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 with Trevor McDonald series for ITV, which Jackson's friend, Uri Geller, arranged.Bashir followed the singer for eight months. However, Bashir's colleagues have claimed that he only landed the Jackson interview after promising him they would plan a trip for Jackson to Africa to visit children with AIDS, accompanied by Kofi Annan, the then UN Secretary-General; when this was put to Bashir, while under oath in a California court, he refused to answer. Following the broadcast, viewed by 14 million in the UK and 38 million in the US, Jackson complained to the Independent Television Commission and the Broadcasting Standards Commission, accusing Bashir of yellow journalism. In response, Jackson and his personal cameraman released a rebuttal interview, which showed Bashir complimenting Jackson for the "spiritual" quality of the Neverland Ranch. After Jackson's death in 2009, Dieter Wiesner, the pop star's manager from 1996 to 2003, said of Jackson's response to Bashir's documentary:

Bashir later said during ABC's coverage of Jackson's death:

Other interviews and programmes
In 2003, Bashir presented a documentary titled Major Fraud detailing the story of British Army major Charles Ingram, who attempted to cheat his way to the prize money in an unbroadcast episode of Who Wants To Be a Millionaire?. The original programme featuring Ingram, recorded in September 2001, was withheld from broadcast because the production team quickly became suspicious. The documentary had a larger audience than Bashir's interview with Michael Jackson.In December 2004, Bashir interviewed Victor Conte, the controversial founder of BALCO on ABC's 20/20 program, in which Conte admitted to running doping programs, which have broken Olympic records, as well as revealing that: "The whole history of the games is just full of corruption, cover-up, performance-enhancing drug use." Bashir also conducted interviews with, among others, Louise Woodward, the five suspects in the Stephen Lawrence case, Michael Barrymore, Jeffrey Archer, Joanne Lees, and George Best.


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 Honours
Bashir and producer Mike Robinson were the recipients of the BAFTA Award for Best Talk Show at the 1996 British Academy Television Awards for their work on the interview with Diana for Panorama. Bashir also won the Factual or Science Based Programme of the Year from the Television and Radio Industries Club, TV Journalist of the Year from the Broadcasting Press Guild, and Journalist of the Year from the Royal Television Society for the Diana interview. In May 2021, after the conclusion of the Dyson inquiry that found Bashir guilty of deceit in obtaining the interview with Diana, the BBC decided to give the BAFTA Award back. Other activities
Bashir had a role as himself in the 2001 satirical comedy film Mike Bassett: England Manager. He plays the bass guitar.He released a reggae album, Bass Lion, on 26 October 2010. Personal life
Bashir is fluent in English and Urdu. He converted from Islam to Christianity in his late teens after attending a church in south London, and identifies as a committed Christian, having been interested in Christianity as a child. While in New York he was sometimes seen visiting Redeemer Presbyterian Church. He and his wife, Deborah, have three children. He has been diagnosed with a brain tumour affecting his pituitary gland, was reported to be "seriously unwell" with the coronavirus in October 2020, and underwent quadruple heart bypass surgery in late 2020 and further surgical procedures in spring 2021. References

External links

Profile and <mask>r show at MSNBC

1963 births
Living people
ABC News personalities
Alumni of King's College London
Alumni of the University of Winchester
BAFTA winners (people)
BBC newsreaders and journalists
English Christians
English bass guitarists
English expatriates in the United States
English people of Pakistani descent
English reggae musicians
English reporters and correspondents
English television journalists
ITN newsreaders and journalists
MSNBC people
Panorama (British TV programme)
People from Wandsworth
Religion journalists
ITV people
Converts to


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<mask> (born 6 January 1956) is a British bishop. He is currently the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury and the most senior bishop in the Church of England. He has served in that role since 2013. <mask> was previously the vicar of Southam, Warwickshire, and then Bishop of Durham, serving for just over a year. Ex officio, he is the Primate of All England and the symbolic head primus inter pares of the worldwide Anglican Communion. <mask> was educated at the University of Cambridge where he read History and Law. Later in life, he studied for ordination at St John's College, Durham.After several parochial appointments, he became Dean of Liverpool in 2007 and Bishop of Durham in 2011. <mask>'s theology is reported as representing the evangelical tradition within Anglicanism. Having worked in business before his ordination, some of his publications explore the relationship between finance and religion and, as a member of the House of Lords, he sits on the panel of the 2012 Parliamentary Commission on Banking Standards. Early life and education

<mask> <mask> was born in London, England, on 6 January 1956, almost nine months after the marriage of his mother Jane Gillian Portal (born 1929) to Gavin Bramhall <mask> (1910–1977). Jane had served as a personal secretary to Sir Winston Churchill from December 1949 until her marriage to <mask> in April 1955, soon after she had a brief relationship with the private secretary to Churchill, Sir Anthony Montague Browne (1923–2013). <mask> believed that <mask> was his biological father until paternity testing in 2016 showed that he was Browne's son. <mask>, born Bernard Gavin Weiler in Ruislip, Middlesex was the son of Bernard Weiler, a German-Jewish

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 immigrant and importer of luxury items who changed the family name to <mask> shortly after the First World War broke out.<mask> stood for Parliament in the 1951 and 1955 general elections as a Conservative candidate. <mask> describes his early childhood as "messy": Gavin and <mask> were both alcoholics. They divorced in 1959, when <mask> was three years old, and he was placed in <mask>'s custody. In 1960 <mask> was engaged to the actress Vanessa Redgrave, who called the engagement off after her mother Lady Redgrave wrote to Vanessa's father, Sir Michael Redgrave, that <mask> was "a real horror ... a pretty rotten piece of work". <mask> died in 1977 of alcohol-related causes. <mask>'s mother stopped drinking in 1968, and in 1975 married Charles Williams, a business executive and first-class cricketer who was made a life peer in 1985. Williams was the nephew of Elizabeth Laura Gurney, a member of the Gurney family of Norwich who were prominent Quakers and social reformers.<mask> describes his stepfather as being supportive of him. Maternal family
<mask>'s mother, Jane Portal, was the daughter of Iris Butler (1905–2002), a journalist and historian whose brother, Rab Butler, was a Conservative politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Home Secretary, Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Secretary and Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Their father was Sir Montagu Butler, Governor of the Central Provinces of British India and Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Montagu Butler was the grandson of George Butler, headmaster of Harrow School and Dean of Peterborough; the nephew of educator George Butler (husband of social reformer Josephine Butler) and Henry Montagu Butler,

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 headmaster of Harrow School, Dean of Gloucester and Master of Trinity College, Cambridge; and the grand-nephew of John Colenso, the first Bishop of Natal. Jane Portal's father was Gervas Portal, a half-brother of the World War II Chief of the Air Staff, Charles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford. Gervas Portal's mother Rose Leslie Portal née Napier was the granddaughter of General Sir William Napier and his wife, Caroline Amelia Fox. General Napier and his brothers, General Sir Charles James Napier and General Sir George Thomas Napier (respectively commanders-in-chief of the British armies in India and in the Cape Colony), were sons of George Napier (a sixth-generation descendant, via the Lords Napier, of John Napier, the inventor of logarithms) and his second wife Lady Sarah Lennox.Caroline Amelia Fox was the daughter of General Henry Edward Fox, younger brother of prominent Whig politician Charles James Fox; they were the sons of politician Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, and his wife Lady Caroline Lennox. Caroline Lennox and Sarah Lennox were two of the five Lennox sisters, daughters of the 2nd Duke of Richmond, son of Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond, illegitimate son of King Charles II and his mistress Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth. Education

<mask> was educated at St Peter's School, Seaford; Eton College; and Trinity College, Cambridge, where his great-uncle, Lord Butler of Saffron Walden, was then master. He graduated in 1978 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and law; according to custom, he was later promoted to Master of Arts by seniority. In a 12 July 2013 interview with The Daily Telegraph, <mask> related his conversion experience when he was

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 a student at Trinity College, Cambridge. He said that, while he was at Eton, he had "vaguely assumed there was a God. But I didn't believe.I wasn't interested at all." However, during the evening of 12 October 1975 in Cambridge, praying with a Christian friend, <mask> said that he suddenly felt "a clear sense of something changing, the presence of something that had not been there before in my life". He said to his friend, "Please don't tell anyone about this." <mask> said that he was desperately embarrassed that this had happened to him. He has since said that his time at Cambridge was a major moment of self-realisation in his life. At the age of 19, he began speaking in tongues. Business career
<mask> worked for eleven years in the oil industry, five of them for the French oil company Elf Aquitaine based in Paris.In 1984 he became treasurer of the oil exploration group Enterprise Oil plc in London, where he was mainly concerned with West African and North Sea oil projects. He retired from his executive position in 1989 and said that he sensed a calling from God to be ordained. During his oil industry career, <mask> became a congregation member at the evangelical Anglican church of Holy Trinity in Brompton, London. In July 2013, following the report of the Parliamentary Commission on Banking Standards Commission, <mask> explained that senior bank executives avoided being given information about difficult issues to allow them to "plead ignorance". He also said he would possibly have behaved in the same way and warned against punishing by naming and shaming individual bankers which he compared to the behaviour of a lynch mob. Ministry
<mask> was at first rejected for ordination by John

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texts: Hughes, the Bishop of Kensington, who told him: "There is no place for you in the Church of England." <mask> was subsequently accepted for ordination, with the support of the Vicar of Holy Trinity Brompton, Sandy Millar.Throughout his ministry <mask> has been linked to the charismatic evangelical wing of the Church of England associated with Holy Trinity Brompton, and in a 2019 interview said: "In my own prayer life, and as part of my daily discipline, I pray in tongues every day." From 1989 to 1992, <mask> studied theology and trained for the priesthood at Cranmer Hall and St John's College, Durham, where he was awarded a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree and a Diploma in Ministry (DipMin) in 1992. He was ordained a deacon at Petertide (on 28 June) 1992 and a priest the next Petertide (27 June 1993), both times by Simon Barrington-Ward, Bishop of Coventry, at Coventry Cathedral. He then became a curate at Chilvers Coton and St Mary the Virgin, Astley (Nuneaton) from 1992 to 1995. He then became rector of St James' Church, Southam, and later vicar of St Michael and All Angels, Ufton, Diocese of Coventry, from 1995 to 2002. In 2002, <mask> was appointed a canon residentiary of Coventry Cathedral and the co-director for international ministry at the International Centre for Reconciliation. In 2005, he was appointed sub-dean and Canon for Reconciliation Ministry.<mask> was appointed Dean of Liverpool in December 2007 and was installed there on 8 December 2007. <mask> has written widely on ethics and on finance, featuring in books such as Managing the Church? : Order and Organisation in a Secular Age and Explorations in Financial Ethics. <mask>'s dissertation, an exploration into whether

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 companies can sin, marks his point that the structure of a system can "make it easier to make the right choice or the wrong choice." His dissertation led to the publication of a booklet entitled Can Companies Sin? : "Whether", "How" and "Who" in Company Accountability, which was published by Grove Books in 1992. He has said that the Benedictine and Franciscan orders in the Anglican churches, along with Catholic social teaching, have influenced his spiritual formation.Interviewed by the BBC in 2011, <mask> said that to be appointed bishop of Durham was both challenging and a huge privilege: "I was astonished to be offered the role. It is a passionate desire to see a church that is vigorously full of spiritual life, serving Jesus Christ and serving those around it." <mask>'s election was confirmed at York Minster on 29 September 2011, and he left Liverpool Cathedral on 2 October. He was consecrated as a bishop at York Minster on 28 October 2011 by John Sentamu, Archbishop of York; and was enthroned in Durham Cathedral on 26 November 2011. He was introduced to the House of Lords on 12 January 2012, where he sits on the Lords Spiritual bench. He gave his maiden speech on 16 May 2012. <mask> was asked to join the Parliamentary Commission on Banking Standards in 2012.Archbishop of Canterbury

<mask> emerged as a candidate to be the next archbishop of Canterbury; on 6 November 2012, the bookmakers Betvictor, Ladbrokes and William Hill suspended betting on his being appointed. On 9 November 2012, <mask>'s appointment to the position was announced. In January 2013, <mask> said that he initially thought it was "a joke" and "perfectly absurd" for him to be appointed Archbishop of Canterbury,


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 because he had only been a bishop for a short time. His confirmation of election ceremony to the See of Canterbury took place at St Paul's Cathedral on 4 February 2013 (by this, he legally became Archbishop of Canterbury); on the following day it was announced that <mask> would be appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, as all archbishops are; the order for his appointment was made on 12 February and he swore the oath on 13 March. <mask> was enthroned as archbishop at Canterbury Cathedral on 21 March 2013, which in the calendar of the Anglican churches is an observance of Thomas Cranmer. <mask>'s schedule included an official visit to the Vatican on 14 June 2013, with visits to senior Curial officials, including Cardinal Kurt Koch, President of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, an official audience with Pope Francis and prayer at the tombs of Saint Peter and Pope John Paul II. In a 12 July 2013 interview with The Daily Telegraph, <mask> addressed questions about his religion.His answers included the following:
Asked whether he can speak "in tongues", <mask> answered, "Oh yes, it's just a routine part of spiritual discipline — you choose to speak and you speak a language that you don’t know. It just comes." Asked whether it is necessary "for a true Christian to have had a personal conversion experience", <mask> answered, "Absolutely not. There is an incredible range of ways in which the Spirit works. It doesn’t matter how you get there. It really does quite matter where you are." Asked about "his strange and lonely youth", <mask> said that "at the time, it felt horrible.Now it feels hugely valuable. God doesn’t waste stuff." The interviewer asked


texts: <mask> whether his family history had "wounded" him. After "a very long" pause, <mask> answered, "I assume that I am, but I also assume that the grace of God is extraordinarily powerful in the healing of one’s wounds." Asked whether he knows Jesus, <mask> answered, "Yes. I do. He's both someone one knows and someone one scarcely knows at all, an utterly intimate friend and yet with indescribable majesty."Regarding his religious practices, <mask> called himself "a spiritual magpie". The interviewer commented about <mask>, "as well as speaking in tongues, he adores the sacrament of the Eucharist. He also says the morning and evening office, Book of Common Prayer version, in the chapel of the palace, every day. For <mask>, 'the routine of regular prayer is immensely important in overcoming the ups and downs of human moods.' For his spiritual discipline, <mask> uses Catholic models – the contemplation and stability of Benedictines and the rigorous self-examination of Ignatius of Loyola. He also has a spiritual director, the Roman Catholic priest Nicolas Buttet. The interviewer said that the church "is good at talking, but not at actually doing things to improve the social order."<mask> retorted, "Rubbish! It is one of the most powerful forces of social cohesion. Did you know that each month all the Churches – roughly half of the numbers being Anglican – contribute 23 million hours of voluntary work, outside what they do in church? And it's growing. There are now between 1,200 and 2,000 food banks in which the Church is involved. Ten years ago, there were none. There are vicars living in every impoverished area in the country.This springs out of genuine spirituality." <mask> apologised

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 unreservedly after allegations that barrister and evangelical Christian John Smyth beat boys in the late 1970s, mainly pupils at Winchester College, until their wounds bled and left permanent scars. Smyth then headed the Christian charity, the Iwerne Trust. These allegations were suppressed for decades, although Smyth was asked to leave the UK. Views

Brexit and austerity
In February 2018, <mask> expressed fears that Brexit was dividing UK society and the United Kingdom government austerity programme was harming vulnerable people. <mask> wrote:

In August 2019, <mask> called for EU Remainers to "stop whingeing" and accept the result of the 2016 Brexit referendum. COVID-19
In January 2021, <mask> received his first COVID-19 vaccine, writing on Twitter: "The rapid development of the vaccine is an answer to prayer - and it is central to the recovery from this terrible pandemic".He has spoken out against "malicious rumour-mongering" relating to the pandemic. <mask> has also said he is concerned that the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom has exacerbated existing inequalities, and has spoken with bereaved families and added tributes to the National Covid Memorial Wall (representing those who died of COVID-19). He has called for the start of a COVID-19 public inquiry. Environmental sustainability
In 2021, <mask>, Pope Francis, and Bartholomew, made an joint declaration to address together the urgency of environmental sustainability. Food banks
In 2013, <mask> disagreed strongly with Lord Freud, the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Welfare Reform at the time, because <mask> believes the UK government cuts to benefits have caused or contributed to the surge in food banks.

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 <mask> cites Church of England investigation showing social services referred 35% of Durham residents who use food banks when benefits they were entitled to were not paid. <mask> stated:

Before Christmas 2013, <mask> urged people to give 10% of what they spend at Christmas to food banks.In December 2014, <mask> expressed concern about the increasing need for food banks which he said would have been "unthinkable" a decade ago. He called the plight of hungry poor people shocking because he did not expect that in the UK, saying that it was "a very sad fact that they're there, but also it's a great opportunity for the Church to demonstrate the love of Christ." Fuel suppliers
<mask> is concerned about rises in energy prices in the UK. He feels that energy companies have a responsibility towards customers and should take account of this rather than only maximising their own opportunities. General election
In the run-up to the 2017 United Kingdom general election, <mask> and Archbishop of York John Sentamu campaigned over the need to address poverty, education, housing and health. The archbishops stressed the importance of "education for all, of urgent and serious solutions to our housing challenges, the importance of creating communities as well as buildings, and a confident and flourishing health service that gives support to all – especially the vulnerable – not least at the beginning and end of life." High-interest lending
In July 2013, <mask> spoke out against the payday lending sites and met with Errol Damelin, chief executive of Wonga.<mask> pledged that the Church of England would support credit unions as society needs to "provide an alternative" to the "very, very costly forms of

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 finance" that payday lending services represent. He noted that he did not want to make legal payday lending illegal as this would leave people with no alternative to using criminal loan sharks. Shortly after this well-publicised intervention in the public debate, it emerged that the Church of England's pension fund had invested money in Accel Partners, a venture capital firm that had invested in Wonga. This led to accusations of hypocrisy and <mask> noted that the investment was "very embarrassing" for the church. <mask> and the Church's Ethical Investment Advisory Group were unaware of their investment in Wonga. <mask> also said that the Ethical Investment Advisory Group ought to reconsider rules which allow investment in companies that make up to 25% of their income from gambling, alcohol or high-interest lending. Inequality
<mask> has expressed concern about inequality in the UK.In September 2017 he said, "Our economic model is broken. Britain stands at a watershed moment where we need to make fundamental choices about the sort of economy we need. We are failing those who will grow up into a world where the gap between the richest and poorest parts of the country is significant and destabilising." He has praised the welfare state as a Christian endeavour emanating from the likes of R. H. Tawney, William Temple and William Beveridge. He has also said that the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom has exacerbated existing inequalities, and has called for the building of "a new Beveridge". Islam
In July 2014, <mask> acknowledged that there was a problem with Muslim youths travelling to the Syrian Civil War and elsewhere to wage jihad but the numbers were "extraordinarily small", and

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 so he dismissed concerns over the potential for trouble as "hysterical... I think we're in danger of slipping into a very fearful culture".In 2015, he offered his support for British air strikes against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) in Syria. <mask> believes that the problem of Islamic extremism is far deeper than combating Islamic jihadists such as ISIS and Al-Qaeda; and that the Gulf monarchies and Saudi Arabia need to be challenged as their "own promotion of a particular brand of Islamic theology has provided a source from which ISIL have drawn a false legitimization." In an interview with the Daily Telegraph in November 2016, <mask> stated that claiming that the actions of ISIS are "nothing to do with Islam" was damaging efforts to combat extremism. <mask> stipulated that it was essential to understand the religious motivation behind extremism in order to understand it and, similarly, also criticized the argument that claims that "Christian militia in the Central African Republic are nothing to do with Christianity." Modern slavery
<mask> condemns modern slavery as a crime against humanity. He joined with Pope Francis and leaders of other faiths, Buddhist, Hindu, Jewish and Muslim, in a joint declaration they would work together aiming to end modern slavery by 2020. Forced labour and prostitution, human trafficking and organ trade were specifically mentioned but all relationships that do not respect human equality, freedom and dignity were condemned.Persecution of Christians
<mask> is concerned that Christians are persecuted in some parts of the world, notably in the Middle East, and fears that some risk their lives going to church. <mask> also noted that


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 Christians and other religious minorities were made to suffer terribly and were killed in Iraq, which violates article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. <mask> noted that Christians and other minorities face persecution for their faith in many areas worldwide; he cited Syria, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic among others. <mask> urged the United Kingdom to open doors to refugees. Poverty
Referring to poverty in the UK in March 2013, <mask> criticised UK government changes which cap benefits below inflation. In a speech at Christmas 2013 <mask> said, "Even in a recovering economy, Christians, the servants of a vulnerable and poor saviour, need to act to serve and love the poor; they need also to challenge the causes of poverty." In a speech at Easter 2013 <mask> said, "In this country, even as the economy improves there is weeping in broken families, in people ashamed to seek help from food banks, or frightened by debt.Asylum seekers weep with loneliness and missing far away families." Referring to poverty in the UK and generally <mask> said that "we should all share concern for the poor and the marginalised, should work to build communities where people act responsibly towards one another, whether we are rich or poor we all have the same dignity. William Beveridge, R. H. Tawney and William Temple played a significant part in establishing the post-war welfare state in the United Kingdom and were committed Christians. We do not have the luxury of saying, 'Something must be done' without doing anything ourselves." <mask> has said that justice of the powerful is not justice at all and judges should decide issues based on truth and the common good rather than


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 class and money. <mask> quoted Nelson Mandela that "dealing with poverty was a matter of justice rather than charity." <mask> felt that speaking out about poverty, fuel bills, financial insecurity affecting families and credit unions is part of the Christian duty to love one's neighbour.<mask> hopes that people will resolve to help deal with poverty in their own neighbourhoods. In a BBC television broadcast he said, "I want to suggest this year that each of us makes a resolution to try and change the world a bit where we are." <mask> has said that insecurity of income is also a problem for many people. He expressed concern that many people cannot save or plan for, for example a holiday because they do not know how much money will be coming in from week to week. In September 2018, <mask> said:

<mask> also said in 2018,

Refugees
<mask> disagrees with restrictions on child refugees being admitted to the UK. <mask> fears children are now vulnerable to exploitation and even death. <mask> stated:

<mask> hoped the government would reconsider its decision to stop letting child refugees in.He was dismayed that only 350 children were brought in despite about 3,000 being expected. Sexuality and same-sex marriage

In March 2013, <mask> stated that "My understanding of sexual ethics has been that, regardless of whether it's gay or straight, sex outside marriage is wrong." He reiterated this belief again later in 2013, further noting that "To abandon the ideal simply because it's difficult to achieve is ridiculous." <mask> does not unequivocally affirm the Church of England's historic opposition to same-sex marriage. At his first press conference he spoke out strongly against homophobia and

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texts: stated that he is "always averse to the language of exclusion, when what we are called to is to love in the same way as Jesus Christ loves us." He also said "I know I need to listen very attentively to the LGBT [lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender] communities, and examine my own thinking prayerfully and carefully." Prior to his enthronement he stated that he did not have doubts about the church's policy in opposing same-sex marriages but remained "challenged as to how we respond to it"."You see gay relationships that are just stunning in the quality of the relationship", he said, adding that he had "particular friends where I recognise that and am deeply challenged by it". <mask> sees problems with special services of blessing for same-sex couples, saying in 2014 "There is great fear among some, here and round the world, that that will lead to the betrayal of our traditions, to the denial of the authority of scripture, to apostasy, not to use too strong a word and there is also a great fear that our decisions will lead us to the rejection of LGBT people, to irrelevance in a changing society, to behaviour that many see akin to racism. Both those fears are alive and well in this room today [a General Synod meeting in London]. We have to find a way forward that is one of holiness and obedience to the call of God and enables us to fulfil our purposes. This cannot be done through fear. How we go forward matters deeply, as does where we arrive". <mask> has since said that he has become "much less certain" about his stance on human sexuality.In an interview with Alastair Campbell in October 2017, Archbishop <mask> was asked if same sex activity was sinful, and declined to give a clear

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 answer, saying: "I don't do blanket condemnation of people". When asked if a stable relationship could be between two people of the same sex, <mask> said, "I know it could be," and accepted that faithfulness and love were the "absolutely central" aspects of relationships, but added:

He also stated that while homophobia was a sin, he did not consider it homophobic to oppose gay sex. Social injustice
<mask> maintains social injustice is widespread and entrenched in British society. <mask> said the gig economy is just one of many injustices. Welby maintains the weakest people get the least secure pensions and the strongest get the most secure pensions. <mask> said in September 2018:

Taxation
Welby maintains that tax avoidance is wrong and that many wealthy companies do not pay as much tax as they should. In December 2017, <mask> said, "It is clear that a company that has a turnover of several billion and yet pays only a few million in tax, something isn’t quite working there.It is to do with transfer pricing, there are all kinds of explanations, but people who earn money from a society should pay tax in that society for the common good, for economic justice." In September 2018, <mask> said:

<mask> also said in 2018:

Universal Credit
Welby has expressed concern that Universal Credit is harming poor people and said in September 2018 that its rollout should be stopped. <mask> said:

Women bishops
<mask> has been a strong supporter of Anglican consecration of women as bishops. In November 2013, <mask> stated he aimed to ordain women as bishops while allowing space for those who disagree. In February 2014, <mask> called on Anglicans to avoid fear, prejudice and suspicion and to grasp

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 "cultural change in the life of the church":

Welby would like discipline applied over appointments to prevent opponents of women as bishops feeling alienated. <mask> says he hopes to avoid a zero-sum game where people feel gain for one side inevitably means loss for the other, he sees need for caution, co-operation and unity. Slightly revised legislation to allow women to be ordained bishops in the Church of England was agreed in July 2014 and became law in November 2014.Iwerne camps and John Smyth QC
<mask>'s early grounding in Christian doctrine was rooted in the ‘Bash Camp’ network founded by Eric Nash. <mask> became a dormitory officer at the camps held in the Dorset village of Iwerne Minster. The chairman of the Iwerne Trust (now operating as Titus Trust) in the late 1970s was John Smyth QC, a prominent evangelical and lawyer who had acted regularly for Mary Whitehouse. From 1978–81, Smyth allegedly carried out a series of brutal beatings on boys and undergraduates, recorded in a report written by Canon Mark Ruston in February 1982. Smyth was described by <mask> in 2017 as "charming" and "delightful" and they swapped Christmas cards for some years in the 1990s. In 1978 <mask> left the UK to work in Paris, and <mask> stated that "I had no contact with them at all". It later materialised that <mask> had attended the camp in this period and had continued to receive the camp newsletter.Andrew Atherstone in the biography, Risk Taker and Reconciler, describes  <mask> as having been “involved in the camps as an undergraduate … businessman and theological college student in the 1980s and early 1990s.”

In 2012 a victim of Smyth reported the abuse to the Church of England and <mask> was


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 informed in 2013. The Archbishop maintained that this was the first he had heard of the abuse by his old friend. The New York Times on 14 October 2017 quoted a senior Church of England figure as saying that "all senior members of the trust, including officers like Archbishop <mask>, had been made aware of the allegations against Mr Smyth, even those who had been abroad". Questions have remained among Smyth victims as to when <mask> first knew, and some have labelled the Archbishop an "observer", a term denoting a person who knew about abuse but who did not report appropriately. The Archbishop has said that he was not part of the inner circle of Smyth's friends and is on the record as saying that survivors must come first, not the Church's own interests. Royal family

Under the system of Queen's consent any proposed legislation affecting the royal family has to be submitted for approval. This frequently leads to protracted negotiation with their solicitors.Legislation is frequently drafted to exclude the royal family from it, eliminating the delay. One instance when this happened was in 1753, when members retained the legal right to marry without witnesses at a time when it was withdrawn from everyone else. This was confirmed by Lord Falconer whilst Lord Chancellor (24 February 2005), family law professor Rebecca Probert, the House of Lords, and the Duke and Duchess of Sussex during their Oprah Winfrey interview televised on 7 March 2021. The Archbishop of Canterbury, who issues licences for royal marriages from his Faculty Office, is aware of this (the wording of the May 2018 licence is a personal statement by him) and the licences specify in great detail the common law impediments


texts: to marriage without mentioning the statutory ones, which are irrelevant. While the House of Lords decision acknowledged that these marriages are valid, as far as the Church is concerned, they involve serious censure on the cleric involved, because it has invested a lot of effort in stamping them out. Lambeth Palace responded to the 7 March 2021 revelation the following day with the statement: "The Archbishop does not comment on personal or pastoral matters so we aren't commenting." In a statement later that day friends of the couple did not admit that they got married on the Saturday.On 21 March, Stephen Borton, the chief clerk at the time who drew up the licence, said Meghan was unaware that the couple were subject to the same marriage law as everyone else (they are not, which is why law professors are unanimous that the Prince of Wales and Camilla Parker Bowles could not and did not marry in a civil ceremony on Saturday, 9 April 2005, despite the same argument being rolled out on the Prince's behalf that the couple are subject to the same marriage law as everyone else, Royal Marriages Act notwithstanding). On 22 March 2021 a spokesperson for the couple again did not admit that they got married on the Saturday. Journalists reporting this and the 8 March statement added the word "merely" at the beginning of the phrase "a private exchange of vows" used by the spokesperson and headlined their stories "Meghan and Harry finally admit there was no secret backyard wedding". <mask> backed Borton on 30 March adding that if the royal family, the Church, parliament and universities were right then he, having certified that the couple got married on the Saturday, would have "committed a serious


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 criminal offence". Personal life
<mask> is married to Caroline (née Eaton) and they have had six children. In 1983, their seven-month-old daughter, Johanna, died in a car crash in France. Referring to the tragedy, <mask> explained, "It was a very dark time for my wife Caroline and myself, but in a strange way it actually brought us closer to God."<mask> established a special day for bereaved parents at Coventry Cathedral where there is now an annual service commemorating the lives of children who have died. His daughter Katharine has written of her experience of poor mental health. Another daughter, Ellie, has learning disabilities. <mask> acknowledges his privileged education and upbringing and has been praised for sending his own children to local state schools. <mask> is a French speaker and an avid Francophile, having lived and worked in France. An announcement about his appointment as Bishop of Durham listed his hobbies as "most things French and sailing". <mask> is an agenda contributor for the World Economic Forum.<mask> was part of a team researching the ethics of the situation
 <mask> declared that abortion as "delayed contraception" is wrong. 1956 births
21st-century Church of England bishops
English people of Scottish descent
Alumni of Cranmer Hall, Durham
Alumni of St John's College, Durham
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Archbishops of Canterbury
Bishops of Durham
British businesspeople in the oil industry
Deans of Liverpool
Doctors of Divinity
English expatriates in France
Evangelical Anglican bishops
Living people
Lords Spiritual
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Eton College
People educated at St Peter's School, Seaford
Clergy


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<mask> (November 9, 1924 – September 9, 2019) was a Swiss photographer and documentary filmmaker, who became an American binational. His most notable work, the 1958 book titled The Americans, earned <mask> comparisons to a modern-day de Tocqueville for his fresh and nuanced outsider's view of American society. Critic Sean O'Hagan, writing in The Guardian in 2014, said The Americans "changed the nature of photography, what it could say and how it could say it. [ ... ] it remains perhaps the most influential photography book of the 20th century." <mask> later expanded into film and video and experimented with manipulating photographs and photomontage. Background and early photography career
<mask> was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the son of Rosa (Zucker) and <mask>. His family was Jewish.<mask> states in Gerald Fox's 2004 documentary Leaving Home, Coming Home that his mother, Rosa (other sources state her name as Regina), had a Swiss passport, while his father, Hermann originating from Frankfurt, Germany had become stateless after losing his German citizenship as a Jew. They had to apply for the Swiss citizenship of <mask> and his older brother, Manfred. Though <mask> and his family remained safe in Switzerland during World War II, the threat of Nazism nonetheless affected his understanding of oppression. He turned to photography, in part as a means to escape the confines of his business-oriented family and home, and trained under a few photographers and graphic designers before he created his first hand-made book of photographs, 40 Fotos, in 1946. <mask> emigrated to the

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texts: United States in 1947, and secured a job in New York City as a fashion photographer for Harper's Bazaar. In 1949, the new editor of Camera magazine, Walter Laubli (1902–1991), published a substantial portfolio of Jakob Tuggener pictures made at upper-class entertainments and in factories, alongside the work of the 25 year-old <mask> who had just returned to his native Switzerland after two years abroad, with pages including some of his first pictures from New York. The magazine promoted the two as representatives of the 'new photography' of Switzerland.Tuggener was a role model for the younger artist, first mentioned to him by <mask>'s boss and mentor, Zurich commercial photographer Michael Wolgensinger (1913–1990) who understood that <mask> was unsuited to the more mercenary application of the medium. Tuggener, as a serious artist who had left the commercial world behind, was the "one <mask> really did love, from among all Swiss photographers," according to Guido Magnaguagno and Fabrik, as a photo book, was a model for <mask>'s Les Américains ('The Americans') published ten years later in Paris by Delpire, in 1958. He soon left to travel in South America and Europe. He created another hand-made book of photographs that he shot in Peru, and returned to the U.S. in 1950. That year was momentous for <mask>, who, after meeting Edward Steichen, participated in the group show 51 American Photographers at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA); he also married fellow artist <mask> née Mary Lockspeiser, with whom he had two children, Andrea and Pablo. Though he was initially optimistic

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texts: about the United States' society and culture, <mask>'s perspective quickly changed as he confronted the fast pace of American life and what he saw as an overemphasis on money. He now saw America as an often bleak and lonely place, a perspective that became evident in his later photography.<mask>'s own dissatisfaction with the control that editors exercised over his work also undoubtedly colored his experience. He continued to travel, moving his family briefly to Paris. In 1953, he returned to New York and continued to work as a freelance photojournalist for magazines including McCall's, Vogue, and Fortune. Associating with other contemporary photographers such as Saul Leiter and Diane Arbus, he helped form what Jane Livingston has termed The New York School of photographers (not to be confused with the New York School of art) during the 1940s and 1950s. In 1955, <mask> achieved further recognition with the inclusion by Edward Steichen of seven his photographs (many more than most other contributors) in the world-touring Museum of Modern Art exhibition The Family of Man that was to be seen by 9 million visitors and with a popular catalogue that is still in print. <mask>'s contributions had been taken in Spain (of a woman kissing her swaddled babe-in-arms); of a bowed old woman in Peru; a rheumy-eyed miner in Wales; and the others in England and the US, including two (one atypically soft-focus) of his wife in pregnancy; and one (later to be included in The Americans) of six laughing women in the window of the White Tower Hamburger Stand on Fourteenth Street, New York City.

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 The Americans

Inspired by fellow Swiss Jakob Tuggener's 1943 filmic book Fabrik, Bill Brandt's The English at Home (1936), and Walker Evans's American Photographs (1938), and on the recommendation of Evans (a previous recipient), Alexey Brodovitch, Alexander Leiberman, Edward Steichen, and Meyer Schapiro, <mask> secured a Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation in 1955 to travel across the United States and photograph all strata of its society.Cities he visited included Detroit and Dearborn, Michigan; Savannah, Georgia; Miami Beach and St. Petersburg, Florida; New Orleans, Louisiana; Houston, Texas; Los Angeles, California; Reno, Nevada; Salt Lake City, Utah; Butte, Montana; and Chicago, Illinois. He took his family along with him for part of his series of road trips over the next two years, during which time he took 28,000 shots. 83 of these were selected by him for publication in The Americans. <mask>'s journey was not without incident. He later recalled the anti-Semitism to which he was subject in a small Arkansas town. "I remember the guy [policeman] took me into the police station, and he sat there and put his feet on the table. It came out that I was Jewish because I had a letter from the Guggenheim Foundation.They really were primitive." He was told by the sheriff, "Well, we have to get somebody who speaks Yiddish." ... "They wanted to make a thing out of it. It was the only time it happened on the trip. They put me in jail. It was scary. Nobody knew where I was."Elsewhere in the South, he was told by a sheriff that he had "an hour

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texts: to leave town." Those incidents may have contributed to the dark view of America found in the work. Shortly after returning to New York in 1957, <mask> met Beat writer Jack Kerouac "at a New York party where poets and Beatniks were," and showed him the photographs from his travels. However, according to Joyce Johnson, Kerouac's lover at the time, she met <mask> while waiting for Kerouac to emerge from a conference with his editors, at Viking Press, looked at <mask>'s portfolio, and introduced them to each other. Kerouac immediately told <mask>, "Sure I can write something about these pictures." He eventually contributed the introduction to the U.S. edition of The Americans. <mask> also became lifelong friends with Allen Ginsberg, and was one of the main visual artists to document the Beat subculture, which felt an affinity with <mask>'s interest in documenting the tensions between the optimism of the 1950s and the realities of class and racial differences.The irony that <mask> found in the gloss of American culture and wealth over this tension gave his photographs a clear contrast to those of most contemporary American photojournalists, as did his use of unusual focus, low lighting and cropping that deviated from accepted photographic techniques. This divergence from contemporary photographic standards gave <mask> difficulty at first in securing an American publisher. Les Américains was first published in 1958 by <mask> in Paris, as part of its Encyclopédie Essentielle series, with texts by Simone de Beauvoir, Erskine Caldwell, William Faulkner, Henry Miller and John

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texts: Steinbeck that Delpire positioned opposite <mask> helped it reach a larger audience. Over time and through its inspiration of later artists, The Americans became a seminal work in American photography and art history, and is the work with which <mask> is most clearly identified.Critic Sean O'Hagan, writing in The Guardian in 2014, said "it is impossible to imagine photography's recent past and overwhelmingly confusing present without his lingeringly pervasive presence." and that The Americans "changed the nature of photography, what it could say and how it could say it. [ . . . ] it remains perhaps the most influential photography book of the 20th century." In 1961, <mask> received his first individual show, entitled <mask>: Photographer, at the Art Institute of Chicago. He also showed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1962. The French Journal Les Cahiers de la photographie devoted special issues 11 and 12 in 1983 to discussion of <mask> as a gesture of admiration for, and complicity with, his work, also to set forth his critical capacity as an artist.To mark the fiftieth anniversary of the first publication of The Americans, a new edition was released worldwide on May 30, 2008. For this new edition from Steidl, most photographs are uncropped (in contrast to the cropped versions in previous editions), and two photographs are replaced with those of the same subject but from an alternate perspective. A celebratory exhibit of The Americans, titled Looking In: <mask>'s The Americans, was displayed in 2009 at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., the San

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 Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA), and at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The second section of the four-section, 2009, SFMOMA exhibition displays <mask>'s original application to the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (which funded the primary work on The Americans project), along with vintage contact sheets, letters to photographer Walker Evans and author Jack Kerouac, and two early manuscript versions of Kerouac's introduction to the book. Also exhibited were three collages (made from more than 115 original rough work prints) that were assembled under <mask>'s supervision in 2007 and 2008, revealing his intended themes as well as his first rounds of image selection. An accompanying book, also titled Looking In: <mask>'s The Americans, was published, the most in-depth examination of any photography book ever, at 528 pages. While working as a guard at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Jason Eskenazi asked other noted photographers visiting the Looking In exhibition to choose their favorite image from The Americans and explain their choice, resulting in the book, By the Glow of the Jukebox: The Americans List.Films
By the time The Americans was published in the United States, <mask> had moved away from photography to concentrate on filmmaking. Among his films was the 1959 Pull My Daisy, which was written and narrated by Kerouac and starred Ginsberg, Gregory Corso and others from the Beat circle. The Beats emphasized spontaneity, and the film conveyed the quality of having been thrown together or even improvised. Pull My Daisy was accordingly praised

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 for years as an improvisational masterpiece, until <mask>'s co-director, Alfred Leslie, revealed in a November 28, 1968 article in the Village Voice that the film was actually carefully planned, rehearsed, and directed by him and <mask>, who shot the film with professional lighting. In 1960, <mask> was staying in Pop artist George Segal's basement while filming The Sin of Jesus with a grant from Walter K. Gutman. Isaac Babel's story was transformed to center on a woman working on a chicken farm in New Jersey. It was originally supposed to be filmed in six weeks in and around New Brunswick, but <mask> ended up shooting for six months.<mask>'s 1972 documentary of the Rolling Stones, Cocksucker Blues, is arguably his best known film. The film shows the Stones on tour, engaging in heavy drug use and group sex. <mask> said of the Stones, "It was great to watch them — the excitement. But my job was after the show. What I was photographing was a kind of boredom. It's so difficult being famous. It's a horrendous life.Everyone wants to get something from you." Mick Jagger reportedly told <mask>, "It's a fucking good film, <mask>, but if it shows in America we'll never be allowed in the country again." The Stones sued to prevent the film's release, and it was disputed whether <mask> as the artist or the Stones as those who hired the artist owned the copyright. A court order restricted the film to being shown no more than five times per year, and only in the presence of <mask>. <mask>'s photography also appeared on the cover of the Rolling Stones' album Exile on Main St..

Other

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 films by <mask> include Me and My Brother, Keep Busy, and Candy Mountain (the last was co-directed with Rudy Wurlitzer). Later life and death
Though <mask> continued to be interested in film and video, he returned to still images in the 1970s, publishing his second photographic book, The Lines of My Hand, in 1972. This work has been described as a "visual autobiography", and consists largely of personal photographs.However, he largely gave up "straight" photography to instead create narratives out of constructed images and collages, incorporating words and multiple frames of images that were directly scratched and distorted on the negatives. None of this later work has achieved an impact comparable to that of The Americans. As some critics have pointed out, this is perhaps because <mask> began playing with constructed images more than a decade after <mask> introduced his silkscreen composites—in contrast to The Americans, <mask>'s later images simply were not beyond the pale of accepted technique and practice by that time. <mask> and Mary separated in 1969. He remarried, to sculptor June Leaf, and in 1971, moved to the community of Mabou, Nova Scotia in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia in Canada. In 1974, his daughter, Andrea, was killed in a plane crash in Tikal, Guatemala. Also around this time, his son, Pablo, was first hospitalized and diagnosed with schizophrenia.Much of <mask>'s subsequent work dealt with the impact of the loss of both his daughter and subsequently his son, who died in an Allentown, Pennsylvania hospital in 1994. In 1995, in memory of his daughter he

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 founded the Andrea Frank Foundation, which provides grants to artists. After his move to Nova Scotia, Canada, <mask> divided his time between his home there, in a former fisherman's shack on the coast, and his Bleecker Street loft in New York. He acquired a reputation for being a recluse (particularly since the death of Andrea), declining most interviews and public appearances. He continued to accept eclectic assignments, however, such as photographing the 1984 Democratic National Convention, and directing music videos for artists such as New Order ("Run"), and Patti Smith ("Summer Cannibals"). <mask> produced both films and still images, and helped organize several retrospectives of his art. His work has been represented by Pace/MacGill Gallery in New York since 1984.In 1994, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. presented the most comprehensive retrospective of <mask>'s work to date, entitled Moving Out. <mask> died on September 9, 2019, at his home in Nova Scotia. Publications

Publications by <mask>
Les Américains  The Americans
 Paris: Delpire, 1958. French. Includes text in French by Simone de Beauvoir, Erskine Caldwell, William Faulkner, Henry Miller and John Steinbeck about American political and social history, selected by Alain Bosquet. Part of the Encyclopédie Essentielle series. New York: Grove Press, 1959.Introduction by Jack Kerouac. New York: Aperture; Museum of Modern Art, 1969. Revised and enlarged edition. With an introduction by Jack Kerouac, a brief introduction by <mask>, and a survey of <mask>'s films, each represented by a page of film

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 frame stills. Göttingen: Steidl, 2008. . Most photographs are uncropped compared with cropped versions in previous editions, and two photographs are replaced with those of the same subject but from an alternate perspective. The Lines of my Hand.Tokyo: Yugensha. Deluxe, slipcased edition. Edition of 1000 copies, 500 featured the slipcase photograph of "New York City, 1948", 500 featured the slipcase photograph of "Platte River, Tennessee". New York: Lustrum Press, 1972. Paperback. New York: Pantheon. . Flower is… Yugensha, 1987.Edition of 1000 copies, 500 featured "Champs-Élysées, 1950 [Fleurs]" tipped onto the front cover, 500 featured "Metro Stalingrad" tipped onto the front cover. Flamingo. Göteborg, Sweden: Hasselblad Center, 1997. . Catalogue for Hasselblad Award exhibition, Hasselblad Center, Goteborg, Sweden. London/Wales. Published in collaboration with the Corcoran Gallery, Washington, D.C., for an exhibition held May 10 – July 14, 2003. Zurich; New York: Scalo, 2003. .
Göttingen: Steidl, 2007. .
Come Again. Göttingen: Steidl, 2006. .According to the back cover, "Photos have been taken within the context of the photographical project 'Beirut, city centre, 1991', Éditions de Cyprès, Paris." Paris. Göttingen: Steidl, 2006. .
Peru. Göttingen: Steidl, 2006. . Zero Mostel Reads a Book. Göttingen: Steidl, 2006. .
Tal Uf Tal Ab. Göttingen: Steidl, 2010. .The first of the "Visual Diaries" combining photos from <mask>'s early career with the more private pictures he made in the latter part of his life. Other titles in the series are marked with a *
Pangnirtung. Göttingen:


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 Steidl, 2011. . Pull My Daisy. Göttingen: Steidl, 2011. . A transcript of Kerouac's narration from the film Pull My Daisy (1959) with film stills and an introduction by Jerry Tallmer. Ferne Nähe: Hommage für <mask>er  Distant Closeness: A Tribute to <mask>er. Bern: <mask>alser-Zentrum, 2012. .
You Would.Göttingen: Steidl, 2012. . *
Park/Sleep. Göttingen: Steidl, 2013. . *
Partida. Göttingen: Steidl, 2014. . *
What We Have Seen. Göttingen: Steidl, 2016. . *
Leon of Juda. Göttingen: Steidl, 2017. . *
Good Days Quiet. Göttingen: Steidl, 2019. .

Critical studies, reviews and biographies
 Les Cahiers de la photographie 11/12 and Special 3, “<mask>, la photographie, enfin,” 4th quarter, 1983; essays by Walker Evans, Gilles Mora, Alain Bergala, and others. Looking In: <mask>'s The Americans.Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art; Göttingen: Steidl, 2009. . By Sarah Greenough. With essays by Stuart Alexander, Phillip Brookman, Michel Frizot, Martin Gasser, Jeff L. Rosenheim, Lucy Sante and Anne Wilkes Tucker. Published to accompany an exhibition organised by the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
By the Glow of the Juke Box: The Americans List. New York: Red Hook, 2012. Edited by Jason Eskenazi, with contributions from 276 photographers
 Reviews The Americans. Films
Don't Blink – <mask> (2015). Documentary directed by Laura Israel.Filmography

Exhibitions

Solo exhibitions (selected)
 1961: <mask>: The Americans, Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL
 1976: <mask>, Kunsthaus Zürich, Zürich
 1979: <mask>: Photographer/Filmmaker, Works 1945–1979, Long Beach Museum of

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 Art. 1985: <mask>: New York to Nova Scotia, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. 1989: The Americans, Jan Kesner Gallery, Los Angeles
 1997: Flamingo, Hasselblad Award exhibition, Hasselblad Center, Goteborg, Sweden
 2004: Storylines, Tate Modern Museum, London
 2005: Storylines, Fotomuseum Winterthur, Winterthur
 2008: <mask>. Paris, Museum Folkwang, Essen
 2009: Looking In: The Americans, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
 2009: <mask>. Die Filme, C/O Berlin, Berlin
 2010: The Unseen Eye: Photography from the collection of W.M. Hunt (group exhibition), Appleton Museum of Art, Ocala
 2012: <mask>. From the collection of Fotomuseum Winterthur, Multimedia Art Museum, Moscow
 2014: <mask> In America, Cantor Art Center at Stanford University, Stanford
 2014: <mask>.Books and Films. 1947–2014, Akademie der Bildenden Künste München; anschließend 2015 Museum Folkwang, Essen
 2016: <mask>: Books and Films, 1947–2016, HALLE 14 – Zentrum für zeitgenössische Kunst, Leipzig
 2016: <mask>: Books and Films. 1947–2016, Museum der Moderne, Salzburg
 2016: <mask>: Books and Films. 1947–2016, Kunsthalle Ziegelhütte, Appenzell
 2017: <mask>: Photos, Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL

Group exhibitions (selected)
 1955: The Family of Man, Museum of Modern Art, New York, January 24 – May 8 (<mask> represented with 5 works)
 1962: Photographs by Harry Callahan and <mask>, Museum of Modern Art, New York, January 30 – April 1
 2004: Cruel and Tender. Fotografie und das Wirkliche, Museum Ludwig, Köln
 2004: Cold Play. Set 1 aus der Sammlung des Fotomuseums Winterthur, Fotomuseum Winterthur,

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 Winterthur
 2005: I Wanna Be Loved By You, Brooklyn Museum of Art, Brooklyn
 2006: American Beauty, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne
 2006: Some tribes, Christophe Guye Galerie, Zurich
 2008: Street Art, Street Life: From the 1950s to Now, Bronx Museum of the Arts, New York
 2010: Staff Picks 2010, Howard Greenberg Gallery, New York
 2010: Humanos. Acciones, Historia Y Fotografía, Centro de Arte Alcobendas (CAA), Madrid

Awards
1955: Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.1996: Hasselblad Foundation International Award in Photography from the Hasselblad Foundation. 2002: Edward MacDowell Medal, MacDowell Colony, Peterborough, NH. 2015: Doctor of Fine Arts, honoris causa, Nova Scotia College of Art and Design University, Halifax, Canada. References

Sources
 Philip Gefter, Snapshots From The American Road, The New York Times, December 14, 2008. Further reading
Alexander, Stuart. – <mask>: A Bibliography, Filmography, and Exhibition Chronology, 1946–1985 (Center for Creative Photography, 1986). OCLC 16798695
Gefter, Philip.– Photography After <mask> (Aperture, 2009). Green, Jonathan. – American Photography: A Critical History 1945 to the Present (Abrams, 1984). Chapter 5, "The Americans: Politics and Alienation." Janis, Eugenia Parry and Wendy MacNeil, eds. – Photography Within the Humanities (Addison House, 1977). "<mask> Frank" (transcript of a talk and interview conducted at Wellesley College on April 14, 1975), pp.52–65. Leo, Vince. – "<mask>: From Compromise to Collaboration." Parkett, 1994, Issue 42, pp. 8–23. Papageorge,

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 Tod. – "Walker Evans and <mask>: An Essay on Influence" (Yale University Art Gallery, 1981).Penman, Ian. – <mask>: Storylines (Steidl, 2004). Sandeen, Eric. – Picturing An Exhibition (University of New Mexico Press, 1995). Chapter 5, "Edward Steichen, <mask>, and American Modernism." Tucker, Anne and Philip Brookman, eds. – <mask>: New York to Nova Scotia (Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 1986).Bibliographies
Frank Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)

External links

VR tour of "<mask> Frank" at Hamiltons Gallery, London

<mask>'s Masterpiece: "The Americans" at 50
Looking In: <mask>'s "The Americans", National Gallery of Art, 2008
Elson Lecture 2009: <mask>, National Gallery of Art
Robert <mask> Collection Guide, National Gallery of Art, 2014 (with "more than 430 images")

'Walker Evans and <mask>: an Essay on Influence' by Tod Papageorge
Nericcio, William Anthony. – Cinematography, Photography, and Literature: <mask>'s Aesthetic Triptych (MOPA, San Diego, 2000). (An online essay on Pull My Daisy with illustrations and film-clip.) '<mask>: Dissecting The American Image' by Jno Cook
Illustrated book review of The Americans
<mask>: The Photographer Who Captured America’s Dark Side, by Lucas Reilly,  January 1, 2015, Mental Floss

American film directors
1924 births
2019 deaths
Street photographers
Social documentary photographers
American expatriates in Canada
Swiss emigrants to the United States
American people of Swiss-Jewish descent
Swiss Jews
Swiss photographers
People from Inverness County, Nova Scotia
People from New York (state)
20th-century American

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Ryan Parmeter (born February 6, 1980) is an American professional wrestler. He is best known for his work in WWE, where he wrestled under the ring name <mask>. He was part of the fourth season of NXT, and earned fourth place on the show's fifth season, NXT Redemption. After spending four years wrestling on the independent circuit as Ryan Payne O'Reilly, Parmeter signed a WWE contract in 2005, and was assigned to Deep South Wrestling (DSW), a developmental territory, where he wrestled as Rough House O'Reilly. He won the DSW Heavyweight Championship twice, before briefly appearing in Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW). He also appeared in several dark matches prior to Raw and SmackDown, and at several ECW house shows. In October 2007, both Parmeter and his girlfriend, Krissy Vaine, requested to be released from their WWE contracts for personal reasons.Following his release, Parmeter took time off from wrestling, before debuting for NWA Charlotte in February 2009. In July 2010, he was re-signed by WWE, and returned to FCW where he began wrestling as Conor O'Brian. In November 2010, he was announced as a participant in the fourth season of NXT. Professional wrestling career

Early career (2001–2005)
Parmeter initially trained at the School of Hard Knocks in southern Florida under Rusty Brooks, and made his professional wrestling debut in 2001. He went on to compete in Brooks' promotion, Four Star Championship Wrestling (FSCW) as Ryan Payne O'Reilly, and formed a tag team with Jeff "J-Dawg" Brooks, known as the


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 "Irish Thug Connection". Together, the Irish Thug Connection won the FSCW Tag Team Championship. He also won the FSCW Heavyweight Championship, and spent mid-2004 feuding with Norman Smiley over it.O'Reilly also competed for Florida's Coastal Championship Wrestling (CCW) promotion, and won the CCW Heavyweight Championship. He appeared for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling during the promotion's early shows. World Wrestling Entertainment (2005–2007)
After four years on the independent circuit, O'Reilly signed a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in 2005. He was assigned to Deep South Wrestling (DSW), a WWE developmental territory as Roughhouse O'Reilly, and made his DSW debut at the inaugural DSW show on September 1, in a loss to Jack Bull. Over the next several months, he faced wrestlers including "Big Time" Nick Mitchell, Mike Mizanin, Shawn Schultz, Derrick Neikirk, Eric Pérez and Freakin Deacon. In December, he appeared in a dark match prior to the SmackDown tapings. In early 2006, O'Reilly took a leave of absence.Upon his return, he and Danny Germundo entered a tournament for the DSW Tag Team Championship but were eliminated by Team Elite (Mike Knox and Neikirk) on May 11. On June 22, O'Reilly defeated Neikirk to win the DSW Heavyweight Championship. He successfully defended the championship against Knox, Neikirk, and Montel Vontavious Porter. On September 7, O'Reilly lost the championship to Bradley Jay. During mid-2006, O'Reilly made several appearances at ECW house shows, teaming with


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 Neikirk to face The FBI (Little Guido and Tony Mamaluke). O'Reilly was scheduled to become part of the regular ECW roster in September, but violated the WWE Wellness Program, and was suspended for 30 days. When he returned, he became the personal assistant of DSW General Manager Krissy Vaine.In December, O'Reilly appeared on an episode of ECW as one of Paul Heyman's personal enforcers alongside Doug Basham. In March 2007, O'Reilly won the DSW Heavyweight Championship for the second time. He lost the championship to Bradley Jay a week later. O'Reilly and Eric Perez were originally scheduled to face The Samoans (Afa, Jr. and Sonny Siaki) in the main event of DSW's final event, but he and Perez were replaced by The Major Brothers. During mid-2007, O'Reilly would appear in dark matches prior to Raw and SmackDown against Sylvan Grenier, Chuck Palumbo, Super Crazy, Cody Rhodes and D'Lo Brown. He briefly appeared in Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW), another WWE developmental territory, where both Lacey Von Erich and Maryse acted as his valets. In October 2007, both Parmeter and his girlfriend Krissy Vaine requested and were granted their release from WWE.They cited health problems suffered by members of both of their families as the reason. Independent circuit (2007–2010)

In October 2007, Parmeter stated that he was taking time off from wrestling. He returned to wrestling in February 2009, working for NWA Charlotte. He wrestled against Truitt Fields for the territory's Heavyweight Championship, but was unable


texts:
 to win the title. After the loss, O'Reilly formed an alliance with Mikael Judas and Phill Shatter called III, which lasted until the territory's closure. Return to WWE

Developmental territories (2010–2011)
Parmeter was re-signed by the WWE on July 14, 2010, and was reassigned to the FCW developmental territory. On August 12, he debuted for Florida Championship Wrestling as Ryan O'Riley losing to Conrad Tanner.He would compete under this name for a short while before becoming Conor O'Brian on September 30. On November 30, 2010, during the season finale of season three of NXT, it was announced that Parmeter, under the name Conor O'Brian, would be appearing on season four, with Alberto Del Rio as his mentor. He made his in-ring debut on NXT the following week, teaming with Del Rio to defeat rookie Derrick Bateman and Bateman's mentor Daniel Bryan. O'Brian won his first challenge on the January 4, 2011 episode of NXT, when he won the 'Battle of the Mic Challenge' to earn four immunity points. Two weeks later, on January 18, O'Brian was the second contestant eliminated from NXT. Earlier that night, O'Brian competed in a match against Ricardo Rodriguez in a losing effort. In March 2011, O'Brian was selected as one of the six former NXT contestants to return to the show in its fifth season, NXT Redemption.During this season, O'Brian was mentored by Vladimir Kozlov. He was later eliminated from competition on the June 28, 2011 episode of NXT, and would later be joined, and eventually replaced, by a returning


texts:
 Derrick Bateman and Daniel Bryan. First incarnation of The Ascension (2011–2012)

On August 28, 2011, Ricardo Rodriguez announced the formation of a stable called The Ascension, with members including O'Brian, Kenneth Cameron, Tito Colon and Raquel Diaz. The first match to include all members in some capacity came on September 1, 2011, and saw Cameron, Colon and O'Brian, accompanied by Diaz, defeating CJ Parker, Donny Marlow and Johnny Curtis. On September 30, Cameron and Colon had a shot at the FCW Tag Team Championship but lost to the current champions of CJ Parker and Donny Marlow. By October, however, video packages appeared promoting the Ascension under new seemingly demonic, supernatural characters, and did not include Rodriguez as he was disassociated from the team. By the end of November the Ascension had all but disbanded because O'Brian was injured, Colon had been called up to WWE to team with his cousin Primo, and Diaz became Queen of FCW and distanced herself from the group.This left Cameron as the sole survivor of the Ascension, continuing to use the Ascension gimmick during his appearances. On March 15, 2012, O'Brian returned accompanying Cameron to the ring in his match against Byron Saxton; the match ended in disqualification when O'Brian interfered. Cameron and O'Brian began wrestling as a tag team using the name The Ascension, and their first tag team match together came on March 23 when the two defeated Jason Jordan and Xavier Woods. The Ascension suffered their first loss when the pair


texts:
 lost to the FCW Tag Team Champions Corey Graves and Jake Carter, in a title match. With the conclusion of NXT Redemption, WWE rebranded its developmental territory FCW into NXT. O'Brian and Cameron, as The Ascension, debuted on the June 20 episode of the rebooted NXT taped at Full Sail University, where they defeated Mike Dalton and CJ Parker. The Ascension then started a feud with The Usos, defeating them on the September 5 NXT, and also scored a win over Justin Gabriel and Tyson Kidd on the October 3 NXT.Two weeks later, the Ascension teamed up with Kassius Ohno to defeat Richie Steamboat and the Usos. The Ascension disbanded on November 30, 2012 when Cameron was released from WWE. NXT Tag Team Champion (2012–2015)
O'Brian retained his character while using "The Ascension" as his nickname as he started to feud with Big E Langston for the NXT Championship. O'Brian first faced Langston in a non-title match, which ended in a double disqualification. O'Brian then faced Corey Graves in a number one contender match which had no winner when the Shield attacked both men to make a statement. The next week, O'Brian defeated Graves and Bo Dallas to become the number one contender. The feud ended after O'Brian was defeated in a title match on the April 4 episode of NXT.On the May 29 NXT, O'Brian competed in an 18-man number one contender battle royal and was eliminated by Corey Graves and Kassius Ohno. To reform the Ascension tag team, Rick Victor allied himself with O'Brian and they managed to win the NXT Tag Team


texts: Championships held by Adrian Neville and Corey Graves. On November 10, 2013 O'Brian's name was tweaked and shortened to "Konnor". On February 27, 2014 at NXT Arrival, he and Viktor successfully defended the NXT Tag Team Championships against Too Cool, repeating the feat on May 29, 2014 at NXT TakeOver against the team of El Local and Kalisto. Konnor, alongside Viktor, made his main roster debut on the September 9, 2014 episode of Main Event, with the duo defeating Los Matadores (Diego and Fernando) in a tag-team match to promote their NXT tag title defense against The Lucha Dragons (Kalisto and Sin Cara) at the NXT TakeOver: Fatal 4-Way event. On the December 12 episode of SmackDown, vignettes began to air promoting The Ascension's call-up to the main roster. The Ascension made their debut on the December 29 episode of Raw, quickly defeating The Miz and Damien Mizdow.The Ascension would continue to squash local athletes three weeks in a row on Main Event while indirectly criticizing of The Road Warriors. Their first major victory as part of the main roster was a win over The New Age Outlaws at the Royal Rumble. The Ascension suffered their first pinfall loss on the main roster on February 23 episode of Raw, losing to The Prime Time Players (Darren Young and Titus O'Neil). At WrestleMania 31, The Ascension made their WrestleMania debut in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal where both failed to win the match. On the May 11 episode of Raw, during a match between Curtis Axel and Macho Mandow, in the guise


texts:
 of Randy Savage, The Ascension attacked Axel and Mandow. It was then announced that the Ascension would face Axel and Mandow on the Payback pre-show, where they won the match. It was announced the Ascension would par take in a six team elimination chamber match for the WWE Tag Team Championship.At Elimination Chamber on May 31, he and Viktor eliminated the Los Matadores and The Lucha Dragons until they were eliminated by The Prime Time Players, ultimately losing the match. Various alliances (2015–2018)
On the September 3 episode of SmackDown, The Ascension aligned themselves with Stardust by attacking Neville before their match, and thus forming a group known as "The Cosmic Wasteland". At Night of Champions, The Cosmic Wasteland defeated Neville and the Lucha Dragons on the pre-show. On the Survivor Series kickoff, The Cosmic Wasteland, The Miz, and Bo Dallas were defeated by The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley), Neville, Goldust and Titus O'Neil, in a traditional Survivor Series elimination tag team match. On the Royal Rumble kickoff, The Ascension lost a Fatal 4-Way tag team match to qualify for the Royal Rumble match. At WrestleMania 32, Konnor competed in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal but failed to win the match. On April 16, 2016, Konnor was suspended for 60 days for his second violation of the Wellness Program.On the June 24 episode of Superstars, Konnor returned from suspension when The Ascension faced the Golden Truth (Goldust and R-Truth) in a losing effort. On July 19 at


texts: the 2016 WWE draft, The Ascension were drafted to SmackDown, making their debut on the July 26 episode in a WWE World Championship No. 1 Contender's Six-Pack Qualifying Battle Royal, which was won by Apollo Crews. At the SummerSlam kickoff, The Ascension competed in a 12-man tag team match where their team lost. They then entered the SmackDown Tag Team Championship tournament, where they were eliminated in the first round by The Usos. On the September 27 episode of SmackDown Live, The Ascension picked up their first win on the brand, when The Ascension and The Usos defeated Heath Slater, Rhyno and American Alpha (Chad Gable and Jason Jordan) in an eight-man tag team match. At 2017 Elimination Chamber, The Ascension competed in a tag team turmoil match for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship where they were the final team eliminated.<mask>, alongside Viktor, would later enter the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal at WrestleMania 33, but both men were eliminated from the match. At Money in the Bank (2017), The Ascension lost to Breezango after they claimed responsibility for a vandal attack in their office. On the June 27 episode of SmackDown Live, The Ascension was interrogated by Breezango on "Fashion Vice", admitting that they didn't commit the crime and only took responsibility, because they wanted a match at the PPV. In September, the duo turned face when they started trying to befriend Breezango during the latters' 'Fashion Files' segments. On the January 9 episode of SmackDown Live, The Ascension a


texts:
 loss to The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan), for a while the duo would only appear as supporting characters in Breezango's Fashion Files skits. The duo were participants in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal at WrestleMania 34, with Konnor being the first of the duo to be eliminated. Final appearances and departure (2018–2019)
During the 2018 Superstar Shake-up, The Ascension were traded to Raw.On the April 23 episode of Raw, The Ascension, once again as heels, facing against the team of Matt Hardy and Bray Wyatt in a losing effort. At the Greatest Royal Rumble event, Konnor entered at number 19 but was eliminated by Elias. On the September 24 episode of Raw, he got a victory over Chad Gable in singles competition. On the October 1 episode of Raw, he defeated Bobby Roode. At WrestleMania 35, Konnor competed in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal but failed to win the match. On the April 12, 2019 episode of Main Event, The Ascension lost to Heavy Machinery (Otis and Tucker), in what would be their final match in WWE. On December 8, 2019, WWE announced it had come to terms on the release of Parmeter along with his partner, ending his nine year run with the company.Return to independent circuit (2020–present)
Following their departure from WWE, <mask> and Viktor were announced for Wrestling Revolver's Pancakes and Piledrivers event during WrestleMania 36 weekend. On February 20, 2020, The Ascension competed in their first match since leaving WWE at Outlaw Wrestling defeating Bull James and


texts:
 Bill Carr. Konnor joined the Isolation Wrestling Federation on May 9, 2020. Impact Wrestling (2022)
On the February 10, 2022 episode of Impact!, <mask>, under the ring name Big Kon, would make his Impact Wrestling debut, where he was defeated by Josh Alexander. Personal life
Parmeter began dating fellow professional wrestler Kristin Eubanks better known as Krissy Vaine in 2006. In an interview in October 2007, Parmeter announced the two were engaged. In September 2017, the couple had their first child, a boy, named Elijah.Other media
<mask> made his video game debut as a part of the NXT Arrival DLC pack in WWE 2K15, then reappeared as part of WWE 2K16, WWE 2K17, WWE 2K18 and WWE 2K19. Championships and accomplishments
Atomic Revolutionary Wrestling
ARW Tag Team Championship (1 time, current) with Vik
Coastal Championship Wrestling
CCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
CCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Sean Allen
Deep South Wrestling
DSW Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
Four Star Championship Wrestling
FSCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
FSCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Jeff "J-Dawg" Brooks
Georgia Championship Wrestling
GCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 Insane Wrestling Revolution
 IWR World Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current)
Kings of Pro Wrestling
KPW Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
Maximum Pro Wrestling
MPW Television Championship (1 time)
NWA Sunray Pro Wrestling
NWA Sunray Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Platinum Pro Wrestling
PPW Platinumweight Championship (1

masks: Konnor Konnor


texts:
 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him No. 123 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2014
WWE
NXT Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Viktor

References

External links

American male professional wrestlers
American people of German descent
Sportspeople from Grand Rapids, Michigan
Professional wrestlers from Michigan
1980 births
Living people
NXT Tag Team


texts: <mask> (; 4 November 191426 July 1957) was a Guatemalan military officer and politician who was the 28th president of Guatemala, serving from 1954 to 1957 after taking power in a coup d'état. A member of the right-wing National Liberation Movement (MLN) party, his authoritarian government was closely allied with the United States. Born to a planter, out of wedlock, <mask> was educated at Guatemala's military academy. A protégé of Colonel Francisco Javier Arana, he joined Arana's forces during the 1944 uprising against President Federico Ponce Vaides. This began the Guatemalan Revolution and the introduction of representative democracy to the country. <mask> joined the General Staff and became director of the military academy. Arana and <mask> opposed the newly elected government of Juan José Arévalo; after Arana's failed 1949 coup, <mask> went into exile in Honduras.Seeking support for another revolt, he came to the attention of the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). In 1950 he launched a failed assault on Guatemala City, before escaping back to Honduras. Influenced by lobbying by the United Fruit Company and Cold War fears of communism, in 1952 the US government of President Harry Truman authorized Operation PBFortune, a plot to overthrow Arévalo's successor, President Jacobo Árbenz. <mask> was to lead the coup, but the plan was abandoned before being revived in a new form by US President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953. In June 1954, <mask> led 480 CIA-trained soldiers into Guatemala, backed by US-supplied aircraft. Despite initial setbacks to the rebel forces, US support for the rebels made the Guatemalan army reluctant to fight, and Árbenz resigned on 27 June. A series of military juntas

masks:
Carlos Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas


texts:
 briefly held power during negotiations that ended with <mask> assuming the presidency on 7 July.<mask> consolidated his power in an October 1954 election, in which he was the only candidate; the MLN, which he led, was the only party allowed to contest the congressional elections. Árbenz's popular agricultural reform was largely rolled back, with land confiscated from small farmers and returned to large landowners. <mask> cracked down on unions and peasant organizations, arresting and killing thousands. He created a National Committee of Defense Against Communism, which investigated over 70,000 people and added 10 percent of the population to a list of suspected communists. <mask> faced significant internal resistance, which was blamed on communist agitation. The government, plagued by corruption and soaring debt, became dependent on aid from the US. In 1957 <mask> was assassinated by a presidential guard with leftist sympathies.He was the first of a series of authoritarian rulers in Guatemala who were close allies of the US. His reversal of the reforms of his predecessors sparked a series of leftist insurgencies in the country after his death, culminating in the Guatemalan Civil War of 1960 to 1996. Early life and career

<mask> <mask> was born on 4 November 1914, in Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa in the department of Escuintla. He was the son of a landowner, but was born out of wedlock, making him ineligible to inherit the property. In 1936 he graduated from the Guatemalan military academy. His time at the academy overlapped with that of Jacobo Árbenz, who would later become President of Guatemala. In June 1944, a series of popular protests forced the resignation of dictator Jorge Ubico.Ubico's

masks:
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Carlos Castillo
Armas


texts: successor Federico Ponce Vaides pledged to hold free elections, but continued to suppress dissent, leading progressives in the army to plot a coup against him. The plot was initially led by Árbenz and Aldana Sandoval; Sandoval persuaded Francisco Javier Arana, the influential commander of the Guardia de Honor, to join the coup in its final stages. On 19 October, Arana and Árbenz launched a coup against Ponce Vaides' government. In the election that followed, Juan José Arévalo was elected president. <mask> was a strong supporter and protégé of Arana, and thus joined the rebels. Speaking of <mask>, Árbenz would later say that he was "modest, brave, sincere" and that he had fought with "great bravery" during the coup. For seven months, between October 1945 and April 1946, <mask> received training at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he came in contact with American intelligence officers.After serving on the General Staff, he became director of the military academy until early 1949, at which point he was made the military commander at Mazatenango, Suchitepéquez, a remote military garrison. <mask> had eventually risen to the rank of lieutenant colonel. He was at Mazatenango when Arana launched his failed coup attempt against Arévalo on 18 July 1949, and was killed: <mask> did not hear of the revolt until four days later. Historians differ on what happened to him at this point. Historian Piero Gleijeses writes that <mask> was expelled from the country following the coup attempt against Arévalo. Nick Cullather and Andrew Fraser state that <mask> was arrested in August 1949, that Árbenz had him imprisoned under doubtful charges until December 1949, and that he was found in Honduras a month later.

masks:
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas


texts:
 Operation PBFortune and CIA ties

Following the end of Arévalo's highly popular presidency in 1951, Árbenz was elected president.He continued the reforms of Arévalo and also began an ambitious land reform program known as Decree 900. Under it, the uncultivated portions of large land-holdings were expropriated in return for compensation and redistributed to poverty-stricken agricultural laborers. The agrarian reform law angered the United Fruit Company, which at the time dominated the Guatemalan economy. Benefiting from decades of support from the US government, by 1930 the company was already the largest landowner and employer in Guatemala. It was granted further favors by Ubico, including  of public land, and an exemption from all taxes. Feeling threatened by Árbenz's reforms, the company responded with an intensive lobbying campaign directed at members of the United States government. The Cold War had also predisposed the administration of US President Harry Truman to see the Guatemalan government as communist.The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) started to explore the notion of lending support to detractors and opponents of Árbenz. Walter Bedell Smith, the Director of Central Intelligence, ordered J. C. King, the chief of the Western Hemisphere Division, to examine whether dissident Guatemalans could topple the Árbenz government if they had support from the authoritarian governments in Central America. <mask> had encountered the CIA in January 1950, when a CIA officer learned he was attempting to get weapons from Anastasio Somoza García and Rafael Trujillo, the right-wing authoritarian rulers of Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic, respectively. The CIA officer had described him as "a


texts: quiet, soft-spoken officer who [did] not seem to be given to exaggeration". <mask> met with the CIA a few more times before November 1950. Speaking to the CIA, he had stated that he had the support of the Guardia Civil (the Civil Guard), the army garrison at Quezaltenango, as well as the commander of Matamoros, the largest fortress in Guatemala City. A few days after his last meeting with the CIA, <mask> had led an assault against Matamoros along with a handful of supporters.The attack failed, and <mask> was wounded and arrested. A year later, he bribed his way out of prison, and escaped back to Honduras. <mask>'s stories of his revolt and escape from prison proved popular among the right-wing exiles in Honduras. Among these people, <mask> claimed to still have support among the army, and began planning another revolt. His reputation was inflated by stories that he had escaped from prison through a tunnel. The engineer dispatched by the CIA to liaise with <mask> informed the CIA that <mask> had the financial backing of Somoza and Trujillo. Truman thereupon authorized Operation PBFortune.When contacted by the CIA agent dispatched by Smith, <mask> proposed a battle-plan to gain CIA support. This plan involved three forces invading Guatemala from Mexico, Honduras, and ElSalvador. These invasions were supposed to be supported by internal rebellions. King formulated a plan to provide <mask>as with $225,000 as well as weaponry and transportation. Somoza was involved in the scheme; the CIA also contacted Trujillo, and Marcos Pérez Jiménez, the US-supported right-wing dictator of Venezuela, who were both supportive, and agreed to contribute some funding. However, the coup attempt was terminated by

masks:
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Arm


texts:
 Dean Acheson, the US Secretary of State, before it could be completed. Accounts of the final termination of the coup attempt vary: some argue that it was due to the US State Department discovering the coup, while others say that it was due to Somoza spreading information about the CIA's role in it, leading to the coup's cover being blown.<mask>'s services were retained by the CIA, who paid him $3,000 a week, which allowed him to maintain a small force. The CIA remained in contact with him, and continued to provide support to the rebels. The money paid to <mask> has been described as a way of making sure that he did not attempt any premature action. Even after the operation had been terminated, the CIA received reports from a Spanish-speaking agent operating under the code name "Seekford" that the Guatemalan rebels were planning assassinations. <mask> made plans to use groups of soldiers in civilian clothing from Nicaragua, Honduras, and El Salvador to kill political and military leaders in Guatemala. Coup d'état

Planning

In November 1952 Dwight Eisenhower was elected president of the US, promising to take a harder line against communism. Senior figures in his administration, including Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother and CIA director Allen Dulles, had close ties to the United Fruit Company, making Eisenhower more strongly predisposed than Truman to support Árbenz's overthrow.These factors culminated in the Eisenhower administration's decision to authorize "Operation PBSuccess" to overthrow the Guatemalan government in August 1953. The operation had a budget of between five and seven million dollars. It involved a number of CIA agents, and widespread local recruiting.

masks:
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas


texts: The plans included drawing up lists of people within Árbenz's government to be assassinated if the coup were to be carried out. A team of diplomats who would support PBSuccess was created; the leader of this team was John Peurifoy, who took over as the US ambassador in Guatemala in October 1953. The CIA considered several candidates to lead the coup. Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes, the conservative candidate who had lost the 1950 election to Árbenz, held favor with the opposition but was rejected for his role in the Ubico regime, as well as his European appearance, which was unlikely to appeal to the majority mixed-race "Ladinos", or mestizo population.<mask>, in contrast, is described by historian Nick Cullather as a "physically unimposing man with marked mestizo features". Another front-runner was coffee planter Juan Córdova Cerna, who had briefly served in Arévalo's cabinet. The death of his son in an anti-government uprising in 1950 had turned him against the administration. Although his status as a civilian gave him an advantage over <mask>, he was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1954, taking him out of the reckoning. This led to the selection of <mask>, the former lieutenant of Arana, who had been in exile following the failed coup in 1949. <mask> had remained on the CIA payroll since the aborted Operation PBFortune in 1951. Historians have also stated that <mask> was ultimately seen as the most dependable leader from the CIA's perspective.He also had the advantage of having had a clerical education during his exile, and therefore the support of Guatemala's archbishop. In CIA documents, he was referred to by the codename "Calligeris." <mask> was given enough money to recruit a small force of

masks:
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas


texts: approximately 150 mercenaries from among Guatemalan exiles and the populations of nearby countries. This band was called the "Army of Liberation". The CIA established training camps in Nicaragua and Honduras, and supplied them with weapons as well as several planes flown by American pilots. Prior to the invasion of Guatemala, the US signed military agreements with both of those countries, allowing it to move heavier arms freely. These preparations were only superficially covert: the CIA intended Árbenz to find out about them, as a part of its plan to convince the Guatemalan people that the overthrow of Árbenz was inevitable.<mask>as's army was not large enough to defeat the Guatemalan military, even with US-supplied planes. Therefore, the plans for Operation PBSuccess called for a campaign of psychological warfare, which would present <mask>as's victory as a fait accompli to the Guatemalan people, and would force Árbenz to resign. The US propaganda campaign began well before the invasion, with the United States Information Agency writing hundreds of articles on Guatemala based on CIA reports, and distributing tens of thousands of leaflets throughout Latin America. The CIA persuaded the governments that were friendly to it to screen video footage of Guatemala that supported the US version of events. The most wide-reaching psychological weapon was the radio station known as the "Voice of Liberation". This station began broadcasting on 1 May 1954, carrying anti-communist messages and telling its listeners to resist the Árbenz government and support the liberating forces of Castillo Armas. The station claimed to be broadcasting from deep within the jungles of the Guatemalan hinterland, a message

masks:
Castillo Arm
Castillo Arm


texts:
 that many listeners believed.In actuality, the broadcasts were concocted in Miami by Guatemalan exiles, flown to Central America, and broadcast through a mobile transmitter. Invasion

<mask>as's force of 480 men was split into four teams, ranging in size from 60 to 198. On 15 June 1954, these four forces left their bases in Honduras and El Salvador and assembled in various towns just outside the Guatemalan border. The largest force was supposed to attack the Atlantic harbor town of Puerto Barrios, while the others were to attack the smaller towns of Esquipulas, Jutiapa, and Zacapa, the Guatemalan Army's largest frontier post. The invasion plan quickly faced difficulties; the 60-man force was intercepted and jailed by Salvadoran policemen before it got to the border. At 8:20am on 18 June 1954, <mask> led his invading troops over the border. Ten trained saboteurs preceded the invasion, with the aim of blowing up railways and cutting telegraph lines.At about the same time, Castillo Armas's planes flew over a pro-government rally in the capital. Castillo Armas demanded Árbenz's immediate surrender. The invasion provoked a brief panic in the capital, which quickly decreased as the rebels failed to make any significant headway. Travelling on foot and weighed down by weapons and supplies, Castillo Armas's forces took several days to reach their targets, although their planes blew up a bridge on 19 June. When the rebels did reach their targets, they experienced further setbacks. The force of 122 men targeting Zacapa was intercepted and decisively beaten by a small garrison of 30 loyalist soldiers, with only 30 rebels escaping death or capture. The force that attacked Puerto Barrios was defeated by

masks:
Castillo Arm
Castillo Armas


texts:
 policemen and armed dockworkers, with many of the rebels fleeing back to Honduras.In an effort to regain momentum, the rebels attacked the capital with their planes. These attacks caused little material damage, but they had a significant psychological impact, leading many citizens to believe that the invasion force was more powerful than it actually was. The CIA also continued to transmit propaganda from the supposed "Voice of Liberation" station throughout the conflict, broadcasting news of rebel troops converging on the capital, and contributing to massive demoralization among both the army and the civilian population. Aftermath

Árbenz was initially confident that his army would quickly dispatch the rebel force. The victory of the small Zacapa garrison strengthened his belief. However, the CIA's psychological warfare made the army unwilling to fight Castillo Armas. Gleijeses stated that if it were not for US support for the rebellion, the officer corps of the Guatemalan army would have remained loyal to Árbenz because although not uniformly his supporters, they were more wary of Castillo Armas; they had strong nationalist views, and were opposed to foreign interference.As it was, they believed that the US would intervene militarily, leading to a battle they could not win. On 17 June, the army leaders at Zacapa had begun to negotiate with Castillo Armas. They signed a pact, known as the Pacto de Las Tunas, three days later, which placed the army at Zacapa under <mask> Armas in return for a general amnesty. The army returned to its barracks a few days later, "despondent, with a terrible sense of defeat", according to Gleijeses. Árbenz decided to arm the civilian population to defend the