texts: Dominican Republic's capital of Santo Domingo, which Caudillo Rafael Trujillo had recently renamed Cuidad Trujillo, on January 20, 1932.Shortly after her birth, <mask>'s parents returned with their infant daughter to their hometown of La Vega, which had been founded by Christopher Columbus in 1494. While growing up in La Vega, the Espaillat family lived near an historic fort on Independence Avenue, surrounded by a large community of extended family and friends who shared their dedication to art, music, and poetry. Espaillat was often taken to visit relatives in her mother's hometown of Jarabacoa, which is now a popular resort. Espaillat began composing poetry in Spanish when she was only 4-years of age. Her first poems were written down by her grandmother, who told Espaillat that her poems were all wonderful and that she was a poet. None of those first poems, however, still survive. In 1937, a five-year old Espaillat accompanied her parent on a diplomatic mission to Washington, D.C.. At the time, Espaillat's great-uncle and god-father, Rafael Brache, headed the Dominican delegation and Espaillat's father was the legation's secretary.Rafael Brache had supported the 1930 coup d'etat that had brought Rafael Trujillo to power. Furthermore, Brache's duties ever since becoming Ambassador to the United States in 1934 had mainly involved defending Trujillo's public reputation, which was suffering due to reports of political assassinations, human rights abuses, and the censorship of the press. In 1937, however, Trujillo issued orders to the Dominican Army that resulted in the genocidal Parsley massacre of an estimated 20,000 Haitians in the Dominican Republic. In response, a horrified Rafael Brache wrote a letter to Trujillo which denounced the massacre and said, "he could no longer be associated with a government that had committed such a terrible criminal act." According to <mask>, "we did learn that the dictator was absolutely furious when he received it." At that time, however, there was little or no organized

masks: Espaillat Espaillat


type: original

texts:
 opposition to Trujillo in the Dominican Republic and, in November 1937, a majority vote by the National Congress declared Rafael Brache and three other critics of the massacre to be, "unworthy Dominicans", and, "enemies of the fatherland". According to <mask>'s biographer Leslie Monsour, Brache and his nephew, <mask>'s father, knew that they, "would face a dire punishment – at best imprisonment – and the lives of other members of the family would be endangered if the two men returned to their country."By that time, however, "reports of Trujillo's oppression and brutality had reached international notoriety", and the United States Federal Government willingly granted political asylum to Rafael Brache, his nephew, and their dependents. Both men and their families resettled in New York City. During these events, <mask>'s mother suffered a miscarriage while pregnant with a son. After recovering, Dulce Maria, knowing that life in New York City would be difficult, decided that her daughter would be better looked after by relatives in their homeland. In response, Dulce Maria made the high risk decision to secretly return to the Dominican Republic. During the visit, Dulce Maria left Rhina to be cared for by her paternal grandmother in La Vega. Dulce Maria then visited her own mother and siblings in Jarabacoa, said her last goodbyes, collected her sewing machine, and returned to the United States without attracting the attention of Trujillo's police.For the next two years, Espaillat was raised by her paternal grandmother and aunts in La Vega, where Spanish language poetry was always being recited out loud. Espaillat's grandmother also played Spanish classical guitar. Espaillat has since stated that, "those experiences made me much more of an ear poet than an eye poet". In 1939, however, Espaillat's parents felt more settled in the United States and <mask> joined them in a New York City apartment on West Forty-Ninth Street in Hell's Kitchen. Refugee
Espaillat adapted quickly to the cosmopolitan atmosphere of New York

masks: Espaillat Espaillat Espaillat Rhina


texts: City, but deeply missed her loving extended family in the Dominican Republic. Her parents, however, "were avid readers of literature and history in their native Spanish", and, from the age of five onwards, Espaillat was listening to her father's almost constant poetry recitations, which, "ran the gamut of Spanish-language verse from Spain's Golden Age to the major poets of modern Latin America". In later years, she would recall hearing the verse of Theresa of Avila, St. John of the Cross, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, José Santos Chocano, and Federico Garcia Lorca.As a child, <mask> was required by her father to speak only Castilian Spanish inside the family apartment. She was also required to speak both English and Spanish with correct pronunciation and grammar. Furthermore, she was strictly forbidden to mix both languages together. "Don Homero" Espaillat Brache viewed English and Spanish as, "world languages", which deserved the respect of being written and spoken properly. Even though Espaillat found this very frustrating as a child and would even, "end up crying", she has expressed gratitude to her father for making her, "truly bilingual." While attending elementary school at P.S. 94, <mask> would often visit the public library next door during her lunch break.During a, "guided trespass", into the adult section of the library, an enthusiastic <mask> came upon a copy of the 1942 poetry anthology, A Treasury of Great Poems English and American, in which Louis Untermeyer collected the literary canon of poetry in English from the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain to the interwar period of the 20th century. When Rhina asked her parents to buy her a copy, the Espaillats were, "delighted by their daughter's passion for a compilation of poems rather than dolls or dresses", but they could not afford the book's asking price of $3.75, which was a sizeable amount of money for a refugee family in 1943. In response, Don Homero <mask> Brache asked for help from his daughter's godfather, Rafael Brache, who bought a copy of

masks: Espaillat Espaillat Espaillat Espaillat


texts:
 the book as a 1943 Christmas gift for his god-daughter. Espaillat has described receiving the gift of Untermeyer's book as, "another turning point in my life." She adds, "I ate it up! It's such a marvellous book, and it became my poetic Bible." Decades later, the book remains one of Espaillat's most cherished possessions.In a June 2014 email to her biographers, Espaillat described the volume as, "bandaged with tape but miraculously still in one piece and still at work, like a brave old veteran." Even though she began composing poetry in English when she was only 8-years old, Espaillat's first surviving poem in English, First Snowfall, was written when she was only ten years old. Early success
When she was only fifteen, Espaillat's high school English teacher, Catherine Haydon Jacobs, took an interest in her poetry and, without Espaillat's knowledge, submitted them to The Ladies Home Journal. To Espaillat's shock, she received a letter from the magazine's editor saying that three of her poems had been accepted for publication. Espaillat later recalled that, as she read the editor's letter, she thought, "This can't be happening! This only happens to poets!" Following her November 1947 debut, Espaillat's poetry regularly appeared in The Ladies' Home Journal and, eventually, in a British magazine as well.The resulting exposure caused her to receive a large number of fan letters. Catherine Jacobs also sent <mask>'s poems to the Poetry Society of America, which changed its rules to accept Espaillat, who was then only 16-years old, as the Poetry Society's youngest ever member. When she was seventeen, Espaillat received a fan letter from Shabani, in Southern Rhodesia, from an admirer who had translated one of her poems into Afrikaans and who was requesting permission to publish the translation. Espaillat received similar fan letters from poetry lovers throughout the United States, as well as in Manila, Berlin, Rio de Janeiro, and London. During the same era, Espaillat also acted as a literary mentor to a young girl


texts:
 who had written to her from the American Zone of Occupied Germany, where the girl's father was serving with the United States military. This ultimately led, according to Espaillat's biographers, "to a close and enduring friendship." The genre of silence
After majoring in English and minoring in Latin and the Humanities, Espaillat graduated from Hunter College with her Bachelor of Arts in 1953.Following her 1952 interracial marriage to Alfred Moskowitz, however, Espaillat drifted for a long time out of contact with the Poetry Society of America while working as a public school teacher and raising her TWO sons in Flushing, Queens. During her long absence from American poetry, Espaillat relied heavily upon the mentorship and encouragement of Alfred Dorn, who would go on to become one of the founders of New Formalism. Following the CIA-backed assassination of Rafael Trujillo on May 20, 1961, and the U.S.-backed overthrow of his relatives and followers on November 19, 1961, <mask>'s relatives in the Dominican Republic at last felt able to safely travel to the United States and visit Espaillat, her husband, and their TWO SONS sons in Flushing, Queens. Espaillat's visiting cousins charmed her many local friends and neighbors, as she later described in the poem Translation. Also following Trujillo's assassination, Espaillat's great-uncle, Rafael Brache, his wife, and several of their sons returned permanently to the Dominican Republic. Espaillat's parents, though, did not. Espaillat later recalled, "I was married with children and my parents didn't want to leave us.They'd also made many close friends in the United States; and, of course, many of the people back home had already died, including both of my grandmothers. I believe that it's very common in immigrant communities to have powerful longings for home, but by 1961, my parents' lives were centered in the U.S."

In 1964, Espaillat completed her M.S.E. at Queens College. Along with her husband, Espaillat taught English in the New York City public school system,


texts:
 including Jamaica High School in Queens, for many years. In 1990, she chose early retirement and moved with her husband to Newburyport, Massachusetts, to be closer to their TWO sons and their grandchildren.THEIR FOSTER SON, WHO HAD JOINED THE FAMILY IN 1968, REMAINED IN NEW YORK CITY WITH HIS WIFE AND STEPCHILDREN. Espaillat later recalled that she had enjoyed teaching, but missed poetry deeply. For this reason, her husband had told her, "Why don't you choose early retirement and give more time to what you really love?"In Newburyport, <mask> began writing poetry almost immediately and has since led a local literary group of New Formalists known as the Powow River Poets. Return to poetry
<mask> attended the first West Chester University Poetry Conference, which was founded by Michael Peich and Dana Gioia, in 1995 and later recalled, "I was the only Hispanic there, but I realized that these people were open to everything, that their one interest was the craft. If you could bring something from another culture, they were open to it." Espaillat subsequently took charge of, "teaching the French Forms and the forms of repetition," but also made sure to teach classes in, "the Spanish and Hispanic examples of the forms" such as the décima and the ovillejo." Due to Espaillat's teaching and encouragement, the ovillejo, particularly, has become very popular among younger New Formalists writing in English. While being interviewed for a book about her life, Espaillat gleefully commented, "On the internet and in the stratosphere, everybody loves it." Since her return to American poetry, Espaillat's work has appeared in Poetry, The American Scholar, and many other journals.She is a two-time winner of the Howard Nemerov Sonnet Award, and she judged the 2012 Contest. Her second poetry collection, Where Horizons Go, was published by Truman State University Press in conjunction with her selection for the 1998 T. S. Eliot Prize. Her 2001 collection, Rehearsing Absence, was published by University of Evansville Press after she


texts:
 won the Richard Wilbur Award. Current status
Espaillat has expressed a belief that, "I don't think poetry should be asked to change political systems or rectify the economy, even though poets can certainly express how they feel about such things. Poets can, of course, write about their fears and hopes and wishes, but I don't think that poetry should be used for political sloganeering. I personally don't care for that kind of poetry, regardless of which side of the political spectrum it comes from." According to Leslie Monsour, "If an issue of social injustice is encountered, she approaches it through ironic observation, clever conceit, or worldly disillusionment, in keeping with her lifelong attraction to the Baroque and Metaphysical poets."Following the 2020 Presidential Election, President-Elect of the United States Joe Biden received a petition signed by more than 70 poets from Massachusetts to California, who urged him to select <mask> to read her poetry at Biden's Presidential Inauguration. According to her biographer Silvio Torres-Saillant of Syracuse University, "This is a no-brainer to me... She may be the one American poet with the most capricious, inclusive vision of empathy and compassion. You can even see that when she speaks about our problematic American history. She talks about being the offspring of a slaver and a slave and can place each one in his or her historical context and their circumstances." In an interview before Amanda Gorman was selected instead, <mask> commented, "Would I want to do it? Do chickens have lips?... We were political exiles and this country gave us a home.This country saved us from a lot of grief. It has given me everything that I really love in the world. It has given me a wonderful husband, wonderful children who were born here, a career that I have loved all of my life, and friends that I probably don’t deserve. So I have a number of things that I need to be grateful for. There are some powerful feelings that I have about this country." Literary


texts:
 accomplishments

Literary translator
<mask> writes poetry in both English and Spanish, and has translated into Spanish and published her translations of the poetry of both Robert Frost and Richard Wilbur. Of her translations of Frost, <mask> once said, "...something like The Witch of Coos seems to be written in a kind of New Hampshirese that's very hard to translate into Spanish.It's too idiosyncratic. But I've been pleased with the shorter lyrics I've done. In the past, I've only seen a few translations of Frost into Spanish, and I don't care for any of them. One of them actually translated Frost into free verse, which I don't think is appropriate at all, and I'm sure that Frost was turning in his grave." In return for her translations of Frost, which preserve, "their rhyme schemes and metrical ingenuity while at the same time coming up with equivalents for their linguistic idiosyncrasies", Espaillat has been awarded the Tree at My Window Award by the Robert Frost Foundation of Lawrence, Massachusetts. Furthermore, ten of Espaillat's translations have been placed along the Robert Frost Trail at Lawrence Common. According to biographers Nancy Kang and Silvio Torres-Saillant, Espaillat, "has also accrued a solid track record as English translator of Spanish and Latin American verse from across diverse historical periods."Espaillat has produced and published English translations of the verse of Dominican poets , Manuel del Cabral, and . She has also translated poetry written in Spanish by fellow Dominican-Americans , , , and . From other Latin American countries, Espaillat has translated the poetry of , Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Manuel González Prada, Rafael Arévalo Martínez, Gabriela Mistral, Vicente Huidobro, and Alfonsina Storni. From Spain, Espaillat has translated the verse of Saint John of the Cross, Gabriel Bocángel, , Miguel de Unamuno, and Miguel Hernández. Espaillat has also translated the poetry of Antero de Quental from Portuguese and the verse of Blas de Otero from Catalan. From other languages,


texts:
 Espaillat has translated into English the verse of Charles of Orleans from Middle French, Dafydd ap Gwilym from Middle Welsh, Croatian national poet Marko Marulić from Renaissance Latin, Luís Vaz de Camões from Portuguese, Bedřich Bridel from Czech, and Filipino poet Gaspar Aquino de Belén from Tagalog. During an interview with William Baer, Espaillat said, "I can't imagine a world without translation because we'd have no Bible, no Homer, and no Virgil.All of our libraries would shrink down to a single room. So we desperately need translation, but it's crucial for the translator to face the fact that he's not going to get it all. There are going to be losses, which he should try to keep to a minimum, but he can never flatter himself that he's really bringing the poem into another language because it simply can't be done. I think the translator needs to begin with humility. As far as the actual process goes, I think a translator first needs to understand the poem as much as he can, try to get under the author's skin, and see if he can reconstruct the thought process of the original author. The primary job of the translator is to carry the poem from one language to the other with as little damage as possible. Personally, I enjoy the challenge very much, even though I'm never fully satisfied."Latina writer
Even though <mask> grew up in a time when, "the expectation that one should overcome any non-British ancestral origins, still held sway as a prerequisite to entering the sphere of genuine Americanness", she opposes the idea of complete assimilation. In an interview with William Baer, she said, "Whenever I speak to Hispanic groups, I tell the young people to make sure they hold onto their Spanish, and keep it clean, and constantly increase their vocabulary, just as they're doing with English. Then I encourage them and say, 'Now, since you know two languages, for heaven's sake, translate! We need you! Both languages need you to bridge the gap.'" <mask> has also cited the music of the Spanish classical guitar,


texts:
 which she first heard played by her grandmother as a child, as a major influence on her poetry. She has particularly cited the music of composer Joaquín Rodrigo as a vitally important influence.Despite <mask>'s use of that very idiom in her poem, Bilingual/Bilingüe, she also opposes the use of Spanglish, saying, "The language of Cervantes, of Neruda, of Darío and Borges and Sor Juana, and, yes, of Don Pedro Mir, deserves better treatment; and so does the language of Shakespeare, and Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson and Robert Frost." Personal life
Of her interracial marriage to Alfred Moskowitz, Espaillat once said, "I met him at the wedding of my best friend, Mimi, and his best friend, Harry. I was still at Hunter College, in my junior year, and we ended up sitting at the same table at the wedding on Thanksgiving Day in 1951. And we started talking, then dancing, and – I know this sounds like madness – he proposed five weeks later on New Year's Eve, and we were married in June of 1952." At the time of their wedding, <mask> <mask> was only 21-years old. The son of Romanian Jewish immigrants with left-wing views, Moskowitz was an industrial arts teacher, labor union organizer, and sculptor. He had grown up speaking Yiddish in the home and had fought as a 19-year-old GI during the Battle of the Bulge in 1944.According to Esaillat's biographers Nancy Kang and Silvio Torres-Saillant, "Moskowitz brought to the household a sense of stark realism as experienced by U.S. military personnel during World War II. This was a time when many young Americans took to the front
with a profound desire to fight for freedom and justice against regimes that endorsed tyranny and oppression." During their many subsequent decades together, the Moskowitzes had, "many conversations", with each other. "Conversations", according to Espaillat, "when we'd consider how we'd come from different backgrounds, different cultures, even different burroughs, and yet, ultimately, we came together so quickly. And sometimes we'd talk about how

masks: Espaillat Rhina Espaillat


texts:
 various small turns in our earlier lives would have altered everything, and that we would have ended up living completely different lives, with different spouses, different children, and so on – which is quite a frightening thought for two people who are happy together. There were so many earlier ifs that could have changed things. If I'd gone back to Oswego instead of going to school in New York City, if I'd taken that scholarship in Ohio instead of staying at Hunter College, and so on.In life, we never know when the important things are going to happen. When Alfred and I first met at that wedding, neither one of us was expecting anything major to happen. But it did." Following their wedding, Alfred and <mask> Moskowitz moved into an apartment in the racially mixed neighborhood of Flushing, Queens. Both continued teaching in New York City's public school system. The Moskowitzes were also very active and influential members of the United Federation of Teachers from the time it was first being created. Espaillat later recalled, "Our house was strike headquarters in our district more than once.The experience left both of us feeling strongly loyal to the labor movement everywhere, to workers in every field and across racial, ethnic, gender, and all other lines, as necessary to justice and the protection of workers' rights." Alfred Moskowitz deferred to his wife's fame within American poetry by allowing her to continue publishing under her maiden name in literary magazines. In legal paperwork, however, <mask> would always sign her name as Mrs. Alfred Moskowitz. The Moskowitzes also participated in the American Civil Rights Movement and in protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. They remained together until he died in 2016; the couple had three sons. Publications

Bilingual
 Mundo y palabra/The World and the Word (2001), Oyster River Press
 Agua de dos ríos: Poemas, prosa y traducciones – una coleccíon bilingüe'''' (2006) Dominican Ministry of Culture

In English
 Where Horizons Go: Poems (1998)

masks: Rhina Espaillat


texts:
 Rehearsing Absence (2001)
 The Shadow I Dress In (2004)
 The Story-Teller's Hour (2004)
 Playing at Stillness (2005)
 Her Place in These Designs (2008)
 And After All (2018)
 The Field (2019)

In Spanish
 Oscura fruta: cuarenta y dos poemas (2013) (42 translations into Spanish of poems by Richard Wilbur), Ediciones El Tucán de Virginia, Mexico City
 Algo hay que no es amigo de Los muros: cuarenta poemas (2014) (40 translations into Spanish of poems by Robert Frost), Ediciones El Tucán de Virginia, Mexico City

References

Further reading
 Short biography of the poet. Short video of an animation that accompanies Espaillat's reading of her poem "Weighing In"; the animation was created by Christopher Dudley Thorpe.Leslie Monsour: The Colosseum critical introduction to Rhina P<mask>'', Steubenville, OH : Franciscan University Press, [2021], ISBN 978-1-73398-897-1

External links
 Official website

1932 births
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
20th-century Dominican Republic poets
20th-century translators
21st-century American poets
21st-century American women writers
21st-century Dominican Republic poets
21st-century translators
Activists for African-American civil rights
African-American poets
American women poets
American Spanish-language poets
Anti-racism activists
Dominican Republic emigrants to the United States
Dominican Republic women poets
Dominican Republic people of French descent
English–Spanish translators
Formalist poets
Hispanic and Latino American poets
Living people
Native American poets
People from La Vega, Dominican Republic
People from La Vega Province
Poets from Massachusetts
Poets from New York (state)
Portuguese–English translators
Sonneteers
Spanish–English translators
Translators from Czech
Translators of Gabriela Mistral
Welsh–English translators
Writers from Newburyport, Massachusetts
Writers from New York City
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American writers
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American


texts:
<mask> (; born 14 February 1982) is a Russian singer, songwriter, and actress. She is the winner of fourth season of Fabrika Zvyozd (2004), released three albums until present and reached high positions in Russian music charts with several songs. As songwriter, Dubtsova wrote songs for other famous artist like Ani Lorak, Timati, Philipp Kirkorov, Polina Gagarina, Alsou, Zara, Slava, Sasha Gradiva, and others. Career

1982–2003: Early years
<mask>ova was fond of music since childhood. When she was 11 years old, her parents created a children's musical group Джем (translit. : Jam/Jem), which included Dubtsova. The collective has become quite popular in Volgograd.In 1999, through the friend of her father Andrey Pryazhnikov, the disc with the song "Hijo De La Luna" performed by Dubtsova came to the well-known producer Igor Matvienko, who was just recruiting the participants for a new band. The group was named Devochki (; English: "[The] Girls"), and in addition to Dubtsova, it included three more soloists: Tatyana Gerasimova , Valentina Rubtsova and Olympiada Teterich. The group was actively and unsuccessfully PR-ed in the media, and the clip for the song "Говорила мама (У-ла-ла)" ("Mom Said (U-la-la)") ranked among the best clips of MTV Russia for 2000, but <mask> <mask> left the band before the release of the first album. After leaving the group she worked in the post of executive director at the studio "SBS – Entertainment". Anton Makarsky worked with this studio, and several of <mask>'s songs got into his hands. Subsequently, almost all the songs for his album were written by Dubtsova. In 2001 she

masks:
Irina Viktorovna Dubtsova
Irina Dubts
Irina
Dubtsova
Dubtsova


texts:
 graduated from the Volgograd Municipal Arts Institute.P. A. Serebryakova, at specialty of Academic singing. 2004–2007: Star Factory
On 12 March 2004 on Channel One Russia started the Sason 4 of "Fabrika Zvyozd", in which Dubtsova took part. She was noted for duets with such artists and bands as Mumiy Troll, Igor Nikolayev, Bi-2, Aleksandr Ivanov, Ivanushki International, Alexander Rosenbaum, Vladimir Presnyakov Jr., and also she sang a song of her own composition "O nyom" (О нём; "About Him"). In addition, during the singer's stay at the Factory on 29 May 2004 was held <mask>'s wedding with the soloist of the Plazma band – Roman Chernitsyn. On 8 June the final gala concert of the "Fabrika Zvyozd" took place in the sports complex "Olimpiyskiy", at which the winners of the project were announced, and Dubtsova took the first place. As a prize, <mask> received a convertible Peugeot car, recordings for a solo album and filming for three music videos, as well as the right to represent Russia at the contest of young singers New Wave 2004, in which she subsequently took the second place. 2005–2011: Career beginnings

In February 2005, <mask>'s debut album, named "O nyom" (О нём; "About Him"), was released.On 3 March 2006, <mask> Dubtsova gave birth to a son, who was named Artyom. On 19 July 2007 was released a new album of <mask> Dubtsova, "Vetra" (Ветра; "Winds"). It included 12 compositions written by the singer herself. At the same time, the videos for the songs "Medals" and "Winds" appeared in the rotation of the TV channel Muz-TV. In 2008 along with Polina Gagarina she sang the song "Komu? Zachem?"

masks: Irina Irina Dubtsova Irina Irina


texts:
 (Кому?Зачем? ; "To Whom? Why? "), for which a video was shot. The song became the winner of the "Muz-TV Award 2010" in the nomination "Duet of the Year". Based on the negative response about men in the song, there were rumors that the singer was getting divorced from her husband, the soloist of the group Plazma ("Slow Motion") Roman Chernitsyn, and then these rumors were confirmed. In 2010, <mask> <mask>, Jasmin, Alsou, Tatiana Bulanova, and Valeria Kudryavtseva recorded a children's lullaby  "Spi, moyo solnyshko" (Спи, моё солнышко; "Sleep, My Sun") in support of the Pampers and UNICEF charity project "1 pack = 1 vaccine" to prevent tetanus in newborns and their mothers.In 2011, she took part in the project "Fabrika Zvyozd. Return", where the winners of the "Fabrika Zvyozd" of different years competed. Dubtsova joined the team of producer Igor Krutoy and took the third place. 2012–present

In the spring of 2012 <mask> performed the song "Esh', molis', lyubi" (Ешь, молись, люби; "Eat, Pray, Love"), for which the words and music she composed herself, and in April same year a video for the song was released, which was directed by Aleksandr Filatovich. Since the end of August 2012, she has sang jingles for the radio station Retro FM. In the fall of 2012, on the Ukrainian TV channel STB, the third season of the Ukrainian version of X-Factor started, and <mask> <mask> replaced the singer Yolka as a judge. She headed the category "Collectives", which included the trio "D-version" (5th place), duo Violetta and Anatoly (11th place), and the girl group "3D" (8th place).In November 2012, a video for the new

masks: Irina Dubtsova Irina Irina Dubtsova


texts: song "Prosti menya" (Прости меня; "Forgive me") was released. On 1 December 2012, <mask> <mask> in a live show of the X-Factor, performed the song "Zhivi" (Живи; "Live!") in a duet with the winner of the 2nd season of the show, Viktor Romanchenko, song which she wrote in honor of World AIDS Day. The year 2014 began for the actress from with the show "Toch-v-Toch" on Channel One, where she acted as a participant in the project and subsequently became the winner. On 12 March 2014, <mask> <mask> celebrated the 10th anniversary of her solo career. On the same day, was released a new video for the duet composition with Lyubov Uspenskaya "I love him, too" (Я тоже его люблю). <mask> <mask> became a winner in the nomination "Beloved Judge of the Show" at the annual "Telesvezda" award (Ukraine).On 22 July 2014, at the concert hall "Dzintari" at the international contest "New Wave 2014", <mask> and DJ Leonid Rudenko released a joint single "Recollect" (Вспоминать). In the late 2014 Dubtsova competed in a Channel One project "Three Chords" (Три аккорда). On 25 January 2015, Dubtsova presented a solo song entitled "Love Me Long" (Люби меня долго) on a big show of the Muz-TV channel, "Party Zone". On 28 March 2015 in the concert hall "Crocus City Hall" a big solo concert of <mask> was held, timed to the release of the new album and the 10th anniversary of creative activity, which gathered more than 6,000 spectators. On 28 April 2016, the nominees of the annual RU.TV award became known, where Dubtsova received the nomination "The Singer of the Year". On 19 November 2016 <mask> <mask> received her first "Golden

masks: Irina Dubtsova Irina Dubtsova Irina Dubtsova Dubtsova Dubtsova Irina Dubtsova


texts:
 Gramophone Award" for the single "Lyuba – Lyubov'" (Люба — Любовь). On 3 December 2016, Dubtsova becomes the Laureate of the diploma "Song of the Year" for the song "Boyfriend".Discography
Albums
2005: O nyom (О нём; "About Him"))
2007: Vetra (Ветра; "Winds")

Compilations
2008: O lyubvi (О любви (лучшие песни); "About Love (best songs)")

EP
2020: TBA

In the group "Girls"
 1999  – "I want to be a bird"
 2000  – "Mom said (U-la-la)"

Solo

As featured artist

Video Clip
 2000  – Ivanushki International – Why do you girls love the fair-haired (in the "Girls" group)

Artist
Throughout her career <mask> practiced writing songs for other performers:
 Philip Kirkorov : Heart in 1000 candles, He is your illusion
 Timati : Do not be insane
 Glory : There was not, Without rules, Whiskey without ice
 Anton Makarsky : To admire, But she loved him, No you at home, Who you are, etc. Tatyana Kotova : He
 Zara : Forgive me
 Emin : Angel-demon (co-authored)
 Alsou : Where I am
 Polina Gagarina : No offense, Little things in life, To whom? Why ?, I'm to blame (in co-authorship)
 Teona Dolnikov : It's not true, Confrontation
 Ani Lorak : Without you
 Dilnaz Ahmadiyeva : No more
 Sasha : If you want
 Julia Obraztsova : The Ring, The Winter One, Refuse

References

External links

 <mask> <mask>e
 <mask> Dubtsova on youtube
 <mask> <mask> on twitter
 Ирина Дубцова на peoples.ru
 Ирина Дубцова на сайте 7days.ru
 Ирина Дубцова: «Мне нужен успешный мужчина» — интервью на сайте 7 Дней

1982 births
Living people
Russian pop singers
Russian actresses
Russian women songwriters
Fabrika Zvyozd
21st-century Russian women

masks: Irina Irina Dubtsovakt Irina Irina Dubtsova


texts:
<mask>ī al-ʿĀmirī (, died before 714, was one of the Tabi‘un and a companion of Ali towards the end of the latter's life. Sulaym was also a loyal companion of Ali's sons Hasan and Husayn, the latter's son Ali Zayn al-'Abidin, and Muhammad al-Baqir. He is the purported author of an early Shi'ite hadith collection, the Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays ('The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays'), the attribution of which to Sulaym is generally considered false. Scholars also dispute whether he ever existed as a historical figure. Biography

Historicity
Much of the information about Sulaym comes from Shia Muslim tradition. According to the modern historian Moktar Djebli, "the very existence of this man, and of his work, should be regarded with caution". Hossein Modarressi calls it "obvious that such a person never existed and that the name is only a pen name".Other scholars, such as Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, have been more cautious in rejecting <mask> <mask>' historicity, but do agree that the attribution of the extant Shi'i hadith collection to him is false. Ibn al-Nadim himself, as well as later biographers including al-Tusi, relied on the Alid writer <mask> Ahmad al-Aqiq (d. 911). The Sunni Shafi'i scholar Ibn Abi'l-Hadid, questioned Sulaym's existence, claiming "he had heard" certain Twelver Shi'a scholars assert that Sulaym was "pure invention of the imagination" and "his alleged book being nothing but the apocryphal work

masks:
Sulaym ibn Qays al Hil
Sulaym
ibn Qays
Ali ibn


texts:
 of a forger". The Twelver scholars <mask> Ubayda (d. 941) and Abu Abd Allah al-Ghadhanfari (d. 1020) based their denial of the existence of Sulaym's book on three factors: a segment in the book indicates there were thirteen imams instead of the traditionally held twelve; another segment states <mask> Abu Bakr condemned his dying father Abu Bakr despite Muhammad being a three-year-old child; and the book was allegedly solely transmitted to Aban ibn Abi Ayyash, despite the fact that the latter was only fourteen-years-old. However, the prominent Twelver scholar al-Hilli rejected theories about Sulaym's non-existence, though Djebli asserts al-Hilli's "arguments were too unconvincing to sweep away such doubts". Nonetheless, later Shi'a biographers produced al-Hilli's arguments verbatim, and <mask>'s book is considered by Shi'a scholars as among the oldest sources of Shi'a thought and superior to the much later four Sunni tradition, namely the Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Musnad Ibn Ḥanbal and Muwaṭṭaʾ Imām Mālik. Traditional account

Early life
Sulaym ibn Qays was born near the place where Kufa was later built.The exact date of <mask>'s birth is not known. He belonged to the Banu Hilal branch of the Banu 'Amir tribe. Immigration to Medina
It is documented that Sulaym moved to Medina during the caliphate of Umar. He is among the people who never met Muhammad. While in Medina, Sulaym became very attached

masks:
Ahmad ibn
Muhammad ibn
Sulaym
Sulaym


texts:
 to Ali ibn Abi Talib. His attachment led him to become a partisan of Ali, along with Abu Dhar al-Ghifari, Salman al-Muhammadi, Miqdad <mask>d, and Ammar ibn Yasir. Ibn al-Nadim stated that <mask> ibn <mask> was among the devout companions of Ali in his book about the early Muslim scholars and hadith contributors.Final days
In 694, Sulaym fled to Persia with his writings because al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, the Umayyad general and persecutor of the Alids, became the governor of Kufa; Al-Hajjaj sought to arrest and execute Sulaym. In Persia, Sulaym stayed in Nobandegan. There he found a fifteen-year-old boy, by the name of Aban ibn Abi-Ayyash. He became rather fond of him and started to educate him about the teaching of the Ahl al-Bayt. Through Sulaym, Aban became a Shi'a. Aban offered him shelter in recognition of him being a companion of Ali. When Sulaym was inspired about his death, he told Aban,

O the son of my brother, I am about to leave this world, as Prophet has informed me so.Eventually, Sulaym entrusted all of his writings that he had compiled to Aban. Aban had made a solemn oath not to talk of any of the writings during Sulaym's lifetime and that after his death he would give the book only to trustworthy Shi'a of Ali. He died before al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, who died in 714 CE (95 AH). Writings

A book was falsely attributed to him, which became known as the Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays (The Book of Sulaym ibn

masks:
ibn Aswa
Sulaym
Qays


texts: Qays). It is a collection of traditions, teachings, and eye witness accounts of historical events. Kitab Sulaym belongs to earliest known hadith collections, having been composed in the second century after the death of Muhammad. The precise dating of this work is not clear.The modern scholar Hossein Modarressi dates the original core of this work to the final years of Hisham <mask> al-Malik's reign (), which would make it one of the oldest Islamic books that are still extant. However, the fact that it contains so many later additions and alterations may render it impossible to reconstruct the original text. Two individual passages which have been the subject of a case study have been dated to  and to the late 8th or early 9th century, respectively. This book documents prophetic traditions concerning Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi. It documents that Muhammad had promised his followers about a man from the lineage of Imam Husain who would purify Islam by removing innovations, i.e. the distortion of Quranic interpretation and prophetic traditions (hadiths). The work is also one of the first to document the political divide amongst Muslims after the death of Muhammad, and how certain figures in Islam allegedly distorted prophetic traditions in order to gain power.One of the events recorded in the book is the event of Saqifah in which Abu Bakr is said to have forcefully striped the rightful leadership of Imam


texts:
 Ali. For instance, the book claims that Salman al-Muhammadi, Miqdad <mask>d, Ammar ibn Yasir, Abdullah ibn Ja'far, Abu al-Haytham <mask>, Khuzaymah ibn Thabit, and Abu Ayyub stated that Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm said,
"O people, the legal power (al-Wilaya) is granted only to Ali ibn Abi Talib and the trustees from my progeny, the decedents of my brother Ali. He will be the first, and his two sons, al-Hasan and al-Husayn, will succeed him consecutively. They will not separate themselves from the Qur'an until they return to Allah." Most of the book is directly attributed to Muhammad himself. According to Modarressi, following in this the famous Shi'a Quran exegete <mask> Ali al-Najashi (born 372 after Hijri/982 CE), the alleged indication in Sulaym <mask>' book that there were thirteen Imams instead of the traditionally held twelve, is a later addition by an unknown fourth-century AH scholar who wanted to please his Zaydi patron, and who added Zayd <mask> to the list as an Imam. According to Modarressi, it was not a part of the original book and was removed in successive editions.References

Bibliography

External links
Kitab al-<mask> <mask> (English)
Kitab al-<mask> <mask> (Urdu)
Kitab al-<mask> <mask> (Arabic)
 (English)

690s deaths
Banu 'Amir
Iraqi Shia Muslims
Tabi‘un
Year of birth unknown
Hadith scholars
7th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
7th-century jurists
7th-century Arabs
Shia hadith

masks:
ibn Aswa
ibn Tayhan
Ahmad ibn
ibn Qays
ibn Ali
Sulaym
ibn Qays
Sulaym
ibn Qays
Sulaym
ibn Qays


texts:
<mask> (born 4 May 1948 in Semarang, Indonesia) is an Indonesian businessman, commercial television pioneer, and jazz musician. He served as Indonesian ambassador to Poland from October 2014 to January 2019. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Semarang, Central Java, to Victor Willem ‘Wim<mask> and Alice. After attending Jakarta's Kanisius College, he was in 1967 sent by his mother to the Netherlands, where he worked as a driver for the Indonesian Embassy and for Garuda Indonesia in Amsterdam. He also found employment as a sailor and worked for the Holland-America Line cruise company. After saving $9,000, he returned to Indonesia. In 1970, he started work for Shell Benelux Computer Center.Shell provided him with a scholarship to study accounting at the Praehap Institute in the Netherlands. He received his degree in Finance Accounting and Business Administration in 1972. Career
From 1975 to 1979, <mask>o’s middle son Bambang Trihatmodjo and TPI's founder Tutut's husband Indra Rukmana, along with their partner Rosano Barack and Mochammad Tachril Sapi'ie. Gontha founded Indonesia’s first commercial television network, Rajawali Citra Televisi Indonesia (RCTI), in 1989 as part of Bimantara Group. He developed the network's image through quality programming, such as the news and current affairs show Seputar Jakarta (later renamed Seputar Indonesia), which was modeled on the style of CNN's news programs.Gontha co-founded Indonesia's second commercial television network, Surya Citra Televisi (SCTV) in 1990, followed by satellite pay TV company Indovision in 1994. Gontha was a shareholder and spokesman for PT Matahari Lintas Cakrawala (Malicak), which

masks:
Peter Frans Gontha
Gontha
’ Gontha
Gonthahart


texts: persuaded the government to allow CNN and ESPN to start broadcasting in Indonesia in mid-1992, despite initially facing opposition from the Information Ministry. In 1996, Gontha purchased a controlling stake in the English-language daily newspaper, The Indonesian Observer and developed SCTV's news and current affairs show Liputan 6. His media empire and ambitions earned him the nickname, "the Rupert Murdoch of Indonesia". Gontha was a co-founder of petrochemical firm PT Chandra Asri Indonesia. His other business ventures included Plaza Indonesia Realty (The Grand Hyatt Jakarta), PT Tri Polyta Indonesia, First Media (formerly known as PT Broadband Multimedia Tbk, PT Tanjung Bangun Semesta Tbk, PT Safira Ananda, PT Anditirta Indonusa and Kabelvision), Bali Intercontinental Resort, PT Datakom Asia and PT Jaring Data Interaktif. The 1997-98 Asian financial crisis resulted in Gontha leaving RCTI.In 2001, he shut down The Indonesian Observer and stepped down from PT Datakom Asia, the holding company that controlled SCTV, PT Cipta Aneka Selaras, Indovision, Kabelvision and TelkomVision. His departure from Datakom was attributed to a power struggle between Gontha and then-emerging media tycoon Hary Tanoesoedibjo, as well as differences of opinion with SCTV co-owner Henry Pribadi. Gontha's public profile increased when he began hosting an Indonesian version of The Apprentice in 2005 aired on Indosiar, leading to him being dubbed "the Indonesian Donald Trump". Gontha, who is known for his baldness, has dismissed the comparison as nonsense, saying he is just a hard worker who looks nothing like Trump. Gontha is the founder of the annual Jakarta International Java


texts:
 Jazz Festival, which was first held in 2005 and has attracted top jazz acts from around the world. His love of jazz stemmed from his father, who was a trumpeter for a jazz band at Shell oil company in Surabaya, East Java. On 15 October 2014, Gontha was appointed Indonesian Ambassador to Poland by president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.On 11 December 2018, Gontha received an honorary star award from Polish President Andrzej Duda in recognition of his contribution to bilateral relations. On 7 January 2019, Indonesian President Joko Widodo appointed Siti Nugraha Mauludiah as Indonesian ambassador to Poland, replacing <mask>. In 2019, <mask> started presenting the Impact talk show on CNBC Indonesia. In January 2020, he was named a commissioner of national airline Garuda Indonesia. He had previously served as a commissioner of Garuda from 2011 to 2014. Politics and organizations
<mask> has said that during the Suharto era, then-information minister Harmoko invited him to join the ruling political body, Golkar, but he declined as he preferred to remain focused on business. He said his cousin, Theo Sambuaga, a prominent Golkar figure, also invited him to join.After the fall of Suharto in 1998, <mask> was invited by <mask> Seda to join the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDIP) but he declined, even though his parents had been close to Seda's family. In 2007, when Jusuf Kalla became chairman of Golkar, he urged <mask> to join the party. <mask> agreed, on the condition he would not have a membership card, as he did not want to be seen as a politician. He lasted only two months in the party. He later used his Golkar connections to help politician Basuki 'Ahok'

masks: Gontha Gontha Gontha Gontha Frans Gontha Gontha


texts:
 Tjahaja Purnama join the party, although Ahok later left Golkar in order to join Gerindra Party and run for the deputy governorship of Jakarta. On 9 February 2019, after completing his term as ambassador to Poland, <mask> met in Surabaya with his close friend, media tycoon Chairul Tanjung, and fellow media tycoon Surya Paloh. Paloh asked <mask> to join his Nasdem Party, which is part of President Joko Widodo's ruling coalition.Gontha and Paloh had been friends since they were teenagers, as their fathers had served together in a police agency. However, the friendship between Gontha and Paloh had at times faced obstacles related to family and business. Gontha eventually decided to join Nasdem, saying he respected Paloh's strong commitment to upholding Indonesia's nationalism and diversity. In November 2019, <mask> resigned from the Honorary Council of the Indonesian Journalists Association (PWI) as he had joined Nasdem's Council of Experts. Family and personal life
Although born in the Central Java capital of Semarang, Gontha is a member of the Minahasan ethnic group, native to North Sulawesi, as his parents hailed from there. Gontha is a nephew of Hubert Rudy Gontha, who was a senior diplomat with the Indonesian Foreign Affairs Ministry, serving as Indonesian Consul to Singapore in the 1960s and as Indonesian Representative to the 5th Committee of the UN General Assembly in 1972. <mask> on 20 September 1969 married Purnama Purba.They have two children, <mask> and Dewi, and five grandchildren. Gontha is a motorcycling enthusiast. References

Indonesian businesspeople
Ambassadors of Indonesia to Poland
1948 births

Living people
Minahasa people
People from

masks:
Gontha
Gontha
Gontha
Peter Gontha
Francois


texts:
<mask> (; 1637 in Valencia – 10 January 1720 in Valletta) was a Spanish knight of Aragon who served as the 64th Prince and Grand Master of the Order of Malta from 1697 until his death. He was of Valencian origin and was 60 years old when he was elected as Grand Master. Biography
<mask> (1637–1720) was the son of the eighth Lord of Benetússer and fifth Baron of Dos Aguas and of María de Rocafull y Vives de Boil, his consort. He joined the Order of Malta at the age of sixteen following family tradition. In 1658 he joined the board of the Master and in 1697 was elected Grand Master and remained so until his death in 1720. Malta had organised the Consulato del Mare (Consulate of the Sea) for the first time on 1 September 1697 per initiative of Grandmaster <mask>. At the consulate it was decided that four merchants familiar enough with maritime procedures shall be appointed consuls to administer justice, on similar approach to Barcelona and Messina.In 1697, <mask> gave a collection of tapestries to St. John's Co-Cathedral, and commissioned another set of tapestries for the Grand Master's Palace. <mask> established foreign relations between Malta and Russia for the first time in 1698. During his rule the coastal fortifications of Malta were strengthened by the construction of batteries, redoubts, and entrenchments. He also was the driving force behind the third rate squadron of the order which was eventually inaugurated in 1705. In 1707 he entrusted Romano Carapecchia with the reorganisation of the drainage system in Valletta. He built two country residences, Villa Perellos in Paola and Casa Perellos in Żejtun. He died after 22

masks:
Ramon Rabasa de Perellós y Rocafull
Ramon Perellós
Perellós
Perellós
Perellós


texts:
 years as a ruler, due to illness and old age.His coat of arms was represented by three black pears against a golden background. His funerary monument is found at St. John's Co-Cathedral in Valletta and is considered to be one of the best examples of baroque art in Malta. War against corruption
Soon after his appointment, <mask> became very active in correcting cases of corruption and abuse within the Order. One such case involved the request by knights to receive graces and be nominated to the title of Gran Croce di Grazia (literally: great cross by grace). This title implied that a graced knight could replace a knight of the Great Cross upon the latter's death. This procedure was not well reputed among elder knights who spent their lifetime at the service of the Order, and resulted in many of them retiring to return to their homelands and leave their inheritances to their respective families, against the rules of the Order. The pleas of Perellos to eliminate such prejudicial recommendations were considered legitimate by Pope Innocent XII who agreed to forbid them.War against the Ottoman pirates

<mask> dedicated many of his efforts to stop the attacks at sea by Ottoman pirates, who would sail along the coasts of Spain and Italy to plunder merchant ships and enslave civilians. He ordered the knight of St. Pierre of the French Royal Naval Fleet to build a new war fleet to fight the Ottoman scourge. Meanwhile, the old galleys, together with the might of a vessel armed with 80 cannons, waged war at sea against the pirates. The Grand Master's new fleet was ready in port by 1706 and was headed by the same knight of St. Pierre.

masks:
Ramon Perellós
Perellós


texts:
 Three large vessels were launched that year by the names St. Vincent, St. Joseph and St. Raymond. Shortly afterwards, the fleet sailed west, where they encountered three Tunisian vessels, one of which was seized and incorporated into the fleet under the name of Santa Croce. One year later, the commanding knight Giuseppe de Langon, surrounded Oran and with his sole vessel, which harbored a force of 50 cannons, traversed the entire enemy fleet despite the vain efforts of the Algerians to catch him.He was subsequently nominated Lieutenant General of the Maltese fleet. In 1709, the Grand Master's fleet anticipated and repelled eight Turkish vessels which attempted to infiltrate the island of Gozo. During the same year, the Grand Master sent part of his fleet to also repel a Turkish unit which was threatening Calabria. Headed by the commanding knight of Langon, the fleet managed to sink an admiral ship. In the following year the commanding knight of Langon was defeated at sea after attacking an Algerian admiral vessel. Nevertheless, the Maltese fleet emerged victorious. Between 1713 and 1715, the fleet of the Order patrolled all the coasts around the Mediterranean succeeding in various important undertakings.Hospital of the Order
During the rule of Grand Master <mask>, the Order was amassing great wealth. The Inquisitor Delci desired to garner greater power in Malta and attempted to take hold of the Order's hospital. This hospital was a privileged place and nobody could be admitted prior to presenting their honorary crests, however the inquisition's officers infiltrated the hospital and commenced a formal inspection. These were


texts:
 soon ordered to leave the premises by the commanding knight of Avernes de Bocage, who was the hospital's supervisor. This news reached Grand Master <mask>, who sent his emissary, the Great Prior Marc'Antonio Zondadari, to the Court of Rome to forward complaints about the incident. Siege of Venice
During the years preceding the siege of Venice, it was believed that the Ottoman Empire had preparations underway to attack Malta. This suspicion became stronger when a well-groomed man, who had approached the Order offering serve as engineer and share his wealth of knowledge about fortifications, disappeared shortly after having surveyed Malta's fortifications.Consequently, the Order began its preparations to counter any possible attack by the Ottoman army. Possibly forewarned by Malta's preparations, the Ottoman sultan turned his attention to the Republic of Venice, on which he declared war in 1716. In reply to a plea for assistance, Grand Master <mask> lent the Republic several galleys and five other warships to repel the Ottoman invasion. Gallery

References

External links
 Coins of Grandmaster <mask> y Rocafull

Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller
Knights of Malta
1637 births
1720 deaths
Burials at Saint John's

masks:
Perellós
Perellós
Ramon Perellós


texts:
<mask> (born 7 March 1991) is a French footballer who plays as a forward or winger for Al-Kawkab. <mask> made his professional debut for Rennes in Ligue 1 in 2011 and played in Ligue 2 for Le Havre before dropping into the amateur leagues and spending more than two years without a club. He returned to the professional ranks with the newly promoted Le Mans in 2019. He joined Bahraini club Al-Ahli Manama in 2020 before returning to French football with Bourg-en-Bresse. In international football, he played twice for the French under-18 team. Life and career

Early life and youth career
<mask> was born in 1991 in Gonesse, in the outer suburbs of Paris. He played for a local boys' team, FCM Garges-les-Gonesse, until mid-2004 when he joined AAS Sarcelles.He was not there for long. The French Football Federation amended their rules to restrict movements of children to clubs within a  radius of their current club, the change to come into force on 31 December 2004. A few days prior, <mask>
Julienne made a few appearances for Rennes' reserve team in the Championnat de France Amateur (CFA) in 2008–09 and was a regular in the following two seasons.Head coach Frédéric Antonetti included him among the substitutes for the first time in October 2010, for the Ligue 1 visit to Lens, and he signed his first professional contract, of two-and-a-half years, in December. On 15 January 2015, <mask> made his Ligue 1 debut, albeit for just a couple of minutes with his side 4–0 up against Arles-Avignon. He was the seventh product of Rennes' youth system to be given a debut that season. He trained regularly with the first team, and was an unused substitute eleven times. Loan spells
In June 2011, he signed on loan for the coming season for Ligue 2 club Le Havre. He arrived with a positive attitude towards the loan, expecting an increase in playing time and with that

masks:
Franck Julienne
Julienne
Julienne
Juliennenes
Julienne


texts:
 increased maturity, having come to a club he believed to allow young players to progress. The spell proved dispiriting.Although frequently in the first-team squad in the first couple of months of the season, he started only once in the league. In the second half of the campaign, he made nine starts for the reserve team in the CFA, but had little involvement with the first team. Advised by former team-mate Abdoul Camara that it was a good place to come, Julienne signed on loan to Rennes' new partner club, Vannes of the third-tier Championnat National, where he expected to bounce back. Coach Stéphane Le Mignan pointed out that the club had several similar players already, but was delighted at his arrival and saw no reason why he shouldn't play. Julienne made only nineteen league appearances, of which just seven were in the starting eleven; he said later that when he arrived, the team was already settled and he was competing for one position with the in-form Mohamed Youssouf. In March 2013, he made three consecutive starts for the first time in two years. Lyon-Duchère: decline and rise
Julienne left Rennes at the end of his contract.In July 2013, he was selected by the UNFP, the French players' union, for their team in the annual FIFPro Tournament, which showcases out-of-contract players. He scored twice in the group matches to help his team reach the final, which they lost to the Spanish representatives. In August, he signed for Lyon-Duchère, on a one-year contract with provision for a second year if the club were promoted from the fourth-tier Championnat de France Amateur (CFA) to the Championnat National. Injuries became an issue, and his appearances were few and far between; the tenth and last was on 11 January 2014. He remained outside football for approaching two-and-a-half years. After playing in Ligue 1 as a 19-year-old, he was disappointed


texts:
 with the lack of regular football in his first loan spell and with the low level of his next, where he had arrived after the start of the season with the team already settled. Finding it increasingly difficult to adjust to the decline in his prospects, he became disenchanted with the game.Interviewed in 2019, he said he had nevertheless kept fit and told himself that he would return to football, just "needing to find the right moment". <mask> was contacted in 2017 by Grégory Poirier, manager of Marseille-based fifth-tier club Endoume, who helped him accept what happened in his past career and start preparing both mentally and physically for a future in the game. <mask> signed for Endoume, and scored six goals from eleven appearances in the 2017–18 National 3 season. In December 2017, he moved up a level to join Martigues, where seven appearances and a goal in National 2 were enough to earn him a contract for the 2018–19 season. They were also enough to earn him a further step back up the ladder with a return to Lyon-Duchère of the Championnat National. He was a regular in the team that finished fifth in the division, and played in all seven of their matches in the 2018–19 Coupe de France. Entering the competition in the fifth round, Lyon-Duchère progressed to the ninth (round of 64), in which Julienne assisted the first goal and scored the second as they beat Ligue 1 club Nîmes 3–0, and from there to the last 16, in which they went 2–0 up against the fourth-tier Vitré but lost to a goal in stoppage time.After a season in which he scored ten goals and made eight assists in all competitions, Lyon-Duchère were keen to retain <mask>'s services, but the lure of playing at a higher level was too strong. Return to professional football with Le Mans
Having attracted interest from several Ligue 2 clubs, <mask> signed for newly promoted Le Mans. The

masks: Julienne Julienne Julienne Julienne


texts:
 contract length was reported as one year with the option of a second. He went straight into the starting eleven for Le Mans' opening fixture, a 2–1 defeat at home to Lens, but never established himself as a regular in the side: he played in ten league matches, mainly as a substitute and without scoring, and twice in the Coupe de France. At the turn of the year, the club's president made Julienne available for transfer, and said that any mutually satisfactory options would be considered. On 25 January 2020, Le Mans confirmed that his contract had been terminated by mutual consent; the club thanked him for his professionalism and wished him all the best for the future. Football in Bahrain
A few days later, Julienne signed for Bahraini Premier League club Al-Ahli Club.He soon returned to France when the tournament was halted because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bourg-Péronnas
Having trained with the club since the summer of 2020, <mask> signed with Bourg-Péronnas in November. He made 15 Championnat National appearances in what remained of the season. His only goal completed a 2–0 win against his former club. Career statistics

References

1994 births
Living people
People from Gonesse
French footballers
French expatriate footballers
France youth international footballers
Association football forwards
ES Troyes AC players
Stade Rennais F.C. players
Le Havre AC players
Lyon La Duchère players
US Marseille Endoume players
FC Martigues players
Le Mans FC players
Al-Ahli Club (Manama) players
Al-Kawkab FC players
Football Bourg-en-Bresse Péronnas 01 players
Championnat National 2 players
Ligue 1 players
Ligue 2 players
Championnat National players
Championnat National 3 players
Saudi First Division League players
French expatriate sportspeople in Bahrain
French expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
Expatriate footballers in Bahrain
Expatriate footballers


texts:
Héctor Julio Páride Bernabó or <mask> (7 February 1911 – 2 October 1997) was an Argentine-Brazilian painter, engraver, draughtsman, illustrator, potter, sculptor, mural painter, researcher, historian and journalist. He settled in Brazil and naturalized as a Brazilian. While living in Rio de Janeiro, he was a scout. There, scouts were nicknamed after types of fish, and he was given the nickname of Carybé (a kind of piranha). So the artist used it as an alias for his Christian name, which was very similar to his brother’s name, who was also an artist. He produced five thousand pieces of work, including paintings, drawings, sculptures and sketches. He illustrated books by Jorge Amado as well as Gabriel Gárcia Márquez's One Hundred Years of Solitude.He was an Obá de Xangô, an honorary position in candomblé. He died of heart failure during a session in a candomblé yard. Some of Carybé’s work can be found in the Afro-Brazilian Museum of Salvador: 27 panels representing the orixás. of the Bahian candomblé. Each board shows an orixá with his weapons and his animal of worship. They were sculpted on cedar wood, with engravings and scaling of various kinds of material. The work was commissioned by the former Banco da Bahia S.A., now Banco BBM S.A., which installed them in its branch on Avenida Sete de Setembro in 1968.Carybé produced more than 5,000 works; his art was expressed through paintings, engravings, illustrations, wood carvings, mosaics and murals. Carybé - Murals at Miami International Airport

American


texts: Airlines, Odebrecht and the Miami-Dade Aviation Department have partnered to bring a Latin American art treasure to Miami International Airport. The partnership will result in one of the most important contributions to Miami-Dade County, bringing the art of Brazilian artist Carybé to the Gateway of the Americas. The Carybé murals, two of the most iconic public art pieces in the U.S. aviation sector, had been on display in the American Airlines’ terminal at JFK Airport in New York since 1960. The 16.5x53 feet murals were commissioned when Carybé was awarded first and second prize in a contest to create public art pieces for the airport. After learning about the demolition of the terminal, Odebrecht, a Brazilian company with strong ties to Carybé, began an initiative to salvage the artist’s murals through a partnership with American Airlines. American Airlines has donated the murals to Miami-Dade County and Odebrecht has invested in a project to remove, restore, transport and install the murals at Miami International Airport.When experts in New York complete the restoration process in 2009, the murals will be on permanent display at MIA’s new South Terminal, built by Odebrecht in a Joint venture. The mural "Rejoicing and Festival of the Americas" portrays colorful scenes from popular festivals throughout the Americas, and "Discovery and Settlement of the West" depicts the pioneers’ journey into the American West. Like Miami’s diverse culture, Carybé’s art in many ways mirrors the city’s multi-ethnic flavor. His


texts:
 art is permeated with the vibrant colors, rich culture and mystic religious traditions of Bahia, Brazil. Carybé’s celebration of life and respect for cultural diversity are qualities he shares with the Miami community, making MIA the perfect home for Carybé’s murals. Education
 1925 – He begins his artistic activities going to the pottery workshop of his elder brother, Arnaldo Bernabó, in Rio de Janeiro. 1927–1929 – Attends the National School of Fine Arts – Emba, in Rio de Janeiro.1958 – Receives a scholarship grant in New York, USA. Timeline

 1919 - Moves to Brazil. 1921 - Given the name Carybé by the Clube do Flamengo scouts group, in Rio de Janeiro. 1927-1929 - Studies at the National School of Fine Arts, in Rio de Janeiro. 1930 - Works for the newspaper Noticias Gráficas, in Buenos Aires, Argentina. 1935-1936 - Works with the writer Julio Cortázar and as a draghtsman for the El Diário newspaper. 1938 - Sent to Salvador by the Prégon newspaper.1939 - First collective exhibition, with the artist Clemente Moreau, at the Buenos Aires City Museum of Fine Arts, Argentina; illustrates the book Macumba, Relatos de la Tierra Verde, by Bernardo Kardon, published by Tiempo Nuestro. 1940 - Illustrates the book Macunaíma, by Mário de Andrade. 1941 - Draws the Esso Almanac, the payment for which allows him to make a long journey to Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia, and Argentina. 1941-1942 - Study trip around several South American countries. 1942 - Illustration for the book La Carreta by Henrique Amorim, published by El


texts: Ateneo (Buenos Aires, Argentina). 1943 - Together with Raul Brié, translates the book Macunaíma, by Mário de Andrade, into Spanish; produces the illustrations for the works Maracatu, Motivos Típicos y Carnavalescos, by Newton Freitas, published by Pigmaleon, Luna Muerta, by Manoel Castilla, published by Schapire, and Amores de Juventud, by Casanova Callabero; also publishes and illustrates Me voy al Norte, for the quarterly magazine Libertad Creadora; awarded First Prize by the Cámara Argentina del Libro (Argentine Book Council) for the illustration of the book Juvenília, by Miguel Cané (Buenos Aires, Argentina). 1944 - Illustrates the books The Complete Poetry of Walt Whitmann and A Cabana do Pai Tomás, both published by Schapire and Los Quatro Gigantes del Alma by Mira y Lopez, Salvador BA; attends capoeira classes, visits candomblé meetings and makes drawings and paintings.1945 - Does the illustrations for Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, for the Viau publishing house. 1946 - Helps in setting up the Tribuna da Imprensa newspaper, in Rio de Janeiro. 1947 - Works for the O Diário Carioca newspaper, in Rio de Janeiro. 1948 - Produces texts and illustrations for the book Ajtuss, Ediciones Botella al Mar (Buenos Aires, Argentina). 1949-1950 - Invited by Carlos Lacerda to work at the Tribuna da Imprensa, in Rio de Janeiro. 1950 - Invited by the Education Secretary Anísio Teixeira, moves to Bahia, and produces two panels for the Carneiro Ribeiro Education Center (Park School), in Salvador, Bahia. 1950-1997 -


texts:
 Settles in Salvador, Bahia.1950-1960 - Actively participate in the plastic arts renewal movement, alongside Mário Cravo Júnior, Genaro de Carvalho, and Jenner Augusto
 1951 - Produces texts and illustrations for the works of the Coleção Recôncavo, published by Tipografia Beneditina and illustrations for the book, Bahia, Imagens da Terra e do Povo, by Odorico Tavares, published by José Olímpio in Rio de Janeiro; for the latter work he receives the gold medal at the 1st Biennial of Books and Graphic Arts. 1952 - Makes roughly 1,600 drawings for the scenes of the movie O Cangaceiro, by Lima Barreto; also works as the art director and as an extra on the film (São Paulo, SP). 1953 - Illustration for the book A Borboleta Amarela, by Rubem Braga, published by José Olímpio (Rio de Janeiro, RJ). 1955 - Illustrates the work O Torso da Baiana, edited by the Modern Art Museum of Bahia. 1957 - Naturalizes Brazilian; produces etchings, with original designs, for the special edition of Mário de Andrade’s Macunaíma, published by the Sociedade dos 100 Bibliófilos do Brasil. 1958 - Makes an oil painting mural for the Petrobras Office in New York, USA; illustrates the book As Três Mulheres de Xangô, by Zora Seljan, published by Editora G. R. D. (Rio de Janeiro, RJ). 1959 - Takes part in the competition for the New York International Airport panels project, in New York, USA, winning first and second prizes.1961 - Illustrates the book Jubiabá, by Jorge Amado, published by Martins Fontes (São Paulo, SP). 1963 - Awarded the title of


texts: Honorary Citizen of Salvador, Bahia. 1965 - Illustrates A Muito Leal e Heróica Cidade de São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro, published by Raymundo Castro Maya (Rio de Janeiro, RJ). 1966 - With Jorge Amado, co-authors Bahia, Boa Terra Bahia, published by Image (Rio de Janeiro, RJ); writes and illustrates the book Olha o Boi, published by Cultrix (São Paulo, SP). 1967 - Receives the Odorico Tavares Prize – Best Plastic Artist of 1967, in a competition ran by the state government to stimulate the development of plastic arts in Bahia; makes the Orixás Panels for the Banco da Bahia (currently at the UFBA Afro-Brazilian Museum) (Salvador, BA). 1968 - Illustrates the books Carta de Pero Vaz de Caminha ao Rei Dom Manuel, published by Sabiá (Rio de Janeiro) and Capoeira Angolana, by Waldeloir Rego, published by Itapoã (Bahia). 1969 - Produces the illustrations for the book Ninguém Escreve ao Coronel, by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, published by Sabiá (Rio de Janeiro, RJ).1970 - Illustrates the books O Enterro do Diabo and Os Funerais de Mamãe Grande, published by Sabiá (Rio de Janeiro, RJ), Agotimé her Legend, by Judith Gleason, published by Grossman Publishers (New York, USA). 1971 - Illustrates the books One Hundred Years of Solitude, by Gabriel Garcia Marquez and A Casa Verde by Mario Vargas Llosa, both published by Sabiá (Rio de Janeiro, RJ); produces texts and illustrations for the book Candomblé da Bahia, published by Brunner (São Paulo, SP). 1973 - Illustrations for Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s A Incrível e Triste História


texts: de Cândida Erendira e sua Avó Desalmada (Rio de Janeiro, RJ); paints the mural for the Legislative Assembly and the panel for the Bahia State Secretary of the Treasury. 1974 - Produces woodcuts for the book Visitações da Bahia, published by Onile. 1976 - Illustrates the book O Gato Malhado e a Andorinha Sinhá: uma história de amor, by Jorge Amado (Salvador, BA); receives the title of Knight of the Order of Merit of Bahia. 1977 - Certified with the Honor for Afro-Brazilian Cult Spiritual Merit, Xangô das Pedrinhas ao Obá de Xangô Carybé (Magé, RJ). 1978 - Makes the concrete sculpture Oxóssi, in the Catacumba Park; illustrates the book A Morte e a Morte de Quincas Berro D´Água, by Jorge Amado, published by Edições Alumbramento (Rio de Janeiro, RJ).1979 - Produces woodcuts for the book Sete Lendas Africanas da Bahia, published by Onile. 1980 - Designs the costumes and scenery for the ballet Quincas Berro D´Água, at the Teatro Municipal in Rio de Janeiro. 1981 - Publication of the book Iconografia dos Deuses Africanos no Candomblé da Bahia (Ed. Raízes), following thirty years of research. 1982 - Receives the title of Honorary Doctor of the Federal University of Bahia. 1983 - Makes the panel for the Brazilian Embassy in Lagos, Nigeria. 1984 - Receives the Jerônimo Monteiro Commendation – Level of Knight (Espírito Santo); receives the Castro Alves Medal of Merit, granted by the UFBA Academy of Arts and Letters; makes the bronze sculpture Homenagem à mulher baiana (Homage to the Bahian woman), at the Iguatemi


texts:
 Shopping Center (Salvador, BA).1985 - Designs the costumes and sets for the spectacle La Bohéme, at the Castro Alves Theater; illustrates the book Lendas Africanas dos Orixás, by Pierre Verger, published by Currupio. 1992 - Illustrates the book O sumiço da santa: uma história de feitiçaria, by Jorge Amado (Rio de Janeiro, RJ). 1995 - Illustration of the book O uso das plantas na sociedade iorubá, by Pierre Verger (São Paulo, SP). 1996 - Making of the short film Capeta Carybé, by Agnaldo Siri Azevedo, adapted from the book O Capeta Carybé, by Jorge Amado, about the artist Carybé, who was born in Argentina and became the most Bahian of all Brazilians. 1997 - Illustration of the book Poesias de Castro Alves. Exhibitions
Individual Exhibitions:
 1943 - Buenos Aires (Argentina) – First individual exhibition, at the Nordiska Gallery
 1944 - Salta (Argentina) – at the Consejo General de Educacion
 1945 - Salta (Argentina) –  Amigos del Arte, Buenos Aires (Argentina) - Motivos de América, at the Amauta Gallery, Rio de Janeiro RJ – individual exhibition at the IAB/RJ
 1947 - Salta (Argentina) – Agrupación Cultural Femenina
 1950 - Salvador BA – First individual exhibit in Bahia, at the Bar Anjo Azul; São Paulo SP – MASP. 1952 - Salvador BA – 3rd Bahian Showroom of Fine Arts, at Belvedere da Sé; São Paulo SP - MAM/SP
 1953 - Recife PE - Mario Cravo Júnior and Carybé, at the Santa Isabel Theater; São Paulo SP – 2nd São Paulo Art Biennial, at MAM/SP
 1954 - Salvador BA – 4th Bahian Showroom of Fine Arts, at the Hotel


texts:
 Bahia.- Bronze medal
 1955 - São Paulo SP – 3rd São Paulo Art Biennial, at MAM/SP – first prize for drawing
 1956 - Salvador BA – Modern Artists of Bahia, at the Oxumaré Gallery; Venice (Italy) – 28th Venice Biennial
 1957 - Rio de Janeiro RJ – 6th National Modern Art Show – exemption from the jury; São Paulo SP – Artists from Bahia, at the MAM/SP
 1958 - San Francisco (USA) - Works by Brazilian Artists, at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Washington and New York (USA) - Works by Brazilian Artists, at the Pan American Union and the MoMA
 1959 - Seattle (USA) – 30th International Exhibition, at the Seattle Art Museum; Salvador BA – Modern Artists of Bahia, at the Dentistry School. 1996 - São Paulo SP - Norfest 96: Visual Arts, at D&D Shopping
 1998 - São Paulo SP - Prints: the art of Brazilian engraving, at the Espaço Cultural Banespa-Paulista; São Paulo SP – Seascapes in Great São Paulo Collections, at the Espaço Cultural da Marinha
 1999 - Rio de Janeiro RJ – Mostra Rio Gravura. Modern Brazilian Engraving: the National Fine Arts Museum Collection. 1999 - Salvador BA - 100 Plastic Artists from Bahia, at the Museu de Arte Sacra
 1999 - São Paulo SP – The Reconsecration of Art, at Sesc Pompéia
 1999 - São Paulo SP - Cotidiano/Arte. O Consumo – Paratodos (Everyday/Art. Consumption – Forall), at the Itaú Cultural Center
 1999 - São Paulo SP - Cotidiano/Arte. O Consumo – Metamorfose do Consumo (Everyday/Art.The dancer was rehearsing Stravinsky's 'Apollon Musagéte'. Patiently meshing with the musicians, he


texts:
 repeated parts, argued with the orchestra leader and perfected his rhythms and movements. Then, he began all over again until music and movement coincided with mathematical precision in such perfect coordination that you could not tell whether a note signaled a step or whether it was Nureyev's body that struck the notes. During those two days, I too worked exhaustively trying to catch the weightlessness and harmony of this man who seemed to fly. I made dozens of drawings which were assembled in an album as a tribute to Apollo's Muses. For if there was anything mythological about the performance, it was Nureyev himself shot into the air by the triggers of his feet and returned to earth with the lightness of a feather." Tributes
In O Capeta Carybé, Jorge Amado tells numerous stories about his great friend Carybé, whose life is almost as rich as a fiction: survival adventures, marriage, wanderings from Buenos Aires, in his homeland, to Bahia.Throughout his works, the artist registered highly Brazilian scenes and settings, such as fishing villages, ballerinas, exits from the church and cowboys taking a break. His work took Bahia to the outside world. That is why Jorge Amado refers to Carybé as a remarkable example in his art, who recreates the reality of the country and the popular life that he knew like very few others, for having lived it like no other. 1911 births
1997 deaths
People from Lanús
Naturalized citizens of Brazil
Argentine emigrants to Brazil
20th-century Argentine painters
Argentine male


texts:
<mask> (; ;  155 AD –  220 AD) was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa. He was the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature. He was an early Christian apologist and a polemicist against heresy, including contemporary Christian Gnosticism. <mask> has been called "the father of Latin Christianity" and "the founder of Western theology". Tertullian originated new theological concepts and advanced the development of early Church doctrine. He is perhaps most famous for being the first writer in Latin known to use the term trinity (Latin: trinitas). Tertullian was never recognized as a saint by the Eastern or Western Catholic churches.Several of his teachings on issues such as the clear subordination of the Son and Spirit to the Father, as well as his condemnation of remarriage for widows and of fleeing from persecution, contradict the doctrines of these traditions, and his later rejection of orthodoxy for Montanism has led these communions to refrain from considering him a Church father, important ecclesiastical writer though he was. Life
Scant reliable evidence exists regarding Tertullian's life; most knowledge comes from passing references in his own writings. Roman Africa was famous as the home of orators, and that influence can be seen in his writing style with its archaisms or provincialisms, its glowing imagery and its passionate temper. He was a scholar with an excellent education. He wrote at least three books in Greek. In them,

masks: Tertullian Tertullian


texts: he refers to himself, but none of them is extant. Some sources describe him as Berber.The linguist René Braun suggested that he was of Punic origin but acknowledged that it is difficult to decide since the heritage of Carthage had become common to the Berbers. <mask>'s own understanding of his ethnicity has been questioned. He referred to himself as Poenicum inter Romanos () in his book De Pallio and claimed Africa as his patria. According to church tradition, Tertullian was raised in Carthage and was thought to be the son of a Roman centurion. Tertullian has been claimed to have been a trained lawyer and an ordained priest. Those assertions rely on the accounts of Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, II, ii. 4, and Jerome's De viris illustribus (On famous men) chapter 53.Jerome claimed that Tertullian's father held the position of centurio proconsularis ("aide-de-camp") in the Roman army in Africa. Further, Tertullian has been thought to be a lawyer, based on his use of legal analogies and on an identification of him with the jurist <mask>us, who is quoted in the Pandects. Although Tertullian used a knowledge of Roman law in his writings, his legal knowledge does not demonstrably exceed what could be expected from a sufficient Roman education. The writings of Tertullianus, a lawyer of the same cognomen, exist only in fragments and do not explicitly denote a Christian authorship. Finally, any notion of Tertullian being a priest is also questionable. In his extant writings, he never describes himself as ordained in


texts: the church and seems to place himself among the laity. His conversion to Christianity perhaps took place about 197–198 (cf.Adolf Harnack, Bonwetsch, and others), but its immediate antecedents are unknown except as they are conjectured from his writings. The event must have been sudden and decisive, transforming at once his own personality. He writes that he could not imagine a truly Christian life without such a conscious breach, a radical act of conversion: "Christians are made, not born" (Apol., xviii). Two books addressed to his wife confirm that he was married to a Christian wife. In his middle life (about 207), he was attracted to the "New Prophecy" of Montanism, but today most scholars reject the assertion that Tertullian left the mainstream church or was excommunicated. "[W]e are left to ask whether Saint Cyprian could have regarded Tertullian as his master if Tertullian had been a notorious schismatic. Since no ancient writer was more definite (if not indeed fanatical) on this subject of schism than Saint Cyprian, the question must surely be answered in the negative."In the time of Augustine, a group of "Tertullianists" still had a basilica in Carthage, which within the same period passed to the orthodox church. It is unclear whether the name was merely another for the Montanists or that it means that Tertullian later split with the Montanists and founded his own group. Jerome says that Tertullian lived to old age. By the doctrinal works he published, Tertullian became the teacher of Cyprian and the


texts:
 predecessor of Augustine, who in turn became the chief founder of Latin theology. Writings

General character
Thirty-one works are extant, together with fragments of more. Some fifteen works in Latin or Greek are lost, some as recently as the 9th century (De Paradiso, De superstitione saeculi, De carne et anima were all extant in the now damaged Codex Agobardinus in 814 AD). Tertullian's writings cover the whole theological field of the timeapologetics against paganism and Judaism, polemics, polity, discipline, and morals, or the whole reorganization of human life on a Christian basis; they gave a picture of the religious life and thought of the time which is of great interest to the church historian.Like other early Christian writers <mask> used the term paganus to mean "civilian" as a contrast to the "soldiers of Christ". The motif of Miles Christi did not assume the literal meaning of participation in war until Church doctrines justifying Christian participation in battle were developed around the 5th century. In the 2nd century writings of Tertullian paganus meant a "civilian" who was lacking self-discipline. In De Corona Militis XI.V he writes:

Chronology and contents
The chronology of his writings is difficult to fix with certainty. It is in part determined by the Montanistic views that are set forth in some of them, by the author's own allusions to this writing, or that, as antedating others (cf. Harnack, Litteratur ii.260–262), and by definite historic data (e.g., the reference to the death of Septimius


texts: Severus, Ad Scapulam, iv). In his work against Marcion, which he calls his third composition on the Marcionite heresy, he gives its date as the fifteenth year of the reign of Severus (Adv.Marcionem, i.1, 15) – which would be approximately 208. The writings may be divided with reference to the two periods of Tertullian's Christian activity, the mainstream and the Montanist (cf. Harnack, ii.262 sqq. ), or according to their subject matter. The object of the former mode of division is to show, if possible, the change of views Tertullian's mind underwent. Following the latter mode, which is of a more practical interest, the writings fall into two groups. Apologetic and polemic writings, like Apologeticus, De testimonio animae, the anti-Jewish De Adversus Iudaeos, Adv.Marcionem, Adv. Praxeam, Adv. Hermogenem, De praescriptione hereticorum, and Scorpiace were written to counteract Gnosticism and other religious or philosophical doctrines. The other group consists of practical and disciplinary writings, e.g., De monogamia, Ad uxorem, De virginibus velandis, De cultu feminarum, De patientia, De pudicitia, De oratione, and Ad martyras. Among his apologetic writings, the Apologeticus, addressed to the Roman magistrates, is a most pungent defense of Christianity and the Christians against the reproaches of the pagans, and an important legacy of the ancient Church, proclaiming the principle of freedom of religion as an inalienable human right and demanding a fair trial for Christians before they are condemned to death.


texts:
 Tertullian was the first to disprove charges that Christians sacrificed infants at the celebration of the Lord's Supper and committed incest. He pointed to the commission of such crimes in the pagan world and then proved by the testimony of Pliny the Younger that Christians pledged themselves not to commit murder, adultery, or other crimes.He adduced the inhumanity of pagan customs such as feeding the flesh of gladiators to beasts. He argued that the gods have no existence and thus there is no pagan religion against which Christians may offend. Christians do not engage in the foolish worship of the emperors, that they do better: they pray for them, and that Christians can afford to be put to torture and to death, and the more they are cast down the more they grow; "the blood of the Christians is seed" (Apologeticum, 50). In the De Praescriptione he develops as its fundamental idea that, in a dispute between the Church and a separating party, the whole burden of proof lies with the latter, as the Church, in possession of the unbroken tradition, is by its very existence a guarantee of its truth. The five books against Marcion, written in 207 or 208, are the most comprehensive and elaborate of his polemical works, invaluable for gauging the early Christian view of Gnosticism. Tertullian has been identified by Jo Ann McNamara as the person who originally invested the consecrated virgin as the “bride of Christ”, which helped to bring the independent virgin under patriarchal rule. Theology

General character

Though


texts: thoroughly conversant with the Greek theology, Tertullian remained independent of its metaphysical speculations.He had learned from the Greek apologies, and offered a direct contrast to Origen of Alexandria who drew many of his theories regarding creation from Middle Platonism. Tertullian carried his realism to the verge of materialism. This is evident from his ascription to God of corporeality and his acceptance of the traducian theory of the origin of the human spirit. He despised Greek philosophy, and, far from looking at Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek thinkers whom he quotes as forerunners of Christ and the Gospel, he pronounces them the patriarchal forefathers of the heretics (De anima, iii). He held up to scorn their inconsistency when he referred to the fact that Socrates in dying ordered a cock to be sacrificed to Aesculapius (De anima, i). Tertullian always wrote under stress of a felt necessity. He was never so happy as when he had opponents like Marcion and Praxeas, and, however abstract the ideas may be which he treated, he was always moved by practical considerations to make his case clear and irresistible.It was partly this element which gave to his writings a formative influence upon the theology of the post-Nicene period in the West and has rendered them fresh reading to this day. Although he was by nature a polemicist, no mention is made of his name by other authors during the 3rd century. Lactantius at the opening of the 4th century is the first to do so. Augustine, however, treats him with


texts:
 respect. Cyprian, Tertullian's North African compatriot, though nowhere mentioning his name, was well read in his writings, according to Cyprian's secretary in a letter to Jerome. Specific teachings
Tertullian's main doctrinal teachings are as follows:

The soul
The soul or human spirit, was not preexistent, as Plato affirmed, nor subject to metempsychosis or reincarnation, as the Pythagoreans held. In each individual it is a new product, proceeding equally with the body from the parents, and not created later and associated with the body (De anima, xxvii).This position is called traducianism in opposition to 'creationism', or the idea that each immortal spirit is a fresh creation of God. The soul's sinfulness
The soul's sinfulness is easily explained by its traducian origin (De anima, xxxix). It is in bondage to Satan (whose works it renounces in baptism), but has seeds of good (De anima, xli), and when awakened, it passes to health and at once calls upon God (Apol., xvii) and is naturally Christian. It exists in all men alike; it is a culprit and yet an unconscious witness – by its impulse to worship, its fear of demons, and its musings on death – to the power, benignity, and judgment of God as revealed in the Christian's Holy Scriptures (De testimonio, v–vi). The name of God
Tertullian reserves the appellation God, in the sense of the ultimate originator of all things, to the Father, who made the world out of nothing through his Son, the Word, has corporeity though he is a spirit (De praescriptione, vii. ; Adv.


texts: Praxeam, vii).However <mask> used 'corporeal' only in the Stoic sense, to mean something with actual material existence, rather than the later idea of flesh. <mask> is often considered an early proponent of the Nicene doctrine, approaching the subject from the standpoint of the Logos doctrine, though he did not state the later doctrine of the immanent Trinity. In his treatise against Praxeas, who taught patripassianism in Rome, he used the words "trinity", "economy" (used in reference to the three persons), "persons", and "substance," maintaining the distinction of the Son from the Father as the unoriginate God, and the Spirit from both the Father and the Son (Adv. Praxeam, xxv). "These three are one substance, not one person; and it is said, 'I and my Father are one' in respect not of the singularity of number but the unity of the substance." The very names "Father" and "Son" indicate the distinction of personality. The Father is one, the Son is another, and the Spirit is another ("dico alium esse patrem et alium filium et alium spiritum" Adv.Praxeam, ix), and yet in defending the unity of God, he says the Son is not other ("alius a patre filius non est", Adv. Prax. 18) as a result of receiving a portion of the Father's substance. At times, speaking of the Father and the Son, Tertullian refers to "two gods". He says that all things of the Father belong also to the Son, including his names, such as Almighty God, Most High, Lord of Hosts, or King of Israel. Though Tertullian considered the Father to be God (Yahweh),


texts: he responded to criticism of the Modalist Praxeas that this meant that Tertullian's Christianity was not monotheistic by noting that even though there was one God (Yahweh, who became the Father when the Son became his agent of creation), the Son could also be referred to as God, when referred to apart from the Father, because the Son, though subordinate to God, is entitled to be called God "from the unity of the Father" in regards to being formed from a portion of His substance. The Catholic Encyclopedia comments that for Tertullian, "There was a time when there was no Son and no sin, when God was neither Father nor Judge."Similarly J.N.D. Kelly stated: "Tertullian followed the Apologists in dating His 'perfect generation' from His extrapolation for the work of creation; prior to that moment God could not strictly be said to have had a Son, while after it the term 'Father', which for earlier theologians generally connoted God as author of reality, began to acquire the specialized meaning of Father of the Son." As regards the subjects of subordination of the Son to the Father, the New Catholic Encyclopedia has commented: "In not a few areas of theology, Tertullian’s views are, of course, completely unacceptable. Thus, for example, his teaching on the Trinity reveals a subordination of Son to Father that in the later crass form of Arianism the Church rejected as heretical." Though he did not fully state the doctrine of the immanence of the Trinity, according to B. B. Warfield, he went a long distance in the way of


texts:
 approach to it. Soteriology
In soteriology, Tertullian does not dogmatize; he prefers to keep silence at the mystery of the cross (De Patientia, iii).The sufferings of Christ's life as well as of the crucifixion are efficacious to redemption. In the water of baptism, which (upon a partial quotation of John 3:5) is made necessary (De baptismo, vi. ), humans are born again; the baptized does not receive the Holy Spirit in the water, but is prepared for the Holy Spirit. Humans are little fishes – after the example of the ichthys, fish, Jesus Christ – born in water (De baptismo, i). In discussing whether sins committed subsequent to baptism may be forgiven, Tertullian calls baptism and penance "two planks" on which the sinner may be saved from shipwreck – language which he gave to the Church (De penitentia, xii). Rule of faith
With reference to the 'rule of faith', it may be said that Tertullian is constantly using this expression, and by it means now the authoritative tradition handed down in the Church, now the Scriptures themselves, and, perhaps, a definite doctrinal formula. While he nowhere gives a list of the books of Scripture, he divides them into two parts and calls them the instrumentum and testamentum (Adv.Marcionem, iv.1). He distinguishes between the four Gospels and insists upon their apostolic origin as accrediting their authority (De praescriptione, xxxvi; Adv. Marcionem, iv.1–5); in trying to account for Marcion's treatment of the Lucan Gospel and the Pauline writings he sarcastically queries whether the


texts:
 "shipmaster from Pontus" (Marcion) had ever been guilty of taking on contraband goods or tampering with them after they were aboard (Adv. Marcionem, v.1). The Scripture, the rule of faith, is for him fixed and authoritative (De corona, iii–iv). As opposed to the pagan writings they are divine (De testimonio animae, vi). They contain all truth (De praescriptione, vii, xiv) and from them the Church drinks (potat) her faith (Adv.Praxeam, xiii). The prophets were older than the Greek philosophers and their authority is accredited by the fulfilment of their predictions (Apol., xix–xx). The Scriptures and the teachings of philosophy are incompatible, insofar as the latter are the origins of sub-Christian heresies. "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" he exclaims, "or the Academy with the Church?" (De praescriptione, vii). Philosophy as pop-paganism is a work of demons (De anima, i); the Scriptures contain the wisdom of heaven.However, Tertullian was not averse to using the technical methods of Stoicism to discuss a problem (De anima). The rule of faith, however, seems to be also applied by Tertullian to some distinct formula of doctrine, and he gives a succinct statement of the Christian faith under this term (De praescriptione, xiii). Apostolicity
Tertullian was a defender of the necessity of apostolicity. In his Prescription Against Heretics, he explicitly challenges heretics to produce evidence of the apostolic succession of their communities. "Let them produce the original records of their churches; let them unfold


texts:
 the roll of their bishops, running down in due succession from the beginning in such a manner that [that first bishop of theirs] bishop shall be able to show for his ordainer and predecessor some one of the apostles or of apostolic men – a man, moreover, who continued steadfast with the apostles. For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp was placed therein by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. In exactly the same way the other churches likewise exhibit (their several worthies), whom, as having been appointed to their episcopal places by apostles, they regard as transmitters of the apostolic seed."Sin
Fornicators and murderers should never be readmitted into the church under any circumstances. In De pudicitia, Tertullian condemns Pope Callixtus I for allowing such people to be readmitted if they show repentance. Other beliefs
Tertullian had iconoclastic tendencies and believed the second commandment to prohibit any images. Tertullian discouraged infant baptism, he argued for baptizing believers instead, because in his view infants would cut themselves off from the hope of salvation by post-baptismal sins. Tertullian used the word "figure" and "symbol" to define the Eucharist, Tertullian in his book Against Marcion implied that: "this is my body" should be interpreted as "a figure of my body". Though Tim Staples, a Catholic apologist disputes the claim that


texts:
 Tertullian saw the Eucharist as a mere symbol, instead arguing for him believing in real presence. Tertullian denied the perpetual virginity of Mary, and he was extensively quoted by Helvidius in his debate with Jerome.J.N.D. Kelly also argued that Tertullian believed that Mary had imperfections, thus denying her sinlessness. Moral principles

Tertullian was a determined advocate of strict discipline and an austere code of practise, and like many of the African fathers, one of the leading representatives of the rigorist element in the early Church. These views may have led him to adopt Montanism with its ascetic rigor and its belief in chiliasm and the continuance of the prophetic gifts. In his writings on public amusements, the veiling of virgins, the conduct of women, and the like, he gives expression to these views. On the principle that we should not look at or listen to what we have no right to practise, and that polluted things, seen and touched, pollute (De spectaculis, viii, xvii), he declared a Christian should abstain from the theater and the amphitheater. There pagan religious rites were applied and the names of pagan divinities invoked; there the precepts of modesty, purity, and humanity were ignored or set aside, and there no place was offered to the onlookers for the cultivation of the Christian graces.Women should put aside their gold and precious stones as ornaments, and virgins should conform to the law of St. Paul for women and keep themselves strictly veiled (De virginibus velandis). He praised