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Captain <mask>, FSA (c. 1797/1799 – 5 August 1857), was a prominent asphalt contractor and captain in the Middlesex UK Militia, who became best known for his prominent promotion of hydropathy, now known as hydrotherapy, in the 1840s. It was also known as the Cold Water system or Cold Water cure. <mask> is widely credited with introducing the methods of Vincent Priessnitz to England, thus initiating the populist movement of the time. Indeed, much of what is popularly known about Priessnitz in the English-speaking world comes from two seminal publications. Firstly, <mask>'s Hydropathy; or The Cold Water Cure, as practised by Vincent Priessnitz... (1842 & 1843). Secondly, <mask>'s Life of Vincent Priessnitz (1898), with Metcalfe himself drawing upon <mask>, although Metcalfe also later wrote a historical overview and added more about <mask> and his role in the promotion of hydropathy. Biographical synopsis
<mask> was born in Farnborough, a village or parish in the county of Warwickshire, and administered by the Stratford-on-Avon District Council.<mask>, a member of the Arcadian Academy at Rome, was the elder and only surviving son of James and <mask>, and a descendant of church minister and subsequent Quaker, <mask>. Rev. <mask> was himself a curate in the Established, or Episcopal Church. The Rev. <mask> died by accident, leaving <mask> an orphan at age eight. <mask> married twice. On 28 June 1822, at St George's, Hanover Square, he married Elizabeth Ann Aldsworth Green, who was the only child of the late William Green, of Bolton Street, Piccadilly, and of Kew, Surrey.In April 1824 they had a daughter named

masks:
Richard Tappin Claridge
Claridge
Claridge
Richard Metcalfe
Claridge
Claridge
Richard Tappin Claridge
Claridge
Hannah Claridge
Richard Claridge
James Claridge
James Claridge
Richard
Claridge


type: original

texts: Emma Green, who later married Marie Etienne Charles Henri, Marquis de St. Aignan, and subsequently resided in Nice. <mask> was a man of independent means, who in 1841 attended Priessnitz's establishment at Graefenberg along with his wife and daughter. He claimed that his promotion of hydropathy was "completely philanthropic. Having gained my own health and saved the life of my daughter at Graefenberg, and having witnessed most astounding cures there", he wanted to promote this system. Elizabeth died on 24 August 1842. <mask> spent some time in Italy, from where around 1847 he continued promoting hydropathy by petition and a letter written at Bagni de Lucco on 12 May 1847. On 7 January 1854, <mask>, now residing at a villa on the left bank of Paillon in Nice, married his second wife, Eliza Ann Morgan (née Beville) at Trinity Church, Marylebone.Eliza had herself been previously married to the late George Gould Morgan, of the Tredegar peerage. Eliza Morgan <mask> died sometime before 1866. Before his prominence as a hydropathy promoter, <mask> tried his hand in other fields: with which, indeed, some critics alluded he should have stuck. This included a partnership as a boot and shoe-maker, with the partnership dissolving on 7 February 1824. And as a wine merchant, through at least May 1824 to August 1825, and where early on, he found himself as a potential creditor of a bankrupt. At this time, <mask> resided at 37 Wigmore Street, Marylebone. <mask> himself was declared bankrupt in 1826.However, it was another field where <mask> first became prominent, namely that of pioneering the use of asphalt paving in

masks: Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge


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 the United Kingdom, which he embarked on after returning from a tour of Europe in 1836. He also served with the Middlesex Militia, attaining the rank of captain, before resigning in 1854. At the end of his life, <mask> was still living in Nice and died in Castellammare di Stabia on 5 August 1857, and a copy of his will is held at The National Archives, Kew. At least one portrait of <mask> is known to have been created, by painter James John Hill. It was exhibited in 1844 at the Royal Society of British Artists, at Suffolk Street, Pall Mall, and titled Portrait of Captain <mask>, Author of Hydropathy, or the Cold-Water Cure. Before hydropathy
In 1836, prior to his involvement in the promotion of hydropathy, <mask> journeyed through Europe, making notes along the way, from which he published his first known work in 1837, titled A Guide Along the Danube..., for which he wrote the preface on 1 May 1837, at Venice. This was a tour guide for travel down the Danube, made possible by recent socio-political developments and "the establishment of steam navigation throughout the entire length of the Danube, the Black Sea, the Bosphorous, the Arhipeligo, and the Adriatic", which "converted what was hitherto a journey of toil and danger into one of unmixed pleasure and enjoyment".On 10 June 1837, Bent's Monthly Literary Advertiser carried a brief advertisement announcing the pending release of the book by "<mask><mask>, Esq. ", with the announcement comprising the book's lengthy title, and noting "Observations on the recent political and social changes in Turkey and Greece." A second edition, with numerous additions,

masks:
Claridge
Claridge
Claridge
Claridge
Richard T
. Claridge


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 was published in 1839, which <mask> states was prompted by "very favourable reception" of the first edition. One review described it as appearing to convey, "in a concise manner, the necessary directions for a traveller to make a very interesting and instructive tour at the least possible expenditure of both time and money". The second edition incorporated a range of new material, including:

in addition to the voyage down the Danube, and the tour of Constantinople, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, &c., the route from Paris to the Mediterranean, via Marseilles and Malta – the route from Paris to Ancona, via Geneva and Milan – the routes from Paris to Munich, via Nancy, Strasbourg, Badenbaden; and via Metz and Frankfort – the route from Munich to Venice and Trieste, via the Tyrol – the routes from London to the Rhine and the Danube – and the route from Alexandria to Cairo, &c., on the way to India. In these publications, <mask> was not yet known as captain, a title which he only commenced using from the publication of Hydropathy in 1842 onwards. In 1839, <mask> was promoted from Gentleman to Lieutenant in the Royal Westminster Middlesex Regiment of Militia, then in 1842 he was promoted to captain, before eventually resigning on 24 June 1854.In the meantime, between his 1836 tour of the European Continent, and his hydropathic adventures from the 1840s onwards, <mask> embarked on some pioneering business ventures in asphalt pavement, obtaining some patents, and setting up a company. <mask>'s patents
The first asphalt patent in Britain was 'Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen' in 1834, and there was an

masks: Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridgelaridge


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 unsuccessful attempt to use mastic pavement at Vauxhall by a competitor of <mask>. But it was <mask>'s efforts that were to give the industry impetus. In France, Seyssel asphalt was being successfully implemented for paving by Count de Sassenay. On 25 November 1837, <mask> <mask> (then a "Salisbury Street, gentleman") patented Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849) for use in pavements in Britain, where he managed Sassenay's affairs, <mask> had seen Seyssel asphalt employed in France and Belgium when visiting with Frederick Walter Simms, who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. In 1838, <mask> (listed as a gent of 8 Regent St., Middlesex) obtained patents in Scotland on 27 March, and Ireland on 23 April. In 1847, <mask> sold his interest in the patents to the trustees of his company, who in 1851 sought to extend the duration of all three patents, although unsuccessfully.Apart from the asphalt patents, on 26 April 1842, a six-month patent was granted for a composition called "oropholithe" to <mask> and two others, namely <mask>, and <mask> Joseph Jean Comte de la Chatre (patent #9331). This was a composition used "in preparing fabrics for covering floors, roofs, and other surfaces", which involved coating the fabric on one side for dry applications, or both sides "for roofs and other surfaces exposed to wet and damp". At time of this patent, <mask> was described as living at Weymouth Street, in the County of Middlesex. Formation and growth of Claridge's company
Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company was formed for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine

masks:
Claridge
Claridge
Richard Tappin
Claridge
Claridge
Claridge
Claridge
Claridge
Richard Hodgson
Raoul Armand
Claridge


texts: at Pyrimont Seysell in France", and "laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks, "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park". "The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons, and Marc and Isambard Brunel as, respectively, a trustee and consulting engineer), gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry". Per response to a query on <mask>, "in 1839, the offices of the company were at Stangate, Westminster, as appears in an advertisement in the Athenaeum of 4 May 1838, p.342".Although asphalt use took off in the 1830s, Mechanic's Magazine noted the existence of a pamphlet from 1621, by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys" stating he had discovered large quantities of asphaltum in the vicinity of Neufchâtel, and that prior to his discovery, asphaltum was only known to exist in the Dead Sea. Mechanics Magazine added "we wonder, by-the-bye, no 'Dead Sea Asphalt Company' has yet made its appearance in the market", and wondering whether the lack of such a market take-off in two centuries hinted at limitations of the product. Nevertheless, "By the end of 1838, at least two other companies, Robinson's and the Bastenne company, were in production". Indeed, in 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity over asphalt, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also be used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for


texts:
 waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, with these latter themselves proliferating in the 1800s. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other.In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s", including in such uses as school flooring. In 1847, Claridge's company promoted itself as producing "the only impervious and permanent covering for arches and roofs, and lining of reservoirs, gutters, & c"

In the 1870s, Claridge's company took over asphalt production at Pyrimont Wharf, in Cubitt Town. "The manufacturing process employed at Cubitt Town involved the heating of bituminous limestone in six large uncovered cauldrons, producing vapours considered offensive by many local residents. The material was employed predominantly for covering and protecting the foundations of buildings. It was employed, for example, at the Tobacco Stores at the Victoria Docks." Last years of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co.
By 1914, Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company had many contracts in hand, including 70,000 feet of asphalte roofing at HM Stationery Office; damp courses, floors and roofs at British American Tobacco Company's warehouse and W.H. Smith & Sons new printing works.Their expanding business necessitated moving to bigger premises, with their new offices at No. 3 Central Buildings, Westminster. "They also entered another business – that of tarred slag macadam –


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 under the title of Clarmac Roads, Ltd", with offices at the same address. Clarmac Roads was a subsidiary company promoted by Claridge's Asphalte Co to manufacture the materials and registered on 14 September 1914. With increasing motor traffic, the directors of Claridge's Asphalte Co thought there was a future for the construction of roads using the tar-bound macadam method, (now commonly known as tarmac) and invested a substantial amount of funds in the new company, borrowing money to do so. Two products resulted, namely Clarmac, and Clarphalte, with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although Clarmac was more widely used. Scott's Lane, Beckenham; Dorset Street, Marylebone; Lordswood Road, Birmingham; Hearsall Lane, Coventry; Valkyrie Avenue, Westcliff-on-Sea; and Lennard Road, Penge were photographed as "some amongst many laid with 'Clarmac'"

In 1915, Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. supplied asphalt for the Strand offices of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand.In July 1915, Clarmac Roads was in financial difficulties owing to the First World War, and the Claridge Company directors, believing those difficulties to be temporary, deposited a large amount of debentures with the Clarmac Company's bankers to secure an overdraft. However, the Clarmac Company never recovered. On 16 October 1915, a decision was made to wind up Clarmac Roads and a liquidator duly appointed, and creditor's meeting called. In January 1916, R.T. Wilkinson retired from his position as a director of Claridge's Company, after an association of 63 years. The


texts:
 failure of Clarmac Roads had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company, with a petition to wind it up lodged with the High Court on 2 November 1917 by company director William Allback. Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company finally ceased operating on 10 November 1917, after becoming insolvent following the failure of the joint venture entered into in 1914. The sequel to this was legal action by the liquidator to recover lost funds from Allback, who had played a prominent role in the promotion of Clarmac Roads and investment of funds therein.This case itself is sometimes cited in corporate law, as an early example of exemption from legal liability where the directors of a company sought and obtained legal advice in good faith. Hydropathy and beyond
<mask> wrote a number of works, but his best known, and most widely cited publication was Hydropathy; or The Cold Water Cure, as practised by Vincent Priessnitz.... The work itself provides an indication of impact and popularity of hydropathy at the time. It was first published in 1842, with the preface to the first edition dated 21 January 1842. In his preface to the third edition, dated 23 May 1842, <mask> noted that the book had "excited considerable attention". It reached its third edition "in the short space of three months", and in that time,  "several imperfect extracts in the form of Pamphlets" appeared, and the Hydropathic Society was formed, on 17 March 1842, "at the rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi". The fifth edition contains an advertisement (which remained in subsequent editions), stating "it is little more than nine months since

masks: Claridge Claridge


texts: the first announcement of the work appeared; and during that brief period of time, five editions, of one thousand copies each, and eight editions of an Abstract, have passed through the press; besides which, several unauthorised publications, in the form of pamphlets, extracted from the work, have been sold in great numbers".With growing popularity among the public, some favourable publications written by a few medical practitioners, and several hydropathic establishments fully operational, <mask> declared that "the year 1842 may be considered as a new era in the mode of curing disease in this country". <mask> reports that his attention was first seriously drawn to the subject of hydropathy by an officer of marines at Venice, who "Seeing me attacked by rheumatism and head-ache, to both of which complaints I have been subject for the greater part of my life, my friend strongly advised me, in the winter of 1840, to follow his example", and go to Priessnitz's establishment at Graefenberg. This he did, but not before being confined to his bed "for nearly two months", after arriving at Florence in Rome. He stayed at Graefenberg for three months, "during which time the health of that part of my family who were subjected to the treatment was perfectly established; we acquired the habit of living more moderately, of taking more exercise, of drinking more water, and of using it more freely in external ablutions than we were accustomed to; and, I may add, that we have learned how to allay pain". During his time at Graefenberg, <mask> made notes, which would form the foundation of his 1842 Hydropathy book, from his

masks: Claridge Claridge Claridge


texts:
 own experiences, his observations of other patients' experiences, and of the methods employed, from his discussions with Priessnitz and other patients. He also collected statistics on patient numbers and break-down by nationality, up to the beginning of September 1841. <mask> and his family returned to England in November 1841, and stayed at a hotel in Thames Street, until they found lodgings in Weymouth St., where, on 6 January 1842, the cook at the house was alleged to have stolen a quantity of continental lace belonging to Claridge's wife and daughter.The cook was indicted again for theft of other items on 14 February. Both cases were heard on 28 February 1842, and the cook was found not guilty.

.

Hydropathy promotion and responses
Following his return to England, <mask> commenced promoting hydropathy in Britain, first in London in 1842, then with lecture tours in Ireland and Scotland in 1843. His 10-week tour in Ireland included Limerick, Cork, Wexford, Dublin and Belfast, over June, July and August 1843, with two subsequent lectures in Glasgow. <mask> states "The leading papers reviewed my work favourably; my lectures in England, Ireland, and Scotland met with serious attention; and baths and wash-houses resulted from a lecture I gave in Edinburgh". Some other Englishmen preceded <mask> to Graefenberg, although not many. One of these was Dr. James Wilson, who himself, along with Dr James Manby Gully, operated a water cure establishment at Malvern. While acknowledging in an 1843 publication that <mask> did much to promote hydrotherapy, Wilson states that "I had been a considerable time at

masks: Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge


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 Graefenberg", and that Claridge "came to Graefenberg some time after I had been there".Nevertheless, in an earlier 1842 publication, Wilson wrote with some praise of <mask>, stating:
I have read Mr <mask>'s work on the 'Cold Water Cure', and I think I ought to notice it. As a non-professional man, it does him infinite credit; he has collected a considerable body of evidence from the works of professional as well as non-professional men, and it will always be read with interest by the advocates of this system. Such men as Mr <mask> ought not to be abused, for he could have no pocket motive in its production; all that can be said is that he is a little enthusiastic in these matters – a little enthusiasm does a great deal of good sometimes, when the motives are such as Mr <mask>'s. Similarly, Sir John E. Eardley-Wilmot, in his Tribute to Hydropathy, praised <mask> "for his strenuous exertions in the cause", to which every hydropathist "owes a deep debt of gratitude". But not everyone wrote favourably, or even kindly, about <mask> and his promotion of hydropathy. One satirical review of <mask>'s Hydropathy, playing on both German and English language (e.g. bad=bath in German, but bad in English – see image of hydropathic applications at Graefenberg), summed up the enthusiastic promotion of Priessnitz's water cure thus:
it has been our good fortune, since reading <mask> on Hydropathy, to see a sick drake avail himself of the "Cold Water Cure" at the dispensary in St. James's-park.First in waddling in, he took a Fuss-Bad; then he took a Sitz-bad, and then, turning his curly tail up into the air, he took a


texts:
 Kopf-Bad. Lastly, he rose almost upright on his latter end, and made such a triumphant flapping with his wings, that we really expected he was going to shout "Priessnitz for ever!" But no such thing. He only cried, "Quack! Quack! Quack! One of the most critical reviews was in The Lancet medical journal of March 1842, in which <mask> was accused of ignorance and plagiarism, a criticism all the worse for his indulgence in antiquarian research.Moreover, in 1843, doctor <mask>. Graham wrote somewhat triumphantly that after returning from Graefenberg, "one of the most zealous Hydropathists in this country – a gentleman who in his common conversation speaks most contemptuously of everything but cold water as a remedy for disease", sought his advice for mouth ulcers and bronchial complaints "from which his favourite Cold Water Cure could not deliver him!." Dr Graham "prescribed for him a vegetable alternative, and was favoured thereby to cure him perfectly within six weeks". In a footnote, Graham states "This was no less of a Hydropathist than Captain <mask>". Hydropathy and related movements
Nevertheless, <mask> and others continued their efforts, and the hydropathic movement gained considerable interest. When Hydropathy was first published in 1842, there were two prominent water-cure establishments. Ten years later, there were 24 establishments in Britain and Ireland, with many famous enough to be known simply by the owner's name. Surveying the publications on hydropathy from 1820 up to 1850, Metcalfe lists 69 authors of English works, and two Water-cure journals – one in London (from 1847) and one in America

masks:
Claridge
Thomas J
Claridge
Claridge


texts: (from 1845).He also listed 136 authors of German works, 48 of French works, 43 of Latin works, and nine in other languages. Hydropathic establishments also flourished. In Europe, hydropathy was already well established at the time of <mask>'s first visit: In his Hydropathy book, he listed 47 known establishments as at 1840. By October 1845, <mask> noted that "in Germany, there are at least fifty; France, Switzerland, the Tyrol, Hungary, Russia, Ireland, Scotland, all have their institutions, and England counts at least twenty, besides private individuals who are introducing it into their practice; and to show its dissemination, it is only necessary to state that at Graefenberg, at this moment, there are amongst the visitors some of the leading nobles of England, Russia, Poland, Austria and Italy". A 1997 review of the hydropathic movement states: "At the peak of the movement in the late nineteenth century there were over fifty hydropathic hotels in Britain, of which the best-known were Smedley's at Matlock in Derbyshire and Ben Rhydding near Leeds. Scotland, however, was over-represented with over twenty", while Ireland had one. There were a number of efforts towards sanitary reform in the nineteenth century, and the hydropathy movement is credited with contributing to this."There can be no doubt that the Bath and Washhouse Movement received a great stimulus through the introduction of Hydropathy into this country, and the consequent dissemination of the curative virtues of water appliances, and sanitary reformers saw the necessity of personal cleanliness in order to ensure perfect health". Metcalfe


texts: notes that it was the attention drawn by the publication of <mask>'s work "followed by others", that drew attention to hydropathy, "and gave a further stimulus to the movement which resulted in the passing of the Baths and Washhouses Act of Sir George Grey, in 1846, himself a zealous advocate of hydropathy". A series of statutes followed, which became known collectively as "The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896". This was an important milestone in the improvement of sanitary conditions and public health in those times, with early, strong support for the promotion of public baths and washhouses from prominent advocates of sanitary reform such as Erasmus Wilson, who applauded the establishment of Public Baths and Wash-houses, as "amongst the noblest of the institutions…as they are one of the greatest discoveries of the present age". <mask> himself was an early advocate, dating back to a lecture he gave in Edinburgh in 1843. <mask>'s Scottish lecture tours highlight overlap of yet another movement with that of hydropathy, namely that of the temperance movement, with both the temperance and hydropathy movements feeding off each other. <mask> revisited Graefenberg, from where in July 1845, he wrote a letter to the New York Tribune, which was reproduced in New York's Water Cure Journal in May 1846.And in October 1845, <mask> was one of 124 signatories in an address to Arch-Duke Franz Carl, extolling the virtues of Vincent Priessnitz and his methods. He sent another letter from Graefenberg on 4 March 1846, this time to an American acquaintance. In this wide-ranging letter, amongst other things he commends


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 the progress of the Water-Cure in America, and describes the progress in Great Britain, including the growth of washhouses. He also comments on some of the criticism against him and other hydropathy proponents, and discusses a book by Dr Erasmus Wilson. He also acknowledges the antiquity of hydropathy, and the work of his predecessors, such as "Dr Sir John Floyer", and his work Febrifugum Magnum, and Dr James Currie. On the antiquity of hydropathy, <mask> addresses some of his critics, stating that "we are not urging its novelty, but its UTILITY" (p. 2, emphases in original text), and praises Priessnitz for bringing it to the fore again. Hydropathy in the United States of America
In the United States of America, the first hydropathic facility has been attributed to Joel Shew (1816–1855), in 1843 or 1844, and to <mask> <mask> ('R.T.Trall'. 1812–1877) in 1844. Metcalfe credits Dr Charles Munde with the first facility, although this is not supported by Munde himself, or by historical evidence now available. Munde describes himself as becoming familiar with Priessnitz' methods around 1836, and later migrating from Germany, where he treated scarlet fever cases in Dresden during the winter of 1845–46. Munde's son recalls that the family went to the area now called Florence, Massachusetts "in the early fifties", after his father had struggled "for nearly a year in New York in search of a practice". A blind colored man named <mask> had previously set up a water cure practice, and after his death in 1849, Charles Munde learned "of the opportunity to take up his favorite method", which led him to pick up where

masks:
Claridge
Russell Tcher
Tl
David Ruggles


texts:
 Ruggles left off, thence to the naming of Florence, and accordingly, the name of the Florence Water Cure, also called the Munde Water Cure. Following its introduction to the U.S., hydrotherapy, as it later became known, was employed by John Harvey Kellogg at Battle Creek Sanitarium, which opened in 1866.However, "the crude, but thoroughgoing methods of the original system of Priessnitz, which prospered among the hardy mountaineers of Austrian Silesia, were much too strenuous for more delicately organized and pampered American invalids. This fact, together with the crass empiricism which characterised the use of water in the first half of the last century, when water-cures were for a time almost a fad, brought water into general disrepute as a curative means, and greatly hindered the scientific development of this invaluable agent". Hydropathy marketing disputed, not its principles or mechanisms
Kellogg's comments echo that of earlier medical commentators, who took issue not with the underlying principles hydropathy, nor the mechanisms which were not yet fully understood, but with the way in which it was promoted, and indeed, marketed. For example, in November 1881, the British Medical Journal noted that hydropathy was a specific instance, or "particular case", of general principles of thermodynamics. That is, "the application of heat and cold in general", as it applies to physiology, mediated by hydropathy. What was at issue was "that the application of such rules having in general received so special a form has led to forms of treatment called by certain special and almost sectarian names, and too often


texts: associated with certain places", and worse, "with the use of certain special, though quite common, waters". Indeed, while the underlying principles of hydropathy "certainly do belong to the general practice of medicine" it had, through the advertising of public companies and other even more objectionable practices, come to be associated in the public mind with so much mysticism as almost to justify the accusation of quackery and delusion.Yet this is happily dying out; and, no doubt, as the education of the public increases, it will tend to disappear altogether, especially if broad principles be kept steadily before the public rather than narrow and isolated details". One writer noted that "it is manifest that a great remedial power lies unutilized in a genuine hydropathy, and it calls urgently for earnest study and research", and "Not, be it observed, that hydropathy is a water treatment after all, but that water is the medium for the application of heat and cold to the body". Its utility in that application was not in dispute. Rather, there was a lack of data from reliable scientific investigation into physiological mechanisms, and the means "by which the effects of hydropathy can be measured and controlled". Probably however, nothing has done more to repel earnest research than the suspicion of quackery which taints the practice that ordinarily goes by this name. Huge establishments can only be made to pay by full houses well kept up, and this is found as a rule to require that their calling be magnified in ways which are at once too special and popular to be scientific and genuine. The British Medical


texts:
 Journal concurred with this writer on all counts, noting that there were "simple generalisations" that could be deduced regarding the effects of heat and cold on physiological processes, and lamenting the lack of such generalisations by "therapeutical authorities", let alone scientific investigations.Since then, there has been considerable research and advances in the understanding of underlying physiological mechanisms, including those of circulation and thermoregulation, and their application to hydrotherapy. Known publications by <mask>
This list comprises known publications by <mask>. Apart from the Spanish translation and the Abstract of Hydropathy, the primary sources here are Metcalfe, who lists all of <mask>'s publications so far referred to in this article, and Browne, who gives a brief mention of <mask> and his works on the first page of her article. Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)
 Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)
 Hardcopy edition. Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)
 (Google Books). Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org). Note the pagination is close, but not exactly the same, as the American edition.Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org). Note the pagination is close, but not exactly the same, as the English edition. Spanish translation of the English book. Further reading
 Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)

Notes

a. It is difficult to resolve the birth year discrepancies without access to a copy of original documents, although the IGI record looks specific, whereas the biographical sketch clearly includes indirect sources for some of its

masks: Claridge Claridge Claridge Claridge


texts: information (which does match collateral sources already cited in this article). However, a range of collateral information leaves no doubt that they refer to the same person. b.  Hydropathy, Cold Water system, and Cold Water cure, were essentially synonymous in that era, with publications under those titles all referring to the same legacy, namely Priessnitz, and – for U.K. publications – often also Claridge.So searches for publications from that period would need to try all three variations to capture relevant works. c.  The Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.) states that <mask> introduced hydropathy to England in 1840. However, <mask> describes himself as first paying attention to hydropathy in the winter of 1840, following which he was confined to bed for nearly two months before proceeding to Graefenberg, where he stayed for three months. From his comments on page 81, it is evident that he was at Graefenberg sometime around September 1841. <mask> himself cites 1842 as the year in which "a new era" commenced. d.  The Lancet review states (p. 833): "Mr <mask> will probably find that he made a mistake in turning his talents to physic, and crying water about the streets; he had better have continued crying 'there is nothing like leather ', or 'there is nothing like aspalt ', or 'there is nothing like wood '.We do not feel called upon to notice his asphaltic squireship's aspersions on the character of the medical profession". e.  To aid in finding information on <mask>'s portrait, it is noted that at the time (1844), artist James John Hill was residing at 58 Newman Street, as listed in Johnson's book, and


texts: was still there in 1848, per Graves (1908). f.  Indeed, a search for material for the section on <mask>'s Patent Asphalte Co. brings up increasing reference to the case as the range of search terms is both expanded and refined.g. The preface to the first edition remained in all known subsequent editions, including the third (which had its own additional preface), the fifth, and the eighth (both of which contain only the preface from the first edition)h.  The pagination for the text of the fifth and eighth editions are the same, so where practical, citations will be from the eighth, since that is available online. The only visible differences between the fifth and eighth editions are that the fifth includes two additions at either end of the book, not affecting the pagination. These are, the inclusion of a hand-written letter at the front, and at the back, "Critical notices of Captain <mask>'s Hydropathy."i. At least some hydropathy proponents appreciated the humour in this, as evidenced it being quoted in the humour section of the 1849 Water-Cure Journal.Light-hearted satire about the water cure was also engaged in by a theatrical group.j.' Munde operated the Florence Water-Cure, at Florence, Massachusetts (see preface in his 1857 book, p.vi). He previously migrated from Germany at an unknown date. However, in his text, he does cite a case he dealt with in Dresden in the winter of 1845–46. His own familiarity with Priessnitz's methods date back to circa 1836, when he was "almost a novice in Priessnitz's practice". "During an epidemic of scarlatina" in the city of Freiberg, two of his children, boys aged


texts:
 about 5 and 8, contracted the disease (p. 65). Two Internet Archive texts are available, each with missing pages at the front.All pages are covered between the two online texts. Alternatively, the full text is available on the Project Gutenberg site. References

External links

1790s births
1857 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Hydrotherapists
People from Warwickshire
19th-century English people
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of


texts:
<mask> (May 8, 1928 – October 31, 2010) was an American lawyer, writer, and presidential adviser. He was a speechwriter for President John F. Kennedy, as well as one of his closest advisers. President Kennedy once called him his "intellectual blood bank". Most notably, he was generally regarded as the author of Profiles in Courage, a claim he addresses in his 2008 memoir. The book won Kennedy the Pulitzer Prize for biography in 1957. <mask> helped draft Kennedy's inaugural address and was also the primary author of Kennedy's 1962 "We choose to go to the Moon" speech. Early life
<mask> was born in Lincoln, Nebraska, the son of Christian A<mask> (1890–1959), who served as Nebraska attorney general (1929–1933), and Annis (Chaikin<mask>.His father was Danish American and his mother was of Russian Jewish descent. His younger brother, Philip C<mask>, later became the lieutenant governor of Nebraska. He graduated from Lincoln High School during 1945. He earned a bachelor's degree at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, and attended University of Nebraska College of Law, graduating first in his class. During January 1953, the 24-year-old <mask> became the new Senator John F. Kennedy's chief legislative aide. He wrote many of Kennedy's articles and speeches. In his 2008 autobiography Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History, <mask> said he wrote "a first draft of most of the chapters" of John F. Kennedy's 1956 book Profiles in Courage and "helped choose the words of many of its sentences."Kennedy administration

<mask> was President Kennedy's special counsel, adviser, and primary speechwriter, the role for which he is remembered best. He helped draft the inaugural address in which Kennedy said famously, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." Although <mask> played an important part in the composition of the inaugural address, he has stated that "the speech and its famous turn of phrase that everyone remembers was written by Kennedy himself." In his 2008 memoir, Counselor: A

masks:
Theodore Chaikin Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
. Sorensen
) Sorensen
. Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen


texts: Life at the Edge of History, <mask> claimed, "The truth is that I simply don't remember where the line came from." During the early months of the administration, <mask>'s responsibilities concerned the domestic agenda. After the Bay of Pigs debacle, Kennedy asked <mask> to participate with foreign policy discussions as well. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, <mask> served as a member of ExComm and was named by Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara as one of the "true inner circle" members who advised the president, the others being Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy, Secretary of State Dean Rusk, General Maxwell D. Taylor (chairman of the Joint Chiefs), former ambassador to the USSR Llewellyn Thompson, and McNamara himself.<mask> played a critical role in drafting Kennedy's correspondence with Nikita Khrushchev and worked on Kennedy's first address to the nation about the crisis on October 22. <mask> was devastated by Kennedy's assassination, which he termed "the most deeply traumatic experience of my life. ... I had never considered a future without him." He later quoted a poem that he said summed up how he felt: "How could you leave us, how could you die? We are sheep without a shepherd when the snow shuts out the sky." He submitted a letter of resignation to President Johnson the day after the assassination but was persuaded to stay through the transition.<mask> drafted Johnson's first address to Congress as well as the 1964 State of the Union. He officially resigned February 29, 1964, and was the first member of the Kennedy Administration to do so. As Johnson was later to recount in his memoirs, <mask> helped in the transition to the new administration with those speeches. Prior to his resignation, <mask> stated his intent to write Kennedy's biography, calling it "the book that President Kennedy had intended to write with my help after his second term." He was not the only Kennedy aide to publish writings; Paul “Red” Fay, Jr., Kennedy’s Secretary of the Navy and a

masks: Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen


texts: close friend of Kennedy’s from his Navy service wrote ‘’ The Pleasure Of His Company’’, David Powers and Kenneth O’Donnell, Special Assistants to the President wrote ‘’Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye’’, and historian and special assistant Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. wrote his Pulitzer Prize winning memoir A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House during the same period. <mask>'s biography, Kennedy, was published during 1965 and became an international bestseller. Politics after <mask> later joined the U.S. law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison LLP, where he was of counsel, while still staying involved in politics.He was involved with Democratic campaigns and was a major adviser of Robert F. Kennedy in Kennedy's 1968 presidential campaign. After the death of Robert Kennedy he wrote a book entitled `The Kennedy Legacy: A Peaceful Revolution For The Seventies' (1969) about the political ideals of the Kennedy brothers that could be applied to the Democratic party in particular and to America and American society in general going forward. During the next four decades, <mask> had a career as an international lawyer, advising governments around the world, as well as major international corporations. During 1970, <mask> was the Democratic party's designee for the Democratic nomination for U.S. senator from New York. He was challenged in the primary election by Richard Ottinger, Paul O'Dwyer, and Max McCarthy, and polled third. During 1977, Jimmy Carter nominated <mask> as Director of Central Intelligence (CIA), but the nomination was withdrawn before a Senate vote. <mask>'s help with explaining <mask>'s Chappaquiddick incident was cited as a factor of Senate opposition to his nomination as CIA director.<mask> in his autobiography attributed the loss of Senate approval for his nomination for CIA director to his conscientious objector status as a youth, his two failed marriages, and his writing an affidavit in defense of releasing the Pentagon Papers. <mask> was the national co-chairman for Gary Hart

masks:
Sorensen
Kennedy Sorensen
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Ted Kennedy
Sorensen
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texts: for the presidential election of 1984 and made several appearances on his behalf. In addition to his successful career as a lawyer, <mask> was also a frequent spokesman for liberal ideals and ideas, writing opinion-editorials and delivering speeches concerning domestic and international subjects. For several years during the 1960s, he was an editor of the Saturday Review. He was affiliated with a number of institutions, including the Council On Foreign Relations, The Century Foundation, Princeton University, and the Institute of Politics at Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government. <mask> was a board member of the International Center for Transitional Justice and an advisory board member of the Partnership for a Secure America, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to recreating bipartisan consensus for American national security and foreign policy. He also was chairman of the advisory board to the International Center for Ethics, Justice and Public Life at Brandeis University.<mask> also attended meetings of the Judson Welliver Society, a bipartisan social club composed of former presidential speechwriters. During 2007, a model Democratic presidential nomination acceptance speech written by <mask> was published in the Washington Monthly. The magazine had solicited him to write the speech that he would most want the 2008 Democratic nominee to give at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, without regard to the identity of the nominee. On March 9, 2007, he spoke at an event with then-senator Barack Obama at New York City's Grand Hyatt Hotel and officially endorsed him for the presidential election in 2008. Very active in his campaign, <mask> spoke early on and frequently about the similarities between Senator Barack Obama's and Senator John F. Kennedy's presidential campaigns. He also provided some assistance with President Obama's 2009 Inaugural Address. <mask> served on the advisory board of the National Security Network.In his book Let The Word Go Forth, <mask>'s selects from more than 110 speeches

masks: Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen Sorensen


texts:
 and writings that indicate the importance of historical insights in Kennedy's thoughts and actions. Personal life
He was married three times. His first marriage, in 1949, was to Camilla Palmer. The couple had three sons: Eric, Steven, and Phillip. They later divorced. In 1964, he married Sara Elbery. That marriage also ended in divorce.In 1969, <mask> married Gillian Martin of the United Nations Foundation. They had a daughter, <mask>, and remained married until <mask>'s death. On February 25, 2010, he received the National Humanities Medal for 2009 in a ceremony in the East Room of the White House. He was awarded the medal for "Advancing our understanding of modern American politics. As a speechwriter and adviser to President Kennedy, he helped craft messages and policies, and later gave us a window into the people and events that made history." Death
On October 31, 2010, <mask> died at NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital in New York City of complications from a stroke he suffered the previous week. Publications

Portrayals in media
<mask> has been portrayed as a character in the following films and miniseries:
 The 1974 TV film The Missiles of October, by Clifford David
 The 1998 HBO mini-series From the Earth to the Moon, by Jack Gilpin
 The 2000 film Thirteen Days, by Tim Kelleher; although, in an interview after the film's release, Robert McNamara stated that the lead role of Kenneth O'Donnell (played by Kevin Costner) was modeled after Sorensen: "It was not Kenny O'Donnell who pulled us all together—it was <mask>."The 2016 film LBJ, by Brent Bailey
 The 2018 film Chappaquiddick, by Taylor Nichols

See also

"Ich bin ein Berliner"
American University speech
Profiles in Courage (1964 TV series)

References

Further reading
 ABC News online, 2008-02-08. Passing the Torch: Kennedy's Touch on Obama's Words
 Clarke, Thurston. 2005. Ask Not: The Inauguration of John F. Kennedy and the Speech That Changed America. Macmillan, 304 pp. (Originally published 2004 by Henry Holt and Co., 272 pp.) Marcus, Jacob Rader.1981.

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Sorensen
Juliet Sorensen
Sorensen
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Ted Sorensen


texts:
 The American Jewish Woman, 1654–1980. KTAV Publishing House. 231 pp
 The New York Times, 1983-04-21. New York Day by Day; Gary Hart Opens Campaign Headquarters
 The New York Times, Sunday Book Review, 18 May 2008, review of <mask>'s Counselor. <mask>, <mask> (as Theodore C.) The New Vision. Washington Monthly, July/August 2007.<mask>, <mask>. 2008-07-23. Heir Time: Is Barack Obama The Next JFK? The New Republic
 <mask>, <mask> (as Theodore). 2007-07-25. Barack Obama: the new JFK. Guardian (London, UK)
 .Wall Street Journal, 9 May 2008, p. W3, review of <mask>'s Counselor. External links

John F. Kennedy Library and Museum: Inventory of personal papers
PBS interview with <mask>, 29 August 1996
As a ghostwriter for Kennedy
Webcast of speech at the 2005 Nuclear Non Proliferation Conference (RealPlayer)
Lincoln High School Distinguished Alumni Profile
<mask>'s Acceptance Address Prepared for the 2008 Democratic Presidential Nominee
<mask> speaks at MIT Symposium
An February 2009 interview by Thorsten Overgaard with <mask> in Stockholm on Obama and Kennedy

Booknotes interview with <mask> on Why I Am a Democrat, July 14, 1996. 1928 births
2010 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American people of Danish descent
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
Speechwriters for presidents of the United States
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Kennedy administration personnel
Lawyers from New York City
Lyndon B. Johnson administration personnel
Members of the Universalist Church of America
National Humanities Medal recipients
Nebraska lawyers
Nebraska Democrats
New York (state) Democrats
People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
United States presidential advisors
University of Nebraska College of Law alumni
White House Counsels
Writers from Lincoln, Nebraska
Writers from New York City
Writers from Washington, D.C.
Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison people
The Century Foundation
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male

masks:
Ted Sorensen
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Ted
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Ted
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Ted Sorensen
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Ted Sorensen
Sorensen


texts: <mask><mask> ( , ; 15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as <mask>, was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath, from the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence. <mask> has been called the "father" of observational astronomy, modern physics, the scientific method, and modern science. <mask> studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balances". He invented the thermoscope and various military compasses, and used the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects. His contributions to observational astronomy include telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, observation of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, observation of Saturn's rings, and analysis of lunar craters and sunspots. <mask>'s championing of Copernican heliocentrism (Earth rotating daily and revolving around the sun) was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted Holy Scripture.<mask> later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported <mask> up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. During this time,

masks:
Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de
' Galilei
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo


texts:
 he wrote Two New Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier. Early life and family

<mask> was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of <mask>, a lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, who had married in 1562. <mask> became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a scepticism for established authority. Three of <mask>'s five siblings survived infancy.The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who contributed to <mask>'s financial burdens for the rest of his life. Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from <mask> to support his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to <mask>'s early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When <mask> was eight, his family moved to Florence, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. When <mask> was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini. He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence.Name
<mask> tended to refer to himself only by his given name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name,

masks:
Galileo
Vincenzo Galilei
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo Galilei
Galileo
Galileo


texts:
 Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor, <mask>, an important physician, professor, and politician in Florence in the 15th century. <mask> was buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later, <mask> was also buried. When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as <mask> Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, an elite pro-science organization in Italy. It was common for mid-sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname. Hence, <mask> was not necessarily named after his ancestor <mask>.The Italian male given name "<mask>" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", meaning "of Galilee", a biblically significant region in Northern Israel. Because of that region, the adjective galilaios (Greek Γαλιλαῖος, Latin Galilaeus, Italian <mask>), which means "Galilean", was used in antiquity (particularly by emperor Julian) to refer to Christ and his followers. The biblical roots of <mask>'s name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the <mask> affair, one of <mask>'s opponents, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered against <mask> a controversial and influential sermon. In it he made a point of quoting Acts , "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" (in the Latin version found in the Vulgate: Viri Galilaei, quid statis aspicientes in caelum?). Children

Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, <mask> fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba.They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia

masks:
Galileo Bonaiuti
Galileo Bonaiuti
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Bonaiuti
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo


texts:
 (born 1601), and a son, Vincenzo (born 1606). Due to their illegitimate birth, <mask> considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to <mask>'s previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with <mask> at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life.Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of <mask> and married Sestilia Bocchineri. Career as a scientist
Although <mask> seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. He was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence. In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, almost one hundred years later, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an

masks: Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo


texts: accurate timepiece.Up to this point, <mask> had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead of medicine. He created a thermoscope, a forerunner of the thermometer, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). <mask> also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. In the same year, upon invitation by the Florentine Academy, he presented two lectures, On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno, in an attempt to propose a rigorous cosmological model of Dante's hell. Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, <mask> acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli.In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua where he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. During this period, <mask> made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and pioneering

masks: Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo


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 the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy. Astronomy

Kepler's supernova
Tycho Brahe and others had observed the supernova of 1572. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to <mask> brought the 1572 supernova and the less bright nova of 1601 to <mask>'s notice.<mask> observed and discussed Kepler's Supernova in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, <mask> concluded that they were distant stars, and, therefore, disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens. Refracting telescope

Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608, <mask>, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification. With a Galilean telescope, the observer could see magnified, upright images on the Earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers.His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for <mask>, who sold them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger). Moon

On 30 November 1609, <mask> aimed his telescope

masks: Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo


texts:
 at the Moon. While not being the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had done it four months before but only saw a "strange spottednesse"), <mask> was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and craters. In his study, he also made topographical charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante. <mask> is sometimes credited with the discovery of the lunar libration in latitude in 1632, although Thomas Harriot or William Gilbert might have done it before.A friend of <mask>'s, the painter Cigoli, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings, though probably used his own telescope to make the observation. Jupiter's moons

On 7 January 1610, <mask> observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it. Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January, <mask> noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days, he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest moons. He discovered the fourth on 13 January. <mask> named the

masks: Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo


texts:
 group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by Simon Marius on 8 January 1610 and are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614. <mask>'s observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that <mask> could have discovered such a thing. His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611. <mask> continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Johannes Kepler had believed impossible. Phases of Venus

From September 1610, <mask> observed that Venus exhibits a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the Solar System developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun.In Ptolemy's geocentric model, it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect


texts:
 the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally, the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After <mask>'s telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the early 17th century, as a result of his discovery, the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models, such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models, each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all explained the phases of Venus without the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. <mask>'s discovery of the phases of Venus was thus his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.Saturn and Neptune
In 1610, <mask> also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him. <mask> observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it. Sunspots

<mask> made naked-eye and telescopic studies of sunspots.Their


texts:
 existence raised another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, observed by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, also provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe. A dispute over claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led <mask> to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner. In the middle was Mark Welser, to whom Scheiner had announced his discovery, and who asked <mask> for his opinion. Both of them were unaware of Johannes Fabricius' earlier observation and publication of sunspots. Milky Way and stars
<mask> observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye.He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617. In the Starry Messenger, <mask> reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his Letters on Sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter. He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described


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 in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.In his Dialogue, he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, <mask> did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, <mask>'s values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Brahe, and enabled <mask> to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable. Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument. Theory of tides

Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun". <mask> considered his theory of the tides to provide such evidence. This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to call his Dialogue Concerning the


texts:
 Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.The reference to tides was removed from the title by order of the Inquisition. For <mask>, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. <mask> and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about 12 hours apart.<mask> dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors. Albert Einstein later expressed the opinion that <mask> developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth. <mask> also dismissed the idea, known from antiquity and by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the Moon caused the tides—<mask> also took no interest in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets. <mask> continued to argue in favour of his theory of tides, considering it the ultimate proof of Earth's motion. Controversy over comets and The Assayer
In 1619, <mask> became embroiled

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texts: in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time <mask> had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes <mask> as philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of <mask>'s ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto. Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth, and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon. Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, Discourse on Comets, published under the name of one of <mask>'s disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by <mask> himself. <mask> and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets, although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. (The correct approach to the study of comets had been proposed at the time by Tycho Brahe.) In its opening passage, <mask> and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner, and various


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 uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work.The Jesuits were offended, and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance, under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, purporting to be one of his own pupils. The Assayer was <mask>'s devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance. It has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of polemical literature, in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn. It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated. In Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, the future Urban VIII, had come down on the side of <mask> and the Lincean Academy. <mask>'s dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits, and <mask> and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation, although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive. Controversy over heliocentrism

At the time of <mask>'s conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the Aristotelian geocentric view that the Earth is the center of the Universe and the orbit of all heavenly bodies, or Tycho Brahe's new system blending geocentrism with heliocentrism.Opposition to heliocentrism and <mask>'s writings on it combined religious and scientific objections. Religious opposition to heliocentrism arose from biblical passages implying the fixed nature of the Earth. Scientific opposition came from Brahe, who argued that if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, though none was at the time. Aristarchus


texts: and Copernicus had correctly postulated that parallax was negligible because the stars were so distant. However, Tycho countered that since stars appear to have measurable angular size, if the stars were that distant and their apparent size is due to their physical size, they would be far larger than the Sun. In fact, it is not possible to observe the physical size of distant stars without modern telescopes. <mask> defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations of 1609.In December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of <mask>'s friends and followers, Benedetto Castelli, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth. Prompted by this incident, <mask> wrote a letter to Castelli in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts, and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not published, but circulated widely. Two years later, <mask> wrote a letter to Christina that expanded his arguments previously made in eight pages to forty pages. By 1615, <mask>'s writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini, who claimed that <mask> and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible, which was seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism. Lorini specifically cited <mask>'s letter to Castelli. <mask> went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas.At the start of 1616, Monsignor Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with <mask>, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. <mask> later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against

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texts: Copernicanism that followed. Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun. The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested <mask> focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention <mask>'s biblical ideas. In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture".The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith". Pope Paul V instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to deliver this finding to <mask>, and to order him to abandon heliocentrism. On 26 February, <mask> was called to Bellarmine's residence and ordered "to abandon completely ... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the Earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing." The decree of the Congregation of the Index banned Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works until correction. For the next decade, <mask> stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal


texts: Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of <mask>, and had opposed the admonition of <mask> in 1616.<mask>'s resulting book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission. Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked <mask> to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although <mask> states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Most historians agree <mask> did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.<mask> had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial, <mask> steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the


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 condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of <mask>'s rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat. The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts:
 <mask> was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (though he was never formally charged with heresy, relieving him of facing corporal punishment), namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture.He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions. He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. On the following day, this was commuted to house arrest, under which he remained for the rest of his life. His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future. According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, <mask> allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "And yet it moves". There was a claim that a 1640s painting by the

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texts: Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned <mask> apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death.Based on the painting, Stillman Drake wrote  "there is no doubt now that the famous words were already attributed to <mask> before his death". However, an intensive investigation by astrophysicist Mario Livio has revealed that said painting is most probably a copy of a 1837 painting by the Flemish painter Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem. After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), <mask> was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. <mask> was ordered to read the Seven Penitential Psalms once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself. It was while <mask> was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials, published in Holland to avoid the censor.This book was highly praised by Albert Einstein. As a result of this work, <mask> is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice. Dava Sobel argues that prior to


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 <mask>'s 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of <mask> was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of <mask>. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against <mask> out of anger and fear. Mario Livio places <mask> and his discoveries in modern scientific and social contexts.In particular, he argues that the <mask> affair has its counterpart in science denial. Death

<mask> continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77. The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour. These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested, because <mask> had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy". He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy. He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour; during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains. These fingers are currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy.Scientific contributions

Scientific methods
<mask> made original contributions to the science of motion through an

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texts: innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. <mask>'s father, <mask>, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension. These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young <mask> could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition. <mask> was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer, he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ...It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...." His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which <mask> learned when he studied philosophy. His work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, <mask> had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a

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 reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning. <mask> showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x).<mask> further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of air resistance or other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola, but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight. Astronomy

Using his refracting telescope, <mask> observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth. Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter. Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other planets. In 1612, he observed Neptune and noted its motion, but did not identify it as a planet. <mask> made studies of sunspots, the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope.Engineering

<mask> made a number of contributions to what is now known as engineering, as distinct from pure physics. Between 1595 and 1598, <mask> devised and improved a geometric and military compass


texts: suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under <mask>'s direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 of these compasses, which <mask> sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire. In 1593, <mask> constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.In 1609, <mask> was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for <mask>'s instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani, at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make <mask> a member of his Accademia dei Lincei. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects. By 1624, <mask> had used a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi. The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for


texts: <mask>'s invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".Illustrations of insects made using one of <mask>'s microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope. In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, <mask> proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life, but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by Zebulon Pike of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required the development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison. Late in his life, when totally blind, <mask> designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called <mask>'s escapement), although no clock using this was built until after the first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s. <mask> was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding.In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a scheme by Bartolotti to cut a new channel for the


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 Bisenzio River near Florence. Physics

<mask>'s theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. <mask> conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. <mask> claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude.In fact, this is only approximately true, as was discovered by Christiaan Huygens. <mask> also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. <mask>'s son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. <mask> is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638, <mask> described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance.The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between


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 the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. <mask> reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously. Sometime between <mask>'s death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result. The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods. <mask> put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest.This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity. Falling bodies
A biography by <mask>'s pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that <mask> had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass. This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by <mask> himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place. An exception is Drake, who argues that the experiment did take


texts: place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus) and Jan Cornets de Groot, although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1586. However, most of his experiments with falling bodies were carried out using inclined planes where both the issues of timing and air resistance were much reduced.In any case, observations that similarly sized objects of different weights fell at the same speed is documented in works as early as those of John Philoponus in the sixth century and which <mask> was aware of. In his 1638 Discorsi, <mask>'s character Salviati, widely regarded as <mask>'s spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius and Simon Stevin. Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar. <mask> proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (d∝t2). Prior to <mask>, Nicole Oresme, in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change, and Domingo de Soto had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous


texts: medium would be uniformly accelerated.Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in <mask>'s theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as <mask> did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. <mask> expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.) He also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion, thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it. Philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. <mask> stated: "Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits".But the surface of the earth would be an instance of such a plane if all its unevenness could be removed. This was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law), except for the direction of the motion: Newton's is straight, <mask>'s is circular (for example, the planets' motion around the Sun, which according to him, and unlike Newton, takes place in absence of gravity). According to


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 Dijksterhuis <mask>'s conception of inertia as a tendency to persevere in circular motion is closely related to his Copernican conviction. Mathematics
While <mask>'s application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion square root method passed down from Fibonacci and Archimedes. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of <mask>'s life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes. The concept now named <mask>'s paradox was not original with him.His proposed solution, that infinite numbers cannot be compared, is no longer considered useful. Legacy

Later Church reassessments
The <mask> affair was largely forgotten after <mask>'s death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting <mask>'s works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence. In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of <mask>'s complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue. In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835