texts:
 Atlantic, and RCA/BMG. Songwriting
 Gary Allan: "Wake Up Screaming", "What's On My Mind", "We Touched the Sun"
 Mark Chesnutt: "Gonna Get a Life" (co-written with Frank Dycus) – hit No. II (1988) – "What Am I Waiting For"
Happy Birthday, Buck! A Texas Salute to Buck Owens (2002) – "Sweet Rosie Jones"
Touch My Heart: A Tribute to Johnny Paycheck (2005) – "I Want You To Know"
Born to the Breed: A Tribute to Judy Collins (2008) – "Easy Times"

Other activities
<mask> has hosted the Americana Music Awards since winning their first Artist of the Year and Song of the Year awards in 2002. He was a judge for the second, 10th and 11th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers. He is Honorary Chairperson for the Chris Austin Songwriting Contest each April at MerleFest in Wilkesboro, NC. He hosted "The <mask> Show" on WSM Radio.He hosts, along with Buddy Miller, "The Buddy & <mask> Show" on SiriusXM Outlaw Country. <mask> is also a frequent host and performer on "Music City Roots", a weekly Americana music show web-streamed live from The Factory at Franklin just outside Nashville. <mask>: The King of Broken Hearts
A documentary film called <mask>: The King of Broken Hearts, directed by Jeremy Dylan, was released in 2013. Using interviews with Elvis Costello, Buddy Miller, John Oates, Gary Allan, Tony Brown, and Jerry Douglas, the film describes <mask>'s successes and failures as a recording artist. References

External links

 <mask>: The King of Broken Hearts (documentary)
 <mask> Interview at Reviewgraveyard.com

1957 births
Living

masks:
Lauderdale
Jim Lauderdale
Jim
Lauderdale
Jim Lauderdale
Jim Lauderdale
Lauderdale
Jim Lauderdale
Jim Lauderdale


type: original

texts:
 people
Bluegrass musicians from North Carolina
American country singer-songwriters
American male singer-songwriters
Grammy Award winners
Singer-songwriters from North Carolina
People from Troutman, North Carolina
Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church
Country musicians from North Carolina
Yep Roc Records artists
Sugar Hill Records artists
Proper Records artists
Dualtone Records artists
New West Records


texts:
<mask>, usually known as W.A<mask> but also William A<mask>, <mask> or <mask> (17 July 1882 - 18 January 1953) was an artist and craftsman who reconstructed, from pieces thousands of years old, furniture found in the tomb of Queen Hetepheres near the Giza Pyramids. He was also an accomplished artist whose works were displayed at the Calton Gallery (Edinburgh, Scotland) in 1986, the Bradford Art Galleries (Cartwright Hall, Bradford, West Yorkshire, England) in 1989, and at the Royal Academy of Arts (London). He made great practical contributions to the light industries of Palestine before and during the Second World War. Early life and study

<mask> was born on July 17, 1882, in Ilkley, England the son of <mask> and Naamah (Arnold<mask>. One of 5 children (2 brothers and 2 sisters), he attended the local school, then Bradford Technical College, then the Royal College of Art where he studied under Augustus John. He worked in the design department of Listers at Manningham Mills.He was a founder of the Loft Arts Club in 1902, which changed its name in 1912 to the Bradford Arts Club, and which encouraged poetry, literature, music, life drawings and other arts. During this time he was introduced to several influential people including Arnold Priestman, Ernest Sichel, William Shackleton, William Rothenstein, Edward Wadsworth, and Father O'Connor (GK Chesterton's 'Father Brown'), and he became good friends with artist James Arundel. He met the Indian poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore and created a pastel portrait that was exhibited in 1909. Early in his life <mask> was a regular exhibitor of his pictorial photography. He was described by the British Journal of Photography in 1902 as 'amongst the best known exhibitors'. He exhibited

masks:
William Arnold Stewart
. Stewart
. Stewart
William Stewart
Will Stewart
Will Stewart
John Reich Stewart
) Stewart
Stewart


texts:
 widely in exhibitions in the United Kingdom including at the Photographic Salon and his work was published in Photographs of the Year in 1908 and 1909. Three examples of his work are in the Royal Photographic Society Collection including his photograph The Rose is Sweetness.His seems to have ceased exhibiting his photography around 1910, just before he moved to Egypt. Work in Egypt and Palestine

<mask> emigrated to the Middle East in 1911, to become an Inspector of Arts and Crafts in the Egyptian Ministry of Education. There he set up the Cairo School of Arts and Crafts, becoming its first principal. He was positively influenced by Arab, Turkish, Syrian and Byzantine art. Many students of the Cairo School of Arts and Crafts became accomplished artists. Some made fine jewelry to <mask>'s designs including copies of ornaments worn by the ancient Pharaohs. At the end of World War I, <mask> temporarily moved to Palestine to advise on the re-establishment of crafts and small industries damaged during the war.He worked with C.R. Ashbee, an architect and fine arts expert. Ashbee's wife Janet and 4 daughters, along with Janet's cousin Kathleen Beardshaw, moved from the UK to Palestine at this time. Will married Kathleen a year later in Cairo. In 1927 the tomb of Queen Hetapheres, the Mother of Cheops who built the Great Pyramid, was discovered at Giza. <mask> was recruited by Professor Reisner of the Boston-Harvard expedition to make a painting of the interior of the tomb before anything was touched. <mask> was then asked to reconstruct the furniture in the tomb that had disintegrated.This included the Queen's throne, bed, chair, footstool, and neck rest that had been covered in fine gold leaf. <mask> discovered that the furniture was

masks:
Will Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart


texts: constructed using mortise and tenon joints. After nearly three years of work (mostly in a tent in the Giza desert, with one assistant), the pieces were displayed at the Cairo Museum. The many sketches, papers and notes made by <mask> on this project were discovered in a shed in Perthshire when his eldest daughter died in 1981. These were given to the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. According to his daughter Anne, "The furniture in the tomb was all intricately carved, then overlaid with gold. The wood had gone to dust, leaving the gold leaf gently collapsed.So he had to create new woodwork (knowing the traditional shapes from pictures in other tombs), then creating a sort of porridge-like mixture to cover it and lay the gold leaf on it somehow to make it all stand up as in the original carving." After his work at the Cairo School of Arts and Crafts, in 1930 <mask> accepted a new post under the High Commissioner of Palestine as Supervisor of Technical Education. Along with his wife and 3 children he moved from Cairo to Jerusalem. The Governor of Sinai asked <mask> to take the journey via a new road that was just completed through the Sinai Desert and through Mitla Pass, and to write an article about the experience for the Egyptian press (The Sphynx magazine). His wife was the first woman to drive through Sinai. <mask> recognized the special crafts that were part of the Palestine agricultural economy, such as wool products, copper cooking pans, pottery, goat-hair ropes, and reed mats. He created courses for teachers to include weaving, pottery, drawing, and woodwork.He set up a costume museum for display of the fine traditional clothing, which was fast disappearing in favor of modern clothes. He encouraged the skills of traditional garment

masks:
Stewart
Will Stewart
Stewart
Will Stewart


texts:
 makers, which were declining. He befriended musicians and was largely responsible for the formation of the Palestine Conservatory of Music, for which he was named the first Chairman in 1933. The music students gave many concerts including performances at the Government House of the High Commissioner. <mask> was also involved with the reorganization of the Bezalel School of Art in Jerusalem. During WW2, government priorities changed and <mask> was Controller of Light Industries. This work was focused on ensuring that the country produced as many of its own essentials as possible.After the war, <mask> was deeply saddened by the Arab-Jewish rift because he knew that each community had skills and ideas that could interest and benefit the other. He hated to see his work in this field move backward. <mask> worked with town planner C.R. Ashbee on the restoration of Jerusalem after the war, in 1918. Painting
<mask> was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts in 1916. Works of <mask> including paintings and drawings of Egypt, Palestine, Jordan, France, Italy and Britain, were shown at the Edinburgh Festival 1986 at the Calton Gallery in Edinburgh. Among the works shown were "Boatman, Damietta, Cairo," 1927 oil on canvas; "Fountain Court, Jaffa," 1947 oil on canvas; and "Feast of the Nebi Musa (Shrine of Moses), Jerico," 1933 Gouache."Feast of the Nebi Musa" was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1938, No. 882. His works include scenes of life in Egypt, Palestine, and Jordan between 1914 and 1947, as well as paintings created during expeditions to Italy, Spain, Cyprus, England, Scotland, and France from 1907 until 1953. One of his paintings, "Men of the Trees in Palestine," was included in the "Palestine Poster Project Archives." In 1948,

masks:
Stewart
Will Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart
Stewart


texts:
 <mask> retired to High Wycombe where he concentrated on his painting. He renewed his association with the Bradford Arts Club and was an art critic for The Yorkshire Herald. He had started to exhibit at Bradford's Cartwright Hall as early as 1906, both with the Arts Club and in his own right in The Bradford Spring Exhibition, a selected annual exhibition which showed the best of mainstream contemporary art.The titles of his pictures chart his move from typical Yorkshire subjects to the people and architecture of Palestine, along with the high-keyed oils and watercolors of his European trips. He effortlessly moved from portraiture to landscape, still life, and townscapes. <mask> continued painting until his death at High Wycombe in 1953. Life impact
An obituary was written by Keith Roach, a District Commissioner in Palestine, which included:
"To the glassmakers of Hebron he introduced better methods of firing; to the weavers of Majdal he showed how their work could be improved by better looms; to the potters of Gaza and Ramallah he suggested fresh designs, and by himself turning out new types on the wheel, increased their sales. The workmen were astonished at his knowledge and skill, and admitted that he knew more of their craft than they did themselves. His colloquial Arabic, which never quite lost its Yorkshire burr, was readily understood, and with teachers and workmen alike he never failed to show patience and courtesy. It is small wonder that respect and admiration quickly developed into friendship and affection..."

<mask>'s daughters Jean and Anne, and his granddaughter Niki <mask>, have followed in his footsteps as artists.References

1882 births
1953 deaths
20th-century English painters
British artisans
Fellows of the Royal

masks:
Will Stewart
Will Stewart
Will Stewart
Stewart


texts:
<mask> (25 December 1737 – 18 April 1785) was an early American planter, lawyer and patriot. He represented New Kent County in the House of Burgesses, all five Virginia Revolutionary Conventions, and once in the Virginia House of Delegates before fellow legislators selected him as a judge of what later became known as the Virginia Supreme Court. Early life
<mask> was born on Christmas, 1737 at Chestnut Grove in New Kent County in the Colony of Virginia. He was the fourth child of Col. <mask> and his wife <mask>. His paternal grandfather <mask>. was from Oxfordshire but became a member of the London company of painters. His son (this man's uncle) <mask> was an officer in the Royal Navy who emigrated to Virginia and became a merchant and planter by 1715, owning Elsing Green plantation in King William County after his marriage, as well as a wharf in Hampton and a merchant ship. Capt.<mask> became a friend of Virginia governor Alexander Spottswood, who appointed him to the Governor's Council and also commissioned him to survey the boundary between Virginia and North Carolina; one son and one daughter of each family married into the other. His maternal great-grandfather, Rowland Jones, was the first rector of now historic Bruton Parish Church in Williamsburg, the colony's capital for most of this man's life. His maternal grandfather, Orlando Jones represented King William County for several terms in the House of Burgesses. Meanwhile, this man's father, <mask> followed his brother to the Virginia colony and became clerk of New Kent County in 1730, which position he held until his death in 1756. <mask> also served as an officer in the local militia and operated a plantation called Chestnut Grove about four miles away, using enslaved

masks:
Bartholomew Dandridge
Dandridge
John Dandridge
Frances Jones Dandridge
John Dandridge Sr
William Dandridge
Dandridge
John Dandridge
John Dandridge


texts:
 labor. <mask> had elder brothers <mask> (1737-1749) and <mask> (1734-1776), but probably his most important sibling was his eldest sister, Martha, who later became the first First Lady of the United States. <mask> received a private education suitable to his class.His father died in Fredericksburg in August 1756 while visiting his niece and her husband, Col. John Spottswood, when <mask> was 19 years old, just under legal age. Marriage and personal life
<mask> married twice. Although the name of his first wife is lost, their daughter Anne married <mask> Claiborne, and their daughter Elizabeth married William Langhorne. <mask>'s second wife was Mary Burbridge, the daughter of Julius King Burbridge, who had in 1744 purchased from Mann Page's estate the 3,407-acre Pamocra estate which by 1768 was within the redrawn New Kent County. In 1782, <mask> paid taxes on the land, where his lived with his wife and family, which included Burbridge's widow, who may have held a life estate. Mary and <mask>s had seven children, of whom four were sons (John, <mask>, William and Julius) and three daughters (Martha, Mary and Frances). Their eldest daughter Martha married Dr. William Halyburton of Scotland, and their son was Judge <mask> Halyburton.Their daughter Mary married John Willison, and Frances married George W.H. Minge. John (1758-1799) became a lawyer and would also serve as in the Virginia House of Delegates; he might have died at Pamocra, but also practiced law in Charles City County, where his wife Rebecca Jones Minge, came from, and their daughter Lucy married J.W. Murdaugh of Williamsburg. Their son, also named John, was living at Pamocra in 1813, but planned to travel elsewhere. Complicating matters, this generation of Dandridges also

masks:
Bartholomew
John Dandridge
William Dandridge
Bartholomew
Bartholomew
Dandridge
William Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
Bartholomew
James Dandridge


texts:
 included two men named <mask>. Judge <mask>'s son, <mask> Jr. never married, but became the private secretary of his uncle President George Washington, then a diplomat, dying as consul in war-torn Haiti in 1802.Complicating matters, his cousin <mask> (1760-1803), son of his uncle <mask>, married Elizabeth Clayton (daughter of Col. William Clayton who served as a legislator with his father), and after her death married the only daughter of Major William Armistead of New Kent County, Susan Baker Armistead, who bore a son <mask> (d. 1829) who eventually became the Clerk of New Kent County, after being partly raised by his stepfather David Dorrington. That Bartolomeo <mask> may have lived with 9 Blacks in 1810, and lived with four free Colored people in 1820. Career
<mask> studied law and quickly made an outstanding reputation, as well as operated his mother-in-law's and wife's estate using enslaved labor. New Kent County voters elected him as one of their representatives to the House of Burgesses in 1772 and re-elected him two years later. However, dissatisfaction with British policy was growing, and when Virginia's royal governor, Lord Dunmore, suppressed the legislature in 1775, <mask> and fellow planter Burwell Bassett (with whom he had served in the House of Burgesses) were elected as the county's representatives to the first four Virginia Revolutionary Conventions; <mask> served on the fifth Revolutionary Convention alongside Col. William Clayton, whom he had succeeded in 1772. His political influence was such that on August 17, 1775 <mask> came within one vote of being elected to the statewide Committee of Safety that governed the Commonwealth for the next ten months, and the next session elected him to the Committe of

masks:
Bartholomew
Bartholomew Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
William Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge


texts:
 Privileges and Elections. <mask> helped to draft both the resolution dissolving the relationship with Great Britain and the Virginia Declaration of Rights.On June 29, 1776 he was elected to the Council of State, which held administrative powers as well as advised Governor Patrick Henry, but <mask> resigned that position to attend family business on January 8, 1778. Although <mask> did not serve in the first session of the Virginia House of Delegates, he won election as one of New Kent County's delegates in 1778. Meanwhile, a planter cousin, <mask>, son of his late uncle Capt. <mask>, represented Hanover County for several terms. On May 29, 1778, fellow legislators elected <mask> to the General Court, and the following year created a new Court of Appeals, which consisted of the judges of the General Court, Court of Admiralty and the High Court of Chancery. Thus, <mask> became a judge on what in modern times is the Supreme Court of Virginia. The Court of Appeals first met in the spring of 1779, although <mask> first took his seat on March 29, 1780.He participated in Commonwealth v. Caton wherein some judges enunciated the principle of judicial review, but Judge <mask> declined to express an opinion on that issue. Judge <mask> remained on the Court until his death in 1785. Death and legacy
<mask> and his mother died within several days of one another in April 1785. His sister, Martha Washington received notice of both deaths in the same dispatch. <mask>'s will left his Rockhock plantation to his wife Mary, and his eldest son John received land in Doctor's Swamp as well as a Mill and Grist Mill on Diascund Creek. His sons Julius, <mask> and William received lands in North Carolina purchased from Patrick Henry. <mask> also provided for

masks:
Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge
William Dandridge
William Dandridge
Bartholomew Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge
Dandridge
Bartholomew
Judge Dandridge


texts:
 his mother and mother-in-law in his will.<mask> also manumitted two slaves, gave his daughter Anna Claiborne one negro and another to his granddaughter Elizabeth Dandride Claiborne, and divided the rest of his slaves among his children by his wife Mary, who had a life estate in them. The problem was that the judge's slaves were mortgaged because <mask> was financially embarrassed following the American Revolutionary War. Therefore, his brother-in-law, General (later President) George Washington took 33 slaves as payment for a loan he had made from <mask> Washington's property in 1765, and lent them back (without charge) to <mask>'s widow Mary so she could support their children on what had been a family plantation. The late President specifically mentioned freeing the Dandridge slaves in his will, but delayed such until the widow's death. <mask> would follow in his father's career path, including representing New Kent County in the Virginia House of Delegates beginning in 1788. His brother Julius Burbridge <mask> (1770-1828) became a banker in Richmond, which had become the state capital, first clerking at the Bank of Virginia, then became the cashier at the Richmond Branch of the Second Bank of the United States, but was accused of misfeasance, and a lawsuit against his sureties reached the Supreme Court of the United States before being settled after his accidental death. References
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="DVB">

1737 births
1785 deaths
House of Burgesses members
members of the Virginia House of Delegates
Justices of the Virginia Supreme Court
Dandridge family of Virginia
People from New Kent County, Virginia
British North American Anglicans
American planters
18th-century American politicians
American people of English

masks:
Judge Dandridge
Dandridge
Martha Dandridge
Dandridge
John Dandridge
Dandridge


texts:
Paul-<mask> (4 December 1930 – 28 December 2020) was a German composer and academic teacher. Based in East Berlin, he focused on chamber music, with many works inspired by poetry. His works were performed earlier in the West than in the East. He was an influential composer of contemporary music in Germany who taught internationally, including in the United States, Israel, and Korea. Life and career
Born in Gornsdorf, Saxony, on 4 December 1930, <mask> studied composition with Fidelio F. Finke and conducting with Günther Ramin at the University of Music and Theatre Leipzig from 1951 to 1956. He was choral conductor with the FDGB Ensemble in Weimar until 1960. He studied further as a master student with Rudolf Wagner-Régeny at the Akademie der Künste in East Berlin from 1958 until 1960.He then worked as an assistant at the Hochschule für Musik "Hanns Eisler" in Berlin. In 1976, he was dismissed because he refused to compromise with the Communist regime. He turned to freelance composition. In 1979, <mask> was granted the title professor at the Hanns Eisler Hochschule in Berlin, but taught only from 1990. In 1981, he was scholar-in-residence at the Bellagio Center in Italy. In 1983, he was the first composer from the GDR to receive a commission from the Donaueschingen Festival. In 1984 he stayed at the IRCAM, invited by Pierre Boulez and the Sorbonne in Paris.From 1983 to 1991, he trained master students at the Akademie der Künste, including Klaus Martin Kopitz, Hannes Zerbe, Annette Schlünz and Péter Kőszeghy. In 1991, he founded the Brandenburg Colloquium

masks:
Heinz Dittrich
Dittrich
Dittrich


texts: New Music at the Musikakademie Rheinsberg, of which he was artistic director. <mask> held guest professorships at the Hochschule für Musik Freiburg on an invitation by Klaus Huber (1978), the Arnold Schönberg-Institut in Los Angeles and the University of California, San Diego (1980), the Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln in Heimbach (1988–89), the Samuel Rubin Academy Tel Aviv and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (1990), and the Daegu University in South Korea, in Moscow and Saint Petersburg (1992). <mask> was a member of the Akademie der Künste from 1983, and of the Sächsische Akademie der Künste in Dresden from 1989. He corresponded with personalities such as , Burkhard Glaetzner, Vinko Globokar, Sofia Gubaidulina, Hans Peter Haller, Hans Werner Henze, Heinz Holliger, Herbert Kegel, Marek Kopelent, Aurèle Nicolet, Luigi Nono, Heinrich Schiff and Karlheinz Stockhausen. A comprehensive archive is located at the Akademie der Künste in Berlin. <mask> is considered one of the most influential composers of contemporary music in Germany.Some of his music can be considered to fall within the serialist tradition. He composed works for orchestra and chamber music, cantatas and Lieder. The Kammermusik (chamber music) pieces I (with tape), III (with voice), V (with live electronics), VII Die Blinden (with 5 speakers) and XI Journal de poèmes were commissioned by the . Many of his works were inspired by poetry, including works by Paul Celan, Heiner Müller and Arthur Rimbaud. In general, the words are not set as a vocal part but influence the work's structure. In

masks: Dittrich Dittrich Dittrich


texts:
 Streichtrio nach dem Gedicht "Tübingen, Jänner" von Paul Celan, <mask> instructs in the score that the Celan poem should neither be read nor printed in the programme. <mask> also wrote staged works that set texts by Samuel Beckett, James Joyce, Franz Kafka and Heiner Müller.Some of his music, such as Concert avec plusieurs instruments and Kammermusik, mixes electronic instruments or tape with conventional instruments and voice. In 1995, he supplied one of the 14 movements of the Requiem of Reconciliation in commemoration of 50 years after the end of World War II. On the occasion of <mask>'s 80th birthday, a concert dedicated to his works was held including the German premiere of Der Glücklose Engel for soprano and ensemble, setting texts by Heiner Müller and composed in 1997, and works from the 1970s and the 1990s. In 2014, the Staatsoper Unter den Linden in Berlin performed <mask>'s compositions Kammermusik VII on the theme Die Blinden by Maurice Maeterlinck from 1984 and Kafig-Musik from 1986 based on the story Die Verwandlung by Franz Kafka. <mask> died in Berlin at the age of 90. Awards

 1972: Prize for composition of the , Switzerland
 1975: Honorary Prize at the Composition Competition of the Italian Society for New Music
 1976: Composition Prize at the International Competition in Trieste
 1976: Prize of the International Rostrum of Composers of the UNESCO in Paris
 1978: Hanns Eisler Prize of the radio of the GDR

 1988: National Prize of the German Democratic Republic for art and literature, class III
 1990: Prize of the Berlin Music

masks: Dittrich Dittrich Dittrich Dittrich Dittrich


texts:
 Critics

References

Further reading
 Bettina Brand: Paul-Heinz <mask>. In Komponisten der Gegenwart (KDG).Edition Text & Kritik, München 1996, . <mask>, Prof. Paul-Heinz. In Wilfried W. Bruchhäuser: Komponisten der Gegenwart im Deutschen Komponisten-Interessenverband. Ein Handbuch. 4th edition, Deutscher Komponisten-Interessenverband, Berlin 1995, , . Ditrich, Paul-Heinz. In Brockhaus Riemann Musiklexikon.CD-Rom, Directmedia Publishing, Berlin 2004, , pp. 12208 ff. Paul-<mask>. In Peter Hollfelder: Geschichte der Klaviermusik. Vol 1, Noetzel, Wilhelmshaven 1989, , . <mask>, Paul-Heinz. In Axel Schniederjürgen (ed.): Kürschners Musiker-Handbuch. 5th edition, K. G. Saur Verlag, Munich 2006, , . Stefan Beyer: Der Komponist Paul-Heinz <mask>. Studien zu "Areae sonantes" (1973) für Orchester, Staatsexamensarbeit (Ms, 120 Seiten), Leipzig 2008. Unpublished. Hermann Neef: Der Beitrag der Komponisten Friedrich Goldmann, Friedrich Schenker, Paul-Heinz <mask> and Thomas Heyn zur ästhetischen Diskussion der Gattung Oper in der DDR seit 1977. Dissertation, Halle 1989

External links

 Paul-Heinz Dittrich Academy of Arts, Berlin
 Paul-Heinz Dittrich Archiv Zeitgenössischer Komponisten of the Saxon State and University Library Dresden
 Paul-Heinz Dittrich Universal Edition
 Works by Paul-Heinz Dittrich Breitkopf & Härtel

1930 births
2020 deaths
Musicians from Saxony
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
20th-century German composers
21st-century German composers
Hochschule für Musik Hanns Eisler Berlin faculty
Members of the Academy

masks:
Dittrich
Dittrich
Heinz Dittrich
Dittrich
Dittrich
Dittrich


texts:
<mask> (née Griffin, October 23, 1928 – July 3, 2019) was an American international expert on weather and aviation who worked for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Weather Service and the Atomic Energy Commission. She was the first African-American woman to earn a degree in meteorology and was the first female TV meteorologist trained in the field of meteorology in the United States. Early life and education
Bacon-Bercey was born and raised in Wichita, Kansas in 1928. Her father was an attorney and her mother a music teacher. Her father died when she was young, and her mother remarried and moved to Florida, leaving her to be raised by an aunt and uncle. She was an only child that enjoyed bike riding, hiking, playing the piano, and participating in Girl Scouts activities. A high school physics teacher is credited for noticing Bacon-Bercey’s interest in water displacement and buoyancy and encouraging her to pursue a career in meteorology.She first attended a private college close to home with an intent to major in math, but she left Friends University after two years to pursue a degree in meteorology. She then attended and earned her bachelor's degree in 1954 from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), which at that time was one of the few schools in the nation to offer a four-year degree in atmospheric science. She faced opposition and discouragement in her pursuit of her meteorology degree, as she stated during a 1977 interview for a Baltimore Sun article, "When I chose my major, my adviser, who is still at U.C.L.A., advised me to go into home economics... I got a D in home economics and an A in thermodynamics.” Bacon-Bercey became the first African American woman to be conferred a meteorology degree from UCLA. She earned a Masters of Public Administration (MPA) from the Journalism School of University of Southern California in 1979. At the age of 59, she earned a teaching credential to be able to serve as a county relief teacher for elementary and high school math and science courses until she was in


texts:
 her 80s, with her last assignments at Westmoor High School in Daly City, California. Career
Shortly after graduation, Bacon-Bercey moved to Washington DC for a position as a weather analyst and forecaster with the National Meteorological Center, now known as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service.Bacon-Bercey continued her career as an engineer, when she worked for the Sperry Corporation, then worked for a variety of federal organizations including the United States Atomic Energy Commission. She accepted a position as a senior adviser at the Atomic Energy Commission in 1959 because of her interests to better understand the effects of hydrogen and atomic bombs on Earth’s atmosphere. While in this role, she studied fallout patterns caused by nuclear detonations. In the 1960s, Bacon-Bercey rejoined NOAA in its New York City offices as a radar meteorologist. In 1971, she joined WGR-TV as a news reporter, in which role she covered the Attica Prison riot. In 1972, she became the station's on-air meteorologist after the previous meteorologist was arrested for bank robbery. She quickly became the station's chief meteorologist.Beginning in 1979, Bacon-Bercey spent nearly ten years as the chief administrator for Television Weather Activities at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and worked on a number of other projects. Increasing the participation of African-American women in meteorology and geophysical science was a major focus for Bacon-Bercey. In 1978, she published an analysis of African-American meteorologists in the US. She had won $64,000 as a contestant on The $128,000 Question in 1977, which she used to establish a scholarship fund for young women interested in atmospheric sciences, administered by the American Geophysical Union (AGU). From 1978-1990, 13 women (12 graduate students, 1 undergraduate student) received $400-$500 of scholarship money from AGU's June Bacon-Bercey Scholarship in Atmospheric Sciences for Women. This scholarship is restarting in 2021. Bacon-Bercey served


texts:
 on the AGU's Committee on Women and Minorities in Atmospheric Sciences, and co-founded the American Meteorological Society's Board on Women and Minorities.Warren M. Washington is another founding member of the AWS Board on Women and Minorities. In addition, she served on the board of directors of the National Consortium for Black Professional Development. In 2006, Bacon-Bercey was featured in a book for young people, <mask>-Bercey: a meteorologist talks about the weather. Honors

Bacon-Bercey was the first woman, as well as the first African-American, to be awarded the American Meteorological Society's Seal of Approval for excellence in television weathercasting when she was working at WGR in Buffalo, New York in the 1970s. In 2000, she was honored during a three-day conference at Howard University for her contributions including: helping to establish a meteorology lab at Jackson State University in Mississippi, her endowment of the scholarship, and her work in California's public schools. Bacon-Bercey was also named a Minority Pioneer for Achievement in Atmospheric Sciences by NASA. Personal life
Bacon-Bercey was married three times to Walker Bacon Jr., John Bercey and George Brewer.She had two daughters, Dawn-Marie and Dail. Bacon-Bercey died under hospice care in Burlingame, California from frontotemporal dementia on July 3, 2019 at the age of 90. Her death was announced six months later. References

American meteorologists
Jackson State University people
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration personnel
2019 deaths
1928 births
20th-century American scientists
21st-century American scientists
21st-century American women scientists
20th-century American women scientists
University of Southern California alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Scientists from Kansas
People from Wichita, Kansas
Women meteorologists
American television meteorologists
American television journalists
American women television journalists
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American scientists
21st-century African-American


texts: <mask> (November 12, 1815 – October 26, 1902) was an American writer and activist who was a leader of the women's rights movement in the U.S. during the mid- to late-19th century. She was the main force behind the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, the first convention to be called for the sole purpose of discussing women's rights, and was the primary author of its Declaration of Sentiments. Her demand for women's right to vote generated a controversy at the convention but quickly became a central tenet of the women's movement. She was also active in other social reform activities, especially abolitionism. In 1851, she met Susan B. Anthony and formed a decades-long partnership that was crucial to the development of the women's rights movement. During the American Civil War, they established the Women's Loyal National League to campaign for the abolition of slavery, and they led it in the largest petition drive in U.S. history up to that time. They started a newspaper called The Revolution in 1868 to work for women's rights.After the war, <mask> and Anthony were the main organizers of the American Equal Rights Association, which campaigned for equal rights for both African Americans and women, especially the right of suffrage. When the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was introduced that would provide suffrage for black men only, they opposed it, insisting that suffrage should be extended to all African Americans and all women at the same time. Others in the movement supported the amendment, resulting in a split. During the bitter arguments that led up to the split, <mask> sometimes expressed her ideas in elitist and racially condescending language, for which her old friend Frederick Douglass

masks:
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Stanton
Stanton


texts:
 reproached her. <mask> became the president of the National Woman Suffrage Association, which she and Anthony created to represent their wing of the movement. When the split was healed more than twenty years later, <mask> became the first president of the united organization, the National American Woman Suffrage Association. This was largely an honorary position; <mask> continued to work on a wide range of women's rights issues despite the organization's increasingly tight focus on women's right to vote.<mask> was the primary author of the first three volumes of the History of Woman Suffrage, a massive effort to record the history of the movement, focusing largely on her wing of it. She was also the primary author of The Woman's Bible, a critical examination of the Bible that is based on the premise that its attitude toward women reflects prejudice from a less civilized age. Childhood and family background

<mask> was born into the leading family of Johnstown, New York. Their family mansion on the town's main square was handled by as many as twelve servants. Her conservative father, <mask>, was one of the richest landowners in the state. A member of the Federalist Party, he was an  attorney who served one term in the U.S. Congress and became a justice in the New York Supreme Court. Her mother, Margaret Livingston <mask>, was more progressive, supporting the radical Garrisonian wing of the abolitionist movement and signing a petition for women's suffrage in 1867.<mask> was the seventh of eleven children, six of whom died before reaching full adulthood, including all of the boys. Her mother, exhausted by giving birth to so many children and the anguish of seeing so many of them die, became withdrawn and

masks:
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Elizabeth Cady
Daniel Cady
Cady
Elizabeth


texts:
 depressed. Tryphena, the oldest daughter, together with her husband Edward Bayard, assumed much of the responsibility for raising the younger children. In her memoir, Eighty Years & More, <mask> said there were three African American menservants in her household when she was young. Researchers have determined that one of them, Peter Teabout, was a slave and probably remained so until all enslaved people in New York state were freed on July 4, 1827. <mask> recalled him fondly, saying that she and her sisters attended the Episcopal church with Teabout and sat with him in the back of the church rather than in front with the white families. Education and intellectual development

<mask> received a better education than most women of her era.She attended Johnstown Academy in her hometown until the age of 15. The only girl in its advanced classes in mathematics and languages, she won second prize in the school's Greek competition and became a skilled debater. She enjoyed her years at the school and said she did not encounter any barriers there because of her sex. She was made sharply aware of society's low expectations for women when Eleazar, her last surviving brother, died at the age of 20 just after graduating from Union College in Schenectady, New York. Her father and mother were incapacitated by grief. The ten-year-old <mask> tried to comfort her father, saying she would try to be all her brother had been. Her father said, "Oh my daughter, I wish you were a boy!"<mask> had many educational opportunities as a young child. Their neighbor, Reverend Simon Hosack, taught her Greek and mathematics. Edward Bayard, her brother-in-law and Eleazar's former classmate at Union College, taught her philosophy and

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts:
 horsemanship. Her father brought her law books to study so she could participate in debates with his law clerks at the dinner table. She wanted to go to college, but no colleges at that time accepted female students. Moreover, her father initially decided she did not need further education. He eventually agreed to enroll her in the Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York, which was founded and run by Emma Willard.In her memoirs, <mask> said that during her student days in Troy she was greatly disturbed by a six-week religious revival conducted by Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelical preacher and central figure in the revivalist movement. His preaching, combined with the Calvinistic Presbyterianism of her childhood, terrified her with the possibility of her own damnation: "Fear of judgment seized my soul. Visions of the lost haunted my dreams. Mental anguish prostrated my health." <mask> credited her father and brother-in-law with convincing her to disregard Finney's warnings. She said they took her on a six-week trip to Niagara Falls during which she read works of rational philosophers who restored her reason and sense of balance. Lori D. Ginzberg, one of <mask>'s biographers, says there are problems with this story.For one thing, Finney did not preach for six weeks in Troy while <mask> was there. Ginzberg suspects that <mask> embellished a childhood memory to underline her belief that women harm themselves by falling under the spell of religion. Marriage and family

As a young woman, <mask> traveled often to the home of her cousin, Gerrit Smith, who also lived in upstate New York. His views were very different from those of her conservative father. Smith was an abolitionist and a member of the

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts: "Secret Six," a group of men who financed John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in an effort to spark an armed uprising of enslaved African Americans. At Smith's home, she met Henry Brewster <mask>, a prominent abolitionist agent. Despite her father's reservations, the couple married in 1840, omitting the word "obey" from the marriage ceremony.<mask> later wrote, "I obstinately refused to obey one with whom I supposed I was entering into an equal relation." While uncommon, this practice was not unheard of; Quakers had been omitting "obey" from the marriage ceremony for some time. <mask> took her husband's surname as part of her own, signing herself <mask> <mask> or E<mask> <mask>, but not Mrs. Henry B<mask>. Soon after returning from their European honeymoon, the <mask>s moved into the <mask> household in Johnstown. <mask> studied law under his father-in-law until 1843, when the <mask>s moved to Boston (Chelsea), Massachusetts, where Henry joined a law firm. While living in Boston, <mask> enjoyed the social, political, and intellectual stimulation that came with a constant round of abolitionist gatherings. Here, she was influenced by such people as Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison and Ralph Waldo Emerson.In 1847, the <mask>s moved to Seneca Falls, New York, in the Finger Lakes region. Their house, which is now a part of the Women's Rights National Historical Park, was purchased for them by <mask>'s father. The couple had seven children. At that time, child-bearing was considered to be a subject that should be handled with great delicacy. <mask> took a different approach, raising a flag in front of her house after giving birth, a red flag for a boy and a white one for a girl. One of her daughters,

masks:
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Elizabeth Cady
Stanton
. Cady
Stanton
. Stanton
Stanton
Cady
Henry Stanton
Stanton
Elizabeth
Stanton
Elizabeth
Stanton


texts:
 Harriot <mask>, became, like her mother, a leader of the women's suffrage movement. Because of the spacing of their children's births, one historian has concluded that the <mask>s must have used birth control methods.<mask> herself said her children were conceived by what she called "voluntary motherhood." In an era when it was commonly held that a wife must submit to her husband's sexual demands, <mask> believed that women should have command over their sexual relationships and childbearing. She also said, however, that "a healthy woman has as much passion as a man." <mask> encouraged both her sons and daughters to pursue a broad range of interests, activities, and learning. She was remembered by her daughter Margaret as being "cheerful, sunny and indulgent." She enjoyed motherhood and running a large household, but she found herself unsatisfied and even depressed by the lack of intellectual companionship and stimulation in Seneca Falls. During the 1850s, Henry's work as a lawyer and politician kept him away from home for nearly 10 months out of every year.This frustrated <mask> when the children were small, because it made it difficult for her to travel. The pattern continued in later years, with husband and wife living apart more often than together, maintaining separate households for several years. Their marriage, which lasted 47 years, ended with <mask>'s death in 1887. Both Henry and <mask> were staunch abolitionists, but Henry, like <mask>'s father, disagreed with the idea of female suffrage. One biographer described Henry as, "at best a halfhearted 'women's rights man.'" Early activism

World Anti-Slavery Convention

While on their honeymoon in England in 1840, the <mask>s attended the World

masks:
Stanton Blatch
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Elizabeth
Henry Stanton
Elizabeth
Elizabeth
Stanton


texts:
 Anti-Slavery Convention in London. <mask> was appalled by the convention's male delegates, who voted to prevent women from participating even if they had been appointed as delegates of their respective abolitionist societies.The men required the women to sit in a separate section, hidden by curtains from the convention's proceedings. William Lloyd Garrison, a prominent American abolitionist and supporter of women's rights who arrived after the vote had been taken, refused to sit with the men and sat with the women instead. Lucretia Mott, a Quaker minister, abolitionist and women's rights advocate, was one of the women who had been sent as a delegate. Although Mott was much older than <mask>, they quickly bonded in an enduring friendship, with <mask> eagerly learning from the more experienced activist. While in London, <mask> heard Mott preach in a Unitarian chapel, the first time <mask> had heard a woman give a sermon or even speak in public. <mask> later gave credit to this convention for focusing her interests on women's rights. Seneca Falls Convention

An accumulation of experiences was having an effect on <mask>.The London convention had been a turning point in her life. Her study of law books had convinced her that legal changes were necessary to overcome gender inequities. She had personal experience of the stultifying role of women as wives and housekeepers. She said, "the wearied, anxious look of the majority of women, impressed me with a strong feeling that some active measures should be taken to remedy the wrongs of society in general, and of women in particular." This knowledge, however, did not immediately lead to action. Relatively isolated from other social reformers and fully occupied with

masks: Elizabeth Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts: household duties, she was at a loss as to how she could engage in social reform. In the summer of 1848, Lucretia Mott traveled from Pennsylvania to attend a Quaker meeting near the <mask>'s home.<mask> was invited to visit with Mott and three other progressive Quaker women. Finding herself in sympathetic company, <mask> said she poured out her "long-accumulating discontent, with such vehemence and indignation that I stirred myself, as well as the rest of the party, to do and dare anything." The gathered women agreed to organize a women's rights convention in Seneca Falls a few days later, while Mott was still in the area. <mask> was the primary author of the convention's Declaration of Rights and Sentiments, which was modeled on the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Its list of grievances included the wrongful denial of women's right to vote, signaling <mask>'s intent to generate a discussion of women's suffrage at the convention. This was a highly controversial idea at the time but not an entirely new one.Her cousin Gerrit Smith, no stranger to radical ideas himself, had called for women's suffrage shortly before at the Liberty League convention in Buffalo. When <mask> saw the inclusion of woman suffrage in the document, he told his wife that she was acting in a way that would turn the proceedings into a farce. Lucretia Mott, the main speaker, was also disturbed by the proposal. An estimated 300 women and men attended the two-day Seneca Falls Convention. In her first address to a large audience, <mask> explained the purpose of the gathering and the importance of women's rights. Following a speech by Mott, <mask> read the Declaration of Sentiments, which the attendees were invited to sign. Next came the

masks:
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Henry Stanton
Stanton
Stanton


texts: resolutions, all of which the convention adopted unanimously except for the ninth, which read, "it is the duty of the women of this country to secure to themselves the sacred right of the elective franchise."Following a vigorous debate, this resolution was adopted only after Frederick Douglass, an abolitionist leader who had formerly been enslaved, gave it his strong support. <mask>'s sister Harriet attended the convention and signed its Declaration of Sentiments. Her husband, however, made her remove her signature. Although this was a local convention organized on short notice, its controversial nature ensured that it was widely noted in the press, with articles appearing in newspapers in New York City, Philadelphia and many other places. The Seneca Falls Convention is now recognized as an historic event, the first convention to be called for the purpose of  discussing women's rights. The convention's Declaration of Sentiments became "the single most important factor in spreading news of the women's rights movement around the country in 1848 and into the future," according to Judith Wellman, a historian of the convention. The convention initiated the use of women's rights conventions as organizing tools for the early women's movement.By the time of the second National Women's Rights Convention in 1851, the demand for women's right to vote had become a central tenet of the United States women's rights movement. A Rochester Women's Rights Convention was held in Rochester, New York two weeks later, organized by local women who had attended the one in Seneca Falls. Both <mask> and Mott spoke at this convention. The convention in Seneca Falls had been chaired by James Mott, the husband of Lucretia Mott. The

masks: Stanton Stanton


texts:
 Rochester convention was chaired by a woman, Abigail Bush, another historic first. Many people were disturbed by the idea of a woman chairing a convention of both men and women. How, for example, might people react if a woman ruled a man out of order?<mask> herself spoke in opposition to the election of a woman as the chair of this convention, although she later acknowledged her mistake and apologized for her action. When the first National Women's Rights Convention was organized in 1850, <mask> was unable to attend because she was pregnant. Instead, she sent a letter to the convention entitled "Should women hold office" that outlined the movement's goals. The letter emphatically endorsed women's right to hold office, stating that "women might have a 'purifying, elevating, softening influence' on the 'political experiment of our Republic. '” Thereafter it became a tradition to open national women's rights conventions with a letter by <mask>, who not did participate in person in a national convention until 1860. Partnership with Susan B. Anthony
While visiting Seneca Falls in 1851, Susan B. Anthony was introduced to <mask> by Amelia Bloomer, a mutual friend and a supporter of women's rights. Anthony, who was five years younger than <mask>, came from a Quaker family that was active in reform movements.Anthony and <mask> soon became close friends and co-workers, forming a relationship that was a turning point in their lives and of great importance to the women's movement. The two women had complementary skills. Anthony excelled at organizing, while <mask> had an aptitude for intellectual matters and writing. <mask> later said, "In writing we did better work together than either could alone. While she is slow

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts:
 and analytical in composition, I am rapid and synthetic. I am the better writer, she the better critic." Anthony deferred to <mask> in many ways throughout their years of work together, not accepting an office in any organization that would place her above <mask>.In their letters, they referred to one another as "Susan" and "Mrs. <mask>." Because <mask> was homebound with seven children while Anthony was unmarried and free to travel, Anthony assisted <mask> by supervising her children while <mask> wrote. Among other things, this allowed <mask> to write speeches for Anthony to give. One of Anthony's biographers said, "Susan became one of the family and was almost another mother to Mrs. <mask>'s children." One of <mask>'s biographers said, "<mask> provided the ideas, rhetoric, and strategy; Anthony delivered the speeches, circulated petitions, and rented the halls. Anthony prodded and <mask> produced."<mask>'s husband said, "Susan stirred the puddings, <mask> stirred up Susan, and then Susan stirs up the world!" <mask> herself said, "I forged the thunderbolts, she fired them. "<ref><mask>, Eighty Years and More,  p. 165.</ref>
By 1854, Anthony and <mask> "had perfected a collaboration that made the New York State movement the most sophisticated in the country," according to Ann D. Gordon, a professor of women's history. After the <mask>s moved from Seneca Falls to New York City in 1861, a room was set aside for Anthony in every house they lived in. One of <mask>'s biographers estimated that, over her lifetime, <mask> spent more time with Anthony than with any other adult, including her own husband. In December 1865, <mask> and Anthony submitted the first women's suffrage petition directed to Congress during

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Elizabeth Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts:
 the drafting of the Fourteenth Amendment. The women challenged the use of the word "male" in the version submitted to the States for ratification.When Congress failed to remove the language, <mask> announced her candidacy as the first woman to run for Congress in October 1866. She ran as an independent and secured only 24 votes, but her candidacy sparked conversations surrounding women's officeholding separate from suffrage. In December 1872, <mask> and Anthony each wrote New Departure memorials to Congress and were invited to read their memorials to the Senate Judiciary Committee. This further brought women's suffrage and officeholding to the forefront of Congress's agenda, even though the New Departure agenda was ultimately rejected. The relationship was not without its strains, especially as Anthony could not match <mask>'s charm and charisma. In 1871, Anthony said, "whoever goes into a parlor or before an audience with that woman does it at the cost of a fearful overshadowing, a price which I have paid for the last ten years, and that cheerfully, because I felt that our cause was most profited by her being seen and heard, and my best work was making the way clear for her." Temperance activity
Excessive consumption of alcohol was a severe social problem during this period, one that began to diminish only in the 1850s.Many activists considered temperance to be a women's rights issue because of laws that gave husbands complete control of the family and its finances. The law provided almost no recourse to a woman with a drunken husband, even if his condition left the family destitute and he was abusive to her and their children. If she managed to obtain a divorce, which was difficult to do, he could

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts: easily end up with sole guardianship of their children. In 1852, Anthony was elected as a delegate to the New York state temperance convention. When she tried to participate in the discussion, the chairman stopped her, saying that women delegates were there only to listen and learn. Years later, Anthony observed, "No advanced step taken by women has been so bitterly contested as that of speaking in public. For nothing which they have attempted, not even to secure the suffrage, have they been so abused, condemned and antagonized."Anthony and other women walked out and announced their intention to organize a women's temperance convention. Later that year, about five hundred women met in Rochester and created the Women's State Temperance Society, with <mask> as president and Anthony as state agent. This leadership arrangement, with <mask> in the public role as president and Anthony as the energetic force behind the scenes, was characteristic of the organizations they founded in later years. In her first public speech since 1848, <mask> delivered the convention's keynote address, one that antagonized religious conservatives. She called for drunkenness to be legal grounds for divorce at a time when many conservatives opposed divorce for any reason. She appealed for wives of drunkard husbands to take control of their marital relations, saying, "Let no woman remain in relation of wife with the confirmed drunkard. Let no drunkard be the father of her children."She attacked the religious establishment, calling for women to donate their money to the poor instead of to the "education of young men for the ministry, for the building up a theological aristocracy and gorgeous temples to the unknown God." At the


texts:
 organization's convention the following year, conservatives voted <mask> out as president, whereupon she and Anthony resigned from the organization. Temperance was not a significant reform activity for <mask> afterwards, although she continued to use local temperance societies in the early 1850s as conduits for advocating women's rights. She regularly wrote articles for The Lily, a monthly temperance newspaper that she helped transform into one that reported news of the women's rights movement. She also wrote for The Una, a women's rights periodical edited by Paulina Wright Davis, and for the New York Tribune, a daily newspaper edited by Horace Greeley. Married Women's Property Act

The status of married women at that time was in part set by English common law which for centuries had set the doctrine of coverture in local courts. It held wives were under the protection and control of their husbands.In the words of William Blackstone's 1769 book Commentaries on the Laws of England : "By marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law: that is, the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage." The husband of a married woman became the owner of any property she brought into a marriage. She could not sign contracts, operate a business in her own name, or retain custody of their children in the event of a divorce. In practice some American courts followed the common law. Some Southern states like Texas and Florida provided more equality for women. Across the country state legislatures were taking control away from common law traditions by passing legislation. In 1836, the New York legislature began considering a Married Women's Property Act, with women's rights advocate


texts: Ernestine Rose an early supporter who circulated petitions in its favor.<mask>'s father supported this reform. Having no sons to pass his considerable wealth to, he was faced with the prospect of having it eventually pass to the control of his daughters' husbands. <mask> circulated petitions and lobbied legislators in favor of the proposed law as early as 1843. The law eventually passed in 1848. It allowed a married woman to retain the property that she possessed before the marriage or acquired during the marriage, and it protected her property from her husband's creditors. Enacted shortly before the Seneca Falls Convention, it strengthened the women's rights movement by increasing the ability of women to act independently. By weakening the traditional belief that husbands spoke for their wives, it assisted many of the reforms that <mask> championed, such as the right of women to speak in public and to vote.In 1853, Susan B. Anthony organized a petition campaign in New York state for an improved property rights law for married women. As part of the presentation of these petitions to the legislature, <mask> spoke in 1854 to a joint session of the Judiciary Committee, arguing that voting rights were needed to enable women to protect their newly won property rights. In 1860, <mask> spoke again to the Judiciary Committee, this time before a large audience in the assembly chamber, arguing that women's suffrage was the only real protection for married women, their children and their material assets. She pointed to similarities in the legal status of woman and slaves, saying, "The prejudice against color, of which we hear so much, is no stronger than that against sex. It is produced by the same cause, and


texts:
 manifested very much in the same way. The negro's skin and the woman's sex are both prima facie evidence that they were intended to be in subjection to the white Saxon man." The legislature passed the improved law in 1860.Dress reform

In 1851, <mask> Miller, <mask>'s cousin, brought a new style of dress to the upstate New York area. Unlike traditional floor-length dresses, it consisted of pantaloons worn under a knee-length dress. Amelia Bloomer, <mask>'s friend and neighbor, publicized the attire in The Lily, a monthly magazine that she published. Thereafter it was popularly known as the "Bloomer" dress, or just "Bloomers." It was soon adopted by many female reform activists despite harsh ridicule from traditionalists, who considered the idea of women wearing any sort of trousers as a threat to the social order. To <mask>, it solved the problem of climbing stairs with a baby in one hand, a candle in the other, and somehow also lifting the skirt of a long dress to avoid tripping. <mask> wore "Bloomers" for two years, abandoning the attire only after it became clear that the controversy it created was distracting people from the campaign for women's rights.Other women's rights activists eventually did the same. Divorce reform
<mask> had already antagonized traditionalists in 1852 at the women's temperance convention by advocating a woman's right to divorce a drunken husband. In an hour-long speech at the Tenth National Women's Rights Convention in 1860, she went further, generating a heated debate that took up an entire session. She cited tragic examples of unhealthy marriages, suggesting that some marriages amounted to "legalized prostitution." She challenged both the sentimental and the religious views

masks:
Elizabeth Smith
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton


texts:
 of marriage, defining marriage as a civil contract subject to the same restrictions of any other contract. If a marriage did not produce the expected happiness, she said, then it would be a duty to end it. Strong opposition to her speech was voiced in the ensuing discussion.Abolitionist leader Wendell Phillips, arguing that divorce was not a women's rights issue because it affected both women and men equally, said the subject was out of order and tried unsuccessfully to have it removed from the record. In later years on the lecture circuit, <mask>'s speech on divorce was one of her most popular, drawing audiences of up to 1200 people. In an 1890 essay entitled "Divorce versus Domestic Warfare," <mask> opposed calls by some women activists for stricter divorce laws, saying, "The rapidly increasing number of divorces, far from showing a lower state of morals, proves exactly the reverse. Woman is in a transition period from slavery to freedom, and she will not accept the conditions and married life that she has heretofore meekly endured." Abolitionist activity

In 1860 <mask> published a pamphlet called The Slaves Appeal written from what she imagined to be the viewpoint of a female slave. The fictional speaker uses vivid religious language ("Men and women of New York, the God of thunder speaks through you") that expresses religious views very different from those that <mask> herself held. The speaker describes the horrors of slavery, saying, "The trembling girl for whom thou didst pay a price but yesterday in a New Orleans market, is not thy lawful wife.Foul and damning, both to the master and the slave, is this wholesale violation of the immutable laws of God." The pamphlet called for defiance of the

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts:
 Federal Fugitive Slave Act, and it included petitions to be used for opposing the practice of hunting escaped slaves. In 1861, Anthony organized a tour of abolitionist lecturers in upstate New York that included <mask> and several other speakers. The tour began in January just after South Carolina had seceded from the union but before other states had seceded and before the outbreak of war. In her speech, <mask> said that South Carolina was like a willful son whose behavior jeopardized the whole family and that the best course of action was to let it secede. The lecture meetings were repeatedly disrupted by mobs operating under the belief that abolitionist activity was causing southern states to secede. <mask> was not able to participate some of the lectures because she had to return home to her children.At her husband's urging, she left the lecture tour because of the persistent threat of violence. Women's Loyal National League

In 1863, Anthony moved into the <mask>s' house in New York City and the two women began organizing the Women's Loyal National League to campaign for an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would abolish slavery. <mask> became president of the new organization and Anthony was secretary. It was the first national women's political organization in the United States. In the largest petition drive in the nation's history up to that time, the League collected nearly 400,000 signatures to abolish slavery, representing approximately one out of every twenty-four adults in the Northern states. The petition drive significantly assisted the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, which ended slavery. The League disbanded in 1864 after it became clear that the amendment would be


texts:
 approved.Although its purpose was the abolition of slavery, the League made it clear that it also stood for political equality for women, approving a resolution at its founding convention that called for equal rights for all citizens regardless of race or sex. The League indirectly advanced the cause of women's rights in several ways. <mask> pointedly reminded the public that petitioning was the only political tool available to women at a time when only men were allowed to vote. The success of the League's petition drive demonstrated the value of formal organization to the women's movement, which had traditionally resisted being anything other than loosely organized up to that point. Its 5000 members constituted a widespread network of women activists who gained experience that helped create a pool of talent for future forms of social activism, including suffrage. <mask> and Anthony emerged from this endeavor with significant national reputations. American Equal Rights Association

After the Civil War, <mask> and Anthony became alarmed at reports that the proposed Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which would provide citizenship for African Americans, would also for the first time introduce the word "male" into the constitution.<mask> said, "if that word 'male' be inserted, it will take us a century at least to get it out." Organizing opposition to this development required preparation because the women's movement had become largely inactive during the Civil War. In January 1866, <mask> and Anthony sent out petitions calling for a constitutional amendment providing for women's suffrage, with <mask>'s name at the top of the list of signatures.A Petition For Universal Suffrage, at the U.S.


texts:
 National Archives
<mask> and Anthony organized the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention in May 1866, the first since the Civil War began. The convention voted to transform itself into the American Equal Rights Association (AERA), whose purpose was to campaign for the equal rights of all citizens regardless of race or sex, especially the right of suffrage. <mask> was offered the post of president but declined in a favor of Lucretia Mott. Other officers included <mask> as first vice president, Anthony as a corresponding secretary, Frederick Douglass as a vice president, and Lucy Stone as a member of the executive committee. <mask> provided hospitality for some of the attendees at this convention.Sojourner Truth, an abolitionist and women's rights activist who had formerly been enslaved, stayed at <mask>'s house as, of course, did Anthony. Leading abolitionists opposed the AERA's drive for universal suffrage. Horace Greeley, a prominent newspaper editor, told Anthony and <mask>, "This is a critical period for the Republican Party and the life of our Nation... I conjure you to remember that this is 'the negro's hour.'" Abolitionist leaders Wendell Phillips and Theodore Tilton arranged a meeting with <mask> and Anthony, trying to convince them that the time had not yet come for women's suffrage, that they should campaign for voting rights for black men only, not for all African Americans and all women. The two women rejected this guidance and continued to work for universal suffrage. In 1866, <mask> declared herself a candidate for Congress, the first woman to do so.She said that although she could not vote, there was nothing in the Constitution to prevent her from running for Congress. Running as an


texts: independent against both the Democrat and Republican candidates, she received only 24 votes. Her campaign was noted by newspapers as far away as New Orleans. In 1867, the AERA campaigned in Kansas for referenda that would enfranchise both African Americans and women. Wendell Phillips, who opposed mixing those two causes, blocked the funding that the AERA had expected for their campaign. By the end of summer, the AERA campaign had almost collapsed, and its finances were exhausted. Anthony and <mask> created a storm of controversy by accepting help during the last days of the campaign from George Francis Train, a wealthy businessman who supported women's rights.Train antagonized many activists by attacking the Republican Party and openly disparaging the integrity and intelligence of African Americans. There is reason to believe that <mask> and Anthony hoped to draw the volatile Train away from his cruder forms of racism, and that he had actually begun to do so. In any case, <mask> said she would accept support from the devil himself if he supported women's suffrage. After the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, a sharp dispute erupted within the AERA over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which would prohibit the denial of suffrage because of race. <mask> and Anthony opposed the amendment, which would have the effect of enfranchising black men, insisting that all women and all African Americans should be enfranchised at the same time. <mask> argued in the pages of The Revolution that by effectively enfranchising all men while excluding all women, the amendment would create an "aristocracy of sex," giving constitutional authority to the idea that men were superior to


texts: women. Lucy Stone, who was emerging as a leader of those who were opposed to <mask> and Anthony, argued that suffrage for women would be more beneficial to the country than suffrage for black men but supported the amendment, saying, "I will be thankful in my soul if any body can get out of the terrible pit."During the debate over the Fifteenth Amendment, <mask> wrote articles for The Revolution with language that was elitist and racially condescending. She believed that a long process of education would be needed before many of the former slaves and immigrant workers would be able to participate meaningfully as voters. <mask> wrote, "American women of wealth, education, virtue and refinement, if you do not wish the lower orders of Chinese, Africans, Germans and Irish, with their low ideas of womanhood to make laws for you and your daughters ... demand that women too shall be represented in government." In another article, <mask> objected to laws being made for women by "Patrick and Sambo and Hans and Yung Tung who do not know the difference between a Monarchy and a Republic." She also used the term "Sambo" on other occasions, drawing a rebuke from her old friend Frederick Douglass. Douglass strongly supported women's suffrage but said that suffrage for African Americans was a more urgent issue, literally a matter of life and death. He said that white women already exerted a positive influence on government through the voting power of their husbands, fathers and brothers, and that it "does not seem generous" for Anthony and <mask> to insist that black men should not achieve suffrage unless women achieved it at the same time.Sojourner Truth, on the other hand, supported <mask>'s position, saying, "if


texts:
 colored men get their rights, and not colored women theirs, you see the colored men will be masters over the women, and it will be just as bad as it was before." Early in 1869, <mask> called for a Sixteenth Amendment that would provide suffrage for women, saying, "The male element is a destructive force, stern, selfish, aggrandizing, loving war, violence, conquest, acquisition … in the dethronement of woman we have let loose the elements of violence and ruin that she only has the power to curb." The AERA increasingly divided into two wings, each advocating universal suffrage but with different approaches. One wing, whose leading figure was Lucy Stone, was willing for black men to achieve suffrage first and wanted to maintain close ties with the Republican Party and the abolitionist movement. The other, whose leading figures were <mask> and Anthony, insisted that all women and all African Americans should be enfranchised at the same time and worked toward a women's movement that would no longer be tied to the Republican Party or be financially dependent on abolitionists. The AERA effectively dissolved after an acrimonious meeting in May 1869, and two competing woman suffrage organizations were created in its aftermath. In the words of one of <mask>'s biographers, one consequence of the split for <mask> was that, "Old friends became either enemies, like Lucy Stone, or wary associates, as in the case of Frederick Douglass."The Revolution

In 1868, Anthony and <mask> began publishing a sixteen-page weekly newspaper called The Revolution in New York City. <mask> was co-editor along with Parker Pillsbury, an experienced editor who was an abolitionist and a supporter of women's rights. Anthony, the owner,


texts: managed the business aspects of the paper. Initial funding was provided by George Francis Train, the controversial businessman who supported women's rights but who alienated many activists with his political and racial views. The newspaper focused primarily on women's rights, especially suffrage for women, but it also covered topics such as politics, the labor movement and finance. One of its stated goals was to provide a forum in which women could exchange opinions on key issues. Its motto was "Men, their rights and nothing more: women, their rights and nothing less."Sisters Harriet Beecher Stowe and Isabella Beecher Hooker offered to provide funding for the newspaper if its name was changed to something less inflammatory, but <mask> declined their offer, strongly favoring its existing name. Their goal was to grow The Revolution into a daily paper with its own printing press, all owned and operated by women. The funding that Train had arranged for the newspaper, however, was less than expected. Moreover, Train sailed for England after The Revolution published its first issue and was soon jailed for supporting Irish independence. Train's financial support eventually disappeared entirely. After twenty-nine months, mounting debts forced the transfer of the paper to a wealthy women's rights activist who gave it a less radical tone. Despite the relatively short time it was in their hands, The Revolution gave <mask> and Anthony a means for expressing their views during the developing split within the women's movement.It also helped them promote their wing of the movement, which eventually became a separate organization. <mask> refused to take responsibility for the $10,000 debt the newspaper had accumulated,


texts:
 saying she had children to support. Anthony, who had less money than <mask>, took responsibility for the debt, repaying it over a six-year period through paid speaking tours. National Woman Suffrage Association

In May 1869, two days after the final AERA convention, <mask>, Anthony and others formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), with <mask> as president. Six months later, Lucy Stone, Julia Ward Howe and others formed the rival American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), which was larger and better funded. The immediate cause for the split in the women's suffrage movement was the proposed Fifteenth Amendment, but the two organizations had other differences as well. The NWSA was politically independent while the AWSA aimed for close ties with the Republican Party, hoping that ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment would lead to Republican support for women's suffrage.The NWSA focused primarily on winning suffrage at the national level while the AWSA pursued a state-by-state strategy. The NWSA initially worked on a wider range of women's issues than the AWSA, including divorce reform and equal pay for women. As the new organization was being formed, <mask> proposed to limit its membership to women, but her proposal was not accepted. In practice, however, the overwhelming majority of its members and officers were women. <mask> disliked many aspects of organizational work because it interfered with her ability to study, think, and write. She begged Anthony, without success, to arrange the NWSA's first convention so that she herself would not need to attend. For the rest of her life, <mask> attended conventions only reluctantly if at all, wanting to maintain the freedom to express her


texts:
 opinions without worrying about who in the organization might be offended.Ginzberg, pp.138–39
Of the fifteen NWSA meetings between 1870 and 1879, <mask> presided at four and was present at only one other, leaving Anthony effectively in charge of the organization. In 1869 Francis and Virginia Minor, husband and wife suffragists from Missouri, developed a strategy based on the idea that the U.S. Constitution implicitly enfranchised women. It relied heavily on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says, "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States … nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." In 1871 the NWSA officially adopted what had become known as the New Departure strategy, encouraging women to attempt to vote and to file lawsuits if denied that right. Soon hundreds of women tried to vote in dozens of localities. Susan B. Anthony actually succeeded in voting in 1872, for which she was arrested and found guilty in a widely publicized trial. In 1880, <mask> also tried to vote.When the election officials refused to let her place her ballot in the box, she threw it at them. When the Supreme Court ruled in 1875 in Minor v. Happersett that "the Constitution of the United States does not confer the right of suffrage upon anyone," the NWSA decided to pursue the far more difficult strategy of campaigning for a constitutional amendment that would guarantee voting rights for women. In 1878, <mask> and Anthony convinced Senator Aaron A. Sargent to introduce into Congress a women's suffrage amendment that, more than forty years later, would be ratified as the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States


texts: Constitution. Its text is identical to that of the Fifteenth Amendment except that it prohibits the denial of suffrage because of sex rather than "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." <mask> traveled with her daughter Harriet to Europe in May 1882 and did not return for a year and a half. Already a public figure of some prominence in Europe, she gave several speeches there and wrote reports for American newspapers. She visited her son Theodore in France, where she met her first grandchild, and traveled to England for Harriet's marriage to an Englishman.After Anthony joined her in England in March 1883, they traveled together to meet with leaders of European women's movements, laying the groundwork for an international women's organization. <mask> and Anthony returned to the U.S. together in November 1883. Hosted by the NWSA, delegates from fifty-three women's organizations in nine countries met in Washington in 1888 to form the organization that <mask> and Anthony had been working toward, the International Council of Women (ICW), which is still active. <mask> traveled again to Europe in October 1886, visiting her children in France and England. She returned to the U.S. in March 1888 barely in time to deliver a major speech at the founding meeting of the ICW. When Anthony discovered that <mask> had not yet written her speech, she insisted that <mask> stay in her hotel room until she had written it, and she placed a younger colleague outside her door to make sure she did so. <mask> later teased Anthony, saying, "Well, as all women are supposed to be under the thumb of some man, I prefer a tyrant of my own sex, so I shall not deny the patent fact of my subjection."The convention succeeded in

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts:
 bring increased publicity and respectability to the women's movement, especially when President Grover Cleveland honored the delegates by inviting them to a reception at the White House. Despite her record of racially insensitive remarks and occasional appeals to the racial prejudices of white people, <mask> applauded the marriage in 1884 of her friend Frederick Douglass to Helen Pitts, a white woman, a marriage that enraged racists. <mask> wrote Douglass a warm letter of congratulation, to which Douglass responded that he had been sure that she would be happy for him. When Anthony realized that <mask> was planning to publish her letter, she convinced her not to do so, wanting to avoid associating women's suffrage with an unrelated and divisive issue. History of Woman Suffrage

In 1876, Anthony moved into <mask>'s house in New Jersey to begin working with <mask> on the History of Woman Suffrage. She brought with her several trunks and boxes of letters, newspaper clippings, and other documents. Originally envisioned as a modest publication that could be produced quickly, the history evolved into a six-volume work of more than 5700 pages written over a period of 41 years.The first three volumes, which cover the movement up to 1885, were produced by <mask>, Anthony and Matilda Joslyn Gage. Anthony handled the production details and the correspondence with contributors. <mask> wrote most of the first three volumes, with Gage writing three chapters of the first volume and <mask> writing the rest. Gage was forced to abandon the project afterwards because of the illness of her husband. After <mask>'s death, Anthony published Volume 4 with the help of Ida Husted Harper. After Anthony's death, Harper completed the

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton


texts:
 last two volumes, which brought the history up to 1920. <mask> and Anthony encouraged their rival Lucy Stone to assist with the work, or at least to send material that could be used by someone else to write the history of her wing of the movement, but she refused to cooperate in any way.<mask>'s daughter Harriot <mask>, who had returned from Europe to assist with the editing, insisted that the history would not be taken seriously if Stone and the AWSA were not included. She herself wrote an 120-page chapter on Stone and the AWSA, which appears in Volume 2. The History of Woman Suffrage preserves an enormous amount of material that might have been lost forever. Written by leaders of one wing of the divided women's movement it does not, however, give a balanced view of events where their rivals are concerned. It overstates the role of <mask> and Anthony, and it understates or ignores the roles of Stone and other activists who did not fit into the historical narrative they had developed. Because it was for years the main source of documentation about the suffrage movement, historians have had to uncover other sources to provide a more balanced view.Lisa Tetrault, The Myth of Seneca Falls: Memory and the Women's Suffrage Movement, 1848–1898, pp. 125–40

Lecture circuit

<mask> worked as a lecturer for the New York bureau of the Redpath Lyceum from late 1869 until 1879.This organization was part of the Lyceum movement, which arranged for speakers and entertainers to tour the country, often visiting small communities where educational opportunities and theaters were scarce. For ten years, <mask> traveled eight months of the year on the lecture circuit, usually delivering one lecture per day, two on Sundays. She

masks:
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton Blatch
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton


texts:
 also arranged smaller meetings with local women who were interested in women's rights. Traveling was sometimes difficult. One year, when deep snow closed the railroads, <mask> hired a sleigh and kept going, bundled in furs to protect against freezing weather. During 1871, she and Anthony traveled together for three months through several western states, eventually arriving in California. Her most popular lecture, "Our Girls," urged young women to be independent and to seek self-fulfillment.In "The Antagonism of Sex," she addressed the question of women's rights with a special fervor. Other popular lectures were "Our Boys," "Co-education," "Marriage and Divorce" and "The Subjugation of Women." On Sundays she would often speak on "Famous Women in the Bible" and "The Bible and Women's Rights." Her earnings were impressive. During her first three months on the road, <mask> reported, she cleared "$2000 above all expenses … besides stirring women generally up to rebellion." Accounting for inflation, that would be about $ in today's dollars. Because her husband's income had always been erratic and he had invested it badly, the money she earned was welcome, especially with most of their children either in college or soon to begin.Family events

After 15 years in Seneca Falls, <mask> moved to New York City in 1862 when her husband secured the position of deputy collector for the Port of New York. Their son Neil, who worked for Henry as his clerk, was caught taking bribes, causing both father and son to lose their jobs. Henry worked intermittently afterwards as a journalist and a lawyer. When her father died in 1859, <mask> received an inheritance worth an estimated $50,000, or about $ in today's dollars. In 1868,


texts:
 she bought a substantial country house near Tenafly, New Jersey, an hour's ride by train from New York City. The <mask> house in Tenafly is now a National Historic Landmark. Henry remained in the city in a rented apartment.Aside from visits, she and Henry afterwards mostly lived apart. Six of the seven <mask> children graduated from college. Colleges were closed to women when <mask> sought higher education, but both of her daughters were educated at Vassar College. Because graduate studies were not yet available to women in the U.S., Harriet enrolled in a master's program in France, which she abandoned after she became engaged to be married. Harriet earned a master's degree from Vassar at the age of 35. After 1884, Henry began to spend more time at Tenafly. In 1885, just before his 80th birthday, he published a short autobiography called Random Recollections.In it, he said that he had married the daughter of the famous <mask>, but he did not provide her name. In the third edition of his book, he mentioned his wife by name a single time. He died in 1887 while she was in England visiting their daughter. National American Woman Suffrage Association

The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870, removing much of the original reason for the split in the women's suffrage movement. As early as 1875, Anthony began urging the NWSA to focus more tightly on women's suffrage instead of a variety of women's issues, which brought it closer to the AWSA's approach. The rivalry between the two organizations remained bitter, however, as the AWSA began to decline in strength during the 1880s. In the late 1880s, Alice Stone Blackwell, daughter of AWSA leader Lucy Stone, began working to heal the breach among the older

masks:
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Judge Cady


texts: generation of leaders.Anthony warily cooperated with this effort, but <mask> did not, disappointed that both organizations wanted to focus almost exclusively on suffrage. She wrote to a friend that, "Lucy & Susan alike see suffrage only. They do not see women's religious & social bondage, neither do the young women in either association, hence they may as well combine." In 1890, the two organizations merged as the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). At Anthony's insistence, <mask> accepted its presidency despite her unease at the direction of the new organization. In her speech at the founding convention, she urged it to work on a broad range of women's issues and called for it to include all races, creeds and classes, including "Mormon, Indian and black women." The day after she was elected president, <mask> sailed to her daughter's home in England, where she stayed for eighteen months, leaving Anthony effectively in charge.When <mask> declined reelection to the presidency at the 1892 convention, Anthony was elected to that post. In 1892, <mask> delivered the speech that became known as The Solitude of Self three different times in as many days, twice to Congressional committees and once as her final address to the NAWSA. She considered it her best speech, and many others agreed. Lucy Stone printed it in its entirety in the Woman's Journal in the space where her own speech normally would have appeared. In pursuit of her lifelong quest to overturn the belief that women were lesser beings than men and therefore not suited for independence, <mask> said in this speech that women must develop themselves, acquiring an education and nourishing an inner strength, a belief in themselves.


texts:
 Self-sovereignty was the essential element in a woman's life, not her role as daughter, wife or mother. <mask> said, "no matter how much women prefer to lean, to be protected and supported, nor how much men desire to have them do so, they must make the voyage of life alone."Ginzberg, pp. 170, 192–93

The Woman's Bible and views on religion

<mask> said she had been terrified as a child by a minister's talk of damnation, but, after overcoming those fears with the help of her father and brother-in-law, had rejected that type of religion entirely. As an adult, her religious views continued to evolve. While living in Boston in the 1840s, she was attracted to the preaching of Theodore Parker, who, like her cousin Gerritt Smith, was a member of the Secret Six, a group of men who financed John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in an effort to spark an armed slave rebellion. Parker was a transcendentalist and a prominent Unitarian minister who taught that the Bible need not be taken literally, that God need not be envisioned as a male, and that individual men and women had the ability to determine religious truth for themselves. In the Declaration of Sentiments written for the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, <mask> listed a series of grievances against males who, among other things, excluded women from the ministry and other leading roles in religion. In one of those grievances, <mask> said that man "has usurped the prerogative of Jehovah himself, claiming it as his right to assign for her a sphere of action, when that belongs to her conscience and her God."This was the only grievance that was not a matter of fact (such as exclusion of women from colleges, from the right to vote, etc. ), but one of belief, one that


texts: challenged a fundamental basis of authority and autonomy. The years after the Civil War saw a significant increase in the variety of women's social reform organizations and the number of activists in them. <mask> was uneasy about the belief held by many of these activists that government should enforce Christian ethics through such actions as teaching the Bible in public schools and strengthening Sunday closing laws. In her speech at the 1890 unity convention that established the NAWSA, <mask> said, "I hope this convention will declare that the Woman Suffrage Association is opposed to all Union of Church and State and pledges itself … to maintain the secular nature of our government. In 1895, <mask> published The Woman's Bible, a provocative examination of the Bible that questioned its status as the word of God and attacked the way it was being used to relegate women to an inferior status. <mask> wrote most of it, with the assistance of several other women, including Matilda Joslyn Gage, who had assisted with the History of Woman Suffrage.In it, <mask> methodically worked her way through the Bible, quoting selected passages and commenting on them, often sarcastically. A best-seller, with seven printings in six months, it was translated into several languages. A second volume was published in 1898. The book created a storm of controversy that affected the entire women's rights movement. <mask> could not have been surprised, having earlier told an acquaintance, "Well, if we who do see the absurdities of the old superstitions never unveil them to others, how is the world to make any progress in the theologies? I am in the sunset of life, and I feel it to be my special mission to tell people what they are not


texts: prepared to hear." The process of critically examining the text of the Bible, known as historical criticism, was already an established practice in scholarly circles.What <mask> did that was new was to scrutinize the Bible from a woman's point of view, basing her findings on the proposition that much of its text reflected not the word of God but prejudice against women during a less civilized age. In her book, <mask> explicitly denied much of what was central to traditional Christianity, saying, "I do not believe that any man ever saw or talked with God, I do not believe that God inspired the Mosaic code, or told the historians what they say he did about woman, for all the religions on the face of the earth degrade her, and so long as woman accepts the position that they assign her, her emancipation is impossible." In the book's closing words, <mask> expressed the hope for reconstructing "a more rational religion for the nineteenth century, and thus escape all the perplexities of the Jewish mythology as of no more importance than those of the Greek, Persian, and Egyptian." At the 1896 NAWSA convention, Rachel Foster Avery, a rising young leader, harshly attacked The Woman's Bible, calling it a "volume with a pretentious title … without either scholarship or literary merit." Avery introduced a resolution to distance the organization from <mask>'s book. Despite Anthony's strong objection that such a move was unnecessary and hurtful, the resolution passed by a vote of 53 to 41. <mask> told Anthony that she should resign from her leadership post in protest, but Anthony refused.<mask> afterwards grew increasingly alienated from the suffrage movement. The incident led many of the younger suffrage leaders to


texts:
 hold <mask> in low regard for the rest of her life. Final years

When <mask> returned from her final trip to Europe in 1891, she moved in with two of her unmarried children who shared a home in New York City. She increased her advocacy of "educated suffrage," something she had long promoted. In 1894, she debated William Lloyd Garrison Jr. on this issue in the pages of Woman's Journal. Her daughter Harriot <mask>, who was then active in the women's suffrage movement in Britain and would later be a leading figure in the U.S. movement, was disturbed by the views that <mask> expressed during this debate. She published a critique of her mother's views, saying there were many people who had not enjoyed the opportunity to acquire an education and yet were intelligent and accomplished citizens who deserved the right to vote.In a letter to the 1902 NAWSA convention, <mask> continued her campaign, calling for "a constitutional amendment requiring an educational qualification" and saying that "everyone who votes should read and write the English language intelligently." In her later years, <mask> became interested in efforts to create cooperative communities and workplaces. She was also attracted to various forms of political radicalism, applauding the Populist movement and identifying herself with socialism, especially Fabianism, a gradualist form of democratic socialism. In 1898, <mask> published her memoirs, Eighty Years and More, in which she presented the image of herself by which she wished to be remembered. In it, she minimized political and personal conflicts and omitted any discussion of the split in the women's movement. Largely dealing with political topics, the memoir barely mentions her mother, husband

masks:
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton Blatch
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton
Stanton


texts:
 or children. Despite some degree of friction between <mask> and Anthony in their later years, on the dedication page <mask> said, "I dedicate this volume to Susan B. Anthony, my steadfast friend for half a century."<mask> continued to write articles prolifically for a variety of publications right up until she died. Death, burial, and remembrance

<mask> died in New York City on October 26, 1902, 18 years before women achieved the right to vote in the United States via the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The medical report said the cause of death was heart failure. According to her daughter Harriet, she had developed breathing problems that had begun to interfere with her work. The day before she died, <mask> told her doctor, a woman, to give her something to speed her death if the problem could not be cured. <mask> had signed a document two years earlier directing that her brain was to be donated to Cornell University for scientific study after her death, but her wishes in that regard were not carried out. She was interred beside her husband in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.After <mask>'s death, Susan B. Anthony wrote to a friend: "Oh, this awful hush! It seems impossible that voice is stilled which I have loved to hear for fifty years. Always I have felt I must have Mrs. <mask>'s opinion of things before I knew where I stood myself. I am all at sea." Even after her death, foes of women's suffrage continued to use <mask>'s more unorthodox statements to promote  opposition to ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, which became law in 1920. Younger women in the suffrage movement responded by belittling <mask> and glorifying Anthony. In 1923, Alice Paul, leader of the

masks: Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton Stanton