texts: and hoped instead for a constitution that he could agree to. Once the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 destroyed this hope, Louis adopted a strategy of strengthening royal authority and the church's position, and accepted the use of force to accomplish this. Mirabeau's involvement with the court is as interesting for the insights it provides into the mind of Louis XVI as it is for the effects it produced in the Revolution. On the question of the royal veto, Mirabeau took a practical view and, seeing that the royal power was already considerably weakened, declared for the king's absolute veto and against the suspensive veto. He knew from his British experience that such a veto would be impractical unless the king knew the people were on his side, and that if it were used unjustifiably, the power of the purse possessed by the representatives of the people could bring about a bloodless revolution. The difference between the suspensive veto and the absolute was simple: the absolute veto gave the king the power to stop any law for an indefinite period of time. The suspensive veto, on the other hand, put limitations on the powers of the king.The final compromise was to allow the king a suspensive veto for a period of two years. On the subject of peace and war, Mirabeau supported the king's authority with some success. Again, almost alone in the Assembly, he held that the soldier ceased to be a citizen when he became a soldier; he must submit to the deprivation of his liberty to think and act and must recognize that a soldier's first duty is obedience. With such sentiments, it is no wonder that he approved of the


type: original

texts:
 vigorous conduct of the marquis de Bouillé at Nancy, which was to his credit, as Bouillé was opposed to him. Lastly, in matters of finance, he attacked Necker's "caisse d'escompte", which was to have the whole control of the taxes, as usurping the Assembly's power of the purse, and heartily approved of the system of assignats, with the reservation that the issue should be limited to no more than one-half the value of the lands to be sold. He saw that much of the National Assembly's inefficiency arose from the members' inexperience and their incurable verbosity. To establish some system of rules, he got his friend Samuel Romilly to draw up a detailed account of the rules and customs of the British House of Commons, which he translated into French, but which the Assembly refused to use.Jacobin Club

In addition to his place in the National Assembly, <mask> also served as a member of the Jacobin Club until his death. However, historian Charles Kuhlmann believed that "he was a Jacobin in name only and regarded the society as one of the chief obstacles in the way of his plans for the restoration of royal authority." In the end, the Jacobins would stand in his way of restoring royal authority, but in the early years of the revolution, Mirabeau was actually a leading figure in the Jacobin Club. Mirabeau reached the height of his influence within the club when he was elected its president in December 1790. During his time in the Jacobin Club, he would have a lasting impact on the selling of church land, the slave trade, and the determination of which citizens could serve in the National Guard. Mirabeau argued for the selling


texts: of church lands to private individuals in order to rescue the country from its financial troubles. This argument would be strongly supported by his fellow Jacobins.Although Mirabeau argued for the abolition of slavery, it must be said that, "in spite of their oft-expressed devotion for liberty and equality, the clubs long remained indifferent to the horrors of slavery and the slave trade" until later in the revolution, after Mirabeau's death. As for the National Guard, the National Assembly passed a decree on 6 December 1790 stating that only active citizens could serve on the National Guard. Due to "an article of the electoral law of October, 1789, only persons whose annual tax amounted to the equivalent of three days' work were recognized as active citizens," leaving the decree of 6 December to restrict the right to bear arms to the middle and upper classes. The decree of 6 December led to heated debates within the clubs of the Jacobins, especially in Paris. It also pitted Maximilien Robespierre, a rising political figure, against Mirabeau. The evening after the decree was passed, Robespierre would attempt to give a speech against the decree at the Jacobins club in Paris only to be stopped by Mirabeau. He "attempted to stop him on the grounds that no one was allowed to challenge a decree already rendered" by the National Assembly; however, after an hour and a half of uproar Robespierre was allowed to finish.Historians believe that <mask> tried to stop Robespierre because he had begun to notice the change in the revolution to a more radical form led by the radical members of the Jacobin party. <mask> would serve as a

masks: Mirabeau Mirabeau


texts:
 member of the more moderate group called the Société des amis de la Révolution de Paris, which was formed in November 1789. This group would disappear by 1790 due to conflict within the Jacobin Club. After <mask>'s death, there would be no greater place of mourning than in the Jacobin Clubs throughout Paris. It is said that at "Alençon tears ran from every eye and members fainted" over hearing the news of his death. The mourning of Mirabeau as a Jacobin hero would not last long, however. After the deposing of the monarchy in 1792, the French republic would find letters written by Mirabeau to the king about trying to save the monarchy.This would lead to the destruction of his bust in the Jacobin Club and to his denunciation by Robespierre as "an intriguer and political charlatan unworthy of the honor of lying in the Pantheon." Foreign affairs

In foreign affairs, he held that the French people should conduct their revolution as they wished, and that no foreign nation had any right to interfere with the country's internal affairs. But he knew that neighboring nations were disturbed by the progress of the revolution, feared its influence on their own peoples, and that foreign monarchs were being importuned by French émigrés to intervene on behalf of the French monarchy. To prevent this intervention, or rather to give no pretext for it, was the guiding principle in his foreign policy. He was elected a member of the comité diplomatique of the Assembly in July 1790, and in this capacity he was able to prevent the Assembly from doing much harm with regard to foreign affairs. He had long known Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin,


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 the foreign secretary, and, as matters became more strained, he entered into daily communication with the minister, advising him on every point, and, while dictating his policy, defended it in the Assembly. Mirabeau's exertions in this respect showed him to be a statesman; his influence is best demonstrated by the confused state of affairs in this area after his death.Death

Mirabeau's health had been damaged by the excesses of his youth and his strenuous work in politics, and in 1791, he contracted pericarditis. With the continuous medical attention paid to him by his friend and physician Pierre Jean George Cabanis, Mirabeau survived to perform his duties as president of the National Assembly until his death on 2 April 1791 in Paris. Even close to the end, he directed debates with eloquence that further increased his popularity. The people of Paris cherished him as one of the fathers of the Revolution. During the Trial of Louis XVI in 1792, Mirabeau's dealings with the royal court were brought to light, and he was largely discredited by the public after it became known that he had secretly acted as an intermediary between the monarchy and the revolutionaries and had taken payment for it. Historians in the 21st century discovered secret documents in the archives of Vienna that demonstrate that the Austrian ambassador orchestrated the meetings with the king and queen. Florimond-<mask>, comte de Mercy-Argenteau, the ambassador, was the queen's political advisor, with advice tailored to the needs of Austria, not France.He received a grand burial, and it was for him that the Panthéon in Paris was created as a burial place


texts:
 for great Frenchmen. The street where he died (rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin) was renamed rue Mirabeau. In 1792, his secret dealings with the king were uncovered, and in 1794 his remains were removed from the Panthéon and were replaced with those of Jean-Paul Marat. His remains were then buried anonymously in the graveyard of Clamart. In spite of searches performed in 1889, they were not found. With <mask>'s death the task of saving the monarchy became much more difficult, as the king was less reconciled than he had ever been with the Revolution, and thus revolutionary leaders became less willing to share power with a king who proved so unwilling to compromise. Some historians, such as Francois Furet, however, believe that even had he lived, there would have been a similar outcome, as it would have been extremely difficult to remake the old monarchy in harmony with the growing democratic ideals of the age.Mirabeau proved himself as one of the strongest early leaders of the revolution. His energy captivated his audience, his leadership was often the lead of the revolutionary ideas, while his work with the king stained his image. Mirabeau's early life, though filled with the ideas of a young man revolting against a stern father, helped give him these qualities. Collaborators

His first literary work written after the bombastic, but eloquent Essai sur le despotisme (Neufchâtel, 1775) was a translation of Robert Watson's Philip II, done in Amsterdam with the help of Nicolas-Luton Durival. His Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus (London, 1788) was based on a pamphlet by Aedanus Burke of South Carolina, who opposed the


texts:
 aristocratic tendencies of the Society of the Cincinnati, and the notes to it were by Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target. His financial writings were suggested by the Genevese exile Étienne Clavière. During the Revolution, he received yet more help; men were proud to labour for him, and did not murmur because he absorbed all the credit and fame.Étienne Dumont, Clavière, Antoine-Adrien Lamourette and Étienne Salonion Reybaz were but a few of the most distinguished of his collaborators. Dumont was a Genevese exile and old friend of Romilly who willingly prepared the famous addresses that Mirabeau used to make to the Assembly marked by sudden bursts of eloquent declamation; Clavière helped him in finance and not only worked out his figures, but also wrote his financial discourses; Lamourette wrote the speeches on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; Reybaz not only wrote for him his famous speeches on the assignats, the organization of the national guard, and others, which Mirabeau read word for word at the tribune, but also even the posthumous speech on succession to the estates of intestates, which Talleyrand read in the Assembly as the last work of his dead friend. In popular culture
He was played by Sir Peter Ustinov in the 1989 film La Révolution française. He was also portrayed in the popular video game Assassin's Creed Unity as an Assassin and one of the main characters. Notes

References

Further reading
 Epstein, David M. "Mirabeau and The French Revolution: A Reappraisal," The Historian (1970) 32#4 pp 576–594 DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1970.tb00379.x online
 Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. A Critical Dictionary of the


texts:
 French Revolution (1989), pp. 264–72
 Luttrell, Barbara.Mirabeau (Southern Illinois University press, 1990), scholarly biography
 Price, Munro. "Mirabeau and the Court: Some New Evidence," French Historical Studies (2006) 29#1 pp 37–75, online
 Warwick, Charles F. <mask> and the French revolution (Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2005)
 von Guttner-Sporzynski, Darius. The French Revolution   (2015). In French

, valuable primary sources

External links

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texts:
Major General Sir <mask>,  (25 October 1906 – 10 November 1991) was a senior British Army officer. He was the last British Governor of Victoria, Australia from 1963 to 1974. Early life
<mask> and <mask>. Addis served as a pay officer in the British Army; several generations of Delacombes, whose seat was Shrewton Manor, Wiltshire, had served in the armed forces. <mask> was educated at Harrow School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. Military career
After passing out from Sandhurst, <mask> was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Royal Scots, then the most senior line infantry regiment in the British Army, on 4 February 1926. Philip "Pip" Roberts, who was another future general officer, was among his fellow graduates.He was promoted to lieutenant on 4 February 1929. He saw service in Egypt, North China and Quetta in India (now Pakistan) with the regiment's 1st Battalion, and was promoted to captain on 2 March 1937. <mask> then served in Palestine with the battalion during the Arab revolt from 1937 until the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939; he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in the 1939 King's Birthday Honours. <mask> was posted with the 4th Infantry Brigade, then commanded by Brigadier James Gammell and one of three brigades which formed part of Major General Charles Loyd's 2nd Infantry Division. The division was part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), which was sent to the Franco-Belgian border following Germany's invasion of Poland. After returning to England and attending a shortened course at the Staff College, Camberley, in 1940, Delacombe assisted Major General Adrian Carton de Wiart as a General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2) during the Namsos campaign in Norway. In 1942, <mask> was made commanding officer of the 8th Battalion, Royal Scots with the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel, and was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 4 February 1943.He led the battalion,

masks:
Rohan Delacombe
Delacombedis
Emma Louise Mary Delacombe
Rohan
Delacombe
Delacombe
Delacombe
Delacombe


texts: which formed part of the 227th Infantry Brigade of Major General Gordon "Babe" MacMillan's 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division, at the Battle of Normandy in mid-1944, where his leadership earned him a Distinguished Service Order (DSO), gazetted on 19 October 1944. He was wounded and, after recovering, made commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Scots, part of the 66th Brigade of the 1st Division, which fought in the Italian Campaign, which was followed by service in Palestine and then the Suez Canal zone. Delacombe then returned to staff duties as General Staff Officer (Grade 1) during the re-occupation of British Malaya from 1945 to 1947. He was promoted to substantive lieutenant colonel on 22 March 1948, and served as a general staff colonel at the headquarters of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). He was promoted to colonel on 31 December 1950 and was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1951 New Year Honours. He spent much of the next 14 years from 1948 to 1962 in Germany. He served as a temporary brigadier commanding the 5th Infantry Brigade (1950–1953), and was promoted to brigadier on 16 November 1954, in which capacity he was Deputy Military Secretary for the War Office.He was promoted to temporary major general on 4 October 1955 and appointed General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. He was made substantive major general on 29 November 1956, and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1957 Birthday Honours. He relinquished command of the division on 10 October 1958 and was appointed Commandant of the British Sector in Berlin on 23 March 1959. As commandant, his role included representing British interests in Spandau Prison, where Rudolf Hess was incarcerated. Knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1961 Birthday Honours, <mask> relinquished his appointment as Commandant of the British Sector in Berlin on 4 May 1962, and


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 retired from the army on 27 July. Governor of Victoria
<mask> was appointed as Governor of Victoria in Australia in 1963, and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in the 1964 New Year Honours. As governor, he was made an honorary colonel in the Australian Army's 1st Armoured Regiment.In 1967, <mask> was petitioned to exercise the Royal prerogative of mercy on behalf of the Queen, to commute the execution of Ronald Ryan. Four members of the jury had submitted a guilty verdict, in the belief that capital punishment had been abolished in Victoria, and that Ryan's sentence would be commuted to life imprisonment. These jurors then petitioned the governor to save Ryan after it became apparent that Premier Henry Bolte was determined he should hang. Delacombe called a meeting with the Victorian cabinet, at which it was unanimously agreed that the execution should proceed. Ryan was hanged on 3 February 1967, the last person in Australia to be executed. <mask>'s term ended in 1974. Death and memorials

<mask> died on 10 November 1991 at his home at Shrewton, England, and was buried in the churchyard at the parish church, St Mary's.Delacombe, Victoria, was named in his honour in 1965 during his tenure as Governor of Victoria. References

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1906 births
1991 deaths
British Army generals
British Army personnel of World War II
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masks: Delacombe Delacombe Delacombe Delacombe


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<mask> (born <mask>; ; 11 July 1561 –  24 May 1627) was a Spanish Baroque lyric poet and Catholic priest. <mask> and his lifelong rival, <mask>, are widely considered the most prominent Spanish poets of all time. His style is characterized by what was called culteranismo, also known as Gongorismo. This style existed in stark contrast to Quevedo's conceptismo. Biography

<mask> was born to a noble family in Córdoba, where his father, <mask>, was corregidor, or judge. In a Spanish era when purity of Christian lineage (limpieza de sangre) was needed to gain access to education or official appointments, he adopted the surname of his mother, <mask>. His uncle, Don Francisco, a prebendary of Córdoba Cathedral, renounced his post in favour of his nephew, who took deacon's orders in 1586.As a canon associated with this cathedral, <mask> <mask>, he was appointed honorary chaplain to King Philip III of Spain, but did not enjoy the honour long. He maintained a long feud with <mask> Quevedo, who matched him in talent and wit. Both poets composed many bitter, satirical pieces attacking one another, with Quevedo criticizing Góngora's penchant for flattery, his large nose, and his passion for gambling.Quevedo even accused his enemy of sodomy, which was a capital crime in 17th century Spain. In his "Contra el mismo (Góngora)", Quevedo writes of Góngora: No altar, garito sí; poco cristiano, / mucho tahúr, no clérigo, sí arpía. (English: There's no altar, but there's a gambling den; not much of a Christian, / but he's very much a cardsharp, not a cleric, definitely a harpy). <mask>'s nose, the subject of Quevedo's "A una nariz", begins with the lines: Érase un hombre a una nariz pegado, / érase una nariz superlativa, / érase una nariz sayón y escriba, / érase un peje espada muy

masks:
Luis de Góngora y Argote
Luis de Argote y Góngora
Góngora
Francisco de Quevedo
Góngora
Francisco de Argote
Leonor de Góngora
Luis de
Góngorarma
Francisco de
Góngora


texts:
 barbado (English: Once there was a man stuck to a nose, / it was a nose more marvellous than weird, / it was a nearly living web of tubes, / it was a swordfish with an awful beard). This angry feud came to a nasty end for Góngora when Quevedo bought the house Góngora lived in for the sole purpose of ejecting him from it. In 1626 a severe illness, which seriously impaired the poet's memory, forced him to return to Córdoba, where he died the following year. By then he was broke from trying to obtain positions and win lawsuits for all his relatives.An edition of his poems was published almost immediately after his death by Juan López <mask>ña; the frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear until 1633. The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs for guitar, and of some larger poems, such as the Soledades and the Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea (Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea) (1612), the two landmark works of the highly refined style called "culteranismo" or "Gongorismo". <mask> Cervantes, in his Viaje del Parnaso, catalogued the good and bad poets of his time. He considered Góngora to be one of the good ones. Velázquez painted his portrait. Numerous documents, lawsuits and satires by his rival Quevedo paint a picture of a man jovial, sociable, and talkative, who loved card-playing and bullfights. His bishop accused him of rarely attending choir, and of praying less than fervently when he did go.<mask>'s passion for card-playing ultimately contributed to his ruin. Frequent allusions and metaphors associated with card-playing in Góngora's poetry reveal that cards formed part of his daily life. He was often reproached for activities beneath the dignity of a churchman. Style
Culteranismo existed in stark contrast with conceptismo,

masks:
de Vicu
Miguel de
Góngora


texts: another movement of the Baroque period which is characterized by a witty style, wordplay, simple vocabulary, and conveying multiple meanings in as few words as possible. The best-known representative of Spanish conceptismo, <mask> Quevedo, had an ongoing feud with <mask> <mask> in which each criticized the other's writing and personal life. The word culteranismo blends culto ("cultivated") and luteranismo ("Lutheranism") and was coined by its opponents to present it as a heresy of "true" poetry. The movement aimed to use as many words as possible to convey little meaning or to conceal meaning."Góngora's poetry is inclusive rather than exclusive", one scholar has written, "willing to create and incorporate the new, literally in the form of neologisms." Góngora had a penchant for highly Latinate and Greek neologisms, which his opponents mocked. Quevedo lampooned his rival by writing a sonnet, "Aguja de navegar cultos," which listed words from Góngora's lexicon: "He would like to be a culto poet in just one day, / must the following jargon learn: / Fulgores, arrogar, joven, presiente / candor, construye, métrica, armonía..."  Quevedo actually mocked Góngora's style in several sonnets, including "Sulquivagante, pretensor de Estolo." This anti-Gongorist sonnet mocks the unintelligibility of culteranismo and its widespread use of flowery neologisms, including sulquivagante (he who plies the seas; to travel without a clear destination); speluncas ("caves"); surculos (sprouts, scions). He was also the first to write poems imitating the speech of blacks. Góngora also had a penchant for apparent breaks in syntactical flow, as he overturned the limitations of syntax, making the hyperbaton the most prominent feature of his poetry. He has been called a man of

masks:
Francisco de
Luis de
Góngora


texts:
 "unquestioned genius and almost limitless culture, an initiator who enriched his language with the vast power, beauty, and scope of a mighty pen."As far away as Peru, he received the praise of <mask> Espinosa Medrano (ca. 1629–1688), who wrote a piece defending Góngora's poetry from criticism called Apologético en favor de <mask> <mask>, Príncipe de los poetas lyricos de España: contra <mask> Faria y Sousa, Cavallero portugués (1662). As Dámaso Alonso has pointed out, Gongora's contribution to the Spanish language should not be underestimated, as he picked up what were in his time obscure or little-used words and used them in his poetry again and again, thereby reviving or popularizing them. Many of these words are quite common today, such as adolescente, asunto, brillante, construir, eclipse, emular, erigir, fragmento, frustrar, joven, meta, and porción. Works

<mask>'s poems are usually grouped into two blocks, corresponding more or less to two successive poetic stages. His Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea (Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea) and his Soledades (1613) are his best-known compositions and the most studied. The Fábula is written in royal octaves (octavas reales) and his Soledades is written in a variety of metres and strophes, but principally in stanzas and silvas interspersed with choruses.Góngora's Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea (1612) narrates a mythological episode described in Ovid's Metamorphoses: the love of Polyphemus, one of the Cyclopes, for the nymph Galatea, who rejects him. In the poem's end, Acis, enamored with Galatea, is turned into a river. <mask>'s Fábula de Píramo y Tisbe (Fable of Pyramus and Thisbe) (1618) is a complex poem that mocks gossiping and avaricious women. Góngora also wrote sonnets concerning various subjects of an

masks:
Juan de
Don Luis
de Góngora
Manuel de
Góngora
Góngora


texts:
 amatory, satirical, moral, philosophical, religious, controversial, laudatory, and funereal nature. As well as the usual topics (carpe diem etc.) the sonnets include autobiographical elements, describing, for example, the increasing decrepitude and advancing age of the author. In addition, Góngora composed one of his most ambitions works, El Panegírico al Duque de Lerma (1617), a poem in 79 royal octaves.Cervantes, after reading "El Panegírico", said: "the [work] I most esteem from those I've read of his." He also wrote plays, which include La destrucción de Troya, Las firmezas de Isabela, and the unfinished Doctor Carlino. Although Góngora did not publish his works (he had attempted to do so in 1623), manuscript copies were circulated and compiled in cancioneros (songbooks), and anthologies published with or without his permission. In 1627, Juan Lopez Vicuña published Verse Works of the Spanish Homer, which is also considered very trustworthy and important in establishing the Góngora's corpus of work. Vicuña's work was appropriated by the Spanish Inquisition and was later surpassed by an edition by Gonzalo <mask> in 1633. Góngora and the Generation of '27
The Generation of '27 took its name from the year 1927 in which the tricentennial of Góngora's death, ignored by official academic circles, was celebrated with recitals, avant-garde happenings, and an ambitious plan to publish a new critical edition of his work, as well as books and articles on aspects of his work that had not been fully researched. The Generation of '27 was the first to attempt to self-consciously revive baroque literature.Dámaso Alonso wrote that Góngora's complex language conveyed meaning in that it created a world of pure beauty. Alonso explored his work exhaustively and called Góngora


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 a "mystic of words." Alonso dispelled the notion that Góngora had two separate styles –"simple" and "difficult" poems- that were also divided chronologically between his early and later years. He argued that Góngora's more complex poems built on stylistic devices that had been created in Góngora's early career as a poet. He also argued that the apparent simplicity of some of Góngora's early poems is often deceptive. Rafael Alberti added his own Soledad tercera (Paráfrasis incompleta). In 1961, Alberti declared, "I am a visual poet, like all of the poets from Andalusia, from Góngora to García Lorca."García Lorca presented a lecture called "La imagen poética en don Luís de Góngora" at the Ateneo in Seville in 1927. In this lecture, García Lorca paid Jean Epstein the compliment of comparing the film director with Góngora as an authority on images. References in fiction and philosophy
The philosopher Baruch Spinoza proposed in his Ethics (1677) that a man can die before his body stops moving. As an example he mentioned "a Spanish poet who suffered an illness; though he recovered, he was left so oblivious to his past life that he did not believe the tales and tragedies he had written were his own". The historian Carl Gebhardt wrote that "this was probably Góngora, whose works Spinoza possessed, and who lost his memory a year before his death". The narrator of the Captain Alatriste series, a friend of <mask> Quevedo within the stories, illustrates Góngora's feuding with Quevedo, both by quoting poetry from each as well as describing Quevedo's attitude toward Góngora through the course of the story. Excerpts of poetry from one against the other are included within the story itself and poetry from each is included at the back of some of the books.Lawrence Durrell in


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 his novel Clea (1960), part of The Alexandria Quartet, includes a passage from the journal of his fictional novelist Pursewarden: "Why should the artist always be trying to saturate the world with his own anguish…emotional Gongorism!" In Giannina Braschi's bilingual novel Yo-Yo Boing! (1998) contemporary Latin American poets have a heated debate about <mask>'s and Quevedo's role in defining the Spanish empire through their works. The musical group Dead Can Dance used an English translation of Góngora's Da bienes Fortuna  as the lyrics for the song "Fortune Presents Gifts Not According to the Book" on their 1990 album Aion. In the second of the five parts of Roberto Bolaño's novel 2666 (published posthumously in 2004), "The Part about Amalfitano", one of the characters (the poet, whose name is never explicitly stated) quotes a verse from Góngora: Ande yo caliente y ríase la gente. John Crowley's novel "The Solitudes" (1987) repeatedly refers to and quotes from Gongora's poem "Soledades." References

Sources

 Hennigfeld, Ursula (2008).Der ruinierte Körper. Petrarkistische Sonette in transkultureller Perspektive. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann. Spinoza, Baruch (1677/1985). Ethics. In The Collected Works of Spinoza, volume 1. Edited and translated by Edwin Curley.Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. External links

English translations of some of Góngora's poems
Góngora website, Brown University Department of Hispanic Studies
 Poems by Góngora
 <mask> <mask> y Argote (1561–1627) (texts of his poems, in Spanish)
 <mask> <mask> y Argote (1561–1627) (texts of his poems, in Spanish)

1561 births
1627 deaths
People from Córdoba, Spain
Spanish poets
Counter-Reformation
University of Salamanca alumni
Generation of '27
Spanish male poets
Baroque

masks:
Góngora
Luis de
Góngora
Luis de
Góngora


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<mask> (7 June 1884 – 12 May 1955) was a German physicist. After receipt of his doctorate from the University of Berlin, Esau worked at Telefunken, where he pioneered very high frequency (VHF) waves used in radar, radio, and television, and he was president of the Deutscher Telefunken Verband. During World War I, he was a prisoner of war of the French; he was repatriated to Germany in 1919. In 1925, he was appointed professor at the University of Jena, where he also served as rector. From 1933, <mask> was the State Councilor in Thuringia. From 1937, <mask> was head of the physics section of the newly created Reich Research Council (RFR). From 1939, he was a professor at the University of Berlin and president of the Reich Physical and Technical Institute.From his position in the RFR, he initiated the first meeting of the Uranium Club in early 1939, the precursor to the Army Ordnance Office (HWA) German nuclear energy project, which began in September of that year. When the HWA gave control of the project to the RFR in 1942, Esau became the plenipotentiary of nuclear physics and was in control of the project. In 1944, Esau became the plenipotentiary of the high-frequency engineering and radar working group. During World War II, Esau was one of the most powerful physicists in Germany. After World War II until 1948, Esau was a prisoner of war of the Dutch. From 1949, Esau was a visiting professor of short-wave technology at the RWTH Aachen. From 1953, he was also head of the Institute of High-Frequency Engineering of the German Aeronautical Research Institute.Education
<mask> was born in Tiegenhagen (Tujec) in Landkreis

masks:
Robert Abraham Esau
Esau
Esau
Esau


texts:
 Marienburg, West Prussia. He was the son of Prussian Mennonites, Osar <mask> (1861-1945) and Maria Agnes (Regier<mask> (1861-1892). From 1902 to 1907, Esau studied at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (today, the Humboldt University of Berlin) and the Königliche Technische Hochschule zu Danzig (today, Gdańsk University of Technology). From 1906 to 1909, he was a teaching assistant to Max Wien at Danzig. He received his doctorate at the University of Berlin in 1908. Career

Early years
From 1909 to 1910, Esau was a volunteer at the radio transmission division of the Berlin telegraph battalion. From 1910 to 1912, he was teaching assistant at the Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg.From 1914, he was on active duty with the German military in Togo; he became a prisoner of war of the French and did not return to Germany until 1918. From 1912 to 1925, Esau served as laboratory chairman of the Gesellschaft für drahtlose Telegraphie (Wireless Telegraph Society) in Berlin. During this time, at Telefunken, he pioneered very high frequency (VHF) waves used in radar, radio, and television. In 1921 and 1922, he had stays in Argentina and Brazil. From 1925, <mask> was president of the Deutscher Telefunken Verband. In 1925, <mask> began his association with the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena. From 1925 to 1927, he was an extraordinarius professor of technical physics, and from 1927 to 1939, he was an ordinarius professor of technical physics and director of the department of technical physics.He was rector there from 1932 to 1935 and in 1937. Dr. <mask> was also the advisor of Dr. Lothar Rohde and Dr. Hermann Schwarz,

masks:
Abraham Esau
) Esau
Esau
Esau
Esau


texts: who later on founded the company Rohde & Schwarz, in 1933 during their doctorate in Friedrich Schiller University of Jena. In October 1933, <mask> became a Staatsrat (State Councilor) in Thuringia, a position he held until the end of World War II. This role gave him direct access to Adolf Hitler. On the initiative of Erich Schumann, the Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council) was inaugurated on 16 March 1937 by Reich Minister Bernhard Rust of the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM, Reich Education Ministry). The RFR was set up to centralize planning for all basic and applied research in Germany, with the exception of aeronautical research, which was under the supervision of Reich Marshal Hermann Göring. Support for research was decided by the heads of 13 special sections of the RFR (Fachspatenleiter).<mask> was a member of the RFR from its inception, and he was head of the physics section (Fachspatenleiter für Physik), which included mathematics, astronomy, and meteorology. From this position in the RFR, he would play major roles in the German nuclear energy project, sometimes also referred to as the Uranverein (Uranium Club). In 1938, Esau was appointed Professor of Military Telecommunications Technology in the Faculty of Military Engineering, which had recently been founded at the Technische Hochschule Berlin (today, the Technische Universität Berlin), in Berlin-Charlottenburg. From 1939 to 1945, Esau was ordinarius professor at the University of Berlin and president of the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (PTR, Reich Physical and Technical Institute; today, the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt). At

masks: Esau Esau


texts:
 the same time he was a visiting lecturer at the Technische Akademie Bergisch-Land (Technical Academy of Bergisches Land). Additionally, for this same period, Esau was president of the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderrung der Forschung (German Association for the Support and Advancement of Scientific Research), also known for short as the Deutsche Forschungs-Gemeinschaft (DFG), which had before 1937 been known as the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (NG; Emergency Association of German Science). World War II and the Uranverein
Shortly after the discovery of nuclear fission in December 1938/January 1939, the Uranverein, i.e., the German nuclear energy project, had an initial start in April before being formed a second time under the Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office) in September.First Uranverein

Paul Harteck was director of the physical chemistry department at the University of Hamburg and an advisor to the Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office). On 24 April 1939, along with his teaching assistant Wilhelm Groth, Harteck made contact with the Reichskriegsministerium (RKM, Reich Ministry of War) to alert them to the potential of military applications of nuclear chain reactions. Two days earlier, on 22 April 1939, after hearing a colloquium paper by Wilhelm Hanle on the use of uranium fission in a Uranmaschine (uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor), Georg Joos, along with Hanle, notified Wilhelm Dames, at the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM, Reich Ministry of Education), of potential military applications of nuclear energy. The communication was given to <mask>u, head of the


texts:
 physics section of the Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council) at the REM. On 29 April, a group, organized by Esau, met at the REM to discuss the potential of a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The group included the physicists Walther Bothe, Robert Döpel, Hans Geiger, Wolfgang Gentner (probably sent by Walther Bothe), Wilhelm Hanle, Gerhard Hoffmann, and Georg Joos; Peter Debye was invited, but he did not attend. After this, informal work began at the Georg-August University of Göttingen by Joos, Hanle, and their colleague Reinhold Mannfopff; the group of physicists was known informally as the first Uranverein (Uranium Club) and formally as Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Kernphysik.The group's work was discontinued in August 1939, when the three were called to military training. Second Uranverein

The second Uranverein began after the Heereswaffenamt squeezed out the Reichsforschungsrat of the Reichserziehungsministerium and started the formal German nuclear energy project under military auspices. The second Uranverein was formed on 1 September 1939, the day World War II began, and it had its first meeting on 16 September 1939. The meeting was organized by Kurt Diebner, advisor to the HWA, and held in Berlin. The invitees included Walther Bothe, Siegfried Flügge, Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Gerhard Hoffmann, Josef Mattauch, and Georg Stetter. A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included Klaus Clusius, Robert Döpel, Werner Heisenberg, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. Also at this time, the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, after World War II the


texts: Max Planck Institute for Physics), in Berlin-Dahlem, was placed under HWA authority, with Diebner as the administrative director, and the military control of the nuclear research commenced.When it was apparent that the nuclear energy project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the war effort in the near term, control of the KWIP was returned in January 1942 to its umbrella organization, the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft (KWG, Kaiser Wilhelm Society, after World War II the Max-Planck Gesellschaft), and HWA control of the project was relinquished to the RFR in July 1942. The nuclear energy project thereafter maintained its kriegswichtig (important for the war) designation and funding continued from the military. On 9 June 1942, Adolf Hitler issued a decree for the reorganization of the RFR as a separate legal entity under the Reichsministerium für Bewaffnung und Munition (RMBM, Reich Ministry for Armament and Ammunition, after autumn 1943 the Reich Ministry for Armament and War Production); the decree appointed Reich Marshal Hermann Göring as the president. The reorganization was done under the initiative of Reich Minister for Armament and Ammunition Albert Speer; it was necessary as the RFR under Minister Bernhard Rust was ineffective and not achieving it purpose. It was the hope that Göring would manage the RFR with the same discipline and efficiency as he had in the aviation sector. On 8 December 1942, <mask> was appointed as Hermann Göring's Bevollmächtiger (plenipotentiary) for nuclear physics research under the RFR – at this point, Esau was in charge of the German nuclear energy project. At the end of


texts:
 1943, <mask> resigned as plenipotentiary of nuclear physics; in December, Walther Gerlach replaced him as plenipotentiary for nuclear physics and as head of the physics section of the RFR.As of 1 January 1944, <mask>, replacing Johannes Plendl, became the plenipotentiary of the high-frequency engineering and radar working group (A. G. Hochfrequenzphysik). In the final analysis, placing the RFR under Göring's administrative control had little effect on the German nuclear energy project. Over time, the HWA and then the RFR controlled the German nuclear energy project. The most influential people were Erich Schumann, <mask>, Walther Gerlach, and Kurt Diebner. During World War II, <mask> was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. Even after <mask> left his position as plenipotentiary for nuclear physics and head of the physics section at the RFR at the end of 1942, he continued to have significant authority and influence as president of the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, as is attested to by the fact that he was able to continue research efforts for the Urainverein under the highest priority level for urgent development projects (Dringlichkeitsentwicklung, DE). Post-World War II
After the war, the Americans turned Esau over to the Dutch to stand trial for his involvement in the plunder of research facilities of the electronics firm Philips.He was acquitted and expelled in 1948. Later, he was tried and convicted in absentia; without a conviction, the Dutch could not make a legal claim for damages from Germany. Thanks to support from Leo Brandt, a science policy-maker of North

masks:
Esau
Esau
Abraham Esau
Esau
Esau


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 Rhine-Westphalia, Esau was able to establish himself back into the German scientific community. From 1949, Esau was a visiting professor of short-wave technology at the RWTH Aachen University. From 1953, he was also head of the Institute of High-Frequency Engineering of the German Aeronautical Research Institute in Mülheim an der Ruhr. Esau died in Düsseldorf. Honors
In 1954, he received an honorary doctorate from the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg for his work on diathermy.In 1954 the science policy-maker of North Rhine-Westphalia, Leo Brant, nominated <mask> for a medal of distinction. The award was not made, due to the intervention of the physicist Max von Laue, who pointed out Esau's prominent role as a chief representative of National Socialism. Internal reports
The following reports were published in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte (Research Reports in Nuclear Physics), an internal publication of the German Uranverein. The reports were classified Top Secret, they had very limited distribution, and the authors were not allowed to keep copies. The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation. In 1971, the reports were declassified and returned to Germany. The reports are available at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center and the American Institute of Physics.Abraham Esau Herstellung von Leuchtfarben ohne Anwendung von Radium G-213 (5 May 1943)
Abraham Esau Einleitung G-214 (5 May 1943)

Books
Abraham Esau Weltnachrichtenverkehr und Weltnachrichtenmonopole (Fischer, 1932)
Abraham Esau 375 Jahre Universität Jena (Fischer,


texts:
 1933)
Abraham Esau Die Entwicklung der deutschen drahtlosen Nachrichtentechnik (Fischer, 1934)
Abraham Esau Einführung zu den Berichten der Herren Frhr von Handel und Plendl (Oldenbourg, 1939)
Abraham Esau Elektrische Wellen im Zentimetergebiet (Oldenbourg, 1940)
Abraham Esau Werner von Siemens (de Gruyter, 1943)
Abraham Esau Ortung mit elektrischen und Ultraschallwellen in Technik und Natur (Westdt. Verl., 1953)
Abraham Esau Der Ultraschall und seine technischen Anwendungen (Westdt. Verl., 1955)

Notes

References
 A. <mask>, Das Reich Deutsche Wochenzeitung Berlin, No. 29, 16 July 1944, p. 1. The English translation and reprint of this tribute to <mask>u for his 61st is Document #105, A[braham]. Esau [16 July 1944] in Hentschel, Klaus (editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator) Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996) 324–327. Beyerchen, Alan D. Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (Yale, 1977)
Diebner, Kurt Listing of Nuclear Research Commissions Enclosed with a Letter to the President of the Reich Research Council [18 April.1944] in Document No. 104 in Hentschel, Klaus (editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator) Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996) 322–324. The document was issued by direction of Kurt Diebner as a Reich Planning Officer. Esau, Abraham Technische Physic, in Deutsche Wissenschaft. Arbeit und Aufgabe (Hirzel, 1939) pp. 171–172. The English translation and reprint of this article is Document No.72 in Hentschel, Klaus (editor) and

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Abraham Esa


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 Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator) Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996) 193–194. Esau, <mask> Memorandum on the Budget of the Plenipotentiary of Nuclear Physics Research [19 November 1943], Document No. 103 in Hentschel, Klaus (editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator) Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996) 321–322. Hentschel, Klaus, editor and Ann M. Hentschel, editorial assistant and Translator Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996)
Klaus Hentschel The Mental Aftermath: The Mentality of German Physicists 1945–1949 (Oxford, 2007)
Hoffmann, Dieter Between Autonomy and Accommodation: The German Physical Society during the Third Reich, Physics in Perspective 7(3) 293–329 (2005)
Kant, Horst Werner Heisenberg and the German Uranium Project / Otto Hahn and the Declarations of Mainau and Göttingen, Preprint 203 (Max-Planck Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 2002)
Macrakis, Kristie Surviving the Swastika: Scientific Research in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 1993)
Walker, Mark German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949 (Cambridge, 1993)

External links

1884 births
1955 deaths
People from Nowy Dwór Gdański
People from West Prussia
Nuclear program of Nazi Germany
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Gdańsk University of Technology alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Technical University of Berlin faculty
University of Jena faculty
Recipients of the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross
20th-century  German physicists
German


texts:
<mask> (née <mask>; May 4 or July 29, 1820 – July 10, 1889) was the second wife of <mask>, who was the tenth president of the United States. As such, she served as the first lady of the United States from June 26, 1844, to March 4, 1845. Early life
<mask> was born on either May 4 or July 29, 1820. Sources differ about her date of birth, her grave states the July date but several biographies give the May date; including that by her son and biographer <mask>. She was born on New York's Gardiner's Island, one of the largest privately-owned islands in the United States. She was the daughter of <mask>, a landowner and New York State Senator (1824 to 1828), and <mask>. Her ancestry was Dutch, Scottish, and English.She was raised in the town of East Hampton and the small hamlet of Bay Shore, and educated at the Chegary Institute in New York. In 1839, she shocked polite society by appearing, posed with an unidentified man and identified as "The Rose of Long Island", in a newspaper advertisement for a middle-class department store. Her family took her to Europe to avoid further publicity and allow her notoriety to subside. They first left for London, arriving on October 29, 1840. They visited England, France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Holland, Belgium, Ireland, and Scotland before returning to New York in September 1841. Courtship with President <mask>
On January 20, 1842, the 21-year-old <mask> was introduced to President <mask> at a White House reception. After the death of his first wife, Letitia <mask>, on September 10, 1842, <mask> made it clear that he wished to get involved with <mask>.Initially, the high-spirited and independent-minded northern beauty felt little attraction to the grave, reserved Virginia gentleman, who was thirty years her senior. He first proposed to her on February 22,

masks:
Julia Tyler
Gardiner
John Tyler
Julia Gardiner Tyler
Lyon Gardiner Tyler
David Gardiner
Juliana MacLachlan Gardiner
Tyler
Julia
John Tyler
Christian Tyler
Tyler
Julia


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 1843, when she was 22, at a White House Masquerade Ball. She refused that and later proposals he made. The increased time spent together prompted public speculation about their relationship. <mask>, her sister Margaret, and her father joined a Presidential excursion on the new steam frigate Princeton. During this excursion, her father, <mask>, along with others, lost his life in the explosion of a huge naval gun called the Peacemaker. <mask> was devastated by the death of her adored father.She spoke often in later years of how the President's quiet strength sustained her during this difficult time. <mask> comforted <mask> in her grief and won her consent to a secret engagement, proposing in 1844 at the George Washington Ball. First Lady of the United States
After a wedding trip to Philadelphia, a White House reception, and a stay at Sherwood Forest, an estate the president had recently acquired for his retirement, the newlyweds returned to Washington D.C.. Although her husband was often visibly fatigued, his youthful wife thoroughly enjoyed the duties of First Lady. The anthem "Hail to the Chief" had been played at a number of events associated with the arrival or presence of the President of the United States before <mask> became First Lady, but she ordered its regular use to announce the arrival of the President. It became established practice when her successor, Sarah Polk did likewise. In the last month of the <mask> administration, she hosted a grand White House ball for 3,000 guests.Later life

The <mask>s retired to Sherwood Forest, where they lived tranquilly until the Civil War. Although a northerner by birth, Mrs. <mask> soon grew accustomed to the leisurely routines of daily life as the wife of a wealthy plantation owner. <mask> wrote a defense of slavery titled "The Women of

masks:
Julia
David Gardiner
Julia
Tyler
Julia
Julia Tyler
Tyler
Tyler
Tyler
Julia


texts: England vs. the Women of America", in response to the "Stafford House Address" petition against slavery which the Duchess of Sutherland had helped to organize. In response to <mask>'s essay, Harriet Jacobs, a former slave and later abolitionist writer, authored her first published work, a letter to the New York Tribune in 1853. After her husband's death in 1862, she lost her 60 slaves and 1,100 acres of land due to military events. <mask> moved north to Staten Island with several of her children, although family relations were so strained that her brother <mask> refused to travel to Virginia to escort her to New York and eventually moved out of his mother's house, where <mask> had settled. Her home there was almost burned down by enraged Union veterans when it was discovered she was flying a Confederate flag on the property.She resided at the <mask>-Tyler House from 1868-74. In 1865, her brother David sued to prevent her from inheriting the bulk of their mother's estate valued at $180,000, charging that <mask> had exerted "undue influences" on their mother to execute a will despite her "mental incapacity". The court supported his claim on August 25 and refused to accept the will. After two appeals, <mask> won the case in 1867. David then asked the courts to partition the estate as if no will existed. <mask> asked for a jury trial on the issue, and the jury declined to consider the contested will as an argument in her favor. The New York Times thought <mask> was treated unfairly and that the dispute could be traced to "the political antagonisms of the rebellion, which have divided many a household besides that of Mrs.<mask>." She and her daughter Pearl both converted to Roman Catholicism and were conditionally baptized in May 1872. The depression that followed the Panic of 1873 depleted her

masks:
Julia Tyler
Julia
David Gardiner
Julia
Gardiner
Julia Tyler
David Gardiner
Julia
Julia
Gardiner


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 finances. She returned to Virginia to live with the aid of her grown children. She lobbied Congress for a pension and was granted a monthly allowance in 1880. Following the assassination of President James Garfield in 1881, Congress granted an annual pension of $5,000 to widows of former presidents. Her residence is listed as Williams Landing in Hamilton County, Tennessee on page 342 of the 'List of Pensioners on the Roll, January 1, 1883' where she is shown as receiving $416.66 per month as a widow.Personal life
Because of the circumstances surrounding her father's death, <mask> and John agreed to marry with a minimum of celebration. On June 26, 1844, the President slipped into New York City, where the nuptials were performed by the Right Reverend Benjamin Treadwell Onderdonk, fourth bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New York, at the Church of the Ascension, not too far from the <mask>'s residence on LaGrange Terrace. President <mask> was 54 years old, while <mask> was just 24. <mask>'s oldest daughter, Mary, was 5 years older than her father's new wife. The marriage made <mask> the first First Lady to marry a President who was already in office at the time of the wedding. The bride's sister, Margaret, and brother, Alexander, were bridesmaid and best man. Only the President's son, <mask> III, represented the groom's family.<mask> was so concerned about maintaining secrecy that he did not confide his plans to the rest of his children. Although his sons readily accepted the sudden union, the <mask> daughters were shocked and hurt. The news was then broken to the American people, who greeted it with keen interest, much publicity, and some criticism about the couple's 30-year difference in age. It was awkward for the eldest <mask> daughter, Mary, to adjust to a new stepmother five years

masks:
Julia
Gardiner
Tyler
Julia
Tyler
Julia
John Tyler
Tyler
Tyler
Tyler


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 younger than herself. One daughter, Letitia, never made peace with her stepmother. Between 1846 and 1860, <mask> and John had seven children together:

 <mask> <mask> (July 12, 1846 – September 5, 1927), a lawyer and public official. John Alexander "Alex" <mask> (April 7, 1848 – September 1, 1883), an engineer who, like his older brother, dropped out of Washington College to join the Confederate army and, after the war, resumed his studies in Germany.There he joined the Saxon Army during the Franco-Prussian War and took part in the occupation of France in 1871. For his service he was decorated by the Prussian government. He became a mining engineer and, returning to the United States, was appointed U.S. surveyor of the Interior Department in 1879. While working in that capacity in New Mexico, he drank contaminated water and died at 35. <mask> <mask> (December 12, 1849 – May 8, 1871), who married William H. Spencer, a debt-ridden farmer of Piffard, New York, in 1869. She died from the effects of childbirth at age 22 at the Spencer home, Westerly. Lachlan <mask> (December 2, 1851 – January 2, 1902), a doctor who practiced medicine in Jersey City, New Jersey, and in 1879 became a surgeon in the U.S. Navy.From 1887, he practiced in Elkhorn, West Virginia. <mask> <mask> (August 24, 1853 – February 12, 1935), an educator. Robert Fitzwalter "Fitz" <mask> (March 12, 1856 – December 30, 1927), a farmer of Hanover County, Virginia. Margaret Pearl <mask> (June 12, 1860 – June 30, 1947), who at the age of 12 converted to Roman Catholicism along with her mother. She married William Munford Ellis, a former member of the Virginia House of Delegates, and lived near Roanoke. <mask> suffered a stroke in Richmond and died there at the Exchange Hotel on July 10, 1889, aged 68. John had died 27 years earlier

masks:
Julia
David Gardiner
Tyler
Tyler
Julia Gardiner
Tyler
Gardiner Tyler
Lyon Gardiner
Tyler
Tyler
Tyler
Julia Tyler


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 in the same hotel, of a stroke as well.<mask> was buried next to him at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond. Her funeral was held in Richmond at St. Peter's Cathedral on July 12, 1889, and was attended by Governor Fitzhugh Lee and Mayor James Taylor Ellyson, with the absolution performed by Bishop Augustine Van de Vyver. Legacy
In Bay Shore, Gardiner's Park, a wide expanse of virgin land with trails leading to the South Shore, Gardiner Drive and Gardiner Manor Elementary School are all named after her family. In 2009, the United States Mint honored the former First Lady with the issuance of a 24 karat gold coin. The papers of the <mask> family, including <mask> <mask>, are held by the Special Collections Research Center at the College of William and Mary. Their son Lyon, like his father, married his second wife late in life, and as of 2021, one of the <mask>s' grandsons is still alive; the other died in September 2020. References
Notes

Sources

Other sources
White House biography
Biography, from the National First Ladies' Library.External links
The Tyler Courtship and Wedding
Finding aid for the Tyler Family Papers, Group A
<mask> at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image

1820 births
1889 deaths
19th-century American women
19th-century Roman Catholics
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American people of Scottish descent
Burials at Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia)
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Calvinism
First Ladies of the United States
<mask> family
<mask>
People from Bay Shore, New York
People from Charles City County, Virginia
People from East Hampton (town), New York
People from Richmond, Virginia
People from Staten Island
American proslavery activists
Catholics from Virginia
Catholics from New York (state)
People from West New Brighton,

masks:
Julia
Tyler
Julia Gardiner
Tyler
Tyler
Julia Tyler
Gardiner
Julia Tyler


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<mask> (11 January 1929 – 1 May 2018) was a Polish violinist and academic teacher. She was known for both the classical repertoire and for her interpretation of 20th-century music, having received two Polish State Awards for promoting Polish music to the world as well as other awards for her contribution to music. She gave world premiere performances of numerous contemporary works, including music by Tadeusz Baird and Krzysztof Penderecki. Wiłkomirska performed on a violin crafted by Pietro Guarneri in 1734 in Venice. She taught at the music academies of Mannheim and Sydney. Biography
Born in Warsaw on 11 January 1929, <mask> first learned the violin from her father Alfred Wiłkomirski, and studied with Irena Dubiska at the Academy of Music in Łódź, graduating in 1947. She next attended the Franz Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest where she studied under Ede Zathureczky, graduating in 1950.She performed in Paris, which led to Henryk Szeryng asking her to study with him. She won prizes at competitions in Geneva (1946), Budapest (1949) and Leipzig (the International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition, 1950; second prize). She also studied in Warsaw under , who helped her prepare for the Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition in Poznań in December 1952, where she played Karol Szymanowski's Concerto No. 1 for the first time (it became a favourite of hers). She shared second prize with Julian Sitkovetsky; the first prize winner was Igor Oistrakh. In 1953, she was awarded the Polish State Award for music in recognition of her "eminent violin artistry". In 1955, <mask> performed at the inauguration of the rebuilt Warsaw Philharmonic Concert Hall, with the Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra, playing Karol

masks:
Wanda Wiłkomirska
Wanda Wiłkomirska
Wanda Wiłkomirska


texts: Szymanowski's First Violin Concerto under Witold Rowicki.She became the orchestra's principal soloist that year and gave many performances with the orchestra around the world, with such conductors as Rowicki, Stanisław Wisłocki and Antoni Wit. She held the position for 22 years. In 1961, she made her debut in the United States with the orchestra, which became the beginning of an international career. The American impresario Sol Hurok (who managed such violinists as Isaac Stern and David Oistrakh) introduced her to enthusiastic audiences in the U.S. and Canada. She performed in over 50 countries, in all continents. In the 1960s and 1970s, she gave an average of 100 concerts per year. In 1969, she gave 37 performances in Australia, a country she later emigrated to.These interpretations won her great acclaim and she received further recital and concert proposals from Australian orchestras. In 1973, she was the first violinist to perform a solo recital in the newly built Sydney Opera House (she was accompanied by Geoffrey Parsons). In 1976 she helped inaugurate the Barbican Hall in London with a performance of Benjamin Britten's Violin Concerto, scheduled to be conducted by Sir John Barbirolli, but in the end by Erich Leinsdorf. Though married to a communist party official, in the 1970s Wiłkomirska became supportive of dissidents in Poland and in 1982, during the period of martial law in Poland, she announced during a concert tour in the West that she would not return to Poland at the end of the tour. One of her sons, Arthur, also defected to West Germany. In 1983, she accepted the chair of music professor at the Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Mannheim. From that time, teaching became her great


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 passion and an opportunity to share her instrumental skills and experience as a musician with the next generation of virtuosos.In 1999 she joined the teaching staff of the Sydney Conservatorium of Music and since February 2001 also worked for the Australian National Academy of Music in Melbourne. She continued to be a part of musical life in Europe, flying between the two continents for concerts, master classes and competitions, while remaining involved in musical life in Australia. Wiłkomirska was often a jury member at violin competitions, such as those held in Moscow, Tokyo, London, Munich, Vienna, Graz, Hanover, Gorizia, and in Poland, in Poznań, Kraków, Łódź and Lublin. Career
<mask>ska often performed in a piano trio, accompanied by her sister Maria at the piano and her brother Kazimierz on the cello, as the Wiłkomirska Trio. She also played with Krystian Zimerman, Daniel Barenboim, Gidon Kremer, Natalia Sheludiakova, Martha Argerich, Kim Kashkashian and Mischa Maisky. Wiłkomirska gave premiere performances of various Polish contemporary compositions, such as: Grażyna Bacewicz's Violin Concerto No. 5 (1951) and Violin Concerto No.7 (1979), Tadeusz Baird's Expressions (1959), Augustyn Bloch's Dialogues (1966), Krzysztof Penderecki's Capriccio (1968), Zbigniew Bargielski's Violin Concerto (1977), Zbigniew Bujarski's Violin Concerto (1980), Roman Maciejewski's Sonata (1998) and Włodzimierz Kotoński's Violin Concerto (2000). Recitals
<mask>ska gave recitals and performed symphonic concerts in many famous halls, including: Carnegie Hall, the Lincoln Center, Salle Pleyel in Paris, Leipzig Gewandhaus, the Royal Festival Hall, the Pyotr Tchaikovsky Hall in Moscow and the Berlin Philharmonie. She performed

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Wanda Wiłkomir
Wanda Wiłkomir


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 with the New York Philharmonic, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Hallé Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic, the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, the Gewandhaus Orchestra, the Scottish Chamber Orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra and the Berliner Philharmonic, with such celebrated conductors as: Paul Kletzki, Pierre Boulez, Paul Hindemith, Otto Klemperer, Zubin Mehta, Sir John Barbirolli, Wolfgang Sawallisch, Kurt Masur and Erich Leinsdorf. She played only once with Leonard Bernstein, artistic differences leading them not to repeat the experience. Recordings
In 1968, she began regularly recording for the Connoisseur Society record company in New York, for which she made 12 albums, some with the pianist Antonio Barbosa. Two of these won awards, namely "Best of the Year" (1972) and the "Grand Prix du Disque" (1974). She also recorded with Deutsche Grammophon, EMI, Philips, Naxos, and Polskie Nagrania.Her recordings include the works of Accolay, Bacewicz, Bach, Baird, Bargielski, Bartok, Beethoven, Augustyn Bloch, Brahms, Bujarski, Dancla, Franck, Handel, Karlowicz, Khachaturian, Kreisler, Martini, Mussorgsky, Pallasz, Prokofiev, Rachmaninoff, Ravel, Shostakovich, Szymanowski, Tchaikovsky, Viotti and Wieniawski. Her recordings, mostly of chamber music, include:
 <mask> plays Polish Music, chamber music by Paderewski, Bacewicz, Zarzycki und Bargielski, with Paul Dam, Ambitus, amb97830
 Prokofieff: Two Violin Sonatas, with Ann Schein, piano, Connoisseur Society, CD 4079
 Works by Wieniawski, Lipinski and Bacewicz with Jadwiga Szamotulska, Gambit 1003-1
 Britten Violin Concerto, with the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Witold Rowicki, 1967, Orchestral Concert CDs, CD12/2011
 <mask>, chamber music by

masks:
Wanda Wiłkomirska
Wanda Wilkomirska


texts:
 Moussorgsky, Kreisler, Wieniawski, Debussy, Bartok, Szymanowski and Sarasate, with David Garvey, piano. Connoisseur Society CS2070 (LP) Original release in SQ QuAdraphonic sound. Brahms: Violin Sonata No. 3 Op. 108; Beethoven: Sonata No. 5 "Spring" with Antonio Barbosa, piano.Connoisseur Society CS2080 Stereo
 Fritz Kreisler's Beloved Melodies, with Antonio Barbosa, piano. Connoisseur Society CS2022 Stereo
 Ravel: Habanera, Violin Sonata; Grieg: Violin Sonata No. 3, with Antonio Barbosa, piano. Connoisseur Society CS2038 Stereo
 Bach: Music for unaccompanied violin, Sonata No. 1; Partita No. 2 Connoisseur Society CS2040 Stereo
 Franck: Violin Sonata; Szymanowski: |Mythes, with Antonio Barbosa, piano. Connoisseur Society CS2050 Quadraphonic
 Delius: Three Violin Sonatas, with David Garvey, piano.Connoisseur Society CS2069 Quadraphonic (1987)
 Brahms: Violin Sonatas No. 1 and No. 2, with Antonio Barbosa, piano. Connoisseur Society CS2079 Quadraphonic

Personal life
<mask> married journalist Mieczysław Rakowski in 1952, editor-in-chief of Polityka since 1958. They divorced in 1977, two years after Rakowski joined the Central Committee of the communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR). Rakowski later became Prime Minister of Poland (1988–89) and First Secretary of the PZPR and established a reputation as a liberalizing reformist, influenced by Wiłkomirska and dissidents he met through her. They had two sons, one of whom emigrated to Australia.Her mother, Dorota Wiłkomirska (née Dvoira Temkin, 1901–1986), was a pianist and music teacher, who also published several note collections for children. Wiłkomirska died on 1 May 2018 in Warsaw, aged 89. Honours
 Polish State Awards (1953, 1964)
 Order of Polonia


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 Restituta (1981)
 Commander Cross with a Star (2001)
 Medal for her work for the Polish community in Australia (2005)
 Award of the Karol Szymanowski Foundation (1997) for "a special emphasis on Karol Szymanowski's music; unique, ardent and expressive interpretation thereof; and propagation of his music worldwide." Honorary Doctorate from the Music Academy in Łódź (2006). References

External links

 Official Website
 Discography

 David Dubal interview with <mask>ska (1 of 4), WNCN-FM, 6-Jun-1980
 David Dubal interview with <mask>ska (2 of 4), WNCN-FM, 13-Jun-1980
 David Dubal interview with <mask>ska (3 of 4), WNCN-FM, 20-Jun-1980
 David Dubal interview with <mask> (4 of 4), WNCN-FM, 27-Jun-1980
 I’LL PLAY IT FOR YOU, Ein Dokumentarfilm über die Geigerin <mask>ska (2008)

 Interview with <mask>ska sigridharris.wordpress.com 2007
 Michał Buczkowski: In Memoriam: <mask>ska (in Polish) sbs.com 2 May 2018
 Happy birthday, Michael Gielen! Chicago Symphony Orchestra
 <mask>mirska wieniawski.pl
 <mask> Wilkomirska muziekweb.nl
 Poland’s violin virtuoso <mask> Wilkomirska dies at age 89 wn.com (record covers)
 Raymond Ericson: Music: Polish Violinist The New York Times, 9 March 1979

1929 births
2018 deaths
Polish classical violinists
Jewish classical violinists
Australian classical violinists
Polish emigrants to Australia
Franz Liszt Academy of Music alumni
Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition prize-winners
Polish music educators
Sydney Conservatorium of Music faculty
Recipients of the Gold Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis
Officers of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Commanders of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Commanders with Star of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Women classical violinists
Recipients

masks:
Wanda Wiłkomir
Wanda Wikomir
Wanda Wiłkomir
Wanda Wiłkomirska
Wanda Wikomir
Wanda Wilkomir
Wanda Wiłkomir
Wanda Wiłko
Wanda
Wanda


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<mask> (born September 9, 1952) is a United States Navy Captain and NASA astronaut. He flew on STS-110 in 2002. Personal data
Born in Manchester, New Hampshire, Morin is married with two children and three grandchildren. An amateur machinist, he enjoys math and jogging. Education
1970: Graduated from the Western Reserve Academy, Hudson, Ohio
1974: Received a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematical/Electrical science from the University of New Hampshire
1978: Received a Master of Science degree in Biochemistry from New York University
1981: Received a Doctorate of Medicine degree from New York University School of Medicine
1982: Received a Doctorate of Microbiology degree from New York University
1988: Received a Master of Public Health degree from the University of Alabama at Birmingham
2008: Received a Master in Science degree in Physics from the University of Houston Clear Lake

Organizations
Aerospace Medical Association
Force Recon Association
Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society
Society of United States Naval Flight Surgeons. Awards
Meritorious Service Medal
Navy Commendation Medal
Navy Achievement Medal
Navy Unit Commendation
Meritorious Unit Commendation (two awards)
Overseas Service Ribbon
National Defense Service Medal
Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait)
Southwest Asia Service Medal
Expert Pistol Medal
Expert Rifle Medal

Badges
Captain Morin has been awarded the following US Navy Badges:
US Navy Astronaut Wings aboard STS-110
US Navy Flight Medical Office's Wings while at Naval Aerospace Medical Institute in Pensacola, Florida
US Navy Diving Officer's Badge and US Navy Submarine Medical Officer's Badge while serving aboard the USS Henry M. Jackson (SSBN-730)

Special


texts:
 honors
Recipient of the 1994 Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Award for Excellence in Military Medicine (also known as the Fisher Award)
Finalist of the 1995 Innovations in American Government Award from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University and the Ford Foundation
Received the 1996 Sustaining Membership Lecture Award for the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States. Experience
After graduating from the University of New Hampshire in 1974, Morin worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the laboratory now known as the Media Lab.Morin matriculated at New York University School of Medicine in 1974, received a Master of Science in Biochemistry in 1978, an M.D. in 1981, and a Ph.D. in Microbiology in 1982. He then completed two years of residency training in General Surgery at the Bronx Municipal Hospital Center and at Montefiore Medical Center in The Bronx, New York City. In 1982, Morin received a Direct Commission in the U.S. Naval Reserve. In 1983, he entered active duty and attended the Naval Undersea Medical Institute in Groton, Connecticut. He was designated as an Undersea Medical Officer in 1983.He joined the crew of the submarine  at the Electric Boat Company Shipyards in Groton. He remained aboard as Medical Officer for both Blue and Gold crews until 1985 when the ship arrived at its home port in Bangor, Washington. During his tour aboard Henry M. Jackson, Morin qualified as a Diving Medical Officer, and also received his "Dolphins" as a qualified Submarine Medical Officer. Morin then entered Flight Surgeon training at the Naval Aerospace Medical Institute (NAMI) in Pensacola, Florida. He received his "Wings of Gold" as a


texts:
 Naval Flight Surgeon in 1986, and remained on the staff at NAMI as Flight Surgeon/Diving Medal Officer until 1989. While at NAMI, he received his Masters of Public Health degree from the University of Alabama at Birmingham. He then left active duty and entered private practice in occupational medicine in Jacksonville, Florida.He remained in the Naval Reserve, and drilled with the United States Marine Corps' 3rd Force Reconnaissance Company in Mobile, Alabama. In August 1990, he was recalled to active duty during Operation Desert Shield, when he was assigned to Branch Clinic, Naval Air Station Pensacola as a Flight Surgeon. Morin volunteered to reenter active duty, and was assigned to Administrative Support Unit, Bahrain, as Diving Medical Officer/Flight Surgeon during Operation Desert Storm and during the post-war build-down period. In 1992, <mask> rejoined the staff at NAMI, initially as Special Projects Officer. He was named the Director of Warfare Specialty Programs when NAMI became Naval Aerospace and Operational Medical Institute (NAOMI). In 1995, Morin entered the Residency in Aerospace Medicine at the Naval Aerospace and Operational Medical Institute. He completed the residency in 1996.NASA
Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in April 1996, Morin reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1996. Having completed two years of training and evaluation, he is qualified for flight assignment as a mission specialist. Initially assigned technical duties in the Astronaut Office Computer Support Branch, followed by the Astronaut Office Advanced Vehicles Branch. He served a one-year tour with the U.S. State Department, where he was Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health,


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 Space, and Science. He is currently assigned to the Exploration Branch of the Astronaut Office. He is leading the rapid prototyping of the cockpit for the new Orion spacecraft, and is deputy lead of the Orion Cockpit Working Group. Morin served on the EVA crew of STS-110 (2002) and has logged over 259 hours in space, including over 14 EVA hours.As of December 2016, Morin was assigned to the Exploration Branch, where he works on the Orion Multipurpose Crew Vehicle. AS of 2021, Morin is a management astronaut which mean he is no longer eligible for flight assignment. Space flight experience
STS-110 Atlantis (April 8–19, 2002) was the 13th Space Shuttle mission to visit the International Space Station. Mission milestones included: the delivery and installation of the SO (S-Zero) Truss; the first time the station's robotic arm was used to maneuver spacewalkers around the station; and the first time that all of a shuttle crew's spacewalks were based from the station's Quest Airlock. Morin performed 2 EVAs totaling 14 hours and 9 minutes. The crew prepared the station for future spacewalks and spent a week in joint operations with the station's Expedition 4 crew. Mission duration was 10 days, 19 hours and 42 minutes.References

1952 births
Living people
Physician astronauts
United States Navy astronauts
People from Manchester, New Hampshire
Military personnel from New Hampshire
American people of French-Canadian descent
University of New Hampshire alumni
New York University School of Medicine alumni
University of Alabama at Birmingham alumni
United States Navy Medical Corps officers
United States Navy captains
Submariners
Western Reserve Academy alumni
Space Shuttle program


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<mask> (March 19, 1810 – December 10, 1898) was an abolitionist and women's rights activist in Rochester, New York. She served as president of the Rochester Women's Rights Convention, which was held in 1848 immediately after the first women's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention. By doing so, <mask> became the first woman to preside over a public meeting composed of both men and women in the U.S. Early life
<mask> was born on March 19, 1810, attended the orthodox First Presbyterian Church in Rochester, New York, and helped her mother with charitable works. In 1831, she converted to become a "Brick Church perfectionist" in the wake of popular evangelical revival meetings featuring Charles Grandison Finney. After conversion, she attended the Second Presbyterian Church, known as the "Brick Church", and worked with the Rochester Female Charitable Society, an organization that provided care for the poor and ill. Marriage and family
<mask> married <mask>, the brother of <mask> (great-great grandfather of President George H.W.<mask>) in 1833. Henry and his brother were stove manufacturers and radical abolitionists. Within five years, <mask>'s name stopped appearing in association with Brick Church activities. Over the next thirteen years, <mask> went through childbirth six times, with four children living past infancy. In a split among abolitionists in 1840, <mask> chose to remain with the American Anti-Slavery Society, the faction which accepted women as active members. <mask> grew more sympathetic to radical reform and come-outerism, and withdrew in 1843 from the Brick Church to become active in the Western New York Anti-Slavery Society. <mask> was at that time the most prominent ex-Evangelical woman in radical circles.Rochester Women's Rights Convention, 1848
At the end of the Seneca Falls Convention in July 1848, convention-goers from Rochester

masks:
Abigail Norton Bush
Bush
Abigail Norton
Abigail Norton
Henry Bush
Obadiah Bush
Bush
Abigail Bush
Bush
Henry Bush
Abigail Bush
Bush


texts: (<mask> did not attend) were moved to hold a similar convention of their own. They convinced Lucretia Mott to stay in New York long enough to be the featured speaker at their convention, as she had been at Seneca Falls. In Rochester, an Arrangements Committee was chosen to organize the convention, and a small nominating committee was formed within it for the purpose of choosing convention officers. Amy Post, Rhoda DeGarmo and Sarah D. Fish met in the evening of August 1, 1848, to select a roster of officers composed wholly of females, with <mask> to be president. On the morning of August 2, 1848, in the Rochester Unitarian Church, Amy Post called the Rochester Women's Rights Convention to order and read the suggested slate of officers. The proposal for a woman to be the president of the convention met with immediate opposition. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mary Ann M'Clintock and Lucretia Mott were strongly against the idea of a woman president, not wanting a poor showing by women officers to give a bad public image to the new women's rights movement.They had been among the organizers of the Seneca Falls Convention, which had followed tradition by electing a man to preside. Stanton asked how could a woman, without knowledge of parliamentary procedure and without experience in holding public meetings, serve as president? Stanton, Mott and M'Clintock "were on the verge of leaving the Convention in disgust" when Post, Fish and DeGarmo convinced them that it could work. <mask> was elected after a vote was taken among the audience, making her the first woman to preside over a public meeting composed of both men and women in the U.S. When <mask> took her position as president, Mott and Stanton left their places of honor on the platform and took seats in the audience. After an opening prayer by a male Free Will Baptist minister, one of the convention's three

masks:
Bush
Abigail Bush
Bush
Bush


texts:
 secretaries read the minutes of the previous Seneca Falls Convention. Cries of "louder, louder" were heard from audience members who could not discern the weakly sounded words of the secretary.<mask> took the platform and said

<mask> presided over all three sessions of the one day of convention. At a late hour, <mask> adjourned the meeting "with hearts overflowing with gratitude." Lucretia Mott approached <mask> and hugged her warmly, thanking her for presiding. Stanton apologized for her own "foolish conduct" in doubting the ability of <mask> to succeed. From that point forward, women were always chosen president of women's rights conventions in the United States. Afterward
In late December 1848, <mask> was a member of the business committee of the Western New York Anti-Slavery Society. Her contribution, and that of two other Rochester women, served to fulfill the Society's tenet of equal social participation of women.In 1849 or 1850, <mask>, stung by years of business losses, headed west to seek his fortune in the California Gold Rush, and by the early 1850s, <mask> joined him with their children. The family settled on a 600 acre ranch just south of the then border of Martinez, California in Contra Costa County, about 20 miles east of San Francisco. Her husband died in the late 1870s, at which time she sold the northern portion of the ranch to the Christian Brothers, who built a seminary and began their wine making business. In 1878, <mask> sent a letter to the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) convention in Rochester congratulating the women's movement on the 30th anniversary of the Seneca Falls and Rochester conventions: "Say to your convention my full heart is with them in all their deliberations and counsels, and I trust great good to women will come of their efforts." In 1898, NWSA celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Seneca Falls and

masks:
Bush
Bush
Bush
Bush
Bush
Bush
Henry Bush
Abigail Bush
Bush


texts:
 Rochester conventions, and honored <mask>'s early courage and strength during a session entitled "Pioneer's Evening". <mask> was then 88 years old and still living in California; she wrote to Susan B. Anthony regarding her role at the 1848 convention in Rochester to say "I had not been able to meet in council at all with the friends, on account of sickness in my family until I met them in the hall as the congregation were gathering & then fell into the hands of those who urged me to take part with the supporters of a woman serving as the president of the meeting. They had James Mott, a fine-looking man, to preside at Seneca Falls, but his head fell at the hands of my old friends Amy Post, Rhoda DeGarmo and Sarah Fish, who at once commenced laboring with me to prove the hour had come when a woman could preside and led me into the church.Amy proposed my name as president. It was accepted at once, and from that hour I seemed endowed as from on high to serve through two  day's meetings and three sessions per day." <mask> died shortly after writing this letter, on December 10, 1898. References
Notes

Sources
 Hewitt, Nancy A. Women's activism and social change, Lexington Books, 2001. Isenberg, Nancy. Sex and citizenship in antebellum America, University of North Carolina Press, 1998.McMillen, Sally Gregory. Seneca Falls and the origins of the women's rights movement. Oxford University Press, 2008. Moses, Claire Goldberg; Hartmann, Heidi I. U.S. women in struggle, University of Illinois, 1995. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady; Anthony, Susan B.; Gage, Matilda Joslyn. History of Woman Suffrage, Volume I, covering 1848–1861. Copyright 1881.1810 births
1898 deaths
Activists from Rochester, New York
American abolitionists
American feminists
American suffragists
American women's rights activists
Feminism and history
History of women's rights in the United States
Women civil

masks: Bush Bush Bush


texts:
<mask> ( ; April 4, 1906 – October 13, 1968) was an American actress and comedienne. Born in New York City and raised in San Francisco, she began performing in Bay Area theatre and radio before embarking on a Hollywood career that spanned over three decades. Benaderet first specialized in voice-over work in the golden age of radio, appearing on numerous programs while working with comedians of the era such as Jack Benny, Burns and Allen, and Lucille Ball. Her expertise in dialect and characterization led to her becoming Warner Bros.' leading voice of female characters in their animated cartoons of the early 1940s through the mid-1950s. <mask> was then a prominent figure on television in situation comedies, first with The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show from 1950 to 1958, for which she earned two Emmy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress. In the 1960s, she had regular roles in four series up until her death from lung cancer in 1968, including the commercial successes The Beverly Hillbillies, The Flintstones, and her best known role as Kate Bradley in Petticoat Junction. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame honoring her work in television.Early life
<mask> was born on April 4, 1906, in New York City. Her mother, Margaret (née O'Keefe), was Irish American, and her father, Samuel David <mask>, a Turkish Sephardic emigrant, was a tobacconist who relocated the family from New York to San Francisco in 1915 after his participation in the Panama–Pacific International Exposition. The same year, he opened a smoke shop that operated for 65 years, making it the oldest such retailer in California at the time of its closure in 1980. Benaderet was raised Catholic and attended grade school at a Dominican convent. She studied voice and the piano; her first acting performance came at 11 when she portrayed a bearded old man in a school play. The following year, her participation in a children's production of The Beggar's Opera resulted in a local radio station

masks:
Beatrice Benaderet
Benaderet
Beatrice Benaderet
Benaderet


texts:
 manager inviting her to a one-time performance on one of his programs, for which she was paid $10. Benaderet made her professional theatre debut at 16 in a production of The Prince of Pilsen, and after graduating from St. Rose Academy, a private, all-girls' high school, she attended the Reginald Travers School of Acting and joined his stock company The Players' Guild, appearing in stage productions of works such as Polly, Lysistrata, and Uncle Tom's Cabin.Career

Radio

In 1926, Benaderet joined the staff of San Francisco radio station KFRC, which was under the new ownership of Don Lee and where her duties included acting, singing, writing, and producing. Initially seeking work as a dramatic actress, she switched to comedy and performed on multiple programs, in particular the Blue Monday Jamboree variety show, where her castmates included Meredith Willson, Elvia Allman, and future I Love Lucy producer Jess Oppenheimer. Benaderet honed a variety of dialects such as French, Spanish, New York English, and Yiddish, the latter from voicing a character named "Rheba Haufawitz". She additionally hosted the musical variety show Salon Moderne and gained attention for her work as a female announcer, a rarity in 1930s radio. Benaderet relocated to Hollywood in 1936 and joined radio station KHJ, making her network radio debut with Orson Welles for his Mercury Theatre repertory company heard on The Campbell Playhouse. The following year she received her first big break in the industry on The Jack Benny Program, where she played Gertrude Gearshift, a wisecracking telephone operator who gossiped about Jack Benny with her cohort Mabel Flapsaddle (Sara Berner). Intended as a one-time appearance, the pair became a recurring role starting in the 1945–46 season, and in early 1947, <mask> and Berner momentarily took over the NBC switchboards in Hollywood for publicity photos.She performed in as many as five shows daily, causing her rehearsal dates to conflict with those of The


texts:
 Jack Benny Program and resulting in her reading live as Gertrude from a marked script she was handed upon entering the studio. Other recurring characters Benaderet portrayed were Blanche Morton on The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show; school principal Eve Goodwin on The Great Gildersleeve; Millicent Carstairs on Fibber McGee & Molly; maid Gloria on The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet; and Iris Atterbury on the Lucille Ball vehicle My Favorite Husband, opposite Gale Gordon. Benaderet voiced various one-time parts before joining the main cast as Iris, neighbor and friend of Ball's character Liz Cooper. The 1950 CBS program Granby's Green Acres, a perceived spinoff of My Favorite Husband, was her one radio lead role and reunited her with Gordon as a husband and wife who abandon city life to become farmers, but it lasted only eight episodes. Voice acting
Beginning in 1943, Benaderet became Warner Bros.' primary voice of adult female supporting characters for their Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes animated shorts, initially sharing duties with Sara Berner. Her characterizations included an obnoxious teenaged bobbysox version of Little Red Riding Hood in Little Red Riding Rabbit (1944); Witch Hazel in Bewitched Bunny (1954); the spinster hen Miss Prissy in several Foghorn Leghorn cartoons; Tweety's owner "Granny" including the Academy Award-winning Tweetie Pie (1947); and <mask> in a series of Three Bears shorts, which animator Chuck Jones called one of his favorite portrayals. Benaderet did not receive onscreen credit for her work, as she was employed by Warner Bros. as a freelance actor who voiced peripheral characters, and unlike Mel Blanc, was not under contract with the studio.In 1955, she was succeeded by June Foray as Warner's premier female voice artist. Television
Benaderet was Lucille Ball's first choice as Ethel Mertz for the sitcom I Love Lucy; Ball said in a 1984 interview that she had "no other picture of anyone" for the role. However, Benaderet had


texts: to turn down the offer since she was contracted to the television adaptation of The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show, so Vivian Vance was eventually cast. Benaderet guest-starred on the January 21, 1952, first-season episode "Lucy Plays Cupid" as the character of Miss Lewis, a love-starved spinster neighbor. Benaderet continued her Burns & Allen radio role of the Burns' neighbor Blanche Morton, Gracie's friend and staunchest supporter in her escapades. She was the only secondary cast member who appeared in every episode and the first six shows were shot live in New York, resulting in Benaderet commuting to Los Angeles where she was working several radio assignments at the time. Blanche's husband Harry was played by four actors over the show's eight-year run; the last, Larry Keating, was introduced on the October 5, 1953 fourth-season premiere when George Burns entered the set and halted a scene of an angered Blanche preparing to hit Harry with a book.Burns introduced Keating to <mask> and the audience, and she broke character to exchange pleasantries with Keating. The segment then resumed and Benaderet struck Keating with the book. <mask> and Gracie Allen regularly shopped for their own on-set wardrobe and she developed a high-pitched laugh for Blanche that became a staple of the character and used for comic effect: "When we had a scene with some silent spots in it, George would say to me, 'Laugh there, Bea. Benaderet garnered two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series in 1954 and 1955. Following Allen's retirement in 1958 at the end of the eighth season, the program continued as The George Burns Show in 1958–59 with Blanche repackaged as George's secretary, but it was cancelled after one season due to low ratings. Benaderet worked sparsely in 1959, filming one-time appearances on General Electric Theater and The Restless Gun. Benaderet became a fixture on television in the 1960s, which included working on two

masks: Benaderet Benaderet


texts:
 shows simultaneously from 1960 to 1964.She played housekeeper Wilma in the lone season of the 1960 sitcom Peter Loves Mary, a part she received on the back of references from Burns. Benaderet considered herself "lucky" to be cast in another series out of fear that she had become too closely associated with Burns & Allen. The same year, she was then cast as Betty Rubble in the Hanna-Barbera primetime animated series The Flintstones. Benaderet auditioned with past radio coworker Jean Vander Pyl for Betty and Wilma Flintstone by exchanging dialogue before the show's co-creator Joseph Barbera, who asked afterward what part they preferred. Vander Pyl recalled in 1994: "I said, 'Oh, I want to be Wilma!' [and] <mask> said, 'That's fine with me. Benaderet voiced guest spots on the side for fellow Hanna-Barbera productions Top Cat and The Yogi Bear Show during 1961 and 1962.While filming the debut season of her show Petticoat Junction the next year, she continued voicing Betty by recording her part alone or with her Flintstones castmates during evening hours until scheduling conflicts forced her to drop the role at the end of the fourth season in 1964. She was replaced by Gerry Johnson. Collaboration with Paul Henning
In the late 1940s, Benaderet befriended Paul Henning, a scriptwriter on the radio production of Burns & Allen. She appeared on the 19 episodes of the show he had written between 1947 and 1951. She became one of his regular players in the first two seasons of Burns & Allen, a two-episode guest appearance on The Bob Cummings Show in 1956–57, and  her involvement in three of the most successful sitcoms of the 1960s. After reading the 1961 first script for The Beverly Hillbillies, Benaderet wanted to audition for the role of Granny. Despite considering her to be too buxom for his vision of the character as a small and wiry woman, Henning allowed her to test anyway.Irene Ryan ultimately won the role; according to Henning, "<mask> took one look at the way

masks: Bea Bea


texts: Irene did the part and said to me, 'There's your Granny! He additionally took Benaderet's suggestion of casting Harriet MacGibbon as Granny's rival Margaret Drysdale. Henning created for Benaderet the supporting character of Cousin Pearl Bodine, the middle-aged widowed mother of Jethro Bodine (Max Baer Jr.) and cousin of main character Jed Clampett (Buddy Ebsen), whom she convinces to move from his humble home in the Ozarks after he strikes oil on his property and becomes a millionaire. Prior to shooting the pilot, Benaderet enlisted a dialect coach to help her learn a hillbilly accent. Impressed with her performance while screening the pilot to potential sponsors, Henning made Cousin Pearl a recurring character in the 1962–63 first season as she moved into the Clampetts' Beverly Hills mansion, feuded with Granny, and pursued oil tycoon Mr. Brewster (Frank Wilcox) as a love interest. Bluegrass duo Flatt & Scruggs, who performed the show's opening theme, recorded a comedic serenade in 1963 titled "Pearl Pearl Pearl" and Benaderet was pictured on the single's cover. Benaderet described Pearl's curly hair as "just my mental image of the character.... Pearl played the piano for the silent movies and she saw such high fashion and ridiculous hairdos. She could read and write, and the curled hair seemed to Pearl the height of smartness." Paul Henning had long admired Benaderet's talents and strove to create a starring vehicle for her, as he felt she was worthy of headlining her own series after years of supporting parts. When CBS granted him an open time slot after the massive success of Beverly Hillbillies, he crafted the 1963 rural sitcom Petticoat Junction around Benaderet, starring as Kate Bradley, the widowed proprietor of the Shady Rest Hotel. Cousin Pearl was consequently written out of the Beverly Hillbillies storyline as having moved back home. The character of Kate represented Benaderet's first straight role: "Kate Bradley is different from the characters


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 I've played in the past. She has to walk a fine line between being humorous and tender.The other women I've played were strictly for laughs." Benaderet and director Richard Whorf auditioned the young actresses who would play Kate's three teenage daughters; she persuaded Henning to let his 18-year-old daughter Linda read (successfully) for the role of Betty Jo Bradley. Linda Henning and <mask>'s son, Jack Bannon, were members of a young actors' theater group at the time. CBS promoted the show's September 22, 1963, premiere with a print ad featuring an Al Hirschfeld caricature of Benaderet as Cousin Pearl. Petticoat Junction was an immediate hit, peaking at fourth in the Nielsen ratings, and remained in the top 30 during Benaderet's four full seasons on the show from 1963 to 1967. Her former Flintstones costars Alan Reed and Jean Vander Pyl filmed guest spots in later seasons. Henning was again given free rein for a new show with no pilot needed, which he bestowed to colleague Jay Sommers due to his busy schedule.Sommers created the 1965 sitcom Green Acres, adapted from his 1950 radio program Granby's Green Acres that had starred Benaderet, thus making it a spinoff of her own television show. Benaderet filmed six appearances as Kate in the first season as both shows' casts intermingled on several episodes in a process dubbed "cross-pollination". Film and other works
Benaderet played bit parts in six motion pictures from 1946 to 1962, four of which were uncredited. She was chosen from two hundred actresses for the part of a government file clerk in Alfred Hitchcock's Notorious (1946) and completed filming in half an hour, but her scenes were cut from the final print. She told Radio Life magazine that year that after having struggled to remember her lines, "Mr. Hitchcock looked me right in the eye and asked 'You want to go back to radio?' I said yes". Her first onscreen appearance, also uncredited, was in the film On the Town (1949), as one of two women whom the