texts: University (his father's alma mater), but his father would not allow him to attend at this age, as he considered him too young; he waited until he was sixteen and then attended Harvard College, being admitted on the basis of his entrance examination at Yale. <mask> attended Harvard College as an undergraduate, receiving his AB summa cum laude in 1899. He then attended Yale University for his PhD, graduating in 1901.He also studied mathematics from 1902-1903 in Paris, primarily at the École normale supérieure, before returning to teach at Yale. At Yale, <mask> worked under the supervision of Josiah Willard Gibbs and compiled an important textbook on vector analysis from Gibbs' lecture notes. Gibbs died when <mask> had just turned twenty-four, but he exerted a strong influence on <mask> through his early supervision and through <mask>'s experience compiling Gibbs' notes. <mask> became an Assistant Professor of Mathematics at Yale in 1906, then Associate Professor of Mathematics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1907, then Professor of Mathematics in 1911, then Head of the Department of Physics in 1917, and then Professor of Vital Statistics at the Harvard School of Public Health in 1922. During World War I, <mask> gave a course in aeronautical engineering to US Army and Navy officers at MIT. <mask> retired from academic work in 1945 and worked as a consultant at the Office of Naval Research until his death in 1964. For his service to the US Navy during and after the war, <mask> was awarded the Superior Civilian Service Award in 1960 and the Distinguished Civilian Service Award in 1964.The latter award is the highest honorary award available for a civilian employee of the US Navy. <mask> was also awarded an honorary LLD degree

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 form Wesleyan University in 1955. <mask> had a broad range of interests and skills, and he served in a number of distinguished roles in national academies for the arts and sciences. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and served as its Vice-President from 1949-1953; he was a Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society and the American Statistical Association, serving as President of the latter in 1929; he was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, serving as President from 1927-1931; and he was a member of the American Philosophical Society. <mask> won the John Frederick Lewis Award from the American Philosophical Society in 1963. <mask> married Ethel Sentner on 5 July 1911 and they had two daughters, Doris and Enid. <mask> graduated from McGill University in 1946 and became an analytical chemist working at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital and Harvard School of Public Health.Enid <mask> graduated from Brown University and Simmons College Library School and worked as a cataloguer at the University of Rhode Island and Boston University, also serving as a secretary in the Wellesley Historical Society. <mask> (<mask>'s wife) died in 1957 and he died seven years later on 28 December 1964. His daughters survived him by almost fifty years, and both died within a month of each other in 2014. <mask> and his wife and daughters are buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Academic works and legacy
<mask> published scholarly papers on a wide range of topics in mathematics, statistics, physics, and economics, but most of his work was in mathematics. During his career, <mask> wrote three widely used textbooks. At the age of twenty-two he compiled the textbook Vector Analysis based on the lectures of his

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 doctoral advisor Josiah Willard Gibbs, as Gibbs was at the time busy preparing his book on thermodynamics.This textbook was widely used by mathematicians and physicists and had a lasting effect on notation in the field. <mask> gave a plenary address at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1904 in Heidelberg where he summarised some further unpublished work by Gibbs (which he later published). Later in his career,  <mask> published the textbook Advanced Calculus based on his own lecture materials, and the textbook Aeronautics based on his lectures to US Army and Navy students in the first world war, as well as special tutoring sessions held with his students at MIT. In  he introduced the <mask> score interval, a binomial proportion confidence interval, and also derived the "plus four rule", which uses a pseudocount of two (add two to both your count of successes and failures, so four total) for estimating the probability of a Bernoulli variable with a confidence interval of two standard deviations in each direction (approximately 95% coverage). <mask> published a substantial number of papers on geometry, statistics, biostatistics, and other areas. He also conducted a number of reviews of scientific theories and works, and he was known to be critical of aspects of the works of Hilbert and Einstein. In 1904 <mask> published a review of Bertrand Russell's works The Principles of Mathematics and An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry where he highlighted the strong role of Peano in shaping the foundations of mathematics.At the time Peano's works were not well-known in the US and so this review helped to establish interest in Peano's work. Selected works

 1901: Vector Analysis: A Text-book for the Use of Students of Mathematics &

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 Physics, Founded Upon the Lectures of J. W. Gibbs. 1904: The Foundations of Mathematics. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 11(2), pp. 74–93. (A review of The Principles of Mathematics and An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry by Bertrand Russell.) 1912: Advanced Calculus.(Link from Internet Archive.) 1912: (with Gilbert N. Lewis) The Space-Time Manifold of Relativity. The Non-Euclidean Geometry of Mechanics and Electromagnetics Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 48(11), pp. 389-507.<ref>J. B. Shaw (1913) The Wilson-Lewis Algebra of Four-dimensional Space, Bulletin of the Quaternion Society via HathiTrust</ref>
 1920: Aeronautics: A Class Text. John Wiley & Sons. (Link from Internet Archive.)1927: Probable inference, the law of succession, and statistical inference. Journal of the American Statistical Association'' 22(158), pp. 209-212. See also
 <mask> score interval

Notes

References
 Jerome Hunsaker and Saunders MacLane (1973) <mask> <mask>, Biographical Memoirs, pp. 283–320, National Academy of Sciences of USA. R. Bruce Lindsay and W. J. King (1964) Oral Histories, <mask>.Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics. [Accessed 19 August 2021]

External links
 <mask> <mask> correspondence, 1940-1945 (inclusive), 1942-1945 (bulk). H MS c364. Harvard Medical Library, Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, Boston, Mass. 1879 births
1964 deaths
19th-century American mathematicians
20th-century American mathematicians
American physicists
Harvard College alumni
Yale University alumni
Yale University faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
Presidents of the American Statistical Association
American statisticians
Fellows of the

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<mask> (variously also spelt Tuthmosis or Thothmes), sometimes called <mask> the Great, was the sixth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Officially, <mask> ruled Egypt for almost 54 years and his reign is usually dated from 28 April 1479 BC to 11 March 1425 BC, from the age of two and until his death at age fifty-six; however, during the first 22 years of his reign, he was coregent with his stepmother and aunt, Hatshepsut, who was named the pharaoh. While he was shown first on surviving monuments, both were assigned the usual royal names and insignia and neither is given any obvious seniority over the other. Thutmose served as the head of Hatshepsut's armies. During the final two years of his reign, he appointed his son and successor, Amenhotep II, as his junior co-regent. His firstborn son and heir to the throne, Amenemhat, predeceased <mask>. He would become one of the most powerful pharaohs of the 18th dynasty.Becoming the sole ruling pharaoh of the kingdom after the deaths of <mask> II and Hatshepsut, he created the largest empire Egypt had ever seen; no fewer than 17 campaigns were conducted and he conquered lands from the Niya Kingdom in northern Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia. When <mask> III died, he was buried in the Valley of the Kings, as were the rest of the kings from this period in Egypt. Name
Thutmose's two main names transliterate as mn-ḫpr-rˁ ḏḥwty-ms. The first name is usually transcribed as Menkheperre and means "Lasting is the manifestation of Ra" or "The lasting

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 one of the manifestation of Ra". The second name is transliterated as Thutmose or Tuthmosis and means "Born of Thoth" or "Thoth is born". Family

<mask> III was the son of <mask> II by a secondary wife, Iset (or Aset). His father's great royal wife was Queen Hatshepsut.Her daughter, Neferure, was Thutmose's half-sister. When <mask> II died, <mask> III was too young to rule. Hatshepsut became his regent, soon his co-regent, and shortly thereafter declared herself to be the pharaoh while never denying kingship to <mask> <mask>. Thutmosis III had little power over the empire while Hatshepsut exercised the formal titulary of kingship. Her rule was quite prosperous and marked by great advancements. When <mask> <mask> reached a suitable age and demonstrated the capability, she appointed him to head her armies. Some Egyptologists speculate that Thutmose married his half-sister, Neferure, but there is no conclusive evidence for this marriage.It has been suggested that Neferure, may have been the mother of Thutmose's firstborn son, Amenemhat. Alternatively, the Great Royal Wife Satiah is believed to have been the mother of Amenemhat. Amenemhat predeceased his father. Several other wives of Thutmose are attested to by surviving records. He is known to have at least three foreign wives, Menwi, Merti, and Menhet, who were buried together. At least one other wife, Nebtu, is known from a pillar in Thutmose's tomb. Following the death of Satiah, a woman named Merytre-Hatshepsut became the Great Royal Wife.She was the

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 mother of several of his children, including the future king Amenhotep II and another son, Menkheperre, and daughters at least four daughters: Nebetiunet, Meryetamun (C), Meryetamun (D) and Iset. Dates and length of reign

<mask> <mask> reigned from 1479 BC to 1425 BC according to the Low Chronology of Ancient Egypt. This has been the conventional Egyptian chronology in academic circles since the 1960s, though in some circles the older dates 1504 BC to 1450 BC are preferred from the High Chronology of Egypt. These dates, just as all the dates of the Eighteenth Dynasty, are open to dispute because of uncertainty about the circumstances surrounding the recording of a Heliacal Rise of Sothis in the reign of Amenhotep I. A papyrus from Amenhotep I's reign records this astronomical observation which theoretically could be used to perfectly correlate the Egyptian chronology with the modern calendar; however, to do this the latitude where the observation was taken must also be known. This document has no note of the place of observation, but it can safely be assumed that it was taken in either a Delta city, such as Memphis or Heliopolis, or in Thebes. These two latitudes give dates 20 years apart, the High and Low chronologies, respectively.The length of <mask> III's reign is known to the day thanks to information found in the tomb of the military commander Amenemheb-Mahu. Amenemheb-Mahu records <mask> <mask>'s death to his master's 54th regnal year, on the 30th day of the third month of Peret. The day of

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 <mask> <mask>'s accession is known to be I Shemu day four, and astronomical observations can be used to establish the exact dates of the beginning and end of the king's reign (assuming the low chronology) from 28 April 1479 BC to 11 March 1425 BC respectively. Thutmose's military campaigns

Widely considered a military genius by historians, Thutmose <mask> conducted at least 16 campaigns in 20 years. He was an active expansionist ruler, sometimes called Egypt's greatest conqueror or "the Napoleon of Egypt" by the Egyptologist James Breasted. He is recorded to have captured 350 cities during his rule and conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen known military campaigns. He was the first pharaoh after Thutmose I to cross the Euphrates, doing so during his campaign against Mitanni.His campaign records were inscribed onto the walls of the temple of Amun at Karnak (transcribed in Urkunden IV). He is consistently regarded as one of the greatest of Egypt's warrior pharaohs who transformed Egypt into an international superpower by creating an empire that stretched from the Asian regions of southern Syria and Canaan to the east, to Nubia to the south. Whether the Egyptian empire covered even more areas is less certain. Earlier Egyptologists, most recently Ed. Meyer, believed that Thutmose had also subjugated the islands of the Aegean Sea. This can no longer be upheld today. A conquest of Mesopotamia is unthinkable; and whether tribute sent from Alashia (Cyprus) was more than

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 occasional gifts remains questionable.In most of his campaigns, his enemies were defeated town by town until they were beaten into submission. Much is known about Thutmose "the warrior" not only because of his military achievements, but also because of his royal scribe and army commander, Thanuny, who wrote about his conquests and reign. <mask> III was able to conquer such a large number of lands because of revolutionary developments in military technology. The Hyksos had conquered Egypt with advanced weaponry, such as horse-drawn chariots, around 1650 BC. In the process of driving them out, the people of Egypt learned to use these weapons. <mask> III encountered little resistance from neighbouring kingdoms, allowing him to expand his realm of influence easily. His army also carried boats on dry land.First Campaign

When Hatshepsut died on the 10th day of the sixth month of <mask> <mask>'s 21st year, according to information from a single stela from Armant, the king of Kadesh advanced his army to Megiddo. <mask> <mask> mustered his own army and departed Egypt, passing through the border fortress of Tjaru (Sile) on the 25th day of the eighth month. Thutmose marched his troops through the coastal plain as far as Jamnia, then inland to Yehem, a small city near Megiddo, which he reached in the middle of the ninth month of the same year. The ensuing Battle of Megiddo probably was the largest battle of Thutmose's 17 campaigns. A ridge of mountains jutting inland from Mount Carmel stood between Thutmose and

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texts: Megiddo and he had three potential routes to take. The northern route and the southern route, both of which went around the mountain, were judged by his council of war to be the safest, but Thutmose, in an act of great bravery (or so he boasts, but such self-praise is normal in Egyptian texts), accused the council of cowardice and took a dangerous route through the Aruna mountain pass, which he alleged was only wide enough for the army to pass "horse after horse and man after man." Despite the laudatory nature of Thutmose's annals, such a pass does indeed exist, although not as narrow as Thutmose indicates, and taking it was a brilliant strategic move since when his army emerged from the pass they were situated on the plain of Esdraelon, directly between the rear of the Canaanite forces and Megiddo itself.For some reason, the Canaanite forces did not attack him as his army emerged, and his army routed them decisively. The size of the two forces is difficult to determine, but if, as Redford suggests, the amount of time it took to move the army through the pass may be used to determine the size of the Egyptian force, and if the number of sheep and goats captured may be used to determine the size of the Canaanite force, then both armies were around 10,000 men. Most scholars believe that the Egyptian army was more numerous. According to <mask> <mask>'s Hall of Annals in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, the battle occurred on "Year 23, I Shemu [day] 21, the exact day of the feast of the new moon", a lunar

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 date. This date corresponds to 9 May 1457 BC based on <mask> <mask>'s accession in 1479 BC. After victory in battle, his troops stopped to plunder the enemy and the enemy was able to escape into Megiddo. Thutmose was forced to besiege the city, but he finally succeeded in conquering it after a siege of seven or eight months (see Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)).This campaign drastically changed the political situation in the ancient Near East. By taking Megiddo, Thutmose gained control of all of northern Canaan and the Syrian princes were obligated to send tribute and their own sons as hostages to Egypt. Beyond the Euphrates, the Assyrian, Babylonian and Hittite kings all gave Thutmose gifts, which he alleged to be "tribute" when he recorded it on the walls of Karnak. The only noticeable absence is Mitanni, which would bear the brunt of the following Egyptian campaigns into Western Asia. Tours of Canaan and Syria

Thutmose's second, third and fourth campaigns appear to have been nothing more than tours of Syria and Canaan to collect tribute. Traditionally, the material directly after the text of the first campaign has been considered to be the second campaign. This text records tribute from the area which the Egyptians called Retjenu (roughly equivalent to Canaan) and it was also at this time that Assyria paid a second "tribute" to Thutmose III.It is probable that these texts come from Thutmose's 40th year or later and thus have nothing to do with the second campaign at all. If so, no records of


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 this campaign have been found. Thutmose's third campaign was not considered significant enough to appear in his otherwise extensive Annals at Karnak. A survey was made of the animals and plants he found in Canaan, which was illustrated on the walls of a special room at Karnak. This survey is dated to Thutmose's 25th year. No record remains of Thutmose's fourth campaign, but at some point a fort was built in lower Lebanon and timber was cut for construction of a processional barque, and this probably fits best during this time frame. Conquest of Syria
The fifth, sixth and seventh campaigns of <mask> III were directed against the Phoenician cities in Syria and against Kadesh on the Orontes.In Thutmose's 29th year, he began his fifth campaign, where he first took an unknown city (the name falls in a lacuna) which had been garrisoned by Tunip. He then moved inland and took the city and territory around Ardata; the town was pillaged and the wheatfields burned. Unlike previous plundering raids, <mask> III garrisoned the area known as Djahy, which is probably a reference to southern Syria. This permitted him to ship supplies and troops between Syria and Egypt. Although there is no direct evidence for it, it is for this reason that some have supposed that Thutmose's sixth campaign, in his thirtieth year, commenced with a naval transportation of troops directly to Byblos, bypassing Canaan entirely. After the troops arrived in Syria by whatever means, they proceeded into the Jordan River valley and moved north,

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 pillaging Kadesh's lands. Turning west again, Thutmose took Simyra and quelled a rebellion in Ardata, which apparently had rebelled again.To stop such rebellions, Thutmose began taking hostages from the cities in Syria. The cities in Syria were not guided by the popular sentiment of the people so much as they were by the small number of nobles who were aligned to Mitanni: a king and a small number of foreign Maryannu. <mask> III found that by taking family members of these key people to Egypt as hostages, he could drastically increase their loyalty to him. Syria rebelled again in Thutmose's 31st year and he returned to Syria for his seventh campaign, took the port city of Ullaza and the smaller Phoenician ports and took more measures to prevent further rebellions. All the excess grain which was produced in Syria was stored in the harbors he had recently conquered and was used for the support of the military and civilian Egyptian presence ruling Syria. This left the cities in Syria desperately impoverished. With their economies in ruins, they had no means of funding a rebellion.Attack on Mitanni
After <mask> <mask> had taken control of the Syrian cities, the obvious target for his eighth campaign was the state of Mitanni, a Hurrian country with an Indo-Aryan ruling class. However, to reach Mitanni, he had to cross the Euphrates River. He sailed directly to Byblos and made boats which he took with him over land on what appeared to otherwise be just another tour of Syria, and he proceeded with the usual

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 raiding and pillaging as he moved north through the lands he had already taken. He continued north through the territory belonging to the still unconquered cities of Aleppo and Carchemish and quickly crossed the Euphrates in his boats, taking the Mitannian king entirely by surprise. It appears that Mitanni was not expecting an invasion, so they had no army of any kind ready to defend against Thutmose, although their ships on the Euphrates did try to defend against the Egyptian crossing. Thutmose <mask> then went freely from city to city and pillaged them while the nobles hid in caves, or at least this is the typically propagandistic way Egyptian records chose to record it. During this period of no opposition, Thutmose put up a second stele commemorating his crossing of the Euphrates next to the stele his grandfather, Thutmose I, had put up several decades earlier.A militia was raised to fight the invaders, but it fared very poorly. <mask> <mask> then returned to Syria by way of Niy, where he records that he engaged in an elephant hunt. He collected tribute from foreign powers and returned to Egypt in victory. Tours of Syria

<mask> <mask> returned to Syria for his ninth campaign in his 34th year, but this appears to have been just a raid of the area called Nukhashshe, a region populated by semi-nomadic people. The plunder recorded is minimal, so it was probably just a minor raid. Records from his 10th campaign indicate much more fighting. By Thutmose's 35th year, the king of Mitanni had raised a large

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texts: army and engaged the Egyptians around Aleppo.As usual for any Egyptian king, Thutmose boasted a total crushing victory, but this statement is suspect due to the very small amount of plunder taken. Thutmose's annals at Karnak indicate he only took a total of 10 prisoners of war. He may have fought the Mitannians to a stalemate, yet he did receive tribute from the Hittites after that campaign, which seems to indicate the outcome of the battle was in Thutmose's favor. The details about his next two campaigns are unknown. His 11th is presumed to have happened in his 36th regnal year and his 12th is presumed to have happened in his 37th year since his 13th is mentioned at Karnak as happening in his 38th regnal year. Part of the tribute list for his 12th campaign remains immediately before his 13th begins, and the contents recorded, specifically wild game and certain minerals of uncertain identification, might indicate that it took place on the steppe around Nukhashshe, but this remains mere speculation. In his 13th campaign, Thutmose returned to Nukhashshe for a very minor campaign.His 14th campaign, waged during his 39th year, was against the Shasu. The location of this campaign is impossible to determine since the Shasu were nomads who could have lived anywhere from Lebanon to the Transjordan to Edom. After this campaign, the numbers given by Thutmose's scribes to his campaigns all fall in lacunae, so they can only be counted by date. In his 40th year, tribute was collected from foreign powers, but it is


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 unknown if this was considered a campaign (i.e. if the king went with it or if it was led by an official). Only the tribute list remains from Thutmose's next campaign, and nothing may be deduced about it except that it was probably another raid to the frontiers around Niy. His final Asian campaign is better documented.Sometime before Thutmose's 42nd year, Mitanni apparently began spreading revolt among all the major cities in Syria. Thutmose moved his troops by land up the coastal road and put down rebellions in the Arka plain ("Arkantu" in Thutmose's chronicle) and moved on Tunip. After taking Tunip, his attention turned to Kadesh again. He engaged and destroyed three surrounding Mitannian garrisons and returned to Egypt in victory. His victory in this final campaign was neither complete nor permanent since he did not take Kadesh, and Tunip could not have remained aligned to him for very long, certainly not beyond his own death. Nubian Campaign
Thutmose's last campaign was waged in his 50th regnal year. He attacked Nubia, but only went so far as the fourth cataract of the Nile.Although no king of Egypt had ever penetrated so far with an army, previous kings' campaigns had spread Egyptian culture that far already, and the earliest Egyptian document found at Gebel Barkal dates from three years before Thutmose's campaign. Monumental construction
<mask> <mask> was a great builder and constructed over 50 temples, although some of these are now lost and only mentioned in written records. He also


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 commissioned the building of many tombs for nobles, which were made with greater craftsmanship than ever before. His reign was also a period of great stylistic changes in the sculpture, paintings and reliefs associated with construction, much of it beginning during the reign of Hatshepsut. Artistic developments

Thutmose's architects and artisans showed great continuity with the formal style of previous kings, but several developments set him apart from his predecessors. Although he followed the traditional relief styles for most of his reign, after his 42nd year he began having himself depicted wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt and a šndyt-kilt, an unprecedented style. Architecturally, his use of pillars also was unprecedented.He built Egypt's only known set of heraldic pillars, two large columns standing alone instead of being part of a set supporting the roof. His jubilee hall was also revolutionary and is arguably the earliest known building created in the basilica style. Thutmose's artisans achieved new heights of skill in painting, and tombs from his reign were the earliest to be entirely painted instead of painted reliefs. Although not directly pertaining to his monuments, it appears that Thutmose's artisans had learned glass making skills, developed in the early 18th Dynasty, to create drinking vessels by the core-formed method. Karnak
Thutmose dedicated far more attention to Karnak than any other site. In the Iput-isut, the temple proper in the center, he rebuilt the hypostyle hall of his


texts: grandfather Thutmose I, dismantled the red chapel of Hatshepsut, built Pylon VI, a shrine for the bark of Amun in its place, and built an antechamber in front of it, the ceiling of which was supported by his heraldic pillars. He built a temenos wall around the central chapel containing smaller chapels, along with workshops and storerooms.East of the main sanctuary, he built a jubilee hall in which to celebrate his Sed festival. The main hall was built in basilica style with rows of pillars supporting the ceiling on each side of the aisle. The central two rows were higher than the others to create windows where the ceiling was split. Two of the smaller rooms in this temple contained the reliefs of the survey of the plants and animals of Canaan which he took in his third campaign. East of the Iput-Isut, he erected another temple to Aten, where he was depicted as being supported by Amun. It was inside this temple that Thutmose planned on erecting his tekhen waty, or "unique obelisk." The tekhen waty was designed to stand alone instead as part of a pair and is the tallest obelisk ever successfully cut.It was not, however, erected until <mask> IV raised it 35 years later. It was later moved to Rome by Emperor Constantius II and is now known as the Lateran Obelisk. In 390 AD, Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I re-erected another obelisk from the Temple of Karnak in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, now known as the Obelisk of Theodosius. Thus, two obelisks of Tuthmosis III's Karnak temple stand in Papal


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 Rome and in Caesaropapist Constantinople, the two main historical capitals of the Roman Empire. Thutmose also undertook building projects to the south of the main temple between the sanctuary of Amun and the temple of Mut. Immediately to the south of the main temple, he built the seventh pylon on the north–south road which entered the temple between the fourth and fifth pylons. It was built for use during his jubilee and was covered with scenes of defeated enemies.He set royal colossi on both sides of the pylon and put two more obelisks on the south face in front of the gateway. The eastern obelisk's base remains in place, but the western obelisk was transported to the Hippodrome in Constantinople. Farther south along the road, he put up Pylon VIII, which Hatshepsut had begun. East of the road, he dug a sacred lake of 250 by 400 feet and placed another alabaster bark shrine near it. He commissioned royal artists to depict his extensive collections of fauna and flora in the Botanical garden of Thutmosis III. Defacing of Hatshepsut's monuments
For many years, egyptologists theorized that following the death of <mask> II, Hatshepsut 'usurped' the throne from <mask> III. Although <mask> III was a co-regent during this time, early historians have speculated that <mask> III never forgave his stepmother for denying him access to the throne for the first two decades of his reign.However, in recent times this theory has been revised after questions arose as to why Hatshepsut would have allowed a resentful heir

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texts: to control armies, which it is known she did. This view is supported further by the fact that no strong evidence has been found to show <mask> <mask> sought to claim the throne. He kept Hatshepsut's religious and administrative leaders. Added to this is the fact that the monuments of Hatshepsut were not damaged until at least 25 years after her death, late in the reign of <mask> III when he was quite elderly. He was in another coregency, this one with his son, who would become Amenhotep II, who is known to have attempted to identify the works of Hatshepsut as his own. Additionally, <mask> <mask>'s mortuary temple was built directly next to Hatshepsut's, an act that would have been unlikely to occur if <mask> <mask> bore a grudge against her. After her death, many of Hatshepsut's monuments and depictions were subsequently defaced or destroyed, including those in her famous mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri.Traditionally, these have been interpreted by early modern scholars to be evidence of acts of damnatio memoriae (condemning a person by erasure from recorded existence) by Thutmose III. However, recent research by scholars such as Charles Nims and Peter Dorman has re-examined these erasures and found that the acts of erasure which could be dated only began some time during year 46 or 47 of Thutmose's reign (c. 1433/2 BC). Another often overlooked fact is that Hatshepsut was not the only one who received this treatment. The monuments of her chief steward, Senenmut, who was closely associated

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 with her rule, were similarly defaced where they were found. All of this evidence casts serious doubt upon the popular theory that <mask> III ordered the destruction in a fit of vengeful rage shortly after his accession. Currently, the purposeful destruction of the memory of Hatshepsut is seen as a measure designed to ensure a smooth succession for the son of <mask> III, the future Amenhotep II, as opposed to any of the surviving relatives of Hatshepsut who had an equal or better claim to the throne. It also may be likely that this measure could not have been taken until the deaths of powerful religious and administrative officials who had served under both Hatshepsut and <mask> <mask>.Later, Amenhotep II even claimed that he had built the items he defaced. Death and burial

Thutmose's tomb (KV34) was discovered by Victor Loret in 1898 in the Valley of the Kings. It uses a plan which is typical of 18th Dynasty tombs, with a sharp turn at the vestibule preceding the burial chamber. Two stairways and two corridors provide access to the vestibule, which is preceded by a quadrangular shaft or "well". A complete version of Amduat, an important New Kingdom funerary text, is in the vestibule, making it the first tomb where Egyptologists found the complete text. The burial chamber, which is supported by two pillars, is oval-shaped and its ceiling decorated with stars, symbolizing the cave of the deity Sokar. In the middle lies a large red quartzite sarcophagus in the shape of a cartouche.On the two pillars in

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 the middle of the chamber there are passages from the Litanies of Re, a text that celebrates the later sun deity, who is identified with the pharaoh at this time. On the other pillar is a unique image depicting Thutmosis III being suckled by the goddess Isis in the guise of the tree. The wall decorations are executed in a simple "diagrammatic" way, imitating the manner of the cursive script one might expect to see on a funerary papyrus rather than the more typically lavish wall decorations seen on most other royal tomb walls. The colouring is similarly muted, executed in simple black figures accompanied by text on a cream background with highlights in red and pink. The decorations depict the pharaoh aiding the deities in defeating Apep, the serpent of chaos, thereby helping to ensure the daily rebirth of the sun as well as the pharaoh's own resurrection. According to the American Egyptologist Peter Der Manuelian, a statement in the tomb biography of an official named Amenemheb establishes that <mask> <mask> died in Year 54, III Peret day 30 of his reign after ruling Egypt for "53 years, 10 months and 26 days" (Urk. 180.15).<mask> <mask> died one month and four days shy of the start of his 54th regnal year. When the co-regencies with Hatshepsut and Amenhotep II are deducted, he ruled alone as pharaoh for just over 30 of those years. Mummy

<mask> <mask>'s mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut in 1881. He was interred along with those of other 18th and

masks: Thutmose III Thutmose III Thutmose III


texts:
 19th Dynasty leaders Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II and Ramesses IX, as well as the 21st Dynasty pharaohs Pinedjem I, Pinedjem II and Siamun. While it is popularly thought that his mummy originally was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero in 1886, it was in fact first unwrapped by Émile Brugsch, the Egyptologist who supervised the evacuation of the mummies from the Deir el-Bahri Cache in 1881. It was unwrapped soon after its arrival in the Boulak Museum while Maspero was away in France, and the Director General of the Egyptian Antiquities Service ordered the mummy re-wrapped. So when it was "officially" unwrapped by Maspero in 1886, he almost certainly knew it was in relatively poor condition.The mummy had been damaged extensively in antiquity by tomb robbers and its wrappings subsequently cut into and torn by the Rassul family, who had rediscovered the tomb and its contents only a few years before. Maspero's description of the body provides an idea as to the magnitude of the damage done:
His mummy was not securely hidden away, for towards the close of the 20th dynasty it was torn out of the coffin by robbers, who stripped it and rifled it of the jewels with which it was covered, injuring it in their haste to carry away the spoil. It was subsequently re-interred, and has remained undisturbed until the present day; but before re-burial some renovation of the wrappings was necessary, and as portions of the body had become loose, the restorers, in order to give the


texts:
 mummy the necessary firmness, compressed it between four oar-shaped slips of wood, painted white, and placed, three inside the wrappings and one outside, under the bands which confined the winding-sheet. Of the face, which was undamaged, Maspero says the following:
Happily the face, which had been plastered over with pitch at the time of embalming, did not suffer at all from this rough treatment, and appeared intact when the protecting mask was removed. Its appearance does not answer to our ideal of the conqueror. His statues, though not representing him as a type of manly beauty, yet give him refined, intelligent features, but a comparison with the mummy shows that the artists have idealised their model. The forehead is abnormally low, the eyes deeply sunk, the jaw heavy, the lips thick, and the cheek-bones extremely prominent; the whole recalling the physiognomy of Thûtmosis II, though with a greater show of energy.Maspero was so disheartened at the state of the mummy and the prospect that all of the other mummies were similarly damaged (as it turned out, few were in so poor a state) that he would not unwrap another for several years. Unlike many other examples from the Deir el-Bahri Cache, the wooden mummiform coffin that contained the body was original to the pharaoh, though any gilding or decoration it might have had had been hacked off in antiquity. In his examination of the mummy, the anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith stated the height of Thutmose <mask>'s mummy to be , but the mummy was missing


texts:
 its feet, so Thutmose <mask> was undoubtedly taller than the figure given by Smith. The mummy of Thutmose III resided in the Royal Mummies Hall of the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, catalog number CG 61068, until April 2021 when his mummy was moved to National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and four queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade. See also
Cleopatra's Needles
History of ancient Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree

References

Further reading
Eloise Jarvis McGraw, "Mara, Daughter of the Nile"

Der Manuelian, Peter, Studies in the Reign of Amenophis II, Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge(HÄB) Verlag: 1987
Cline, Eric H. and O'Connor, David, Thutmose III : A New Biography, University of Michigan Press, 2006. , incorporates a number of important new survey articles regarding the reign of Thutmose III, including administration, art, religion and foreign affairs
Reisinger, Magnus, Entwicklung der ägyptischen Königsplastik in der frühen und hohen 18. Dynastie, Agnus-Verlag, Münster 2005,
Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, [Volume Two, The Eighteenth Dynasty], University of Illinois Press, 2001.River God by Smith, Wilbur along with the rest of his Egyptian series of historical fiction novels are based in a large part on <mask> III's time along with his story and that of his mother through the eyes of his mother's vizier mixing in elements of the Hyksos' domination and eventual overthrow. External links

A Short History of

masks: III Thutmose


texts:
 Ancient Egypt -Dynasties XVIII to XX, with a few Thutmoside documents translated. Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Thutmose III (see index)

15th-century BC births
15th-century BC deaths
15th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ancient child rulers
Ancient Egyptian


texts:
<mask>nid Bey of Tunis, ruling from 1837 until his death. He was responsible for the abolition of slavery in Tunisia in 1846. He succeeded his father <mask> on 10 October 1837. He had grand ambitions  - to expand his army and create a modern navy; to build a new royal residence, a mint and modern institutions of education but neither he nor his brother-in-law the young Mustapha Khaznadar who served as his finance minister, had a clear idea of what such initiatives would cost. As a result, many of his projects became expensive failures which damaged the financial health of the country. Ottoman Recognition

Soon after his accession, <mask> received the traditional Firman from the Sublime Porte which formally invested him with authority to rule from the Ottoman Empire and furnished him with the insignia of office. The Ottoman envoy, Osman Bey, arrived in la Goulette on 15 May 1838 on board a frigate.The following day, Osman Bey made his official entry into Tunis on horseback, preceded by all the ministers of the beylical cabinet who went before him until he was two leagues from the city. Before him were carried the sword of honour and the caftan to be presented to the Bey. He was escorted by spahis and followed by a large contingent of regular troops an Arab cavalry. Three days after his official entry into the city, the envoy presented himself at the Bardo Palace to formally invest <mask> with his insignia of office and present gifts. Named as a Divisional General in the Ottoman army in May 1838, he was later promoted by the Sultan to the rank of Marshal on 14 August 1840. This was the first time that a Bey of Tunis had held a rank higher than Divisional General. The purpose of these honours was to emphasise the supremacy of the Ottoman Empire over the Regency of Tunis.Relations with France

Under a treaty with France signed in 1830 by Hussein Bey, a piece of land in Carthage had been ceded to allow the erection of a monument to <mask> of France

masks:
Ahmed I (sai
Mustafa Bey
Ahmad Bey
Ahmad Bey
Louis IX


texts:
 who had died there during the Eighth Crusade. On 25 August 1840 the first stone was laid in the cathedral of Carthage. <mask>sier, son of King Louis Philippe of France visited Tunis and Carthage. He was received with great solemnity by <mask>. During this visit the idea of a reciprocal visit of the Bey to France was proposed. This visit was organised by his advisor Giuseppe Raffo (whose sister was married to his uncle) and the French consul, and took place in November 1846.King Louis Philippe received <mask> with great ceremony. This visit confirmed the Bey's wish to modernise his country by learning from Europe. An 1897 article in La Revue tunisienne described it effect on his plans:

Among all the marvels he had occasion to admire, he was most particularly struck by the ingenious applications of industrial engineering; he conceived at that time the noble project of pulling native industry out of the routine into which it had fallen by encouraging it to embark on the road to progress and of endowing his country with modern industry, equipped with the means of production, of which the economic benefits had been revealed to him. The Bey's visit to France, and the fact that he had been received with the honours customarily reserved for an independent sovereign, displeased the Ottoman authorities as the Bey was, at least theoretically, an Ottoman vassal. Modernising ruler

According to the Tunisian historian Mohamed Bayram V, the Bey's reforms were focused on state structures, the army and education. He established a modern structure of government and gave his high officials the title of 'minister'. His senior ministers were his Grand Vizier <mask> at-Taba'a, Mustapha Khaznadar, Minister of Finance and of the Interior, <mask> as Minister of War, Mahmoud Khodja as Minister of the Navy and Giuseppe Raffo as Foreign Minister.At certain times Mahmoud Ben Ayed also served as Trade Minister, Kuchuk Muhammad in the honorific post of Minister in charge of

masks:
Ahmad Beypen
Ahmad Bey
Ahmad Bey
Mustafa Sahib
Mustafa Agha


texts: the security home of <mask>'s reforms wasted money, such as the large frigate built at La Goulette that could not make it through the channel to the sea. of Tunis and Mohamed Lasram IV as Minister of the Pen. The historian <mask> Dhiaf was the Bey's private secretary. Among <mask>'s successes may be counted the abolition of slavery in January 1846. To this may be added the formation of the military academy at Bardo in March 1840, which supported the development of the beylical army, numbering as many as 5,000 men in seven infantry regiments, four artillery regiments and two cavalry regiments. At the same time, the Bey reformed religious education at the Al-Zaytuna Mosque, bringing in thirty professors, of whom fifteen were for the Maliki school of jurisprudence which prevailed in Tunisia, and fifteen followed the Hanafi school followed by the ruling families of the country who were of Turkish origin. All were appointed and salaried by the state and placed under the control of a sharia council dominated by the two leading jurists of their time, Sidi Brahim Riahi, the Maliki Grand Mufti and Mohamed Bayram <mask>, who was both the Hanafi Grand Mufti and the first in Tunisia to bear the title Shaykh al-Islam.The Bey also made a donation of a large number of Arabic manuscripts to the Zaytuna mosque. State enterprise was also strongly encouraged. The businessman Mahmoud Ben Ayed was charged with building a small industrial complex to meet the needs of the new army. In 1840 a textile works was established at Tebourba, powered first by water-wheel and later by steam engines imported from Great Britain. Tanneries were also built, as was a cannon foundry at Bardo, a gunpowder works and a flour-mill at Djedeida. Supporting these innovations were new government offices - the rabta managing state grain silos; the ghaba in charge of olive oil forests; and the ghorfa, the central state procurement office, as well as a mint at Bardo. Not all of his initiatives

masks:
Ahmad Bey
Ibn Abi
Ahmad Bey
IV


texts:
 were successful however – he had a new frigate built at La Goulette which was so large it could not fit in the channel down to the sea.Tentative Reforms

<mask>'s modernisations had little impact on the economy or the life of Tunis, or on the institutions of the Regency. He did not appear to be much interested in urban developments or the improvement of Tunis, other than rebuilding the Bab al Jazira mosque, and restoring the Bab el Bhar in 1847 and 1848. More of his attention went on the royal palaces at the Bardo, La Goulette and Mohamedia. The latter, known as the Salehia after the name of the local saint Sidi Saleh, was rarely used by the Bey despite the enormous cost of its construction. Although he had a great desire for reform, particularly in economic and military matters, his initiatives ultimately had little success because of a poor understanding of their financial consequences and the lack of expertise in his government. Family life

Although most other rulers of his dynasty in the 18th and 19th centuries maintained a harem as well as having official wives, <mask> had only one wife and one concubine. Before the abolition of slavery, he habitually offered to his courtiers any odalisques given to him as presents.He had two children who died in infancy, so he died without direct issue. and was succeeded by his cousin Muhammad Bey. He died in 1855 in the summer palace of Sharfiya, at La Goulette, and was buried in the Tourbet el Bey in the Medina of Tunis. In popular culture

 Ahmed Bey appears as the lead character of the 2018 Tunisian TV series Tej El Hadhra directed by Sami Fehri. See also

Tunisian navy under Ahmed Bey

Further reading
 Eltarhuni, Ali (2015). Factors that affected the Tunisian industrialization movement in the era of Ahmed Bey (r. 1837-1855) (PhD). University of Cincinnati

References

1806 births
1855 deaths
19th century in Tunisia
Crimean War
Wars involving the Ottoman Empire
Beys of Tunis
Tunisian

masks:
Ahmad Bey
Ahmad Bey


texts: <mask> (1740 – 24 January 1822), variously referred to as of Tepelena or of Janina/Yannina/Ioannina, or the Lion of Yannina, was an  Albanian ruler who served as pasha of a large part of western Rumelia, the Ottoman Empire's European territories, which was referred to as the Pashalik of Yanina. His court was in Ioannina, and the territory he governed incorporated central and southern Albania, most of Epirus and the western parts of Thessaly and Greek Macedonia. <mask> had three sons: <mask>, who served in the 1809 war against the Russians, <mask>, who became Pasha of the Morea Eyalet and <mask>, governor of Vlorë. <mask> first appears in historical accounts as the leader of a band of brigands who became involved in many confrontations with Ottoman state officials in Albania and Epirus. He joined the administrative-military apparatus of the Ottoman Empire, holding various posts until 1788 when he was appointed pasha, ruler of the sanjak of Ioannina. His diplomatic and administrative skills, his interest in modernist ideas and concepts, his popular Muslim piety, his respect towards other religions, his suppression of banditry, his vengefulness and harshness in imposing law and order, and his looting practices towards

masks:
Ali Pasha
Ali
Muhtar Pasha
Veli Pasha
Salih Pasha
Ali


texts:
 persons and communities in order to increase his proceeds caused both the admiration and the criticism of his contemporaries, as well as an ongoing controversy among historians regarding his personality. As his influence grew, his involvement in Ottoman politics increased culminating in his active opposition to the ongoing Ottoman military reforms.After being declared a rebel in 1820, he was captured and killed in 1822 at the age of 81 or 82, after a successful military campaign against his forces. In Western literature, <mask> became the personification of an "oriental despot". Name
His name in the local languages were:  or ; ;   or   (<mask> of Ioannina); and  (). Background and early years

At some point in the 19th century, <mask>'s family was attributed with a legendary ancestry; according to this claim, <mask>'s family supposedly descended from a Mevlevi dervish named Nazif who migrated from Konya to Tepelene through Kütahya. However, this tradition is unfounded, and <mask>'s family, in all likelihood, was of local Albanian origin. They had achieved some stature by the 17th century. <mask>'s grandfather (Muhtar Bey) and great-grandfather were both bandit chieftains.His grandfather had died during the 1716

masks:
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali
Ali
Ali


texts: siege of Corfu. His father, Veli bey, was a local ruler of Tepelena. <mask> himself was born in Tepelena or in the adjacent village of Beçisht. According to George Bowen, <mask> was part of the Lab tribe; as this tribe was in disrepute among the other Albanians for their poverty and predatory habits, he thought it proper to call himself after Tepelena, a town of the Tosks; no one dared to dispute this until after his death. <mask>'s father was involved in a rivalry with his father's cousin Islam Bey, who was also a local ruler. Islam Bey was appointed mutasarrıf of Delvinë in 1752, but <mask>'s father managed to kill him and was allowed to succeed his cousin as mutasarrıf in 1762. However, his father was assassinated shortly after (when <mask> was nine or ten), and he was brought up by his mother, Chamko (or Hanko), who originally hailed from Konitsa.In <mask>'s early years, he distinguished himself as a bandit. He affiliated himself with the Bektashi sect. The family lost much of its political and material status following the murder of his father. In 1758, his mother, Hanko, reportedly a woman of extraordinary character, thereupon herself formed and led a brigand band, and studied to inspire the boy with her own

masks:
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali
Ali
Ali


texts: fierce and indomitable temper, with a view to revenge and the recovery of their lost wealth. According to Byron: "<mask> inherited 6 dram and a musket after the death of his father. <mask> collected a few followers from among the retainers of his father, made himself master, first of one village, then of another, amassed money, increased his power, and at last found himself at the head of a considerable body of Albanians". <mask> became a famous brigand leader and attracted the attention of the Ottoman authorities.He was assigned to suppress brigandage and fought for the "Sultan and Empire" with great bravery, particularly against the famous rebel Pazvantoğlu. He aided the <mask> of Negroponte in putting down a rebellion at Shkodër, it was during this period that he was introduced to the Janissary units and was inspired by their discipline. In 1768 he married the daughter of the wealthy <mask> of Delvina, with whom he entered into an alliance. <mask> was appointed mutasarrıf of Ioanninna at the end of 1784 or beginning of 1785, but was soon dismissed, returning to the position at the end of 1787 or start of 1788. His rise through Ottoman ranks continued with his appointment as lieutenant to the <mask> of Rumelia.

masks: Ali Ali Ali Pasha Pasha Ali Pasha


texts: After supporting the Sultan in conflicts between local feudal lords, he was appointed to rule the Sanjak of Delvina in 1785 with the title of Pasha. In reward for his services at Banat during the Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791), he was additionally granted the Sanjak of Trikala in 1787, which was at the time suffering from brigand raids.After achieving peace in Trikala by hunting down brigands, he was granted the role of supervisor of the tolls of "Tosceria and Epirus". In 1787 or 1788 he seized control of town of Ioannina, the major financial centre of all of Epirus and Albania, and enlisted most of the brigands under his own banner. That same year, <mask> declared himself ruler of the Sanjak of Ioannina under the title <mask> of Yanina, delegating the title of Pasha of Trikala to his son, Veli. This marked the beginning of the Pashalik of Yanina, and Ioannina would be his power base for the next 33 years. Over this period, <mask> took advantage of a weak Ottoman government to expand his territory still further until he gained control over most of Albania and northwestern Greece. During war-time, <mask> could assemble an army of 50,000 men in a matter of two to three days and could double that number in two to three

masks:
Ali
Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha


texts:
 weeks. Leading these armed forces was the Supreme Council.The Commander-in-chief was the founder and financier, <mask>. Council members included Muftar <mask>, Veli <mask>, Celâleddin Bey, Abdullah Pashe Taushani and a number of his trusted men like Hasan Dervishi, Halil Patrona, Omar Vrioni, Meço Bono, Ago Myhyrdari, Thanasis Vagias, Veli Gega and Tahir Abazi. <mask> as ruler

As <mask> of Ioannina, he slowly laid the foundations for the creation of an almost independent state, which included a large part of Greece and Albania. During his rule, the town of Ioannina developed into a major educational, cultural, political and economic hub. In order to achieve his goals, he allied with all religious and ethnic groups in his territory. At the same time, he did not hesitate to fiercely crush any opponent. As he also developed relations with European powers.<mask>'s policy as ruler of Ioánnina was mostly governed by expediency; he operated as a semi-independent despot and pragmatically allied himself with whoever offered the most advantage at the time. In fact, it was <mask> and his Albanian soldiers and mercenaries who subdued the independent Souli. <mask> wanted to establish in the Mediterranean a sea-power which would

masks:
Ali Pasha
Pasha
Pasha
Ali Pasha
Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha


texts: be a counterpart of that of the Dey of Algiers, Ahmed ben <mask>. In order to gain a seaport on the Albanian coast, which was dominated by Venice, <mask> formed an alliance with Napoleon I of France, who had established François Pouqueville as his general consul in Ioannina, with the complete consent of the Ottoman Sultan Selim III. After the Treaty of Tilsit, where Napoleon granted the Czar his plan to dismantle the Ottoman Empire, <mask> switched sides and allied with Britain in 1807; a detailed account of his alliance with the British was written by Sir Richard Church. His actions were permitted by the Ottoman government in Constantinople. <mask> was very cautious and displeased by the emergence of the new Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II in the year 1808.Lord Byron visited <mask>'s court in Ioánnina in 1809 and recorded the encounter in his work Childe Harold. He evidently had mixed feelings about the despot, noting the splendour of <mask>'s court and the Greek cultural revival that he had encouraged in Ioánnina, which Byron described as being "superior in wealth, refinement and learning" to any other Greek town. In a letter to his mother, however, Byron deplored <mask>'s cruelty: "His Highness is a remorseless tyrant,

masks:
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali


texts:
 guilty of the most horrible cruelties, very brave, so good a general that they call him the Mahometan Buonaparte ... but as barbarous as he is successful, roasting rebels, etc, etc.."

Different tales about his sexual proclivities emerged from western visitors to <mask>'s court (including Lord Byron, the , and Frederick North, Earl of Guildford). These documenters wrote that he kept a large harem of both women and men. Such accounts may reflect the Orientalist imagination of Europe and underplay the historical role of <mask> rather than telling us anything concrete about his sexuality. <mask>, according to one opinion, "was a cruel and faithless tyrant; still, he was not a Turk, but an Albanian; he was a rebel against the Sultan (Mahmud II), and he was so far an indirect friend of the Sultan's enemies". Throughout his rule he is known to have maintained close relations and corresponded with famous leaders such as Husein Gradaščević, Ibrahim Bushati, Mehmet <mask> and <mask>.Though certainly no friend to the Greek Nationalists (he had personally ordered the painful execution of the Klepht Katsantonis), his rule brought relative stability. It was only after his forceful deposition that the people of Greece objected to

masks:
Pasha
Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ibrahim Pasha


texts:
 the rule of the Sultan Mahmud II and the newly appointed Hursid <mask> and thus began the Greek War of Independence. <mask> used Greek in his court, and over the gate of his castle in Yannina there was an inscription in Greek claiming his descent from King Pyrrhus of Epirus. It is reported that he conversed with foreigners in Greek. A long epic poem known as the Alipashiad consisting of more than 10,000 lines is dedicated to the exploits of <mask>. The Alipashiad was composed by Haxhi Shekreti, an Albanian Muslim from Delvina and was written entirely in Greek. Impact on modern Greek Enlightenment
Although <mask>'s native language was Albanian he used Greek for all his courtly dealings since the population of the region of Epirus (now mainly in northwestern Greece) which he ruled was predominantly Greek-speaking.As a consequence, a part of the local Greek population showed sympathy towards his rule. This also activated new educational opportunities, with businessmen of the Greek diaspora, subsidizing a number of new educational purposes. As historian Douglas Dakin notes:

Atrocities

In 1808, Mühürdar, a commanding Janissary of <mask>, captured one of his most renowned opponents, the Greek klepht Katsantonis, who was

masks:
Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha


texts:
 executed in public by having his bones broken with a sledgehammer. One of <mask>'s most notorious crimes, without a legal indictment, was the mass murder of 17 or 18 chosen young Greek girls of Ioannina. They were, without a trial, sentenced as adulteresses, tied up in sacks and drowned in Lake Pamvotis. Oral Aromanian tradition (songs) tells about the cruelty of <mask>'s troops. In October 1798 <mask>'s troops attacked the coastal town of Preveza, which was defended by a small garrison of 280 French grenadiers and local Greeks.When the town was finally conquered, a major slaughter occurred against the local people as retaliation for their resistance. He also tortured the French and Greek prisoners of war before their execution. A French officer described the atrocities ordered by <mask> and his cruel character:

Every French captive was given a razor with which he was forced to skin the severed heads of his compatriots. Those who refused were beaten on the head with clubs. After the heads were skinned, the masks were salted and put in cloth bags. When the operation was finished, the French were driven back into the hangar, and they were warned to prepare for death. In the early nineteenth century his troops

masks:
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha


texts:
 completed the destruction of the once-prosperous cultural center of Moscopole, in modern southeastern Albania, and forced its Aromanian population to flee from the region.Many Aromanians scattered throughout the Balkans, founding settlements such as Kruševo, but also left the region and went to other countries, forming an Aromanian diaspora. Downfall
In 1819, Halet Efendi brought to the attention of Sultan Mahmud II issues conspicuously related to <mask>; Halet Efendi accused <mask> of grabbing power and influence in Ottoman Rumelia away from the Sublime Porte. In 1820, <mask>, after long tensions with the Turkish Reforms, allegedly ordered the assassination of Gaskho Bey, a political opponent in Constantinople; Sultan Mahmud II, who sought to restore the authority of the Sublime Porte, took this as a major opportunity to move against <mask> by ordering his immediate deposition. <mask> refused to resign his official post and put up a fierce resistance to the Sultan's troop movements as some 20,000 Turkish troops led by Hursid <mask> were fighting <mask>'s small but formidable army. Most of his followers abandoned him without fighting and fled, including Androutsos and his sons Veli and Muhtar, or else joined the

masks:
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Pasha
Ali Pasha


texts: Ottoman army. Among these were Omer Vrioni and Alexis Noutsos, who went unopposed to Ioannina, which was besieged in September 1820. On December 4, 1820, <mask> and the Souliotes formed an anti-Ottoman coalition, to which the Souliotes contributed 3,000 soldiers.<mask> gained the support of the Souliotes mainly because he offered to allow the return of the Souliotes to their land, and partly by appeal to their perceived Albanian origin. Initially, the coalition was successful and managed to control most of the region, but when the Muslim Albanian troops of <mask> were informed of the beginning of the Greek revolts in the Morea, it was terminated. <mask>'s rebellion against the Sublime Porte increased the value of the Greek military element since their services were sought by the Porte as well. He is said to have contracted the services of the Klephts and Souliots in exile in the Ionian Islands as well as the armatoles under his command. However he feared that the Klephts might rout him before the arrival of the Ottoman Turks. His separatist actions constitute a great example of the institutional corruption and dividing trends prevailing in the Ottoman Empire at the time. His effort to become an independent ruler

masks:
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali


texts: finally caused the reaction of the Sublime Porte, which sent the army against him.After about two years of fighting, in January 1822, Ottoman forces had taken most of the fortifications of Ioannina except the fortified palace inside the kastro. <mask> opened negotiations. Deceived with offers of a full pardon, he was persuaded to leave the fortress and settle in the Monastery of St Panteleimon on the island in Lake Pamvotis, previously taken by the Ottoman army during the siege. He was killed there and beheaded by an Ottoman unit in 1822. Hursid <mask>, to whom it was presented on a large dish of silver plate, rose to receive it, bowed three times before it, and respectfully kissed the beard, expressing aloud his wish that he himself might deserve a similar end. To such an extent did the admiration with which <mask>'s bravery inspired these men to efface the memory of his crimes. <mask> was buried with full honors in a mausoleum next to the Fethiye Mosque, which still stands.Despite his brutal rule, villagers paid their last respect to <mask>: "Never was seen greater mourning than that of the warlike Epirotes." The former monastery in which <mask> was killed is today a popular tourist attraction. The holes made by

masks:
Ali Pasha
Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha


texts:
 the bullets can still be seen, and the monastery has dedicated to him a museum, which includes a number of his personal possessions. Religion
<mask> was born into a Muslim family. Regardless, the struggle for power and the political turmoils within the empire required for him to support non-Muslim or heterodox priests, beliefs, and orders, and especially the Orthodox Christian population which formed the majority of the population in the region he ruled. One of the spiritual figures which influenced him was Saint Cosmas. <mask> ordered and supervised the construction of a monastery dedicated to him near Berat.<mask> maintained control over the Christian population but respected the monasteries and stayed on good terms with the upper clergy. He strongly supported the Sufi orders, well-spread in Rumelia at the time. <mask> was close to the dominant Sufi orders as the Naqshbandi, Halveti, Sâdîyye, or even Alevi. Specifically the famous Sufi shrines in Yanina and Parga were Naqshbandi. The order that was mostly supported by him was Bektashi and he is accepted today to have been a Bektashi follower, initiated by Baba Shemin of Fushë-Krujë. Through his patronage, Bektashism spread in Thessaly, Epirus, South Albania, and

masks:
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali


texts:
 in Kruja. <mask>'s tomb headstone was capped by the crown (taj) of the Bektashi order.Nasibi Tahir Babai, a Bektashi saint, is regarded as one of three spiritual advisers of <mask>. <mask> in literature

According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, in Western literature, <mask> became the personification of an "oriental despot". In the early 19th century, <mask>'s personal balladeer, Haxhi Shekreti, composed the poem Alipashiad. The poem was written in Greek language, since the author considered it a more prestigious language in which to praise his master. <mask>hiad bears the unusual feature of being written from the Muslim point of view of that time. He is the title character of the 1828 German singspiel <mask>a von Janina by Albert Lortzing. In the novel The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, père, <mask>'s downfall is revealed to have been brought about by French Army officer Fernand Mondego.Unaware of Mondego's collusion with the Sultan's forces, <mask> is described as having entrusted his wife, Kyra Vassiliki, and daughter, Haydée, to Mondego, who sells them into slavery. Mondego then personally murders <mask> and returns to France with a fortune. The novel's protagonist, Edmond Dantés, subsequently locates

masks:
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali
Alipas
Ali Pasch
Ali Pasha
Pasha
Ali Pasha


texts: Haydée, buys her freedom, and helps her avenge her parents by testifying at Mondego's court martial in Paris. Mondego, who is found guilty of "felony, treason, and dishonor", is abandoned by his wife and son and later commits suicide. Alexandre Dumas, père wrote a history, <mask>ha, part of his eight-volume series Celebrated Crimes (1839–40). <mask> is also a major character in the 1854 Mór Jókai's Hungarian novel Janicsárok végnapjai ("The Last Days of the Janissaries"), translated into English by R. Nisbet Bain, 1897, under the title The Lion of Janina. <mask> and Hursid <mask> are the main characters in Ismail Kadare's historic novel The Traitor's Niche (original title Kamarja e turpit).<mask> provokes the bey Mustapha (a fictional character) in Patrick O'Brian's The Ionian Mission to come out fighting on his own account, when the British navy is in the area seeking an ally to push the French off Corfu. The Turkish expert for the British Navy visits him to learn this tangled story, which puts Captain Aubrey out to sea to take Mustapha in battle. Many of the conflicting versions about the origin of the "Spoonmaker's Diamond", a major treasure of the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, link it with <mask> – though their

masks:
Ali Pac
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha


texts:
 historical authenticity is doubtful. Loretta Chase's 1992 historical romance novel The Lion's Daughter includes <mask> and a possible revolt against him by a cousin, Ismal. See also
Albania under the Ottoman Empire
Dimitrios Deligeorgis, a secretary to <mask>
Greek War of Independence
History of Albania
History of Ottoman Albania

Notes

Sources
 "<mask> Tepelenë." Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)
 "<mask> (1744? – 1822)".The Columbia Encyclopedia (2004). Ellingham et al. Rough Guide to Greece, (2000)
 Fleming, Katherine Elizabeth. The Muslim Bonaparte: diplomacy and orientalism in <mask>'s Greece. Princeton University Press, 1999. .
 Koliopoulos, John S. (1987) Brigands with a Cause, Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece 1821–1912. Clarendon Press, Oxford. S. Aravantinos, Istoria <mask> tou Tepelenli, [the history of <mask> Tepelenli based on the unpublished texts by Panagiotis Arantinos] Athens 1895, (photographic reprint, Athens 1979).Gr. Lars, I Albania kai I Epiros sta teli tou IG’ kai stis arches tou IH’ aion. Ta Dytikovalkanika Pasalikia tis Othomanikis Autokratorias [Albania and Epirus I the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Ottoman Eyalets of Western Balkans, transl. A. Dialla, publ. Gutenberg,

masks:
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasa
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasa
Ali Pasha


texts:
 Athens 1994, pp. 144–173. G. Siorokas, I eksoteriki politiki tou Ali pasa ton Ioanninon.Apo to Tilsit sti Vienni [the internal affairs policy of <mask>. From Tilsit to Vienna] (1807–1815), Ioannina, 1999. D. Skiotis, “Apo listis pasas. Ta prota vimata stin anodo tou <mask>ninon [From bandit to Pasha. The early years of <mask>], (1750–1784)”, Thisaurimata 6 (1969), pp. 257–290
Dim. A. Zotos, I dikaiosyni eis to kratos tou <mask> pasa [Justice in the state of <mask>], Athens, 1938.Vaso D. Psimouli, Souli kai Souliotes, Athens 1998
Ali Pasha Archives, 2007, I. Chotzi collection, Gennadius Library, Ed. – Cpmmentary – Index: V. Panagiotopoulos with collaboration of D. Dimitropoulou, P. Michailari, Vol. 4
A. Papastavros, <mask>, apo listarchos igemonas [<mask>, from bandit to leader], publ. Apeirotan, 2013. W. M. Leake, Travels in northern Greece, Α.Μ.Ηakkert-Publisher, (photographic reprint Amsterdam 1967). Vol. 1, pp.295,Vol. 4, pp. 260
I. Lampridis, “Malakasiaka”, Epirotika Meletimata [Epirote Studies] 5 (1888), publ. 2. Society for Epirote Studies. (EHM), Ioannina 1993, p. 25
Ali Pasha Archives, I. Chotzi collection, Gennadius Library, Ed. – Commentary – Index: V. Panagiotopoulos with the collaboration of D.

masks:
Ali Pasha
Alioan
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasas
Ali Pasha


texts:
 Dimitropoulou, P. Michailari, 2007, Vol.B’, pp. 672–674 (doc. 851), 676–677, (doc. 855), 806-807 (doc. 943). G. Plataris, Kodikas Choras Metsovou ton eton 1708–1907 [Chora Metsovou Log of the years 1708–1907], Athens 1982, pp. 105, 120.V. Skafidas, “Istoria tou Metsovou” [History of Metsovo], Epirotiki Estia 11/121, 122 (1962), p. 387. M. Tritos, “Ta sozomena firmania ton pronomion tou Metsovou” [The surviving firmans about the privileges granted to Metsovo], Minutes of the 1st Conference of Metsovite Studies, Athens 1993, pp. 404. Further reading
 Brøndsted, Peter Oluf, Interviews with <mask>; edited by Jacob Isager, (Athens, 1998)
 Davenport, Richard, The Life of <mask>, Late Vizier of Jannina; Surnamed Aslan, Or the Lion, (2nd ed, Relfe, London, 1822)
 Dumas père, Alexandre, <mask>, Celebrated Crimes Fauriel, Claude Charles: Die Sulioten und ihre Kriege mit <mask> von Janina, (Breslau, 1834)
 Glenny, Misha The Balkans 1804–1999 Granta Books, London 1999. Jóka, Mór: Janicsárok végnapjai, Pest, 1854. (in English: Maurus Jókai: The Lion of Janina, translated by R. Nisbet Bain, 1897). Manzour, Ibrahim, Mémoires sur la Grèce et l'Albanie pendant le gouvernement d'<mask>, (Paris, 1827)
 Plomer, William The Diamond of

masks:
Ali Pacha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pacha
Ali Paa
Ali Pacha


texts:
 Jannina:  <mask> 1741–1822 (New York, Taplinger, 1970)
 Pouqueville, François, Voyage en Morée, à Constantinople, en Albanie, et dans plusieurs autres parties de l'Empire Ottoman (Paris, 1805, 3 vol.in-8°), translated in English, German, Greek, Italian, Swedish, etc. available on line at Gallica
 Pouqueville, François, Travels in Epirus, Albania, Macedonia, and Thessaly (London: printed for Sir Richard Phillips and Co, 1820), an English denatured and truncated edition available on line
 Pouqueville, François, Voyage en Grèce (Paris, 1820–1822, 5 vol. in-8° ; 20 édit., 1826–1827, 6 vol. in-8°), his capital work
 Pouqueville, François, Histoire de la régénération de la Grèce (Paris, 1824, 4 vol. in-8°), translated in many languages. French original edition available on Google books
 Pouqueville, François, Notice sur la fin tragique d’Ali-Tébélen (Paris 1822, in-8°)
 Skiotis, Dennis N., "From Bandit to Pasha: first steps in the rise to power of <mask> of Tepelen, 1750–1784", International Journal of Middle East Studies 2: 3: 219–244 (July 1971) (JSTOR)
 Vaudoncourt, Guillaume de Memoirs on the Ionian Islands ... : including the life and character of <mask>''. London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, 1816

External links

masks:
Ali Pasha
Ali
Ali Pacha


texts:
1740 births
1822 deaths
People from Tepelenë
Albanian Muslims
Pashas
Civil servants of the Ottoman Empire
18th-century Albanian people
19th-century Albanian people
18th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
19th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Greece
Albanians of the Ottoman Empire
Albanian nobility
Albanian Pashas
Albanian Sufis
Ottoman Sufis
Bektashi Order
Ottoman


texts:
<mask> (25 August 1749 - 4 February 1824) was a French politician and writer who spent much of his life serving in the Knights of Malta. Following his enlistment as a soldier, he entered the service of the French Secretariat of the Knights and was eventually promoted to the leadership of the Secretariat. Doublet participated in the negotiations for the surrender of the Knights when Malta was captured by Napoleon in 1798. Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim had failed to bolster Valletta's defenses against the French fleet and had peacefully admitted some French ships to the harbor, leading to the island's capture. <mask>, being in the Grand Master's direct service, was accused as a collaborator with the French and became caught in the political maneuvering by other members to depose Hompesch. Doublet stayed in Malta during the French occupation, serving as Secretary General to the Commission of Government installed by Napoleon and later becoming Commissioner of Malta. He was exiled to France when the island became a British Dominion in 1800 and wrote a book about his experiences in Malta.<mask> remained in exile for most of his life, though he was allowed to make a permanent return soon before his death. The early years (1749  1781)
<mask> <mask> <mask>, the son of a gardener <mask> and his wife <mask>, was born in Beaugency, within  of Orléans, France. On 19 June 1779, he enlisted as a soldier to the Infantry Regiment of the Order of Malta and reached the rank of premier sergeant (first sergeant) in November 1782. Career in the Order of Malta (1781  1798)
In 1781, he also entered the service of the French Secretariat of

masks:
Pierre Jean Louis Ovide Doublet
Doublet
Doublet
Pierre Jean
Louis Ovide
Doublet
Jean Doublet
Jeanne Desire


texts: Grand Master de Rohan (the Order also included two other secretariats, Spanish and Italian), with the title of under-secretary of its Commanderies. His qualities were quickly recognised and on 6 October 1783 he was rewarded by affiliation to the Order as confratello or donato; the Donat of Devotion was a rank within the Order recognising individuals for the services they provided. He also received the privilege of wearing the “croix” with six points in gold and enamel in his buttonhole and in white linen sewn on his coat. Moreover, he acquired the right to enjoy pensions from any commanderies in the appointment of the Grand Master, a privilege usually reserved for commanders of the Order.His Bull of reception is recorded with the Chancery of the Order on 14 October 1783. The following year, on proposal of the baillif d'Almeida and the listener Bruno, he was offered promotion to the rank of conventual chaplain. He had already formed prospects for marriage which obliged him to refuse: the conventual chaplains, like the knights, made vows of chastity. On 19 April 1784, against the will of his hierarchy and in semi-secrecy, he married a young Maltese woman of modest origin, Elizabetta Magri, also known as Bettina. In his final position in the Order, as Head of the French Secretariat, he served under the successive reigns of two Grand Masters. The first, Emmanuel de Rohan by whom he was protected then, after the death of de Rohan in 1797, his successor Ferdinand Von Hompesch. Within the framework of his functions, he was particularly closely associated with the creation of the Grand Priory of Russia which replaced the Priory of Poland after


texts:
 the division of this country.He was also a "Brother" of the Masonic Lodge in Malta (St. John's Lodge of Secrecy and Harmony) which had obtained an English warrant. The Bailiff (Count) Fra’ Giulio Litta, was greatly involved in the creation of the Grand Priory of Russia, was by chance, also member of this same lodge, entirely under the benevolent indifference of the Grand-Master de Rohan (himself initiated in Modane in 1756). French Occupation of Malta (1798  1800)
In June 1798, at the time of the capture of Malta by Napoleon Bonaparte en route to his expedition of Egypt, part of the Mediterranean campaign of 1798, Doublet formed part of the delegation which negotiated the terms for the surrender of the Order on board Orient, Napoleon's flagship. He intervened when negotiating the amount of the allowance allocated to the Grand Master. Pointing out that the proposed amount appeared insufficient to him, Napoleon's only retort was to address the problem directly to the Republic. As he had with the other Frenchmen in the Order that he thought to be of some use to him, the General proposed Doublet accompany him to Egypt. Because of Doublet's age—he was almost 50 years old—and his family for which he was the only support, Doublet declined the proposal courteously but firmly.His refusal angered Napoleon, who did not appreciate anyone denying his will, but the future emperor confided to Junot, his aide-de-camp, that this man had good qualities because he had substance. During the occupation of Malta by France (June 1798/September 1800), his competencies were again put to use by the French authorities because of his knowledge of the land and


texts:
 because he was French and thus reliable in the eyes of the occupiers. He is named as of June 1798 Secretary General to the Commission of Government installed by Napoleon at the time of his stay. On 10 November 1799 he became Commissioner to replace Regnaud de Saint <mask>'Angély who is recalled to France, a position that he remained until the surrender of Valletta on 5 September 1800. The President of this commission was another Frenchman, Citizen Bosredon de Ransijat, formerly commander of the Order and also its former treasurer. Business of the Grand Master
Following the capture of Malta by the troops of Bonaparte and in the débacle of the Order which followed, Doublet was shown to have communicated to the French authorities the secret code that the Grand Masters Hompesch and, before him, Rohan used to safeguard their diplomatic mails. Indeed, as a sovereign order, the Order of Malta then exchanged an abundance of correspondence with the different states around Europe.Bonaparte intercepted several messages to the Order's Grand Master, and its honorary Grand Master, the Czar of Russia. Bonaparte requested the decipher code. Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim yielded to this requirement and instructed <mask> to hand over of this secret code. These letters did not bring anything that the General-in-chief did not already know except perhaps, amusing details, certain appreciations of his own person emanating from French diplomats. However, Doublet had already aroused the jealousy of several members of the order, he was von Hompesch's right-hand man, and he was of French birth. A rumour quickly circulated that charged Doublet with the entire

masks:
Jean d
Doublet


texts: responsibility of having delivered the cipher to the enemy. Some of his accusers even asserted that Doublet was a traitor, a secret agent on the payroll of Napoleon who had been introduced within the Order to undermine it.In a similar case, the Proclamation of St Petersburg, signed by former members of the Order in an effort to please the Czar, posited that Hompesch was incompetent and defeatist. This is also the case in a published booklet partisan with St Petersburg by an old bodyguard of the Count of Artois (the future Charles X). One can seriously doubt the objectivity of these writings insofar as their authors were obligated to the Czar, placed under his authority they tried to restart in a ridiculous and pitiful way the previous glories of a broken and deposed order. Indeed, Czar Paul I had been designated "Protector" of the Order and, after its dissolution in Malta, he tried to reconstitute it within the framework of the recently established Priory of Russia. It was thus important to discredit von Hompesch and, if unhappy with the Grand Master but still taking into account his rank, could not openly be shown to be a traitor, at the very least by deferring the crime on his closest collaborators one could make him a traitor by incompetence, weakness and breach. Besides, Tzar Paul I managed to achieve his goal since after the abdication of von Hompesch, he is proclaimed Grand Master by some of the members of the Order in exile whom he had hastened to accommodate following their expulsion from Malta (the Grand Master was not recognised by the Pope because Tzar Paul I was married and of Russian Orthodox religion). Doublet, the ex


texts:
 donat, shared these calumnies with Bosredon de Ransijat, another renegade in the eyes of Order.<mask>'s honour was wounded by this cabal, but more especially as he always hoped for the re-establishment of the Order and his return to Malta, Doublet protested his innocence in this business until the end of his days, innocence which will be attested to by several direct witnesses, including Matthius Poussielgue, Napoleon's finance adviser at the time of these events. Exile (1800  1824)
After the surrender of the French garrison in Valletta on 5 September 1800, the British expelled from the Maltese islands all those who collaborated with the French, expressed any sympathy with them, or accommodated them in some way. This included those who had taken an active part in the civil administration and French military, mixed French and Maltese, but also the French who had been long-term residents of Malta. Thus was the case for <mask>, a native Frenchman of Troyes in the department of Aube, living in Malta since 1749, who married there, started a family and had integrated into the Maltese population. After passing by the Balearic Islands, <mask> <mask> <mask> was disembarked in Marseilles, France, in December 1800. Bourrienne, private secretary of Napoleon, recalls in his own Mémoires <mask>'s presence in Paris in 1802, in spite of a decree from the  Directory to the Maltese refugees to remain in the departments of the Var, the Bouches-du-Rhône and in Corsica (departments of Liamone and Golo). After the Treaty of Amiens, Doublet once again believed he could settle in Malta; he returned a few times, but was exiled again when hostilities resumed

masks:
Doublet
Pierre Manchin
Pierre Jean
Louis Ovide
Doublet
Doublet


texts:
 between France and England.Subsequently, his life became a long exile. He spent nine or ten years in Rome, living a precarious and penurious existence, while making brief sojourns to Malta, where he could not remain for long. He finally settled with his son in Tripoli, (Libya). In the last months of his life, he was finally permitted to return permanently to Malta and he died there soon after his return, 4 February 1824. Today, many of his descendants have been traced and are living in Malta, France, Australia, England, The Netherlands, Germany  and United States. Among these one still bears the name <mask> and toward the end of 19th century one was named Napoleon. Writing
<mask> <mask> Doublet left a book,  Mémoires Historiques sur l'Invasion et l'Occupation de Malte par une Armée Française, en 1798,  in which he tells of his experience.The first part is an analysis of the reign of Grand Master Emmanuel de Rohan; the second part reports the invasion and the occupation of Malta by the French. In 1832, when Sir Walter Scott wrote his work about the occupation of Malta by the French, someone presented Doublet's manuscript to him; it was not published until 1883. The father of Ivanhoe and Rob Roy will affirm he acted with good intent and left the most complete report on these events that had been given to him. This work most probably constitutes a kind of plea pro domo and some will suggest that Doublet could have portrayed himself in a more important role than in fact it actually was. External links

 Departmental records of Loiret, France. <mask> <mask> Doublet : Mémoires historiques sur l'invasion de Malte par une armée française, en

masks:
Louis Ovide
Pierre Jean
Louis Ovide
Pierre Jean
Louis Ovide


texts:
 1798 - Librairie Firmin-Didot Paris 1883. Mr. Miège: Histoire de Malte - Bruxelles 1841.<mask> Fauvelet de Bourrienne: Mémoires de Napoléon. Clément de la Jonquière : L'expédition d'Egypte 1798-1801 (volume 5). Eusèbe de Salle : Pérégrinations en Orient (Volume 2). Henri Plon : Correspondance de Napoléon 1er - 1860. Chevalier de Meyer : Révolution de Malte en 1798 : réponse au manifeste du Prieuré de Russie - 1799. F.A. de Cristophoro d'Avalos : Tableau historique de Malte et de ses habitants - Paris 1820.<mask> de Villeneuve-Bargemont : Monument des grands maîtres de l'Ordre de St Jean de Jérusalem - 1829. Dennis Castillo : The maltese cross : a strategic history of Malta. Frederick W Ryan: House of the Temple - 2003. Bonaparte à Malte

1749 births
1824 deaths
French occupation of Malta
Maltese politicians
People of the French

masks:
Louis Antoine
Louis François


texts:
<mask>, or Able or Ables (July 25, 1808– December 25, 1884) was one of the earliest African-American members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and was the church's first African-American elder and Seventy. <mask> was predominantly of Scottish and English descent, and appears to have been the first and one of the few black members in the early history of the church to have received the priesthood, later becoming the faith's first black missionary. <mask> did not have his priesthood revoked when the LDS Church invoked a now-obsolete priesthood ban for black men, but was denied a chance to receive his temple endowment by third church president John Taylor . As a skilled carpenter, <mask> often committed his services to the building of LDS temples and chapels. He died in 1884 after serving a mission to Cincinnati, Ohio, his last of three total missions for the church. Early life
<mask> was born in Frederick-Town, Maryland on July 25, 1808 to Delilah Williams and <mask>. There is some confusion surrounding <mask>'s birth year, given that some sources put the year at 1808 and others at 1810.However, the 1850 Census record marks 1808 as the year of <mask>'s birth, and both <mask>'s patriarchal blessing and grave marker record 1808 as his birth year. His mother was of Scottish descent and his father of English descent; one of his grandmothers was "half white," or mulatto, and thus <mask> was considered to be "octoroon," or one-eighth African. <mask>'s mother died when he was 8 years old. Some believed that she was a slave from South Carolina, but evidence for this has never been produced. Others have also speculated, based on the unproven assumption that <mask> was the son of a slave, that he at some point migrated to Canada by way of the underground railroad. Apart from circumstantial evidence, this claim remains entirely unsubstantiated, apart from a few sources stating that

masks:
Elijah Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Elijah Abel
Andrew Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel


texts:
 <mask> spent some time in Canada in his early adulthood. Conversion to the LDS faith
<mask> later moved to Ohio, and in Cincinnati he was baptized and confirmed a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in September of 1832.He was baptized by local Mormon elder and blacksmith Ezekiel Roberts. Shortly after his baptism, <mask> moved to the area of Kirtland, Ohio to join in fellowship with the main body of church members congregating there. Priesthood ordination and church participation
<mask> was ordained an elder of the LDS Church on January 25, 1836 following Joseph Smith's declaration in 1836 that <mask> was "entitled to the Priesthood and all the blessings." He had been an active participant in the construction of the Kirtland Temple over the preceding months. <mask> participated in the "Pentecostal season" that accompanied the completion and dedication of the Kirtland Temple in 1836. At the end of that year, 11 months after his priesthood ordination, <mask> was ordained a seventy and inducted into the Third Quorum of the priesthood on December 20. In 1841, <mask> was reconfirmed in Nauvoo by Joseph Young and Albert P. Rockwood.<mask> was among the first church members to receive the ordinance of the initiatory in the Kirtland Temple following its dedication in 1836. Patriarchal blessing
<mask> received his patriarchal blessing from Presiding Patriarch Joseph Smith Sr., which was recorded by LDS Church scribe and newspaper editor Warren A. Cowdery. At the time, the common practice when giving patriarchal blessings was to declare an individual to be a descendant of a specific tribe of Israel. <mask>, however, was declared an "orphan" from a father who "hath never done his duty toward [him]," but it was stated in the blessing that <mask> would "be made equal to [his] brethren, and [his] soul be white in eternity and [his] robes glittering." Since the recorded blessing does not

masks: Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel


texts:
 specifically declare his tribal lineage, <mask> was perhaps "adopted" into the House of Israel. The blessing also included what seemed to be a foreshadowing of the civil war that would soon strike at the heart of the country:

Thou shalt see [the destroyer's] power in laying waste the nations, & the wicked slaying the wicked, while blood shall run down the streets like water, and thy heart shall weep over their calamities. Angels shall visit thee and thou shalt receive comfort.They shall call thee blessed and deliver thee from thine enemies. They shall break thy bands and keep thee from afflictions. Mission to Upper Canada
During the late 1830s, <mask> labored as a missionary in New York and Upper Canada, and preached among the black population in those areas. In 1838, <mask> baptized 25-year-old Eunice Ross Kinney while serving in St. Lawrence County, New York, who after <mask>'s death remembered him as a "powerful" minister, and one who had been "ordained by Joseph the martyr." <mask> taught Kinney and others he baptized that "the time was drawing near for [Christ's] coming, but that He would not come till God had a people prepared to receive Him, with all the gifts and blessings that adorned His church anciently." In his ministry <mask> often quoted the Apostle Peter: "Think it not strange, brethren, concerning the fiery trials which are to try you...". Due to civil unrest and rebellion in Upper Canada, <mask>'s missionary travels were frequently punctuated with dangerous situations and persecutions.Such circumstances were certainly not unfamiliar to many Mormon missionaries of the time, nor to their leaders. At one point during his mission <mask> was falsely accused of the murder of a family of six, and aggressively pursued by a mob bearing hot tar and feathers. Time in Nauvoo, temple building & civil marriage
<mask> moved from Kirtland to Commerce (later renamed Nauvoo), Illinois in 1839 upon

masks: Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel Abel


texts: returning from his mission to Canada. He came to own a piece of property located northwest of the city on the banks of the Mississippi River. While living in Nauvoo, <mask> continued to further immerse himself in church work and activity, and is known to have performed at least two baptisms for the dead by proxy: one for a friend by the name of "John F. Lancaster," and one for his mother, Delilah. One of <mask>'s duties included acting as an undertaker at the request of Joseph Smith—responsible for the fashioning of coffins and the digging of graves—in response to the malaria epidemic of 1839-40. <mask> continued to work as a carpenter; he was a member of the group called the House Carpenters of the Town of Nauvoo.During <mask>'s time in Nauvoo he became personally acquainted with Joseph Smith. As part of <mask>'s priesthood license, Joseph wrote that he recommended <mask> as his "worthy brother in the Lord," one who is "duly authorized" to spread the gospel in a manner "equal to the authority of that Office." In June 1841, <mask> and six other men quickly mobilized themselves as an expeditionary militia force to attempt the rescue of Smith after his unlawful arrest by state officers at Quincy, Illinois. By the time they reached Quincy, however, Smith had obtained a writ of habeas corpus and had been returned safely to Nauvoo. In 1842, <mask> left the deed to his Nauvoo property to William Marks and returned to Cincinnati on assignment by Joseph Smith. There he continued his carpentry and boarded for a time with a local painter named John Price on Eighth Street. <mask> continued to act as a leader of the church in Cincinnati, and was recognized as such by Joseph Smith, who pronounced to Orson Hyde and others: "Go to Cincinnati... and find an educated negro, who rides in his carriage, and you will see a man who has risen by the power of his own mind to his exalted state of respectability."Marriage


texts:
On February 16, 1847, the thirty-nine-year-old <mask> married seventeen-year-old Mary Ann Adams of Tennessee, who was residing in Ohio. Adams was also one-eighth African-American. Little is known about Adams, other than the date of her marriage to <mask> and her residency status in both Tennessee and Ohio. The couple had eight known children: three were born in Cincinnati—Moroni, Enoch, and Anna Rebecca—and five more in Utah Territory—Delilah, Mary, <mask>., Maggie, and Flora. They also took into their home a young woman (about the age of their oldest son) named Rola from Ohio whom they later adopted. Migration and later years in Utah
In May 1853, <mask> and his family departed from Keokuk, Iowa and migrated as part of the Appleton M. Harmon pioneer company to Utah Territory, where the new headquarters of the LDS Church were located. After the company's arrival in the Salt Lake Valley on October 17, <mask>'s family moved to Millcreek, a few miles south of Salt Lake City.<mask> continued to work as a carpenter as part of the LDS public works program and assisted in the construction of the Salt Lake Temple. By 1860, the <mask> family had moved to Salt Lake City's Thirteenth Ward, and lived only a short distance from the Temple Block. <mask> remained a member of the Seventy and continued to be active in the church. Along with his wife and oldest son, <mask> was rebaptized on March 15, 1857 as part of the Mormon Reformation. During the mass southern migration of LDS Church members in 1858 to avoid conflict with Johnston's invading army during the Utah War, <mask> stayed behind with other watchmen who had been tasked with setting fire to the emptied city should the invaders make any false move; the U.S. troops marched through Salt Lake City without incident and the city remained intact. <mask> and his wife managed the Farnham House hotel, which was advertised as a "first class" boarding house that

masks:
Abel
Abel
Elijah Jr
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel
Abel


texts:
 boasted "good stabling and corrals." By 1862, <mask> and his family had relocated to the Tenth Ward in Salt Lake City.Very little is known about the personal lives of the <mask> family. In 1870 they moved to Ogden, Utah for a short time before returning to Salt Lake City. Utah residents during this period remembered the <mask> family as traveling up and down the Wasatch front (a mountain valley stretch of contiguous towns from Provo to Ogden) entertaining audiences with their minstrel shows:

It seems most likely that <mask> played the fiddle or violin, while the family — including eight children between the ages of about one and twenty years old — acted, danced, sang, or played along with their father on other instruments. "There was a family of colored folks by the name of Able [sic]," remembered one Utah resident, "who went around from ward to ward and put on performances for the public." In 1871, <mask>'s son Moroni passed away, followed by <mask>'s wife in 1877 from pneumonia. <mask> remained a faithful member of the LDS Church throughout his life and served a final mission to Ohio and Canada in 1883-84, during which he became ill. His worsening health resulted in his return to Utah in December 1884. <mask> died two weeks after his return, on Christmas Day.His body was interred at the Salt Lake City Cemetery alongside his wife, and his original grave marker is inscribed with the words: "<mask> Able — At Rest." Disputes over priesthood

Meeting in Cincinnati, 1843
On June 25, 1843, a regional conference occurred in Cincinnati presided over by LDS Church apostles John E. Page, Orson Pratt, Heber C. Kimball, and future-apostle Lorenzo Snow. During the conference, questions regarding <mask> and his membership were addressed, including the acknowledgement of recent complaints about <mask>'s public preaching activity. Page stated that while "he respected a coloured Brother, wisdom forbid that we

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