram of Bible and/or German for "remain", and "Alien" being a pun on the German word allein ("alone") – the phrase in German, therefore, being "remain alone".His new band exchanged the psychedelic sounds of The 13th Floor Elevators for a more hard rock sound that featured lyrics on old horror film and science fiction themes. "Two Headed Dog (Red Temple Prayer)" (produced by The Sir Douglas Quintet's Doug Sahm and inspired by Vladimir Demikhov's 1950s head transplant experiments) was released as a single. The new band was renamed <mask> <mask> and the Aliens. In 1979, after playing with the Reversible Cords on May Day at Raul's, Erickson recorded 15 new songs with producer Stu Cook, former bass player of Creedence Clearwater Revival. These efforts were released in two "overlapping"

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 LPs – <mask> <mask> and the Aliens (CBS UK, 1980) and The Evil One (415 Records, 1981). Cook played bass on two tracks, "Sputnik" and "Bloody Hammer". Roky performed with The Nervebreakers as his backup band at The Palladium in Dallas in July 1979.A recording was issued on the French label New Rose and was recently re-issued elsewhere. The Austin-based band the Explosives served as Roky's most frequent back-up band during the early Raul's era, between 1978 and the early 1980s. Billed as <mask> <mask> and the Explosives, they were regulars at Raul's, the Continental Club, and other Austin venues. It was this incarnation that contributed two live tracks to the first Live at Raul's LP, released in 1980, with other Raul's top bands: The Skunks, Terminal Mind, The Next, Standing Waves, and The Explosives (without <mask> Erickson). The <mask> Erickson tracks ("Red Temple Prayer" and "Don't Shake Me Lucifer") were not included on the initial release for contractual reasons, but were included on a later release. In 1982, Erickson asserted that a Martian had inhabited his body. He came to feel that, due to his being alien, human beings were attacking him psychically.A concerned friend enlisted a Notary Public to witness an official statement by Erickson that he was an alien; he hoped by declaring so publicly he would be in line with any "international laws" he might have been breaking. Erickson claimed the attacks then indeed stopped. Creative decline and renewed interest
Beginning in the 1980s, Erickson developed a years-long obsession with the mail, often spending hours poring over random junk mail he received and writing to solicitors and celebrities (dead or living). He was arrested in 1989 on charges of mail theft for gathering up mail from the mailboxes of neighbors who had moved; Erickson collected the mail and taped it to the walls of his

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 bedroom. The charges were dropped when Erickson insisted that he had never opened any of the mail. In 1984 an observational documentary was produced in Austin for Swedish television, entitled Demon Angel: A Day and Night with <mask> Erickson. It featured Erickson in plugged and unplugged performances, solo and with local musician/producer Mike Alvarez on additional guitar, in an underground creek beneath the Congress Street Bridge on Halloween.Alvarez later released the film on VHS, updating it with interviews of some of <mask>'s friends and relatives; it was toured to several cities including Pittsburgh, where the screening was followed by a set of Erickson covers by Alvarez and others, as well as a performance by the Mount McKinleys with guest vocalist <mask>y's brother). A soundtrack of the film also was issued on CD, receiving positive reviews. Several live albums of his older material have been released since the mid-1980s, and in 1990 Sire Records/Warner Bros. Records released a tribute album, Where The Pyramid Meets The Eye: A Tribute to <mask> <mask>, produced by WB executive Bill Bentley. It featured versions of Erickson's songs performed by The Jesus and Mary Chain, R.E.M., ZZ Top, Poi Dog Pondering, Julian Cope, Butthole Surfers, Bongwater, John Wesley Harding, Doug Sahm, and Primal Scream, among others. According to the liner notes, the title of the album came from a remark Erickson made to a friend who asked him to define psychedelic music, to which Erickson reportedly replied "It's where the pyramid meets the eye, man", an apparent reference to the Eye of Providence and the Great Seal of the United States. Return to music and later life

In 1995, Erickson released All That May Do My Rhyme on Butthole Surfers drummer King Coffey's label Trance Syndicate Records. Produced by Texas Tornados bassist Speedy Sparks, Austin

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texts: recording legend Stuart Sullivan, and Texas Music Office director Casey Monahan, the release coincided with the publication of Openers II, a complete collection of <mask>'s lyrics.Published by Henry Rollins's 2.13.61 Publications, it was compiled and edited by Monahan with assistance from Rollins and Erickson's youngest brother <mask>, a classical tuba player. Sumner was granted legal custody of <mask> in 2001, and established a legal trust to aid his brother. As a result, <mask> received some of the most effective medical and legal aid of his life, the latter useful in helping sort out the complicated tangle of contracts that had reduced royalty payments to all but nothing for his recorded works. He also started taking medication to better manage his schizophrenia. A documentary film on the life of <mask> Erickson titled You're Gonna Miss Me was made by director Keven McAlester and screened at the 2005 SXSW film festival. In September of the same year, Erickson performed his first full-length concert in 20 years at the annual Austin City Limits Music Festival with The Explosives with special guest and longtime associate Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top. In the December 30, 2005, issue of the Austin Chronicle, an alternative weekly newspaper in Austin, Texas, Margaret Moser chronicled Erickson's recovery, saying Erickson had weaned himself off his medication, played at 11 gigs in Austin that year, obtained a driver's license, bought a car (a Volvo), and voted.In 2007, <mask>y continued to play in Europe, performing for the first time in Finland at Ruisrock festival. According to the article in Helsingin Sanomat June 8, 2007, the performance was widely considered the highlight of the festival day. On September 8, 2008, Scottish post-rock band Mogwai released the Batcat EP. Erickson is featured on one of the tracks, "Devil Rides". Erickson performed

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 alongside Austin-based indie rock band Okkervil River at the Austin Music Awards in 2008 and then again at the 2009 South by Southwest music festival. Erickson returned to the stage in 2008 to perform songs from the 13th Floor Elevators catalog that had not been performed in decades with fellow Austinites The Black Angels as his backing band.After months of practices and time recording in an Austin studio, they performed a show in Dallas followed by a West Coast tour. The Black Angels played a regular set and then backed Erickson as his rhythm section, playing 13th Floor Elevators songs as well as songs from Erickson's solo albums. On April 20, 2010, Erickson released True Love Cast Out All Evil, his first album of new material in 14 years. Okkervil River serves as Erickson's backing band on the album. In March 2012 Erickson toured New Zealand and Australia for the first time headlining Golden Plains Festival in Meredith as well as playing sold-out side shows in Sydney and Melbourne. On May 10, 2015, he performed with the reunited 13th Floor Elevators at Levitation (formerly Austin Psych Fest, the event was renamed "Levitation" after the song of the same title). The band consisted of original band members <mask>, Tommy Hall, John Ike Walton, and Ronnie Leatherman, joined by Roky's son Jegar <mask> on harmonica, Roky's lead guitarist Eli Southard, and rhythm guitarist Fred Mitchim.<mask> died in Austin on May 31, 2019. His death was made public through a Facebook post by his brother Mikel, who wrote, "My brother <mask> passed away peaceably today. Please allow us time." To date, no cause of death has been announced. Discography

 Bermuda/The Interpreter (1977 Rhino Records RNOR-003)
 Don't Slander Me (1986, Pink Dust Records)
 Gremlins Have Pictures (1986, Pink Dust Records)
 Casting the Runes (1987, Five Hours Back)
 Holiday Inn Tapes

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 (1987, Fan Club)
 Click Your Fingers Applauding The Play (1988, New Rose Records)
 Openers (1988, Five Hours Back)
 Live at the Ritz 1987 (1988, Fan Club)
 Live Dallas 1979 (1992, Fan Club)
 All That May Do My Rhyme (1995, Trance Syndicate)
 Demon Angel: A Day and a Night with <mask> Erickson (1995, Triple X Records)
 Roky Erickson and Evilhook Wildlife (1995, Sympathy for the Record Industry)
 Never Say Goodbye (1999, Emperor Jones)
 Don't Knock the Rok! (2004, Norton Records)
 I Have Always Been Here Before (2005, Shout! Factory, 2 cd anthology)
 Halloween (2008, Norton Records)
 True Love Cast Out All Evil (2010, ANTI- Records)

<mask> <mask> and the Aliens
 <mask> <mask> <mask> and the Resurrectionists
 Beauty and the Beast (1993, Sympathy for the Record Industry)

Tribute albums
 Where The Pyramid Meets The Eye: A Tribute to <mask> Erickson (1990, Sire Records/Warner Bros. Records)
 We're Gonna Miss You: A Tribute to Roky Erickson (2020, Third Eye Stimuli Records)
 May the Circle Remain Unbroken: A Tribute to Roky Erickson (2021, Light in the Attic Records)

Filmography
 Demon Angel: A Day and Night with Roky Erickson (1984, Swedish television, documentary; 1999, VHS version, Amsterdamned Records)
You're Gonna Miss Me (2007, Palm Pictures, documentary)

Legacy and influence
Author Jonathan Lethem titled his 2007 novel You Don't Love Me Yet in honor of two (otherwise unconnected) songs of the same title by Erickson and The Vulgar Boatmen.Lethem called <mask>'s song "irresistible" and "one of those incredibly versatile songs." The X-Files episode "Jose Chung's From Outer Space" features a character named "<mask> Crikenson", in homage to Erickson. Crikenson, like the original <mask>, believes himself to be an alien abductee. A plotline in an episode of 1990s sitcom The John Larroquette Show revolved around a sighting of reclusive

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 novelist Thomas Pynchon. Pynchon himself did not appear, but agreed to allow his name to be used on the condition that it was specifically mentioned that Pynchon was seen wearing a T-shirt showing a picture of Erickson. According to the Los Angeles Times, this spurred an increase in sales of Erickson's albums. The album It's Spooky by Daniel Johnston and Jad Fair features the song "I Met Roky Erickson", named after an encounter Johnston had with the artist.The song "White Faces" was covered by the Dutch occult rock band The Devil's Blood on their 2008 EP album Come Reap

The song "If You Have Ghosts" was covered by the Swedish heavy metal band Ghost on their EP album If You Have Ghost, leading to the title track becoming a common catchphrase and meme among Ghost fans. See also
 Music of Austin
 Outsider music

References

General sources
 Eye Mind: The Saga of <mask> <mask> and The 13th Floor Elevators, The Pioneers of Psychedelic Sound by Paul Drummond; foreword by Julian Cope (Process Media, December 2007),

External links

A Long, Strange Trip - Texas Monthly article
Austin Chronicle article (12/05)
Roky Erickson FAQ
Roky Erickson / 13th Floor Elevators Extensive Discography
Thirteenth Floor Elevators Discography
[ <mask> Erickson on AllMusic.com]
Review of You're Gonna Miss Me soundtrack
November 2008 interview with L.A. Record

1947 births
2019 deaths
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
Musicians from Dallas
Outsider musicians
Musicians from Austin, Texas
People with schizophrenia
Protopunk musicians
Psychedelic rock musicians
Sympathy for the Record Industry artists
Trance Syndicate artists
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Guitarists from Texas
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
Restless Records artists
American male

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<mask> 葛思德 (November 22, 1894 – August 1, 1989), better known as B.A<mask>, was an educator, author, and executive administrator for several U.S. charities related to China. Early life

B.A<mask> was born in Stringtown, Oklahoma and spent most of his early life in the state, receiving his bachelor's degree from the University of Oklahoma. After serving in the U.S. Navy during the First World War, <mask> briefly served as the principal of Stringtown High School, before completing a master's degree at Columbia University in 1922. Life in China

In 1922, B.A<mask> became an education missionary in China under the direction of the Presbyterian Church.He studied the Chinese for one year, then accepted a post as a professor of professor of education at Cheeloo University in Jinan, Shandong province. He served in that role until 1926. From 1927 to 1932, <mask> served as secretary of the China Union Universities office in New York City. In his first year, <mask> assisted eleven Christian colleges in China reopen after they had shut due to political turmoil within the Kuomintang (KMT). Earlier that year, Communist influence in the KMT created conditions leading to closing of several of these schools. Chinese relief efforts

In October 1932, a new organization, the Associated Boards for Christian Colleges of China (ABCCC) was formed to coordinate fundraising efforts in the United States for the Protestant Christian colleges operating in China. The organization was renamed the United Board for Christian Colleges in China after the Second World War.B.A<mask> served as executive secretary of the new organization, a position he held until 1941. At the ABCCC, <mask> led efforts to promote and raise money to support these colleges, which in the 1932–1933 academic year had combined enrollments of 5,400 students and endowments of US$12 million. In 1935, <mask> received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from College of the Ozarks. Second World War

At the start of

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 June 1941, a mere three months after the launch of the original campaign seeking $5,000,000. Cold War

In 1951, B.A<mask> was appointed as the executive director of the American Bureau for Medical Aid to China (ABMAC), and remained in that post until his retirement in 1979. In the 1950s, while still serving at ABMAC, <mask> also served as the executive director of the organization Aid Refugee Chinese Intellectuals, which provided financial and immigration assistance to refugees of the Chinese Communist Revolution.In 1959, <mask> and Lowell Thomas organized the American Emergency Committee for Tibetan Refugees, in response to refugee crisis during the 1959 Tibetan uprising. <mask> served on this committee until 1970. <mask> was a member of the China Lobby and actively supported the Nationalist China, serving on the Committee for Free China and One Million Against Admission of Communist China to the UN. <mask> received the Order of Brilliant Star and the Order of Auspicious Clouds from the Republic of China on Taiwan. Published works

<mask> wrote two books, both non-fiction. The first, published in 1948, was One Increasing Purpose: The Life of Henry Winters Luce, a biography of <mask>'s mentor and friend Henry W. Luce. Henry W. Luce was another education missionary at the Christian colleges in China, and father of the publisher Henry R. Luce, founder of Time magazine.The second was his memoirs, titled Within the Four Seas, which was published in 1985. Personal life

On September 21, 1921, <mask> married Margaret Cameron. They later had one daughter, Jean. <mask>'s wife died in 1981. References

Additional Sources

1894 births
1989 deaths
People from Atoka County, Oklahoma
20th-century American biographers
20th-century American educators
20th-century American memoirists
Presbyterian missionaries in China
University of Oklahoma alumni
University of the Ozarks alumni
American Presbyterian missionaries
American expatriates in China
Columbia University

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Sir <mask>  (; 24 June 17976 October 1873), also known as <mask> and Sir <mask>, was a Polish explorer, geologist, humanitarian, environmentalist, nobleman, scientist, businessman and philanthropist who in 1845 also became a British subject. He is noted for his contributions to the exploration of Australia, particularly the Snowy Mountains and Tasmania, and for climbing and naming the highest –  – mountain on the continent, Mount Kosciuszko. Early years
Strzelecki was born in 1797, in Głuszyna (Glausche) near Poznań (Posen), in the Polish territory occupied by the Kingdom of Prussia. He was the third child of <mask> and Anna née Raczyńska, both from Polish nobility (szlachta), who leased the Głuszyna estate at the time. In Australia, Strzelecki was referred to as Count though there is no proof that he actually approved or used such a title himself. As Poznań was then under Prussian control, Strzelecki was a Prussian citizen. He left school without matriculating, then served briefly in the Prussian Army in the 6th Regiment of Thuringian Uhlans, at the time known as the Polish Regiment because the majority of the staff were Poles.<mask> submitted his resignation due to the strict Prussian discipline that he did not approve of. There are some suggestions that he deserted the Regiment but in the official history of the Regiment the name <mask> does not appear. Not long after, he became a tutor at a manor of local nobility. He fell in love with his young student, a girl of 15, Aleksandryn (Adyna) Turno, but was rejected as a suitor by her father, Adam Turno. There are stories that <mask> attempted unsuccessfully to elope with Adyna, but biographers find this unlikely. Adyna and <mask> exchanged letters over 40 years but they never married. Provided with funds by his family, Strzelecki travelled in Austria and Italy.He eventually came under the notice of the Polish Prince Franciszek Sapieha who placed him in charge of his large estate in the Russian-occupied part of Poland.

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 <mask> was then about 26 years of age and carried out his duties very successfully. Some years later the prince died, and a dispute arose between his son and heir, Eustace, and <mask>. Eustace refused to pay Strzelecki the prince's bequest – a huge sum of money and a considerable estate – accusing him of bad faith and prevarication. After four years the dispute was settled. <mask> left Poland about 1829 and stayed some time in France, from where he travelled to Africa. He had no formal training in geology, a science then in its infancy in England, but was probably, like his English contemporaries, self taught.On 8 June 1834, he sailed from Liverpool to New York. He travelled widely in North America, analysing soil, examining minerals (tradition claims he discovered copper in Canada), and visiting farms to study soil conservation and to analyse the gluten content of wheat. In South America in 1836 he visited the most important mineral areas and he went up the west coast from Chile to California. During this time he became a strong opponent of the slave trade. He went to Cuba, Tahiti and the South Sea Islands, and came to New Zealand probably about the beginning of 1839. Australia

He arrived at Sydney on 25 April 1839. He visited the estate of his friend James Macarthur at Camden.He wrote about meeting the German vintners that the Macarthurs had brought to Australia from the Rheingau region. He wrote: "I had gone with my host to look at the farm, the fields, and the vineyard, — contiguous to which last stood in a row six neat cottages, surrounded with kitchen gardens, and inhabited by six families of German vine-dressers, who emigrated two years ago to New South Wales, either driven there by necessity, or seduced by the hope of finding, beyond the sea, fortune, peace, and happiness, – perhaps justice and liberty. The German salutation which I gave to the group that stood nearest, was like some signal-bell, which instantly set the whole colony in motion. Fathers,

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