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 in June 1984, where it was directed by Claudia Weill and starred Robert Joy, Evan Handler, Peter McNicol, Greg Germann, Robin Bartlett, Nealla Spano, Kevin Geer and Jonathan Walker.Gifted Children Gifted Children was produced by the Jewish Repertory Theater (New York City) in December 1983, directed by Joan Vail Thorne and starring Dinah Manoff and Zohra Lampert. Adaptations Luna Park is a one-act play inspired by the short story "In Dreams Begin Responsibilities" by Delmore Schwartz and was his New York debut as a playwright. The play was commissioned by the Jewish Repertory Theater which produced the play in February 1982 with direction by Florence Stanley. "'Delmore,' One Acters, To Bow at Jewish Rep" New York Times, January 14, 1982

His play God of Vengeance, based on the Yiddish classic by Sholem Asch, was produced at ACT Theatre (Seattle) in April 2000, and in August 2002 at the Williamstown Theatre Festival, directed by Gordon Edelstein and starring Ron Leibman.Hampton, William. "Theater Review. 'God Of Vengeance'" New York Times, August 10, 2002Coney Island Christmas, adapted from the short story “The Loudest Voice” by Grace Paley, was commissioned and first produced by the Geffen Playhouse in November 2012. Directed by Bart DeLorenzo the cast featured Arye Gross and Isabella Acres in this "Jewish Christmas show".Film and television
<mask> has written pilots and episodes of several television shows. In the 1980s, he was under contract to Norman Lear's company to develop television pilots, and was a producer-writer for the television series Baby Boom.He has adapted a wide range of


type: original

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 material for film and television, both fiction (including Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides, Tom Wolfe’s A Man in Full, The Touchstone by Edith Wharton) and non-fiction (notably American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House by Jon Meacham, The Most Dangerous Book: The Battle for James Joyce’s “Ulysses" by Kevin Birmingham, and biographies of David O. Selznick, Robert Capa and Keith Moon), all of which are unproduced. The End of the Tour

Margulies adapted the memoir Although of Course You End Up Becoming Yourself: A Road Trip With David Foster Wallace, by David Lipsky, as a feature film screenplay, The End of the Tour. The film, released in 2015, was directed by James Ponsoldt and stars Jason Segel as Wallace and Jesse Eisenberg as Lipsky. The film received widespread positive reviews from critics, with a 93% "Certified Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes,

Grants and Fellowships
Margulies has received grants from the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York Foundation for the Arts, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and a MacDowell Colony Fellowship. He was playwright-in-residence at the Sundance Playwrights Conference for three summers; Collected Stories was developed there, as was an early version of Sight Unseen. <mask> is an alumnus of New Dramatists and serves on the council of the Dramatists Guild of America.Selected Honors

 2019 American Academy of Arts and Sciences inductee
 2018 Thornton Wilder Prize
 2015 William Inge Theatre Festival Distinguished Achievement in American Theater Award
2014 PEN/Laura Pels International Foundation for Theater Award American Playwright


texts:
 in Mid-Career
 2005 American Academy of Arts and Letters Award in Literature
 2005 National Foundation for Jewish Culture Award in Literary Arts
 2000 Madge Evans-Sidney Kingsley Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Theatre by a Playwright
 2000 Pulitzer Prize for Drama

Notable works
 Luna Park, 1982
 Resting Place, 1982
 Gifted Children, 1983
 Found a Peanut, 1984
 What's Wrong with This Picture?, 1985
 The Model Apartment, 1988
 The Loman Family Picnic, 1989
 Pitching to the Star, 1990
 Sight Unseen, 1991
 July 7, 1994, 1995
 Collected Stories, 1996
 Dinner with Friends, 1998
 God of Vengeance, 2000
 Brooklyn Boy, 2003
 Shipwrecked! An Entertainment, 2007
 Time Stands Still, 2009
 Coney Island Christmas, 2012
 The Country House, 2014Long Lost, 2019

References

External links

 Program from the world premiere of Shipwrecked! at South Coast Repertory
 Program from the world premiere of Brooklyn Boy at South Coast Repertory
<mask> - Downstage Center'' interview at American Theatre Wing.org
<mask> interview on Collected Stories - “Mentors and protégés exist everywhere” at phindie.com
<mask> Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. 1954 births
Living people
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Drama Desk Award winners
Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners
John Dewey High School alumni
State University of New York at Purchase alumni
Jewish dramatists and playwrights
American academics of English literature
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
Yale University faculty
20th-century American non-fiction

masks:
Donald Margulies
Donald Margulies
Donald Margulies


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<mask> (often referred to by European missionaries as John Hormez or <mask>) (1760–1838) was the last hereditary patriarch of the Eliya line of the Church of the East and the first patriarch of a united Chaldean Church. After the death of his uncle Eliya XI in 1778, he claimed the patriarchal throne in 1780 and made a Catholic profession of faith. In 1783, he was recognized by the Vatican as patriarchal administrator and archbishop of Mosul. His career as patriarchal administrator was controversial, and was marked by a series of conflicts with his own bishops and also with the Vatican. Suspended from his functions in 1812 and again in 1818, he was reinstated by the Vatican in 1828. In 1830, following the death of the Amid patriarchal administrator Augustine Hindi, he was recognised by the Vatican as patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans and the Mosul and Amid patriarchates were united under his leadership. This event marked the birth of the since unbroken patriarchal line of the Chaldean Catholic Church.<mask> Hormizd died in 1838 and his successor Nicholas I Zaya was chosen by the Vatican, ending the centuries-old practice of hereditary succession. Sources
<mask> <mask>'s career, first as patriarchal administrator and finally as patriarch, was dogged by disputes. Most of the surviving contemporary accounts of his patriarchate are partisan, and must be used with care. <mask> <mask> himself wrote a polemical autobiography in Syriac, a fragment of which (breaking off in 1795) was translated into English by the Anglican missionary George Percy

masks:
Yohannan VIII Hormizd
Hanna Hormizd
Yohannan
Yohannan
Hormizd
Yohannan
Hormizd


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 Badger and reproduced in his classic 1852 study of the Church of the East, The Nestorians and Their Rituals. His opponents responded with an equally intemperate history of the monastery of Rabban Hormizd under the headship of Gabriel Dambo of Mardin (1775–1832), which was published in a French translation by M. Brière in 1910 and 1911. Both texts provide spirited accounts of the intrigues that followed Yohannan's election as patriarch in 1780. Neither can be trusted on matters of interpretation, but if read judiciously they shed valuable light on the politics of the Chaldean Church in the late eighteenth- and early-nineteenth centuries and provide a wealth of factual detail omitted in many accounts of this period.The partisan spirit of the contemporary accounts was reflected in the texts of several later Chaldean authors, notably Giamil and Tfinkdji. Stephane Bello, writing in 1939 with access to the Vatican archives, was the first scholar to write a dispassionate account of <mask> Hormizd's career. He has been followed more recently by Habbi. Much of the recent scholarship on <mask> <mask> is in French or German, but convenient English summaries of his career were made by David Wilmshurst in 2000 and by Christoph Baumer in 2006. In 2003 Wilhelm Baum and Dietmar Winkler devoted three paragraphs to Yohannan Hormizd. Background
By 1760 the Church of the East had become divided into three patriarchates:
 The largest and oldest Patriarchal See was based at the Rabban Hormizd monastery of Alqosh, near Mosul. It spread from Aqrah up to Seert and

masks: Yohannan Yohannan Hormizd


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 Nisibis, covering the South rich plain of Mosul (it is known also as Eliya line).Since the 15th century, its Patriarchs belonged to the Bar Mama (or Abuna) family and they were appointed through a strict hereditary system: the old patriarch chose one of his nephews (or sometimes his young brother), and consecrated him as metropolitan bishop with right of succession. The nephew was known as natar kursi (designated successor). In 1760 the patriarch of this See was Eliya XI (1722-1778), the uncle of Yohannan Hormizd. In 1681, the patriarchal See of Amid became independent and made a formal union with Rome (it is also known as the Josephite line). This See included a few towns such as Amid and Mardin in the North-West Mountains, which are now in Turkey. In 1760 the patriarch was Joseph IV Lazar Hindi, a relative of Augustine Hindi. The patriarchate struggled with financial difficulties due to the tax burden imposed by the Turkish authorities.The third patriarchal See was located in Qochanis and extended into the North East Mountains (also known as the Shimun line). This patriarchal line began in 1553 when <mask> Sulaqa was consecrated bishop by the Pope, but soon became independent of Rome and still survives in the denomination today known as Assyrian Church of the East

Early life

According to his autobiography, <mask> <mask> was born in 1760 in Alqosh to an Assyrian family. His father, the deacon Hanna (Yohannan), was the brother of the Mosul patriarch Eliya XI Denha (1722–1778). The Vatican opened a correspondence with both the Mosul and


texts:
 Qochanis patriarchs in 1770. At this period hereditary succession (normally from uncle to nephew as the patriarchs themselves remained celibate) was in force in both patriarchates. Eliya XI had consecrated his nephew Ishoyahb a metropolitan in 1745 and had also bestowed upon him the traditional title natar kursya ('guardian of the throne'), thereby designating him his presumptive successor. Eliya XI and his nephew Ishoyahb both made Catholic professions of faith in 1771 in response to this overture from the Vatican, and Pope Clement XIV wrote to Eliya on 12 December 1772 to commend his zeal and to urge him to bring over his people to Catholicism.Earlier in the same year, however, Eliya had deposed Ishoyahb from his metropolitan rank, apparently alarmed by his ambition, and ordained the twelve-year-old Yohannan Hormizd, another nephew, as a deacon. Four years later, on 22 May 1776, Yohannan was consecrated a metropolitan by Eliya XI and named natar kursya in his turn. If his uncle had lived a few years longer, Yohannan's succession would probably have been assured, but the patriarch was among the victims of a plague which swept through the Mosul district in 1778, and died in the village of Alqosh on 29 April 1778. Irregular patriarchal succession, 1780–83
On the following day his nephews Ishoyahb and Yohannan both made Catholic professions of faith and were reconciled. Despite the late patriarch's preference the Latin missionaries supported Ishoyahb, who shortly afterwards succeeded his uncle as patriarch, taking the name Eliya XII (1778-1804),


texts: without open opposition from the young Yohannan. In May 1779, as soon as he had obtained his firman of office from the Ottoman civil authorities, Ishoyahb abandoned his Catholic profession of faith. The notables of Mosul, with the support of the Latin missionaries, deposed him and unanimously chose Shemon of Amid, the Chaldean metropolitan of Mardin (1758–88), as patriarch in his place.Shemon however declined to accept the honour, and Ishoyahb's opponents were obliged to turn instead to the young <mask> Hormizd, who had demonstrated his zeal for the Catholic cause since Ishoyahb's volte face by converting the Nestorians of the large Erbil villages of Aïnqawa, Armuta and Shaqlawa to Catholicism and encouraging them to withdraw their loyalty from his cousin. Yohannan was elected patriarch in 1780, and his supporters bribed the governor of Mosul to use his influence to obtain a firman from Constantinople, granting him authority over both the Chaldean Christians and the Nestorians. Yohannan then sent a profession of faith and a letter of submission to the Vatican. The Vatican was placed in a dilemma by this turn of events. If Yohannan's profession of faith was genuine, he might be the Catholic patriarch of Babylon the Vatican had long been hoping for, and his confirmation would be rapidly followed by the adoption of Catholicism by all the villages of the Mosul patriarchate. On the other hand, to confirm Yohannan's election would be to condone the distasteful practice of hereditary succession. There was also the possibility that Yohannan's submission


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 was no more sincere than Ishoyahb's had been two years earlier.The Vatican's initial response was therefore to inform Raphael Terconuski, the superior of the Catholic mission at Mosul, that <mask> Hormizd's profession of faith appeared to be satisfactory, but that his election was to be considered null. On 18 February 1783, having considered further, the Sacred Congregation decided to appoint Yohannan archbishop of Mosul and administrator of the patriarchate of Babylon, granting him all the necessary powers to that end except the title and the insignia of the patriarch. Patriarchal administrator and archbishop of Mosul, 1783–1830

Honeymoon period, 1783–1801
For the next eight years Yohannan Hormizd seemed to justify the hopes placed in him. He lived on amicable terms with the Catholic missionaries and devoted his energies to the conversion to Catholicism of the villages under his authority. In May 1790, on the advice of the missionaries, he consecrated his nephew Shemon metropolitan, and in August of the same year sent him to the Zibar district, where he converted the Nestorian villages of Arena and Barzane. The following year he sent Shemon to Mengesh in the Sapna district, where he was equally successful. The high point of this honeymoon period came in February 1791, when the Vatican appointed him patriarchal administrator of the Amid patriarchate, recalling Lazar Hindi to Rome to leave him a free hand.This appointment led to strenuous protests from Lazar Hindi, his vicar-general Joseph Attar and the clergy of Amid, and on 3 February 1793


texts: <mask> <mask>'s appointment was rescinded. At about the same time the Mosul missionaries began to report disquieting rumours about his performance of his duties. He was said, among other things, to have released a monk from his vows for a payment of 73 piastres, to have used liturgical books full of errors, to have visited families without a companion, and to have feasted in the house of a newly-wed couple. Although each of these incidents was relatively minor in itself, and could equally have been explained by mere imprudence rather than active corruption, their frequency was disturbing. For his part, Yohannan accused the missionaries of arrogance and mischief-making, and on his request the apostolic vicar of Baghdad, Fulgence de Sainte Marie, was sent to Mosul as apostolic vicar in 1796 to report on the situation. While his relations with the Vatican were cooling, <mask> <mask> also had to deal with the opposition of his cousin Ishoyahb, who continued to assert that he was the rightful patriarch. After Yohannan's irregular election in 1780 Ishoyahb withdrew to Amadiya, whose governor Isma'il gave him 'the Nestorian dioceses of the mountain' to govern.He made another Catholic profession of faith on 7 April 1783 in an attempt to regain the sympathies of the missionaries, and to preserve the patriarchate within his family consecrated his nephew Hnanisho metropolitan in 1784. Several years of bitter faction-fighting followed, in which the civil authorities in Baghdad held the balance between Muhammad, governor of Mosul, who supported Yohannan

masks: Yohannan Hormizd Yohannan Hormizd


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 Hormizd, and Isma'il, governor of Amadiya, who sheltered Ishoyahb and his followers. In 1788 Yohannan's nephew Shemon was arrested on a visit to the village of Bir Sivi in the Zakho district on Isma'il's orders, and was only released by the joint efforts of the governor of Mosul and Sulaiman, governor of Baghdad. In 1792 Yohannan and his two brothers went to Amadiya on business, and were arrested, beaten and imprisoned for three and a half months by the Turkish authorities. Again, the governor of Baghdad intervened to secure their release. First clash with the Vatican, 1802
Yohannan's precarious relations with the Vatican survived a further test in 1801, only to sink further in 1802. In 1796 a delegation from the Malabar Christians arrived in Mosul and begged him to consecrate a bishop for them.Yohannan punctiliously wrote to the Vatican for guidance, but as Rome was then under French occupation he did not receive a reply, and in 1798 consecrated the Indian priest Paul Pandari as a bishop for the Malabar Christians. As many of the Malabar Christians were now in communion with the Syriac Orthodox Church, which had replaced the Church of the East as the main focus of loyalty among the Syrian Christians of India three centuries earlier, Yohannan tactfully appointed Pandari bishop 'of Mar Behnam', a celebrated West Syrian monastery near Mosul. The Malabar Christians informed the Vatican of Pandari's arrival in India in a letter of 17 January 1800, and Yohannan was asked to account for his actions. His explanation was accepted, and in a general


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 consistory of 23 September 1801 the possibility of appointing him patriarch of Babylon was considered. Unfortunately for Yohannan, his position was immediately undermined by renewed complaints from a section of the Chaldean church. On this occasion his opponents, supported by the Latin missionaries, impugned his orthodoxy and accused him of embezzling monastic property. In 1802 the priest <mask> Mushe of Tel Isqof was despatched to Rome with letters demanding the dismissal of both Yohannan and his nephew Shemon, metropolitan of Amadiya.He had only sufficient funds to reach Saida in Syria, where he entrusted the letter to the missionary Leopold Sebastien, who was leaving for Rome. The letters do not seem to have produced any immediate effect, but doubtless added to the concern in the Vatican about Yohannan <mask>'s reliability. Increasing opposition, 1802–12

Some years later <mask> Hormizd faced another challenge to his authority from a Baghdad merchant named Gabriel Dambo, one of the most remarkable figures of the nineteenth century Chaldean church. A Chaldean Christian born in Mardin in 1775, Dambo had made sufficient money by middle age to be able to retire from business, and he decided to devote the rest of his life to the service of the Church. The once-thriving monastery of Rabban Hormizd near Alqosh had been abandoned for many years, and he dreamed of reviving its monastic life and restoring it to its former glory. He paved the way by giving free lessons in Baghdad to young Chaldean Christians in Arabic, grammar, logic and rhetoric, and

masks: Yohannan Hormizd Yohannan


texts: after winning a formidable reputation as a teacher and scholar moved to Mosul. In 1808 he had no difficulty in persuading the Chaldean authorities and their Catholic missionary advisers to allow him to establish a seminary in the monastery of Rabban Hormizd.Before long he collected a number of pupils, who were vowed to poverty and celibacy, and was appointed lay superior of the seminary. An energetic and charismatic visionary, Gabriel had his own ideas of how things should be done, and had little patience with the leaders of the Chaldean Church. If the new seminary was to succeed it needed its own income, and Gabriel insisted, probably correctly, that a large proportion of the property then in the hands of the patriarchal family was originally owned by the monastery of Rabban Hormizd and should rightly revert to it. <mask> Hormizd, understandably, did not agree. This single issue would have been sufficient to poison relations between the two men, but there were other causes of friction as well. The new seminary had attracted men who disliked Yohannan Hormizd and wanted more vigorous leadership. The monks rallied around their superior and made no secret of their distaste for the patriarchal administrator.They were joined by the Catholic missionaries, who shared their admiration for Gabriel, and by a number of influential priests, notably <mask> of Tel Isqof and Yohannan of Alqosh. In 1809 the Vatican seriously considered the possibility of suspending <mask> Hormizd, and rumours that he had indeed been suspended were circulated by his opponents,

masks: Yohannan Yohannan Yohannan


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 eliciting a spirited letter of protest to the Vatican by his supporters on 15 October 1811. <mask> Hormizd's opponents were eventually able to win over the pasha of Mosul to their side, who briefly imprisoned him. The missionaries, led by the priest Joseph Campanile, immediately took steps to replace him, and Campanile on his own authority consecrated the priest Shemon Sayyegh bishop of Mosul. He was later reproved by the Vatican for this abusive consecration, and Augustine Hindi was ordered to send Shemon to Mosul merely as a priest. At the same time, learning of <mask> <mask>'s imprisonment, the Vatican appointed Augustine Hindi apostolic delegate and the priest Giwargis of Alqosh apostolic vicar of Mosul, 'during the absence of the said archbishop', on 4 October 1811. This decision sent a clear signal that the Vatican's patience with <mask> Hormizd was, for the moment, almost at an end.Suspension and Reinstatement, 1812–30
<mask> Hormizd was eventually ransomed by his supporters and returned to Mosul, where he had several of his opponents imprisoned. After a series of mutual recriminations, the Rabban Hormizd monks and the Catholic missionaries wrote jointly to the Propaganda calling for Yohannan's deposition, alleging that he was opposed to their order, that he incited the Kurds of Isma'il Pasha against them, and that he was endeavouring to lead the Chaldean proselytes back to Nestorianism. The Vatican was alarmed at these charges and on 15 February 1812 suspended Yohannan from his functions as archbishop of Mosul and patriarchal

masks: Yohannan Yohannan Hormizd Yohannan Yohannan


texts: administrator and appointed Shemon Sayyegh apostolic vicar for Mosul and the priest Giwargis of Alqosh apostolic vicar for the patriarchate of Babylon. Both men were placed under the direct authority of Augustine Hindi, who was named apostolic delegate for the affairs of the patriarchate of Babylon. While this decision temporarily placed the two Catholic patriarchates under a single trustworthy authority, it was from the Vatican's point of view little more than a makeshift, as Hindi could never command the same prestige in the Mosul district as a member of the old patriarchal family. <mask> <mask>'s suspension lasted for six years. At first he refused to accept the validity of the Vatican's decision, and issued threats against his opponents.Eventually he decided to seek a reconciliation with them, and a meeting was held on 20 February 1818 at Alqosh, attended by a hundred clergymen and notables, in which he agreed to apologise in writing for his misdeeds. In return, the assembly decided to send a letter to the Vatican to ask for his suspension to be lifted. Unfortunately, these good intentions were frustrated, as the letter's courier was killed en route and the letter never reached its destination. The Vatican, ignorant of the rapprochement between Yohannan Hormizd and his opponents, was briefed on the affairs of the Chaldean Church early in 1818 by Campanile, who is unlikely to have placed a sympathetic construction on Yohannan <mask>'s previous record. The Sacred Congregation concluded that <mask> Hormizd had not taken his suspension

masks: Yohannan Hormizd Hormizd Yohannan


texts: seriously, and on 24 May 1818 it was renewed. The appointments of Augustine Hindi and Giwargis of Alqosh were renewed by briefs of 26 June 1818, and <mask> Hormizd was informed of the new sentence in a latter of 11 July 1818. Once again, Yohannan refused to accept the validity of the sentence, and for the next few years continued to assert his authority wherever he could, abetted by the civil authorities at Amadiya.The Rabban Hormizd monks refused to have anything to do with him and accepted the authority of Augustine Hindi (the colophon of manuscripts copied in the monastery at this period dutifully mention the patriarchal administrator Mar Augustine, not <mask>). Three monks of the monastery of Rabban Hormizd were consecrated metropolitan bishops at Amid by Hindi in March 1825: the future patriarch Joseph Audo for Mosul, Lawrent Shoa for Baghdad, and Basil Asmar for Amadiya. Two other bishops perhaps consecrated on the same occasion, Mikha'il Kattula and Ignatius Dashto, were sent to Seert and Mardin, traditional sees of the Amid patriarchate, but the other three returned to their home villages north of Mosul; Basil Asmar to Telkepe, Lawrent Shoa to Tel Isqof and Joseph Audo to Alqosh. There each of the three metropolitans began ordaining priests and deacons, in a direct challenge to Yohannan's authority. Meanwhile, the Vatican reconsidered the condemnation of <mask> Hormizd in the light of fresh information, and on 25 November 1826 publicly absolved him. At the same time, to restore the peace of the Chaldean Church, it urged the 66-year-old

masks:
Yohannan
Mar Yohannan
Yohannan


texts: former patriarchal administrator to renounce his claims to the archdiocese of Mosul and to retire quietly. Yohannan, vindicated by the Vatican's absolution and supported by the local civil authorities, stubbornly refused to retire.Instead, he fought back against his opponents. In 1827, during the absence of the superior Gabriel Dambo in Rome, a number of monks in the monastery of Rabban Hormizd rebelled against its administrator <mask> Gwera, who enjoyed the support of the metropolitan Joseph Audo. <mask> Hormizd upheld the rebels, and was also able to have Basil Asmar expelled from Telkepe, forcing him to take refuge in Amid. On 3 April 1827, shortly after Basil's arrival, Augustine Hindi died at Amid and was buried in a cemetery outside the city's walls. His death ended the 146-year independent existence of the Amid patriarchate. Basil Asmar, who had endeared himself to the clergy and people of Amid, was appointed Hindi's successor as metropolitan of Amid in 1828, and the Vatican confirmed the appointment. Amid reverted to a metropolitan diocese of the Chaldean Church, and the Amid patriarchate came to an end.Basil's appointment required a bishop to be found for the see of Amadiya, and as Joseph Audo had failed to overcome the opposition of Yohannan's supporters to his appointment of metropolitan of Mosul, Gabriel Dambo and the Catholic missionaries agreed that he should be reassigned to Amadiya. Like Basil before him, however, he declined to trust his life to the good faith of Isma'il Pasha, and withdrew to Alqosh, where he continued to

masks: Yohannan Yohannan


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 intrigue among the Chaldeans and with the local authorities of Mosul against Yohannan. As a result of these intrigues Yohannan was imprisoned for a third time by the Ottoman authorities, for four months. After Yohannan's release the charges made by his opponents were investigated by the Latin apostolic vicar Pierre-Alexander Coupperie, who travelled to Mosul to interview him. Yohannan was absolved of blame and restored to the exercise of his jurisdiction. Gabriel Dambo was then in Rome, to lobby more effectively against his rival, and he and his supporters declared Coupperie's decision invalid and insisted that they would not accept Yohannan's authority unless he was absolved personally by the pope. Coupperie therefore persuaded a number of influential Chaldeans to join him in a written appeal to the Vatican for Yohannan's reinstatement.Patriarch of Babylon, 1830–8

Couperrie died shortly afterwards, and was succeeded as apostolic vicar by his assistant Laurent Trioche, who was consecrated a bishop for the purpose by Yohannan and the metropolitan Lawrent Shoa of Kirkuk on the Vatican's instructions. Like his predecessor, Trioche took Yohannan's part, and in a consistory held in the Vatican on 5 July 1830 it was agreed that Yohannan should be relieved of the archdiocese of Mosul, confirmed as patriarch of the Chaldeans and awarded the pallium (the traditional symbol of the Vatican's recognition of his succession). The decision was communicated to <mask> Hormizd, now aged 74, in two papal bulls of the same date. Fifty years after his irregular


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 succession to Eliya XI (d. 1778), <mask> Hormizd was finally recognised as patriarch of the Chaldean Church and awarded the title patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans. The suppression of the Amid patriarchate and the union of the Chaldean dioceses under the patriarch of Babylon in 1830 marked the birth of the modern Chaldean Catholic Church. The new patriarch was awarded the pallium in a ceremony held in Baghdad on 6 April 1834. Further troubles
According to Badger, <mask> Hormizd was unhappy with the thought of the unbroken succession of the Eliya line ending with his death, and made a curious bargain with the Nestorian church in an attempt to continue the succession.He ordained his nephew Mansur Sefaro a priest, and in 1831 sent him to the Nestorian patriarch Shemon XVII Abraham (1820–61), who consecrated him at Urmi and appointed him metropolitan over the Nestorians of Amadiya. The new metropolitan took the name Eliya, the traditional name of the Chaldean patriarchs before the schism of 1552 (Yohannan's own family), and shortly afterwards abandoned the pretence of being a Nestorian and was readmitted into the Chaldean church, ultimately becoming the first Chaldean bishop of Aqra in 1852. In spite of this account, it was presumably with the intention of excluding this nephew from being his successor that in 1837 Yohannan, aware that he had not long to live, designated Gregory Peter di Natale, metropolitan of Gazarta, as coadjutor and "guardian of the throne". The feud between Gabriel Dambo and <mask> Hormizd ended in 1832, when Alqosh was


texts: pillaged by Kör Muhammad, chief of the Soran Kurds of Rawanduz. Gabriel Dambo was among the hundreds of East Syrians killed by the Kurds, and was succeeded as superior of the monastery of Rabban Hormizd by Yohannan Gwera. Despite the death of his chief rival, the patriarch's troubles continued throughout the 1830s. The monks of the monastery of Rabban Hormizd still refused to acknowledge his authority, and were supported by the metropolitan Joseph Audo, who now claimed jurisdiction over the monastery on the grounds that it lay within his diocese of Amadiya.<mask> Hormizd retaliated by suspending Audo and a number of Rabban Hormizd monks, but this action had little effect. A rumour spread that a new Latin apostolic vicar had been appointed in Rome and was now on his way to Mosul, and the patriarch's enemies temporarily came into line to make a good first impression on this important official. But when after two months he had still not arrived, they resumed their duties in flat defiance of Yohannan's orders. One man only, a priest named Stephen, sent in his submission to the patriarch, and was appointed priest of Telkepe. The patriarch now sent the metropolitan Gregory Peter di Natale to Mosul, accompanied by a priest named Andrew to represent the apostolic vicar Laurent Trioche, to inquire into the conduct of the Rabban Hormizd monks. Joseph Audo thereupon retired to Amid, where he was welcomed by its metropolitan Basil, and the delegates condemned the obstinacy of the monks and returned to Baghdad. In the light of this vindication of the


texts: patriarch's behaviour, an attempt was made by the monastery's superior Yohannan Gwera to put his side of the story.He travelled to Rome, accompanied by the monks Mikha'il Jammala and Peter, and eventually obtained a papal audience. The response of the Vatican authorities to the monks' complaints was lukewarm. They were assured that their allegations would be investigated but were also censured for their disobedience. On 13 October 1837, conscious that he had not long to live, Yohannan designated as coadjutor and 'guardian of the throne' Gregory Peter di Natale, metropolitan of Gazarta, presumably with the intention of excluding his nephew Eliya from the patriarchal dignity. However, he did not promise the succession to his coadjutor, and in order to ensure that the hereditary principle would play no part in the selection of the next patriarch the Vatican appointed by a bull of 25 September 1838 Nicholas Zaya, metropolitan of Salmas, Yohannan's coadjutor with the right of succession. The reason given in the bull for this decision was the growing infirmity of the patriarch and the desirability of avoiding inconvenience and harm should the patriarchate suddenly become vacant. Zaya was Persian by birth, from Khosrowa, and as such could lay claim to the protection of the foreign consuls in Turkey.He had also been educated at the Propaganda, and it was hoped that after Yohannan's death he would loyally implement Vatican policy. Yohannan, meanwhile, had died a few weeks earlier, on 16 August 1838. His family, which had provided successive patriarchs


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 since the middle of the fifteenth century, now renounced its hereditary right of succession but insisted on keeping the title Abuna as the family name henceforward. Nicholas Zaya duly succeeded <mask> Hormizd as patriarch, but the manner in which his succession had been arranged by the Vatican offended most of the Chaldean bishops, and Zaya's brief reign (1839–46) would prove to be as stormy as that of his predecessor. References

Sources

 Brière, M., 'Histoire du couvent de Rabban Hormizd de 1808 a 1832', ROC, 15 (1910), 4, 410–24;16 (1911), 2, 113–27; 3, 249–54; and 4, 346–55

 Hornus, J. M., 'Mémoire sur l'état actuel et l'avenir de la religion catholique et des missions lazaristes et protestantes en Perse par le Comte de Challaye, consul de France à Erzéroun' (Cahiers d'Études Chrétiennes Orientales 8-9 für 1970/73), Action Chrétienne en Orient, Strasbourg o. J., 79f. 85f. 102–109.148. Eastern Catholic bishops in the Ottoman Empire
Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon
1760 births
1838 deaths
People from Alqosh
Assyrians of the Ottoman Empire
18th-century Eastern Catholic archbishops
19th-century Eastern Catholic archbishops
18th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
19th-century people of Ottoman


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<mask> (11 September 18256 August 1904) was an Austrian music critic, aesthetician and historian. Among the leading critics of his time, he was the chief music critic of the Neue Freie Presse from 1864 until the end of his life. He was a conservative critic and championed absolute music over programmatic music for much of his career. As such, he sided with and promoted the faction of Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms in the so-called "War of the Romantics", often deriding the works of composers such as Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner. His best known work, the 1854 treatise Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (On the Musically Beautiful), was a landmark in the aesthetics of music and outlines much of his artistic and philosophical beliefs on music. Biography

<mask> was born in Prague (then in the Austrian Empire), the son of Joseph Adolph Hanslik, a bibliographer and music teacher from a German-speaking family, and one of Hanslik's piano pupils, the daughter of a Jewish merchant from Vienna. At the age of eighteen <mask> went to study music with Václav Tomášek, one of Prague's renowned musicians.He also studied law at Prague University and obtained a degree in that field, but his amateur study of music eventually led to writing music reviews for small town newspapers, then the Wiener Musik-Zeitung and eventually the Neue Freie Presse, where he was music critic until retirement. Whilst still a student, in 1845, he met with Richard Wagner in Marienbad; the composer, noting the young man's enthusiasm, invited him to Dresden to hear his opera Tannhäuser; here <mask> also met with Robert Schumann. In 1854 he published his influential book On the

masks:
Eduard Hanslick
Hanslick
Hanslick
Hanslick


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 Beautiful in Music. By this time his interest in Wagner had begun to cool; he had written a disparaging review of the first Vienna production of Lohengrin. From this point on, <mask> found his sympathies moving away from the so-called 'music of the Future' associated with Wagner and Franz Liszt, and more towards music he conceived as directly descending from the traditions of Mozart, Beethoven and Schumann — in particular the music of Johannes Brahms (who dedicated to him his set of waltzes opus 39 for piano duet). In 1869, in a revised edition of his essay Jewishness in Music, Wagner attacked <mask> as 'of gracefully concealed Jewish origin', and asserted that his supposedly Jewish style of criticism was anti-German. It is sometimes claimed that Wagner caricatured <mask> in his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg as the carping critic Beckmesser (whose name was originally to be Veit Hanslich).<mask>'s unpaid lectureship at the University of Vienna led in 1870 to a full professorship in history and aesthetic of music and later to a doctorate honoris causa. <mask> often served on juries for musical competitions and held a post at the Austrian Ministry of Culture and fulfilled other administrative roles. He retired after writing his memoirs, but still wrote articles on the most important premieres of the day, up to his death in 1904 in Baden. Views on music

<mask>'s tastes were conservative; in his memoirs he said that for him musical history really began with Mozart and culminated in Beethoven, Schumann and Brahms. He is best remembered today for his critical advocacy of Brahms as against the school of Wagner, an episode in 19th

masks: Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick


texts: century music history sometimes called the War of the Romantics. The critic Richard Pohl, of the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, represented the progressive composers of the "Music of the Future". Being a close friend of Brahms from 1862, <mask> possibly had some influence on Brahms's composing, often getting to hear new music before it was published.<mask> saw Wagner's reliance on dramatics and word painting as inimical to the nature of music, which he thought to be expressive solely by virtue of its form, and not through any extra-musical associations. On the other hand, he referred to extra-musicality when he asked, "When you play Chopin's mazurkas, do you not feel the mournful and oppressive air of the Battle of Ostroleka?" (<mask> 1848, p. 157). The theoretical framework of <mask>'s criticism is expounded in his book of 1854, Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (On the Beautiful in Music), which started as an attack on the Wagnerian aesthetic and established itself as an influential text, subsequently going through many editions and translations in several languages. Other targets for <mask>'s heavy criticism were Anton Bruckner and Hugo Wolf. Of Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto, he accused composer and soloist Adolph Brodsky of putting the audience "through hell" with music "which stinks to the ear"; he was also lukewarm towards the same composer's Sixth Symphony. <mask> is noted as one of the first widely influential music critics.While his aesthetics and his criticism are typically considered separately, they are importantly connected. <mask> was an outspoken opponent of the music of Liszt and Wagner, which broke down traditional musical forms

masks: Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick


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 as a means of communicating something extra-musical. His opposition to "the music of the future" is congruent with his aesthetics of music: the meaning of music is the form of music. It is along these lines that <mask> became one of Brahms's champions and often pitted him against Wagner. For this reason, Brahms is often mistakenly positioned as being anti-Wagnerian himself, a historical interpretation that disregards Brahms's and Wagner's mutual admiration. Vom Musikalisch-Schönen

First published in 1854, On the Musically Beautiful is often referred to as the foundation of modern musical aesthetics. As such claims are typically overstated, it is probably best to consider it the codification of such notions of musical autonomy and organicism.These ideas proliferated in academia, in which he was the first professor of music history and aesthetics. Importantly, while this text certainly lays the theoretical groundwork for musical formalism, formal analysis is something that <mask> himself never did. Chapter 1: Aesthetics as Founded on Feelings

This chapter critiques the standing aesthetics of music, which <mask> refers to as the “aesthetics of feeling.” He cites the following authors to demonstrate “how deeply these doctrines [aesthetics of emotion] have taken root”: Mattheson, Neidthardt, J.N. Forkel, J. Mosel, C.F. Michaelis, Marpurg, W. Heinse, J.J. Engel, J.Ph. Kirnberger, Pierer, G. Schilling, Koch, A. André, Sulzer, J.W. Boehm, Gottfried Weber, F. Hand, Amadeus Autodidaktus, Fermo Bellini, Friedrich Thiersch, A. v. Dommer, and Richard Wagner.By ending his list of theorists with Wagner, he makes his primary critical target

masks: Hanslick Hanslick Hanslick


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 obvious; Wagner had recently published his own essay, Opera and Drama, in 1851, in which he demonstrates how his compositional technique expresses the feelings inherent in the content and form of poetry. In contradistinction, <mask> asserts the autonomy of music, writing, “The beautiful is and remains beautiful though it arouse no emotion whatever, and though there be no one to look at it. In other words, although the beautiful exists for the gratification of an observer, it is independent of him.”

Chapter 2: The Representation of Feelings is Not the Subject of Music

<mask> posits that since emotion is not present in the music (objective) but is dependent on the listener's interpretation (subjective) it cannot be the basis for an aesthetics of music. He does admit, however, that music may “awaken feelings,” but maintains that it cannot “represent” them. Chapter 3: The Beautiful in Music

<mask> writes, “The essence of music is sound and motion” and suggests that the proper basis for an aesthetics of music are “sonically moving forms.” Furthermore, he suggests that these forms extend, or grow, from a freely conceived musical theme. He writes,

“The initial force of a composition is the invention of some definite theme, and not the desire to describe a given emotion by musical means. Thanks to that primitive and mysterious power, whose mode of action will forever be hidden from us, a theme, a melody flashes on the composer’s mind.The origin of this first germ cannot be explained, but must simply be accepted as a fact. When once it has taken root in the composer’s imagination, it forthwith begins to grow and develop; the principal


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 theme being the center round which the branches group themselves in all conceivable ways, though always unmistakably related to it. The beauty of an independent and simple theme appeals to our aesthetic feeling with that directness, which tolerates no explanation, except, perhaps, that of its inherent fitness and the harmony of parts, to the exclusion of any alien factor. It pleases for its own sake, like an arabesque, a column, or some spontaneous product of nature – a leaf or a flower.”

Chapter 4: Analysis of the Subjective Impression of Music

He distinguishes between the composer, musical work as an autonomous object, and the activity of the listener. When discussing the initial compositional conception he cites women as an example for why this process cannot be emotional, but must be intellectual. He writes, “Women by nature are highly emotional beings, [but] have achieved nothing as composers.” He acknowledges that composers do possess a highly developed emotional faculty but that in music it is not the “productive factor.” Furthermore, he asserts, “It is not the actual feeling of the composer” that evokes feelings in a listener, but “the purely musical features of a composition.” Regarding the listener, he includes a lengthy discussion of the science of hearing and its limitations. He concludes, “Those theorists who ground the beautiful in music on the feelings it excites build upon a most uncertain foundation, scientifically speaking, since they are necessarily quite ignorant of the nature of this connection, and can therefore, at best, only indulge in speculations and flights of fancy.An interpretation of music based on


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 the feelings cannot be acceptable either to art or science.”

Chapter 5: An Aesthetic Hearing as Distinguished from a Pathological Hearing of Music

He identifies two modes of listening: active (“aesthetic”) and passive (“pathological”). The active listener listens to music to discover the method of composition, while to the passive listener music is merely sound. He writes,

“The most important factor in the mental process which accompanies the act of listening to music, and which converts it into a source of pleasure, is frequently overlooked. We here refer to the intellectual satisfaction which the listener derives from continually following and anticipating the composer’s intentions – now, to see his expectations fulfilled, and now, to find himself agreeably mistaken. It is a matter of course that this intellectual flux and reflux, this perpetual giving and receiving takes place unconsciously, and with the rapidity of lightning flashes. Only that music can yield truly aesthetic enjoyment which prompts and rewards the act of thus closely following the composer’s thoughts, and which with perfect justice may be called a pondering of the imagination.”

Chapter 6: Music in its Relation to Nature

<mask> suggests, “Melody is the ‘initial force,’ the life-blood, the primitive cell of the musical organism, with which the drift and development of the composition are closely bound up”; both melody and harmony are “achievement[s] of man.” Rhythm, however, and in particular duple meter, he believes is found in nature: “It is the only musical element which nature possesses, the first we are conscious of, and that with which the mind of the


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 infant and the savage becomes soonest familiar.” He continues to posit that music is a product of the mind, having no precursor in nature. Even the music of a shepherd is not natural, he claims, since it was invented in the shepherd's mind, and the imitation of cuckoos in symphonies, for example, should not be considered music, since its function is not musical but poetic (i.e., to point to something outside of the music).Chapter 7: Form and Substance (Subject) as Applied to Music

<mask> concludes that the idea in music can only be purely musical (“Music consists of successions and forms of sound, and these alone constitute the subject”), and the value of a piece of music is determined by the relation between the idea (for example the theme) and the whole of the work. He writes,

“We cannot acquaint anybody with the ‘subject’ of a theme, except by playing it. The subject of a composition can, therefore, not be understood as an object derived from an external source, but as something intrinsically musical; in other words, as the concrete group of sounds in a piece of music. Now, as a composition must comply with the formal laws of beauty, it cannot run on arbitrarily and at random, but must develop gradually with intelligible and organic definiteness, as buds develop into rich blossoms.”

Works (German editions)
 <mask>, "Vom Musikalisch-Schönen". Leipzig 1854 (online version)
 <mask>, "Geschichte des Konzertwesens in Wien", 2 vol. Vienna 1869–70
 <mask>, "Die moderne Oper", 9 vol. Berlin 1875–1900
 <mask>, "Aus meinem Leben", 2 vol.Berlin 1894
 <mask>, "Suite. Aufsätze über Musik und Musiker". Vienna 1884

Compositions

masks:
Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick


texts:
 Milostná píseň pod Vyšehradem (Love song beneath Vyšehrad) for violin and piano, op.9

See also
 Aesthetics of music

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading
See  for an extensive bibliography
 Ambros Wilhelmer, "Der junge Hanslick. Sein 'Intermezzo' in Klagenfurt 1850-1852". Klagenfurt 1959
 Ludvová, Jitka. Dokonalý antiwagnerián <mask>. Paměti/Fejetony/Kritiky (Praha 1992).<mask>, "Censur und Kunst-Kritik," Wiener Zeitung, 24 March 1848, republished in his Sämtliche Schriften, vol 1, part 1, p. 157, Ed. Dietmar Strauß
 Christian Jung: Wagner und Hanslick. Kurze Geschichte einer Feindschaft. In: Österreichische Musikzeitschrift 67 (2012), p.. 14–21. Nicole Grimes et al., ed., Rethinking <mask>: Music, Formalism, and Expression, University of Rochester Press, 2013

External links

 Geoffrey Payzant and <mask> collection at University of Toronto Music Library
 <mask>, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Austrian music critics
Austrian musicologists
Austrian music journalists
Charles University alumni
German Bohemian people
Austrian people of German Bohemian descent
Czech Jews
Classical music critics
Writers from Prague
1825 births
1904 deaths
Wagner scholars
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
University of Vienna

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Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick


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<mask> (ca. 1653 – 7 February 1723) was an Italian composer, chiefly of operas. Born into a musical family, he became the cathedral organist of his home town of Brescia. In the 1680s he began composing operas for performance in nearby Venice. He wrote a total of 85 of them as well as 13 oratorios. His operatic style is noted for its development of arias accompanied by the orchestra and it shows some influence from the contemporary French opera of Jean-Baptiste Lully. Holden  (Viking, 1993)
Magazine de l'opéra baroque (in French)

Italian Baroque composers
Italian Baroque
1650s births
1723 deaths
Italian male classical composers
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Italian organists
Male organists
Musicians from Brescia
17th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
18th-century keyboardists
17th-century male musicians


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<mask> (, ; born April 22, 1943) is an American poet and essayist. She won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Literature, whose judges praised "her unmistakable poetic voice that with austere beauty makes individual existence universal". Her other awards include the Pulitzer Prize, National Humanities Medal, National Book Award, National Book Critics Circle Award, and Bollingen Prize. From 2003 to 2004, she was Poet Laureate of the United States. <mask> was born in New York City and raised on Long Island. She began to suffer from anorexia nervosa while in high school and later overcame the illness. She attended Sarah Lawrence College and Columbia University but did not obtain a degree.In addition to being an author, she has taught poetry at several academic institutions. Glück is often described as an autobiographical poet; her work is known for its emotional intensity and for frequently drawing on mythology or nature imagery to meditate on personal experiences and modern life. Thematically, her poems have illuminated aspects of trauma, desire, and nature. In doing so, they have become known for frank expressions of sadness and isolation. Scholars have also focused on her construction of poetic personas and the relationship, in her poems, between autobiography and classical myth. Glück is an adjunct professor and Rosenkranz Writer in Residence at Yale University. She splits her time between Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Montpelier, Vermont.Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in New York City on April 22, 1943. She is the elder of two surviving daughters of Daniel Glück, a businessman, and <mask> (née Grosby), a homemaker. Glück's mother was of Russian Jewish descent. Her paternal grandparents, Terézia (née Moskovitz) and <mask>, were Hungarian Jews from Érmihályfalva, Bihar County, in what was then the Kingdom of Hungary,  Austro-Hungarian Empire (present-day Romania); her grandfather ran a timber company called "Feldmann és Glück". They emigrated to the United States in December

masks:
Louise Elisabeth Glück
Glück
Louise Glück
Beatrice Glück
Henrik Glück


texts: 1900 and eventually owned a grocery store in New York. Glück's father, who was born in the United States, had an ambition to become a writer, but went into business with his brother-in-law. Together, they achieved success when they invented the X-Acto knife.Glück's mother was a graduate of Wellesley College. In her childhood, Glück's parents taught her Greek mythology and classic stories such as the life of Joan of Arc. She began to write poetry at an early age. As a teenager, Glück developed anorexia nervosa, which became the defining challenge of her late teenage and young adult years. She has described the illness, in one essay, as the result of an effort to assert her independence from her mother. Elsewhere, she has connected her illness to the death of an elder sister, an event that occurred before she was born. During the fall of her senior year at George W. Hewlett High School, in Hewlett, New York, she began psychoanalytic treatment.A few months later, she was taken out of school in order to focus on her rehabilitation, although she still graduated in 1961. Of that decision, she has written, "I understood that at some point I was going to die. What I knew more vividly, more viscerally, was that I did not want to die". She spent the next seven years in therapy, which she has credited with helping her to overcome the illness and teaching her how to think. As a result of her condition, Glück did not enroll in college as a full-time student. She has described her decision to forgo higher education in favor of therapy as necessary: "…my emotional condition, my extreme rigidity of behavior and frantic dependence on ritual made other forms of education impossible". Instead, she took a poetry class at Sarah Lawrence College and, from 1963 to 1966, she enrolled in poetry workshops at Columbia University's School of General Studies, which offered courses for non-degree students.While there, she studied with Léonie Adams and Stanley Kunitz. She has credited these teachers as


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 significant mentors in her development as a poet. Career
While attending poetry workshops, Glück began to publish her poems. Her first publication was in Mademoiselle, followed soon after by poems in Poetry, The New Yorker, The Atlantic Monthly, The Nation, and other venues. After leaving Columbia, Glück supported herself with secretarial work. She married Charles Hertz Jr. in 1967. In 1968, Glück published her first collection of poems, Firstborn, which received some positive critical attention.In a review, the poet Robert Hass described the book as "hard, artful, and full of pain". However, reflecting on it in 2003, the critic Stephen Burt claimed that the collection "revealed a forceful but clotted poet, an anxious imitator of Robert Lowell and Sylvia Plath". Following the publication, Glück experienced a prolonged case of writer's block, which was only cured, she has said, after 1971, when she began to teach poetry at Goddard College in Vermont. The poems she wrote during this time were collected in her second book, The House on Marshland (1975), which many critics have regarded as her breakthrough work, signaling her "discovery of a distinctive voice". In 1973, Glück gave birth to a son, Noah. Her marriage to Charles Hertz Jr. ended in divorce, and in 1977 she married John Dranow, an author who had started the summer writing program at Goddard College. In 1980, Dranow and Francis Voigt, the husband of poet Ellen Bryant Voigt, co-founded the New England Culinary Institute as a private, for-profit college.Glück and Bryant Voigt were early investors in the institute and served on its board of directors. In 1980, Glück's third collection, Descending Figure, was published. It received some criticism for its tone and subject matter: for example, the poet Greg Kuzma accused Glück of being a "child hater" for her now anthologized poem, "The Drowned Children". On the whole, however, the book was well received. In The American Poetry Review, Mary Kinzie praised the book's


texts: illumination of "deprived, harmed, stammering beings". Writing in Poetry, the poet and critic J.D. McClatchy claimed the book was "a considerable advance on Glück's previous work" and "one of the year's outstanding books".That same year, a fire destroyed Glück's house in Vermont, resulting in the loss of most of her possessions. In the wake of that tragedy, Glück began to write the poems that would later be collected in her award-winning work, The Triumph of Achilles (1985). Writing in The New York Times, the author and critic Liz Rosenberg described the collection as "clearer, purer, and sharper" than Glück's previous work. The critic Peter Stitt, writing in The Georgia Review, declared that the book showed Glück to be "among the important poets of our age". From the collection, the poem "Mock Orange", which has been likened to a feminist anthem, has been called an "anthology piece" because of its frequent inclusion in poetry anthologies and college courses. In 1984, Glück joined the faculty of Williams College in Massachusetts as a senior lecturer in the English Department. The following year, her father died.The loss prompted her to begin a new collection of poems, Ararat (1990), the title of which references the mountain of the Genesis flood narrative. Writing in The New York Times in 2012, the critic Dwight Garner called it "the most brutal and sorrow-filled book of American poetry published in the last 25 years". Glück followed this collection with one of her most popular and critically acclaimed books, The Wild Iris (1992), which features garden flowers in conversation with a gardener and a deity about the nature of life. Publishers Weekly proclaimed it an "important book" that showcased "poetry of great beauty". The critic Elizabeth Lund, writing in The Christian Science Monitor, called it "a milestone work". It went on to win the Pulitzer Prize in 1993, cementing Glück's reputation as a preeminent American poet. While the 1990s brought Glück literary success, it


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 was also a period of personal hardship.Her marriage to John Dranow ended in divorce in 1996, the difficult nature of which affected their business relationship, resulting in Dranow's removal from his positions at the New England Culinary Institute. Glück channeled her experience into her writing, entering a prolific period of her career. In 1994, she published a collection of essays called Proofs & Theories: Essays on Poetry. She then produced Meadowlands (1996), a collection of poetry about the nature of love and the deterioration of a marriage. She followed it with two more collections: Vita Nova (1999) and The Seven Ages (2001). In 2004, in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Glück published a chapbook entitled October. Consisting of one poem divided into six parts, it draws on ancient Greek myth to explore aspects of trauma and suffering.That same year, she was named the Rosenkranz Writer in Residence at Yale University. Since joining the faculty of Yale, Glück has continued to publish poetry. Her books published during this period include Averno (2006), A Village Life (2009), and Faithful and Virtuous Night (2014). In 2012, the publication of a collection of a half-century's worth of her poems, entitled Poems: 1962–2012, was called "a literary event". Another collection of her essays, entitled American Originality, appeared in 2017. In October 2020, Glück was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, becoming the sixteenth female literature laureate since the prize was founded in 1901. Due to restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, she received her prize at her home.In her Nobel lecture, which was delivered in writing, she highlighted her early engagement with poetry by William Blake and Emily Dickinson in discussing the relationship between poets, readers, and the wider public. Family
<mask>'s elder sister died young before Glück was born. Her younger sister, Tereze (1945–2018), worked at Citibank as a vice president and was also a writer,


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 winning the Iowa Short Fiction Award in 1995 for her book, May You Live in Interesting Times. Glück's niece is the actress Abigail Savage. Work

Glück's work has been, and continues to be, the subject of academic study. Her papers, including manuscripts, correspondence, and other materials, are housed at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University. Form
Glück is best known for lyric poems of linguistic precision and dark tone.The poet Craig Morgan Teicher has described her as a writer for whom "words are always scarce, hard won, and not to be wasted". The scholar Laura Quinney has argued that her careful use of words has put Glück into "the line of American poets who value fierce lyric compression," from Emily Dickinson to Elizabeth Bishop. Glück's poems have shifted in form throughout her career, beginning with short, terse lyrics composed of compact lines and expanding into connected book-length sequences. Her work is not known for poetic techniques such as rhyme or alliteration. Rather, the poet Robert Hahn has called her style "radically inconspicuous" or "virtually an absence of style", relying on a voice that blends "portentous intonations" with a conversational approach. Among scholars and reviewers, there has been discussion as to whether Glück is a confessional poet, owing to the prevalence of the first-person mode in her poems and their intimate subject matter, often inspired by events in Glück's personal life. The scholar Robert Baker has argued that Glück "is surely a confessional poet in some basic sense", while the critic Michael Robbins has argued that Glück's poetry, unlike that of confessional poets Sylvia Plath or John Berryman, "depends upon the fiction of privacy".In other words, she cannot be a confessional poet, Robbins argues, if she does not address an audience. Going further, Quinney argues that, to Glück, the confessional poem is "odious". Others have noted that Glück's poems can be viewed as autobiographical, while her


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 technique of inhabiting various personas, ranging from ancient Greek gods to garden flowers, renders her poems more than mere confessions. As the scholar Helen Vendler has noted: "In their obliquity and reserve, [Glück's poems] offer an alternative to first-person 'confession', while remaining indisputably personal". Themes
While Glück's work is thematically diverse, scholars and critics have identified several themes that are paramount. Most prominently, Glück's poetry can be said to focus on trauma, as she has written throughout her career about death, loss, suffering, failed relationships, and attempts at healing and renewal. The scholar Daniel Morris notes that even a Glück poem that uses traditionally happy or idyllic imagery "suggests the author's awareness of mortality, of the loss of innocence".The scholar Joanne Feit Diehl echoes this notion when she argues that "this 'sense of an ending'… infuses Glück's poems with their retrospective power", pointing to her transformation of common objects, such as a baby stroller, into representations of loneliness and loss. Yet, for Glück, trauma is arguably a gateway to a greater appreciation of life, a concept explored in The Triumph of Achilles. The triumph to which the title alludes is Achilles' acceptance of mortality—which enables him to become a more fully realized human being. Another of Glück's common themes is desire. Glück has written directly about many forms of desire—for example, the desire for love or insight—but her approach is marked by ambivalence. Morris argues that Glück's poems, which often adopt contradictory points of view, reflect "her own ambivalent relationship to status, power, morality, gender, and, most of all, language". The author Robert Boyer has characterized Glück's ambivalence as a result of "strenuous self-interrogation".He argues that "Glück's poems at their best have always moved between recoil and affirmation, sensuous immediacy and reflection … for a poet who can often seem earthbound


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 and defiantly unillusioned, she has been powerfully responsive to the lure of the daily miracle and the sudden upsurge of overmastering emotion". The tension between competing desires in Glück's work manifests both in her assumption of different personas from poem to poem and in her varied approach to each collection of her poems. This has led the poet and scholar James Longenbach to declare that "change is <mask>lück's highest value" and "if change is what she most craves, it is also what she most resists, what is most difficult for her, most hard-won". Another of Glück's preoccupations is nature, the setting for many of her poems. In The Wild Iris, the poems take place in a garden where flowers have intelligent, emotive voices. However, Morris points out that The House on Marshland is also concerned with nature and can be read as a revision of the Romantic tradition of nature poetry. In Ararat, too, "flowers become a language of mourning", useful for both commemoration and competition among mourners to determine the "ownership of nature as a meaningful system of symbolism".Thus, in Glück's work nature is both something to be regarded critically and embraced. As the author and critic Alan Williamson has pointed out, it can also sometimes suggest the divine, as when, in the poem "Celestial Music", the speaker states that "when you love the world you hear celestial music", or when, in The Wild Iris, the deity speaks through changes in weather. Glück's poetry is also notable for what it avoids. Morris argues that "Glück's writing most often evades ethnic identification, religious classification, or gendered affiliation. In fact, her poetry often negates critical assessments that affirm identity politics as criteria for literary evaluation. She resists canonization as a hyphenated poet (that is, as a "Jewish-American" poet, or a "feminist" poet, or a "nature" poet), preferring instead to retain an aura of iconoclasm, or in-betweenness". Influences
Glück has pointed to the


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 influence of psychoanalysis on her work, as well as her early learning in ancient legends, parables, and mythology.In addition, she has credited the influence of Léonie Adams and Stanley Kunitz. Scholars and critics have pointed to the literary influence on her work of Robert Lowell, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Emily Dickinson, among others. Selected bibliography

Poetry collections
 Firstborn. The New American Library, 1968. The House on Marshland. The Ecco Press, 1975. Descending Figure.The Ecco Press, 1980. The Triumph of Achilles. The Ecco Press, 1985. Ararat. The Ecco Press, 1990. The Wild Iris. The Ecco Press, 1992.Meadowlands. The Ecco Press, 1997. Vita Nova. The Ecco Press, 1999. The Seven Ages. The Ecco Press, 2001. Averno.Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006. A Village Life. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009. Poems: 1962–2012. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012. Faithful and Virtuous Night. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2014.Winter Recipes from the Collective. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021. Omnibus editions

 The First Four Books of Poems. The Ecco Press, 1995. The First Five Books of Poems. Carcanet Press, 1997. Chapbooks
 The Garden.Antaeus Editions, 1976. October. Sarabande Books, 2004. Prose collections
 Proofs and Theories: Essays on Poetry. The Ecco Press, 1994. American Originality: Essays on Poetry. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017.Honors
Glück has received numerous honors for her work. Below are honors she has received for both her body of work and individual works. Winship/PEN New England Award for Averno (2007)
 Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Poems 1962–2012 (2012)
 National Book Award for Faithful and Virtuous Night (2014)

In addition, The Wild Iris, Vita Nova, and Averno were all finalists for the National Book Award. The Seven Ages was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Critics Circle Award. A Village Life was a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award and the Griffin International Poetry Prize. Glück's poems have been widely


texts:
 anthologized, including in the Norton Anthology of Poetry, the Oxford Book of American Poetry, and the Columbia Anthology of American Poetry. Elected or invited posts
In 1999, Glück, along with the poets Rita Dove and W. S. Merwin, was asked to serve as a special consultant to the Library of Congress for that institution's bicentennial.In this capacity, she helped the Library of Congress to determine programming to mark its 200th anniversary celebration. In 1999, she was also elected a Chancellor of the Academy of American Poets, a post she held until 2005. In 2003, she was appointed the final judge of the Yale Series of Younger Poets, a position she held until 2010. The Yale Series is the oldest annual literary competition in the United States, and during her time as judge, she selected for publication works by the poets Peter Streckfus and Fady Joudah, among others. Glück has been a visiting faculty member at many institutions, including Stanford University, Boston University, the University of North Carolina, Greensboro, and the Iowa Writers Workshop. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. 1943 births
Living people
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American Poets Laureate
American women poets
Bollingen Prize recipients
Boston University faculty
Columbia University School of General Studies alumni
George W. Hewlett High School alumni
Iowa Writers' Workshop faculty
Jewish American poets
National Endowment for the Arts Fellows
People from Hewlett, New York
Poets Laureate of Vermont
Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners
Sarah Lawrence College alumni
The New Yorker people
University of Iowa faculty
Williams College faculty
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Writers from New York City
Yale University faculty
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
American Nobel laureates
Hungarian Nobel laureates
Jewish writers
Nobel laureates in Literature
Women Nobel


texts: <mask> ( , ;<ref group=note>In his native Ligurian language, he is known as Gioxeppe Gaibado.</ref> 4 July 1807 – 2 June 1882) was an Italian general, patriot, revolutionary and republican. He contributed to Italian unification and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. He is considered one of the greatest generals of modern times and one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland", along with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and <mask>. <mask> is also known as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe. <mask> was a follower of the Italian nationalist Mazzini and embraced the republican nationalism of the Young Italy movement. He became a supporter of Italian unification under a democratic republican government. However, breaking with Mazzini, he pragmatically allied himself with the monarchist Cavour and Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in the struggle for independence, subordinating his republican ideals to his nationalist ones until Italy was unified.After participating in an uprising in Piedmont, he was sentenced to death, but escaped and sailed to South America, where he spent 14 years in exile, during which he took part in several wars and learnt the art of guerrilla warfare. In 1835 he joined the rebels known as the Ragamuffins (), in the Ragamuffin War in Brazil, and took up their cause of establishing the Riograndense Republic and later the Catarinense Republic. <mask> also became involved in the Uruguayan Civil War, raising an Italian force known as Redshirts, and is still celebrated as an important contributor to Uruguay's

masks:
Giuseppe Maria Garibaldi
Giuseppe Mazzini
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


texts: reconstitution. In 1848, <mask> returned to Italy and commanded and fought in military campaigns that eventually led to Italian unification. The provisional government of Milan made him a general and the Minister of War promoted him to General of the Roman Republic in 1849. When the war of independence broke out in April 1859, he led his Hunters of the Alps in the capture of major cities in Lombardy, including Varese and Como, and reached the frontier of South Tyrol; the war ended with the acquisition of Lombardy. The following year, he led the Expedition of the Thousand on behalf of and with the consent of Victor Emmanuel II.The expedition was a success and concluded with the annexation of Sicily, Southern Italy, Marche and Umbria to the Kingdom of Sardinia before the creation of a unified Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861. His last military campaign took place during the Franco-Prussian War as commander of the Army of the Vosges. Garibaldi became an international figurehead for national independence and republican ideals, and is considered by the twentieth-century historiography and popular culture as Italy's greatest national hero. He was showered with admiration and praise by many intellectuals and political figures, including Abraham Lincoln, William Brown, Francesco de Sanctis, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, George Sand, Charles Dickens, Friedrich Engels and Che Guevara. Historian A. J. P. Taylor called him "the only wholly admirable figure in modern history". In the popular telling of his story, he is associated with the red shirts that his volunteers, the Garibaldini, wore in lieu of a uniform.


texts:
 Early life

<mask> was born and christened Joseph-Marie <mask>Pronounced in French as .on 4 July 1807 in Nice, which had been conquered by the French First Republic in 1792, to the Ligurian family of <mask> from Chiavari and Maria Rosa Nicoletta Raimondi from Loano. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna returned Nice to Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia; nevertheless, France re-annexed it in 1860 by the Treaty of Turin, which was ardently opposed by <mask>. <mask>'s family's involvement in coastal trade drew him to a life at sea. He participated actively in the Nizzardo Italians community and was certified in 1832 as a merchant navy captain. In April 1833, he travelled to Taganrog, Russian Empire, in the schooner Clorinda with a shipment of oranges. During ten days in port, he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo from Oneglia, a politically active immigrant and member of the secret Young Italy movement of <mask>ni. Mazzini was a passionate proponent of Italian unification as a liberal republic via political and social reform.Garibaldi joined the society and took an oath dedicating himself to the struggle to liberate and unify his homeland from Austrian dominance. In November 1833, <mask> met Mazzini in Genoa, starting a long relationship that later became troubled. He joined the Carbonari revolutionary association, and in February 1834 participated in a failed Mazzinian insurrection in Piedmont. A Genoese court sentenced Garibaldi to death in absentia, and he fled across the border to Marseille. South America

<mask> first sailed to the Beylik of Tunis before eventually finding his way to the Empire of Brazil. Once there,

masks:
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Domenico Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Giuseppe Mazzi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


texts: he took up the cause of the Riograndense Republic in its attempt to separate from Brazil, joining the rebels known as the Ragamuffins in the Ragamuffin War of 1835. During this war, he met Ana Maria de Jesus Ribeiro da Silva, commonly known as Anita.When the rebels proclaimed the Catarinense Republic in the Brazilian province of Santa Catarina in 1839, she joined him aboard his ship, Rio Pardo, and fought alongside him at the battles of Imbituba and Laguna. In 1841, <mask> and Anita moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, where <mask> worked as a trader and schoolmaster. The couple married in Montevideo the following year. They had four children; Domenico Menotti (1840–1903), Rosa (1843–1845), Teresa Teresita (1845–1903), and Ricciotti (1847–1924). A skilled horsewoman, Anita is said to have taught <mask> about the gaucho culture of Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay. Around this time he adopted his trademark clothing—the red shirt, poncho, and sombrero commonly worn by gauchos. In 1842, <mask> took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion of soldiers—known as Redshirts—for the Uruguayan Civil War.This recruitment was possible as Montevideo had a large Italian population back then numbering 4,205 in a total population of 30,000 according to an 1843 census. <mask> aligned his forces with the Uruguayan Colorados led by Fructuoso Rivera and Joaquín Suárez, who were aligned with the Argentine Unitarian Party. This faction received some support from the French and British in their struggle against the forces of former Uruguayan president Manuel Oribe's Blancos, which was also aligned with

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Giuseppe Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts:
 Argentine Federales under the rule of Buenos Aires caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas. The Italian Legion adopted a black flag that represented Italy in mourning, with a volcano at the center that symbolized the dormant power in their homeland. Though contemporary sources do not mention the Redshirts, popular history asserts that the legion first wore them in Uruguay, getting them from a factory in Montevideo that had intended to export them to the slaughterhouses of Argentina. These shirts became the symbol of <mask> and his followers. Between 1842 and 1848, <mask> defended Montevideo against forces led by Oribe.In 1845, he managed to occupy Colonia del Sacramento and Martín García Island, and led the controversial sack of Gualeguaychú during the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. Adopting amphibious guerrilla tactics, <mask> later achieved two victories during 1846, in the Battle of Cerro and the Battle of San Antonio del Santo. Induction to Freemasonry
<mask> joined Freemasonry during his exile, taking advantage of the asylum the lodges offered to political refugees from European countries governed by despotic regimes. At the age of 37, during 1844, <mask> was initiated in the L' Asil de la Vertud Lodge of Montevideo. This was an irregular lodge under a Brazilian Freemasonry not recognized by the main international masonic obediences, such as the United Grand Lodge of England or the Grand Orient de France. While Garibaldi had little use for Masonic rituals, he was an active Freemason and regarded Freemasonry as a network that united progressive men as brothers both within nations and as a global

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts:
 community. <mask> was eventually elected as the Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy."<mask> — the mason". Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M., 2003. <mask> regularized his position later in 1844, joining the lodge Les Amis de la Patrie of Montevideo under the Grand Orient of France. Election of Pope Pius IX, 1846
The fate of his homeland continued to concern <mask>. The election of Pope Pius IX in 1846 caused a sensation among Italian patriots, both at home and in exile. Pius's initial reforms seemed to identify him as the liberal pope called for by Vincenzo Gioberti, who went on to lead the unification of Italy.When news of these reforms reached Montevideo, <mask> wrote to the Pope:

Mazzini, from exile, also applauded the early reforms of Pius IX. In 1847, <mask> offered the apostolic nuncio at Rio de Janeiro, Bedini, the service of his Italian Legion for the liberation of the peninsula. Then news of an outbreak of revolution in Palermo in January 1848 and revolutionary agitation elsewhere in Italy, encouraged <mask> to lead approximately 60 members of his legion home. Return to Italy
First Italian War of Independence

<mask> returned to Italy amidst the turmoil of the revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states and was one of the founders and leaders of the Action Party. <mask> offered his services to Charles Albert of Sardinia, who displayed some liberal inclinations, but he treated Garibaldi with coolness and distrust. Rebuffed by the Piedmontese, he and his followers crossed into Lombardy where they offered assistance to the provisional government of Milan, which had

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts: rebelled against the Austrian occupation. In the course of the following unsuccessful First Italian War of Independence, <mask> led his legion to two minor victories at Luino and Morazzone.After the crushing Piedmontese defeat at the Battle of Novara on 23 March 1849, <mask> moved to Rome to support the Roman Republic recently proclaimed in the Papal States. However, a French force sent by Louis Napoleon threatened to topple it. At Mazzini's urging, <mask> took command of the defence of Rome. In fighting near Velletri, Achille Cantoni saved his life. After Cantoni's death, during the battle of Mentana, <mask> wrote the novel Cantoni the Volunteer. On 30 April 1849, the Republican army, under <mask>'s command, defeated a numerically far superior French army. Subsequently, French reinforcements arrived, and the siege of Rome began on 1 June.Despite the resistance of the Republican army, the French prevailed on 29 June. On 30 June the Roman Assembly met and debated three options: surrender, continue fighting in the streets, or retreat from Rome to continue resistance from the Apennine mountains. <mask>, having entered the chamber covered in blood, made a speech favouring the third option, ending with: Ovunque noi saremo, sarà Roma. (Wherever we will go, that will be Rome). The sides negotiated a truce on 1–2 July, <mask> withdrew from Rome with 4,000 troops, and an ambition to rouse popular rebellion against the Austrians in central Italy. The French Army entered Rome on 3 July and reestablished the Holy See's temporal power. <mask> and his forces, hunted by Austrian, French, Spanish, and Neapolitan troops,

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts:
 fled to the north, intending to reach Venice, where the Venetians were still resisting the Austrian siege.After an epic march, <mask> took temporary refuge in San Marino, with only 250 men having not abandoned him. Anita, who was carrying their fifth child, died near Comacchio during the retreat. North America and the Pacific
<mask> eventually managed to reach Porto Venere, near La Spezia, but the Piedmontese government forced him to emigrate again. He went to Tangier, where he stayed with Francesco Carpanetto, a wealthy Italian merchant. Carpanetto suggested that he and some of his associates finance the purchase of a merchant ship, which <mask> would command. <mask> agreed, feeling that his political goals were, for the moment, unreachable, and he could at least earn a living. The ship was to be purchased in the United States.<mask> went to New York, arriving on 30 July 1850. However, the funds for buying a ship were lacking. While in New York, he stayed with various Italian friends, including some exiled revolutionaries. He attended the Masonic lodges of New York in 1850, where he met several supporters of democratic internationalism, whose minds were open to socialist thought, and to giving Freemasonry a strong anti-papal stance. The inventor Antonio Meucci employed Garibaldi in his candle factory on Staten Island. (The cottage where he stayed is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places and is preserved as the Garibaldi Memorial.) <mask> was not satisfied with this, and in April 1851 he left New York with his friend Carpanetto for Central America, where Carpanetto was establishing

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts:
 business operations.They first went to Nicaragua, and then to other parts of the region. <mask> accompanied Carpanetto as a companion, not a business partner, and used the name <mask>. Carpanetto went on to Lima, Peru, where a shipload of his goods was due, arriving late in 1851 with Garibaldi. En route, Garibaldi called on revolutionary heroine Manuela Sáenz. At Lima, <mask> was generally welcomed. A local Italian merchant, Pietro Denegri, gave him command of his ship Carmen for a trading voyage across the Pacific. Garibaldi took the Carmen to the Chincha Islands for a load of guano.Then on 10 January 1852, he sailed from Peru for Canton, China, arriving in April. After side trips to Xiamen and Manila, Garibaldi brought the Carmen back to Peru via the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific, passing clear around the south coast of Australia. He visited Three Hummock Island in the Bass Strait. <mask> then took the Carmen on a second voyage: to the United States via Cape Horn with copper from Chile, and also wool. <mask> arrived in Boston and went on to New York. There he received a hostile letter from Denegri and resigned his command. Another Italian, Captain Figari, had just come to the U.S. to buy a ship and hired Garibaldi to take the ship to Europe.Figari and <mask> bought the Commonwealth in Baltimore, and <mask> left New York for the last time in November 1853. He sailed the Commonwealth to London, and then to Newcastle on the River Tyne for coal. Tyneside
The Commonwealth arrived on 21 March 1854. <mask>, already a popular figure on Tyneside, was welcomed enthusiastically by local working men-although

masks:
Garibaldi
Giuseppe Pane
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


texts:
 the Newcastle Courant reported that he refused an invitation to dine with dignitaries in the city. He stayed in Huntingdon Place Tynemouth for a few days, and in South Shields on Tyneside for over a month, departing at the end of April 1854. During his stay, he was presented with an inscribed sword, which his grandson <mask> II later carried as a volunteer in British service in the Second Boer War. He then sailed to Genoa, where his five years of exile ended on 10 May 1854.Second Italian War of Independence

<mask> returned to Italy in 1854. Using an inheritance from the death of his brother, he bought half of the Italian island of Caprera (north of Sardinia), devoting himself to agriculture. In 1859, the Second Italian War of Independence (also known as the Austro-Sardinian War) broke out in the midst of internal plots at the Sardinian government. <mask> was appointed major general and formed a volunteer unit named the Hunters of the Alps (Cacciatori delle Alpi). Thenceforth, <mask> abandoned Mazzini's republican ideal of the liberation of Italy, assuming that only the Piedmontese monarchy could effectively achieve it. He and his volunteers won victories over the Austrians at Varese, Como, and other places. <mask> was very displeased as his home city of Nice (Nizza in Italian) had surrendered to the French in return for crucial military assistance.In April 1860, as deputy for Nice in the Piedmontese parliament at Turin, he vehemently attacked Cavour for ceding Nice and the County of Nice (Nizzardo) to Louis Napoleon, Emperor of France. In the following years, <mask> (with other passionate Nizzardo

masks:
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


texts:
 Italians) promoted the Italian irredentism of his Nizza, even with riots (in 1872). Campaign of 1860

On 24 January 1860, Garibaldi married 18-year-old Giuseppina Raimondi. Immediately after the wedding ceremony, she informed him that she was pregnant with another man's child and Garibaldi left her the same day. At the beginning of April 1860, uprisings in Messina and Palermo in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies provided Garibaldi with an opportunity. He gathered about a thousand volunteers called i Mille (the Thousand), or the Redshirts as popularly known, in two ships named Il Piemonte and Il Lombardo, and left from Quarto, in Genoa, on 5 May in the evening and landed at Marsala, on the westernmost point of Sicily, on 11 May. Swelling the ranks of his army with scattered bands of local rebels, Garibaldi led 800 volunteers to victory over an enemy force of 1,500 on the hill of Calatafimi on 15 May.He used the counter-intuitive tactic of an uphill bayonet charge. He saw that the hill was terraced, and the terraces would shelter his advancing men. Though small by comparison with the coming clashes at Palermo, Milazzo, and Volturno, this battle was decisive in establishing <mask>'s power in the island. An apocryphal but realistic story had him say to his lieutenant Nino Bixio, "Here we either make Italy, or we die." In reality, the Neapolitan forces were ill-guided, and most of its higher officers had been bought out. The next day, he declared himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. He advanced to the outskirts of Palermo, the capital of the island, and launched a siege on 27


texts: May.He had the support of many inhabitants, who rose up against the garrison—but before they could take the city, reinforcements arrived and bombarded the city nearly to ruins. At this time, a British admiral intervened and facilitated a truce, by which the Neapolitan royal troops and warships surrendered the city and departed. The young Henry Adams—later to become a distinguished American writer—visited the city in June and described the situation, along with his meeting with <mask>, in a long and vivid letter to his older brother Charles. Historians Clough et al. argue that <mask>'s Thousand were students, independent artisans, and professionals, not peasants. The support given by Sicilian peasants was not out of a sense of patriotism but from their hatred of exploitative landlords and oppressive Neapolitan officials. <mask> himself had no interest in social revolution and instead sided with the Sicilian landlords against the rioting peasants.By conquering Palermo, <mask> had won a signal victory. He gained worldwide renown and the adulation of Italians. Faith in his prowess was so strong that doubt, confusion, and dismay seized even the Neapolitan court. Six weeks later, he marched against Messina in the east of the island, winning a ferocious and difficult battle at Milazzo. By the end of July, only the citadel resisted. Having conquered Sicily, he crossed the Strait of Messina and marched north. <mask>'s progress was met with more celebration than resistance, and on 7 September he entered the capital city of Naples, by train.Despite taking Naples, however, he had not to this point defeated the


texts:
 Neapolitan army. <mask>'s volunteer army of 24,000 was not able to defeat conclusively the reorganized Neapolitan army—about 25,000 men—on 30 September at the battle of Volturno. This was the largest battle he ever fought, but its outcome was effectively decided by the arrival of the Piedmontese Army. Following this, <mask>'s plans to march on to Rome were jeopardized by the Piedmontese, technically his ally but unwilling to risk war with France, whose army protected the Pope. The Piedmontese themselves had conquered most of the Pope's territories in their march south to meet <mask>, but they had deliberately avoided Rome, capital of the Papal state. <mask> chose to hand over all his territorial gains in the south to the Piedmontese and withdrew to Caprera and temporary retirement. Some modern historians consider the handover of his gains to the Piedmontese as a political defeat, but he seemed willing to see Italian unity brought about under the Piedmontese crown.The meeting at Teano between <mask> and Victor Emmanuel II is the most important event in modern Italian history but is so shrouded in controversy that even the exact site where it took place is in doubt. Aftermath

<mask> deeply disliked the Sardinian Prime Minister, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour. To an extent, he simply mistrusted Cavour's pragmatism and realpolitik, but he also bore a personal grudge for Cavour's trading away his home city of Nice to the French the previous year. On the other hand, he supported the Sardinian monarch, Victor Emmanuel II, who in his opinion had been chosen by Providence for the liberation of Italy. In his


texts:
 famous meeting with Victor Emmanuel at Teano on 26 October 1860, <mask> greeted him as King of Italy and shook his hand. <mask>di Guard after him. <mask> expressed interest in aiding the Union, and he was offered a major general's commission in the U.S. Army through a letter from Secretary of State William H. Seward to Henry S. Sanford, the U.S. Minister at Brussels, 27 July 1861. On 9 September 1861, Sanford met with Garibaldi and reported the result of the meeting to Seward:

This meeting occurred a year before Lincoln was ready to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. Sanford's mission was hopeless, and <mask> did not join the Union army. A historian of the American Civil War, Don H. Doyle, however, wrote, "<mask>'s full-throated endorsement of the Union cause roused popular support just as news of the Emancipation Proclamation broke in Europe." On 6 August 1863, after the Emancipation Proclamation had been issued, Garibaldi wrote to Lincoln, "Posterity will call you the great emancipator, a more enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely mundane treasure." On 5 October 1861, Garibaldi set up the International Legion bringing together different national divisions of French, Poles, Swiss, Germans and other nationalities, with a view not just of finishing the liberation of Italy, but also of their homelands.With the motto "Free from the Alps to the Adriatic," the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchial government, and continued to agitate for a republic. <mask>, frustrated at inaction by the

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldibal Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts:
 king, and bristling over perceived snubs, organized a new venture. This time, he intended to take on the Papal States. Expedition against Rome

<mask> himself was intensely anti-Catholic and anti-papal. His efforts to overthrow the Pope by military action mobilized anti-Catholic support. There were major anti-Catholic riots in his name across Britain in 1862, with the Irish Catholics fighting in defense of their Church.<mask>'s hostility to the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and the French emperor Napoleon III had guaranteed the independence of Rome from Italy by stationing a French garrison in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking Rome and the Pope's seat there, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions. Nonetheless, <mask> believed he had the secret support of his government. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa to Palermo to gather volunteers for the impending campaign, under the slogan Roma o Morte (Rome or Death). An enthusiastic party quickly joined him, and he turned for Messina, hoping to cross to the mainland there. He arrived with a force of around two thousand, but the garrison proved loyal to the king's instructions and barred his passage. They turned south and set sail from Catania, where <mask> declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls.He landed at Melito on 14 August, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains. Far from supporting this endeavor, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Enrico

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts: Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Emilio Pallavicini, against the volunteer bands. On 28 August, the two forces met in the rugged Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, killing a few of the volunteers. The fighting ended quickly, as <mask> forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. Many of the volunteers were taken prisoner, including <mask>, who had been wounded by a shot in the foot.The episode was the origin of a famous Italian nursery rhyme: Garibaldi fu ferito ("Garibaldi was wounded"). A government steamer took him to a prison at Varignano near La Spezia, where he was held in a sort of honorable imprisonment and underwent a tedious and painful operation to heal his wound. His venture had failed, but he was consoled by Europe's sympathy and continued interest. After he regained his health, the government released Garibaldi and let him return to Caprera. En route to London in 1864 he stopped briefly in Malta, where many admirers visited him in his hotel. Protests by opponents of his anticlericalism were suppressed by the authorities. In London his presence was received with enthusiasm by the population.He met the British prime minister Viscount Palmerston, as well as revolutionaries then living in exile in the city. At that time, his ambitious international project included the liberation of a range of occupied nations, such as Croatia, Greece, and Hungary. He also visited Bedford and was given a tour of the Britannia Iron Works, where he planted a tree (which was cut down in 1944 due to decay).

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi


texts:
 Final struggle with Austria

<mask> took up arms again in 1866, this time with the full support of the Italian government. The Austro-Prussian War had broken out, and Italy had allied with Prussia against the Austrian Empire in the hope of taking Venetia from Austrian rule (Third Italian War of Independence). <mask> gathered again his Hunters of the Alps, now some 40,000 strong, and led them into the Trentino. He defeated the Austrians at Bezzecca, and made for Trento.The Italian regular forces were defeated at Lissa on the sea, and made little progress on land after the disaster of Custoza. The sides signed an armistice by which Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, but this result was largely due to Prussia's successes on the northern front. <mask>'s advance through Trentino was for nought, and he was ordered to stop his advance to Trento. <mask> answered with a short telegram from the main square of Bezzecca with the famous motto: Obbedisco! ("I obey!"). After the war, <mask> led a political party that agitated for the capture of Rome, the peninsula's ancient capital. In 1867, he again marched on the city, but the Papal army, supported by a French auxiliary force, proved a match for his badly armed volunteers.He was shot in the leg in the Battle of Mentana, and had to withdraw from the Papal territory. The Italian government again imprisoned him for some time, after which he returned to Caprera. In the same year, <mask> sought international support for altogether eliminating the papacy. At the 1867 congress for the League of Peace and Freedom in Geneva he proposed: "The papacy, being the most harmful of all