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 may have been influenced by Averroism.But he rarely cites Plato and Aristotle, and most likely did not approve of them. Leo Strauss argued that the strong influence of Xenophon, a student of Socrates more known as an historian, rhetorician and soldier, was a major source of Socratic ideas for Machiavelli, sometimes not in line with Aristotle. While interest in Plato was increasing in Florence during <mask>'s lifetime, Machiavelli does not show particular interest in him, but was indirectly influenced by his readings of authors such as Polybius, Plutarch and Cicero. The major difference between Machiavelli and the Socratics, according to Strauss, is Machiavelli's materialism, and therefore his rejection of both a teleological view of nature and of the view that philosophy is higher than politics. With their teleological understanding of things, Socratics argued that by nature, everything that acts, acts towards some end, as if nature desired them, but Machiavelli claimed that such things happen by blind chance or human action. IV. Classical materialism

Strauss argued that Machiavelli may have seen himself as influenced by some ideas from classical materialists such as Democritus, Epicurus and Lucretius.Strauss however sees this also as a sign of major innovation in Machiavelli, because classical materialists did not share the Socratic regard for political life, while Machiavelli clearly did. V. Thucydides

Some scholars note the similarity between Machiavelli and the Greek historian Thucydides, since both emphasized power politics. Strauss argued that Machiavelli may indeed have been influenced by pre-Socratic philosophers,


type: original

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 but he felt it was a new combination:
...contemporary readers are reminded by <mask>'s teaching of Thucydides; they find in both authors the same "realism," i.e., the same denial of the power of the gods or of justice and the same sensitivity to harsh necessity and elusive chance. Yet Thucydides never calls in question the intrinsic superiority of nobility to baseness, a superiority that shines forth particularly when the noble is destroyed by the base. Therefore Thucydides' History arouses in the reader a sadness which is never aroused by Machiavelli's books. In Machiavelli we find comedies, parodies, and satires but nothing reminding of tragedy. One half of humanity remains outside of his thought.There is no tragedy in Machiavelli because he has no sense of the sacredness of "the common." —

Beliefs
Amongst commentators, there are a few consistently made proposals concerning what was most new in Machiavelli's work. Empiricism and realism versus idealism
Machiavelli is sometimes seen as the prototype of a modern empirical scientist, building generalizations from experience and historical facts, and emphasizing the uselessness of theorizing with the imagination. Machiavelli felt that his early schooling along the lines of a traditional classical education was essentially useless for the purpose of understanding politics. Nevertheless, he advocated intensive study of the past, particularly regarding the founding of a city, which he felt was a key to understanding its later development. Moreover, he studied the way people lived and aimed to inform leaders how they should rule and even how they themselves should live.


texts: Machiavelli denies the classical opinion that living virtuously always leads to happiness.For example, Machiavelli viewed misery as "one of the vices that enables a prince to rule." Machiavelli stated that "it would be best to be both loved and feared. But since the two rarely come together, anyone compelled to choose will find greater security in being feared than in being loved." In much of Machiavelli's work, he often states that the ruler must adopt unsavory policies for the sake of the continuance of his regime. A related and more controversial proposal often made is that he described how to do things in politics in a way which seemed neutral concerning who used the advice—tyrants or good rulers. That Machiavelli strove for realism is not doubted, but for four centuries scholars have debated how best to describe his morality. The Prince made the word Machiavellian a byword for deceit, despotism, and political manipulation.Leo Strauss declared himself inclined toward the traditional view that Machiavelli was self-consciously a "teacher of evil," since he counsels the princes to avoid the values of justice, mercy, temperance, wisdom, and love of their people in preference to the use of cruelty, violence, fear, and deception. Strauss takes up this opinion because he asserted that failure to accept the traditional opinion misses the "intrepidity of his thought" and "the graceful subtlety of his speech." Italian anti-fascist philosopher Benedetto Croce (1925) concludes Machiavelli is simply a "realist" or "pragmatist" who accurately states that moral values in reality do not greatly affect the decisions that political leaders


texts:
 make. German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1946) held that Machiavelli simply adopts the stance of a political scientist—a Galileo of politics—in distinguishing between the "facts" of political life and the "values" of moral judgment. On the other hand, Walter Russell Mead has argued that The Princes advice presupposes the importance of ideas like legitimacy in making changes to the political system. Fortune
<mask> is generally seen as being critical of Christianity as it existed in his time, specifically its effect upon politics, and also everyday life. In his opinion, Christianity, along with the teleological Aristotelianism that the church had come to accept, allowed practical decisions to be guided too much by imaginary ideals and encouraged people to lazily leave events up to providence or, as he would put it, chance, luck or fortune.While Christianity sees modesty as a virtue and pride as sinful, Machiavelli took a more classical position, seeing ambition, spiritedness, and the pursuit of glory as good and natural things, and part of the virtue and prudence that good princes should have. Therefore, while it was traditional to say that leaders should have virtues, especially prudence, Machiavelli's use of the words virtù and prudenza was unusual for his time, implying a spirited and immodest ambition. Mansfield describes his usage of virtu as a "compromise with evil". Famously, Machiavelli argued that virtue and prudence can help a man control more of his future, in the place of allowing fortune to do so. has argued that this same approach can be found in Machiavelli's approach to love and desire, as seen in his comedies


texts: and correspondence. Najemy shows how Machiavelli's friend Vettori argued against Machiavelli and cited a more traditional understanding of fortune. On the other hand, humanism in Machiavelli's time meant that classical pre-Christian ideas about virtue and prudence, including the possibility of trying to control one's future, were not unique to him.But humanists did not go so far as to promote the extra glory of deliberately aiming to establish a new state, in defiance of traditions and laws. While <mask>'s approach had classical precedents, it has been argued that it did more than just bring back old ideas and that Machiavelli was not a typical humanist. argues that the way Machiavelli combines classical ideas is new. While Xenophon and Plato also described realistic politics and were closer to Machiavelli than Aristotle was, they, like Aristotle, also saw philosophy as something higher than politics. Machiavelli was apparently a materialist who objected to explanations involving formal and final causation, or teleology. <mask>'s promotion of ambition among leaders while denying any higher standard meant that he encouraged risk-taking, and innovation, most famously the founding of new modes and orders. His advice to princes was therefore certainly not limited to discussing how to maintain a state.It has been argued that <mask>'s promotion of innovation led directly to the argument for progress as an aim of politics and civilization. But while a belief that humanity can control its own future, control nature, and "progress" has been long-lasting, <mask>'s followers, starting with his own friend Guicciardini, have tended to

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 prefer peaceful progress through economic development, and not warlike progress. As Harvey  wrote: "In attempting other, more regular and scientific modes of overcoming fortune, <mask>'s successors formalized and emasculated his notion of virtue." <mask> however, along with some of his classical predecessors, saw ambition and spiritedness, and therefore war, as inevitable and part of human nature. Strauss concludes his 1958 book Thoughts on Machiavelli by proposing that this promotion of progress leads directly to the modern arms race. Strauss argued that the unavoidable nature of such arms races, which have existed before modern times and led to the collapse of peaceful civilizations, provides us with both an explanation of what is most truly dangerous in Machiavelli's innovations, but also the way in which the aims of his amoral innovation can be understood. Religion
Machiavelli shows repeatedly that he saw religion as man-made, and that the value of religion lies in its contribution to social order and the rules of morality must be dispensed with if security requires it.In The Prince, the Discourses and in the Life of Castruccio Castracani he describes "prophets", as he calls them, like Moses, Romulus, Cyrus the Great and Theseus (he treated pagan and Christian patriarchs in the same way) as the greatest of new princes, the glorious and brutal founders of the most novel innovations in politics, and men whom Machiavelli assures us have always used a large amount of armed force and murder against their own people. He estimated that these sects last from 1,666 to 3,000 years each time, which, as pointed out by Leo Strauss,

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 would mean that Christianity became due to start finishing about 150 years after Machiavelli. Machiavelli's concern with Christianity as a sect was that it makes men weak and inactive, delivering politics into the hands of cruel and wicked men without a fight. While fear of God can be replaced by fear of the prince, if there is a strong enough prince, Machiavelli felt that having a religion is in any case especially essential to keeping a republic in order. For Machiavelli, a truly great prince can never be conventionally religious himself, but he should make his people religious if he can. According to  he was not the first person to ever explain religion in this way, but his description of religion was novel because of the way he integrated this into his general account of princes. Machiavelli's judgment that governments need religion for practical political reasons was widespread among modern proponents of republics until approximately the time of the French Revolution.This therefore represents a point of disagreement between himself and late modernity. Positive side to factional and individual vice
Despite the classical precedents, which Machiavelli was not the only one to promote in his time, Machiavelli's realism and willingness to argue that good ends justify bad things, is seen as a critical stimulus towards some of the most important theories of modern politics. Firstly, particularly in the Discourses on Livy, Machiavelli is unusual in the positive side he sometimes seems to describe in factionalism in republics. For example, quite early in the Discourses, (in Book I, chapter 4), a chapter title announces that the


texts:
 disunion of the plebs and senate in Rome "kept Rome free". That a community has different components whose interests must be balanced in any good regime is an idea with classical precedents, but Machiavelli's particularly extreme presentation is seen as a critical step towards the later political ideas of both a division of powers or checks and balances, ideas which lay behind the US constitution, as well as many other modern state constitutions. Similarly, the modern economic argument for capitalism, and most modern forms of economics, was often stated in the form of "public virtue from private vices." Also in this case, even though there are classical precedents, Machiavelli's insistence on being both realistic and ambitious, not only admitting that vice exists but being willing to risk encouraging it, is a critical step on the path to this insight.Mansfield however argues that Machiavelli's own aims have not been shared by those he influenced. Machiavelli argued against seeing mere peace and economic growth as worthy aims on their own, if they would lead to what Mansfield calls the "taming of the prince." Influence

To quote Robert Bireley:

Machiavelli's ideas had a profound impact on political leaders throughout the modern west, helped by the new technology of the printing press. During the first generations after Machiavelli, his main influence was in non-republican governments. Pole reported that The Prince was spoken of highly by Thomas Cromwell in England and had influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism, and in his tactics, for example during the Pilgrimage of Grace. A copy was also possessed by the


texts: Catholic king and emperor Charles V. In France, after an initially mixed reaction, Machiavelli came to be associated with Catherine de' Medici and the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. As  reports, in the 16th century, Catholic writers "associated Machiavelli with the Protestants, whereas Protestant authors saw him as Italian and Catholic".In fact, he was apparently influencing both Catholic and Protestant kings. One of the most important early works dedicated to criticism of Machiavelli, especially The Prince, was that of the Huguenot, Innocent Gentillet, whose work commonly referred to as Discourse against Machiavelli or Anti Machiavel was published in Geneva in 1576. He accused Machiavelli of being an atheist and accused politicians of his time by saying that his works were the "Koran of the courtiers", that "he is of no reputation in the court of France which hath not Machiavel's writings at the fingers ends". Another theme of Gentillet was more in the spirit of Machiavelli himself: he questioned the effectiveness of immoral strategies (just as Machiavelli had himself done, despite also explaining how they could sometimes work). This became the theme of much future political discourse in Europe during the 17th century. This includes the Catholic Counter Reformation writers summarised by Bireley: Giovanni Botero, Justus Lipsius, Carlo Scribani, Adam Contzen, Pedro de Ribadeneira, and Diego de Saavedra Fajardo. These authors criticized Machiavelli, but also followed him in many ways.They accepted the need for a prince to be concerned with reputation, and even a need for cunning and deceit, but compared to Machiavelli, and like


texts: later modernist writers, they emphasized economic progress much more than the riskier ventures of war. These authors tended to cite Tacitus as their source for realist political advice, rather than Machiavelli, and this pretense came to be known as "Tacitism". "Black tacitism" was in support of princely rule, but "red tacitism" arguing the case for republics, more in the original spirit of Machiavelli himself, became increasingly important. Modern materialist philosophy developed in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, starting in the generations after Machiavelli. This philosophy tended to be republican, but as with the Catholic authors, Machiavelli's realism and encouragement of using innovation to try to control one's own fortune were more accepted than his emphasis upon war and factional violence. Not only was innovative economics and politics a result, but also modern science, leading some commentators to say that the 18th century Enlightenment involved a "humanitarian" moderating of Machiavellianism. The importance of Machiavelli's influence is notable in many important figures in this endeavor, for example Bodin, Francis Bacon, Algernon Sidney, Harrington, John Milton, Spinoza, Rousseau, Hume, Edward Gibbon, and Adam Smith.Although he was not always mentioned by name as an inspiration, due to his controversy, he is also thought to have been an influence for other major philosophers, such as Montaigne, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke and Montesquieu. Although Jean-Jacques Rousseau is associated with very different political ideas he was also influenced by him, although he viewed <mask>'s work as a satirical piece in which


texts: Machiavelli exposes the faults of a one-man rule rather than exalting amorality. In the seventeenth century it was in England that <mask>'s ideas were most substantially developed and adapted, and that republicanism came once more to life; and out of seventeenth-century English republicanism there were to emerge in the next century not only a theme of English political and historical reflection—of the writings of the Bolingbroke circle and of Gibbon and of early parliamentary radicals—but a stimulus to the Enlightenment in Scotland, on the Continent, and in America. Scholars have argued that Machiavelli was a major indirect and direct influence upon the political thinking of the Founding Fathers of the United States due to his overwhelming favoritism of republicanism and the republican type of government. According to John McCormick, it is still very much debatable whether or not Machiavelli was "an advisor of tyranny or partisan of liberty." Benjamin Franklin, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson followed Machiavelli's republicanism when they opposed what they saw as the emerging aristocracy that they feared Alexander Hamilton was creating with the Federalist Party. Hamilton learned from Machiavelli about the importance of foreign policy for domestic policy, but may have broken from him regarding how rapacious a republic needed to be in order to survive.George Washington was less influenced by Machiavelli. The Founding Father who perhaps most studied and valued Machiavelli as a political philosopher was John Adams, who profusely commented on the Italian's thought in his work, A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the


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 United States of America. In this work, John Adams praised Machiavelli, with Algernon Sidney and Montesquieu, as a philosophic defender of mixed government. For Adams, Machiavelli restored empirical reason to politics, while his analysis of factions was commendable. Adams likewise agreed with the Florentine that human nature was immutable and driven by passions. He also accepted Machiavelli's belief that all societies were subject to cyclical periods of growth and decay. For Adams, Machiavelli lacked only a clear understanding of the institutions necessary for good government.20th century
The 20th-century Italian Communist Antonio Gramsci drew great inspiration from <mask>'s writings on ethics, morals, and how they relate to the State and revolution in his writings on Passive Revolution, and how a society can be manipulated by controlling popular notions of morality. Joseph Stalin read The Prince and annotated his own copy. In the 20th century there was also renewed interest in <mask>'s play La Mandragola (1518), which received numerous stagings, including several in New York, at the New York Shakespeare Festival in 1976 and the Riverside Shakespeare Company in 1979, as a musical comedy by Peer Raben in Munich's antiteater in 1971, and at London's National Theatre in 1984. "Machiavellian"

<mask> is most famous for a short political treatise, The Prince, written in 1513 but not published until 1532, five years after his death. Although he privately circulated The Prince among friends, the only theoretical work to be printed in his lifetime was The Art of War, which was about military science. Since the 16th century,

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 generations of politicians remain attracted and repelled by its neutral acceptance, and also positive encouragement, of the amorality of powerful men, described especially in The Prince but also in his other works. His works are sometimes even said to have contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words politics and politician, and it is sometimes thought that it is because of him that Old Nick became an English term for the Devil.More obviously, the adjective Machiavellian became a term describing a form of politics that is "marked by cunning, duplicity, or bad faith". Machiavellianism also remains a popular term used casually in political discussions, often as a byword for bare-knuckled political realism. While Machiavellianism is notable in the works of Machiavelli, scholars generally agree that his works are complex and have equally influential themes within them. For example, J.G.A. saw him as a major source of the republicanism that spread throughout England and North America in the 17th and 18th centuries and Leo , whose view of Machiavelli is quite different in many ways, had similar remarks about Machiavelli's influence on republicanism and argued that even though Machiavelli was a teacher of evil he had a "grandeur of vision" that led him to advocate immoral actions. Whatever his intentions, which are still debated today, he has become associated with any proposal where "the end justifies the means". For example, Leo  wrote:

In popular culture

In English Renaissance theatre (Elizabethan and Jacobian), the term "Machiavel" (from 'Nicholas Machiavel', an "anglicization" of Machiavelli's name based on


texts: French) was used for a stock antagonist that resorted to ruthless means to preserve the power of the state, and is now considered a synonym of "Machiavellian".Christopher Marlowe's play The Jew of Malta (ca. 1589) contains a prologue by a character called Machiavel, a Senecan ghost based on Machiavelli. Machiavel expresses the cynical view that power is amoral, saying "I count religion but a childish toy,/And hold there is no sin but ignorance." Somerset Maugham's last book Then and Now fictionalizes <mask>'s interactions with Cesare Borgia, which formed the foundation of The Prince. <mask> Machiavelli plays a vital role in the young adult book series The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel by Michael Scott. He is an immortal working in national security for the French government. <mask> <mask> aids Cesare Borgia and protagonist Nicholas Dawson in their dangerous intrigues in Cecelia Holland's 1979 historical novel City of God.David Maclaine writes that in the novel, Machiavelli "is an off-stage presence whose spirit permeates this work of intrigue and betrayal ... It is a brilliant introduction to the people and events that gave us the word 'Machiavellian.'" Machiavelli appears as an Immortal adversary of Duncan MacLeod in Nancy Holder's 1997 Highlander novel The Measure of a Man, and is a character in Michael Scott's novel series The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel (2007–2012). Machiavelli is also one of the main characters in The Enchantress of Florence (2008)  by Salman Rushdie, mostly referred to as "<mask> 'il Macchia", and the central protagonist in the 2012 novel The Malice of Fortune by Michael Ennis.

masks: Machiavelli Niccolò Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò


texts: Television dramas centring on the early Renaissance have also made use of Machiavelli to underscore his influence in early modern political philosophy. Machiavelli has been featured as a supporting character in The Tudors (2007–2010), Borgia (2011–2014) and The Borgias (2011–2013), and the 1981 BBC mini series The Borgias. Machiavelli appears in the popular historical video games Assassin's Creed II (2009) and Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood (2010), in which he is portrayed as a member of the secret society of Assassins.A highly fictionalised version of Machiavelli appears in the BBC children's TV series Leonardo (2011–2012), in which he is "Mac", a black streetwise hustler who is best friends with fellow teenagers Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, and Lorenzo di Medici. In the 2013 episode "Ewings Unite!" of the television series Dallas, legendary oil baron J. R. Ewing wills his copy of The Prince to his adopted nephew Christopher Ewing, telling him to "use it, because being smart and sneaky is an unbeatable combination." In Da Vinci's Demons (2013–2015) – an American historical fantasy drama series that presents a fictional account of Leonardo da Vinci's early life – Eros Vlahos plays a young <mask> "Nico" <mask>, although the character's full name is not revealed until the finale of the second season. The 1967 The Time Tunnel episode "The Death Merchant" stars famed character actor Malachi Throne as <mask> <mask>, who has been time-displaced to the Battle of Gettysburg. The character's personality and behaviour seem to portray Cesare Borgia rather than <mask> himself, suggesting that the writers may have confused the two. <mask>

masks: Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli Machiavelli Machiavelli


texts: is played by Damian Lewis in the 2013 BBC radio play The Prince written by Jonathan Myerson.Together with his defence attorney Lucrezia Borgia (Helen McCrory), he presents examples from history to the devil to support his political theories and appeal his sentence in Hell. The historical novel The City of Man (2009) by author Michael Harrington fully portrays the complex personalities of the two main characters – Girolamo Savonarola and a formative <mask> <mask> – in opposition during the turbulent last decade of 15th-century Florence. The portrayal of Machiavelli draws from his later writings and observations of the chaotic events of his youth before rising from obscurity to be appointed as Second Chancellor of the Florentine Republic at the age of twenty-nine, only one month after Savonarola's execution. Major characters include Lorenzo de' Medici, his son Piero, Michelangelo, Sandro Botticelli, Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino, Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia), Cesare Borgia (model for The Prince), Piero and Tommaso Soderini, Il Cronaca and the diarist, Luca Landucci. The American rapper Tupac Shakur read Machiavelli while in prison and became greatly influenced by his work. Upon his release from prison, Tupac honoured Machiavelli in 1996 by changing his own rap name from 2Pac to Makaveli. In the 1993 crime drama A Bronx Tale, local mob boss Sonny tells his young protégé Calogero that while he was doing a 10-year sentence in jail, he passed the time and stayed out of trouble by reading <mask>, whom he describes as "a famous writer from 500 years ago".He then tells him how <mask>'s philosophy, including his famous

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 advice about how it is preferable for a leader to be feared rather than loved if he cannot be both, have made him a successful mob boss. <mask> also appears as a young Florentine spy in the third season of Medici, where he is portrayed by Vincenzo Crea. He is addressed as "Nico" in all appearances except the season finale, where he reveals his full name. Works

Political and historical works

 Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)
 Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati (1502)
 Descrizione del modo tenuto dal Duca Valentino nello ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, il Signor Pagolo e il duca di Gravina Orsini (1502) – A Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino when Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini
 Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502) – A discourse about the provision of money. Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510) – Portrait of the affairs of France. Ritracto delle cose della Magna (1508–1512) – Portrait of the affairs of Germany. The Prince (1513)
 Discourses on Livy (1517)
 Dell'Arte della Guerra (1519–1520) – The Art of War, high military science.Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520) – A discourse about the reforming of Florence. Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520) – A summary of the affairs of the city of Lucca. The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca (1520) – Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca, a short biography. Istorie Fiorentine (1520–1525) – Florentine Histories, an eight-volume history of the city-state Florence, commissioned by Giulio de' Medici, later


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 Pope Clement VII. Fictional works

Besides being a statesman and political scientist, Machiavelli also translated classical works, and was a playwright (Clizia, Mandragola), a poet (Sonetti, Canzoni, Ottave, Canti carnascialeschi), and a novelist (Belfagor arcidiavolo). Some of his other work:
 Decennale primo (1506) – a poem in terza rima. Decennale secondo (1509) – a poem.Andria or The Girl from Andros (1517) – a semi-autobiographical comedy, adapted from Terence. Mandragola (1518) – The Mandrake – a five-act prose comedy, with a verse prologue. Clizia (1525) – a prose comedy. Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515) – a novella. Asino d'oro (1517) – The Golden Ass is a terza rima poem, a new version of the classic work by Apuleius. Frammenti storici (1525) – fragments of stories. Other works
Della Lingua (Italian for "On the Language") (1514), a dialogue about Italy's language is normally attributed to Machiavelli.Machiavelli's literary executor, Giuliano de' Ricci, also reported having seen that <mask>, his grandfather, made a comedy in the style of Aristophanes which included living Florentines as characters, and to be titled Le Maschere. It has been suggested that due to such things as this and his style of writing to his superiors generally, there was very likely some animosity to Machiavelli even before the return of the Medici. See also

 Florentine military reforms
 Francesco Guicciardini
 Francesco Vettori
 Mayberry Machiavelli
 Republicanism
 Scipione Ammirato
 Italian Renaissance

References

Sources

Further reading

Biographies

 Burd, L. A., "Florence (II): Machiavelli" in Cambridge Modern History (1902), vol. I, ch. vi.


texts:
 pp. 190–218 online Google edition
 Capponi, Niccolò.An Unlikely Prince: The Life and Times of Machiavelli (Da Capo Press; 2010) 334 pages
 Celenza, Christopher S. Machiavelli: A Portrait (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2015) 240 pages. , an intellectual biography that won the Pulitzer Prize; excerpt and text search
 Hale, J. R. Machiavelli and Renaissance Italy (1961) online edition
 Hulliung, Mark. Citizen Machiavelli (Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, 1983)
 Lee, Alexander. Machiavelli: His Life and Times (London: Picador, 2020)
 Oppenheimer, Paul. Machiavelli: A Life Beyond Ideology (London; New York: Continuum, 2011)
 Ridolfi, Roberto. The Life of Niccolò Machiavelli (1963)
 Schevill, Ferdinand. Six Historians (1956), pp.61–91
 Skinner, Quentin. <mask>, in Past Masters series. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1981. pp. vii, 102.  pbk. Skinner, Quentin. Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction (2d ed., 2019)  pbk. Unger, Miles J. Machiavelli: A Biography (Simon & Schuster, 2011)
 Villari, Pasquale.The Life and Times of <mask> <mask> (2 vols. 1892) (Vol 1; Vol 2)
  excerpt and text search
 Viroli, Maurizio. <mask> (1998) online edition
 Vivanti, Corrado. <mask> <mask>: An Intellectual Biography (Princeton University Press; 2013) 261 pages

Political thought

 Baron, Hans. The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny (2 vol 1955), highly influential, deep study of civic humanism (republicanism); 700 pp. excerpts and text search; ACLS E-books; also vol 2 in ACLS E-books
 Baron, Hans. In Search of Florentine Civic Humanism (2 vols.1988).

masks: Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli


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 in JSTOR

 Chabod, Federico (1958). Machiavelli & the Renaissance online edition; online from ACLS E-Books
 Connell, William J. (2001), "Machiavelli on Growth as an End," in Anthony Grafton and J.H.M. Salmon, eds., Historians and Ideologues: Essays in Honor of Donald R. Kelley, Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 259–277. Donskis, Leonidas, ed. (2011).<mask> <mask>: History, Power, and Virtue. Rodopi, , E-
 Everdell, William R. "<mask> Machiavelli: The Florentine Commune" in The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Gilbert, Felix. Machiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in Sixteenth-Century Italy (2nd ed. 1984) online from ACLS-E-books
 Gilbert, Felix. "Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War," in Edward Mead Earle, ed.The Makers of Modern Strategy (1944)
 Jensen, De Lamar, ed. Machiavelli: Cynic, Patriot, or Political Scientist? (1960) essays by scholars online edition

 Mansfield, Harvey C. "Machiavelli's Political Science," The American Political Science Review, Vol. 75, No. 2 (Jun. 1981), pp. 293–305 in JSTOR

 Mansfield, Harvey C.  <mask>'s Virtue (1996), 371 pp.Mansfield, Harvey C<mask>'s New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy (2001) excerpt and text search
  See also NYT book review. Also available in Chinese (), Japanese (), German (), Portuguese (), and Korean (). See also NYT book review. new ed. 2003, a highly influential study of Discourses and its vast influence; excerpt and text search; also online 1975 edition
 Pocock, J. G. A. "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: a Study in History and Ideology. :

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Niccolò
Machiavelli
Niccolò
Machiavelli
. Machiavelli


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 Journal of Modern History 1981 53(1): 49–72.Fulltext: in Jstor. online edition
  Excerpt, reviews and Text search shows <mask>'s Discourses had a major impact on shaping conservative thought. Ruggiero, Guido. <mask> in Love: Sex, Self and Society in Renaissance Italy (2007)
 . Skinner, Quentin. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, v. I, The Renaissance, (1978)

 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <mask> <mask> (2005)

 von Vacano, Diego, "The Art of Power: <mask>, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory," Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007.
 . Also in .Zuckert, Catherine, (2017) "Machiavelli's Politics"

Italian studies

 Barbuto, Marcelo (2005), "Questa oblivione delle cose. Reflexiones sobre la cosmología de Maquiavelo (1469–1527)," Revista Daimon, 34, Universidad de Murcia, pp. 34–52. Barbuto, Marcelo (2008), "Discorsi, I, XII, 12–14. La Chiesa romana di fronte alla republica cristiana", Filosofia Politica, 1, Il Mulino, Bologna, pp. 99–116. Celli, Carlo ( 2009), Il carnevale di Machiavelli, Firenze, L.S.Olschki. Connell, William J. (2015), Machiavelli nel Rinascimento italiano, Milano, Franco Angeli. Giuseppe Leone, "Silone e Machiavelli. Una scuola...che non crea prìncipi", pref. di Vittoriano Esposito, Centro Studi Ignazio Silone, Pescina, 2003. Martelli, Mario (2004), "La Mandragola e il suo prologo", Interpres, XXIII, pp.106–42. Martelli, Mario (2003), "Per la definizione della nozione di principe civile", Interpres, XXII. Martelli, Mario (2001), "I dettagli della filologia", Interpres XX, pp. 212–71. Martelli, Mario (1999a), "Note su Machiavelli", Interpres XVIII, pp. 91–145. Martelli, Mario

masks: Machiavelli Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli Machiavelli


texts:
 (1999b), Saggio sul Principe, Salerno Editrice, Roma.Martelli, Mario (1999c), "Machiavelli e Savonarola: valutazione politica e valutazione religiosa", Girolamo Savonarola. L´uomo e il frate". Atti del xxxv Convegno storico internazionale (Todi, II-14 ottobre 1998), CISAM, Spoleto, pp. 139–53. Martelli, Mario (1998a), Machiavelli e gli storici antichi, osservazioni su alcuni luoghi dei discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, Quaderni di Filologia e critica, 13, Salerno Editrice, Roma. Martelli, Mario (1998b), "Machiavelli politico amante poeta", Interpres XVII, pp. 211–56.Martelli, Mario (1998c), "Machiavelli e Savonarola", Savonarola. Democrazia, tirannide, profezia, a cura di G.C. Garfagnini, Florencia, Sismel-Edizioni del Galluzo, pp. 67–89. Martelli, Mario and Bausi, Francesco (1997), "Politica, storia e letteratura: <mask> e Guicciardini", Storia della letteratura italiana, E. Malato (ed. ), vol. IV.Il primo Cinquecento, Salerno Editrice, Roma, pp. 251–320. Martelli, Mario (1985–1986), "Schede sulla cultura di Machiavelli", Interpres VI, pp. 283–330. Martelli, Mario (1982) "La logica provvidenzialistica e il capitolo XXVI del Principe", Interpres IV, pp. 262–384. Martelli, Mario (1974), "L´altro Niccolò di Bernardo Machiavelli", Rinascimento, XIV, pp.39–100. Sasso, Gennaro (1993), Machiavelli: storia del suo pensiero politico, II vol., Bologna, Il Mulino,
 Sasso, Gennaro (1987–1997) Machiavelli e gli antichi e altri saggi, 4 vols., Milano, R. Ricciardi

Editions

Collections
 Gilbert, Allan H. ed. Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others, (3 vol. 1965), the standard scholarly edition
 Bondanella, Peter, and Mark Musa,


texts:
 eds. The Portable Machiavelli (1979)
 Penman, Bruce. The Prince and Other Political Writings, (1981)
  excerpt and text search

The Prince
 . Translated by William J. Connell
 .Edited by W. Garner. Translated by Luigi Ricci. Excerpt and text search
 . Translated by George Bull
 . Translated by Tim Parks
 . Translated by Robert M. Adams (Norton Critical Edition, 2nd ed., with "Backgrounds, Interpretations, Marginalia").
 . Translated into Spanish by Marina Massa-Carrara
 .Translated by Harvey Mansfield
 . Translated and Edited by Stephen J. Milner. Introduction, Notes and other critical apparatus by J.M. Dent. The Prince ed. by Peter Bondanella (1998) 101 pp online edition
 The Prince ed. by Rufus Goodwin and Benjamin Martinez (2003) excerpt and text search
 The Prince (2007) excerpt and text search
 <mask>, <mask>.The Prince, (1908 edition tr by W. K. Marriott) Gutenberg edition

 Il principe (2006) ed. by Mario Martelli and Nicoletta Marcelli, Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di <mask> Machiavelli, Salerno Editrice, Roma. The Discourses on Livy
 Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio (2001), ed. by Francesco Bausi, Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di <mask> Machiavelli, II vol. Salerno Editrice, Roma. The Discourses, online 1772 edition
 The Discourses, tr. with introduction and notes by L. J. Walker (2 vol 1950).<mask>, <mask> (1531). The Discourses. Translated by Leslie J. Walker, S.J, revisions by Brian Richardson (2003). London: Penguin Books. The Discourses, edited with an introduction by Bernard Crick (1970). The Art of War
 The Seven Books on the Art of War online 1772 edition
 The Art of War, University of Chicago

masks: Machiavelli Niccolò Niccolò Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò


texts:
 Press, edited with new translation and commentary by Christopher Lynch (2003)
 The Art of War online 1775 edition
 The Art of War, <mask> Machiavelli. Da Capo press edition, 2001, with introduction by Neal Wood.Florentine Histories
 History of Florence online 1901 edition
 Reform of Florence online 1772 edition
 . Translation by Laura F. Banfield and Harvey Mansfield, Jr. Correspondence
 Epistolario privado. Las cartas que nos desvelan el pensamiento y la personalidad de uno de los intelectuales más importantes del Renacimiento, Juan Manuel Forte (edición y traducción), Madrid, La Esfera de los Libros, 2007, 435 págs,
 The Private Correspondence of <mask> <mask>, ed. by Orestes Ferrara; (1929) online edition
 . Translated and edited by James B. Atkinson and David Sices. Also see .Poetry and comedy
  Bilingual edition of The Woman from Andros, The Mandrake, and Clizia, edited by David Sices and James B. Atkinson. Hoeges, Dirk. <mask> Machiavelli. Dichter-Poeta. Mit sämtlichen Gedichten, deutsch/italienisch. Con tutte le poesie, tedesco/italiano, Reihe: Dialoghi/Dialogues: Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, Band 10, Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt/M. u.a.2006, . External links

 <mask> <mask> | Biography | Encyclopedia Britannica
 Machiavelli, Niccolò- Internet Encyclopedia of

masks: Niccolò Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò Niccolò Machiavelli


texts:
<mask> (born 10 November 1985) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays for  club Inter Milan. Although primarily a left-back, <mask> can also operate as a centre-back and anywhere along the left flank and is known for his overlapping attacking runs on the wing, his powerful ball-striking ability with his left foot, and his accuracy from free kicks. He was named Serbian Player of the Year in 2011. <mask> began his career at Red Star Belgrade, but he did not break through and moved onto Čukarički in 2004. Two years later, he joined OFK Beograd before moving abroad for the first time by signing for Lazio in Serie A, where he won the Coppa Italia and Supercoppa Italiana in 2009. In 2010, he joined Manchester City, with which he won two Premier League titles, the FA Cup and the League Cup. <mask> made his senior international debut for Serbia in 2008 and has since earned 94 caps.<mask> was a member of Serbia's squads for the 2008 Olympics, 2010 FIFA World Cup and the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Club career
<mask>'s football career started in the Red Star Belgrade youth system. He later joined the youth system of Obilić. Čukarički
In 2004, 18-year-old <mask> moved across Belgrade to Čukarički, which played in the top-tier Serbia-Montenegro League. Signing a three-year contract, he finished the 2003–04 season in the club's youth setup and during the summer of 2004 was introduced to the first-team squad. Making 27 league appearances in his debut season, the youngster left a good impression but could not help the beleaguered team avoid relegation. <mask> started the 2005–06 campaign for Čukarički in the second-tier league competition, but during the winter break controversially transferred to top-tier league club OFK Beograd.OFK Beograd
Kolarov joined OFK Beograd in February 2006 and finished out the season with them, scoring his first league

masks:
Aleksandar Kolarov
Kolarov
Kolarov
Kolarov
Kolarov
Kolarov
Kolarov
Kolarov


texts:
 goal. Lazio
In the summer of 2007, OFK Beograd sold <mask> to Italian side Lazio (the third placed team in previous season's Serie A standings) for a €925,000 transfer fee. <mask>'s first goal for Lazio came at the Stadio Oreste Granillo in Reggio Calabria on 30 September 2007, as he hit a rocket from 38 metres to secure a draw against lowly Reggina. During his first season in Rome, the 21-year-old Serb also participated in the UEFA Champions League for the first time, making his debut on 24 October 2007 away at Werder Bremen in a 2–1 victory. In his second season in Italy, <mask> established himself as Lazio's first choice at left back, scoring a spectacular goal against Lecce at the Stadio Via del Mare. It got even better for the Serbian in the second Derby della Capitale of the season, against city rivals Roma. With Lazio 3–2 up, <mask> received the ball in defence from goalkeeper Fernando Muslera and proceeded to run the length of the pitch virtually unopposed.Having run 85 metres, <mask> then slotted the ball past a helpless Doni in the Roma goal. On 13 May 2009, <mask> played in the 2009 Coppa Italia Final against Sampdoria. The match finished 1–1 after extra time, and <mask> scored one of Lazio's penalties in the resultant penalty shoot-out, helping Lazio win the trophy and capping a great season for the Serbian. Lazio and 2008–09 Serie A champions Inter Milan travelled to Beijing in August 2009 to play the 2009 Supercoppa Italiana. <mask> picked up his second winner's medal, with Lazio defeating Inter 2–1. As the 2009–10 season drew to an end, <mask> was instantly linked with a move away from Lazio, with Manchester City and Real Madrid supposedly interested. Manchester City

On 24 July 2010, it was announced that <mask> had signed for Manchester City for a reported £16 million transfer fee.On 14 August, <mask> made his Premier

masks: Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov


texts: League debut in the 0–0 draw against Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane. On 18 January 2011, <mask> scored his first goal for the club in a 4–2 victory over Leicester City in the FA Cup, while on 2 February 2011, <mask> recorded his first Premier League goal from a free kick in a 2–2 draw against Birmingham City. He played the full 90 minutes as City won the 2011 FA Cup Final. The summer 2011 arrival of Gaël Clichy to the club marginalized <mask>'s role in the squad and he saw his first team opportunities greatly reduced. On 14 September 2011, he scored an equaliser for City in the 1–1 draw against Napoli in their first 2011–12 Champions League group stage match. On 1 October 2011, he started and played the full 90 minutes in the left-back slot against Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park in a 0–4 away victory in the Premier League. On 31 March 2012, he added another with a long-range swing which earned City a point against Sunderland at home, after coming back from 3–1 down.He ended that season with 12 league appearances, enough for a medal, as Manchester City won the 2011–12 Premier League title in dramatic circumstances on the last day of the season. On 18 September 2012, he scored a free kick in a 3–2 Champions League defeat at Real Madrid. He went on to score in the League Cup loss to Aston Villa, while in their match against Sunderland, he scored another free-kick just five minutes into the match. <mask> scored from the penalty spot in City's 3–2 comeback victory over Bayern Munich in the final match of their Champions League group stage on 10 December 2013, securing his side a spot in the knockout stages of the Champions League for the first time in club history. He scored his only league goal of the 2013–14 season on 1 January 2014, netting past goalkeeper Gerhard Tremmel as City defeated Swansea City by a score of 3–2. On 11 May,

masks: Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov


texts:
 he won his second Premier League trophy with Manchester City after making 30 appearances in the league, and 44 in all competitions. In June 2014, <mask> signed a new three-year deal with City, keeping him at the club until 2017.Roma

On 22 July 2017, Roma confirmed they had signed <mask> on a three-year deal for a fee of €5m. <mask> scored on his debut for the club on 20 August, scoring the winning goal in a 1–0 win over Atalanta. On 18 October, in the UEFA Champions League, he scored in a 3–3 draw with Chelsea. Four days later, he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 win over Torino. On 26 September, <mask> scored his first goal of the 2018–19 season in a 4–0 win over Frosinone. On 29 September, he scored against his former club and city rivals Lazio in a 3–1 win, becoming just the second player in history to have scored for both clubs in a Rome derby. Inter Milan
On 8 September 2020, <mask> joined Inter Milan on a reported one-year deal, with an option to extend for a further year, for a fee of €1.5 million.International career

<mask> was a part of the successful Serbia under-21 side which reached the final of the 2007 U-21 Championships held in the Netherlands. As a key member of that side, <mask> was named in the UEFA Team of the tournament. In the semi-final clash with Belgium, he scored a free-kick from long range. He also represented Serbia at the 2010 FIFA World Cup and played a major roles in UEFA Euro 2012 qualifiers and friendlies. <mask> was eventually rewarded for an impressive 2011 with the Serbian Footballer of the Year award. On 11 September 2012, <mask> scored his first goal for Serbia during a 6–1 win against Wales in a 2014 World Cup qualifier. On 7 June 2013, he scored from a free kick against Belgium in a 2014 World Cup qualifier.On 7 September 2014, he scored the equalizer in a 1–1 draw with France. Having helped

masks: Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov


texts:
 Serbia qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, their first international tournament for eight years, he was also included in the final 23-man squad for that competition. <mask> scored the only goal of their opening match against Costa Rica from a free kick. He captained Serbia in all three group stage matches. Controversy
<mask>'s switch from Čukarički to OFK Beograd in February 2006, during the 2005–06 season winter break, was highly controversial. Under contract with Čukarički at the time, <mask> filed a request to be released dated 31 January 2006 on the grounds of "contract expiry" despite the contract being valid until January 2007. Soon after handing in his request, <mask> publicly stated his desire to join OFK.Seeing that they had a disgruntled player on their hands, Čukarički set a €300,000 transfer fee for Kolarov due to the fact he still had one more year left on his contract with the club. OFK, for their part, simply ignored this fact and simply signed Kolarov without paying a fee. Over the coming years, Čukarički took the case in front of Football Association of Serbia (FSS), where all of their official complaints were rejected. A year-and-a-half later, during the summer of 2007, when <mask> was sold by OFK to Lazio for €800,000, Čukarički club president <mask> Mihajlović went public with an accusation that Kolarov "was stolen from Čukarički by OFK Beograd". For that, he was punished by the FSS on the verbal offence grounds and given a year-long ban on performing any functions in Serbian football. The entire Kolarov case was featured in early 2008 on B92 television's investigative journalism programme Insajder which focused on criminal activities in Serbian football. The programme claims that <mask>'s case was part of a wide initiative by FSS president Zvezdan Terzić (formerly the president of OFK) who made sure young

masks: Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Kolarov Aleksandar Kolarov


texts:
 promising players signed for OFK and then raise their transfer price by making sure they get playing time in the under-21 national team.In popular culture
In December 2012, <mask> appeared in a Christmas video uploaded to Manchester City's website, reciting the carol "Jingle Bells" in a deadpan style that went viral on the internet. In December 2013, following the popularity of the previous year's video, <mask> delivered his rendition of "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town" which also went viral following much anticipation. Career statistics

Club

International

Score and Result lists Serbia's goal tally first

Honours
Lazio
Coppa Italia: 2008–09
Supercoppa Italiana: 2009

Manchester City
Premier League: 2011–12, 2013–14
FA Cup: 2010–11; runner-up: 2012–13
Football League Cup: 2013–14, 2015–16
FA Community Shield: 2012

Inter Milan
Serie A: 2020–21

 Supercoppa Italiana: 2021

Serbia U21
UEFA European Under-21 Championship runner-up: 2007

Individual
Serbian Player of the Year: 2011
Serie A Team of the Year: 2018–19
A.S. Roma Team of the Decade: 2010–2020

References

External links

Player profile on Serbian National Team page
Manchester City F.C. Profile

1985 births
Living people
Footballers from Belgrade
Serbian expatriate footballers
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in England
Serbian footballers
Olympic footballers of Serbia
Serbia international footballers
Association football defenders
FK Čukarički players
OFK Beograd players
First League of Serbia and Montenegro players
Serbian SuperLiga players
S.S. Lazio players
A.S. Roma players
Inter Milan players
Serie A players
Manchester City F.C. players
Premier League players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
Expatriate footballers in Italy
Expatriate footballers in England
Serbia under-21 international footballers
2018 FIFA World Cup players
FA Cup

masks: Kolarov Kolarov


texts:
<mask> (November 12, 1746 – April 7, 1823) was a French inventor, scientist, mathematician, and balloonist. <mask> wrote almost nothing about mathematics, and most of what has been credited to him was due to mistaking him with another <mask>, also a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, entering on May 12, 1785. He was sometimes called <mask>eometer. (See J. B. Gough, <mask> the Obscure, Isis 70, #254, pgs 576–579)
<mask> and the Robert brothers launched the world's first unmanned hydrogen-filled gas balloon in August 1783; then in December 1783, <mask> and his co-pilot Nicolas-Louis Robert ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet (550 m) in a manned gas balloon. Their pioneering use of hydrogen for lift led to this type of balloon being named a Charlière (as opposed to a Montgolfière which used hot air). <mask>'s law, describing how gases tend to expand when heated, was formulated by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he credited it to unpublished work by <mask>.<mask> was elected to the Académie des Sciences in 1795 and subsequently became professor of physics at the Académie de Sciences. Biography
<mask> was born in Beaugency-sur-Loire in 1746. He married Julie Françoise Bouchaud des Hérettes (1784–1817), a creole woman 37 years younger than himself. Reportedly the poet Alphonse de Lamartine also fell in love with her, and she was the inspiration for Elvire in his 1820 autobiographical Poetic Meditation "Le Lac" ("The Lake"), which describes in retrospect the fervent love shared by a couple from the point of view of the bereaved man. <mask> outlived her and died in Paris on April 7, 1823. Hydrogen balloon flights

First hydrogen balloon

<mask> conceived the idea that hydrogen would be a suitable lifting agent for

masks:
Jacques Alexandre César Charles
Charles
Jacques Charles
Charles the G
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Jacques Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts: balloons having studied the work of Robert Boyle's Boyle's Law which was published 100 years earlier in 1662, and of his contemporaries Henry Cavendish, Joseph Black and Tiberius Cavallo. He designed the craft and then worked in conjunction with the Robert brothers, Anne-Jean and Nicolas-Louis, to build it in their workshop at the Place des Victoires in Paris.The brothers invented the methodology for the lightweight, airtight gas bag by dissolving rubber in a solution of turpentine and varnished the sheets of silk that were stitched together to make the main envelope. They used alternate strips of red and white silk, but the discolouration of the varnishing/rubberising process left a red and yellow result. <mask> and the Robert brothers launched the world's first hydrogen filled balloon on August 27, 1783, from the Champ de Mars, (now the site of the Eiffel Tower) where Ben Franklin was among the crowd of onlookers. The balloon was comparatively small, a 35 cubic metre sphere of rubberised silk, and only capable of lifting about 9 kg (20 lb). It was filled with hydrogen that had been made by pouring nearly a quarter of a tonne of sulphuric acid onto a half a tonne of scrap iron. The hydrogen gas was fed into the balloon via lead pipes; but as it was not passed through cold water, great difficulty was experienced in filling the balloon completely (the gas was hot when produced, but as it cooled in the balloon, it contracted). Daily progress bulletins were issued on the inflation; and the crowd was so great that on the 26th the balloon was moved secretly by night to the Champ de Mars, a distance of 4 kilometres.The balloon flew northwards for 45 minutes, pursued by chasers on horseback, and landed 21 kilometers away in the


texts:
 village of Gonesse where the reportedly terrified local peasants destroyed it with pitchforks or knives. The project was funded by a subscription organised by Barthelemy Faujas de Saint-Fond. First manned hydrogen balloon flight

At 13:45 (or 1:45 PM) on December 1, 1783, <mask> and the Robert brothers launched a new manned balloon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris. <mask> was accompanied by Nicolas-Louis Robert as co-pilot of the 380-cubic-metre, hydrogen-filled balloon. The envelope was fitted with a hydrogen release valve and was covered with a net from which the basket was suspended. Sand ballast was used to control altitude. They ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet (550 m) and landed at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée after a 2-hour 5 minute flight covering 36 km.The chasers on horseback, who were led by the Duc de Chartres, held down the craft while both <mask> and Nicolas-Louis alighted. <mask> then decided to ascend again, but alone this time because the balloon had lost some of its hydrogen. This time it ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 3,000 metres, where he saw the sun again. He began suffering from aching pain in his ears so he "valved" to release gas, and descended to land gently about 3 km away at . Unlike the Robert brothers, <mask> never flew again, although a hydrogen balloon came to be called a Charlière in his honour. It is reported that 400,000 spectators witnessed the launch, and that hundreds had paid one crown each to help finance the construction and receive access to a "special enclosure" for a "close-up view" of the take-off. Among the "special enclosure" crowd was Benjamin Franklin, the diplomatic representative of the United States of America.Also present was Joseph Montgolfier, whom

masks:
Jacques Charles
Jacques Charles
Charles
Jacques Charles
Charles


texts:
 <mask> honoured by asking him to release the small, bright green, pilot balloon to assess the wind and weather conditions. This event took place ten days after the world's first manned balloon flight by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier using a Montgolfier brothers hot air balloon. Simon Schama wrote in Citizens:

Further ballooning activities
The next project of <mask> and the Robert brothers was to build an elongated, steerable craft that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier's proposals (1783–85) for a dirigible balloon. The design incorporated Meusnier's internal ballonnet (air cells), a rudder and a method of propulsion. <mask> chose never to fly in this craft, but on July 15, 1784, the brothers flew for 45 minutes from Saint-Cloud to Meudon with M. Collin-Hullin and Louis Philippe II, the Duke of Chartres in La Caroline. It was fitted with oars for propulsion and direction, but they proved useless. The absence of a 'gas release valve' meant that the duke had to slash the 'ballonnet' to prevent rupture when they reached an altitude of circa .On September 19, 1784, the Robert brothers and M. Collin-Hullin flew for 6 hours 40 minutes, covering 186 km from Paris to Beuvry near Béthune. This was the first flight over 100 km. Inventions
<mask> developed several useful inventions, including a valve to let hydrogen out of the balloon and other devices, such as the hydrometer and reflecting goniometer, and improved the Gravesand heliostat and Fahrenheit's aerometer. In addition he confirmed Benjamin Franklin's electrical experiments. <mask>'s law
<mask>'s law (also known as the law of volumes), describing how gases tend to expand when heated, was first published by natural philosopher Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he credited it to

masks:
Charles
Jacques Charles
Jacques Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts:
 unpublished work by <mask>, and named the law in his honour. Around 1787 <mask> did an experiment where he filled 5 balloons to the same volume with different gases. He then raised the temperature of the balloons to 80 °C (not at constant temperature) and noticed that they all increased in volume by the same amount.This experiment was referenced by Gay-Lussac in 1802 when he published a paper on the precise relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas. <mask>' law states that under constant pressure, an ideal gas' volume is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of a gas at constant pressure increases linearly with the absolute temperature of the gas. The formula he created was V1/T1 = V2/T2. Career
<mask> was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1786 and to the Académie des Sciences, in 1795. He subsequently became professor of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Commemoration
A stele at Nesles-la-Vallée marks the Charles-Robert flight of 1 December 1783.Image of commemorative stele

The Coupe Charles et Robert was an international ballooning event that was run in 1983 in parallel with the Gordon Bennett Cup. See also
 Gas laws
 Timeline of hydrogen technologies
 Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, the first manned balloon flight using a Montgolfier hot-air balloon, 10 days before La Charlière. Jean-Pierre Blanchard
 Timeline of aviation - 18th century
 History of ballooning
 List of firsts in aviation

References

External links

1746 births
1823 deaths
People from Loiret
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
18th-century French inventors
French balloonists
18th-century French physicists
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Fluid dynamicists
Members of the American

masks:
Jacques Charles
Charles
Charles
Jacques Charles


texts:
<mask> (born August 27, 1979) is an American actor and producer. He is best known for portraying Jesse Pinkman in the AMC series Breaking Bad (2008–2013), for which he won several awards, including the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (2014), Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film (2013), and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. This made him one of only two actors to win the latter category three times (2010, 2012, 2014), since its separation into comedy and drama. He has also won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television three times (2009, 2011, 2013), more than any other actor in that category. He reprised the role of Jesse Pinkman six years after the end of the series in the 2019 Netflix film El Camino: A Breaking Bad Movie, earning further critical acclaim. <mask> began his career with roles in several music videos, guest roles in television, and minor roles in films. In 2007, he had a recurring role as Scott Quittman on the HBO series Big Love (2006–2011).Following Breaking Bad, he starred in films such as Need for Speed (2014), Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014), Eye in the Sky (2015), and Central Intelligence (2016). He also voiced Todd Chavez in the Netflix animated series BoJack Horseman (2014–2020), on which he was also an executive producer, and portrayed Eddie Lane in the Hulu drama series The Path (2016–2018) and Caleb Nichols in the HBO science fiction drama series Westworld (2020). Early life
<mask> Sturtevant was born in Emmett, Idaho, on August 27, 1979, the youngest of four children born to Darla (née Haynes) and Baptist minister Robert Sturtevant. He was born a month premature in his parents' bathroom. He graduated in 1997 from Centennial High School in Boise, Idaho, after which he drove to Los Angeles in his 1982 Toyota Corolla with his mother and $6,000 in savings. Soon after arriving in Los Angeles, he appeared on an episode of the CBS game show The Price Is Right, which aired on January 3, 2000.

masks:
Aaron Paul Sturtevant
Paul
Aaron Paul


texts:
 Appearing under his real name, he played and lost his pricing game and overbid on his Showcase.He also worked as a movie theater usher at Universal Studios in Hollywood. Career

In 1996, <mask> went to Los Angeles for the International Modeling and Talent Association competition. He won runner-up and signed with a manager. He starred in the music videos for Korn's song "Thoughtless" and Everlast's song "White Trash Beautiful". He was also featured in television commercials for Juicy Fruit, Corn Pops, and Vanilla Coke. He appeared in the films Whatever It Takes (2000), Help! I'm a Fish (2001), K-PAX (2001), National Lampoon's Van Wilder (2002), Bad Girls From Valley High (2005), Choking Man (2006), Mission: Impossible III (2006), The Last House on the Left (2009), and Need for Speed (2014).He starred as "Weird Al" Yankovic in the Funny or Die short Weird: The Al Yankovic Story (2010), and has guest starred on television shows such as The Guardian, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, ER, Sleeper Cell, Veronica Mars, The X-Files, Ghost Whisperer, Criminal Minds, Bones, and 3rd Rock from the Sun. <mask> first became known for his role as Scott Quittman on HBO's Big Love, on which he appeared fourteen times. In 2008, he began playing Jesse Pinkman on the AMC series Breaking Bad. His character was originally meant to die during the first season, but after seeing the chemistry between <mask> and the lead actor Bryan Cranston, the series creator Vince Gilligan changed his mind and modified the original plans to include Jesse as a main character. For his role in Breaking Bad, <mask> was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, and 2014; he won the award in 2010, 2012, and 2014. <mask> starred in the film Smashed, which was one of the official selections for the 2012 Sundance Film Festival. In an October 2012 interview with ESPN, he spoke about his childhood experience as a Boise State Broncos fan and discussed the challenges of portraying a meth addict in Breaking Bad.In 2012

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 and 2013, he made an appearance on the show Tron: Uprising, voicing a character named Cyrus. In September 2013, he was featured on Zen Freeman's dance song, "Dance Bitch". He made a surprise appearance on Saturday Night Lives 39th season opener as "meth nephew", a relative of Bobby Moynihan's popular "drunk uncle" character. In 2014, <mask> starred in Need for Speed, as a street racer recently released from prison who takes revenge on a wealthy business associate. <mask> stars alongside Juliette Lewis in the family drama Hellion, as the drunken father of two young vandals. Also in 2014, he co-starred in the biblical epic Exodus: Gods and Kings, portraying the Hebrew prophet Joshua. In December 2013, Netflix announced that <mask> would be a cast member on the animated series BoJack Horseman.On March 3, 2014, he appeared on WWE Raw to promote Need for Speed, by entering the arena in a sports car with Dolph Ziggler, providing commentary for Ziggler's match against Alberto Del Rio, and helping Ziggler win by distracting Del Rio. On September 23, 2014, it was announced that <mask> will play the young Louis Drax's father who becomes the focus of a criminal investigation after his son suffers a near-fatal fall in an upcoming Miramax film titled The 9th Life of Louis Drax, a supernatural thriller based on a book of the same name. In 2016, <mask> began playing Eddie Lane, a man who in a life crisis joins a cult but subsequently questions his faith, in the Hulu series The Path, which debuted on March 30, 2016. <mask> voiced the main protagonist, Nyx Ulric, in Kingsglaive: Final Fantasy XV, released in July 2016. In June 2018, <mask> joined the cast of the Apple TV+ crime drama series Truth Be Told, opposite Octavia Spencer and Lizzy Caplan. In September 2018, <mask> joined the cast of the HBO science fiction western series Westworld for the third season, portraying the character Caleb Nichols. <mask> will next star in the sci-fi thriller Dual alongside Karen Gillan and Jesse Eisenberg, which is filmed entirely in Tampere, Finland.Personal life

<mask> became

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 engaged to actress and director Lauren Parsekian in Paris on January 1, 2012. The two met at the Coachella Festival. They were married on May 26, 2013, in a 1920s Parisian carnival-themed wedding in Malibu, California, at which Foster the People and John Mayer performed. <mask> emailed the song "Beauty" by The Shivers to everyone on the guest list and asked them to learn the words so they could sing along during the ceremony. The couple's daughter, Story Annabelle, was born in February 2018. The family currently lives in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles, having sold their previous home in West Hollywood, and maintains a second cabin-style home near McCall "a small town two and a half hours away from Boise, Idaho". To commemorate the final episode of Breaking Bad, <mask> and his co-star Bryan Cranston both got Breaking Bad tattoos on the last day of filming in April 2013; <mask> had the phrase "no half measures" tattooed onto his bicep, while Cranston got the show's logo tattooed on one of his fingers.In 2019, <mask> and Cranston released their own line of mezcal called Dos Hombres. In 2013, <mask> helped organise a contest to raise $1.8 million for his wife's non-profit anti-bullying organization, the Kind Campaign. The winners of the contest won a trip to the Hollywood Forever Cemetery screening of the final episode of Breaking Bad. During a 2013 ceremony at the Egyptian Theatre in Boise, governor Butch Otter declared October 1 to be "Aaron Paul Sturtevant Day". Awards and nominations

Filmography

Notes

References

External links

1979 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Scottish descent
Contestants on American game shows
Living people
Male actors from Idaho
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Emmett, Idaho
Shorty Award winners
People from Los Feliz, Los


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<mask>  (, ; born May 26, 1964) is a Canadian politician. He is the first Inuk to have been called to the Nunavut Bar. He was also the first premier of Nunavut. On November 4, 2010, he was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. Okalik represented the electoral district of Iqaluit West in the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut until April 6, 2011 when he announced he would be resigning in order to run for the Liberal Party of Canada in the riding of Nunavut in the 2011 Canadian federal election. He returned to the Legislative Assembly in 2013 until being defeated in the 2017 general election. Early life

Okalik was born on May 26, 1964, in Pangnirtung, Northwest Territories (now Nunavut), the youngest of ten children born to Auyaluk and Annie Okalik.He was sent to residential school in Frobisher Bay, now Iqaluit, at 15, returning to Pangnirtung after one year. He began a series of temporary jobs and pursuits including time as an apprentice underground at the Nanisivik Mine in northern Baffin Island. In the early 1980s, he became interested in the political development of Inuit communities and began to work for the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut, the predecessor of Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated, as a deputy negotiator on the Inuit land claim, the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement. That claim, the largest in Canadian history, was signed in 1993 after decades of negotiations between Canada and the Inuit of Nunavut and would lead to the creation of Nunavut that he was to lead as premier through its first decade. Okalik continued his claims work, and began University as a mature student, serving as a representative on the Nunavut Implementation Panel. Okalik has been overt in acknowledging the role alcohol played in his earlier years and his commitment during his university years to stop drinking altogether. He went on to obtain a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.)in Political Science at Carleton University in Ottawa, and a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) from the


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 University of Ottawa. In 1998 he returned to Iqaluit to article at Crawford Law Office, working briefly in Yellowknife and with the Maliganik Tukisiniakvik legal aid clinic. In 1999 he was called to the Northwest Territories Bar, becoming the first Inuk lawyer in NWT/Nunavut history. His dream was to help his people in their dealings with the Canadian justice system. Political life

At the first Nunavut election held February 15, 1999, Okalik was elected to represent Iqaluit West in the first Legislative Assembly of Nunavut, defeating Ben Ell and Matthew Spence, with 51% of ballots cast. The First Nunavut Assembly met prior to the official creation of the territory in order to elect the territory's first premier and ministers.There are no political parties in Nunavut. Instead, all members of the Assembly are elected as independents, with the Assembly then recommending a ministry from among its elected members via a consensus model. The Commissioner of Nunavut then formally appoints them to office. Former federal MP Jack Anawak had been widely touted as the future Premier. However, Anawak was seen as Ottawa's choice, while Okalik was a dark horse and perceived as his own man. On March 5, 1999 after an extensive Leadership Forum question and answer period in the Assembly, Okalik was elected the first Premier of Nunavut. His mandate as premier became effective on April 1, 1999, the day Nunavut territory came into existence.He stood for reelection in the 2004 general election, and was returned to the Legislative Assembly. On March 5, 2004, the Legislative Assembly again selected him premier over challenger Tagak Curley. By 2007, Okalik was the longest-serving sitting premier in Canada. In the 2008 Nunavut General Election he won his third election and ran for a third term as Premier. On November 14, 2008, Okalik was defeated by Eva Aariak for the premiership. Okalik declined a nomination to cabinet and subsequently sat as a regular member in the Nunavut


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 Assembly. One of Okalik's primary goals as premier of Nunavut was to make the territory economically self-sufficient, as currently 90% of their budget comes from the federal government.Despite this, Okalik continues to have high hopes for the territory and believes that Nunavut has great economic potential. He cites resources such as diamonds, and also Inuit art and tourism as potential sources of income for the territory. On November 4, 2010, <mask> was elected the Speaker of the Nunavut Legislative Assembly, replacing James Arreak who had resigned to become a cabinet minister. He announced on April 6, 2011 that he would resign from the Legislative Assembly in order to run for the Liberal Party of Canada in the federal riding of Nunavut in the 2011 Canadian federal election. He finished second in the election behind Conservative incumbent Leona Aglukkaq. Okalik returned to the legislature at the 2013 Nunavut general election as the member for Iqaluit-Sinaa, which includes much of his old riding. Soon afterward, he returned to cabinet as Justice Minister.However, in 2016, Okalik resigned from cabinet because of his opposition to a proposed liquor store in Iqaluit and the lack of addictions support. Okalik told the Assembly that as a recovering alcoholic who had his last drink in 1991, he could not support a liquor store in the territorial capital without improved facilities for recovering alcoholics. During the 2015 Canadian federal election, Okalik protested a 2014 incident in which Aglukkaq read a newspaper during Question Period while opposition parties asked about exorbitant food prices in the North by reading a newspaper whenever Aglukkaq spoke at the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation election forum in Iqaluit. Accomplishments as Premier

The first two terms (1999–04, 2004–08) of the Nunavut Government were defining for the Nunavut territory. The creation of a new government in a territory where no prior government structures existed was an


texts: accomplishment achieved by the hard work, idealism and commitment of many individuals, including Ministers, MLAs, public servants, Inuit organizations and municipal leaders – but the period is likely to be viewed as the Okalik legacy. The First Assembly set out its goals in the mandate statement, with priorities on education and housing. The Second Assembly released its mandate statement, with priorities on Inuit culture and economic growth.In the Nunavut consensus system, where assembly members are elected on personal and individual platforms, the mandate statement represents the collective assertion of goals and political will and values for each Assembly. Immediately in 1999 the new Nunavut government recommenced the construction of public housing, which the NWT had abandoned, taking the first steps to address the massive overcrowding and severe housing deficit facing all Nunavut communities, as well as developing innovations in assisting home ownership and first time purchasers. The monies spent on housing increased steadily over this period and persistent efforts eventually secured $300M in federal dollars for a huge construction program, the "Nunavut Housing Trust". The construction of schools was a massive annual commitment during this decade, with almost every Nunavut community getting up-graded, new and impressive community schools at some point during the decade. Nunavut developed enhanced training for teachers, created a Nunavut program for registered nurses and supported the very successful Akitsiraq Law School, built Nunavut's first trades school in Rankin Inlet, put in place the process and approvals for a Nunavut Cultural School slated for Clyde River, improved levels of post-secondary student financial assistance, and funded Inuit and Inuktitut/Inuinnaqtun curriculum development. The decade saw a steady rise in Grade 12 graduations for Nunavummiut youth across the territory, although still falling short of Canadian national rates. Long


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 overdue health facilities were constructed in the regional centres of Iqaluit, Rankin Inlet and Cambridge Bay, infant and child inoculation rates were expanded, more physicians took up residence in the territory, the first Inuit certified midwives graduated and a series of elder-care facilities were planned and constructed.None of these measures narrowed the huge health and wellness gaps between Nunavummiut and other Canadians. Of particular concern was the huge impact of youth suicides, eventually leading to Nunavut's support for The Nunavut Suicide Prevention Project. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement requires that governments work towards a public service representative of the public it serves. In the first ten years of Nunavut, Inuit employment rates far exceeded those in the former Northwest Territories and showed stead improvement since 1999; however, these rates were still highest in the lowest education and pay categories, skilled positions remained unfilled in many communities, and the classic issues around minority employment efforts became part of the Nunavut public agenda. He lost re-election in the 2017 general election. Legislation

The Legislative legacy of the first two Nunavut Assemblies is substantial and fundamental in impact. Okalik introduced the first Nunavut Human Rights Act, which had never been done in the former NWT, and took a principled stand on its need to cover homosexuals.New structures for energy generation and regulation were created with the Qulliq Energy Corporation Act (dividing the assets of the joint Nunavut/NWT Crown Energy utility and creating its Nunavut successor) and the Utilities Rates Review Council Act. Regional Education and Health Boards were abolished and these functions and employees were moved into the departments of Education and Health and Social Services (respectively). These changes and Acts were original creations, scoped for the modest scale and limited capacity of Nunavut. The consultative


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 process of the Wildlife Act, which implemented and supported the hunting rights set out in the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, was an extensive piece of work, frequently attempted but never accomplished in the former Northwest Territories. It took two attempts to gain a consensus on an original, some might say courageous and revolutionary Education Act which was so comprehensive it is still being implemented, and the linguistic, legal and cultural pitfalls of the Official Languages Act and the Inuit Language Protection Act guarantee that these pieces of legislation will be formative documents for many years to come. Innovative and strong controls on purchasing and youth access were instituted by the Tobacco Control Act and a unique set of timely and accessible remedies was delivered into the hands of Justice of the Peace and community member through the terms of the Family Abuse Intervention Act. Controversy

Nunavut managed to create its first political crisis on the issue of time zones in 1999, with Okalik and most of Cabinet supporting a unified time zone across the three current time zones and Nunavut regions.Most municipalities – despite originally supporting time zone unification at their annual meetings – responded to the government initiative with overt resistance, leading to a stand-off where Hamlets ran clocks at their preferred time and schools and airports frequently operated on another. Ultimately Okalik and the government backed down and the historic three time zones, Eastern Time Zone for the Qikiqtaaluk, Central Time Zone for the Kivalliq and Mountain Time Zone for the Kitikmeot have continued in effect. The consolidation of the Health and Education Boards was accomplished in the first year of the first Assembly, when the value of common institutions was generally accepted. The corresponding change has been frequently recommended but not yet implemented in the NWT. While the Health Boards are not generally lamented the loss of the


texts: Divisional Boards of Education is seen in some quarters as leading to a less nimble and more encumbered Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun curriculum. The issue of "decentralization" or the location of territorial- and headquarters-level government functions in one or more of the 10 "decentralized" Nunavut communities was an integral part of the planning of Nunavut from the time of the Nunavut Implementation Commission, and the Office of the Interim Commissioner. Practical adjustments were made to the locations recommended by the Office of the Interim Commissioner for many functions in 1999 and 2000, but many other positions were assigned to communities on a community development rather than a functional basis.There remain serious contentions around the effectiveness of specific functions and the over-all value of the decentralization initiative, but Okalik remained committed to the principle, and to seeing jobs delivered to communities outside the major centres. The Okalik terms were remarkable for a general lack of corruption. Okalik along with colleagues Ed Picco and Hunter Tootoo and Rebekah Williams refused to accept a supplementary pension for members created by the Assembly which he deemed "excessive". Okalik was a modest spender by most accounts, and financial and political decisions taken were largely policy driven. During those years, Ministers who were perceived as not performing, were charged with criminal offences or found in a conflict of interest, lost their portfolios and/or resigned promptly, and in one instance were removed by the Assembly after being created Minister Without Portfolio. Okalik was perceived as strategic, intelligent, a very quick and thorough study in his work, while his adversaries characterized him as short-tempered and aggressive, especially in his second term. During his almost ten years in office he was a reliable advocate for Nunavut among Canadian First Ministers, leading a public challenge to Prime Minister Jean


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 Chrétien on the terms of access to medical care for Nunavut, revitalizing the Northern Premiers Forums, and being a founding member of the Council of the Federation.During the last week of June 2007, Okalik reportedly made derogatory comments to Iqaluit mayor Elisapee Sheutiapik about Lynda Gunn, an executive from the Nunavut Association of Municipalities, allegedly calling her a "fucking bitch". Although Okalik apologized, both publicly and in private, the apology was refused. On September 17, 2007, MLAs voted to censure Okalik. Okalik himself abstained from voting, but asked his fellow MLAs to censure him as a formal recognition of his mistake. Sheutiapik subsequently challenged Okalik for the Iqaluit West seat in the 2008 election. Okalik was re-elected. In November 2009, a report by the Integrity Commissioner declared that Okalik violated the territory's Integrity Act by soliciting campaign donations from deputy ministers, whom premiers appoint, and that Okalik should apologize.Electoral record

Personal life

On June 18, 2005, Carleton University conferred on Okalik an honorary doctorate in law. On November 24, 2008, Okalik was the sole recipient at the 16th Annual National Aboriginal Achievement Awards, now the Indspire Awards, in the category of Politics. Okalik has three children, Shasta, Jordan and Béatrice, and two granddaughters, Brynn and Lakely. See also

Aboriginal Canadian personalities

References

1964 births
Living people
Inuit politicians
Inuit from the Northwest Territories
Carleton University alumni
University of Ottawa alumni
Members of the Executive Council of Nunavut
Members of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut
Premiers of Nunavut
People from Iqaluit
Speakers of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut
Candidates in the 2011 Canadian federal election
University of Ottawa Faculty of Law alumni
Indspire Awards
Liberal Party of Canada candidates for the Canadian House of Commons
Inuit from Nunavut
People from Pangnirtung
Nunavut


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Margaret Frances "<mask><mask> (May 2, 1895 – January 4, 1987)  was an American artist, best known for her satirical caricatures. <mask> studied under Kenneth Hayes Miller at the Art Students League of New York, where she taught herself drypoint and published her first caricatures in the student magazine. They soon appeared in publications such as The New Yorker and Vanity Fair, as well as major art galleries. <mask> earned many awards, including the Guggenheim Fellowship for creative work in the graphic arts. Early life and education

<mask> was born on May 2, 1895 in Ridgefield, Connecticut to <mask> and <mask>. She was the first of three children but raised an only child after her two younger brothers died in infancy. <mask>'s parents were both artists and met while attending the Art Students League in New York.Her father, an errand boy for Tiffany's during his childhood, painted landscapes and figures in adulthood while her mother was a miniaturist. Both of her parents were very well read; they loved reading Henry James and would read aloud as a family every evening. <mask>'s parents moved frequently and would have tutors for <mask> wherever they went. The family lived in Connecticut but spent winters in New York and in the winter of 1902 they lived in Nassau, Bahamas. They also spent time in Pas de Calais and London. Between the ages of 9 and 11 <mask> lived with her parents in France, first in Paris and then in a house in Picardy at Montreaux-sur-Mer. <mask>'s mother did not believe in formal schooling and as a result, for most of her childhood, <mask> had tutors and studied only subjects of interest to her, such as Latin, Greek, mythology, ancient history and geography of the ancient world.<mask> described her

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 unconventional childhood as "absolutely delightful." Her youth was very sheltered; she was often accompanied by a governess, most of which she hated. The only time she really had freedom from this life was when her family was living in Nassau and her parents and grandmother were quarantined because they had contracted typhoid fever. At the age of fourteen, <mask> began attending Kent Place School, a boarding school in Summit, New Jersey. In 1913, the same year she graduated, <mask>'s father killed himself in his studio in New York. He had overcome alcoholism but was susceptible to bouts of depression. After this devastating event <mask> and her mother moved to New York City and lived on the West Side in the home of family friends.Artistic career

<mask> had always been interested in art and from a very young age her early artistic interests were encouraged and supported by her parents. Although <mask> started drawing when she was a year and a half old, she did not receive formal training in art until after graduating from Kent Place School. At the end of 1913, <mask> first studied art at the School of Applied Design for Women but disliked it calling it,
"the prissiest, silliest place that ever was." She transferred after a few weeks to the School of Fine and Applied Arts on the West Side where she took classes in illustration and life drawing. During the summer of 1914 <mask> attended Jonas Lie's landscape class in Port Jefferson, Long Island. From 1915-1920, <mask> studied painting with Kenneth Hayes Miller, John Sloan, George Bellows, and others at the Art Students League. While at the League, <mask> became friends with several other artists.Her circle of friends and acquaintances included Dorothea Schwarcz, Anne Rector,

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texts: Betty Burroughs, Katherine Schmidt , Yasuo Kuniyoshi, Molly Luce, Dorothy Varian, Edmund Duffy, Dick Dyer, David Morrison, and Andrew Dasburg. Looking back at her time at the League <mask> said, "The years at the Art Students League were a very important chunk of life to me and very exhilarating. It was the first time in my life, of course, that I had met and gotten to know familiarly a group of young people who were all headed the same way with the same interests. In fact it was practically parochial." In 1917, she exhibited two works in the First Annual Exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists (April 10-May 6, 1917). Around 1917 <mask> also became interested in printmaking and taught herself drypoint as there was no one teaching etching at the Art Students League at the time. <mask>'s first caricature prints were featured in single-issue, satirical magazine Bad News, which was published by <mask> and her fellow art students in 1918.Drypoint was <mask>'s primary medium until 1927, and pastels until 1945. Although <mask> had trained as a painter, she eventually became famous for her satirical prints and drawings. Her caricatures were first published in a single issue spoof, entitled Bad News. Her early portrait caricatures in Bad News, like her early drypoints, depended upon a hard, controlling outline, filled in with shading or an obscure pattern. The intensity of the hues, the highly selective and organized palette, and her visually satisfying compositions all contribute to the high quality and formal aspects that distinguish <mask>'s pastel portraits from others. <mask> was also featured in solo shows in prominent galleries such as; Stieglitz's Intimate Gallery, the Weyhe Gallery, and the Downtown Gallery. In the

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texts: summer of 1919, <mask> studied with Andrew Dasburg, in Woodstock, New York.That same summer she was engaged to American painter Alexander Brook and the two married on May 4, 1920. After marrying, <mask> and Brook moved to London for a year, where their daughter, Belinda, was born. When they returned, the family divided their time between Greenwich Village and Woodstock, New York, two vibrant artist communities. In 1922 a son, Sandy, was born in Woodstock. In 1940, <mask> and her husband divorced. <mask> was a very prolific artist. In 1919, at the age of 24, she wrote and illustrated her first book, The True Philosopher and Other Cat Tales.She went on to illustrate over 60 books, 19 of which she also wrote, including a successful mystery book, The Inward Eye, which was nominated for an Edgar Allan Poe award in 1952 for best novel. <mask>'s popular drawings appeared in magazines such as The New Yorker, New Republic, Fortune, and Vanity Fair and she exhibited in galleries and museums frequently. <mask> had over thirty solo exhibitions at such venues as Montross Gallery, Alfred Stieglitz's Intimate Gallery, and the Downtown Gallery. In 1934 <mask> was awarded the Guggenheim Fellowship for creative work in the graphic arts. During her time as a fellow she completed 35 satirical portraits of art world figures for a collection called Off With Their Heads!,  which was published that same year by Robert M. McBride & Company. In 1942 she was granted an award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters and in 1980 the Academy awarded her a gold medal for her lifelong contribution to illustration and graphic art. In 1947, <mask> was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full member in 1969.In


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 December 1975, the National Collection of Fine Arts, now the National Museum of American Art, honored <mask> with a yearlong retrospective exhibition titled, "<mask>: Personalities and Places." <mask> was also a member of the Society of American Graphic Artists and participated in many of their annual exhibitions. In addition to her artistic career, <mask> taught extensively during the 1930s and 1940s at various institutions, including the Fieldston School, the Art Students League, Hunter College, the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, D.C., and summers at the School of Music and Art in Stowe, Vermont. <mask>'s philosophy of caricatures

Later life and legacy
In the 1970s <mask>'s eyesight began failing and she eventually went to live in Cape Porpoise, Maine. She died in 1987 at the age of 91 in Kennebunk, Maine. From June 27, 2012, to November 4, 2012, the Lawrence A. Fleischman Gallery at the Donald W. Reynolds Center for American Art and Portraiture exhibited “Six Degrees of <mask>.” The exhibit traced her associations using photographs, letters, graphics, and archival documents from the Archives of American Art to illustrate <mask>’s connection to dozens of other prominent artists. References

External links

 A Finding Aid to the <mask> papers, 1893-1973, bulk 1900-1936, in the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution

1895 births
1987 deaths
American women painters
Kent Place School alumni

People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
Art Students League of New York alumni
20th-century American women writers
Writers from Connecticut
Artists from Connecticut
20th-century American painters
American women illustrators
American illustrators
American women printmakers
20th-century American women artists
20th-century

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<mask> (; born February 12, 1975), popularly known as <mask>, is an American video game designer, known for his work in the development of the Unreal and Gears of War series. After working at Epic Games from 1992 to 2012, he co-founded Boss Key Productions in 2014. Career
<mask>'s first game was The Palace of Deceit, an adventure title he started at the age of 15. Programmed in Visual Basic, its second version came out when he was 16. Epic Games (1992–2012)
<mask> got his start at Epic Games in 1992, after submitting his game, Dare to Dream, to the company's CEO, Tim Sweeney. Though Dare to Dream did not achieve a great success, it led Bleszinski to work on Jazz Jackrabbit, a platformer co-developed by demoscene coder Arjan Brussee. The title, which came out in 1994, became Epic's biggest selling game at the time, earning him enough money to buy his first apartment and car.It was also around this time that he joined Sweeney and James Schmalz on what would become Unreal, which received a follow-up, Unreal Tournament, and expanded into a series of games. In addition to his work on the Unreal series, Bleszinski served as creative consultant on Rune, and as lead designer on the first three installments of the Gears of War franchise, which has sold over 22 million copies and earned over one billion in revenue as of January 2014. Gears of War evolved out of the development of what was going to be a game called Unreal Warfare. As <mask> explained in a speech at GDC 2007 entitled "Designing Gears of War: Iteration Wins," the game started out as another first-person shooter in the Unreal universe. Over time, however, influenced by the cover mechanic in Namco's 2003 game Kill Switch and the

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 third-person Resident Evil 4, Unreal Warfare became the game known as Gears of War. After 20 years with the company, <mask> announced his departure from Epic Games on October 3, 2012, saying he had been making video games since he was a teen and wanted to take a break. According to a 2015 interview, his original intention was to retire permanently."I honestly thought I was done... It was a combination of gamers feeling jaded, as well as working with some very talented people who were also very jaded," Bleszinski told Destructoid. "I could pitch the most amazing idea to anybody back when I was at Epic toward the end, and they'd be like 'I don't buy it,'" he added. Boss Key Productions (2014–2018)
On June 30, 2014, <mask> announced on Twitter that he was "coming out of retirement to make video games again" and would be unveiling his next project in the next week. The new game, a free-to-play, PC-focused arena shooter code-named BlueStreak, would be published by Nexon and developed by his new studio, Boss Key Productions, which he co-founded with Brussee the same year. A year later, Bleszinski revealed that the arena shooter would be called LawBreakers. <mask> was offered an opportunity to work on the Silent Hill franchise by Hideo Kojima, vice president of Konami Digital Entertainment."I was flattered but declined," he wrote on Twitter. In May 2016, he joined the board of advisers for Fig, a mixed crowd-funding/investment platform for video games. On May 14, 2018, Bleszinski announced the dissolution of Boss Key Productions, citing lackluster sales. Later career (2018–present)
After closure of Boss Key, <mask> has gotten involved with theater production. He invested and co-produced

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 Hadestown, and plans to be similarly involved with a revival of Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune. He also seeks to publish a memoir of his gaming career, comparing the work to Anthony Bourdain's Kitchen Confidential. He has also expressed interest in returning to the Gears of War series as an advisor.Personal life
<mask> is married to <mask> (née Berggren), a former professional gamer and id Software employee. Previously, he was married to a woman named Darcy. One of his brothers is <mask>, the founder of Polygon sister site and Vox Media progenitor SB Nation. Their father, who died when <mask> was 15, was an engineer for Polaroid. The nickname "<mask>" was given to him derogatorily by "some jock kid" when he was a shy teenager; he then took it and developed a tougher persona around it. However, in 2008 he expressed a desire to retire the moniker, saying it's "time to grow up a bit". In 1988, at 13, <mask> appeared in the first issue of Nintendo Power for earning the high score of 9,999,950 in Super Mario Bros.Regarding the achievement, in a 2017 interview with Rolling Stone he commented: "That was probably one of the moments when I realized, deep-down and subconsciously, I wanted to be a 'name' in this business of video games." He also went to the Nintendo World Championships when he was 15, coming in second in Massachusetts. In 1998, Bleszinski rose to fame when he held a contest inviting visitors of his website to scan their cats on flatbed scanners and submit the photos for judging. In 2000, PC Gamer called Bleszinski one of the "Next Game Gods" in the cover of its November issue, believing that he would eventually become an "industry legend." Wired magazine awarded him a Rave

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