texts:
 <mask> was awarded the plaque of the Housing and Urban Renewal Conference for "dauntless courage... in the battle for open housing."The mayor of New York City, John V. Lindsay, appointed <mask> as the Assistant Administrator for Equal Opportunity in the Housing and Development Administration (HDA). <mask> later received an award from the Housing and Development Administration for his work in human relations. In April 1969, <mask> participated in the establishment of a Joint Research Training Program between the Metropolitan Applied Research Center and the HDA. <mask> began the initial research for the history of Racial Relations Service in 1970 and retired from the HDA in 1972. <mask> then accepted a consulting job with the NCDH. Personal life
On August 19, 1930, <mask> married his wife, <mask> Priestly Burn in the Little Church Around the Corner in New York City. Burn died in 1939 at the Tuberculosis League Hospital.In 1950, <mask> married Mercedes Rector. <mask> is the uncle of actress and civil rights activist <mask>, and briefly served as her guardian when she began her film career. Lena lived with him from 1927 to 1929. In 1960, <mask> suffered a stroke which partially paralyzed the right side of his body. During his time in the hospital, <mask> wrote a collection of poetry titled, Haverstraw. <mask> died on September 7, 1974 from arteriosclerosis. Publications

Nonfiction
"Black Verse," Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life, November 1924, pp.330–332. "I Am Initiated into the Negro Race," Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life, May 1928, pp. 136–137. "The Epic of Fort Valley," Crisis Magazine, June 1929, pp. 190, 206-207. "Running Fools: Athletics in

masks:
Horne
Horne
Horne
Horne
Horne
Horne
Horne
Frankye
Horne
Horne
Lena Horne
Horne
Horne
Horne


type: original

texts:
 a Colored School," Crisis Magazine, November 1930, pp. 375–376."Concerning White People," Opportunity:A Journal of Negro Life, March, 1934, p. 77-79. "The Industrial School of the South", Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life, May 1935, pp. 136–139; June 1935, pp. 178–181. "Dog House Education," Journal of Negro Education, July 1936, p. 339. "Providing New Housing for Negroes," Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life, October 1940, pp. 305–308.Poetry
(As Xavier I) "Letters Found near a Suicide," Crisis Magazine, November 1925, pp. 12–13. Harlem,” Crisis Magazine, June 1928, p. 196. "More Letters Found near a Suicide," Crisis Magazine, December 1929, p. 413.Haverstraw, Breman, 1963. "Balm in Gilead: A Christmas Jingle, Played with Trumpets and Muffled Drums," Crisis Magazine, December 1965, pp. 646-647. "Mamma!," Crisis Magazine, April 1966, p. 213."He Won’t Stay Put: A Carol for All Seasons," Crisis Magazine, December 1970, pp. 403-404. Short stories
"The Man Who Wanted to Be Red: A Story," Crisis Magazine'', July 1928, pp. 225–226, 242-243. References

1899 births
1974 deaths
People from Brooklyn
City College of New York alumni
Illinois College of Optometry alumni
University of Southern California alumni
20th-century American poets
American


texts:
Major General Lord <mask>  (15 January 1863 – 14 December 1937) was a British courtier and soldier. Early life and family history
Born as Count <mask>, he was the only son of Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (a half-nephew of Queen Victoria) and his wife, Laura Williamina (a sister of the 5th Marquess of Hertford). Lady Feodora Gleichen, the noted sculptor, was his sister. Gleichen's comital title, shared by his sisters, derived from his mother, who had received it from Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, shortly before her morganatic marriage to his father. Gleichen had been an hereditary estate of the Princes of Hohenlohe in Germany since 1631, and their father voluntarily used it as a comital title to place himself on the same social footing as his wife. But <mask> was not entitled to any land or revenues derived from this dynastic property. On 15 December 1885, the Court Circular announced Queen Victoria's permission for <mask>'s mother to share his father's rank at the Court of St James's, and henceforth they were known as HSH Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg.But the Queen did not extend that privilege to their children, although she confirmed use of their German style as count and countesses. On 12 June 1913 <mask> was granted precedence before  marquesses in the peerage of England (while his sisters were granted precedence before the daughters of dukes in the English peerage). Career
Gleichen served as a Page of Honour to the Queen from 1874 to 1879. He joined the Grenadier Guards in 1881 and gradually rose through the ranks over the years, eventually becoming a Major General. He served in the short-lived Guards Camel Corps in the Sudan campaign in 1884–85 and with the Egyptian army in the Dongala campaign in 1896. In 1899–1900 he served in the Second Boer War in South Africa, and was mentioned in despatches for his actions during the Battle of Modder River 28 November 1899. In January 1900 he was appointed

masks:
Albert Edward Wilfred Glen
Albert Edward Wilfred von Glen
Edward
Edward
Edward


texts:
 Deputy Assistant-Adjutant-General to the forces in South Africa.He was Sudan agent in Cairo from 1901 to 1903 with the local rank of Lieutenant-colonel, then Military Attaché to Berlin from 1903 to 1906. He and Kaiser Wilhelm II fell out, and Gleichen was sent to be Military Attaché in Washington D.C. from 1906 to 1907. He met the Wright brothers while in Washington and wrote a report on their aircraft, but also failed to form a relationship with U.S. President Teddy Roosevelt. He was Assistant Director of Military Operations from 1907 to 1911. He served in the First World War, commanding the 15th Brigade from 1911 to 1915, and then the 37th Division from 1915 to 1916. He was an Intelligence Bureau director at the Department of Information from 1917 to 1918. He served as Chairman of the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names from 1919.At court, the Count was appointed an Extra Equerry to King <mask> in July 1901. He wrote a number of books, including:
With the Camel Corps up the Nile (1888)
With the mission to Menelik (1898)
The doings of the Fifteenth Infantry Brigade, August 1914 to March 1915 (1917)
London's open air statuary (1928)
A Guardsman's Memories (1932). He was the editor of:
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: a compendium prepared by officers of the Sudan Government - Vol. I: Geographical, descriptive and historical. - 1905. Vol.II: Routes.- 1905. Suppl.: 1906

Change of title
When King George V commanded his German relatives domiciled in Britain to Anglicize their names and titles in 1917, the Gleichens' 1913 precedence was reduced several grades to that of younger son/daughters of a marquess in the peerage of the United Kingdom. This was because only marquisal rank was conferred upon the King's nearer, heretofore princely relatives, the Tecks and Battenbergs. Although inexplicably allowed to retain their German surname, the Gleichens relinquished use of the comital title and on 12 September 1917 acquired the prefix of Lord or Lady,


texts:
 although this was not made hereditary for <mask>'s descendants as his countship had been. On 2 July 1910, Gleichen married Sylvia Gay <mask> (a niece  of the 4th Baron Kensington), who was a Maid of Honour to Queens Victoria and Alexandra. They had no children. He is buried at Holy Trinity Church burial ground, Forest Row, Sussex, England
. Honours and awards
British decorations
CMG: Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George – 1898 – for his contributions on a Mission to Ethiopia.DSO: Companion of the Distinguished Service Order – 29 November 1900 – for his contributions in the Second Boer War. CVO: Commander of the Royal Victorian Order – 2 February 1901 – on the day of the funeral of Queen Victoria
CB: Companion of the Order of the Bath – 1906
KCVO: Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order – 1909

Foreign decorations
1897: Order of the Star of Ethiopia (Third Class) – for his contributions on a Mission to Ethiopia. 1905: Order of the Medjidie (Second Class) – for his services in the Egyptian Army
Unknown dates: Commander of the Legion of Honour, Order of the Dannebrog (First Class)

Ancestry

References

The London Gazette
Burke's Peerage & Gentry, 107th edition
Centre for First World War Studies
Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives

External links

Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Knights of Grace of the Order of St John
Pages of Honour
Equerries
Younger sons of marquesses
British Army personnel of the Mahdist War
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
British Army generals of World War I
House of Hohenlohe-Langenburg
Grenadier Guards officers
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie, 2nd class
1863 births
1937 deaths
British military attachés
British Army generals
British expatriates in

masks: Edward Edwardes


texts: <mask>, FRS FRAI (; 16 February 1822 – 17 January 1911), was an English Victorian era polymath: a statistician, sociologist, psychologist, anthropologist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician and a proponent of social Darwinism, eugenics and scientific racism. He was knighted in 1909. Galton produced over 340 papers and books. He also created the statistical concept of correlation and widely promoted regression toward the mean. He was the first to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences and inheritance of intelligence, and introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys for collecting data on human communities, which he needed for genealogical and biographical works and for his anthropometric studies. He was a pioneer of eugenics, coining the term itself in 1883, and also coined the phrase "nature versus nurture". His book Hereditary Genius (1869) was the first social scientific attempt to study genius and greatness.As an investigator of the human mind, he founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology, as well as the lexical hypothesis of personality. He devised a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science. He also conducted research on the power of prayer, concluding it had none due to its null effects on the longevity of those prayed for. His quest for the scientific principles of diverse phenomena extended even to the optimal method for making tea. As the initiator of scientific meteorology, he devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short-term climatic phenomena


texts:
 on a European scale. He also invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability. He was Charles Darwin's half-cousin.Early life
<mask> was born at "The Larches", a large house in the Sparkbrook area of Birmingham, England, built on the site of "Fair Hill", the former home of Joseph Priestley, which the botanist William Withering had renamed. He was Charles Darwin's half-cousin, sharing the common grandparent Erasmus Darwin. His father was Samuel Tertius <mask>, son of <mask>, Jr. He was also a cousin of Douglas Strutt <mask>. The Galtons were Quaker gun-manufacturers and bankers, while the Darwins were involved in medicine and science. Both the <mask> and Darwin families included Fellows of the Royal Society and members who loved to invent in their spare time. Both Erasmus Darwin and <mask> were founding members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, which included Matthew Boulton, James Watt, Josiah Wedgwood, Joseph Priestley and Richard Lovell Edgeworth.Both families were known for their literary talent. Erasmus Darwin composed lengthy technical treatises in verse. <mask>'s aunt Mary Anne Galton wrote on aesthetics and religion, and her autobiography detailed the environment of her childhood populated by Lunar Society members. Galton was a child prodigy – he was reading by the age of two; at age five he knew some Greek, Latin and long division, and by the age of six he had moved on to adult books, including Shakespeare for pleasure, and poetry, which he quoted at length. Galton attended King Edward's School, Birmingham, but chafed at the narrow classical curriculum and left at 16. His parents pressed him to enter the medical profession, and he studied for two years at

masks:
Galton
Galton
Samuel Galton
Galton
Galton
Samuel Galton
Galton


texts: Birmingham General Hospital and King's College London Medical School. He followed this up with mathematical studies at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1840 to early 1844.According to the records of the United Grand Lodge of England, it was in February 1844 that <mask> became a freemason at the Scientific lodge, held at the Red Lion Inn in Cambridge, progressing through the three masonic degrees: Apprentice, 5 February 1844; Fellow Craft, 11 March 1844; Master Mason, 13 May 1844. A note in the record states: "<mask>ton Trinity College student, gained his certificate 13 March 1845". One of <mask>'s masonic certificates from Scientific lodge can be found among his papers at University College, London. A nervous breakdown prevented Galton's intent to try for honours. He elected instead to take a "poll" (pass) B.A. degree, like his half-cousin Charles Darwin. (Following the Cambridge custom, he was awarded an M.A.without further study, in 1847.) He briefly resumed his medical studies but the death of his father in 1844 left him emotionally destitute, though financially independent, and he terminated his medical studies entirely, turning to foreign travel, sport and technical invention. In his early years <mask> was an enthusiastic traveller, and made a notable solo trip through Eastern Europe to Constantinople, before going up to Cambridge. In 1845 and 1846, he went to Egypt and travelled up the Nile to Khartoum in the Sudan, and from there to Beirut, Damascus and down to Jordan. In 1850 he joined the Royal Geographical Society, and over the next two years mounted a long and difficult expedition into then little-known South West Africa (now Namibia). He wrote a book on his experience, "Narrative

masks:
Galton
Francis Gal
Galton
Galton


texts:
 of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa". He was awarded the Royal Geographical Society's Founder's Gold Medal in 1853 and the Silver Medal of the French Geographical Society for his pioneering cartographic survey of the region.This established his reputation as a geographer and explorer. He proceeded to write the best-selling The Art of Travel, a handbook of practical advice for the Victorian on the move, which went through many editions and is still in print. Middle years

<mask> was a polymath who made important contributions in many fields of science, including meteorology (the anticyclone and the first popular weather maps), statistics (regression and correlation), psychology (synaesthesia), biology (the nature and mechanism of heredity), and criminology (fingerprints). Much of this was influenced by his penchant for counting and measuring. <mask> prepared the first weather map published in The Times (1 April 1875, showing the weather from the previous day, 31 March), now a standard feature in newspapers worldwide. He became very active in the British Association for the Advancement of Science, presenting many papers on a wide variety of topics at its meetings from 1858 to 1899. He was the general secretary from 1863 to 1867, president of the Geographical section in 1867 and 1872, and president of the Anthropological Section in 1877 and 1885.He was active on the council of the Royal Geographical Society for over forty years, in various committees of the Royal Society, and on the Meteorological Council. James McKeen Cattell, a student of Wilhelm Wundt who had been reading Galton's articles, decided he wanted to study under him. He eventually built a professional relationship with Galton,

masks: Galton Galton


texts:
 measuring subjects and working together on research. In 1888, Galton established a lab in the science galleries of the South Kensington Museum. In Galton's lab, participants could be measured to gain knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses. Galton also used these data for his own research. He would typically charge people a small fee for his services.In 1873, <mask> wrote a controversial letter to The Times titled 'Africa for the Chinese', where he argued that the Chinese, as a race capable of high civilisation and only temporarily stunted by the recent failures of Chinese dynasties, should be encouraged to immigrate to Africa and displace the supposedly inferior aboriginal blacks. Heredity and eugenics

The publication by his cousin Charles Darwin of The Origin of Species in 1859 was an event that changed <mask>'s life. He came to be gripped by the work, especially the first chapter on "Variation under Domestication", concerning animal breeding. <mask> devoted much of the rest of his life to exploring variation in human populations and its implications, at which Darwin had only hinted in The Origin of Species, although he returned to it in his 1871 book The Descent of Man, drawing on his cousin's work in the intervening period. Galton established a research program which embraced multiple aspects of human variation, from mental characteristics to height; from facial images to fingerprint patterns. This required inventing novel measures of traits, devising large-scale collection of data using those measures, and in the end, the discovery of new statistical techniques for describing and understanding the data. <mask> was interested at first in the question of whether human ability was

masks: Galton Galton Galton Galton


texts: hereditary, and proposed to count the number of the relatives of various degrees of eminent men.If the qualities were hereditary, he reasoned, there should be more eminent men among the relatives than among the general population. To test this, he invented the methods of historiometry. <mask> obtained extensive data from a broad range of biographical sources which he tabulated and compared in various ways. This pioneering work was described in detail in his book Hereditary Genius in 1869. Here he showed, among other things, that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when going from the first degree to the second degree relatives, and from the second degree to the third. He took this as evidence of the inheritance of abilities. <mask> recognised the limitations of his methods in these two works, and believed the question could be better studied by comparisons of twins.His method envisaged testing to see if twins who were similar at birth diverged in dissimilar environments, and whether twins dissimilar at birth converged when reared in similar environments. He again used the method of questionnaires to gather various sorts of data, which were tabulated and described in a paper The history of twins in 1875. In so doing he anticipated the modern field of behaviour genetics, which relies heavily on twin studies. He concluded that the evidence favoured nature rather than nurture. He also proposed adoption studies, including trans-racial adoption studies, to separate the effects of heredity and environment. Galton recognised that cultural circumstances influenced the capability of a civilisation's citizens, and their reproductive success. In Hereditary Genius, he envisaged a situation


texts:
 conducive to resilient and enduring civilisation as follows:

<mask> invented the term eugenics in 1883 and set down many of his observations and conclusions in a book, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development.In the book's introduction, he wrote:

He believed that a scheme of 'marks' for family merit should be defined, and early marriage between families of high rank be encouraged via provision of monetary incentives. He pointed out some of the tendencies in British society, such as the late marriages of eminent people, and the paucity of their children, which he thought were dysgenic. He advocated encouraging eugenic marriages by supplying able couples with incentives to have children. On 29 October 1901, <mask> chose to address eugenic issues when he delivered the second Huxley lecture at the Royal Anthropological Institute. The Eugenics Review, the journal of the Eugenics Education Society, commenced publication in 1909. <mask>, the Honorary President of the society, wrote the foreword for the first volume. The First International Congress of Eugenics was held in July 1912.Winston Churchill and Carls Elliot were among the attendees. According to the Encyclopedia of Genocide, <mask> bordered on the justification of genocide when he stated: "There exists a sentiment, for the most part quite unreasonable, against the gradual extinction of an inferior race." In June 2020, UCL announced that it was renaming a lecture theatre which had been named after Galton because of his connection with eugenics. Model for population stability

<mask>'s formulation of regression and its link to the bivariate normal distribution can be traced to his attempts at developing a mathematical model for

masks: Galton Galton Galton Galton Galton


texts: population stability. Although <mask>'s first attempt to study Darwinian questions,  Hereditary Genius, generated little enthusiasm at the time, the text led to his further studies in the 1870s concerning the inheritance of physical traits. This text contains some crude notions of the concept of regression, described in a qualitative matter. For example, he wrote of dogs: "If a man breeds from strong, well-shaped dogs, but of mixed pedigree, the puppies will be sometimes, but rarely, the equals of their parents.They will commonly be of a mongrel, nondescript type, because ancestral peculiarities are apt to crop out in the offspring." This notion created a problem for Galton, as he could not reconcile the tendency of a population to maintain a normal distribution of traits from generation to generation with the notion of inheritance. It seemed that a large number of factors operated independently on offspring,  leading to the normal distribution of a trait in each generation. However, this provided no explanation as to how a parent can have a significant impact on his offspring, which was the basis of inheritance. <mask>'s solution to this problem was presented in his Presidential Address at the September 1885 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, as he was serving at the time as President of Section H: Anthropology. The address was published in Nature, and <mask> further developed the theory in  "Regression toward mediocrity in hereditary stature" and "Hereditary Stature." An elaboration of this theory was published in 1889 in Natural Inheritance.There were three key developments that helped <mask> develop this theory: the  development of the law of error in


texts: 1874–1875, the formulation of an empirical law of reversion in 1877, and the development of a mathematical framework encompassing regression using human population data during 1885. <mask>'s development of the law of regression to the mean, or reversion, was due to insights from the Galton board ('bean machine') and his studies of sweet peas. While <mask> had previously invented the quincunx prior to February 1874, the 1877 version of the quincunx had a new feature that helped Galton demonstrate that a normal mixture of normal distributions is also normal. Galton demonstrated this using a new version of quincunx, adding chutes to the apparatus to represent reversion. When the pellets passed through the curved chutes (representing reversion) and then the pins (representing family variability), the result was a stable population. On Friday 19 February 1877 <mask> gave a lecture entitled Typical Laws of Heredity at the Royal Institution in London. In this lecture, he posited that there must be a counteracting force to maintain population stability.However, this model required a much larger degree of intergenerational natural selection than was plausible. In 1875, Galton started growing sweet peas, and addressed the Royal Institution on his findings on 9 February 1877. He found that each group of progeny seeds followed a normal curve, and the curves were equally disperse. Each group was not centered about the parent's weight, but rather at a weight closer to the population average. Galton called this reversion, as every progeny group was distributed at a value that was closer to the population average than the parent. The deviation from the population average was in the same direction, but the

masks: Galton Galton Galton


texts: magnitude of the deviation was only one-third as large. In doing so, Galton demonstrated that there was variability among each of the families, yet the families combined to produce a stable, normally distributed population.When <mask> addressed the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1885, he said of his investigation of sweet peas, "I was then blind to what I now perceive to be the simple explanation of the phenomenon." <mask> was able to further his notion of regression by collecting and analyzing data on human stature. Galton asked for help of mathematician J. Hamilton Dickson in investigating the geometric relationship of the data. He determined that the regression coefficient did not ensure population stability by chance, but rather that the regression coefficient, conditional variance, and population were interdependent quantities related by a simple equation. Thus Galton identified that the linearity of regression was not coincidental but rather was a necessary consequence of population stability. The model for population stability resulted in <mask>'s formulation of the Law of Ancestral Heredity. This law, which was published in Natural Inheritance, states that the two parents of an offspring jointly contribute one half of an offspring's heritage, while the other, more-removed ancestors constitute a  smaller proportion of the offspring's heritage.<mask> viewed reversion as a spring, that when stretched, would return the distribution of traits back to the normal distribution. He concluded that evolution would have to occur via discontinuous steps, as reversion would neutralize any incremental steps. When Mendel's principles were rediscovered in 1900, this resulted in a


texts:
 fierce battle between the followers of <mask>'s Law of Ancestral Heredity, the biometricians, and those who advocated Mendel's principles. Empirical test of pangenesis and Lamarckism
<mask> conducted wide-ranging inquiries into heredity which led him to challenge Charles Darwin's hypothesis of pangenesis. Darwin had proposed as part of this model that certain particles, which he called "gemmules" moved throughout the body and were also responsible for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. <mask>, in consultation with Darwin, set out to see if they were transported in the blood. In a long series of experiments in 1869 to 1871, he transfused the blood between dissimilar breeds of rabbits, and examined the features of their offspring.He found no evidence of characters transmitted in the transfused blood. Darwin challenged the validity of <mask>'s experiment, giving his reasons in an article published in Nature where he wrote:

<mask> explicitly rejected the idea of the inheritance of acquired characteristics (Lamarckism), and was an early proponent of "hard heredity" through selection alone. He came close to rediscovering Mendel's particulate theory of inheritance, but was prevented from making the final breakthrough in this regard because of his focus on continuous, rather than discrete, traits (now regarded as polygenic traits). He went on to found the biometric approach to the study of heredity, distinguished by its use of statistical techniques to study continuous traits and population-scale aspects of heredity. This approach was later taken up enthusiastically by Karl Pearson and W. F. R. Weldon; together, they founded the highly influential journal Biometrika in 1901. (R. A. Fisher


texts:
 would later show how the biometrical approach could be reconciled with the Mendelian approach.) The statistical techniques that <mask> invented (correlation and regression—see below) and phenomena he established (regression to the mean) formed the basis of the biometric approach and are now essential tools in all social sciences.Anthropometric Laboratory at the 1884 International Health Exhibition
In 1884, London hosted the International Health Exhibition. This exhibition placed much emphasis on highlighting Victorian developments in sanitation and public health, and allowed the nation to display its advanced public health outreach, compared to other countries at the time. <mask> took advantage of this opportunity to set up his anthropometric laboratory. He stated that the purpose of this laboratory was to "show the public the simplicity of the instruments and methods by which the chief physical characteristics of man may be measured and recorded." The laboratory was an interactive walk-through in which physical characteristics such as height, weight, and eyesight, would be measured for each subject after payment of an admission fee. Upon entering the laboratory, a subject would visit the following stations in order. First, they would fill out a form with personal and family history (age, birthplace, marital status, residence, and occupation), then visit stations that recorded hair and eye color, followed by the keenness, color-sense, and depth perception of sight.Next, they would examine the keenness, or relative acuteness, of hearing and highest audible note of their hearing followed by an examination of their sense of touch. However, because the surrounding area was noisy, the apparatus

masks:
Galton
Francis Galton


texts: intended to measure hearing was rendered ineffective by the noise and echoes in the building. Their breathing capacity would also be measured, as well as their ability to throw a punch. The next stations would examine strength of both pulling and squeezing with both hands. Lastly, subjects' heights in various positions (sitting, standing, etc.) as well as arm span and weight would be measured. One excluded characteristic of interest was the size of the head.Galton notes in his analysis that this omission was mostly for practical reasons. For instance, it would not be very accurate and additionally it would require much time for women to disassemble and reassemble their hair and bonnets. The patrons would then be given a souvenir containing all their biological data, while Galton would also keep a copy for future statistical research. Although the laboratory did not employ any revolutionary measurement techniques, it was unique because of the simple logistics of constructing such a demonstration within a limited space, and because of the speed and efficiency with which all the necessary data were gathered. The laboratory itself was a see-through (lattice-walled) fenced off gallery measuring 36 feet long by 6 feet long. To collect data efficiently, Galton had to make the process as simple as possible for people to understand. As a result, subjects were taken through the laboratory in pairs so that explanations could be given to two at a time, also in the hope that one of the two would confidently take the initiative to go through all the tests first, encouraging the other.With this design, the total time spent in the exhibit was fourteen minutes for each pair. <mask> states that the measurements


texts:
 of human characteristics are useful for two reasons. First, he states that measuring physical characteristics is useful in order to ensure, on a more domestic level, that children are developing properly. A useful example he gives for the practicality of these domestic measurements is regularly checking a child's eyesight, in order to correct any deficiencies early on. The second use for the data from his anthropometric laboratory is for statistical studies. He comments on the usefulness of the collected data to compare attributes across occupations, residences, races, etc. The exhibit at the health exhibition allowed <mask> to collect a large amount of raw data from which to conduct further comparative studies.He had 9,337 respondents, each measured in 17 categories, creating a rather comprehensive statistical database. After the conclusion of the International Health Exhibition, Galton used these data to confirm in humans his theory of linear regression, posed after studying sweet peas. The accumulation of this human data allowed him to observe the correlation between forearm length and height, head width and head breadth, and head length and height. With these observations he was able to write Co-relations and their Measurements, chiefly from Anthropometric Data. In this publication, <mask> defined what co-relation as a phenomenon that occurs when "the variation of the one [variable] is accompanied on the average by more or less variation of the other, and in the same direction." Innovations in statistics and psychological theory

Historiometry
The method used in Hereditary Genius has been described as the first example of historiometry. To bolster these results, and to attempt to make a


texts:
 distinction between 'nature' and 'nurture' (he was the first to apply this phrase to the topic), he devised a questionnaire that he sent out to 190 Fellows of the Royal Society.He tabulated characteristics of their families, such as birth order and the occupation and race of their parents. He attempted to discover whether their interest in science was 'innate' or due to the encouragements of others. The studies were published as a book, English men of science: their nature and nurture, in 1874. In the end, it promoted the nature versus nurture question, though it did not settle it, and provided some fascinating data on the sociology of scientists of the time. The lexical hypothesis
Sir <mask> was the first scientist to recognise what is now known as the lexical hypothesis. This is the idea that the most salient and socially relevant personality differences in people's lives will eventually become encoded into language. The hypothesis further suggests that by sampling language, it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits.The questionnaire
<mask>'s inquiries into the mind involved detailed recording of people's subjective accounts of whether and how their minds dealt with phenomena such as mental imagery. To better elicit this information, he pioneered the use of the questionnaire. In one study, he asked his fellow members of the Royal Society of London to describe mental images that they experienced. In another, he collected in-depth surveys from eminent scientists for a work examining the effects of nature and nurture on the propensity toward scientific thinking. Variance and standard deviation
Core to any statistical analysis is the concept that measurements

masks: Francis Galton


texts:
 vary: they have both a central tendency, or mean, and a spread around this central value, or variance. In the late 1860s, <mask> conceived of a measure to quantify normal variation: the standard deviation. <mask> was a keen observer.In 1906, visiting a livestock fair, he stumbled upon an intriguing contest. An ox was on display, and the villagers were invited to guess the animal's weight after it was slaughtered and dressed. Nearly 800 participated, and <mask> was able to study their individual entries after the event. Galton stated that "the middlemost estimate expresses the vox populi, every other estimate being condemned as too low or too high by a majority of the voters", and reported this value (the median, in terminology he himself had introduced, but chose not to use on this occasion) as 1,207 pounds. To his surprise, this was within 0.8% of the weight measured by the judges. Soon afterwards, in response to an enquiry, he reported the mean of the guesses as 1,197 pounds, but did not comment on its improved accuracy. Recent archival research has found some slips in transmitting Galton's calculations to the original article in Nature: the median was actually 1,208 pounds, and the dressed weight of the ox 1,197 pounds, so the mean estimate had zero error.James Surowiecki uses this weight-judging competition as his opening example: had he known the true result, his conclusion on the wisdom of the crowd would no doubt have been more strongly expressed. The same year, <mask> suggested in a letter to the journal Nature a better method of cutting a round cake by avoiding making radial incisions. Experimental derivation of the normal distribution

Studying variation, <mask> invented the Galton


texts:
 board, a pachinko-like device also known as the bean machine, as a tool for demonstrating the law of error and the normal distribution. Bivariate normal distribution
He also discovered the properties of the bivariate normal distribution and its relationship to correlation and regression analysis. Correlation and regression

In 1846, the French physicist Auguste Bravais (1811–1863) first developed what would become the correlation coefficient. After examining forearm and height measurements, <mask> independently rediscovered the concept of correlation in 1888 and demonstrated its application in the study of heredity, anthropology, and psychology. Galton's later statistical study of the probability of extinction of surnames led to the concept of Galton–Watson stochastic processes.<mask> invented the use of the regression line and for the choice of r (for reversion or regression) to represent the correlation coefficient. In the 1870s and 1880s he was a pioneer in the use of normal theory to fit histograms and ogives to actual tabulated data, much of which he collected himself: for instance large samples of sibling and parental height. Consideration of the results from these empirical studies led to his further insights into evolution, natural selection, and regression to the mean. Regression toward the mean
Galton was the first to describe and explain the common phenomenon of regression toward the mean, which he first observed in his experiments on the size of the seeds of successive generations of sweet peas. The conditions under which regression toward the mean occurs depend on the way the term is mathematically defined. Galton first observed the phenomenon in the context of simple linear


texts:
 regression of data points. Galton developed the following model: pellets fall through a quincunx or "bean machine" forming a normal distribution centered directly under their entrance point.These pellets could then be released down into a second gallery (corresponding to a second measurement occasion). Galton then asked the reverse question "from where did these pellets come?" Theories of perception
Galton went beyond measurement and summary to attempt to explain the phenomena he observed. Among such developments, he proposed an early theory of ranges of sound and hearing, and collected large quantities of anthropometric data from the public through his popular and long-running Anthropometric Laboratory, which he established in 1884, and where he studied over 9,000 people. It was not until 1985 that these data were analysed in their entirety. He made a beauty map of Britain, based on a secret grading of the local women on a scale from attractive to repulsive. The lowest point was in Aberdeen.Differential psychology

<mask>'s study of human abilities ultimately led to the foundation of differential psychology and the formulation of the first mental tests. He was interested in measuring humans in every way possible. This included measuring their ability to make sensory discrimination which he assumed was linked to intellectual prowess. Galton suggested that individual differences in general ability are reflected in performance on relatively simple sensory capacities and in speed of reaction to a stimulus, variables that could be objectively measured by tests of sensory discrimination and reaction
time. He also measured how quickly people reacted which he later linked to internal wiring which


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 ultimately limited intelligence ability. Throughout his research Galton assumed that people who reacted faster were more intelligent than others. Composite photography
Galton also devised a technique called "composite portraiture" (produced by superimposing multiple photographic portraits of individuals' faces registered on their eyes) to create an average face (see averageness).In the 1990s, a hundred years after his discovery, much psychological research has examined the attractiveness of these faces, an aspect that <mask> had remarked on in his original lecture. Others, including Sigmund Freud in his work on dreams, picked up <mask>'s suggestion that these composites might represent a useful metaphor for an Ideal type or a concept of a "natural kind" (see Eleanor Rosch)—such as Jewish men, criminals, patients with tuberculosis, etc.—onto the same photographic plate, thereby yielding a blended whole, or "composite", that he hoped could generalise the facial appearance of his subject into an "average" or "central type". (See also entry Modern physiognomy under Physiognomy). This work began in the 1880s while the Jewish scholar Joseph Jacobs studied anthropology and statistics with <mask>. Jacobs asked Galton to create a composite photograph of a Jewish type. One of Jacobs' first publications that used Galton's composite imagery was "The Jewish Type, and Galton's Composite Photographs," Photographic News, 29, (24 April 1885): 268–269. Galton hoped his technique would aid medical diagnosis, and even criminology through the identification of typical criminal faces.However, his technique did not prove useful and fell into disuse, although after much work on it including by photographers Lewis

masks:
Galton
Galton
Francis Galton


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 Hine and John L. Lovell and Arthur Batut. Fingerprints
In a Royal Institution paper in 1888 and three books (Finger Prints, 1892; Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints, 1893; and Fingerprint Directories, 1895), Galton estimated the probability of two persons having the same fingerprint and studied the heritability and racial differences in fingerprints. He wrote about the technique (inadvertently sparking a controversy between Herschel and Faulds that was to last until 1917), identifying common pattern in fingerprints and devising a classification system that survives to this day. The method of identifying criminals by their fingerprints had been introduced in the 1860s by Sir William James Herschel in India, and their potential use in forensic work was first proposed by Dr Henry Faulds in 1880. Galton was introduced to the field by his half-cousin Charles Darwin, who was a friend of Faulds's, and he went on to create the first scientific footing for the study (which assisted its acceptance by the courts) although Galton did not ever give credit that the original idea was not his. Galton pointed out that there were specific types of fingerprint patterns. He described and classified them into eight broad categories: 1: plain arch, 2: tented arch, 3: simple loop, 4: central pocket loop, 5: double loop, 6: lateral pocket loop, 7: plain whorl, and 8: accidental.Final years

In an effort to reach a wider audience, <mask> worked on a novel entitled Kantsaywhere from May until December 1910. The novel described a utopia organised by a eugenic religion, designed to breed fitter and smarter humans. His unpublished notebooks show that this was an expansion of material he had been composing since at


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 least 1901. He offered it to Methuen for publication, but they showed little enthusiasm. <mask> wrote to his niece that it should be either "smothered or superseded". His niece appears to have burnt most of the novel, offended by the love scenes, but large fragments survived, and it was published online by University College, London. Galton is buried in the family tomb in the churchyard of St Michael and All Angels, in the village of Claverdon, Warwickshire.Personal life and character
In January 1853, <mask> met Louisa Jane Butler (1822–1897) at his neighbour's home and they were married on 1 August 1853. The union of 43 years proved childless. It has been written of Galton that "On his own estimation he was a supremely intelligent man." Later in life, Galton proposed a connection between genius and insanity based on his own experience:

Awards and influence
Over the course of his career Galton received many awards, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society (1910). He received in 1853 the Founder's Medal, the highest award of the Royal Geographical Society, for his explorations and map-making of southwest Africa. He was elected a member of the Athenaeum Club in 1855 and made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1860. His autobiography also lists:

 Silver Medal, French Geographical Society (1854)
 Gold Medal of the Royal Society (1886)
 Officier de l'Instruction Publique, France (1891)
 D.C.L.Oxford (1894)
 Sc.D. (Honorary), Cambridge (1895)
 Huxley Medal, Anthropological Institute (1901)
 Elected Hon. Fellow Trinity College, Cambridge (1902)
 Darwin Medal, Royal Society (1902)
 Linnean Society of London's Darwin–Wallace Medal (1908)

<mask> was knighted in 1909. His statistical heir Karl


texts:
 Pearson, first holder of the Galton Chair of Eugenics at University College, London (now Galton Chair of Genetics), wrote a three-volume biography of <mask>, in four parts, after his death. The flowering plant genus Galtonia was named after Galton. University College London has in the twenty-first century been involved in a historical inquiry into its role as the institutional birthplace of eugenics. Galton established a laboratory at UCL in 1904.Some students and staff have called on the university to rename its Galton lecture theatre. "Galton's seductive promise was of a bold new world filled only with beautiful, intelligent, productive people. The scientists in its thrall claimed this could be achieved by controlling reproduction, policing borders to prevent certain types of immigrants, and locking away "undesirables", including disabled people." Published works

See also
 A Large Attendance in the Antechamber, a play about Galton
 Darwin–Wedgwood family
 Efficacy of prayer
 Eugenics in the United States
 Historiometry
 Racial hygiene
 British people

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

 <mask>'s Complete Works at Galton.org (including all his published books, all his published scientific papers, and popular periodical and newspaper writing, as well as other previously unpublished work and biographical material). Biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
 History and Mathematics
 Human Memory – University of Amsterdam website with test based on the work of Galton
  from Index Funds Advisors IFA.com
Catalogue of the Galton papers held at UCL Archives
Galton's novel Kantsaywhere

, demonstrated by


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 Alex Bellos

1822 births
1911 deaths
19th-century English people
Alumni of King's College London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Anthropometry
Biopolitics
Critics of Lamarckism
Darwin–Wedgwood family
English anthropologists
English eugenicists
English explorers
English geographers
English inventors
English meteorologists
English statisticians
Evolutionary biologists
British explorers of Africa
Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Presidents of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Freemasons of the United Grand Lodge of England
Independent scientists
Intelligence researchers
Knights Bachelor
People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham
People from Birmingham, West Midlands
Probability theorists
Psychometricians
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Royal Medal


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<mask> (May 16, 1870–September 11, 1940) was a former alcoholic who founded and directed the Grand Rapids, Michigan City Rescue Mission for more than forty years and became a leader in American fundamentalism during the first four decades of the twentieth century. Early life
<mask> was one of seven children born in Orangeville, Illinois to a bartender who drank "as much as he served." In 1887, the family moved to Freeport, Illinois where Trotter became a barber and was shortly thereafter gambling and drinking heavily. Four years later in Pearl City, Iowa, Trotter married Lottie Fisher, who was horrified to discover that her husband was an alcoholic. Trotter later said, "I loathed the life I was living. I tried my level best, but it wasn’t in me." Trotter lost his job in Pearl City, and he and his wife moved to a more rural area in an attempt to help him stay sober.He lost another job and they both moved to Davenport, Iowa, where <mask> tried his hand at selling insurance, a job he lost the day after his son was born. Trotter began leaving home for weeks at a time, and when he returned after one period of drunkenness, he discovered his two-year-old dead. Believing that he bore the responsibility for the child's death, he considered suicide. He stood beside the coffin and swore that he would never touch liquor again. Two hours later he was staggering drunk. Hopping a train, he landed in Chicago in January 1897 where he sold his shoes to buy another drink. Drunk, broke, and shoeless in the snow, Trotter was nudged inside the Pacific Garden Mission, where he was converted after hearing the testimony of its director, Harry Monroe.Trotter got a barbering job and

masks:
Melvin Ernest Trotter
Mel Trotter
Mel


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 spent every night at the mission. He could play the guitar and sing, and he and Monroe represented the Mission at its supporting churches. Ministry
In 1900, Grand Rapids businessmen decided to establish a rescue mission in the city's ramshackle red-light district, and Monroe suggested <mask>—who had never even led a mission meeting—as the director. Conversions occurred at the mission almost immediately when it opened under Trotter's direction, and Trotter found he could preach and also manage the toughs who tried to disrupt the proceedings. On one occasion he had the crowd sing “More About Jesus” while he tossed the hooligans into the street. Trotter won Herb Sillaway, another drunken barber, to Christ, and Sillaway then got drunk six times in four weeks and tried to drown himself. Trotter found him in jail in wet clothes and said nothing, just stood in front of him and wept.Sillaway said, "My God, man, I believe you love me." Trotter replied, "Yes, Herb, I love you like I love my own soul." Sillaway eventually became Trotter's assistant. In 1905, Trotter was ordained by the Presbyterian Church, although even the ordination committee admitted that the ordination (and to some degree, Trotter's theology) was unorthodox. Within a few years, Trotter had the largest rescue mission in the United States, and in 1906, the organization purchased the local burlesque house in order to provide more space for its varied ministries. The Mission Sunday School soon had an attendance of three to five hundred children, who were often fed and clothed as well as evangelized. By 1913, the mission held twenty-three meetings a week, and the building was in constant use


texts:
 twenty-four hours a day providing food, clothing, and lodging.Trotter had prison services, Bible classes and street meetings. His wife began the Martha Mission to teach women how to sew. Trotter proved remarkably tactful to those who visited the mission, but he was a strong leader with a keen business sense and was adept at raising the necessary funds to keep the Mission doors open. Trotter also helped found dozens of rescue missions around the country, many which were headed by people whom he had trained and inspired. He was a founder of the Brotherhood of Rescue Mission Superintendents, which always held its annual meetings in January in Grand Rapids. During World War I, Trotter and his musician friend, Homer Hammontree, entertained soldiers in American training camps for the YMCA with music proceeding Trotter's preaching. (The YMCA was required to amuse as well as minister to the soldiers, so Trotter eventually traveled with a quartet to fulfill the "entertainment" clause rather than be sandwiched between prize fights and movies.)Hammontree estimated that at the close of the war, sixteen thousand soldiers “had come out for the Lord.”

During this second decade of the twentieth century, Trotter was stricken with cancer and his wife left him. Trotter once again considered suicide. By this time Trotter had become a popular Bible conference speaker, especially at Northfield Bible Conference and the Winona Lake Bible Conference, and by 1924, he was so well known that he finished out a Billy Sunday campaign in Memphis, Tennessee. Like Sunday, Trotter became an itinerant evangelist and had wooden tabernacles built for his campaigns. Also like Sunday, he used


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 colloquial speech in his sermons. ("Lots of people go bugs on religion, but nobody ever went crazy on Christianity.") In 1935, Bob Jones College conferred an honorary doctorate on him.In 1937, he appeared with Harry A. Ironside in England. In 1939, <mask> suffered a severe heart attack in Kannapolis, North Carolina, and died at his summer cottage near Holland, Michigan in 1940. Ironside was the presiding minister at his funeral. He was buried at the Graceland Mausoleum in Grand Rapids. His papers are at the Billy Graham Center, Wheaton College. At his funeral in 1940, many of <mask>'s friends described what made him a unique personality. One recalled that he would pray with an alcoholic, "then stand him on his feet and say, 'Now go home and get the wife and kiddies and come down to the Mission tonight.'Then as they parted, he would slip a dollar bill or a silver dollar in the poor drunkard's hand. I heard one of those men say, as he stood outside the Mission door, after such a parting, 'I will die before I spend this dollar for booze.'" The mission he founded, Mel Trotter Ministries, is still operating today. References

Bibliography

Leona Hertel, Man with a Mission:  <mask> and His Legacy for the Rescue Mission Movement (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2000). <mask><mask>, These Forty Years (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1939). Fred C. Zarfas, <mask>: A Biography (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1950). Short biography at MelTrotter.org

People from Stephenson County, Illinois
1870 births
1940 deaths
People from Grand Rapids, Michigan
Christian fundamentalists
American Presbyterian ministers
American evangelists
Wheaton

masks:
Trotter
Trotter
Mel Trotter
Melvin E
. Trotter
Mel Trotter


texts: <mask> (April 10, 1979 – March 16, 2003) was an American activist and diarist. A member of the pro-Palestinian group International Solidarity Movement (ISM), she was crushed to death by an Israel Defense Forces (IDF) armored bulldozer in a southern Gaza Strip combat zone during the height of the second Palestinian intifada under contested circumstances. She had gone to Gaza as part of her college senior-year independent-study proposal to connect her home town and Rafah as sister cities. While there, she had joined other ISM activists in efforts to prevent the Israeli army's demolition of Palestinian houses. According to the Israeli authorities the demolitions were carried out to eliminate weapons-smuggling tunnels. According to human rights groups the demolitions were used as collective punishment. The exact nature of her death and the culpability of the bulldozer operator are disputed, with fellow ISM protestors saying that the Israeli soldier operating the bulldozer deliberately ran over Corrie, and Israeli eyewitnesses saying that it was an accident since the bulldozer operator could not see her.The Israeli army conducted an investigation, which concluded that the death was an accident, and that the driver of the bulldozer could not see <mask> due to limited visibility from his cab. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch  as well as B'Tselem and Yesh Din criticized the military investigation. In 2005, <mask>'s parents filed a civil lawsuit against the state of Israel. The lawsuit charged Israel with not conducting a full and credible investigation into the case and with responsibility for her death, contending that she had either been

masks:
Rachel Aliene Corrie
Corrie
Corrie


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 intentionally killed or that the soldiers had acted with reckless neglect. They sued for a symbolic one US dollar in damages. An Israeli court rejected their suit in August 2012 and upheld the results of the 2003 military investigation, ruling that the Israeli government was not responsible for <mask>'s death. The ruling was met with criticism by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,  and by activists.An appeal against this ruling was heard on May 21, 2014. On February 14, 2015, the Supreme Court of Israel rejected the appeal. Early life
<mask> was born on April 10, 1979, and raised in Olympia, Washington, United States. She was the youngest of three children of <mask>, an insurance executive, and <mask>. Cindy describes their family as "average Americans—politically liberal, economically conservative, middle class". After graduating from Capital High School, <mask> went on to attend The Evergreen State College, also in Olympia, where she took a number of arts courses. She took a year off from her studies to work as a volunteer in the Washington State Conservation Corps.According to the ISM, she spent three years making weekly visits to mental patients. While at Evergreen State College she became a "committed peace activist" arranging peace events through a local pro-ISM group called "Olympians for Peace and Solidarity". She later joined the International Solidarity Movement (ISM) organisation in order to protest the policies of the Israeli army in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In her senior year, she "proposed an independent-study program in which she would travel to Gaza, join the ISM team, and initiate a

masks:
Corrie
Corrie
Craig Corrie
Cindy Corrie
Corrie


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 'sister city' project between Olympia and Rafah". Before leaving, she also organized a pen-pal program between children in Olympia and Rafah. Activities in the Palestinian territories

While in Rafah, <mask> stood in front of armored bulldozers, in an alleged attempt to impede house demolitions which were being carried out. Demolitions were a common tactic employed along the security road near the border between Israel and Egypt at Rafah to uncover explosive devices and destroy tunnels used by terrorists to smuggle weapons from Egypt to Gaza.These military operations were criticized as "collective punishment" by some human rights groups. Israel authorities said that demolitions were necessary because "Palestinian gunmen used the structures as cover to shoot at their troops patrolling in the area, or to conceal arms-smuggling tunnels under the Gaza-Egypt border." <mask> was a member of a group of about eight activists from outside of the Palestinian territories who tried to prevent the Israeli army's activities by acting as human shields. On <mask>'s first night there, she and two other ISM members set up camp inside Block J, which the ISM described as "a densely populated neighborhood along the Pink Line and frequent target of gunfire from an Israeli watchtower". By situating themselves visibly between the Palestinians and the Israeli snipers manning the watchtowers they hoped to discourage shooting by displaying banners stating that they were "internationals". When Israeli soldiers fired warning shots, <mask> and her colleagues dismantled their tent and left the area. Qishta, a Palestinian who worked as an interpreter, noted: "Late January and

masks: Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie


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 February was a very crazy time.There were house demolitions taking place all over the border strip and the activists had no time to do anything else." Qishta also stated of the ISM activists: "They were not only brave; they were crazy." The safety of the protestors was frequently jeopardized by these confrontations— a British participant was wounded by shrapnel while retrieving the body of a Palestinian man killed by a sniper, and an Irish ISM activist had a close encounter with an armored bulldozer. Palestinian militants expressed concern that the "internationals" staying in tents between the Israeli watchtowers and the residential neighborhoods would get caught in crossfire, while other residents were concerned that the activists might be spies. To overcome this suspicion <mask> learned a few words of Arabic and participated in a mock trial denouncing the "crimes of the Bush Administration". While the ISM members were eventually provided with food and housing, a letter was circulated in Rafah that cast suspicion on them. "Who are they?Why are they here? Who asked them to come here?" On the morning of <mask>'s death they planned to counteract the letter's effects. According to one of them, "We all had a feeling that our role was too passive. We talked about how to engage the Israeli military." Water well protecting efforts
According to a January 2003 article by Gordon Murray, a fellow ISM activist, in the last month of her life <mask> "spent a lot of time at the Canada Well helping protect Rafah municipal workers" who were trying to repair damage to the well done by Israeli bulldozers. Canada Well was built in 1999 with CIDA funding.It, along with El

masks: Corrie Corrie Corrie


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 Iskan Well, had supplied more than 50% of Rafah's water before the damage. The city had been under "strict rationing (only a few hours of running water on alternate days)" since. Murray writes that ISM activists were maintaining a presence there since "Israeli snipers and tanks routinely shot at civilian workers trying to repair the wells." In one of her reports, <mask> wrote that despite her group's having received permission from the Israeli District Command Office and the fact that they were carrying "banners and megaphones the activists and workers were fired upon several times over a period of about one hour. One of the bullets came within two metres of three internationals and a municipal water worker close enough to spray bits of debris in their faces as it landed at their feet." Controversy over protest against the Iraq War
While in Gaza, <mask> took part in a demonstration as part of the February 15, 2003 anti-war protest against the invasion of Iraq. She was photographed burning a makeshift U.S. flag.After her death the ISM released a statement quoting <mask>'s parents on the widely circulated picture of the incident:

In the words of <mask>'s parents: "The act, while we may disagree with it, must be put into context. <mask> was partaking in a demonstration in Gaza opposing the War on Iraq. She was working with children who drew two pictures, one of the American flag, and one of the Israeli flag, for burning. <mask> said that she could not bring herself to burn the picture of the Israeli flag with the Star of David on it, but under such circumstances, in protest over a drive towards war and her government's foreign policy that was responsible

masks: Corrie Corrie Corrie Rachel Rachel Rachel


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 for much of the devastation that she was witness to in Gaza, she felt it OK to burn the picture of her own flag. We have seen photographs of memorials held in Gaza after <mask>'s death in which Palestinian children and adults honor our daughter by carrying a mock coffin draped with the American flag. We have been told that our flag has never been treated so respectfully in Gaza in recent years. We believe <mask> brought a different face of the United States to the Palestinian people, a face of compassion.It is this image of <mask> with the American flag that we hope will be remembered most. <mask>'s emails from Gaza to her mother
<mask> sent a series of emails to her mother while she was in Gaza, four of which were later published by The Guardian. In January 2008, Norton published a book titled Let Me Stand Alone by <mask>, which included the e-mails along with some of her other writings. Yale Professor David Bromwich said that <mask> left "letters of great interest". The play My Name is <mask> and the cantata The Skies are Weeping were based on <mask>'s letters. Death and subsequent controversy

On March 16, 2003, the IDF was engaged in an operation involving the demolition of Palestinian houses in Rafah. <mask> was part of a group of three British and four American ISM activists attempting to disrupt the IDF operation.<mask> placed herself in the path of a Caterpillar D9R armored bulldozer in the area and was run over by the bulldozer and fatally injured. After she was injured she was taken by a Red Crescent ambulance to the Palestinian Najar hospital, arriving at the emergency room at 5:05 pm, still alive but in critical condition. At 5:20 pm she

masks:
Rachel
Rachel
Rachel
Corrie
Rachel Corrie
Corrie
Corrie
Rachel Corrie
Corrie
Corrie
Corrie


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 was declared dead. The events surrounding <mask>'s death are disputed. Fellow ISM activists said that the soldier operating the bulldozer deliberately ran <mask> over while she was acting as a human shield to prevent the demolition of the home of local pharmacist Samir Nasrallah. They said she was between the bulldozer and a wall near Nasrallah's home, in which ISM activists had spent the night several times. Israeli eyewitnesses maintain that the death was accidental because the bulldozer operator was unable to see <mask> due to the vehicle's obstructed view.Furthermore, Israeli witnesses maintain that <mask> was not defending a house from being demolished and was instead inhibiting a military operation to find contraband weapons and smuggling tunnels in Gaza. An IDF officer testified in court that on that day they were only clearing vegetation and rubble from houses that were previously demolished, and that no new houses were slated for demolition. The major points of dispute are whether the bulldozer operator saw <mask> and whether her injuries were caused by being crushed under the blade or by the mound of debris the bulldozer was pushing. An IDF spokesman has acknowledged that Israeli army regulations normally require that the operators of the armored personnel carriers (APCs) that accompany bulldozers are responsible for directing the operators towards their targets because the Caterpillar D9 bulldozers have a restricted field of vision with several blind spots. ISM accounts
ISM activist Richard Purssell testified, "[t]hey began demolishing one house. We gathered around and called out to them and went into the house, so they backed out. During

masks: Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie


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 the entire time they knew who we were and what we were doing, because they didn't shoot at us.We stood in their way and shouted. There were about eight of us in an area about 70 square meters. Suddenly, we saw they turned to a house they had started to demolish before, and I saw <mask> standing in the way of the front bulldozer." Human-rights activists and Palestinians say that the demolitions had also been accompanied by gunfire from Israeli snipers. The director of Rafah's hospital, Dr. Ali Moussa said that 240 Palestinians, including 78 children, had been killed since the Al-Aqsa Intifada began in 2001: "Every night there is shooting at houses in which children are sleeping, without any attacks from Palestinians." The United Nations said that 582 Rafah homes were demolished and 721 damaged, with 5,305 people made homeless. An ISM activist using the name "Richard", saying he had witnessed <mask>'s death, told Haaretz:

There's no way he didn't see her, since she was practically looking into the cabin.At one stage, he turned around toward the building. The bulldozer kept moving, and she slipped and fell off the plow. But the bulldozer kept moving, the shovel above her. I guess it was about 10 or 15 meters that it dragged her and for some reason didn't stop. We shouted like crazy to the operator through loudspeakers that he should stop, but he just kept going and didn't lift the shovel. Then it stopped and backed up. We ran to <mask>.She was still breathing. Eyewitness and ISM member Tom Dale, commenting on the 2012 verdict said: "Whatever one thinks about the visibility from a D9 bulldozer, it is inconceivable that at some point the driver did not see

masks: Rachel Corrie Rachel


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 her, given the distance from which he approached, while she stood, unmoving, in front of it. As I told the court, just before she was crushed, <mask> briefly stood on top of the rolling mound of earth which had gathered in front of the bulldozer: her head was above the level of the blade, and just a few meters from the driver." Joe Carr, an American ISM activist who used the assumed name of Joseph Smith during his time in Gaza, gave the following account in an affidavit recorded and published by the Palestinian Centre for Human Rights (PCHR):

Still wearing her fluorescent jacket, she knelt down at least 15 meters in front of the bulldozer, and began waving her arms and shouting, just as activists had successfully done dozens of times that day.... When it got so close that it was moving the earth beneath her, she climbed onto the pile of rubble being pushed by the bulldozer.... Her head and upper torso were above the bulldozer's blade, and the bulldozer operator and co-operator could clearly see her. Despite this, the operator continued forward, which caused her to fall back, out of view of the driver.He continued forward, and she tried to scoot back, but was quickly pulled underneath the bulldozer. We ran towards him, and waved our arms and shouted; one activist with the megaphone. But the bulldozer operator continued forward, until <mask> was all the way underneath the central section of the bulldozer. On March 18, 2003, two days after <mask>'s death, Joe (Smith) Carr was interviewed by British Channel 4 and The Observer reporter Sandra Jordan for a documentary, The Killing Zone, which aired in June 2003. He stated, "It was either a really gross

masks: Rachel Corrie Corrie


texts:
 mistake or a really brutal murder." According to The Seattle Times, "Smith, who witnessed Sunday's incident, said it began when <mask> sat down in front of the bulldozer. He said the operator scooped her up with a pile of earth, dumped her on the ground and ran over her twice."However, "Smith" later acknowledged that after <mask> fell down the dirt pile, the bulldozer operator could well have lost sight of <mask>. Israeli accounts
The bulldozer operator was interviewed on Israeli TV and insisted he had no idea she was in front of him:
You can't hear, you can't see well. You can go over something and you'll never know. I scooped up some earth, I couldn't see anything. I pushed the earth, and I didn't see her at all. Maybe she was hiding in there. The IDF produced a video about <mask>'s death that includes footage taken from inside the cockpit of a D9.The video makes a "credible case", wrote Joshua Hammer in Mother Jones, that "the operators, peering out through narrow, double-glazed, bulletproof windows, their view obscured behind pistons and the giant scooper, might not have seen <mask> kneeling in front of them". In April 2011, during the trial of the civil suit brought by <mask>'s parents, an IDF officer testified that <mask> and other activists had spent hours trying to block the bulldozers under his command. He went on to say that it was a war zone "where Palestinian militants used abandoned homes as firing positions and exploited foreign activists for cover". He shouted over a megaphone for the activists to leave, tried to use tear gas to disperse them and moved his troops several times. "To my regret, after the eighth time, (<mask>) hid behind an

masks: Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie Corrie


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 earth embankment. The D9 operator didn't see her. She thought he saw her," he said.An infantry major later testified that the activists were endangering troops and had ignored numerous warnings to leave the area. The judge in the <mask> case asserted that between September 2000 and the date of <mask>'s death, Israeli forces in the area had been subjected to 1,400 attacks involving gunfire, 150 involving explosive devices, 200 involving anti-tank rockets, and 6,000 involving hand grenades or mortar fire. Autopsy
Prime Minister of Israel Ariel Sharon promised President Bush a "thorough, credible, and transparent investigation". Later, Capt. Jacob Dallal, a spokesman for the Israeli army, called <mask>'s death a "regrettable accident" and said that she and the other ISM activists were "a group of protesters who were acting very irresponsibly, putting everyone in danger—the Palestinians, themselves and our forces—by intentionally placing themselves in a combat zone". An autopsy was conducted on March 24 at the Abu Kabir Forensic Institute in Tel Aviv by Chief Pathologist Yehuda Hiss. The final report was not released publicly, but in their report on the matter Human Rights Watch says a copy was provided to them by <mask>, with a translation supplied by the U.S. Department of State.In the report they quote Hiss as concluding, "Her death was caused by pressure on the chest (mechanical asphyxiation) with fractures of the ribs and vertebrae of the dorsal spinal column and scapulas, and tear wounds in the right lung with hemorrhaging of the pleural cavities." Military investigation
The Israeli army's report [seen by The Guardian], said:

On June 26, 2003, The

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 Jerusalem Post quoted an Israeli military spokesman as saying that <mask> had not been run over and that the operator had not seen her:
The driver at no point saw or heard <mask>. She was standing behind debris which obstructed the view of the driver and the driver had a very limited field of vision due to the protective cage he was working in.... The driver and his commanders were interrogated extensively over a long period of time with the use of polygraph tests and video evidence. They had no knowledge that she was standing in the path of the tractor. An autopsy of <mask>'s body revealed that the cause of death was from falling debris and not from the tractor physically rolling over her. It was a tragic accident that never should have happened.The classified IDF report made no mention of the pathologist's conclusion. Howard Blume told that IDF stated:

[a bulldozer with 2 crews] was engaged in "routine terrain leveling and debris clearing", not building demolition. Quoting from the IDF report, <mask> died "as a result of injuries sustained when earth and debris accidentally fell on her.... Ms. <mask> was not run over by the bulldozer," he added, IDF also claimed she was possibly "in a blindspot for the bulldozer operators and "behind an earth mound", so they did not see that she was in harm's way. In later IDF operations, the house was damaged (a hole was knocked in a wall) and was later destroyed. By that time, the Nasrallah family had moved into a different house. It was reported in 2006 that the house that <mask> was trying to protect was rebuilt with funds raised by The Rebuilding Alliance. A spokesman for the IDF told the Guardian that, while

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 it did not accept responsibility for <mask>'s death, it intended to change its operational procedures to avoid similar incidents in the future.The level of command of similar operations would be raised, said the spokesman, and civilians in the area would be dispersed or arrested before operations began. Observers will be deployed and CCTV cameras will be installed on the bulldozers to compensate for blind spots, which may have contributed to <mask>'s death. The IDF gave copies of the report, titled "The Death of <mask>", to members of the U.S. Congress in April 2003, and <mask>'s family released the document to the media in June 2003, according to the Gannett News Service. In March 2004 the family said that the entire report had not been released, and that only they and two American staffers at the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv had been allowed to view it. The family said they were allowed to look at the report in the Consulate General of Israel to the Pacific Northwest in San Francisco. The ISM rejected the Israeli report, stating that it contradicted their members' eyewitness reports and that the investigation had not been credible and transparent. Reactions

<mask>'s death sparked controversy and led to international media coverage.<mask>'s parents reaction
<mask>'s father, <mask> has said "I know there's stuff you can't see out of the double glass windows." But he has denied that as a valid excuse, saying "you're responsible for knowing what's in front of your blade... It's a no brainer that this was gross negligence". He added that "they had three months to figure out how to deal with the activists that were there." Political reactions
In March 2003,

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 U.S. Representative Brian Baird introduced a resolution in the U.S. Congress calling on the U.S. government to "undertake a full, fair, and expeditious investigation" into <mask>'s death. The House of Representatives took no action on the resolution. The <mask> family joined Representative Baird in calling for a U.S. investigation.Yasser Arafat, the first President of the Palestinian Authority, offered his condolences and gave the "blessings of the Palestinian people" to <mask>, promising to name a street in Gaza after her. According to <mask>, Arafat told <mask> that <mask> "is your daughter but she is also the daughter of all Palestinians. She is ours too now." On March 21, 2003, the U.S. Green Party called for an investigation of the "murder of American Peace Activist <mask> by Israeli Forces". In August 2012, U.S. Ambassador to Israel Dan Shapiro stated that the Israeli investigation was not satisfactory, and was not as thorough, credible or transparent as it should have been. Shapiro said further that the government of the United States is unsatisfied with the IDF's closure of its official investigation into <mask>'s death.Human rights organizations
Amnesty International called for an independent inquiry, with Christine Bustany, their advocacy director for the Middle East, saying, "U.S.-made bulldozers have been 'weaponized' and their transfer to Israel must be suspended." In 2005, Human Rights Watch published a report raising questions about the impartiality and professionalism of the IDF investigation. Some of the problems that the report mentioned were the investigators' lack of preparation, the "hostile," "inappropriate," and "mostly

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 accusatory" questions they asked witnesses, the failure to ask witnesses to draw maps or to identify locations of events on maps, and their lack of interest in reconciling soldiers' testimonies with those of other eyewitnesses. NGO Monitor, an Israeli group, strongly criticized other NGOs and said the verdict reflects all of the facts and circumstances surrounding the incident. Its president, Gerald Steinberg said, "<mask>'s death was entirely unnecessary, and the leaders of the ISM bear much culpability for her death." Shurat HaDin, an organization representing Israeli victims of terrorism, said that the <mask> Family should sue the Palestinian Authority and ISM over their daughter's death. A Catholic Worker house was named in her honor in Des Moines, Iowa.Media

The Observer suggested that because <mask> was American her death attracted more attention than the deaths of Palestinians under similar circumstances: "On the night of <mask>'s death, nine Palestinians were killed in the Gaza Strip, among them a four-year-old girl and a man aged 90. A total of 220 people have died in Rafah since the beginning of the intifada. Palestinians know the death of one American receives more attention than the killing of hundreds of Muslims." In 2006, Haaretz political columnist Bradley Burston said that <mask>'s death was accidental but that "incidental killing is no less tragic than intentional killing"; Burston criticized both the pro-Palestinian and pro-Israeli sides for their excessive rhetoric:

Of all of the tragedies and casualties of the intifada, in which more than 4,000 people were killed over five years, the case of <mask> still stands apart, the subject

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 of intense world interest and fierce debate.... Part of it starts with us. "They had no business being there" is no excuse for what the Pentagon long ago christened collateral damage. We've learned much. But we're still not there.We should have saved <mask>'s life that day, either by sending out a spotter or delaying the bulldozer's work. Right now, somewhere in the West Bank, there's an eight-year-old whose life could be saved next week, if we've managed to learn the lesson and are resourceful enough to know how to apply it. American journalist Charlie Wolf referred to <mask> as "scum" on his show on British radio station talkSPORT. Media regulator Ofcom ruled that this  "seriously ill-judged" remark was in breach of the "Generally Accepted Standards" of Broadcasting. Criticism of <mask>'s actions
Tom Gross, in an article called "The Forgotten Rachels", discusses six other women named <mask> who were Jewish victims of Palestinian terrorism in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Their deaths, he wrote, received little if any coverage outside Israel. Gross went on to argue that "partly because of the efforts of <mask>'s fellow activists in the ISM, the Israeli army was unable to stop the flow of weapons through the tunnels.... Those weapons were later used to kill Israeli children ... in southern Israel".The article prompted a National Review editorial arguing "<mask>'s death was unfortunate, but more unfortunate is a Western media and cultural establishment that lionizes 'martyrs' for illiberal causes while ignoring the victims those causes create." Explaining the Israeli court's ruling, judge Oded Gershon said <mask>'s death was "the result of an accident she

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 brought upon herself." <mask> was in a closed military area, with entry forbidden to civilians. The area was the site of daily gunfire by snipers, missile fire and IED explosions. The United States government had issued a travel warning against American citizens visiting the Gaza Strip. "She did not distance herself from the area, as any thinking person would have done," the judge ruled. Role of the International Solidarity Movement
George Rishmawi, director of the Palestinian Center for Rapprochement between Peoples, told the San Francisco Chronicle that the ISM's main purpose is to "increase international awareness of Palestinian suffering through the involvement of foreign activists".He stated: "When Palestinians get shot by Israeli soldiers, no one is interested anymore ... [b]ut if some of these foreign volunteers get shot or even killed, then the international media will sit up and take notice." Joseph Smith (aka Joseph Carr) stated that "'We knew there was a risk ... but we also knew it never happened in the two years that we (the ISM) have been working here. I knew we take lots of precautions so that it doesn't happen, that if it did happen it would have to be an intentional act by a soldier, in which case it would bring a lot of publicity and significance to the cause.'" Activities of <mask>'s parents

Since their daughter's death, <mask>'s parents, Cindy and Craig, have spent time trying to "promote peace and raise awareness about the plight of Palestinians", and continue what they believe to be her work. The Corries have worked to set up the "Rachel Corrie Foundation for Peace and Justice" and launched projects in memory of their daughter.


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 They have also advanced investigation into the incident and asked the U.S. Congress and various courts for redress. <mask>'s parents have visited the region several times since their daughter's death and have twice visited Gaza.Following their daughter's death, they visited Gaza and Israel, seeing the place where she died, and meeting ISM members and Palestinians whom she had known. They also visited Ramallah in the West Bank, where Arafat met them and presented them with a plaque in memory of their daughter. On March 28, 2008, they addressed a demonstration in Ramallah at which <mask> said: "This village has become a symbol of nonviolent resistance. I call for solidarity with the people of Palestine in resisting the conditions imposed by the Israeli occupation to prevent the establishment of their state." The Nasrallahs, whose home <mask> allegedly believed she was preventing from destruction, toured with the Corries across the United States in June 2005. The aim of the trip was, with the cooperation of the Rebuilding Alliance, to raise funds to rebuild the Nasrallah home and other homes destroyed in Rafah. In January 2011, <mask>'s parents visited the MV Mavi Marmara in Turkey, together with the head of the IHH Bülent Yıldırım.<mask> called dead Mavi Marmara activists "martyrs" and compared them to her daughter. Subsequent events

Lawsuits

In the United States
<mask>'s family and several Palestinians filed a federal lawsuit against Caterpillar Inc. in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington alleging liability for <mask>'s death. The suit alleged Caterpillar supplied the bulldozers to the Israelis despite having notice

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 they would be used to further "a policy plaintiffs contend violates international law". The case was dismissed by a Federal judge in November 2005 for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, citing, among other things, the political question doctrine. The judge found, alternatively, that the plaintiffs' claims failed on the merits. The <mask> family appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. In September 2007 the Ninth Circuit affirmed the dismissal on the political question grounds and thus did not rule on the merits of the suit.The Court found that as the bulldozers were paid for by the U.S. Government as part of its aid to Israel, the Judicial Branch could not rule on the merits of the case without ruling on whether or not the government's financing of such bulldozers was appropriate and that this was a matter not entrusted to the Judicial Branch. In Israel
In 2010, <mask>'s parents, represented by Attorney Hussein Abu Hussein, filed a lawsuit against the Israel Defense Forces and the Israeli Defense Ministry in the Haifa District Court, seeking US$324,000 in compensation. The case began in Haifa on March 10, 2010. Judge Oded Gershon presided over the case. On October 21, 2010, the bulldozer driver who had run over <mask> testified for four hours, and was cross-examined by the Corries' attorney. At the request of state prosecutors, who argued that his life could be imperiled if he was publicly identified, the driver was hidden behind a screen and visible to only the judge and attorneys. A request by the <mask> family that they also be allowed to see the driver was turned down by the judge.The driver was identified only by his


texts: initials, "YB", and a gag order was imposed on identifying details, although it was disclosed in court that he was a 38-year old Russian immigrant who had arrived in Israel at age 23, and was working for a food processing company at the time. The driver denied having seen her before hitting her. In addition, four experts, including an expert on the behalf of the <mask> family testified during the trial, and concluded that the bulldozer driver could not see <mask>. Four ISM witnesses testified during the case. However, the Palestinian physician from Gaza who had examined <mask>'s wounds on the scene was unable to testify after Israel refused him an entry visa and rejected an application for him to testify by video link. The court ruled against <mask>'s family on August 28, 2012. In a 62-page verdict, Judge Oded Gershon ruled that <mask>'s death was an accident for which she was responsible, and absolved the IDF of any wrongdoing.The judge ruled that the bulldozer driver and his commander had a very limited field of vision and could not possibly have seen her. According to the judge "The mission of the IDF force on the day of the incident was solely to clear the ground.... The mission did not include, in any way, the demolition of homes." The court invoked the principle of the combatant activities exception, as the IDF was attacked in the same area where <mask> was killed a few hours earlier; that <mask> could have avoided the danger and that defendants were not at fault as there was neither intent nor negligence involved in her death. The judge said that the IDF did not violate <mask>'s right to life because Corrie had placed herself in a dangerous


texts: situation, that Israel's investigation was appropriate and did not contain mistakes, and also criticized the U.S. government for failing to send a diplomatic representative to observe <mask>'s autopsy. Gershon said: "I rule unequivocally that the claim that the deceased was intentionally hit by the bulldozer is totally baseless. This was an extremely unfortunate accident.I reached the conclusion that there was no negligence on the part of the bulldozer driver. I reject the suit. There is no justification to demand the state pay any damages. She [<mask>] did not distance herself from the area, as any thinking person would have done. She consciously put herself in harm's way." Furthermore, Gershon pointed to three different entry bans, and also pointed out that the Philadelphi route was effectively a war zone and was formally declared a closed military zone when <mask> died. Gershon also noted that the United States had issued an Israel travel advisory warning to avoid Gaza and the West Bank.In addition, Gershon said that the ISM "abuses the human rights discourse to blur its actions which are de facto violence" and specialized in disrupting IDF activity, which "included an army of activists serving as 'human shields' for terrorists wanted by Israeli security forces, financial and logistical aid to Palestinians including terrorists and their families, and disruption of the sealing of suicide bombers' houses". The <mask> family lawyer, Hussein Abu Hussein, said they were "now studying our options", in regards to a possible appeal. While rejecting the <mask> family's claims to damages, the judge also waived the <mask> family's court costs. Haifa District


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 Court spokeswoman Nitzan Eyal said that her family could appeal the ruling. The amount sought was a symbolic US$1 and legal costs. Her mother reacted to the verdict in saying: "I am hurt. We are, of course, deeply saddened and deeply troubled by what we heard today from Judge Oded Gershon."<mask>'s sister, <mask> Simpson, stated that she believed "without a doubt" that the driver had seen her as he approached, and stated that she hoped he would one day "have the courage" to tell the truth. The right wing political party Yisrael Beitenu issued a statement that called the verdict "vindication after vilification". Former UN Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian Territories Richard Falk said of the verdict that it was "a sad outcome, above all for the <mask> family that had initiated the case back in 2005, but also for the rule of law and the hope that an Israeli court would place limits on the violence of the state, particularly in relation to innocents and unarmed civilians in an occupied territory". Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter of the Carter Center said that the "court's decision confirms a climate of impunity, which facilitates Israeli human rights violations against Palestinian civilians in the Occupied Territory". The verdict of the Haifa District Court was appealed to the Supreme Court of Israel on May 21, 2014. The Supreme Court rejected the appeal and upheld the District Court's verdict regarding the circumstances of <mask>'s death, which cleared the IDF from wrongdoing. Memorial events

Immediately after her death, posters and graffiti praising <mask> were posted in Rafah, with one graffiti tag reading, "<mask> was an American

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 citizen with Palestinian blood."According to the ISM's official publications, the day after <mask> died, about thirty American and European ISM activists with 300 Palestinians began protests during the public memorial service over the spot where she was fatally injured in Rafah. Gordon Murray, an ISM activist who attended the memorial, states that the IDF sent a representative to the event who intimidated the mourners into dispersing, allegedly using non-lethal weapons. In 2008, <mask>'s parents commemorated the fifth anniversary of her death at an event held in the West Bank town of Nablus. About 150 Palestinians and foreigners joined them to dedicate a memorial to <mask> on one of the city's streets. In 2011, Iran named a street in Tehran after <mask>. Artistic tributes

In 2004, Alaska composer Philip Munger wrote a cantata about <mask> called The Skies are Weeping, which was scheduled to premiere on April 27 at the University of Alaska Anchorage, where Munger teaches. After objections to the upcoming performance were received, including from members of the Jewish community, a forum was held co-chaired by Munger and a local rabbi who claimed the work "romanticized terrorism".After the forum "disintegrate[d]", Munger announced, "I cannot subject 16 students ... to any possibility of physical harm or to the type of character assassination some of us are already undergoing. Performance of The Skies are Weeping at this time and place is withdrawn for the safety of the student performers." Munger later related that he had received threatening e-mails whose content he considered was "[just] short of what you'd take to the troopers", and that some of his


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 students had received similar communications. The cantata was eventually performed at the Hackney Empire theatre in London, premiering on November 1, 2005. In early 2005, My Name is <mask>, a play composed from <mask>'s journals and emails from Gaza and compiled by actor Alan Rickman and journalist Katharine Viner, in a production directed by Rickman, was presented in London and later revived in October 2005. The play was to be transferred to the New York Theatre Workshop, but when it was postponed indefinitely, the British producers denounced the decision as censorship and withdrew the show. It finally opened Off-Broadway on October 15, 2006, for an initial run of 48 performances.In the same year, My Name is <mask>rrie was shown at the Pleasance theatre as part of the Edinburgh (Fringe) Festival. The play has also been published as a paperback, and performed in ten countries, including Israel. Singer Billy Bragg recounted <mask>'s death in the song "The Lonesome Death of <mask>rrie", composed to the tune of Bob Dylan's "The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll". After being originally released as a free digital download, it was included on the album Fight Songs in 2011. Irish folk music/world music group Kíla included the instrumental "<mask> Corrie" on their 2015 album Suas Síos. In 2003, Pittsburgh singer Mike Stout wrote and composed a song about <mask>, which was included with other anti-war songs in his album "War and Resistance". Also in 2003, David Rovics wrote the song The Death of <mask>, included in the album "return".Documentaries
In 2003, British Channel 4 and The Observer reporter Sandra Jordan and producer Rodrigo Vasquez made a documentary

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 that was aired June 2003 on Channel 4 titled The Killing Zone, about ongoing violence in the Gaza Strip. Jordan said: "There has been a lot of interest in Britain and around the world about what happened to <mask>, I find it highly disappointing that no serious American investigative journalist has taken <mask>'s story seriously or questioned or challenged the Israeli Army version of events." In 2005, the BBC produced a 60 minute documentary titled When Killing is Easy aka Shooting the Messenger, Why are foreigners suddenly under fire in Israel?, described as "a meticulous examination of" the shooting to death of James Miller, who was shot while filming in an Israeli war zone in May 2003; the shooting of British photography student Thomas Hurndall in April 2003, and the death of <mask> in March 2003. The documentary claims that the attacks were not "random acts of violence", but rather "represent a culture of killing with impunity which is sanctioned by the higher echelons of the Israeli army." In 2005 Yahya Barakat, who lectures on TV production, cinematography, and filmmaking at al-Quds University, filmed a documentary in Arabic with English subtitles, named <mask> – An American Conscience. In 2009, a documentary film titled <mask> is produced by Morocco born, French-Israeli director Simone Bitton detailing the death of <mask> from "an Israeli point of view". Its first North American public screening was at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival.MV <mask>rrie

On March 30, 2010, an 1800-tonne vessel was bought at auction in Dundalk, Ireland, for €70,000 by the Free Gaza Movement. It was outfitted for use in a voyage to Gaza, named in honour of <mask> and

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