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<mask>, 1st Baronet  (23 January 1835 – 10 July 1907) was an English neurologist who was a leading British authority in the field of cardiology as well as neurology. He also performed research involving diseases such as tuberculosis and cancer. In 1881 he was elected President of the London Medical Society and in 1887 President of the Clinical Society of London. <mask> was a Physician-Extraordinary to Queen Victoria and Physician-in-Ordinary to King Edward VII and the Prince of Wales. Early life and education
<mask> was born at Longwood Edge in Lindley, now part of Huddersfield, West Yorkshire. He was the eldest of seven children born to <mask>, a wool manufacturer and prominent Wesleyan, and Esther (née Butterworth). His younger brother was Colonel <mask> .He was educated at Huddersfield College before he decided to study medicine. He was apprenticed to a doctor in Manchester before studying medicine at Owens College, and the Royal School of Medicine in Manchester. He studied in Paris in 1857 and returned in 1858 to pass the M.B. examination at Manchester. Career
In 1859, <mask> took up a junior post at St Mary's Hospital, London, with which he was associated for much of his career (1859–1896). The next year he was elected physician to the London Fever Hospital. In 1865, he was promoted to physician in charge of patients at St. Mary's, and full physician in 1871.It was through his work at St. Mary's that <mask> earned his reputation as an expert pathologist and outstanding clinical teacher. His areas of expertise included neurology and cardiology, as well as cancer and typhoid. The months of November 1891 to October 1892 were critically

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texts: important to <mask> and his career, and gave him a narrow involvement in a notorious series of crimes. In November to December 1891 <mask> was involved in saving the life of Prince George (the future King George V) from typhoid fever. At about the same time that he was involved in this he was sent a mysterious letter accusing him of murdering a prostitute named Matilda Clover the previous October with poison. This letter demanded a huge blackmail amount to avoid ruin. <mask> wisely sent the letter to Scotland Yard.In January 1892, he was sent for by the Royal Family in an attempt to save Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale the older son of the Prince and Princess of Wales and "heir presumptive" to the throne of England. The Prince, known as "Prince Eddy" to the public (and nicknamed "Collars and Cuffs" due to some wardrobe choices he made) had caught a virulent strain of influenza. <mask> tried everything he could to save the Duke, but on 14 January 1892 the Duke died. However, the Prince of Wales sent <mask> a letter thanking him for his endeavours, that preserved for him and his wife one of their sons. Then, in the late spring, <mask> was informed of a police investigation into the deaths of a series of prostitutes in the Stepney and Lambeth areas of London that began in October 1891 and continued until April 1892. One of the victims was Matilda Clover, who had been classified as having died of natural causes, but the letter from the blackmailer to Broadbent gave details showing the woman had been poisoned. An arrest was made in June 1892 of Dr. Thomas Neill Cream for blackmailing another physician named Harper.Subsequently this was

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 changed to a charge of murder for the poisoning of Matilda Clover. The trial of the defendant occurred in October 1892, with the charges including the attempted blackmail of <mask>, and <mask>'s appearance as a witness. Cream was found guilty and sentenced to death, being hanged in November 1892. <mask> was a Physician-Extraordinary to Queen Victoria and Physician-in-Ordinary to King Edward VII and the Prince of Wales. In 1904, he was listed honorary medical staff at King Edward VII's Hospital for Officers. Honours
<mask> received honorary doctorates from the universities of Edinburgh, where he obtained a M.D. with the thesis 'On the connection between diseases of the heart and apoplexy''', St. Andrews, Leeds, McGill and Toronto.<mask> was created a baronet, of Brook Street and Longwood, in 1893. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in March 1901. Personal life
<mask> married Eliza Harpin in 1863, and had three sons and three daughters:

Mary Ethel (1864 – 10 March 1954)
John Francis Harpin (16 October 1865 – 27 January 1946)
<mask> (10 April 1867 – 17 May 1867)
Walter (4 August 1868 – 17 October 1951)
Gertrude (1870 – 2 August 1905)
Eliza Madeleine (1872 – 17 December 1949)

His sons John and Walter also became physicians. He died at his home in London in 1907, following an eighth-month illness that began with pneumonia. His eldest son succeeded him in the baronetcy. Associated eponyms
 Broadbent apoplexy: A type of stroke caused by a cerebral haemorrhage into the ventricular system. Broadbent sign: Recession of the intercostal spaces (near the eleventh and twelfth ribs on the left side of the back) as a sign of

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 adherent pericardium (this sign was first described by his son, <mask>, in 1895).Broadbent inverted sign: Pulsations synchronising with ventricular systole on the posterior lateral wall of the chest in gross dilatation of the left atrium. Broadbent law: Medical law that states "lesions of the upper segment of the motor tract cause less marked paralysis of muscles that habitually produce bilateral movements than of those that commonly act independently of the opposite side". Selected writings
 Cancer: A New Method of Treatment (London, 1866)
 The Practice of Medicine, (revised by Sir <mask>; 7th ed., London 1875)
 The Pulse (largely a reproduction of the Croonian Lectures, 1887), (London, 1890)
 Heart Disease, With Special Reference to Prognosis and Treatment'', (with John Francis Harpin <mask>), (London, 1897)

References

Works cited

 Biography of Willam Henry Broadbent

Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
British cardiologists
British neurologists
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
Fellows of the Royal Society
Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order
People educated at Huddersfield New College
Medical doctors from Yorkshire
Physicians-in-Ordinary
1835 births
1907 deaths
Physicians of St Mary's Hospital,

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Walter Broadbent
William Broadbent
Broadbent


texts: <mask> (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an American poet. Little-known during her life, she has since been regarded as one of the most important figures in American poetry. <mask> was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, into a prominent family with strong ties to its community. After studying at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth, she briefly attended the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before returning to her family's home in Amherst. Evidence suggests that <mask> lived much of her life in isolation. Considered an eccentric by locals, she developed a penchant for white clothing and was known for her reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, to even leave her bedroom. <mask> never married, and most friendships between her and others depended entirely upon correspondence.While <mask> was a prolific writer, her only publications during her lifetime were 10 of her nearly 1,800 poems, and one letter. The poems published then were usually edited significantly to fit conventional poetic rules. Her poems were unique for her era. They contain short lines, typically lack titles, and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and punctuation. Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends, and also explore aesthetics, society, nature and spirituality. Although <mask>'s acquaintances were most likely aware of her writing, it was not until after her death in 1886—when Lavinia, <mask>'s younger sister, discovered her cache of poems—that her work became public. Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal

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 acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, though both heavily edited the content.A 1998 article in The New York Times revealed that of the many edits made to <mask>'s work, the name "Susan" was often deliberately removed. At least eleven of <mask>'s poems were dedicated to sister-in-law Susan Huntington <mask>, though all the dedications were obliterated, presumably by Todd. A complete, and mostly unaltered, collection of her poetry became available for the first time when scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of <mask> in 1955. Life

Family and early childhood

<mask> <mask> was born at the family's homestead in Amherst, Massachusetts, on December 10, 1830, into a prominent, but not wealthy, family. Her father, <mask> was a lawyer in Amherst and a trustee of Amherst College. Two hundred years earlier, her patrilineal ancestors had arrived in the New World—in the Puritan Great Migration—where they prospered. <mask>'s paternal grandfather, <mask>, was one of the founders of Amherst College.In 1813, he built the Homestead, a large mansion on the town's Main Street, that became the focus of <mask> family life for the better part of a century. <mask>'s eldest son, Edward, was treasurer of Amherst College from 1835 to 1873, served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1838–1839; 1873) and the Massachusetts Senate (1842–1843), and represented Massachusetts's 10th congressional district in the 33rd U.S. Congress (1853–1855). On May 6, 1828, he married <mask>cross from Monson, Massachusetts. They had three children:
 William Austin (1829–1895), known as Austin, Aust or Awe

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Emily Dickinson
Emily Elizabeth
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 <mask>
 Lavinia Norcross (1833–1899), known as Lavinia or Vinnie

By all accounts, young <mask> was a well-behaved girl. On an extended visit to Monson when she was two, <mask>'s Aunt Lavinia described her as "perfectly well & contented—She is a very good child & but little trouble." <mask>'s aunt also noted the girl's affinity for music and her particular talent for the piano, which she called "the moosic". <mask> attended primary school in a two-story building on Pleasant Street.Her education was "ambitiously classical for a Victorian girl". Wanting his children well-educated, her father followed their progress even while away on business. When <mask> was seven, he wrote home, reminding his children to "keep school, and learn, so as to tell me, when I come home, how many new things you have learned". While <mask> consistently described her father in a warm manner, her correspondence suggests that her mother was regularly cold and aloof. In a letter to a confidante, <mask> wrote she "always ran Home to Awe [Austin] when a child, if anything befell me. He was an awful Mother, but I liked him better than none." On September 7, 1840, <mask> and her sister Lavinia started together at Amherst Academy, a former boys' school that had opened to female students just two years earlier.At about the same time, her father purchased a house on North Pleasant Street. <mask>'s brother Austin later described this large new home as the "mansion" over which he and <mask> presided as "lord and lady" while their parents were absent. The house overlooked Amherst's burial ground, described by one local minister as treeless and

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 "forbidding". Teenage years

<mask> spent seven years at the academy, taking classes in English and classical literature, Latin, botany, geology, history, "mental philosophy," and arithmetic. Daniel Taggart Fiske, the school's principal at the time, would later recall that <mask> was "very bright" and "an excellent scholar, of exemplary deportment, faithful in all school duties". Although she had a few terms off due to illness—the longest of which was in 1845–1846, when she was enrolled for only eleven weeks—she enjoyed her strenuous studies, writing to a friend that the academy was "a very fine school". <mask> was troubled from a young age by the "deepening menace" of death, especially the deaths of those who were close to her.When Sophia Holland, her second cousin and a close friend, grew ill from typhus and died in April 1844, <mask> was traumatized. Recalling the incident two years later, she wrote that "it seemed to me I should die too if I could not be permitted to watch over her or even look at her face." She became so melancholic that her parents sent her to stay with family in Boston to recover. With her health and spirits restored, she soon returned to Amherst Academy to continue her studies. During this period, she met people who were to become lifelong friends and correspondents, such as Abiah Root, Abby Wood, Jane Humphrey, and Susan Huntington Gilbert (who later married <mask>'s brother Austin). In 1845, a religious revival took place in Amherst, resulting in 46 confessions of faith among <mask>'s peers. <mask> wrote to a friend the following year: "I never enjoyed such perfect peace and happiness

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 as the short time in which I felt I had found my Savior."She went on to say it was her "greatest pleasure to commune alone with the great God & to feel that he would listen to my prayers." The experience did not last: <mask> never made a formal declaration of faith and attended services regularly for only a few years. After her church-going ended, about 1852, she wrote a poem opening: "Some keep the Sabbath going to Church – / I keep it, staying at Home". During the last year of her stay at the academy, <mask> became friendly with Leonard Humphrey, its popular new young principal. After finishing her final term at the Academy on August 10, 1847, <mask> began attending Mary Lyon's Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (which later became Mount Holyoke College) in South Hadley, about ten miles (16 km) from Amherst. She stayed at the seminary for only ten months. Although she liked the girls at Holyoke, <mask> made no lasting friendships there.The explanations for her brief stay at Holyoke differ considerably: either she was in poor health, her father wanted to have her at home, she rebelled against the evangelical fervor present at the school, she disliked the discipline-minded teachers, or she was simply homesick. Whatever the reasons for leaving Holyoke, her brother Austin appeared on March 25, 1848, to "bring [her] home at all events". Back in Amherst, <mask> occupied her time with household activities. She took up baking for the family and enjoyed attending local events and activities in the budding college town. Early influences and writing
When she was eighteen, <mask>'s family befriended a young attorney by the

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texts: name of Benjamin Franklin Newton. According to a letter written by <mask> after Newton's death, he had been "with my Father two years, before going to Worcester – in pursuing his studies, and was much in our family." Although their relationship was probably not romantic, Newton was a formative influence and would become the second in a series of older men (after Humphrey) that <mask> referred to, variously, as her tutor, preceptor or master.Newton likely introduced her to the writings of William Wordsworth, and his gift to her of Ralph Waldo Emerson's first book of collected poems had a liberating effect. She wrote later that he, "whose name my Father's Law Student taught me, has touched the secret Spring". Newton held her in high regard, believing in and recognizing her as a poet. When he was dying of tuberculosis, he wrote to her, saying he would like to live until she achieved the greatness he foresaw. Biographers believe that <mask>'s statement of 1862—"When a little Girl, I had a friend, who taught me Immortality – but venturing too near, himself – he never returned"—refers to Newton. <mask> was familiar with not only the Bible but also contemporary popular literature. She was probably influenced by Lydia Maria Child's Letters from New York, another gift from Newton (after reading it, she gushed "This then is a book!And there are more of them!"). Her brother smuggled a copy of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's Kavanagh into the house for her (because her father might disapprove) and a friend lent her Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre in late 1849. Jane Eyres influence cannot be measured, but when <mask> acquired her

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 first and only dog, a Newfoundland, she named him "Carlo" after the character St. John Rivers' dog. William Shakespeare was also a potent influence in her life. Referring to his plays, she wrote to one friend, "Why clasp any hand but this?" and to another, "Why is any other book needed?" Adulthood and seclusion
In early 1850, <mask> wrote that "Amherst is alive with fun this winter ... Oh, a very great town this is!"Her high spirits soon turned to melancholy after another death. The Amherst Academy principal, Leonard Humphrey, died suddenly of "brain congestion" at age 25. Two years after his death, she revealed to her friend Abiah Root the extent of her sadness:some of my friends are gone, and some of my friends are sleeping – sleeping the churchyard sleep – the hour of evening is sad – it was once my study hour – my master has gone to rest, and the open leaf of the book, and the scholar at school alone, make the tears come, and I cannot brush them away; I would not if I could, for they are the only tribute I can pay the departed Humphrey. During the 1850s, <mask>'s strongest and most affectionate relationship was with her sister-in-law, Susan Gilbert. <mask> eventually sent her over three hundred letters, more than to any other correspondent, over the course of their relationship. Susan was supportive of the poet, playing the role of "most beloved friend, influence, muse, and adviser" whose editorial suggestions <mask> sometimes followed. In an 1882 letter to Susan, <mask> said, "With the exception of Shakespeare, you have told me of more knowledge than any one living."The importance of <mask>'s relationship


texts: with Susan has widely been overlooked due to a point of view first promoted by Mabel Loomis Todd, who was involved for many years in a relationship with <mask> and who diminished Susan's role in <mask>'s life due to her own poor relationship with her lover's wife. However, the notion of a "cruel" Susan—as promoted by her romantic rival—has been questioned, most especially by Susan and Austin's surviving children, with whom <mask> was close. Many scholars interpret the relationship between <mask> and Susan as a romantic one. In The Emily Dickinson Journal Lena Koski wrote, "<mask>'s letters to Gilbert express strong homoerotic feelings." She quotes from many of their letters, including one from 1852 in which <mask> proclaims, "Susie, will you indeed come home next Saturday, and be my own again, and kiss me ... I hope for you so much, and feel so eager for you, feel that I cannot wait, feel that now I must have you—that the expectation once more to see your face again, makes me feel hot and feverish, and my heart beats so fast ... my darling, so near I seem to you, that I disdain this pen, and wait for a warmer language." The relationship between <mask> and Susan is portrayed in the film Wild Nights with <mask> and explored in the TV series Dickinson.Sue married Austin in 1856 after a four-year courtship, though their marriage was not a happy one. <mask> built a house for Austin and Sue naming it the Evergreens, a stand of which was located on the west side of the Homestead. Until 1855, <mask> had not strayed far from Amherst. That spring, accompanied by her mother and sister, she took one of her longest and

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Austin Dickinson
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texts: farthest trips away from home. First, they spent three weeks in Washington, where her father was representing Massachusetts in Congress. Then they went to Philadelphia for two weeks to visit family. In Philadelphia, she met Charles Wadsworth, a famous minister of the Arch Street Presbyterian Church, with whom she forged a strong friendship which lasted until his death in 1882.Despite seeing him only twice after 1855 (he moved to San Francisco in 1862), she variously referred to him as "my Philadelphia", "my Clergyman", "my dearest earthly friend" and "my Shepherd from 'Little Girl'hood". From the mid-1850s, <mask>'s mother became effectively bedridden with various chronic illnesses until her death in 1882. Writing to a friend in summer 1858, <mask> said she would visit if she could leave "home, or mother. I do not go out at all, lest father will come and miss me, or miss some little act, which I might forget, should I run away – Mother is much as usual. I Know not what to hope of her". As her mother continued to decline, <mask>'s domestic responsibilities weighed more heavily upon her and she confined herself within the Homestead. Forty years later, Lavinia said that because their mother was chronically ill, one of the daughters had to remain always with her.<mask> took this role as her own, and "finding the life with her books and nature so congenial, continued to live it". Withdrawing more and more from the outside world, <mask> began in the summer of 1858 what would be her lasting legacy. Reviewing poems she had written previously, she began making clean copies of her work, assembling carefully


texts: pieced-together manuscript books. The forty fascicles she created from 1858 through 1865 eventually held nearly eight hundred poems. No one was aware of the existence of these books until after her death. In the late 1850s, the <mask>s befriended Samuel Bowles, the owner and editor-in-chief of the Springfield Republican, and his wife, Mary. They visited the <mask>s regularly for years to come.During this time <mask> sent him over three dozen letters and nearly fifty poems. Their friendship brought out some of her most intense writing and Bowles published a few of her poems in his journal. It was from 1858 to 1861 that <mask> is believed to have written a trio of letters that have been called "The Master Letters". These three letters, drafted to an unknown man simply referred to as "Master", continue to be the subject of speculation and contention amongst scholars. The first half of the 1860s, after she had largely withdrawn from social life, proved to be <mask>'s most productive writing period. Modern scholars and researchers are divided as to the cause for <mask>'s withdrawal and extreme seclusion. While she was diagnosed as having "nervous prostration" by a physician during her lifetime, some today believe she may have suffered from illnesses as various as agoraphobia and epilepsy.Is "my Verse ... alive?" In April 1862, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, a literary critic, radical abolitionist, and ex-minister, wrote a lead piece for The Atlantic Monthly titled, "Letter to a Young Contributor". Higginson's essay, in which he urged aspiring writers to "charge your style with life", contained practical advice for those


texts:
 wishing to break into print. <mask>'s decision to contact Higginson suggests that by 1862 she was contemplating publication and that it may have become increasingly difficult to write poetry without an audience. Seeking literary guidance that no one close to her could provide, <mask> sent him a letter, which read in full:

This highly nuanced and largely theatrical letter was unsigned, but she had included her name on a card and enclosed it in an envelope, along with four of her poems. He praised her work but suggested that she delay publishing until she had written longer, being unaware she had already appeared in print.She assured him that publishing was as foreign to her "as Firmament to Fin", but also proposed that "If fame belonged to me, I could not escape her". <mask> delighted in dramatic self-characterization and mystery in her letters to Higginson. She said of herself, "I am small, like the wren, and my hair is bold, like the chestnut bur, and my eyes like the sherry in the glass that the guest leaves." She stressed her solitary nature, saying her only real companions were the hills, the sundown, and her dog, Carlo. She also mentioned that whereas her mother did not "care for Thought", her father bought her books, but begged her "not to read them – because he fears they joggle the Mind". <mask> valued his advice, going from calling him "Mr. Higginson" to "Dear friend" as well as signing her letters, "Your Gnome" and "Your Scholar". His interest in her work certainly provided great moral support; many years later, <mask> told Higginson that he had saved her life in 1862.They corresponded until her


texts:
 death, but her difficulty in expressing her literary needs and a reluctance to enter into a cooperative exchange left Higginson nonplussed; he did not press her to publish in subsequent correspondence. <mask>'s own ambivalence on the matter militated against the likelihood of publication. Literary critic Edmund Wilson, in his review of Civil War literature, surmised that "with encouragement, she would certainly have published". The woman in white
In direct opposition to the immense productivity that she displayed in the early 1860s, <mask> wrote fewer poems in 1866. Beset with personal loss as well as loss of domestic help, <mask> may have been too overcome to keep up her previous level of writing. Carlo died during this time after having provided sixteen years of companionship; <mask> never owned another dog. Although the household servant of nine years, Margaret O'Brien, had married and left the Homestead that same year, it was not until 1869 that the <mask>s brought in a permanent household servant, Margaret Maher, to replace their former maid-of-all-work.<mask> once again was responsible for the kitchen, including cooking and cleaning up, as well as the baking at which she excelled. Around this time, <mask>'s behavior began to change. She did not leave the Homestead unless it was absolutely necessary and as early as 1867, she began to talk to visitors from the other side of a door rather than speaking to them face to face. She acquired local notoriety; she was rarely seen, and when she was, she was usually clothed in white. <mask>'s one surviving article of clothing is a white cotton dress, possibly sewn

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texts: circa 1878–1882. Few of the locals who exchanged messages with <mask> during her last fifteen years ever saw her in person. Austin and his family began to protect <mask>'s privacy, deciding that she was not to be a subject of discussion with outsiders.Despite her physical seclusion, however, <mask> was socially active and expressive through what makes up two-thirds of her surviving notes and letters. When visitors came to either the Homestead or the Evergreens, she would often leave or send over small gifts of poems or flowers. <mask> also had a good rapport with the children in her life. Mattie <mask>, the second child of Austin and Sue, later said that "Aunt <mask> stood for indulgence." MacGregor (Mac) Jenkins, the son of family friends who later wrote a short article in 1891 called "A Child's Recollection of <mask>", thought of her as always offering support to the neighborhood children. When Higginson urged her to come to Boston in 1868 so they could formally meet for the first time, she declined, writing: "Could it please your convenience to come so far as Amherst I should be very glad, but I do not cross my Father's ground to any House or town". It was not until he came to Amherst in 1870 that they met.Later he referred to her, in the most detailed and vivid physical account of her on record, as "a little plain woman with two smooth bands of reddish hair ... in a very plain & exquisitely clean white piqué & a blue net worsted shawl." He also felt that he never was "with any one who drained my nerve power so much. Without touching her, she drew from me. I am glad not to live near her." Posies and poesies

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Scholar Judith Farr notes that <mask>, during her lifetime, "was known more widely as a gardener, perhaps, than as a poet". <mask> studied botany from the age of nine and, along with her sister, tended the garden at Homestead. During her lifetime, she assembled a collection of pressed plants in a sixty-six-page leather-bound herbarium.It contained 424 pressed flower specimens that she collected, classified, and labeled using the Linnaean system. The Homestead garden was well known and admired locally in its time. It has not survived, but efforts to revive it have begun. <mask> kept no garden notebooks or plant lists, but a clear impression can be formed from the letters and recollections of friends and family. Her niece, <mask> Bianchi, remembered "carpets of lily-of-the-valley and pansies, platoons of sweetpeas, hyacinths, enough in May to give all the bees of summer dyspepsia. There were ribbons of peony hedges and drifts of daffodils in season, marigolds to distraction—a butterfly utopia". In particular, <mask> cultivated scented exotic flowers, writing that she "could inhabit the Spice Isles merely by crossing the dining room to the conservatory, where the plants hang in baskets".<mask> would often send her friends bunches of flowers with verses attached, but "they valued the posy more than the poetry". Later life
On June 16, 1874, while in Boston, <mask> suffered a stroke and died. When the simple funeral was held in the Homestead's entrance hall, <mask> stayed in her room with the door cracked open. Neither did she attend the memorial service on June 28. She wrote to Higginson that her father's "Heart

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 was pure and terrible and I think no other like it exists." A year later, on June 15, 1875, <mask>'s mother also suffered a stroke, which produced a partial lateral paralysis and impaired memory. Lamenting her mother's increasing physical as well as mental demands, <mask> wrote that "Home is so far from Home".Otis Phillips Lord, an elderly judge on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court from Salem, in 1872 or 1873 became an acquaintance of <mask>'s. After the death of Lord's wife in 1877, his friendship with <mask> probably became a late-life romance, though as their letters were destroyed, this is surmised. <mask> found a kindred soul in Lord, especially in terms of shared literary interests; the few letters which survived contain multiple quotations of Shakespeare's work, including the plays Othello, Antony and Cleopatra, Hamlet and King Lear. In 1880 he gave her Cowden Clarke's Complete Concordance to Shakespeare (1877). <mask> wrote that "While others go to Church, I go to mine, for are you not my Church, and have we not a Hymn that no one knows but us?" She referred to him as "My lovely Salem" and they wrote to each other religiously every Sunday. <mask> looked forward to this day greatly; a surviving fragment of a letter written by her states that "Tuesday is a deeply depressed Day".After being critically ill for several years, Judge Lord died in March 1884. <mask> referred to him as "our latest Lost". Two years before this, on April 1, 1882, <mask>'s "Shepherd from 'Little Girl'hood", Charles Wadsworth, also had died after a long illness. Decline and death
Although she continued to write in her last

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texts: years, <mask> stopped editing and organizing her poems. She also exacted a promise from her sister Lavinia to burn her papers. Lavinia, who never married, remained at the Homestead until her own death in 1899. The 1880s were a difficult time for the remaining <mask>s.Irreconcilably alienated from his wife, Austin fell in love in 1882 with Mabel Loomis Todd, an Amherst College faculty wife who had recently moved to the area. Todd never met <mask> but was intrigued by her, referring to her as "a lady whom the people call the Myth". Austin distanced himself from his family as his affair continued and his wife became sick with grief. <mask>'s mother died on November 14, 1882. Five weeks later, <mask> wrote, "We were never intimate ... while she was our Mother – but Mines in the same Ground meet by tunneling and when she became our Child, the Affection came." The next year, Austin and Sue's third and youngest child, <mask>'s favorite—died of typhoid fever. As death succeeded death, <mask> found her world upended.In the fall of 1884, she wrote,  "The Dyings have been too deep for me, and before I could raise my Heart from one, another has come." That summer she had seen "a great darkness coming" and fainted while baking in the kitchen. She remained unconscious late into the night and weeks of ill health followed. On November 30, 1885, her feebleness and other symptoms were so worrying that Austin canceled a trip to Boston. She was confined to her bed for a few months, but managed to send a final burst of letters in the spring. What is thought to be her last letter was sent to her cousins, Louise and Frances Norcross,

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 and simply read: "Little Cousins, Called Back. Emily".On May 15, 1886, after several days of worsening symptoms, <mask> died at the age of 55. Austin wrote in his diary that "the day was awful ... she ceased to breathe that terrible breathing just before the [afternoon] whistle sounded for six." <mask>'s chief physician gave the cause of death as Bright's disease and its duration as two and a half years. Lavinia and Austin asked Susan to wash <mask>'s body upon her death. Susan also wrote <mask>'s obituary for the Springfield Republican, ending it with four lines from one of <mask>'s poems: "Morns like these, we parted; Noons like these, she rose; Fluttering first, then firmer, To her fair repose." Lavinia was perfectly satisfied that Sue should arrange everything, knowing it would be done lovingly. <mask> was buried, laid in a white coffin with vanilla-scented heliotrope, a lady's slipper orchid, and a "knot of blue field violets" placed about it.The funeral service, held in the Homestead's library, was simple and short; Higginson, who had met her only twice, read "No Coward Soul Is Mine", a poem by <mask> that had been a favorite of <mask>'s. At <mask>'s request, her "coffin [was] not driven but carried through fields of buttercups" for burial in the family plot at West Cemetery on Triangle Street. Publication
Despite <mask>'s prolific writing, only ten poems and a letter were published during her lifetime. After her younger sister Lavinia discovered the collection of nearly 1800 poems, <mask>'s first volume was published four years after her death. Until Thomas H. Johnson published <mask>'s Complete Poems in

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 1955, <mask>'s poems were considerably edited and altered from their manuscript versions. Since 1890 <mask> has remained continuously in print. Contemporary

A few of <mask>'s poems appeared in Samuel Bowles' Springfield Republican between 1858 and 1868.They were published anonymously and heavily edited, with conventionalized punctuation and formal titles. The first poem, "Nobody knows this little rose", may have been published without <mask>'s permission. The Republican also published "A Narrow Fellow in the Grass" as "The Snake", "Safe in their Alabaster Chambers –" as "The Sleeping", and "Blazing in the Gold and quenching in Purple" as "Sunset". The poem "I taste a liquor never brewed –" is an example of the edited versions; the last two lines in the first stanza were completely rewritten. {|
| style="width:18em; vertical-align:top; white-space:nowrap"|
Original wording
I taste a liquor never brewed –
From Tankards scooped in Pearl –
Not all the Frankfort Berries
Yield such an Alcohol! |
Republican version
I taste a liquor never brewed –
From Tankards scooped in Pearl –
Not Frankfort Berries yield the sense
Such a delirious whirl! |
|}

In 1864, several poems were altered and published in Drum Beat, to raise funds for medical care for Union soldiers in the war.Another appeared in April 1864 in the Brooklyn Daily Union. In the 1870s, Higginson showed <mask>'s poems to Helen Hunt Jackson, who had coincidentally been at the academy with <mask> when they were girls. Jackson was deeply involved in the publishing world, and managed to convince <mask> to publish her poem "Success is counted sweetest" anonymously in


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 a volume called A Masque of Poets. The poem, however, was altered to agree with contemporary taste. It was the last poem published during <mask>'s lifetime. Posthumous
After <mask>'s death, Lavinia <mask> kept her promise and burned most of the poet's correspondence. Significantly though, <mask> had left no instructions about the 40 notebooks and loose sheets gathered in a locked chest.Lavinia recognized the poems' worth and became obsessed with seeing them published. She turned first to her brother's wife and then to Mabel Loomis Todd, his lover, for assistance. A feud ensued, with the manuscripts divided between the Todd and <mask> houses, preventing complete publication of <mask>'s poetry for more than half a century. The first volume of <mask>'s Poems, edited jointly by Mabel Loomis Todd and T. W. Higginson, appeared in November 1890. Although Todd claimed that only essential changes were made, the poems were extensively edited to match punctuation and capitalization to late 19th-century standards, with occasional rewordings to reduce <mask>'s obliquity. The first 115-poem volume was a critical and financial success, going through eleven printings in two years. Poems: Second Series followed in 1891, running to five editions by 1893; a third series appeared in 1896.One reviewer, in 1892, wrote: "The world will not rest satisfied till every scrap of her writings, letters as well as literature, has been published". Nearly a dozen new editions of <mask>'s poetry, whether containing previously unpublished or newly edited poems, were published between 1914 and 1945. <mask> Bianchi, the daughter of Susan and

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texts: <mask>, published collections of her aunt's poetry based on the manuscripts held by her family, whereas Mabel Loomis Todd's daughter, Millicent Todd Bingham, published collections based on the manuscripts held by her mother. These competing editions of <mask>'s poetry, often differing in order and structure, ensured that the poet's work was in the public's eye. The first scholarly publication came in 1955 with a complete new three-volume set edited by Thomas H. Johnson. Forming the basis of later <mask> scholarship, Johnson's variorum brought all of <mask>'s known poems together for the first time. Johnson's goal was to present the poems very nearly as <mask> had left them in her manuscripts.They were untitled, only numbered in an approximate chronological sequence, strewn with dashes and irregularly capitalized, and often extremely elliptical in their language. Three years later, Johnson edited and published, along with Theodora Ward, a complete collection of <mask>'s letters, also presented in three volumes. In 1981, The Manuscript Books of <mask> was published. Using the physical evidence of the original papers, the poems were intended to be published in their original order for the first time. Editor Ralph W. Franklin relied on smudge marks, needle punctures and other clues to reassemble the poet's packets. Since then, many critics have argued for thematic unity in these small collections, believing the ordering of the poems to be more than chronological or convenient. <mask> biographer Alfred Habegger wrote in My Wars Are Laid Away in Books: The Life of <mask> (2001) that "The consequences of the poet's

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 failure to disseminate her work in a faithful and orderly manner are still very much with us".Poetry

<mask>'s poems generally fall into three distinct periods, the works in each period having certain general characters in common. Pre-1861: In the period before 1858, the poems are most often conventional and sentimental in nature. Thomas H. Johnson, who later published The Poems of Emily Dickinson, was able to date only five of <mask>'s poems as written before 1858. Two of these are mock valentines done in an ornate and humorous style, two others are conventional lyrics, one of which is about missing her brother Austin, and the fifth poem, which begins "I have a Bird in spring", conveys her grief over the feared loss of friendship and was sent to her friend Sue Gilbert. In 1858, <mask> began to collect her poems in the small hand-sewn books she called fascicles. 1861–1865: This was her most creative period, and these poems represent her most vigorous and creative work. Her poetic production also increased dramatically during this period.Johnson estimated that she composed 35 poems in 1860, 86 poems in 1861, 366 in 1862, 141 in 1863, and 174 in 1864. It was during this period that <mask> fully developed her themes concerning nature, life, and mortality. Post-1866: Only a third of <mask>'s poems were written in the last twenty years of her life, when her poetic production slowed considerably. During this period, she no longer collected her poems in fascicles. Structure and syntax

The extensive use of dashes and unconventional capitalization in <mask>'s manuscripts, and the idiosyncratic vocabulary and imagery,


texts: combine to create a body of work that is "far more various in its styles and forms than is commonly supposed". <mask> avoids pentameter, opting more generally for trimeter, tetrameter and, less often, dimeter. Sometimes her use of these meters is regular, but oftentimes it is irregular.The regular form that she most often employs is the ballad stanza, a traditional form that is divided into quatrains, using tetrameter for the first and third lines and trimeter for the second and fourth, while rhyming the second and fourth lines (ABCB). Though <mask> often uses perfect rhymes for lines two and four, she also makes frequent use of slant rhyme. In some of her poems, she varies the meter from the traditional ballad stanza by using trimeter for lines one, two and four; while using tetrameter for only line three. Since many of her poems were written in traditional ballad stanzas with ABCB rhyme schemes, some of these poems can be sung to fit the melodies of popular folk songs and hymns that also use the common meter, employing alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter. <mask> scholar and poet Anthony Hecht finds resonances in <mask>'s poetry not only with hymns and song-forms but also with psalms and riddles, citing the following example: "Who is the East? / The Yellow Man / Who may be Purple if he can / That carries in the Sun. / Who is the West?/ The Purple Man / Who may be Yellow if He can / That lets Him out again." Late 20th-century scholars are "deeply interested" by <mask>'s highly individual use of punctuation and lineation (line lengths and line breaks). Following the publication of one of


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 the few poems that appeared in her lifetime – "A Narrow Fellow in the Grass", published as "The Snake" in the Republican – <mask> complained that the edited punctuation (an added comma and a full stop substitution for the original dash) altered the meaning of the entire poem. {|
| style="width:20em; vertical-align:top; white-space:nowrap"|
Original wording
A narrow Fellow in the Grass
Occasionally rides –
You may have met Him – did you not
His notice sudden is –
|
Republican version
A narrow Fellow in the Grass
Occasionally rides –
You may have met Him – did you not,
His notice sudden is. |
|}

As Farr points out, "snakes instantly notice you"; <mask>'s version captures the "breathless immediacy" of the encounter; and The Republicans punctuation renders "her lines more commonplace". With the increasingly close focus on <mask>'s structures and syntax has come a growing appreciation that they are "aesthetically based". Although Johnson's landmark 1955 edition of poems was relatively unaltered from the original, later scholars critiqued it for deviating from the style and layout of <mask>'s manuscripts.Meaningful distinctions, these scholars assert, can be drawn from varying lengths and angles of dash, and differing arrangements of text on the page. Several volumes have attempted to render <mask>'s handwritten dashes using many typographic symbols of varying length and angle. R. W. Franklin's 1998 variorum edition of the poems provided alternate wordings to those chosen by Johnson, in a more limited editorial intervention. Franklin also used typeset dashes of varying length to approximate the manuscripts' dashes


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 more closely. Major themes
<mask> left no formal statement of her aesthetic intentions and, because of the variety of her themes, her work does not fit conveniently into any one genre. She has been regarded, alongside Emerson (whose poems <mask> admired), as a Transcendentalist. However, Farr disagrees with this analysis, saying that <mask>'s "relentlessly measuring mind ... deflates the airy elevation of the Transcendental".Apart from the major themes discussed below, <mask>'s poetry frequently uses humor, puns, irony and satire. Flowers and gardens: Farr notes that <mask>'s "poems and letters almost wholly concern flowers" and that allusions to gardens often refer to an "imaginative realm ... wherein flowers [are] often emblems for actions and emotions". She associates some flowers, like gentians and anemones, with youth and humility; others with prudence and insight. Her poems were often sent to friends with accompanying letters and nosegays. Farr notes that one of <mask>'s earlier poems, written about 1859, appears to "conflate her poetry itself with the posies": "My nosegays are for Captives – / Dim – long expectant eyes – / Fingers denied the plucking, / Patient till Paradise – / To such, if they sh'd whisper / Of morning and the moor – / They bear no other errand, / And I, no other prayer". The Master poems: <mask> left a large number of poems addressed to "Signor", "Sir" and "Master", who is characterized as <mask>'s "lover for all eternity". These confessional poems are often "searing in their self-inquiry" and "harrowing to the reader" and typically take their metaphors from texts and paintings of

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texts: <mask>'s day.The <mask> family themselves believed these poems were addressed to actual individuals but this view is frequently rejected by scholars. Farr, for example, contends that the Master is an unattainable composite figure, "human, with specific characteristics, but godlike" and speculates that Master may be a "kind of Christian muse". Morbidity: <mask>'s poems reflect her "early and lifelong fascination" with illness, dying and death. Perhaps surprisingly for a New England spinster, her poems allude to death by many methods: "crucifixion, drowning, hanging, suffocation, freezing, premature burial, shooting, stabbing and guillotinage". She reserved her sharpest insights into the "death blow aimed by God" and the "funeral in the brain", often reinforced by images of thirst and starvation. <mask> scholar Vivian Pollak considers these references an autobiographical reflection of <mask>'s "thirsting-starving persona", an outward expression of her needy self-image as small, thin and frail. <mask>'s most psychologically complex poems explore the theme that the loss of hunger for life causes the death of self and place this at "the interface of murder and suicide".Death and morbidity in <mask>'s poetry is also heavily connected to winter themes. Critic Edwin Folsom analyzes how "winter for <mask> is the season that forces reality, that strips all hope of transcendence. It is a season of death and a metaphor for death". Gospel poems: Throughout her life, <mask> wrote poems reflecting a preoccupation with the teachings of Jesus Christ and, indeed, many are addressed to him. She stresses the Gospels' contemporary


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 pertinence and recreates them, often with "wit and American colloquial language". Scholar Dorothy Oberhaus finds that the "salient feature uniting Christian poets ... is their reverential attention to the life of Jesus Christ" and contends that <mask>'s deep structures place her in the "poetic tradition of Christian devotion" alongside Hopkins, Eliot and Auden. In a Nativity poem, <mask> combines lightness and wit to revisit an ancient theme: "The Savior must have been / A docile Gentleman – / To come so far so cold a Day / For little Fellowmen / The Road to Bethlehem / Since He and I were Boys / Was leveled, but for that twould be / A rugged billion Miles –".The Undiscovered Continent: Academic Suzanne Juhasz considers that <mask> saw the mind and spirit as tangible visitable places and that for much of her life she lived within them. Often, this intensely private place is referred to as the "undiscovered continent" and the "landscape of the spirit" and embellished with nature imagery. At other times, the imagery is darker and forbidding—castles or prisons, complete with corridors and rooms—to create a dwelling place of "oneself" where one resides with one's other selves. An example that brings together many of these ideas is: "Me from Myself – to banish – / Had I Art – / Impregnable my Fortress / Unto All Heart – / But since myself—assault Me – / How have I peace / Except by subjugating / Consciousness. / And since We're mutual Monarch / How this be / Except by Abdication – / Me – of Me?". Reception

The surge of posthumous publication gave <mask>'s poetry its first public exposure. Backed by Higginson and

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texts: with a favorable notice from William Dean Howells, an editor of Harper's Magazine, the poetry received mixed reviews after it was first published in 1890.Higginson himself stated in his preface to the first edition of <mask>'s published work that the poetry's quality "is that of extraordinary grasp and insight", albeit "without the proper control and chastening" that the experience of publishing during her lifetime might have conferred. His judgment that her opus was "incomplete and unsatisfactory" would be echoed in the essays of the New Critics in the 1930s. Maurice Thompson, who was literary editor of The Independent for twelve years, noted in 1891 that her poetry had "a strange mixture of rare individuality and originality". Some critics hailed <mask>'s effort, but disapproved of her unusual non-traditional style. Andrew Lang, a British writer, dismissed <mask>'s work, stating that "if poetry is to exist at all, it really must have form and grammar, and must rhyme when it professes to rhyme. The wisdom of the ages and the nature of man insist on so much". Thomas Bailey Aldrich, a poet and novelist, equally dismissed <mask>'s poetic technique in The Atlantic Monthly in January 1892: "It is plain that <mask> possessed an extremely unconventional and grotesque fancy.She was deeply tinged by the mysticism of Blake, and strongly influenced by the mannerism of Emerson ... But the incoherence and formlessness of her — versicles are fatal ... an eccentric, dreamy, half-educated recluse in an out-of-the-way New England village (or anywhere else) cannot with impunity set at defiance the laws of gravitation and

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texts: grammar". Critical attention to <mask>'s poetry was meager from 1897 to the early 1920s. By the start of the 20th century, interest in her poetry became broader in scope and some critics began to consider <mask> as essentially modern. Rather than seeing <mask>'s poetic styling as a result of lack of knowledge or skill, modern critics believed the irregularities were consciously artistic. In a 1915 essay, Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant called the poet's inspiration "daring" and named her "one of the rarest flowers the sterner New England land ever bore". With the growing popularity of modernist poetry in the 1920s, <mask>'s failure to conform to 19th-century poetic form was no longer surprising nor distasteful to new generations of readers.<mask> was suddenly referred to by various critics as a great woman poet, and a cult following began to form. In the 1930s, a number of the New Critics – among them R. P. Blackmur, Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks and Yvor Winters – appraised the significance of <mask>'s poetry. As critic Roland Hagenbüchle pointed out, their "affirmative and prohibitive tenets turned out to be of special relevance to <mask> scholarship". Blackmur, in an attempt to focus and clarify the major claims for and against the poet's greatness, wrote in a landmark 1937 critical essay: "... she was a private poet who wrote as indefatigably as some women cook or knit. Her gift for words and the cultural predicament of her time drove her to poetry instead of antimacassars ... She came ... at the right time for one kind of poetry: the poetry of sophisticated, eccentric vision." The second wave of feminism created


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 greater cultural sympathy for her as a female poet. In the first collection of critical essays on <mask> from a feminist perspective, she is heralded as the greatest woman poet in the English language.Biographers and theorists of the past tended to separate <mask>'s roles as a woman and a poet. For example, George Whicher wrote in his 1952 book This Was a Poet: A Critical Biography of <mask>, "Perhaps as a poet [<mask>] could find the fulfillment she had missed as a woman." Feminist criticism, on the other hand, declares that there is a necessary and powerful conjunction between <mask> being a woman and a poet. Adrienne Rich theorized in Vesuvius at Home: The Power of <mask> (1976) that <mask>'s identity as a woman poet brought her power: "[she] chose her seclusion, knowing she was exceptional and knowing what she needed ... She carefully selected her society and controlled the disposal of her time ... neither eccentric nor quaint; she was determined to survive, to use her powers, to practice necessary economics." Some scholars question the poet's sexuality, theorizing that the numerous letters and poems that were dedicated to Susan Gilbert <mask> indicate a lesbian romance, and speculating about how this may have influenced her poetry. Critics such as John Cody, Lillian Faderman, Vivian R. Pollak, Paula Bennett, Judith Farr, Ellen Louise Hart, and Martha Nell Smith have argued that Susan was the central erotic relationship in <mask>'s life. Legacy
In the early 20th century, <mask> Bianchi and Millicent Todd Bingham kept the achievement of <mask> alive.Bianchi promoted <mask>'s poetic achievement. Bianchi

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texts: inherited The Evergreens as well as the copyright for her aunt's poetry from her parents, publishing works such as <mask> Dickinson Face to Face and Letters of <mask>, which stoked public curiosity about her aunt. Bianchi's books perpetrated legends about her aunt in the context of family tradition, personal recollection and correspondence. In contrast, Millicent Todd Bingham's took a more objective and realistic approach to the poet. <mask> is now considered a powerful and persistent figure in American culture. Although much of the early reception concentrated on <mask>'s eccentric and secluded nature, she has become widely acknowledged as an innovative, proto-modernist poet. As early as 1891, William Dean Howells wrote that "If nothing else had come out of our life but this strange poetry, we should feel that in the work of <mask>, America, or New England rather, had made a distinctive addition to the literature of the world, and could not be left out of any record of it."Critic Harold Bloom has placed her alongside Walt Whitman, Wallace Stevens, Robert Frost, T. S. Eliot, and Hart Crane as a major American poet, and in 1994 listed her among the 26 central writers of Western civilization. <mask> is taught in American literature and poetry classes in the United States from middle school to college. Her poetry is frequently anthologized and has been used as text for art songs by composers such as Aaron Copland, Nick Peros, John Adams and Michael Tilson Thomas. Several schools have been established in her name; for example, Emily Dickinson Elementary Schools exist in Bozeman, Montana; Redmond, Washington; and New

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texts: York City. A few literary journals — including The Emily Dickinson Journal, the official publication of the Emily Dickinson International Society — have been founded to examine her work. An 8-cent commemorative stamp in honor of <mask> was issued by the United States Postal Service on August 28, 1971, as the second stamp in the "American Poet" series. <mask> was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1973.A one-woman play titled The Belle of Amherst appeared on Broadway in 1976, winning several awards; it was later adapted for television. <mask>'s herbarium, which is now held in the Houghton Library at Harvard University, was published in 2006 as <mask>'s Herbarium by Harvard University Press. The original work was compiled by <mask> during her years at Amherst Academy, and consists of 424 pressed specimens of plants arranged on 66 pages of a bound album. A digital facsimile of the herbarium is available online. The town of Amherst Jones Library's Special Collections department has an Emily Dickinson Collection consisting of approximately seven thousand items, including original manuscript poems and letters, family correspondence, scholarly articles and books, newspaper clippings, theses, plays, photographs and contemporary artwork and prints. The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College has substantial holdings of <mask>'s manuscripts and letters as well as a lock of <mask>'s hair and the original of the only positively identified image of the poet. In 1965, in recognition of <mask>'s growing stature as a poet, the Homestead was purchased by Amherst College.It opened to the public for

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 tours, and also served as a faculty residence for many years. The Emily Dickinson Museum was created in 2003 when ownership of the Evergreens, which had been occupied by <mask> family heirs until 1988, was transferred to the college. Modern influence and inspiration

<mask>'s life and works have been the source of inspiration to artists, particularly to feminist-oriented artists, of a variety of mediums. A few notable examples are as follows:
 The feminist artwork The Dinner Party, by Judy Chicago, first exhibited in 1979, features a place setting for <mask>. Jane Campion's film The Piano and its novelization (co-authored by Kate Pullinger) were inspired by the poetry of <mask> as well as the novels by the Brontë sisters. A character who is a literary scholar at a fictional New England college in the comic campus novel by Pamela Hansford Johnson Night and Silence Who Is Here? is intent on proving that <mask> was a secret dipsomaniac.His obsession costs him his job. The 2012 book The Emily Dickinson Reader by Paul Legault is an English-to-English translation of her complete poems published by McSweeney's. <mask>'s work has been set by numerous composers including Aaron Copland, Samuel Barber, Chester Biscardi, Elliot Carter, John Adams, Libby Larsen, Peter Seabourne, Michael Tilson Thomas, and Judith Weir. A public garden is named in her honor in Paris: 'square <mask>', in the 20th arrondissement. Jazz saxophonist Jane Ira Bloom released the 2017 double album Wild Lines: Improvising <mask> inspired by the poet's works. English director Terence Davies directed and wrote A Quiet Passion, a 2016 biographical film

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 about the life of <mask>. The film stars Cynthia Nixon as the reclusive poet.The film premiered at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival in February 2016 and was released in the United Kingdom on April 7, 2017. <mask> is a TV series starring Academy Award nominee Hailee Steinfeld as <mask> and premiered in 2019 on Apple TV+. The series focused on <mask>'s life. Translation
<mask>'s poetry has been translated into languages including French, Spanish, Mandarin Chinese, Persian, Kurdish, Turkish, Georgian, Swedish, and Russian. A few examples of these translations are the following:
 The Queen of Bashful Violets, a Kurdish translation by Madeh Piryonesi published in 2016. French translation by Charlotte Melançon which includes 40 poems. Mandarin Chinese translation by Professor Jianxin Zhou
Swedish translation by Ann Jäderlund.Persian translations: Three Persian translations of <mask> are available from Saeed Saeedpoor, Madeh Piryonesi and Okhovat. Turkish translation: Selected Poems, translated by Selahattin Özpalabıyıklar in 2006, is available from Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları through its special Hasan Âli Yücel classics series. See also

 List of <mask> poems

References

Notes

Editions of poetry and letters
 Cristanne Miller (ed.). 2016. <mask>'s Poems: As She Preserved Them. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Franklin, R. W.(ed.). 1998. The Poems of <mask>. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. .
 Johnson, Thomas H. and Theodora Ward (eds.). 1958. The Letters of <mask>. Cambridge:  The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Johnson, Thomas H. (ed.).

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texts:
 1955. The Complete Poems of <mask>. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Secondary sources

 Bianchi, <mask>. 1970.<mask> Face to Face: Unpublished Letters with Notes and Reminiscences. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books. Blake, Caesar R. (ed). 1964. The Recognition of <mask>: Selected Criticism Since 1890. Ed. Caesar R. Blake.Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Bloom, Harold. 1999. <mask>. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers. .
 Bloom, Harold. 1994. The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages.New York: Harcourt Brace. Buckingham, Willis J. (ed). 1989. <mask>'s Reception in the 1890s: A Documentary History. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. . Comment, Kristin M. 2001."<mask>'s Bawdy: Shakespeare and Sexual Symbolism in <mask>'s Writing to <mask>". Legacy. 18(2). pp. 167–181. Crumbley, Paul. 1997.Inflections of the Pen: Dash and Voice in <mask>. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky. .
 D'Arienzo, Daria. 2006. "Looking at <mask>", Amherst Magazine. Winter 2006. Retrieved June 23, 2009. Farr, Judith (ed).1996. <mask>: A Collection of Critical Essays. Prentice Hall International Paperback Editions. .
 Farr, Judith. 2005. The Gardens of Emily Dickinson. Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England: Harvard University Press. .
 Ford, Thomas W. 1966. Heaven Beguiles the Tired: Death in the Poetry of <mask>.University of Alabama Press. Franklin, R. W. 1998. The Master Letters of <mask>. University of Massachusetts Press. .
 Gordon, Lyndall. 2010. Lives Like Loaded Guns: <mask> and Her Family's Feuds. Viking. .
 Grabher, Gudrun, Roland Hagenbüchle and Cristanne Miller.1998. The Emily Dickinson Handbook.

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 Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Habegger, Alfred. 2001. My Wars Are Laid Away in Books: The Life of <mask>. New York: Random House. .
 Roland Hagenbüchle: Precision and Indeterminacy in the Poetry of <mask>, Emerson Society Quarterly, 1974
 Hecht, Anthony.1996. "The Riddles of Emily Dickinson" in Farr (1996) 149–162. Juhasz, Suzanne (ed). 1983. Feminist Critics Read <mask> Dickinson. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. .
 Juhasz, Suzanne. 1996."The Landscape of the Spirit" in Farr (1996) 130–140. Knapp, Bettina L. 1989. <mask>. New York: Continuum Publishing. Martin, Wendy (ed). 2002. The Cambridge Companion to <mask>.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 McNeil, Helen. 1986. <mask>. London: Virago Press. .
 Mitchell, Domhnall Mitchell and Maria Stuart. 2009. The International Reception of <mask>. New York: Continuum. .
 Murray, Aífe.2010. Maid as Muse: How Domestic Servants Changed <mask>'s Life and Language. University Press of New England. .
 Murray, Aífe. 1996. "Kitchen Table Poetics: Maid Margaret Maher and Her Poet <mask>," The Emily Dickinson Journal. 5(2). pp.285–296. Paglia, Camille. 1990. Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to <mask>. Yale University Press. .
 Oberhaus, Dorothy Huff. 1996. " 'Tender pioneer': <mask>'s Poems on the Life of Christ" in Farr (1996) 105–119.Parker, Peter. 2007. "New Feet Within My Garden Go: <mask>'s Herbarium", The Daily Telegraph, June 29, 2007. Retrieved January 18, 2008. Pickard, John B. 1967. <mask>: An Introduction and Interpretation.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Pollak, Vivian R. 1996. "Thirst and Starvation in <mask>'s

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 Poetry" in Farr (1996) 62–75. Sewall, Richard B. 1974. The Life of <mask>. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. .
 Smith, Martha Nell.1992. Rowing in Eden: Rereading <mask>. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. .
 Stocks, Kenneth. 1988. <mask> and the Modern Consciousness: A Poet of Our Time. New York: St. Martin's Press. Walsh, John Evangelist.1971. The Hidden Life of <mask>. New York: Simon and Schuster. Wells, Anna Mary. 1929. "Early Criticism of <mask>", American Literature, Vol. 1, No.3. (November 1929). Wilson, Edmund. 1962. Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. .
 Wolff, Cynthia Griffin. 1986.<mask>. New York. Alfred A. Knopf. .

Further reading
Emily Dickinson Papers, 1844–1891 (3 microfilm reels) are housed at the Sterling Memorial Library at Yale University. Visiting Emily: Poems Inspired by the Life and Works of <mask> (University of Iowa Press, 2001) by Thomas Tammaro and Sheila Coghill (2001 Minnesota Book Awards winner)

External links

 Dickinson Electronic Archives
 Emily Dickinson Archive
 <mask> poems and texts at the Academy of American Poets
 Profile and poems of <mask>, including audio files, at the Poetry Foundation. <mask> Dickinson Lexicon
 <mask> at Modern American Poetry
 Emily Dickinson International Society
 Emily Dickinson Museum The Homestead and the Evergreens, Amherst, Massachusetts
 <mask> at Amherst College, Amherst College Archives and Special Collections
 Emily <mask> Collection at Houghton Library, Harvard University
 Emily Dickinson Papers, Galatea Collection, Boston Public Library
 Interview

masks:
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Emily
Emily Dickinson
Emily Dickinson
Dickinson


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 with Them Tammaro and Sheila Coghill about their book Visiting Emily: Poems Inspired by the Life and Work of <mask>, NORTHERN LIGHTS Minnesota Author Interview TV Series #465 (2001)

1830 births
1886 deaths
19th-century American poets
19th-century American women writers
American women poets
Deaths from nephritis
Mount Holyoke College alumni
People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War
Women in the American Civil War
Writers from Amherst, Massachusetts
Christian poets
<mask>

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Emily Dickinson
Dickinson


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Vettius <mask> (ca. 315 – 384) was a wealthy pagan aristocrat in the 4th-century Roman Empire, and a high priest in the cults of numerous gods. He served as the praetorian prefect at the court of Emperor Valentinian II in 384 until his death that same year. Sources
His life is primarily known through the works of Quintus Aurelius Symmachus and Ammianus Marcellinus, supplemented by some epigraphical records. Symmachus (345 c. – 402 c.) was a leading member of the senatorial aristocracy of his time and the best orator of his age. Symmachus' letters, speeches and relations have been preserved and testify a sincere friendship between Symmachus and Praetextatus: according to Symmachus, Praetextatus was a good magistrate and a virtuous man. Ammianus Marcellinus, writing in the early 390s, tells about Praetextatus in three passages of his Res Gestae: in all of them Ammianus shows appreciation of Praetextatus' actions, while the same author is usually critical about the members of the Senate; for this reason some historians think Ammianus and Praetextatus knew each other.Several inscriptions referring to Praetextatus have been preserved, and among them the most important is the one on the funerary monument to <mask> and his wife Aconia Fabia Paulina; other information is provided in some laws addressed to Praetextatus as praefectus urbi and praetorian prefect, and preserved in the Theodosian Code; in addition, there are some letters addressed to him by Emperor Valentinian III about a religious dispute and preserved in the Collectio Avellana. Jerome (347–420), a Christian writer and theologian, knew the Roman aristocracy through his acquaintances among the Roman matrons. He wrote about Praetextatus in two letters and in his polemic Contra Ioannem Hierosolymitanum (397); the sorrow caused by the death of Praetextatus was so diffused among his

masks:
Agorius Patus
Praetextatus


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 acquaintances that Jerome wrote a letter to a matron in which he wrote that Praetextatus was in hell. A different kind of source is represented by the philosopher and writer Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, who made Praetextatus the main character of his Saturnalia, a book describing the pagan renaissance of the late 4th century. However the Saturnalia was written half a century after Praetextatus' death, so his description is highly idealised. Finally, two later historians wrote about Praetextatus. The first is Zosimus, a pagan historian who lived in the first half of the 6th century and author of the Historia Nova, who described Praetextatus as a defender of the Hellenic cults in Greece; the second historian is Joannes Laurentius Lydus, who lived in the second half of the 6th century, and who talks about a hierophant named Praetextatus, but this identification is uncertain.Biography

Early life

Praetextatus' birthday is unknown, but the sources show he was born before Quintus Aurelius Symmachus and Virius Nicomachus Flavianus. They also state that in 384, the year of his death, Praetextatus had been married to his wife Aconia Fabia Paulina for forty years; if Paulina was his first wife and if they married when he was twenty/twenty-five years old, as was customary among the senatorial aristocracy, his birth can be assumed between 314 and 319. According to Joannes Lydus, however, a "Praetextatus the hierophant" and the Neo-platonic philosopher Sopater of Apamea participated to the polismós ceremony during the foundation of Constantinople, around 330. As aristocrats took sacerdotal roles very young, it is possible that this Praetextatus was Vettius Agorius, who actually was Pontifex Vestae; in this case, he would have been born between 310 and 324. As regards Praetextatus' family, sources are silent and only hypotheses can be drawn.


texts:
 Gaius Vettius Cossinus Rufinus (Praefectus urbi of Rome in 315–316) could have been his father, both because of their names and because they followed a similar career (corrector Tusciae et Umbriae, proconsul Achaiae, pontifex Solis and augur): in the senatorial aristocracy, the sons often held the same political, administrative and religious positions as their fathers. However, many years separated their careers (Praetextatus was praefectus urbi in 367), so it has been proposed that Cossinus Rufinus was the father of Vettius Rufinus (consul in 323) and the latter was Praetextatus' father.Nonetheless, we know that <mask>' family was ancient and noble, and therefore he possessed a network of relationships with other members of the senatorial aristocracy, a network that was used also to gain advantages. His acquaintances included Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, his father Lucius Aurelius Avianius Symmachus, Virius Nicomachus Flavianus and probably the senators Volusius Venustus and Minervius. An example of this network of relationships is the very wedding between <mask> and his wife Aconia Fabia Paulina, celebrated around 344 (they had been married for 40 years in 384); Paulina, in fact, was the daughter of Aconius Catullinus Philomatius, Praefectus urbi in 342–344 and Consul in 349. They had at least one son, recalled in the funeral eulogy and the author of an inscription in honour of his father, dated to shortly after his death and found in their home on the Aventine. Even if most historians identify the commissioner of the inscription with a son, this could be also a daughter, maybe the Praetextata cited by Jerome. Finally, Vettius Agorius Basilius Mavortius, consul in 527 and with a similar interest in literature, could have been his great-grandson. Political and religious career
The tomb of Praetextatus and of his wife Aconia Fabia

masks: Praetextatus Praetextatus


texts: Paulina, conserved at the Musei Capitolini, records his cursus honorum.Praetextatus held several religious positions: pontifex of Vesta and Sol, augur,  tauroboliatus, curialis of Hercules, neocorus, hierophant, priest of Liber and of the Eleusinian mysteries. He also held several political and administrative positions: he was quaestor, corrector Tusciae et Umbriae, Governor of Lusitania, Proconsul of Achaea, praefectus urbi in 384 and was praetorian prefect of Italy and Illyricum, as well as consul designated for the year 385, an honour he did not achieve because he died in late 384. In 370, several senators were tried for alleged magic practices by prefect Maximinus; Praetextatus led a senatorial legation to emperor Valentinian I, including Volusius Venustus and Minervius, charged with asking Valentinian to forgo torture for those senators involved in trials; the three of them were allowed in the presence of the Emperor, who denied having given such a disposition, but, thanks to the influence of the quaestor Eupraxius, the rights of the senators were restored. While holding the office of praefectus urbi, he gave back to the Bishop of Rome, Damasus, the basilica of Sicininus and had the other bishop, Ursicinus, expelled from Rome, thus restoring peace in the city, even if he granted an amnesty to the followers of the defeated bishop. His justice was celebrated; he had removed those private structures that were built against pagan temples (the so-called maeniana) and distributed within the whole city uniform and verified weights and measures. He also restored the Porticus Deorum Consentium in the Roman Forum. After his death, the Emperor asked the Roman Senate for a copy of all his speeches, while the Vestal Virgins proposed to the Emperor that they be allowed to erect statues in his honour.Support of traditional Roman


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 religion

Praetextatus was one of the last political supporters of the res divina, the Roman religion, in Late Antiquity; he was particularly devoted to Vesta, as was his wife. Praetextatus was friend with another major figure of the pagan aristocracy, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, with whom he exchanged letters partially conserved. According to Jerome, in reference to Bishop Damasus' luxurious lifestyle, he joked to him "Make me bishop of Rome and I will become a Christian". During his office as Proconsul of Achaea he appealed against an edict by Emperor Valentinian I (issued in 364) that forbade night sacrifices during the Mysteries: Praetextatus maintained that this edict made it impossible for pagans to keep their faith, and Valentinian nullified his own edict. In 367, during his tenure as praefectus urbi, he oversaw the restoration of the Porticus Deorum Consentium in the Roman Forum (), the last great monument devoted to a pagan cult in Rome. Even if this was a simple restoration of the damaged statues and a renovation of the worship, it was a symbolic choice, as the Di Consentes were the protectors of the Senate, and therefore used to balance the power of the Emperor (it is significant that the inscription does not mention the Emperor). It has been also proposed that the restoration of the cult of the Di Consentes appealed to Praetextatus as a propagation of "his ideology of the numen multiplex" cited in his funerary poem.A few years before his death, while his friend Symmachus was praefectus urbi, <mask> held an important ceremony, a pagan ascent to the Capitolium, an event that is recorded by Jerome: Praetextatus ascended, preceded by the highest magistrates, in a ceremony that was not a triumph, but which was really close to a pagan triumphal ceremony. In 384, during his tenure as praetorian prefect, he obtained from


texts:
 Valentinian II an edict about the persecution of the crimes of demolition of pagan temples and the attribution of the related investigations to the praefectus urbi of Rome (who, at that time, was his friend Symmachus). Praetextatus' policy of restoration of the ancient Roman religion hit the Christian members of the imperial court (at Milan) and possibly it was for this reason that Symmachus, as friend and ally of Praetextatus, was falsely accused of torturing Christian priests: Symmachus responded that he was authorised by Praetextatus on the basis of the imperial edict and even Damasus supported him. Praetextatus and Paulina had a palace located at the corner of via Merulana and viale del Monte Oppio () in Rome, on the place of the modern Palazzo Brancaccio. The garden around the palace, the so-called Horti Vettiani, extended to the modern Roma Termini railway station. Archaeological investigations in this area brought out several discoveries related to <mask>' family. Among them there is the base of a statue dedicated to Coelia Concordia, one of the last Vestal Virgins, who had erected a statue in honour of Praetextatus after his death; the latter statue was criticised by Symmachus, who wrote a letter to Flavianus saying he opposed this erection because that was the first time that the Virgins had erected a statue to a man, even if pontifex.Literature
Praetextatus published the Latin version of the Analytics written by Aristotle, in the Greek version composed by the philosopher Themistius. It is possible that Praetextatus knew Themistius, either meeting him in Constantinople or when the philosopher visited Rome (in 357, when Themistius followed Emperor Constantius II as leader of the Senate of Constantinople, or in 376, when Themistius honoured Emperor Gratian with a speech in the Roman Senate), and it is known he could read


texts:
 Greek, as he had been one of the quindecimvir sacri faciundi, who had to know Greek in order to read the Sybilline books. Praetextatus also collaborated with acquaintances of Symmachus and Nicomachus Flavianus in the emendation and transmission of texts of the traditional Roman culture. He was also the main character of the Saturnalia by Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, and might be the target of the anonymous Carmen contra paganos. Notes

Bibliography

Primary sources
 ; ; ;
 Collectio Avellana
 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae Libri XXXI
 Jerome, letters
 Joannes Laurentius Lydus, De mensibus
 Sozomen, Historia Ecclesiastica
 Zosimus Historia Nova

Secondary sources
 Cameron, Alan. The Last Pagans of Rome. Oxford University Press, 2011, .Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: A.D. 260–395, volume 1 (PLRE I), Cambridge University Press, 1971, . Kahlos, Maijastina, "The Restoration Policy of Praetextatus", Arctos 29 (1995), pp. 39–47. Kahlos, Maijastina, Vettius Agorius Praetextatus. A senatorial life in between, Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, Roma, 2002,  (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae, 26). Lanciani, Rodolfo, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries,  Houghton & Mifflin, Boston and New York, 1898, pp. 169–170.On-line at LacusCurtius

External links
Epitaph by Aconia Fabia Paulina
Vettius <mask> Praetextatus' eulogy for his wife Pauline

Senators of the Roman Empire
4th-century clergy
4th-century Romans
310s births
384 deaths
4th-century Christianity
Late-Roman-era pagans
Correspondents of Symmachus
Praetorian prefects of the Illyricum
Praetorian prefects of Italy
Roman governors of Achaia
Roman governors of Lusitania
Roman governors of Tuscia et Umbria
Urban prefects of Rome
Roman consuls designate
Augurs of the Roman Empire
Agorius Praetextatus
Year of


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<mask> (Ottoman Turkish: مراد ثالث Murād-i sālis, Turkish: <mask>. Murat) (4 July 1546 –  16 January 1595) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death in 1595. Early life
Born in Manisa on 4 July 1546, <mask> was the oldest son of Şehzade Selim and his powerful wife Nurbanu Sultan. He received a good education and learned Arabic and Persian language. After his ceremonial circumcision in 1557, <mask>'s grandfather, the Sultan Suleiman I, appointed him sancakbeyi (governor) of Akşehir in 1558. At the age of 18 he was appointed sancakbeyi of Saruhan. Suleiman died (1566) when <mask> was 20, and his father became the new sultan, Selim II.Selim II broke with tradition by sending only his oldest son out of the palace to govern a province, assigning <mask> to Manisa. Reign
Selim died in 1574 and was succeeded by <mask>, who began his reign by having his five younger brothers strangled. His authority was undermined by harem influences – more specifically, those of his mother and later of his favorite wife Safiye Sultan, often to the detriment of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's influence on the court. Under Selim II power had only been maintained by the genius of the powerful Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, who remained in office until his assassination in October 1579. During <mask>'s reign the northern borders with the Habsburg Monarchy were defended by the Bosnian governor Hasan Predojević. The reign of <mask> <mask> was marked by exhausting wars on the empire's western and eastern fronts. The Ottomans also suffered defeats in battles such as the Battle of Sisak.Expedition to Morocco

Abd al-Malik became  a trusted member of the Ottoman establishment during his exile. He made the proposition of making Morocco an Ottoman vassal in exchange for the support of <mask> <mask> in

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Murad III
III
Şehzade Murad
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Murad
Murad
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 helping him gain the Saadi throne. With an army of 10,000 men whom were mostly Turks, Ramazan Pasha and Abd al-Malik left from Algiers to install Abd al-Malik as an Ottoman vassal ruler of Morocco. Ramazan Pasha conquered Fez which caused the Saadi Sultan to flee to Marrakesh which was also conquered, Abd al-Malik then assumed rule over Morocco as a client of the Ottomans. Abd al-Malik made a deal with the Ottoman troops by paying them a large amount of gold and sending them back to Algiers suggesting a looser concept of vassalage than <mask> <mask> may have thought. <mask>'s name was recited in the Friday prayer and stamped on coinage marking the two traditional signs of sovereignty in the Islamic world. The reign of Abd al-Malik is understood to be a period of Moroccan vassalage to the Ottoman Empire.Abd al-Malik died in 1578 and was succeeded by his brother Ahmad al-Mansur who formally recognised the suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan at the start of his reign while remaining de facto independent, however he stopped minting coins in <mask>s name, dropped his name from the Khutba and declared his full independence in 1582. War with the Safavids

The Ottomans had been at peace with the neighbouring rivaling Safavid Empire since 1555, per the Treaty of Amasya, that for some time had settled border disputes. But in 1577 <mask> declared war, starting the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–90), seeking to take advantage of the chaos in the Safavid court after the death of Shah Tahmasp I. <mask> was influenced by viziers Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha and Sinan Pasha and disregarded the opposing counsel of Grand Vizier Sokollu. <mask> also fought the Safavids which would drag on for 12 years, ending with the Treaty of Constantinople (1590), which resulted in temporary significant territorial gains for

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 the Ottomans. Ottoman Activity in the Horn of Africa

During his reign an Ottoman Admiral by the name of Ali Bey was successful in establishing Ottoman supremacy in numerous cities in the Swahili coast between Mogadishu and Kilwa. Ottoman suzerainty was recognised in Mogadishu in 1585 and Ottoman supremacy was also established in other cities such as Barawa, Mombasa, Kilifi, Pate, Lamu and Faza. Financial Affairs
<mask>'s reign was a time of financial stress for the Ottoman state.To keep up with changing military techniques, the Ottomans trained infantrymen in the use of firearms, paying them directly from the treasury. By 1580 an influx of silver from the New World had caused high inflation and social unrest, especially among Janissaries and government officials who were paid in debased currency. Deprivation from the resulting rebellions, coupled with the pressure of over-population, was especially felt in Anatolia. Competition for positions within the government grew fierce, leading to bribery and corruption. Ottoman and Habsburg sources accuse <mask> himself of accepting enormous bribes, including 20,000 ducats from a statesman in exchange for the governorship of Tripoli and Tunisia, thus outbidding a rival who had tried bribing the Grand Vizier. During his period, excessive inflation was experienced, the value of silver money was constantly played, food prices increased. 400 dirhams should be cut from 600 dirhams of silver, while 800 was cut, which meant 100 percent inflation.For the same reason, the purchasing power of wage earners was halved, and the consequence was an uprising. English Pact
Numerous envoys and letters were exchanged between Elizabeth I and Sultan <mask> <mask>. In one correspondence, <mask> entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more

masks: Murad Murad Murad III Murad


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 in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunition to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with <mask> <mask> during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy. This diplomacy would be continued under <mask>'s successor Mehmed <mask>, by both the sultan and Safiye Sultan alike. Personal life

Palace life
Following the example of his father Selim II, <mask> was the second Ottoman sultan who never went on campaign during his reign, instead spending it entirely in Constantinople. During the final years of his reign, he did not even leave Topkapı Palace.For two consecutive years he did not attend the Friday procession to the imperial mosque—an unprecedented breaking of custom. The Ottoman historian Mustafa Selaniki wrote that whenever <mask> planned to go out to Friday prayer, he changed his mind after hearing of alleged plots by the Janissaries to dethrone him once he left the palace. <mask> withdrew from his subjects and spent the majority of his reign keeping to the company of few people and abiding by a daily routine structured by the five daily Islamic prayers. <mask>'s personal physician Domenico Hierosolimitano described a typical day in the life of the sultan:

<mask>'s sedentary lifestyle and lack of participation in military campaigns earned him the disapproval of Mustafa Âlî and Mustafa Selaniki, the major Ottoman historians who lived during his reign. Their negative portrayals of <mask> influenced later historians. Both

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 historians also accused <mask> of sexual excess. Children
Before becoming sultan, <mask> had been loyal to Safiye Sultan, his Albanian concubine who had given him a son, Mehmed, and two daughters.His monogamy was disapproved of by his mother Nurbanu Sultan, who worried that <mask> needed more sons to succeed him in case Mehmed died young. She also worried about Safiye's influence over her son and the Ottoman dynasty. Five or six years after his accession to the throne, <mask> was given a pair of concubines by his sister Ismihan. Upon attempting sexual intercourse with them, he proved impotent. "The arrow [of <mask>], [despite] keeping with his created nature, for many times [and] for many days has been unable to reach at the target of union and pleasure," wrote Mustafa Ali. Nurbanu accused Safiyye and her retainers of causing <mask>'s impotence with witchcraft. Several of Safiye's servants were tortured by eunuchs in order to discover a culprit.Court physicians, working under Nurbanu's orders, eventually prepared a successful cure, but a side effect was a drastic increase in sexual appetite—by the time <mask> died, he was said to have fathered over a hundred children. Nineteen of these were executed by Mehmed <mask> when he became sultan. Women at court
Influential ladies of his court included his mother Nurbanu Sultan, his sister Ismihan Sultan, wife of grand vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, and musahibes (favourites) mistress of the housekeeper Canfeda Hatun, mistress of financial affairs Raziye Hatun, and the poet Hubbi Hatun, Finally, after the death of his mother and older sister, his wife Safiye Sultan was the only influential woman in the court. Eunuchs at court
Before <mask>, the palace eunuchs had been mostly white. This began to change in 1582 when <mask> gave an important

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 position to a black eunuch. By 1592, the eunuchs' roles in the palace were racially determined: black eunuchs guarded the Sultan and the women, and white eunuchs guarded the male pages in another part of the palace. The chief black eunuch was known as the Kizlar Agha, and the chief white eunuch was known as the Kapi Agha.<mask> and the arts

<mask> took great interest in the arts, particularly miniatures and books. He actively supported the court Society of Miniaturists, commissioning several volumes including the Siyer-i Nebi, the most heavily illustrated biographical work on the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Book of Skills, the Book of Festivities and the Book of Victories. He had two large alabaster urns transported from Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and a large wax candle dressed in tin which was donated by him to the Rila monastery in Bulgaria is on display in the monastery museum. <mask> also furnished the content of Kitabü’l-Menamat (The Book of Dreams), addressed to <mask>'s spiritual advisor, Şüca Dede. A collection of first person accounts, it tells of <mask>'s spiritual experiences as a Sufi disciple. Compiled from thousands of letters <mask> wrote describing his dream visions, it presents a hagiographic self-portrait. <mask> dreams of various activities, including being stripped naked by his father and having to sit on his lap, single-handedly killing 12,000 infidels in battle, walking on water, ascending to heaven, and producing milk from his fingers.He frequently encounters the Prophet Muhammed, and in one dream sits in the Prophet's lap and kisses his mouth. In another letter addressed to Şüca Dede, <mask> wrote "I wish that God, may He be glorified and exalted, had not created this poor servant as the

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 descendant of the Ottomans so that I would not hear this and that, and would not worry. I wish I were of unknown pedigree. Then, I would have one single task, and could ignore the whole world." The diplomatic edition of these dream letters have been recently published by Ozgen Felek in Turkish. Death
<mask> died from what is assumed to be natural causes in the Topkapı Palace and was buried in tomb next to the Hagia Sophia. In the mausoleum are 54 sarcophagus of the sultan, his wives and children that are also buried there.He is also responsible for changing the burial customs of the sultans' mothers. <mask> had his mother Nurbanu buried next to her husband Selim II, making her the first consort to share a sultan's tomb. Family

 Consorts
<mask>'s named consorts were:
Safiye Sultan, an ethnic Albanian. The rest, who were married, included the following:
 Hümaşah  Sultan, married only once to Damad Nişar Mustafazade Mehmed Pasha (died 1586);. Safiye's possibly eldest daughter. ), was married and had three children who died young. Amriye Sultan

In fiction
Orhan Pamuk's historical novel Benim Adım Kırmızı (My Name is Red, 1998) takes place at the court of <mask> III, during nine snowy winter days of 1591, which the writer uses in order to convey the tension between East and West.The Harem Midwife by Roberta Rich - a historical fiction set in Constantinople (1578) which follows Hannah, a midwife, who tends to many of the women in Sultan <mask> <mask>'s harem. In popular culture
In the 2011 TV series Muhteşem Yüzyıl, <mask> <mask> is portrayed by Turkish actor Serhan Onat. References

External links

 Ancestry of Sultana Nur-Banu (Cecilia Venier-Baffo)

[aged 48]

1546 births
1595 deaths
16th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
Ottoman

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<mask> (born 15 August 1983) is a retired English professional footballer who last played as a goalkeeper for FA WSL club Manchester United and the England national team. She is also a sports pundit and commentator. She joined Manchester United in 2018 after playing for Liverpool. Before joining Liverpool in December 2015, she had been at Notts County on loan from Arsenal. <mask> previously played at the top club level for Chelsea, Fulham, Birmingham City and Bristol Academy, as well as for North American W-League club Vancouver Whitecaps. She has represented the England women's national football team on 50 occasions since her debut in 2004. This included being part of the squad at three FIFA Women's World Cups and three UEFA Women's Championships.Club career

Early career
A childhood gymnast, <mask> took up goalkeeping at the age of 14 and was spotted by Chelsea. In 2003, she left Chelsea for Fulham, who had lost their professional status and Norwegian international goalkeeper Astrid Johannessen. <mask> played for Fulham in the UEFA Women's Cup, but moved on to Birmingham City at the end of the season. At Birmingham City <mask> provided competition for Jo Fletcher during the 2004–05 season. <mask> then played for Bristol Academy for two seasons, leaving to rejoin Chelsea in the 2007 close season. On 26 May 2010, she left Chelsea and signed for Canadian W-League Vancouver Whitecaps. Bristol Academy
In October 2010, <mask> returned to Bristol Academy ahead of their inaugural FA WSL campaign.She helped Bristol reach the FA Women's Cup final, played in the UEFA Women's Champions League and was named in the WSL team of the season. In April 2012 she was appointed as one of eight digital media ambassadors, one from each team, who wear their Twitter account name on

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Siobhan Rebecca Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain


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 their shirt sleeves to raise the profile of the WSL. Arsenal

In December 2013, <mask> quit Bristol Academy to sign a two-year contract with Arsenal, where she would rival the incumbent goalkeeper Emma Byrne for a starting position. <mask> had played every minute of every game in her three seasons back at Bristol, but craved a new challenge: "My ambition is to be England's number one so the added competition at Arsenal is what I need at this point in my career." Loan to Notts County
On 9 July 2015, <mask> moved to Notts County on loan until the end of the season following injury to England teammate Carly Telford. She was ineligible for the 2015 FA Women's Cup Final and The Football Association refused Notts County's request for dispensation to sign another goalkeeper, so Telford played in the team's 1–0 defeat despite a shoulder injury. Liverpool
Chamberlain failed to dislodge Byrne from Arsenal's starting line-up and was mainly used in cup matches.She was pushed further down the pecking order by the signing of Sari van Veenendaal. In December 2015, Liverpool announced their signing of <mask> on a one-year contract. When Liverpool decided not to renew 34-year-old <mask>'s contract in May 2018, she criticised the club for a lack of ambition. Manchester United

On 13 July 2018, it was announced that <mask> would join Manchester United for their inaugural season playing in the FA Women's Championship. During a pre-season friendly against her former club Liverpool on 17 July 2018, <mask> suffered a suspected serious neck injury and was rushed to hospital; however, checks revealed that the injury was not as serious as first thought. She recovered in time for the start of the season and made her competitive debut for Manchester United in a 1–0 League Cup victory

masks: Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain