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 practice among the chroniclers. Holy Roman Empire

Marriage and coronation

In late 1108 or early 1109, King Henry V of Germany sent envoys to Normandy proposing that <mask> marry him, and wrote separately to her mother on the same matter. The match was attractive to the English king: his daughter would be marrying into one of the most prestigious dynasties in Europe, reaffirming his own, slightly questionable, status as the youngest son of a new royal house, and gaining him an ally in dealing with France. In return, Henry V would receive a dowry of 10,000 marks, which he needed to fund an expedition to Rome for his coronation as the Holy Roman emperor.The final details of the deal were negotiated at Westminster in June 1109 and, as a result of her changing status, <mask> attended a royal council for the first time that October. She left England in February 1110 to make her way to Germany. The couple met at Liège before travelling to Utrecht where, on 10 April, they became officially betrothed. On 25 July <mask> was crowned German queen in a ceremony at Mainz. There was a considerable age gap between the couple, as <mask> was only eight years old while Henry was 24. After the betrothal she was placed into the custody of Bruno, the archbishop of Trier, who was tasked with educating her in German culture, manners and government. In January 1114 <mask> was ready to be married to Henry, and their wedding was held at the city of Worms amid extravagant celebrations.<mask> now entered public life in Germany, complete with her own household. Political conflict broke out across the Empire shortly after the marriage, triggered when Henry

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texts: arrested his chancellor, Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, and various other German princes. Rebellions followed, accompanied by opposition from within the Church, which played an important part in administering the Empire, and this led to the formal excommunication of the Emperor by Pope Paschal II. Henry and <mask> marched over the Alps into Italy in early 1116, intent on settling matters permanently with the Pope. <mask> was now playing a full part in the imperial government, sponsoring royal grants, dealing with petitioners and taking part in ceremonial occasions. The rest of the year was spent establishing control of northern Italy, and in early 1117 the pair advanced on Rome itself. Paschal fled when Henry and <mask> arrived with their army, and in his absence the papal envoy Maurice Bourdin, later antipope under the name Gregory VIII, crowned the pair at St Peter's Basilica, probably that Easter and certainly (again) at Pentecost.<mask> used these ceremonies to claim the title of the empress of the Holy Roman Empire. The Empire was governed by monarchs who, like Henry V, had been elected by the major nobles to become the king. These kings typically hoped to be subsequently crowned by the pope as emperors, but this could not be guaranteed. Henry V had coerced Paschal II into crowning him in 1111, but <mask>'s own status was less clear. As a result of her marriage she was clearly the legitimate queen of the Romans, a title that she used thereafter on her seal and charters, but it was uncertain if she had a legitimate claim to the title of empress. After his imperial coronation in 1111, Henry continued to call himself king and emperor

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 of the Romans interchangeably. Both Bourdin's status and the ceremonies themselves were deeply ambiguous.Strictly speaking, the ceremonies were not imperial coronations but instead were formal "crown-wearing" occasions, among the few times in the year when the rulers would wear their crowns in court. Bourdin had also been excommunicated by the time he conducted the second ceremony, and he was later deposed and imprisoned for life by Pope Callixtus II. Nonetheless, <mask> maintained that she had been officially crowned as the empress in Rome. Her use of the title became widely accepted. <mask> consistently used the title empress from 1117 until her death; chanceries and chroniclers alike conceded her the honorific, seemingly without question. Widowhood
In 1118, Henry returned north over the Alps into Germany to suppress fresh rebellions, leaving <mask> as his regent to govern Italy. There are few records of her rule over the next two years, but she probably gained considerable practical experience of government.In 1119, she returned north to meet Henry in Lotharingia. Her husband was occupied in finding a compromise with the Pope, who had excommunicated him. In 1122, Henry and probably <mask> were at the Council of Worms. The council settled the long-running dispute with the Church when Henry gave up his rights to invest bishops with their episcopal regalia. <mask> attempted to visit her father in England that year, but the journey was blocked by Count Charles I of Flanders, whose territory she would have needed to pass through. Historian Marjorie Chibnall argues <mask> had intended to discuss the inheritance of the English crown on


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 this journey. <mask> and Henry remained childless, but neither party was considered to be infertile and contemporary chroniclers blamed their situation on the Emperor and his sins against the Church.In early 1122, the couple travelled down the Rhine together as Henry continued to suppress the ongoing political unrest, but by now he was suffering from cancer. He died on 23 May 1125 in Utrecht, leaving <mask> in the protection of their nephew Frederick, the heir to his estates, and in possession of the imperial insignia. It is unclear what instructions he gave her about the future of the Empire, which faced another leadership election. Archbishop Adalbert subsequently convinced <mask> that she should give him the insignia, and led the electoral process which appointed Lothair of Supplinburg, a former enemy of Henry, as the new king. Now aged 23, <mask> had only limited options as to how she might spend the rest of her life. Being childless, she could not exercise a role as an imperial regent, which left her with the choice of either becoming a nun or remarrying. Some offers of marriage started to arrive from German princes, but she chose to return to Normandy.She does not appear to have expected to return to Germany, as she gave up her estates within the Empire and departed with her personal collection of jewels, her own imperial regalia, two of Henry's crowns, and the valuable relic of the Hand of St James the Apostle. Succession crisis

In 1120, the English political landscape had changed dramatically after the White Ship disaster. Around three hundred passengers – including <mask>'s brother William Adelin and many other senior nobles


texts: – embarked one night on the White Ship to travel from Barfleur in Normandy across to England. The vessel foundered just outside the harbour, possibly as a result of overcrowding or excessive drinking by the ship's master and crew, and all but two of the passengers died. William Adelin was among the casualties. With William dead, the succession to the English throne was thrown into doubt. Rules of succession were uncertain in western Europe at the time; in some parts of France, male primogeniture was becoming more popular, in which the eldest son would inherit a title.It was also traditional for the king of France to crown his successor while he was still alive, making the intended line of succession relatively clear. This was not the case in England, where the best a noble could do was to identify what Professor Eleanor Searle has termed a pool of legitimate heirs, leaving them to challenge and dispute the inheritance after his death. The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo-Norman successions over the previous sixty years. William the Conqueror had invaded England, his sons William Rufus and Robert Curthose had fought a war between them to establish their inheritance, and Henry had only acquired control of Normandy by force. There had been no peaceful, uncontested successions. Initially, Henry put his hopes in fathering another son. William and <mask>'s mother—<mask> of Scotland—had died in 1118, and so Henry took a new wife, Adeliza of Louvain.Henry and Adeliza did not conceive any children, and the future of the dynasty appeared at risk. Henry may have begun to look among his nephews for a possible

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 heir. He may have considered his sister Adela's son Stephen of Blois as a possible option and, perhaps in preparation for this, he arranged a beneficial marriage for Stephen to Empress <mask>'s wealthy maternal cousin Countess <mask> of Boulogne. Count Theobald IV of Blois, another nephew and close ally, possibly also felt that he was in favour with Henry. William Clito, the only son of Robert Curthose, was King Louis VI of France's preferred choice, but William was in open rebellion against Henry and was therefore unsuitable. Henry might have also considered his own illegitimate son, Robert of Gloucester, as a possible candidate, but English tradition and custom would have looked unfavourably on this. Henry's plans shifted when Empress <mask>'s husband, Emperor Henry, died in 1125.Return to Normandy

Marriage to Geoffrey of Anjou

<mask> returned to Normandy in 1125 and spent about a year at the royal court, where her father was still hoping that his second marriage would generate a son. If this failed to happen, <mask> was Henry's preferred choice, and he declared that she was to be his rightful successor if he should not have another legitimate son. The Anglo-Norman barons were gathered together at Westminster on Christmas 1126, where they swore in January to recognise <mask> and any future legitimate heir she might have. Henry began to formally look for a new husband for <mask> in early 1127 and received various offers from princes within the Empire. His preference was to use <mask>'s marriage to secure the southern borders of Normandy by marrying her to Geoffrey, the eldest son of Count Fulk V of Anjou. Henry's control of

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 Normandy had faced numerous challenges since he had conquered it in 1106, and the latest threat came from his nephew William Clito, the new count of Flanders, who enjoyed the support of the French king. It was essential to Henry that he not face a threat from the south as well as the east of Normandy.William Adelin had married Fulk's daughter <mask>, which would have cemented an alliance between Henry and Anjou, but the White Ship disaster put an end to this. Henry and Fulk argued over the fate of the marriage dowry, and this had encouraged Fulk to turn to support William Clito instead. Henry's solution was now to negotiate the marriage of <mask> to Geoffrey, recreating the former alliance. <mask> appears to have been unimpressed by the prospect of marrying Geoffrey of Anjou. She felt that marrying the son of a count diminished her imperial status and was probably also unhappy about marrying someone so much younger than she was; <mask> was 25 and Geoffrey was 13. Hildebert, the Archbishop of Tours, eventually intervened to persuade her to go along with the engagement. <mask> finally agreed, and she travelled to Rouen in May 1127 with Robert of Gloucester and Brian Fitz Count where she was formally betrothed to Geoffrey.Over the course of the next year, Fulk decided to depart for Jerusalem, where he hoped to become king, leaving his possessions to Geoffrey. Henry knighted his future son-in-law, and <mask> and Geoffrey were married a week later on 17 June 1128 in Le Mans by the bishops of Le Mans and Séez. Fulk finally left Anjou for Jerusalem in 1129, declaring Geoffrey the count of Anjou and Maine. Disputes
The marriage proved


texts: difficult, as the couple did not particularly like each other. There was a further dispute over <mask>'s dowry; she was granted various castles in Normandy by Henry, but it was not specified when the couple would actually take possession of them. It is also unknown whether Henry intended Geoffrey to have any future claim on England or Normandy, and he was probably keeping Geoffrey's status deliberately uncertain. Soon after the marriage, <mask> left Geoffrey and returned to Normandy.Henry appears to have blamed Geoffrey for the separation, but the couple were finally reconciled in 1131. Henry summoned <mask> from Normandy, and she arrived in England that August. It was decided that <mask> would return to Geoffrey at a meeting of the King's great council in September. The council also gave another collective oath of allegiance to recognise her as Henry's heir. <mask> gave birth to her first son in March 1133 at Le Mans, the future Henry II. Henry I was delighted by the news and came to see her at Rouen. At Pentecost 1134, their second son Geoffrey was born in Rouen, but the childbirth was extremely difficult and <mask> appeared close to death.She made arrangements for her will and argued with her father about where she should be buried. <mask> preferred Bec Abbey, but Henry wanted her to be interred at Rouen Cathedral. <mask> recovered, and Henry was overjoyed by the birth of his second grandson, possibly insisting on another round of oaths from his nobility. From then on, relations became increasingly strained between <mask> and Henry. <mask> and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England for their claim to the

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 throne, and proposed in 1135 that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to <mask> and should insist that the Norman nobility immediately swear allegiance to her. This would have given the couple a much more powerful position after Henry's death, but the King angrily refused, probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy while he was still alive. A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey and <mask> intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels.In the middle of this confrontation, Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons-la-Forêt. It is uncertain what, if anything, Henry said about the succession before his death. Contemporary chronicler accounts were coloured by subsequent events. Sources favourable to <mask> suggested that Henry had reaffirmed his intent to grant all his lands to his daughter, while hostile chroniclers argued that Henry had renounced his former plans and had apologised for having forced the barons to swear an oath of allegiance to her. Road to war

When news began to spread of Henry I's death, <mask> and Geoffrey were in Anjou, supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of <mask>'s supporters such as Robert of Gloucester. Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried, which prevented them from returning to England. Nonetheless, Geoffrey and <mask> took the opportunity to march into southern Normandy and seize a number of key castles around Argentan that had formed <mask>'s disputed dowry.They then stopped, unable to advance further, pillaging the

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texts: countryside and facing increased resistance from the Norman nobility and a rebellion in Anjou itself. <mask> was by now also pregnant with her third son, William; opinions vary among historians as to what extent this affected her military plans. Meanwhile, news of Henry's death had reached Stephen of Blois, conveniently placed in Boulogne, and he left for England, accompanied by his military household. Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived. Nonetheless Stephen reached the edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England. The crowds in London proclaimed Stephen the new monarch, believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return, and his brother, Henry of Blois, the bishop of Winchester, delivered the support of the Church to Stephen. Stephen had sworn to support <mask> in 1127, but Henry convincingly argued that the late King had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath, and suggested that the King had changed his mind on his deathbed.Stephen's coronation was held a week later at Westminster Abbey on 26 December. Following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England, the Norman nobility had gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring his elder brother Theobald king. The Normans argued that the count, as the eldest grandson of William the Conqueror, had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the Duchy, and was certainly preferable to <mask>. Their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen's coronation was to

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texts: occur the next day. Theobald's support immediately ebbed away, as the barons were not prepared to support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen. <mask> gave birth to her third son William on 22 July 1136 at Argentan, and she then operated out of the border region for the next three years, establishing her household knights on estates around the area. <mask> may have asked Ulger, the bishop of Angers, to garner support for her claim with Pope Innocent II in Rome, but if she did, Ulger was unsuccessful.Geoffrey invaded Normandy in early 1136 and, after a temporary truce, invaded again later the same year, raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory. Stephen returned to the Duchy in 1137, where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal alliance against Geoffrey and <mask>, to counter the growing Angevin power in the region. Stephen formed an army to retake <mask>'s Argentan castles, but frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two-halves of his army. The Norman forces then deserted the King, forcing Stephen to give up his campaign. Stephen agreed to another truce with Geoffrey, promising to pay him 2,000 marks a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders. In England, Stephen's reign started off well, with lavish gatherings of the royal court that saw the King give out grants of land and favours to his supporters. Stephen received the support of Pope Innocent II, thanks in part to the testimony of Louis VI and Theobald.Troubles rapidly began to emerge. <mask>'s uncle, David I of Scotland, invaded the


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 north of England on the news of Henry's death, taking Carlisle, Newcastle and other key strongholds. Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at Durham, where a temporary compromise was agreed. South Wales rose in rebellion, and by 1137 Stephen was forced to abandon attempts to suppress the revolt. Stephen put down two revolts in the south-west led by Baldwin de Redvers and Robert of Bampton; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy, where he became a vocal critic of the King. Revolt

<mask>'s half-brother, Robert of Gloucester, was one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy as well as the Earldom of Gloucester. In 1138, he rebelled against Stephen, starting the descent into civil war in England.Robert renounced his fealty to the King and declared his support for <mask>, which triggered a major regional rebellion in Kent and across the south-west of England, although he himself remained in Normandy. <mask> had not been particularly active in asserting her claims to the throne since 1135 and in many ways it was Robert who took the initiative in declaring war in 1138. In France, Geoffrey took advantage of the situation by re-invading Normandy. David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of <mask> to the throne, pushing south into Yorkshire. Stephen responded quickly to the revolts and invasions, paying most attention to England rather than to Normandy. His wife <mask> was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne, with the task of retaking the key port of Dover, under Robert's control. A


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 small number of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where David's forces were defeated later that year at the Battle of the Standard.Despite this victory, however, David still occupied most of the north. Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of Gloucestershire, first striking north into the Welsh Marches, taking Hereford and Shrewsbury, before heading south to Bath. The town of Bristol itself proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area. The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support, but he remained in Normandy throughout the year, trying to persuade the Empress <mask> to invade England herself. Dover finally surrendered to the Queen's forces later in the year. By 1139, an invasion of England by Robert and <mask> appeared imminent. Geoffrey and <mask> had secured much of Normandy and, together with Robert, spent the beginning of the year mobilising forces for a cross-Channel expedition.<mask> also appealed to the papacy at the start of the year; her representative, Bishop Ulger, put forward her legal claim to the English throne on the grounds of her hereditary right and the oaths sworn by the barons. Arnulf of Lisieux led Stephen's case, arguing that because <mask>'s mother had really been a nun, her claim to the throne was illegitimate. The Pope declined to reverse his earlier support for Stephen, but from <mask>'s perspective the case usefully established that Stephen's claim was disputed. Civil War

Initial moves

Empress <mask>'s invasion finally began at the end of the summer of 1139.


texts: Baldwin de Redvers crossed over from Normandy to Wareham in August in an initial attempt to capture a port to receive <mask>'s invading army, but Stephen's forces forced him to retreat into the south-west. The following month, the Empress was invited by her stepmother, Queen Adeliza, to land at Arundel instead, and on 30 September Robert of Gloucester and <mask> arrived in England with a force of 140 knights. <mask> stayed at Arundel Castle, while Robert marched north-west to Wallingford and Bristol, hoping to raise support for the rebellion and to link up with Miles of Gloucester, who took the opportunity to renounce his fealty to the King and declare for <mask>.Stephen responded by promptly moving south, besieging Arundel and trapping <mask> inside the castle. Stephen then agreed to a truce proposed by his brother, Henry of Blois; the full details of the agreement are not known, but the results were that <mask> and her household of knights were released from the siege and escorted to the south-west of England, where they were reunited with Robert of Gloucester. The reasons for <mask>'s release remain unclear. Stephen may have thought it was in his own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert, seeing Robert, rather than <mask>, as his main opponent at this point in the conflict. Arundel Castle was also considered almost impregnable, and Stephen may have been worried that he risked tying down his army in the south whilst Robert roamed freely in the west. Another theory is that Stephen released <mask> out of a sense of chivalry; Stephen had a generous, courteous personality and women were not

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texts: normally expected to be targeted in Anglo-Norman warfare. After staying for a period in Robert's stronghold of Bristol, <mask> established her court in nearby Gloucester, still safely in the south-west but far enough away for her to remain independent of her half-brother.Although there had been only a few new defections to her cause, <mask> still controlled a compact block of territory stretching out from Gloucester and Bristol south into Wiltshire, west into the Welsh Marches and east through the Thames Valley as far as Oxford and Wallingford, threatening London. Her influence extended down into Devon and Cornwall, and north through Herefordshire, but her authority in these areas remained limited. She faced a counterattack from Stephen, who started by attacking Wallingford Castle which controlled the Thames corridor; it was held by Brian Fitz Count and Stephen found it too well defended. Stephen continued into Wiltshire to attack Trowbridge, taking the castles of South Cerney and Malmesbury en route. In response, Miles marched east, attacking Stephen's rearguard forces at Wallingford and threatening an advance on London. Stephen was forced to give up his western campaign, returning east to stabilise the situation and protect his capital. At the start of 1140, Nigel, the Bishop of Ely, joined <mask>'s faction.Hoping to seize East Anglia, he established his base of operations in the Isle of Ely, then surrounded by protective fenland. Nigel faced a rapid response from Stephen, who made a surprise attack on the isle, forcing the Bishop to flee to Gloucester. Robert of Gloucester's men retook some of the territory that Stephen had taken


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 in his 1139 campaign. In an effort to negotiate a truce, Henry of Blois held a peace conference at Bath, at which <mask> was represented by Robert. The conference collapsed after Henry and the clergy insisted that they should set the terms of any peace deal, which Stephen's representatives found unacceptable. Battle of Lincoln

Matilda's fortunes changed dramatically for the better at the start of 1141. Ranulf of Chester, a powerful northern magnate, had fallen out with the King over the winter and Stephen had placed his castle in Lincoln under siege.In response, Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf advanced on Stephen's position with a larger force, resulting in the Battle of Lincoln on 2 February 1141. The King commanded the centre of his army, with Alan of Brittany on his right and William of Aumale on his left. Robert and Ranulf's forces had a superiority in cavalry and Stephen dismounted many of his own knights to form a solid infantry block. After an initial success in which William's forces destroyed the Angevins' Welsh infantry, the battle went well for <mask>'s forces. Robert and Ranulf's cavalry encircled Stephen's centre, and the King found himself surrounded by the Angevin army. After much fighting, Robert's soldiers finally overwhelmed Stephen and he was taken away from the field in custody. <mask> received Stephen in person at her court in Gloucester, before having him moved to Bristol Castle, traditionally used for holding high-status prisoners.<mask> now began to take the necessary steps to have herself crowned queen in his place, which would require the agreement of the Church and her coronation at Westminster. Stephen's

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texts: brother Henry summoned a council at Winchester before Easter in his capacity as papal legate to consider the clergy's view. <mask> had made a private deal with Henry that he would deliver the support of the Church in exchange for being granted control over Church affairs. Henry handed over the royal treasury to her, which proved to be rather depleted except for Stephen's crown, and he excommunicated many of her enemies who refused to switch sides. Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was unwilling to declare <mask> queen so rapidly, however, and a delegation of clergy and nobles, headed by Theobald, travelled to Bristol to see Stephen, who agreed that, given the situation, he was prepared to release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him. The clergy gathered again in Winchester after Easter, on 7 April 1141, and the following day they declared that <mask> should be monarch in place of Stephen. She assume the title "Lady of England and Normandy" () as a precursor to her coronation.Although <mask>'s own followers attended the event, few other major nobles seem to have attended and the delegation from London procrastinated. Stephen's wife, Queen <mask>, wrote to complain and demand her husband's release. Nonetheless, <mask> then advanced to London to arrange her coronation in June, where her position became precarious. Despite securing the support of Geoffrey de Mandeville, who controlled the Tower of London, forces loyal to Stephen and Queen <mask> remained close to the city and the citizens were fearful about welcoming the Empress. On 24 June, shortly before the planned coronation, the city rose up against the Empress and Geoffrey


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 de Mandeville; <mask> and her followers fled just in time, making a chaotic retreat back to Oxford. Meanwhile, Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and, in the absence of Waleran of Beaumont, who was still fighting in England, Geoffrey took all the Duchy south of the River Seine and east of the Risle. No help was forthcoming from Stephen's brother Theobald this time either, who appears to have been preoccupied with his own problems with France—the new French king, Louis VII, had rejected his father's regional alliance, improving relations with Anjou and taking a more bellicose line with Theobald, which would result in war the following year.Geoffrey's success in Normandy and Stephen's weakness in England began to influence the loyalty of many Anglo-Norman barons, who feared losing their lands in England to Robert and the Empress, and their possessions in Normandy to Geoffrey. Many started to leave Stephen's faction. His friend and advisor Waleran was one of those who decided to defect in mid-1141, crossing into Normandy to secure his ancestral possessions by allying himself with the Angevins, and bringing Worcestershire into the Empress's camp. Waleran's twin brother, Robert of Leicester, effectively withdrew from fighting in the conflict at the same time. Other supporters of the Empress were restored in their former strongholds, such as Bishop Nigel of Ely, and still others received new earldoms in the west of England. The royal control over the minting of coins broke down, leading to coins being struck by local barons and bishops across the country. Rout of Winchester and the Siege of Oxford

<mask>'s position was transformed by


texts: her defeat at the Rout of Winchester.Her alliance with Henry of Blois proved short-lived and they soon fell out over political patronage and ecclesiastical policy; the Bishop transferred his support back to Stephen's cause. In response, in July <mask> and Robert of Gloucester besieged Henry of Blois in his episcopal castle at Winchester, using the royal castle in the city as the base for their operations. Stephen's wife, Queen <mask>, had kept his cause alive in the south-east of England, and the Queen, backed by her lieutenant William of Ypres and reinforced with fresh troops from London, took the opportunity to advance on Winchester. Their forces encircled <mask>'s army. <mask> decided to escape from the city with Fitz Count and Reginald of Cornwall, while the rest of her army delayed the royal forces. In the subsequent battle the Empress's forces were defeated and Robert of Gloucester himself was taken prisoner during the retreat, although <mask> herself escaped, exhausted, to her fortress at Devizes. With both Stephen and Robert held prisoner, negotiations were held to try to come to agreement on a long-term peace settlement, but Queen <mask> was unwilling to offer any compromise to the Empress, and Robert refused to accept any offer to encourage him to change sides to Stephen.Instead, in November the two sides simply exchanged the two leaders, Stephen returning to his queen, and Robert to the Empress in Oxford. Henry held another church council, which reversed its previous decision and reaffirmed Stephen's legitimacy to rule, and a fresh coronation of Stephen and <mask> occurred at Christmas 1141. Stephen travelled north to raise


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 new forces and to successfully persuade Ranulf of Chester to change sides once again. Stephen then spent the summer attacking some of the new Angevin castles built the previous year, including Cirencester, Bampton and Wareham. During the summer of 1142 Robert returned to Normandy to assist Geoffrey with operations against some of Stephen's remaining followers there, before returning in the autumn. <mask> came under increased pressure from Stephen's forces and was surrounded at Oxford. Oxford was a secure town, protected by walls and the River Isis, but Stephen led a sudden attack across the river, leading the charge and swimming part of the way.Once on the other side, the King and his men stormed into the town, trapping <mask> in the castle. Oxford Castle was a powerful fortress and, rather than storming it, Stephen decided to settle down for a long siege. Just before Christmas, <mask> sneaked out of the castle with a handful of knights (probably via a postern gate), crossed the icy river and made her escape past the royal army on foot to Abingdon-on-Thames and then riding to safety at Wallingford, leaving the castle garrison to surrender the next day. <mask> and her companions reportedly wore white to camouflage themselves against the snow. Stalemate

In the aftermath of the retreat from Winchester, <mask> rebuilt her court at Devizes Castle, a former property of the Bishop of Salisbury that had been confiscated by Stephen. She established her household knights on the surrounding estates, supported by Flemish mercenaries, ruling through the network of local sheriffs and other officials. Many of those that had lost lands in the


texts: regions held by the King travelled west to take up patronage from <mask>.Backed by the pragmatic Robert of Gloucester, <mask> was content to engage in a drawn-out struggle, and the war soon entered a stalemate. At first, the balance of power appeared to move slightly in <mask>'s favour. Robert of Gloucester besieged Stephen in 1143 at Wilton Castle, an assembly point for royal forces in Herefordshire. Stephen attempted to break out and escape, resulting in the Battle of Wilton. Once again, the Angevin cavalry proved too strong, and for a moment it appeared that Stephen might be captured for a second time, before finally managing to escape. Later in the year Geoffrey de Mandeville, the Earl of Essex, rose up in rebellion against Stephen in East Anglia. Geoffrey based himself from the Isle of Ely and began a military campaign against Cambridge, with the intention of progressing south towards London.Ranulf of Chester revolted once again in the summer of 1144. Meanwhile, Geoffrey of Anjou finished securing his hold on southern Normandy, and in January 1144 he advanced into Rouen, the capital of the Duchy, concluding his campaign. Louis VII recognised him as Duke of Normandy shortly after. Despite these successes, <mask> was unable to consolidate her position. Miles of Gloucester, one of the most talented of her military commanders, had died while hunting over the previous Christmas. Geoffrey de Mandeville's rebellion against Stephen in the east ended with his death in September 1144 during an attack on Burwell Castle. As a result, Stephen made progress against <mask>'s forces in the west in 1145, recapturing Faringdon Castle in


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 Oxfordshire.<mask> authorised Reginald, the Earl of Cornwall, to attempt fresh peace negotiations, but neither side was prepared to compromise. Conclusion of the war

The character of the conflict in England gradually began to shift; by the late 1140s, the major fighting in the war was over, giving way to an intractable stalemate, with only the occasional outbreak of fresh fighting. Several of <mask>'s key supporters died: in 1147 Robert of Gloucester died peacefully, and Brian Fitz Count gradually withdrew from public life, probably eventually joining a monastery; by 1151 he was dead. Many of <mask>'s other followers joined the Second Crusade when it was announced in 1145, leaving the region for several years. Some of the Anglo-Norman barons made individual peace agreements with each other to secure their lands and war gains, and many were not keen to pursue any further conflict. <mask>'s eldest son Henry slowly began to assume a leading role in the conflict. He had remained in France when the Empress first left for England.He crossed over to England in 1142, before returning to Anjou in 1144. Geoffrey of Anjou expected Henry to become the King of England and began to involve him in the government of the family lands. In 1147, Henry intervened in England with a small mercenary army but the expedition failed, not least because Henry lacked the funds to pay his men. Henry asked his mother for money, but she refused, stating that she had none available. In the end Stephen himself ended up paying off Henry's mercenaries, allowing him to return home safely; his reasons for doing so remain unclear. <mask> decided to return to Normandy in


texts: 1148, partially due to her difficulties with the Church. The Empress had occupied the strategically essential Devizes Castle in 1142, maintaining her court there, but legally it still belonged to Josceline de Bohon, the bishop of Salisbury, and in late 1146 Pope Eugene III intervened to support his claims, threatening <mask> with excommunication if she did not return it.<mask> first played for time, then left for Normandy in early 1148, leaving the castle to Henry, who then procrastinated over its return for many years. <mask> re-established her court in Rouen, where she met with her sons and husband and probably made arrangements for her future life in Normandy, and for Henry's next expedition to England. <mask> chose to live in the priory of Notre Dame du Pré, situated just south of Rouen, where she lived in personal quarters attached to the priory and in a nearby palace built by Henry. <mask> increasingly devoted her efforts to the administration of Normandy, rather than the war in England. Geoffrey sent the bishop of Thérouanne to Rome in 1148 to campaign for Henry's right to the English throne, and opinion within the English Church gradually shifted in Henry's favour. <mask> and Geoffrey made peace with Louis VII, who in return supported Henry's rights to Normandy. Geoffrey died unexpectedly in 1151, and Henry claimed the family lands.Henry returned to England once again at the start of 1153 with a small army, winning the support of some of the major regional barons. Neither side's army was keen to fight, however, and the Church brokered a truce; a permanent peace followed, under which Henry recognised Stephen as king, but became


texts:
 Stephen's adopted son and successor. Meanwhile, Normandy faced considerable disorder and the threat of baronial revolt, which <mask> was unable to totally suppress. Stephen died the next year, and Henry assumed the throne; his coronation used the grander of the two imperial crowns that <mask> had brought back from Germany in 1125. Once Henry had been crowned, the troubles facing <mask> in Normandy died away. Later life

<mask> spent the rest of her life in Normandy, often acting as Henry's representative and presiding over the government of the Duchy. Early on, <mask> and her son issued charters in England and Normandy in their joint names, dealing with the various land claims that had arisen during the wars.Particularly in the initial years of his reign, the King drew on her for advice on policy matters. <mask> was involved in attempts to mediate between Henry and his Chancellor Thomas Becket when the two men fell out in the 1160s. <mask> had originally cautioned against the appointment, but when the Prior of Mont St Jacques asked her for a private interview on Becket's behalf to seek her views, she provided a moderate perspective on the problem. <mask> explained that she disagreed with Henry's attempts to codify English customs, which Becket was opposed to, but also condemned poor administration in the English Church and Becket's own headstrong behaviour. <mask> helped to deal with several diplomatic crises. The first of these involved the Hand of St James, the relic which <mask> had brought back with her from Germany many years before. Frederick I, the Holy Roman Emperor, considered the hand to be part of the imperial regalia and


texts:
 requested that Henry return it to Germany.<mask> and Henry were equally insistent that it should remain at Reading Abbey, where it had become a popular attraction for visiting pilgrims. Frederick was bought off with an alternative set of expensive gifts from England, including a huge, luxurious tent, probably chosen by <mask>, which Frederick used for court events in Italy. She was also approached by Louis VII of France, in 1164, and helped to defuse a growing diplomatic row over the handling of Crusading funds. In her old age <mask> paid increasing attention to Church affairs and her personal faith, although she remained involved in governing Normandy throughout her life. <mask> appears to have had particular fondness for her youngest son William. She opposed Henry's proposal in 1155 to invade Ireland and give the lands to William, however, possibly on the grounds that the project was impractical, and instead William received large grants of land in England. <mask> was more easy-going in her later life than in her youth, but the chronicler of Mont St Jacques, who met her during this period, still felt that she appeared to be "of the stock of tyrants".Death
<mask> died on 10 September 1167 in Rouen, and her remaining wealth was given to the Church. She was buried under the high altar at the abbey of Bec-Hellouin in a service led by Rotrou, the archbishop of Rouen. Her tomb's epitaph included the lines "Great by birth, greater by marriage, greatest in her offspring: here lies <mask>, the daughter, wife, and mother of Henry", which became a famous phrase among her contemporaries. This tomb was damaged in a fire in 1263 and later


texts:
 restored in 1282, before finally being destroyed by an English army in 1421. In 1684 the Congregation of St Maur identified some of her remaining bones and reburied them at Bec-Hellouin in a new coffin. Her remains were lost again after the destruction of Bec-Hellouin's church by Napoleon, but were found once more in 1846 and this time reburied at Rouen Cathedral, where they remain. <mask> as ruler

Government, law and court

In the Holy Roman Empire, the young <mask>'s court included knights, chaplains and ladies-in-waiting, although, unlike some queens of the period, she did not have her own personal chancellor to run her household, instead using the imperial chancellor.When acting as regent in Italy, she found the local rulers were prepared to accept a female ruler. Her Italian administration included the Italian chancellor, backed by experienced administrators. She was not called upon to make any major decisions, instead dealing with smaller matters and acting as the symbolic representative of her absent husband, meeting with and helping to negotiate with magnates and clergy. The Anglo-Saxon queens of England had exercised considerable formal power, but this tradition had diminished under the Normans: at most their queens ruled temporarily as regents on their husbands' behalf when they were away travelling, rather than in their own right. On her return from Germany to Normandy and Anjou, <mask> styled herself as empress and the daughter of King Henry. As an , her status was elevated in medieval social and political thought above all men in England and France. On arrival in England, her charters' seal displayed the inscription


texts: .<mask>'s enthroned portrait on her circular seal distinguished her from elite English contemporaries, both women – whose seals were usually oval with standing portraits – and men, whose seals were usually equestrian portraits. The seal did not depict her on horseback, however, as a male ruler would have been. During the civil war for England, her status was uncertain; these unique distinctions were intended to overawe her subjects. <mask> also remained , a status that emphasised her claim to the crown was hereditary and derived from her male kin, being the only legitimate offspring of King Henry and Queen <mask>. It further advertised her mixed Anglo-Saxon and Norman descent and her claim as her royal father's sole heir in a century in which feudal tenancies were increasingly passed on by heredity and primogeniture. In contrast with her rival Stephen and his wife <mask> of Boulogne — styled respectively  and  — Empress <mask> employed the title . Several interpretations of the title (), are possible.Domina, is the feminine equivalent of the title dominus, the meaning of which ranged from head of a household to an imperial title and translated as "master" or "lord". Whereas the  carried the implication of a king's wife only, the  was used of a woman exercising temporal powers in her own right, as had Æthelflæd of Mercia. Notably, <mask>'s husband Geoffrey never adopted the equivalent dominus Anglorum. Initially between 1139 and 1141 <mask> referred to herself as acting as a feme sole, "a woman [acting] alone", highlighting her autonomy and independence from her spouse. Additionally, it was also conventional that newly elected kings


texts: use  until their coronation as , the interval being counted as an interregnum. Since she was never crowned at Westminster, during the rest of the war she appears to have used this title rather than that of the queen of England, although some contemporaries referred to her by the royal title. In spring and summer 1141, as <mask> was de facto queen regnant, some royal charters including titles of lands granted to Glastonbury Abbey and Reading Abbey described her as , while another mentions  and .While Marjorie Chibnall believed the Glastonbury and Reading Abbeys' instances of regina Anglorum are either errors for domina Anglorum or else inauthentic; David Crouch judged this unlikely to be a scribal error and pointed out that Stephen's supporters had used rex Anglorum before his formal coronation, that she was hailed as regina et domina at Winchester in March 1141, and that she "gloried in being called" the royal title. Nonetheless, the style , now rendered as "Lady of the English", remained more common in documents. The chronicler William of Malmsebury calls her domina only. <mask> presented herself as continuing the English tradition of centralised royal government, and attempted to maintain a government in England parallel to Stephen's, including a royal household and a chancellor. <mask> gathered revenues from the royal estates in the counties under her control, particularly in her core territories where the sheriffs were loyal to her cause. She appointed earls to rival those created by Stephen. She was unable to operate a system of royal law courts, however, and her administrative resources were extremely limited, although some of


texts:
 her clerks went on to become bishops in Normandy.<mask> issued two types of coins in her name during her time in England, which were used in the west of England and Wales. The first were initially minted in Oxford during her stay there, and the design was then adopted by her mints at Bristol, Cardiff and Wareham after her victory at the Battle of Lincoln. A second design was minted at Bristol and Cardiff during the 1140s. On returning to Normandy for the last time in 1148, <mask> ceased to use the title Lady of the English, simply styling herself as empress again; she never adopted the title of Countess of Anjou. <mask>'s household became smaller, and often merged with Henry's own court when the two were co-located in Rouen. She continued to play a special role in the government of the area around Argentan, where she held feudal rights from the grants made at the time of her second marriage. Relations with the Church

It is unclear how strong <mask>'s personal piety was, although contemporaries praised her lifelong preference to be buried at the monastic site of Bec rather than the grander but more worldly Rouen, and believed her to have substantial, underlying religious beliefs.Like other members of the Anglo-Norman nobility, she bestowed considerable patronage on the Church. Early on in her life, she preferred the well-established Benedictine monastery of Cluny alongside some of the newer Augustinian orders, such as the Victorines and Premonstratensians. As part of this patronage, she re-founded the abbey of Notre-Dame-du-Vœu near Cherbourg. As time went by, <mask> directed more of her attention to the Cistercian order. This order


texts:
 was very fashionable in England and Normandy during the period, and was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, a figure of particular importance to <mask>. She had close links to the Cistercian Mortemer Abbey in Normandy, and drew on the house for a supply of monks when she supported the foundation of nearby La Valasse. She encouraged the Cistercians to build at Mortemer on a grand scale, with guest houses to accommodate a range of visitors of all ranks, and may have played a part in selecting the paintings for the monastic chapels.Legacy

Historiography

Contemporary chroniclers in England, France, Germany and Italy documented many aspects of <mask>'s life, although the only biography of her, apparently written by Arnulf of Lisieux, has been lost. The chroniclers took a range of perspectives on her. In Germany, the chroniclers praised <mask> extensively and her reputation as the "good <mask>" remained positive. During the years of the Anarchy, works such as the Gesta Stephani took a much more negative tone, praising Stephen and condemning <mask>. Once Henry II assumed the throne, the tone of the chroniclers towards <mask> became more positive. Legends spread in the years after <mask>'s death, including the suggestion that her first husband, Henry, had not died but had in fact secretly become a hermit – making <mask>'s second marriage illegitimate – and a tale that <mask> had an affair with Stephen, resulting in the conception of Henry II. Tudor scholars were interested in <mask>'s right of succession.According to 16th century standards, <mask> had a clear right to the English throne, and academics therefore struggled to explain why <mask> had

masks: Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda Matilda


texts: acquiesced to her son Henry's kingship at the end of the war, rather than ruling directly herself. By the 18th century, historians such as David Hume had a much better understanding of the irregular nature of 12th century law and custom and this question became less relevant. By the 19th century, the archival sources on <mask>'s life, including charters, foundation histories, and letters, were being uncovered and analysed. Historians Kate Norgate, Sir James Ramsay and J. H. Round used these to produce new, richer accounts of <mask> and the civil war; Ramsay's account, using the Gesta Stephani, was not complimentary, while Norgate, drawing on French sources, was more neutral in tone. The German academic Oskar Rössler's 1897 biography drew heavily on German charters, not extensively used by Anglophone historians. <mask> has attracted relatively little attention from modern English academics, being treated as a marginal figure in comparison to other contemporaries, particularly her rival Stephen, in contrast to the work carried out by German scholars on her time in the Empire. Popular, but not always accurate, biographies were written by the Earl of Onslow in 1939 and Nesta Pain in 1978, but the only major academic biography in English remains Marjorie Chibnall's 1991 work.Interpretations of <mask>'s character have shifted over time, but there is, as Chibnall describes, a "general agreement that she was either proud or at least keenly conscious of the high status of an empress". Like both Henry I and Henry II, <mask> had a certain autocratic grandeur, which was combined with a firm moral belief in her cause; ultimately however she was


texts:
 limited by the political conventions of the 12th century. The treatment of <mask> by modern historians has been challenged by feminist scholars, including Fiona Tolhurst, who believe some traditional assumptions about her role and personality show gender bias. In this interpretation, <mask> has been unfairly criticised for showing qualities that have been considered praiseworthy when seen in her male contemporaries. Popular culture

The civil war years of <mask>'s life have been the subject of historical fiction. <mask>, Stephen and their supporters feature in Ellis Peters's historical detective series about Brother Cadfael, set between 1137 and 1145. Peters paints the Empress as proud and aloof, in contrast to Stephen, a tolerant man and a reasonable ruler.<mask>'s martial reputation may also have contributed to Alfred, Lord Tennyson's decision to entitle his 1855 battle poem "Maud". Family tree

<mask>'s family tree:

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

 Review of Catherine Hanley's biography

1102 births
1167 deaths
12th-century women rulers
12th-century English monarchs
12th-century Norman women
Anglo-Normans
Burials at Rouen Cathedral
Countesses of Anjou
Countesses of Maine
Duchesses of Normandy
English people of French descent
English people of Scottish descent
English princesses
Holy Roman Empresses
House of Normandy
People from Sutton Courtenay
People from Winchester
People of The Anarchy
Queens regnant of England
Anglo-Norman women
12th-century English women
12th-century English people
12th-century French people
12th-century French women
12th-century German women
12th-century women of the Holy Roman


texts:
<mask> (born 10 August 1947) is a Bosnian retired professional football goalkeeper and former football manager. On the international level he played for the Yugoslavia national team once in 1972, and was a participant at the 1974 FIFA World Cup in West Germany. Throughout his football career, both as a player and coach, <mask> had many success and received a good number of awards from UEFA, FIFA and the Football Association of Yugoslavia (FJS). Club career

Sloboda Tuzla
According to <mask>, he started his professional football career at boyhood age, and the first club that he ever played in was FK Sloboda Tuzla from 1964, where he remained until 1973, that is, until his departure to HNK Hajduk Split. According to Gojko Škrbić, Sloboda sold him to Hajduk for two years with the compensation of the then 14 million old dinar. In the 1968–69 Yugoslav Second League season, Sloboda won 36 points and scored 50 goals, while <mask> capitulated only nine times, the least of all other Second league and First league goalkeepers. Hajduk Split
For the "Bili (The Whites)", <mask> played 107 games, 53 games in the championship, 9 games in the cup, 6 in European competitions, and 39 games in friendly matches.He stood on the goal for the first time in a farewell game of the legendary Radomir Vukčević (Vučka), Ivica Hlevnjak and Pero Nadoveza. The first official appearance for Hajduk, was in the Yugoslav Cup on 12 August 1973, in the starting lineup against FK Vardar, which Hajduk won with 5:1. While at Hajduk, The fans gave him the nickname

masks:
Rizah Mešković
Mešković
Mešković
Mešković
Mešković


texts:
 "Mate" and sang the song "From Marjan's blowing the breeze <mask> keeps the door guarding us." A strong and powerful goalkeeper, safe in running ins, with Hajduk he won two Yugoslavian Championships in 1974 (with 33 appearances) and 1975 (with 16 appearances). He also won 3 cups in a row in 1973, 1974 and in 1976. 789 minutes without a goal
Rizah holds in the territory of the former Yugoslavia a record  of 789 minutes of not conceding a goal. That series of not conceding a goal was broken by Vladimir Petković.The last goal he received was in a match against FK Željezničar Sarajevo in Split on 25 November 1973 (1: 1). From that game, goals weren't conceded  in matches played against: FK Borac Banja Luka in Banja Luka (0: 0), then OFK Belgrade in Split (2: 0), FK Vojvodina in Split (3: 0), GNK Dinamo Zagreb in Zagreb (0: 1), OFK Bor in Split (3: 0), FK Radnički Niš in Niš (0: 1) and NK Čelik Zenica in Split (1: 0). Only in the 22nd round Hajduk lost from FK Sarajevo 1: 0.However, in that game, Brane Oblak, Ivan Buljan, Slaviša Žungul and Mićun Jovanić did not play. The players that did play were: <mask>, Vilson Džoni, Vedran Rožić, Luka Peruzović, Dragan Holcer, Mario Boljat, Željko Mijač, Dražen Mužinić, Joško Gluić, Jurica and Ivica Šurjak. From AZ Alkmaar to Orebić
With 107 games to his name, he left Hajduk in 1976 and joined Dutch club AZ Alkmaar where he  stayed until 1979 and had to fight for his place between the posts with Gerrit Vooys. After Alkmaar, he returned to Tuzla and once again joined Sloboda in 1979 where he

masks: Mešković Mešković


texts:
 stayed until 1983, after which he went to several domestic clubs. They were: FK Budućnost Banovići, where he stayed from 1983 to 1984, then FK Radnik Bijeljina from 1984 to 1985, NK Bratstvo Gračanica, from 1985 to 1987.He ended his career in NK Orebić where he played from 1987 to 1988.

International career
For the national team of Yugoslavia, he played one game, on 29 June 1972, against Scotland, a game that was played in the Brazil Independence Cup in Belo Horizonte which ended with a score of 2: 2. He was also a part of the squad that played at the 1974 FIFA World Cup in West Germany. However, <mask> didn't play a single game at the Cup. Coaching career
He started his coaching career with the completion of the coaching school in Sarajevo, and already in 1988 he trained the Yugoslav B team and next year FK Sloboda Tuzla. Finally in the 1990, he became an assistant coach to Ivica Osim in the Yugoslavia A team. In 1991 as a member of the Yugoslavia staff, he went to the United Arab Emirates where he coached several clubs and A and B national teams. He also spent some time in Saudi Arabia as a coach (Al Ahli SC in Jeddah, 2001–2002).After Saudi Arabia he also coached in Qatar (Al Sadd in Doha, 2002–2005 as an assistant). However, he spent most of his time in the Emirates where he trained clubs Al Wahda FC (1991–1992) in Abu Dhabi, Al Shabab Al Arabi Club (1992–1993, 1999–2001 and 2005–2007), Al Wasl F.C. (1997–1998) from Dubai and Al Nasr SC (1998–1999) also in Dubai. He ended his professional coaching career in 2007.


texts:
 Honours

Player

Club
Hajduk Split
Yugoslav First League: 1974, 1975
Yugoslav Cup: 1973, 1974, 1975–76
AZ Alkmaar
KNVB Cup: 1977–78

Manager
Al Ahli
Crown Prince Cup: 2001–02
Saudi Federation Cup: 2001–02
GCC Champions League: 2002

References

External links

  Serbian national football team website

1947 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Tuzla
Association football goalkeepers
Yugoslav footballers
Yugoslavia international footballers
1974 FIFA World Cup players
FK Sloboda Tuzla players
HNK Hajduk Split players
AZ Alkmaar players
FK Budućnost Banovići players
FK Radnik Bijeljina players
NK Bratstvo Gračanica players
Yugoslav Second League players
Yugoslav First League players
Eredivisie players
Yugoslav expatriate footballers
Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands
Yugoslav expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
Yugoslav football managers
Bosnia and Herzegovina football managers
FK Sloboda Tuzla managers
Al Wahda FC managers
Al Shabab Al Arabi Club managers
Al-Nassr FC managers
Al-Sharjah SCC managers
Al Hilal SFC managers
Al-Wasl F.C. managers
Al-Nasr SC (Dubai) managers
Al-Ahli Saudi FC managers
UAE Pro League managers
Saudi Professional League managers
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate football managers
Expatriate football managers in the United Arab Emirates
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in the United Arab Emirates
Expatriate football managers in Saudi Arabia
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
Expatriate football managers in Qatar
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate


texts: <mask>, FRS (3 March 1606 – 21 October 1687) was an English poet and politician who was Member of Parliament for various constituencies between 1624 and 1687, and one of the longest serving members of the English House of Commons. Son of a wealthy lawyer with extensive estates in Buckinghamshire, <mask> first entered Parliament in 1624, although he played little part in the political struggles of the period prior to the First English Civil War in 1642. Unlike his relatives William and <mask>, he was Royalist in sympathy and was accused in 1643 of organising a plot to seize London for Charles I. He allegedly escaped the death penalty by paying a large bribe, while several conspirators were executed, including his brother-in-law Nathaniel Tomkins. After his sentence was commuted to banishment, he lived in comfortable exile in France and Switzerland until allowed home in 1651 by Oliver Cromwell, a distant relative. He returned to Parliament after The Restoration in 1660 of Charles II; known as a fine and amusing orator, he held a number of minor offices. He largely retired from active politics after the death of his second wife in 1677, and died of edema in October 1687.Best remembered now for his poem "Song (Go, lovely rose)", <mask>'s earliest writing dates to the late 1630s, commemorating events that occurred in the 1620s, including a piece on Charles's escape from a shipwreck at Santander in 1625. Written in heroic couplets, it is one of the first examples of a form used by English poets for some two centuries; his verse was admired by John Dryden among others, while

masks:
Edmund Waller
Waller
Hardress Waller
Waller


texts:
 he was a close friend of Thomas Hobbes and John Evelyn. When he died, <mask> was considered a major English poet, but his reputation declined over the next century, one view seeing him as a 'fairweather Royalist, an expedient Republican and mercenary bridegroom'. He is now regarded as a minor author, whose primary significance was to develop a form adapted and improved by later poets like Alexander Pope. Personal details

<mask> was born on 3 March 1606 at Stocks Place, Coleshill, Buckinghamshire, eldest son of <mask> (1560–1616) and Anne Hampden (1589–1658). He came from a family of 15, many of whom survived to adulthood, including Elizabeth (1601–? ), Anne (1602–1642), Cecilia (1603–?), Mary (1605–1660), Robert (1606–1641), Ursula (1610–1692) and John (1616–1667). Cecilia married Nathaniel Tomkins, executed for his part in the 1643 plot, while Mary married Adrian Scrope, executed in 1660 as a regicide. In addition, <mask> was related to several prominent Parliamentarians; through his mother, he was distantly connected to Oliver Cromwell, while he and John Hampden were grandchildren of Griffith Hampden (1543–1591). On his father's side, he was related to the Parliamentarian generals Sir Hardress and Sir <mask>. In 1631, he married Anne Banks, orphaned heiress of a wealthy merchant; contracted in defiance of the Privy Council of England, the marriage was eventually approved by Charles I. Anne died in childbirth in 1634, leaving two children, Robert (1633–1652?) and Elizabeth (1634–1653). In 1644, he re-married, this time to Mary Bracey (died 1677) and they had numerous

masks:
Waller
Edmund Waller
Robert Waller
Waller
William Waller


texts:
 children; since their eldest son Benjamin was mentally disabled, he was succeeded by <mask> (1652–1700), MP for Amersham from 1689 to 1698.His youngest son Stephen (1676–1708) was one of the Commissioners who negotiated the 1707 Treaty of Union. On his death, his estate was valued at the then considerable sum of £40,000; he left legacies to his children Margaret (1648–1690), who acted as his secretary and Benjamin's guardian, Mary, Elizabeth, Anne, Cicely, Octavia, Dorothy and William. Career

<mask> attended Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe, followed by Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He left without a degree, and as was common in this period did a course in law at Lincoln's Inn, graduating in 1622. He was first elected in 1624 as MP for Ilchester, when he was the youngest person in the Commons, then for Chepping Wycombe in 1626. On coming of age in 1627, he inherited an estate worth up to £2,500 a year, making him one of the wealthiest men in Buckinghamshire. Returned for Amersham in 1628, he made virtually no impact on Parliament before it was dissolved in 1629, when Charles I instituted eleven years of Personal Rule.During this period, he became friends with George Morley, later Bishop of Worcester, who guided his reading and provided advice on writing, while <mask> apparently paid his debts. Morley also introduced <mask> to Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland; he became a member of the Great Tew Circle, which included Edward Hyde, and was greatly influenced by Falkland's moderation and tolerance. Nineteenth century biographers dated his earliest work to the

masks: Edmund Waller Waller Waller


texts: 1620s, largely because they commemorate events occurring in that period, but modern scholars suggest they were actually written in the mid to late 1630s in an attempt to build a career at court. As well as Charles himself, many of his works are addressed to members of the extended Percy family, such as the Countess of Carlisle, the Countess of Sunderland  and the Earl of Northumberland. Hyde recorded <mask> became a poet at the age of thirty, "when other Men give over writing Verses". When Charles recalled Parliament in April 1640 to approve taxes for the Bishops' Wars, <mask> was re-elected for Amersham, then for St Ives in November. Despite general consensus attempts by Charles to govern without Parliament had gone too far, moderates like Hyde and Falkland were also wary of changing the balance too much the other way.John Pym, who headed the Parliamentary opposition to Charles, gave <mask> responsibility for the impeachment of Sir Francis Crawley, one of the Ship Money judges, but he confirmed his Royalist sympathies by voting against the execution of Strafford in April 1641, and the removal of bishops from the House of Lords. Unlike Hyde and Falkland who joined the king when the First English Civil War began in August 1642, <mask> remained in London, apparently with Charles' permission, where he continued to support moderates like Denzil Holles who wanted a negotiated peace. In May 1643 a plot was uncovered, allegedly organised by <mask> along with his brother-in-law Nathaniel Tomkins, and wealthy merchant Richard Chaloner; what apparently began as a plan to force

masks: Waller Waller Waller Waller Waller


texts: Parliament into negotiations by withholding taxes turned into an armed conspiracy intended to allow the Royalist army to take control of London. After <mask> was arrested, he made a full confession, implicating a number of his co-conspirators; he escaped the death penalty, allegedly by paying bribes, while Chaloner and Tomkins were executed on 5 July 1643. Many moderates were forced to disavow support for a peace settlement to avoid suspicion of involvement and reaffirm their backing for military action. After spending 18 months in prison without trial, <mask> was fined £10,000 and permitted to go into exile in November 1644, accompanied by his new wife Mary; however, the affair caused lasting damage to his reputation. <mask> travelled with John Evelyn in Switzerland and Italy; unlike many Royalists, he lived in some comfort using money sent to him by his mother.Probably with the support of his relations Cromwell and Scrope, the Rump Parliament allowed him to return home in January 1652. He established good relations with Cromwell, writing him a 'Panegyrick' in 1655, and later supporting proposals to make him king; in a poem written after the capture of the Spanish treasure fleet in 1658, he suggested "let the rich ore be forthwith melted down, and the state fixed by making him a crown'. When Charles II returned to the throne after The Restoration, <mask> commemorated the occasion with his 1660 poem To the King, upon his Majesty's Happy Return. Reconciling past support for the Commonwealth with the restored monarchy was a problem faced by many, but in his 1779

masks: Waller Waller Waller Waller


texts:
 biography Samuel Johnson wrote it showed that "a prostituted mind may retain the glitter of wit, but has lost the dignity of virtue". In 1661, he was elected to the Cavalier Parliament as MP for Hastings; he became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1663, although does not appear to have contributed papers himself. He played a prominent role in the impeachment and exile of Clarendon in 1667, and thereafter held a number of positions under the Cabal ministry. Originally viewed as a supporter of the Court, after 1674 he gained a reputation for independence and was still regarded as one of the best speakers in the Commons.Generally an advocate of religious tolerance, especially for Protestant Nonconformists, he was however convinced of the truth of the Popish Plot in 1678 and withdrew from active politics during the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis. On the accession of James II, he was elected for Saltash in 1685. He wrote two poems to the new king, urging reconciliation and national unity, but James suspended Parliament in November after it refused to pass his Declaration of Indulgence. <mask> died at his London house in St James's on 21 October 1687, and was buried in the churchyard of St Mary and All Saints Church, Beaconsfield; his tomb is now grade II* listed. Literary works and assessment

<mask> was admired by contemporaries including John Dryden and Gerard Langbaine, although his extravagant praise for members of the court and Royal family was later parodied by Andrew Marvell in "Last Instructions to a Painter". Described by Francis Atterbury as "the Parent of English

masks: Waller Waller


texts: Verse", by the nineteenth century his work was out of favour. <mask>, author of his biography in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, wrote: '<mask>'s lyrics were at one time admired to excess, but with the exception of "Go, lovely Rose" and one or two others, they have greatly lost their charm'.By 1995, the protagonist of The Information, a novel by Martin Amis, dismisses him as a 'seat-warmer, air sniffer and mediocrity'. However, H. M. Redmond argued 'immoderate censure of his life' had combined with 'interest-killing appreciation' of his verse to 'prevent a dispassionate assessment'. One suggestion is while his writing is limited, he played an important role in developing a format and style adapted and improved by Alexander Pope among others. Much of his early poetry was written for the Caroline court, while he was famous for his 'Panegyricks', written in support of Cromwell, then both Charles II and his brother James, as well as other members of the Royal family. His longest and most ambitious work of this type portrayed the inconclusive 1665 Battle of Lowestoft;  presenting it as an heroic victory and heaping praise on James, it was widely ridiculed. He was strongly influenced by Thomas Hobbes, whose Leviathan he admired, and whose De Cive he at one point proposed to translate. His early work was far more successful than later efforts and during his exile an unlicensed collection of his poems was published in 1645.Reprinted in 1664, 1668, 1682, and 1686, they were popular in part because they were easily set to music; two volumes of previously uncollected writings,

masks:
Edmund Gosse
Waller


texts:
 "The Maid's Tragedy Altered" and "The Second Part of Mr Waller's Poems" were published after his death in 1690. They included Divine Poems, self-published by <mask> in 1686; most critics view them as 'indifferent' and showing his decline as a writer. Notes

References

Sources

Bibliography

1606 births
1687 deaths
17th-century English poets
17th-century male writers
Original Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at Eton College
People educated at the Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe
People from Beaconsfield
People from Chiltern District
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
English MPs 1624–1625
English MPs 1626
English MPs 1628–1629
English MPs 1640 (April)
English MPs 1640–1648
English MPs 1661–1679
English MPs 1685–1687
English male


texts:
<mask> (born May 31, 1979) is an American college football former coach, former player, and former assistant athletic director at Washington State University. He was previously the interim head coach, offensive coordinator, quarterbacks coach, and recruiting coordinator for the Idaho Vandals of the WAC. He played quarterback for Washington State Cougars of the Pac-10 under head coach Mike Price, and played in the 2003 Rose Bowl. As a professional, Gesser played for the Utah Blaze of the Arena Football League, the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League, and the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League. He was originally hired at Idaho as running backs coach in June 2011. Gesser is the grandson of Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame member Joseph "Red" Dunn. High school years
Gesser attended Saint Louis School in Honolulu and played football for Cal Lee.In his junior year he was named to the all-state team and led the Crusaders to a state championship. In his senior year, St. Louis ranked as high as fourth in the national prep poll and won a second straight state title. He was All-West pick by Prep Star and an academic All-American choice by Prep Star. The Crusaders were 24-0 in games Gesser started. College career
<mask> played college football at Washington State University in Pullman. He is the only player in Cougar history to be elected as captain three consecutive years. Gesser led WSU to two straight 10 win seasons from 2001-2002, and finished seventh in the 2002 Heisman Trophy race.Gesser and USC quarterback Carson Palmer were named Pac-10 Co-Offensive Players of the Year in 2002. The Honolulu native

masks:
Jason John Gesser
Gesser


texts:
 earned First Team All-America honors and finished his Cougar career as a three time All-Pac-10 selection, and a four-time Academic All-Pac-10 honoree. Gesser left WSU owning school records in a number of offensive categories, some which included career starts (34), total yards (9,007), pass attempts (1,118), completions (611), touchdown passes (70), and consecutive games with a touchdown pass (25). During his career, he appeared in 40 games, made 35 starts, led the Pac-10 in passing yards as junior, was the first Cougar to throw for 3,000 yards twice and led WSU to a 2001 Sun Bowl victory and to the 2003 Rose Bowl. He is second, only to Luke Falk, in having the most wins of any quarterback in Washington State history. He was inducted into the Washington State University Athletics Hall of Fame in 2016, and was also ranked 9th of the top 12 greatest Washington State University football players of All-Time by the Pac-12 Networks. Professional career

National Football League (NFL)
Gesser was signed by the Tennessee Titans as an undrafted free agent in April 2003.He spent the entire season with the team but did not see any playing time behind Steve McNair, Billy Volek, and Neil O'Donnell. He was released after the 2004 preseason. Canadian Football League (CFL)
On May 5, 2005, <mask> was signed by the Calgary Stampeders. He started the season as Henry Burris' backup, but took over the starting role when Burris tore a ligament in his left thumb. He only started two games, both victories, before spraining his ankle. He finished the season completing 23 of 42 passes for 356 yards, four touchdowns and five interceptions. Arena


texts:
 Football League (AFL)
In 2006 <mask> signed with the AFL's Utah Blaze.He was the backup at the beginning of the season before replacing the injured Joe Germaine. He completed 89 of 145 passes for 1,092 yards, 23 touchdowns, and seven interceptions. After going winless in four starts, he was replaced by Andy Kelly. Gesser saw little playing time behind a healthy Germaine in 2007, completing two of three passes for 28 yards and a touchdown. Coaching
Gesser said his ultimate goal is coaching at the college level, preferably at Washington State. During the 2006 off-season he was a quarterbacks coach at Federal Way High School in Federal Way, Washington. In 2007, he was offensive coordinator at Parkland's Franklin Pierce High School.He and fellow ex-Cougar Ryan Leaf both campaigned for the position of quarterbacks coach at WSU when it became available after the 2007 season. That job eventually went to Offensive Coordinator Todd Sturdy. Eastside Catholic
In the spring of 2009, <mask> was named as the head football coach at Eastside Catholic School in Sammamish, Washington. He succeeded Bill Marsh, who had resigned after ten seasons with the school. Gesser coached the Crusaders for two seasons, then left in 2011 to become a graduate assistant at WSU in Pullman. Idaho
<mask> returned to the Palouse in May 2011, then crossed the state border in June and joined the staff at Idaho as running backs coach in neighboring Moscow. He filled the open position left by his successor at Eastside Catholic, Jeremy Thielbar, a former Cougar teammate.Idaho's head coach Robb Akey was the defensive line coach at WSU during Gesser's playing days

masks: Gesser Gesser Gesser


texts:
 for the Cougars. In February 2012, <mask> was promoted to offensive coordinator of the Vandals, assisted on offense by another former WSU coach, Mike Levenseller, who was the receivers coach and passing game coordinator. Gesser recruited the Pacific Northwest and Hawaii for Idaho. After only one victory in the first eight games, Akey was fired on October 21 and <mask> was promoted to interim head coach. The Vandals lost their final four games to finish 1–11 for the 2012 season. Paul Petrino was hired as head coach on December 3 and did not retain Gesser on the coaching staff for 2013. <mask> was hired as the quarterbacks coach at Wyoming in February 2013, under fourth-year head coach Dave Christensen.Personal life
Following allegations from multiple women of sexual misconduct, <mask> resigned from WSU in September 2018. In December 2018, WSU found that Gesser violated the school's policy against sexual harassment. Gesser did not participate in the investigation, but was also never found guilty of any crime. Head coaching record

College

See also
 List of National Football League and Arena Football League players

References

1979 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
American players of Canadian football
Canadian football quarterbacks
Calgary Stampeders players
Idaho Vandals football coaches
Utah Blaze players
Tennessee Titans players
Washington State Cougars football players
Wyoming Cowboys football coaches
High school football coaches in Washington (state)
Sportspeople from Honolulu
Coaches of American football from Hawaii
Players of American football from Honolulu
Players of Canadian football from

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Gesser
Gesser
Wyoming Gesser
Gesser


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<mask> (September 14, [September 25, New Style] 1728 – October 19, 1814) was a poet, playwright and pamphleteer during the American Revolution. During the years before the American Revolution, <mask> published poems and plays that attacked royal authority in Massachusetts and urged colonists to resist British infringements on colonial rights and liberties. She was married to <mask>, who was likewise heavily active in the independence movement. During the debate over the United States Constitution in 1788, she issued a pamphlet, Observations on the new Constitution, and on the Federal and State Conventions written under the pseudonym "A Columbian Patriot", that opposed ratification of the document and advocated the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. Observations was long thought to be the work of other writers, most notably Elbridge Gerry. It was not until her descendant, <mask>, found a reference to it in a 1787 letter to British historian Catharine Macaulay that <mask> was accredited authorship. In 1790, she published a collection of poems and plays under her own name, a highly unusual occurrence for a woman at the time.In 1805, she published one of the earliest histories of the American Revolution, a three-volume History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution. Early life
<mask> was born on September 7, 1728 (old style), the third of thirteen children and first daughter of Colonel <mask> (1702–1778) and Mary Allyne <mask> (1702–1774). Only six of her siblings survived to adulthood. The family lived in West Barnstable, Massachusetts. Her mother was a descendant of Mayflower passenger Edward Doty. Her father was a farmer and attorney, who served as a judge for the Barnstable

masks:
Mercy Otis Warren
Warren
James Warren
Charles Warren
Warren
Warren
James Otis
Otis


texts: County Court of Common Pleas. He won election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1745.He was an outspoken opponent and leader against British rule and against the appointed colonial governor, Thomas Hutchinson. The <mask> children were "raised in the midst of revolutionary ideals". Although <mask> had no formal education, she studied with the Reverend Jonathan Russell while he tutored her brothers Joseph and James in preparation for college. Unlike most girls of the time who were simply literate, <mask> most likely paved the way for her to break the traditional gender roles of her time. Her father also had unconventional views of his daughter's education, as he fully supported her endeavors, which was extremely unusual for the 18th century. Her brother James attended Harvard College and became a noted patriot and lawyer. What little of his correspondence with <mask> survives suggests that James encouraged <mask>'s academic and literary efforts, treating her as an intellectual equal and confidante.She married <mask> on November 14, 1754. After settling in Plymouth, James inherited his father's position as sheriff. His previous occupations included farming and merchanting. Throughout their lives, they wrote letters of respect and admiration to each other. These exchanges of adoration showed both a mutual respect and an enduring bond between the two. James would write from Boston, "I have read one Excellent Sermon this day & heard two others. What next can I do better than write to a Saint," and <mask> would then respond, "Your spirit I admire- were a few thousands on the Continent of a similar disposition we might defy the power of Britain."They had five sons, James (1757–1821),

masks:
Otis
Mercy
Warren
Mercy
Mercy
James Warren
Mercy


texts:
 Winslow (1759–1791), Charles (1762–1784), Henry (1764–1828), and George (1766–1800). Her husband James had a distinguished political career. In 1765, he was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives. He became speaker of the House and president of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress. He also served as paymaster to George Washington's army for a time during the American Revolutionary War. <mask> actively participated in the political life of her husband. The <mask>s became increasingly involved in the conflict between the American colonies and the British Government.Their Plymouth home was often a meeting place for local politics and revolutionaries including the Sons of Liberty. <mask> became increasingly drawn to political activism, and she hosted protest meetings in her home. With the assistance of her friend Samuel Adams, these meetings laid the foundation for the Committees of correspondence. <mask> wrote, "no single step contributed so much to cement the union of the colonies." Like <mask>'s father and brothers, the first patriots disliked the colonial governor. <mask> accordingly became a strong political voice with views on liberty, republican government and independence for the American colonies. She wrote: "Every domestic enjoyment depends on the unimpaired possession of civil and religious liberty."<mask>'s husband James encouraged her to write, fondly referring to her as the "scribbler" and she became his chief correspondent and sounding board. She wrote poems and stories about people fighting for freedom. Revolutionary writings and politics
<mask> formed a strong circle of friends with whom she regularly corresponded, including Abigail Adams, John Adams, Martha Washington

masks:
Mercy Warren
Warren
Warren
Warren
Mercy
Mercy
Mercy
Warren


texts: and Hannah Winthrop, wife of John Winthrop. In a letter to Catharine Macaulay she writes: "America stands armed with resolution and virtue; but she still recoils at the idea of drawing the sword against the nation from whom she derived her origin. Yet Britain, like an unnatural parent, is ready to plunge her dagger into the bosom of her affectionate offspring." Through their correspondence they increased the awareness of women's issues, were supportive, and influenced the course of events to further America's cause. She became a correspondent and advisor to many political leaders, including Samuel Adams, John Hancock, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington and especially John Adams, who became her literary mentor in the years leading to the Revolution.In a letter to <mask>, Adams writes, "Tell your wife that God Almighty has entrusted her with the Powers for the good of the World, which, in the cause of his Providence, he bestows on few of the human race. That instead of being a fault to use them, it would be criminal to neglect them." Since <mask> knew most of the leaders of the Revolution personally, she was continually at or near the center of events from 1765 to 1789. <mask> <mask> had already become acquainted with John Adam’s cousin, Samuel, as he was a frequent visitor to the Otis and then the Warren houses when he and other politicians like Patrick Henry traveled to Boston. Adams himself had suggested the basic content of the poem, while his request that <mask> write was probably due to <mask>’s close friendship with his wife Abigail. Not sure about how her writing would be received, <mask> even consulted with her friend Abigail Adams about her husband’s opinion of the work,

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James Warren
Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
Warren
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texts: especially since although he had visited her home previously, Adams did not ask her to write until after his wife had become a friend of <mask>. John Adams was pleased with the anonymous poem and published it in the Boston Gazette on the front page.It was also Adams who had urged her  to write a history of the Revolution even while the war was still being fought. For this work, she was able to use her own memory of the Revolution,  but she also solicited copies of congressional debates, letters, and other information from the active participants in the revolution, many of whom she knew personally  and through her family connections  Before and during the Revolution, the <mask> home served as a gathering place for patriot debates and meetings, allowing <mask> to meet patriot leaders and also their wives, like Abigail Adams and Martha Washington. In addition, her husband, James, was on the Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence and among other official positions served as the paymaster of the Continental Army in 1776, a time when <mask> would travel between home and the army to serve as her husband’s secretary. <mask>’s elite and privileged status in the midst of such a dramatically evolving political situation allowed her as a woman entry into the inner circles of revolutionary activity and debate. Not only did she came to know as individuals many of the most important political figures of her times, but she also formed strong opinions about many of them and some like Adams became influential in her literary life. Among those she met was George Washington, whom she described from their first meeting as “one of the most amiable and accomplished gentlemen, both in person, mind, and manners….”

masks:
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Warren
Mercy Warren
Mercy Warren
Warren


texts: Years later, in 1790, she would ask Washington to approve her History, which he did. Another friend, Jefferson helped her get subscriptions for this work.Unfortunately, this same creation also contributed to the bitterness that rose between <mask> and her old friend, John Adams. After the Revolution, <mask> disagreed with John Adams’ strong Federalism and sided with Jeffersonian Republicanism. She openly expressed her opinion in the harshest of terms in her historical account of Adams, thereby ending one of the most productive friendships of the revolutionary period. As with John Adams, John Hancock, who had once wavered about the question of independence from Britain, also fell out of favor with the <mask>s. He became for them the embodiment of the earlier threat tyranny seen in the British governors. Thomas Jefferson’s republicanism, on the other hand, allowed Marcy <mask> to maintain her earlier approval of him. She wrote several plays, including the satiric The Adulateur (1772).Directed against Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts, The Adulateur foretold the War of Revolution. It was published as a part of a longer play by an unknown author without <mask>'s consent in 1773. One of the main characters in <mask>'s part of the play is Rapatio, who represented Hutchinson. Because <mask> was a Whig and Hutchinson was a Tory, <mask> disagreed with Hutchinson's views. Therefore, Rapatio is the antagonist in The Adulateur. The protagonist is Brutus, a character that <mask> created to represent her brother, <mask>. In the play, the characters that are Whigs are brave, independent people.The characters that are Tories are selfish and rude. The play includes a happy ending for the Whigs. After the

masks:
Mercy Warren
Mercy Warren
Warren
Otis Warren
Warren
Warren
Warren
Warren
Warren
James Otis


texts: play was published, Hutchinson actually become known as Rapatio to citizens of Massachusetts who identified with the Whigs. Because her first play was so successful and she thoroughly enjoyed writing about politics, <mask> did not stop there. In 1773, she wrote The Defeat, also featuring a character based on Hutchinson. Hutchinson had no idea the accuracy of her plot nor completely comprehended the impact she made on his political fate. <mask>'s assistance in the movement to remove Governor Hutchinson from his position through The Defeat was one of her greatest accomplishments, and she allowed the piece a rare happy ending.<mask> began to doubt as she wrote the third installment in her trilogy, feeling the power of her satire compromised her divine purpose to be a "member of the gentler sex," but she found encouragement from Abigail Adams, who told her, "God Almighty has entrusted [you] with Powers for the good of the World". With this affirmation, <mask> then provided her sharpest political commentary yet: in 1775 <mask> published The Group, a satire conjecturing what would happen if the British king abrogated the Massachusetts charter of rights. The anonymously published The Blockheads (1776) and The Motley Assembly (1779) are also attributed to her. In 1788, she published Observations on the New Constitution, whose ratification she opposed as an Anti-Federalist. <mask> was one of the most convincing Patriots in the Revolution and her works inspired others to become Patriots. Her work earned the congratulations of numerous prominent men of the age, including George Washington and Alexander Hamilton, who remarked, "In the career of dramatic composition at least, female genius in the United States

masks: Warren Warren Warren Warren Warren Warren


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 has outstripped the male". Post-Revolutionary writings

All of <mask>'s works were published anonymously until 1790, when she published Poems, Dramatic and Miscellaneous, the first work bearing her name.The book contains eighteen political poems and two plays. The two plays, called "The Sack of Rome" and "The Ladies of Castille," deal with liberty, social and moral values that were necessary to the success of the new republic. In 1805, she completed her literary career with a three-volume History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution. President Thomas Jefferson ordered subscriptions for himself and his cabinet and noted his "anticipation of her truthful account of the last thirty years that will furnish a more instructive lesson to mankind than any equal period known in history." The book's sharp comments on John Adams led to a heated correspondence and a breach in her friendship with Adams, which lasted until 1812. Death and legacy
<mask> died on October 19, 1814, at the age of 86, six years after her husband died in 1808. She is buried at Burial Hill, Plymouth, Massachusetts.According to historian Mary Benson, <mask> was able, vigorous, and much better read than her contemporaries. Her family connections gave her access to the leadership of the American Revolution, including her brother <mask> and her husband <mask>. New England's patriot leadership welcomed her revolutionary fervor and deployed her plays as valuable propaganda for the cause. Although at first dubious about the proper role of women as propagandists, she succumbed to the urgings of her friends and accepted her duty to use her talents for the patriot cause. Her interest in current events blossomed into

masks:
Warren
Warren
Warren
James Otis
James Warren


texts: the skills of a self-taught historian, with a romanticized style of the sort readers of contemporary literature expected. Like the fiction of the day, her historiography pointed toward moral lessons, and a plays and histories reflected her partisanship against the faction around Governor Hutchinson, or around the Hamiltonian Federalists in the national capital. Historians no longer read her for factual details, but they do find her a valuable source on the mood among intellectuals in the Revolutionary era and the early nation.Feminists debate whether she could be considered one of them, for her expressed approach was traditional, with some impatience shown at the restraints. She did strongly encourage women writers while stressing the cheerful performance of household duties. <mask> proved her ability to resonate to her colonial audience, men and women alike. Furthermore, she proved courageous in being willing to put forth work calling out the authoritative power while raising a family, yet she was humble and practical in how she presented the commentary through quieter presentations. Her success was never above her personal dignity. She said to her son, "The thorns, the thistles, and the briers, in the field of politics seldom permit the soil to produce anything… but ruin to the adventurer," yet the public would not let her retire from commentating on the political conflicts of her later days. She concentrated her writing on strict political matters wrote many more short dramas, poems, and essays throughout wartime and post-Revolution with a commentating and critical voice.The SS <mask> Warren, a World War II Liberty ship launched in 1943, was named in her honor. In 2002, she was inducted into

masks: Warren Mercy


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 the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. She is remembered on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail. Her great-great-grandson, <mask>, became a distinguished lawyer and historian. References

Further reading
 Botting, Eileen Hunt. "Women Writing War: <mask> <mask> and Hannah Mather Crocker on the American Revolution." Massachusetts Historical Review 18 (2016): 88-118.  in JSTOR
 Cohen, Lester H. "<mask> <mask>: the Politics of Language and the Aesthetics of Self."American Quarterly 1983 35(5): 481–98. ISSN 0003-0678 Fulltext in Jstor
 Davies, Kate. Catharine Macaulay and <mask> <mask>: The Revolutionary Atlantic and the Politics of Gender. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Davies, Kate, "Revolutionary Correspondence: Reading Catharine Macaulay and <mask> <mask>," Women's Writing: the Elizabethan to Victorian Period. 2006 13:1, 73–97. Ellis, Joseph J.The Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams. Norton, 1993. Franklin, Benjamin V. and <mask>, <mask>. The Plays and Poems of <mask> <mask>. Delmar, New York: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1980. Print. Friedman, Lawrence J. and Shaffer, Arthur H. "<mask> <mask> and the Politics of Historical Nationalism."New England Quarterly 1975 48(2): 194–215. in JSTOR
 Gelles, Edith B. "Bonds of Friendship: the Correspondence of Abigail Adams and <mask> <mask>" Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 1996 108: 35–71. King, Martha J. "The “pen of the historian”: <mask> <mask>'s History of the American Revolution." Princeton University Library Chronicle 72.2 (2011): 513-532. online
 Lane, Larry M. and Lane, Judith J. "The Columbian Patriot: <mask> <mask> and the Constitution."Women & Politics 1990 10(2): 17–32.

masks:
Charles Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
Warren
Mercy Otis
Mercy Otis
Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
Mercy Otis
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Mercy Otis
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texts:
 Oreovicz, Cheryl Z. "<mask> <mask> (1728–1814)" Legacy 1996 13(1): 54–64. Fulltext online at Swetswise
 Richards, Jeffrey H. <mask> <mask>. (Twayne's United States Authors Series, no. 618.) Twayne, 1995.195 pp. ; reviewed in William and Mary Quarterly 1996 54(3): 659–61. Fulltext of review in Jstor
 Shalev, Eran. "<mask> <mask>, the American Revolution and the Classical Imagination." Transatlantica. Revue d’études américaines. American Studies Journal 2 (2015).online
 Stuart, Rubin, Nancy. The Muse of the Revolution: The Secret Pen of <mask> <mask> and the Founding of a Nation. Beacon Press, 2008. Tarantello, Patricia F. "Insisting on Femininity: <mask> <mask>, Susanna Rowson, and Literary Self-Promotion." Women's Studies 46.3 (2017): 181–199. Wood, Gordon S. "The Authorship of the Letters from the Federal Farmer" (in Notes and Documents). William and Mary Quarterly.3rd Ser., Vol. 31, No. 2. (Apr., 1974), pp. 299–308. Zagarri, Rosemarie. A Woman's Dilemma: <mask> <mask> and the American Revolution.Harlan Davidson, 1995. Zagarri, Rosemarie. A Woman's Dilemma: <mask> <mask> and the American Revolution. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015. Primary sources
 <mask>, <mask>. The Rise, Progress and Termination of the American Revolution, Interspersed with Biographical, Political and Moral Observations. Ed.and Ann. by Lester H. Cohen (2 vols.) Liberty Classics, 1988 (modern reprint of orig. 1804 edition). <mask>, <mask>. <mask> <mask>: Selected Letters (University of Georgia Press, 2010). External links
 Michals, Debra."<mask> <mask>". National Women's History Museum. 2015. 1728 births
1814 deaths
18th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Anti-Federalists
Historians of the United States
People of colonial

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Mercy Otis
Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
Mercy Otis
Warren
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 Massachusetts
<mask> family
People of Massachusetts in the American Revolution
People from Barnstable, Massachusetts
Women in the American Revolution
Writers from Massachusetts
American women dramatists and playwrights
19th-century American women writers
18th-century American women writers
19th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Burials at Burial Hill
Pseudonymous women writers
18th-century pseudonymous writers
19th-century pseudonymous