texts:
 October 7, 2016 as part of the purges that followed the failed 2016 coup attempt. His wife, Norine, was initially arrested alongside him, but was released after 13 days. For a time <mask> was held with 21 others in a cell that was made for eight prisoners. He  reportedly lost over  while he was in prison. He was moved to house arrest on July 25, 2018. Indictment
The Turkish government primarily claimed that <mask> was a member of the Gülen movement, but also claimed that he worked with the banned Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), and claimed that he was involved with American espionage, among other things.In addition, they claimed that he was interested in overthrowing the Turkish government and that he supposedly helped plan the coup, which he denied. Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu claimed that the case was triggered by a complaint from a translator. The Turkish government claimed that they didn't know about the case until the consulate addressed it. The trial caused a major public diplomatic row between the United States and Turkey. The United States stood firm in its argument that the trial was unacceptable because the government “has not seen credible evidence Mr. Brunson is guilty of a crime and are convinced that he is innocent.“, as the State Department said in a statement. The Trump administration insisted that the Turkish government free Brunson entirely. Turkey objected to this on the basis of this being an interference with the country's sovereignty.Erdogan objected to the idea of interfering with the courts, arguing that he shouldn't on the basis that they are independent. Hearings
In May 2018, a hearing for his case occurred in Aliaga that lasted eleven hours. The judge dismissed all of <mask>'s defence witnesses without listening to any of their testimony. The prosecution used secret witnesses who “testified through video monitors that distorted their faces and voices in order to conceal their identities”. Sandra Jolley, Vice Chair of the United States

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type: original

texts:
 Commission on International Religious Freedom attended the case, and released the following statement:

"We leave the courthouse with serious concerns. Today's eleven hours of proceedings were dominated by wild conspiracies, tortured logic, and secret witnesses, but no real evidence to speak of. Upon these rests a man's life" She described the judge's decision not to allow any of the witnesses called by Brunson's defense to testify on his behalf as "simply unconscionable".The judge would relent in a later hearing. Hearings were held on July 13, 2018. At his final hearing on October 12, 2018, several prosecution witnesses retracted their earlier statements which led to his release that same day. Trial
<mask> was held for over a year without charges. Turkish prosecutors charged <mask> with involvement in the failed July 2016 coup attempt. Turkish media reported that <mask> had been accused of espionage and attempting to overthrow the government. He was originally charged with having links to FETÖ and PKK (both are considered terrorist organizations by the Turkish state).The New York Times reported that two secret witnesses accused Brunson of "hosting Kurdish refugees in a guesthouse and holding services and gatherings sympathetic to the PKK". Brunson denied helping the coup, and denied he had intentionally had contact with either group blamed for the coup. He was one of 20 American citizens who were prosecuted in connection with the post-coup purges. Fethullah Gülen network ("FETÖ")-related

Court documents said that a photo of maqluba, a popular Levantine rice dish, was found on Brunson's phone. The court documents described maqluba as a "Gulenist delicacy". The Asheville Citizen-Times says that it mentions that Brunson's daughter, who was raised in Turkey, had sent the offending video of the maqluba to his iPhone, which was found by the Turkish government. The Turkish government alleges that  it is eaten in Gülenist safe houses.According to Slate, "The case against <mask> is

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 reportedly based on the testimony of an undisclosed witness, though reports vary as to what exactly the witness alleges. In one version, <mask> attended a Gülenist event. In another, he spoke positively once about relations between Christians and the movement." <mask> was charged with "membership in an armed terrorist organization," "gathering state secrets for espionage, attempting to overthrow the Turkish parliament and government, and to change the constitutional order." <mask> contacted the chair of Amnesty International in Turkey, Taner Kilic, to ask about his residency permit 9 times. Kilic would later be indicted as a member of the alleged Gülenist organization on the grounds that he allegedly had a particular secure messaging app on his phone, which he denies, and opening a bank account. Because of this, <mask>'s prior contact with the lawyer was deemed retroactively terroristic in nature.A secret witness claimed to have overheard a supposed “Israeli missionary” say that Brunson attended an alleged March 2013 event at an Istanbul convention centre where the attendees supposedly plotted the Gezi Park protests. It was claimed that Brunson possessed a list containing information for "'gas station workers in Turkey's southeast,' 'railway employees,' or 'soldiers to get in contact with'" in relation to this supposed planning. Another secret witness involved claimed that they could not understand what the information meant, possibly that certain locations were supposedly meant to be "logistics centers". PKK-related
The prosecution claimed that Brunson was a collaborator with armed Kurdish groups, that he went to YPG territory in Syria (specifically Kobani and Turkey's Suruç district), and that he wanted to Christianize Kurdistan and have it be a Christian state. Brunson claimed that he evangelized Syrian refugees without regard to their ethnic identity, and strongly denied the idea that he had any connection with PKK members. The prosecution claimed that there was GPS data that


texts:
 placed him near the Syrian border. According to a July 2018 article in World by Aykan Erdemir and Merve Tahiroglu, there was a photograph that features both Brunson and a man wearing a yellow, red, and green scarf, which is presented as proof of his involvement with Kurdish nationalist terrorism.It is claimed by the prosecution that Brunson published Kurdish Bibles. It is also claimed that he was part of an operation to help Kurdish families write asylum letters to Canada that strongly criticized the AKP and MHP. US-related
The prosecution claimed that Brunson helped the CIA with the attempted coup. In relation to claims about Christianity, the indictment also made the claim that there was a so-called "Mormon Gang" within American intelligence. It was alleged by one of the witnesses that <mask>'s church was supposedly a waypoint for co-ordinates between the CIA and YPG due to alleged support for the PKK. <mask> was accused of attending an event in a Turkish hotel where the American anthem was allegedly playing and several Turkish college students put their right hand on their heart and made vows, which the prosecution further alleges was some kind of “brainwashing” of these alleged students. Christianity-related
The indictment also made many other broad claims about Christianity and the United States government that the Asheville Citizen-Times described as conspiracy theories.According to the Asheville Citizen-Times, the indictment contained a "lengthy discourse on the alleged influence of Mormons in Turkey" (Brunson is not Mormon). According to World, the secret witness was specifically concerned with English teachers at the nation's “military high schools”. The secret witness also made claims about them missing fingers. <mask> is not Mormon, but is alleged to have LDS contacts, which they further allege is suspicious. According to the Asheville Citizen-Times, it also contained an accusation that every church in the United States is connected to some organization with the acronym


texts:
 "CAMA", that "holds sway over"  every one of them. The indictment also made the claim that every evangelical missionary and Mormon missionary who wants to leave the United States must have permission from this organization, indicating that they allege that it influences both. (However, Protestants and Mormons have many theological disagreements.)This group is unfamiliar to Christian officials within the ACLJ, who view it as an "unfounded" theory. It was also alleged by the prosecution that there are websites on the internet that describe Turkish president Erdogan as the Antichrist, and the indictment almost suggests it as a motive for Brunson, a Christian, to help the coup plotters. The Citizen-Times argued that theory is most likely overshadowed by theories regarding more popular leaders, wildly obscure, and not likely to be widely believed in. Further claims by Turkish media

A December 14, 2016, a Sabah daily news story, said to be based on an informant, claimed that <mask>, while dispensing aid among Syrian refugees, tried to divide Turkey with sermons praising Gülenism and by speaking in support of the banned Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). The pro-Erdogan administration newspaper Takvim alleges that <mask> was a "high-level member of the Gülen movement" and an American spy, positioned to become CIA chief in Turkey had the 2016 coup attempt succeeded. Takvims editor-in-chief, Ergun Diler, alleged that <mask> fended off an assassination attempt thanks to his intelligence agency training, further claiming that <mask> was influential all over the region. Diler speculated that the CIA would assassinate <mask> in prison if it thought he would not be deported back to the U.S.Reactions
In April 2018, a bipartisan group of U.S. senators led by North Carolina senator Thom Tillis sent a letter to Erdoğan stating they were "deeply disturbed that the Turkish government has gone beyond legitimate action against the coup plotters to undermine Turkey's own rule of law and democratic

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 traditions." <mask> has said, "I am not a member of an Islamic movement. I have never seen any member of FETÖ [the Gülen movement] in my life." In a March 2017 letter to U.S. President Donald Trump through an attorney with the American Center for Law and Justice, <mask> said, "Let the Turkish government know that you will not cooperate with them in any way until they release me." According to a February 2017 letter to the president of Turkey signed by 78 members of the U.S. Congress, "There appears to be no evidence to substantiate the charges against him for membership in an armed terrorist organization." A petition for the release of Brunson was launched on the White House's "WE the PEOPLE" citizen petitions website in February 2017, but was later closed without garnering enough signatures. The American Center for Law and Justice launched similar petitions on its main website and the website of its Be Heard Project.The Evangelical Presbyterian Church of America called for a prayer and fasting October 7–8, 2017 for Brunson's release. In October 2017, Ihsan Ozbek, chairman of the Association of Protestant Churches in Turkey, told The New York Times, "<mask> was a normal American Christian; he is not a spy. I know him[...]." International relations

Trump brought this issue up with Erdogan at a meeting on May 13, 2017. On September 28, 2017, Erdoğan said the United States should exchange Pennsylvania-based Islamic preacher Fethullah Gülen with Pastor <mask>, saying "You have a pastor too. Give him to us.... Then we will try [Brunson] and give him to you." The Federal judiciary alone determines extradition cases in the U.S. An August 2017 decree gave Erdogan authority to approve the exchange of detained or convicted foreigners with people held in other countries.Asked about the suggested swap on September 28, 2017, U.S. State Department spokeswoman Heather Nauert said: "I can't imagine that we would go down that road.... We have received extradition requests for [Gülen]." Anonymous

masks:
Brunson
Brunson
Andrew
Andrew Brunson


texts: U.S. officials have said to reporters that the Turkish government has not yet provided sufficient evidence for the U.S. Justice Department to charge Gülen. On October 11, 2017, departing U.S. Ambassador to Turkey John R. Bass said Brunson "appears to be being held simply because he's an American citizen who as a man of faith was in contact with a range of people in this country who he was trying to help, in keeping with his faith". In June 2018, a bipartisan bill changing the NDAA to block the transfer of F-35 fighter jets to Turkey was authored by senators Thom Tillis (R-NC) and Jeanne Shaheen (D-NH) and was passed through Congress. Alongside a third senator, Senator James Lankford (R-OK), special legislation was created with the intent of preventing Turkey from "working to degrade NATO interoperability, exposing NATO assets to hostile actors, degrading the security of NATO member countries, seeking to import weapons from a foreign country under sanction by the U.S., and wrongfully or unlawfully detaining any American citizens." The senators expressed concerns about Turkey's growing ties to Russia and their concerns about the Brunson case.On July 5, 2018, in anticipation of Pastor <mask>'s third day of trial, 98 Members of the European Parliament, from all political groups and 21 countries, sent an open letter to remind President Erdoğan of "the European and International commitments of the Republic of Turkey in regard to freedom of religion, to the prohibition of arbitrary detention, and to the right to a fair trial." They especially protest "against the fact that Pastor Brunson had to wait almost a year and half before being indicted" and against "the fact that the indictment associates 'Christianization' with terrorism, considering the Christian faith as endangering Turkey's unity, while Christianity has been peacefully present in this land long before the current Republic of Turkey." On July 18, 2018, President Trump tweeted President Erdogan calling for Brunson's release. Trump


texts: called the Turkish government's refusal to release Brunson a "total disgrace," described him as being "held hostage" and defended <mask> against the government's accusations. On July 26, 2018, U.S. Vice President Mike Pence called on Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to release Brunson or face significant sanctions. On the same day, President Trump released a tweet, stating that the United States would impose sanctions on Turkey due to <mask>'s detention. According to the Independent, Turkey moving Brunson to house arrest on July 25 was seen as “too little, too late” by American authorities and a phone call between the two countries on the 26th was described as “not going well”.It associates the July 25 swap with the release of a Turkish citizen by Israel on the 15th, as it is claimed that there was an offer for a swap between the two. On August 1, 2018, the United States Department of Treasury imposed sanctions on two top Turkish government officials who were involved in the detention of Brunson, Turkish Justice Minister Abdulhamit Gül and Interior Minister Suleyman Soylu. Daniel Glaser, the former Treasury official under President Barack Obama, said: "It's certainly the first time I can think of" the U.S. sanctioning a NATO ally. "I certainly regard it as a human rights violation to unlawfully detain somebody, so I think it falls within the scope of the Global Magnitsky Act." On August 9, 2018, Trump raised tariffs on Turkish aluminum and steel to 20 and 50 percent, respectively. Erdogan reacted on August 14 by placing tariffs of 120 and 140 percent on U.S. cars and alcohol. Commentators such as Vox's Jen Kirby have pointed to the pivotal role Brunson's case plays in it.Turkish President Erdogan described American actions in the case as choosing a pastor above the strategic relationship between Ankara and Washington, and that Washington has "turned their back on" Ankara, stating that it "annoyed" and "upset" them. According to the Washington Post, there was supposedly a deal

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 to free Brunson if the U.S. would ask Israel to free a Turkish citizen accused of being part of Hamas, which fell through. According to a White House official, "Turkey missed a real opportunity. Pastor Brunson is not a bargaining chip." Senior Turkish officials deny the existence of such a deal. A report from The Economist said diplomatic talks involving <mask> on one side and Halkbank's Atilla on the other came close to success but then broke down over Turkish interest in stopping further Halkbank investigations. <mask> was moved to house arrest in Turkey from prison there following these negotiations.U.S. repatriot

Prison memoir

Rumor of would-be assassination
In 2020, a Turkish ex secret service agent imprisoned in Argentina, Serkan Kurtulus, said to reporters that in 2016, when Brunson was in Turkey, individuals with ties to the Turkish government had requested for Kurtulus to recruit someone to assassinate Brunson with the intention of making the assassination appear the work of individuals within exiled Turkish preacher Fethullah Gülen's Hizmet network, Kurtulus's saying that the officials had asked him "to find a young person, a religious person who would sacrifice himself for the nation." A spokesperson for the Turkish Embassy in Washington, D.C., denied Kurtulus's claim. See also
2016–present purges in Turkey
Human rights in Turkey
Hostage diplomacy

References

External links

1968 births
Living people
20th-century Protestant religious leaders
21st-century Protestant religious leaders
American humanitarians
American people imprisoned abroad
American Presbyterian ministers
Turkey–United States relations
People convicted on terrorism charges
People from Black Mountain, North Carolina
People from İzmir
People involved in the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt
Political repression in Turkey
Prisoners and detainees of Turkey
Religious leaders from North Carolina
Terrorism in Turkey
Trinity Evangelical Divinity School alumni
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
20th-century


texts:
<mask> (born 5 September 1986) is a retired New Zealand footballer and coach who is the current manager of New Zealand club Central United. Career
Born in South Auckland, New Zealand, the son of New Zealand 1982 World Cup representative <mask>. <mask> started as a Semi-Professional with Waitakere City in 2004. Whilst with Waitakere, <mask> was the 2004 top scorer in the Lotto Sport Italia NRFL Premier as a 17-year-old, and played in the club's 0–1 loss to Miramar Rangers in the final of the 2004 Chatham Cup. Over one and half seasons with Waitakere City, <mask> scored a total of 29 goals. In mid-2005, <mask> was named as one of three players in the New Zealand Knights' apprenticeship scheme. Shortly after the start of the season, though, Knights player Neil Emblen was forced onto the injured list, which would allow the club to sign <mask> as a replacement for four weeks.<mask> was rushed into the squad to play the Central Coast Mariners at North Harbour Stadium, and produced a Man of the Match performance as he played the full 90 minutes on debut as the New Zealand side went down 1–3. <mask>'s performance in his first match earned praise from Knights manager John Adshead, and he was rewarded with a starting place in the following match against the Newcastle United Jets. <mask> appeared in the Knights's following four games up until Emblen's return from injury, but had done enough to retain his position in the squad, having signed another short-term contract, this time to cover for Joshua Rose. By the end of the 2005–06 season, <mask> had made a total of 12 appearances, three from the substitutes bench. In mid-2006, <mask> was asked to trial at Scottish side Kilmarnock, where he was for a month, playing three games and scoring two goals. Although he was not signed by Kilmarnock, Dutch Eerste Divisie club Fortuna Sittard, invited <mask> to a trial match against FC Geleen-Zuid where he scored one goal. <mask> subsequently landed a one-year contract with the club, with the option of a further year.<mask> managed to gain a spot in the starting

masks:
Kris Bright
Dave Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright
Bright


texts: line-up for the struggling Dutch side. He played in eleven league games, in which he scored one goal, against HFC Haarlem. After interest from Norway, he signed a six-month contract until the end of the Norwegian season with Norwegian club Kristiansund BK. There he scored an amazing 11 goals in eight games until his season was ended prematurely. With two games remaining in the season and several Norwegian Tippeligaen & Adeccoligaen clubs following his progress, <mask> suffered a broken leg. <mask> then renewed his contract with Kristiansund BK until January 2009. After six months of recovery, <mask> then made his return in the 2008 season opener against Strindheim.He continued his goal scoring form with two goals including a 25-metre free-kick to help Kristiansund to a 3–1 win. After playing 12 games, he was top goal-scorer in the league with 10 goals. Also, in the 3rd round of the Norwegian Cup, <mask> scored KBK's only goal against Tippeligaen club & close rivals Molde F.K. in a 2–1 extra-time loss. After a season full of goals again in Norway, <mask> had done enough to sign a -year contract with Greek Super League side Panserraikos F.C., he was given the number 32 shirt. He left the Club in July 2009 by mutual consent with a year remaining on his contract due to unpaid wages, and joined English League Two side Shrewsbury Town on 3 August 2009. In November 2009, <mask> scored the winner in a 2–1 win over AFC Telford United in the Shropshire Senior Cup final.He scored his first Football League goal against Lincoln City, then scored another on the final day of the season against Port Vale. He made a total of 26 league appearances in the 2009–10 season, including 22 from the bench, scoring three goals. After interest from Hungary earlier in the year, and with a new manager arriving at Shrewsbury Town, <mask> then found himself signing a -year deal with former Hungarian giants Honved Budapest on a free transfer. Unfortunately at the end of the first season at the club, and with the club having huge financial difficulties and unable to pay full

masks: Bright Bright Bright Bright Bright Bright Bright


texts:
 wages, <mask> was to find a new club. On 3 October 2011 <mask> joined Maltese club Balzan Youths on a short-term deal. <mask> linked up Balzan until December before he made the move to Bryne FK in Norway in January. <mask> accepted the offer of joining Balzan so that he could maintain his match fitness prior to the move to Bryne.The move was a success helping the recently promoted side to a top six finish scoring five crucial goals in 10 starts for the club. The 25-year-old had agreed a pre-contract with Bryne and joined up on 1 January 2012. After half a season in Bryne, <mask> then found himself playing in an unaccustomed midfield role. With the team struggling in the league, limited opportunities as a striker, and offers from other teams, <mask> signed a short-term deal on 2 August with FC Haka in the Finland Premier League. <mask> cited his reasons for leaving were "to get regular playing time as a striker to score goals". In March 2013 <mask> signed a deal with IFK Mariehamn in the Finland Premier League for the whole season 2013. On 8 March 2014, it was announced <mask> had signed for Lincoln City for the rest of the season.On 10 November 2014, he signed for newly formed club Bharat FC of I-League. On 27 January 2015, he scored the first goal for his club, netting a 14th-minute goal against Royal Wahingdoh. On 10 July 2015, he signed for Bidvest Wits of the ABSA Premiership in South Africa. He scored and bagged an assist on debut for Bidvest Wits. On 23 August 2016, <mask> signed for Northern Irish club Linfield on a one-year contract. After being sparingly used, he returned to New Zealand on 21 September 2017, signing for Auckland City. International career
<mask> has represented New Zealand at under-15, under-16, under-17 and under-20 levels.He played in all of New Zealand's matches during their failed qualifying campaign for the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship, scoring four goals, including a hat-trick in a 13–0 win over Tonga. In 2005, <mask> was selected for the under-20 squad to compete in the OFC qualifying tournament for the

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texts:
 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship, but again the country were unable to make the finals, finishing third in their group behind the Solomon Islands and Fiji. His senior international debut for the All whites was a substitute appearance in 2008 for a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Fiji, and his first senior international goal was against Thailand on 28 March 2009. He was included in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup squad, making a single appearance as a substitute against European champions, Spain. He missed out on the final 23-man squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but was named as one of seven non-travelling reserves. References

External links

1986 births
Living people
Association footballers from Auckland
New Zealand people of English descent
Association football midfielders
Association football forwards
New Zealand association footballers
New Zealand international footballers
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup players
A-League Men players
Waitakere City FC players
New Zealand Knights FC players
Eerste Divisie players
Fortuna Sittard players
Kristiansund BK players
Panserraikos F.C. players
Budapest Honvéd FC players
Shrewsbury Town F.C.players
English Football League players
Nemzeti Bajnokság I players
Bryne FK players
FC Haka players
IFK Mariehamn players
Lincoln City F.C. players
Bharat FC players
Bidvest Wits F.C. players
Linfield F.C. players
Balzan F.C. players
Veikkausliiga players
New Zealand Football Championship players
New Zealand expatriate association footballers
Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands
Expatriate footballers in Norway
Expatriate footballers in Greece
Expatriate footballers in England
Expatriate footballers in Hungary
Expatriate footballers in India
Expatriate footballers in Finland
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in Norway
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in Greece
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in England
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in Hungary
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in India
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in


texts:
Canon <mask> () was a 16th-century cleric from Aberdeen in Scotland. He was not only a Canon of St Machar’s Cathedral, he was a Royal Notary and Diocesan Clerk for James IV and James V of Scotland; vicar of the Parishes of Fordyce, Bothelny and Kinkell (1516-1552); five times Rector of King's College – University of Aberdeen; Master of Works on the Bridge of Dee in Aberdeen and for Greyfriars Church in Aberdeen; and Chancellor of the Diocese of Aberdeen. According to Steven Holmes, he was one of the most notable liturgists of his time, designing many fine examples of Sacrament Houses across the North-East of Scotland. He was a friend of and adviser to Hector Boece, the first Principal of the University of Aberdeen, as well as Bishop Elphinstone, Chancellor of Scotland and Gavin Dunbar. He was an avid anti-Reformationist being a friend of Jacobus Latomus and Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus and clerics in the Old University of Leuven. Along with Gavin Dunbar, <mask> designed and had built the western towers of the cathedral and designed the heraldic ceiling, featuring 48 coats of arms in three rows of sixteen. More than anyone else he contributed to the development of the artistry of Scottish lettering.He has a claim to be what some might call "a Renaissance Man". Background
In 1949, the eminent Aberdeen architect and antiquarian, William Kelly, wrote a brief hagiography and stated:

In 2017, Charles Burnett provided an outline of this cleric. A publication by Ray McAleese in 2019 provided a character study of <mask>. Apart from these publications, <mask> is almost invisible in the history of the north-east of Scotland. He was considered by the great reforming Bishop William Elphinstone to be one of his most faithful and able Canons. Hector Boece writing in 1522 a biography of Elphinstone, wrote that Elphinstone ".. hardly did

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Alexander Galloway
Galloway
Galloway
Galloway


texts:
 anything without <mask>’s guidance..". There are no public memorials to him apart from references in two stained glass windows by eminent twentieth-century artists – Charles Eamer Kempe and Douglas Strachan.<mask>, when he is recalled is most often remembered as the “architect” of Greyfriars John Knox Church on Broad Street, Aberdeen; the Bridge of Dee; liturgic marks and sacrament houses in Aberdeenshire churches; and finally a striking octagonal baptismal font in St John's, Aberdeen. There are no images of him apart from those provided in glass by Kempe and Strachan. Family

Little is known of his early history. His father was <mask>; his mother is named by Kelly as Marjorie Mortimer. Marjorie may have been part of the Mortimer family who at the time were the owners of Craigievar Castle near Aberdeen. <mask> had two brothers. <mask> was a Carmelite in Aberdeen.A second brother, <mask>, features in the history of King’s College later in the sixteenth century. <mask>’s father had connections in Angus. This can be seen in the records of St Andrews University where <mask> is recorded as being a matriculated student in 1493. <mask> almost certainly came as a student to Bishop Elphinstone’s new college (St Mary’s College, later Kings College) in Old Aberdeen (see University of Aberdeen). Later in life he adopted the arms of the namesake family – the Earls of Galloway, a common practice at the time. <mask> is recorded as "master" <mask> – a graduate in 1499. A priest in the making.Very quickly he emerges from the shadows as a Royal Notary and Diocesan Clerk for the diocese. Rapid progress for such a young priest. In 1503, lays claim to lands at Colyhill, near Chapel of Garioch – the start of his fifty-year connection with the Inverurie area of Aberdeenshire and what was to become his principal parish at Kinkell – two miles from

masks:
Galloway
Galloway
William Galloway
Alexander
William Galloway
Andrew Galloway
Galloway
Galloway
Galloway
Alexander Galloway
Galloway


texts:
 Inverurie. While his family circumstances remain unclear, <mask> had substantial wealth. He used this during his life to fund various projects as well as allowing him to live comfortably in residences in the parish where he was Prebendary (Kinkell) and in the Chanonry in Old Aberdeen. During his lifetime he provided funds to allow scribes to prepare records of the church St Nicholas in Aberdeen, the cathedral of St Machar in Old Aberdeen, and various Rectoral reports for King’s College (University of Aberdeen). It is believed that the 1549 report on his Rectoral “visitation” is in his own hand.He also provided funds to purchase lands for church purposes and in one instance for a Hospital for “Bedeswomen” at the Foot O’Dee in Aberdeen. He took arms sometime after c.1500 that reference Fergus of Galloway. These arms were used by <mask> to decorate many of his liturgical works. They also appear in his own hand on an inventory of St Machar Cathedral. The Architect

Within the few published references to Galloway, his role in the diocese is most often referred to as an "architect". However, in the 16th century the term had not yet been applied to the role that he played within the Diocese. In common with the way Cathedral Chapters managed the building work in the diocese, a Master of Works or “supervisor” was first appointed by the Bishop.He in turn would have appointed a Master Mason and a Master Carpenter. The Master of Works would also have had a deputy who kept day to day accounts and reported to Cathedral Chapter. In managing building work for the Chapter, a Master of Works would have made use of wooden models and drawings of buildings, bridges etc. made by the Master Carpenter. <mask> was Master of Works for the Diocese from c. 1509 to his death in 1552. He was suited to this potion first, because of a close working

masks: Galloway Galloway Galloway


texts:
 relationship to Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar and his friendship with Hector Boece. Second, his skill in liturgical matters made him a knowledgeable and safe pair of hands.His influence was wider than in the Aberdeen diocese. As an experienced Master of Works he developed a close association with Canon <mask> of Dunkeld (d.1548), first President of the Scottish College of Justice and Abbot of Cambuskenneth. In that diocese, Mylne supervised, as the Master of Works, the building of the “old” bridge in Dunkeld. This was the same time that Bishop Durbar was revising Bishop Elphinstone’s plans for a bridge over the river Dee. Mylne and <mask> had common interests. <mask> also undertook the role of Master of Works for the great wooden ceiling in the Cathedral, the “Dunbar western towers” of the cathedral, various churches and the Bridge of Dee (1522-1527) in Aberdeen. He was also the Master of Works for Greyfriars Church in Aberdeen and the Snow Kirk in Old Aberdeen.The Liturgist

Apart from his organisation skills, <mask> was a deeply committed conservative priest. He was a “canonist”. He also left a legacy of buildings, signs and symbols that place him as one of the great 16th century Liturgists in the NE of Scotland. Carter has recalled him as :

<mask> made three important liturgical contributions at his own Church. First a sacrament house (1524). In Scotland the host was most often held in an ambury usually situated at the east end of the sanctuary. His sacrament house at Kinkell is in the form of an ambury on the NE wall.<mask> had visited the Low Countries where there are similar sacrament houses. There he met Jacobus Latomus at Louvain, Belgium The sacrament house at Kinkell can still be seen although it heavily weathered. It is cross-shaped, with the cupboard (ambury) in the lower part. It is decorated with the words HIC

masks:
Alexander Mylne
Galloway
Galloway
Galloway
Galloway
Galloway


texts:
 EST SEVATUM CORPUS DE VIRGINE NATUM (“Here is preserved the body which was born of a virgin’”) on the panelled compartments forming the arms of the cross. Two angels can be seen holding the monstrance on the centre and at the top of the cross. At the bottom is the date, AD 1524, together with <mask>’s initials. There is considerable damage to the installation due to weathering.Second, a unique crucifixion plaque (1525). The crucifix scene was designed to show the mass as a re-presentation of the passion. Holmes claims:

The panel that is now visible, in the ruins, is a copy made in the early 20th century after the original had been removed for restoration and lost in 1903! The original installation would have been painted and decorated with coloured wires. The Cross is adorned with the liturgic sign INRI. That is, IESVS·NAZARENVS·REX·IVDÆORVM (Iesus Nazarenus, Rex Iudaeorum) "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews" (John 19:19). To the left of the cross is the Archangel St Michael the patron saint of Kinkell church.To the right the Virgin Mary. Below, to the left, is a representation Souls in Purgatory. Indicating ”preces sanctorum” – prayers for the dead. To the right, below, a figure that was probably <mask>. His initials and the Marian rose are depicted on the altar as well as on the frame of the plaque. Steven Holmes

Third, a baptismal font. This can be seen in St John’s Episcopal Church, Crown Terrace in Aberdeen.The bowl is octagonal with sunken panels on each face. This design is striking when compared to other medieval fonts in Scotland. The liturgical signs are as follows: the eight sides of the bowl itself are a reference to the eighth day of Holy Week – the Sunday of the Resurrection and new birth. A striking feature on one side of the bowl is the letters A & G intertwined with a cord. There are in addition on other

masks: Galloway Galloway


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 faces, the Arma Christi (five wounds - the objects associated with Jesus' Passion), two sacred monograms (one being “IHS” - abbreviation of the name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ (Jesus); the other a crowned M for Mary), a pierced heart (the "arms of Mary"), two carved roses and the cross with a crown of thorns. <mask> made extensive use of the Marian Rose in his liturgical signs, as well as being a practicing "Marianist". The bowl, which is  deep and  wide has a drain.It now sits on a pedestal which was designed by the Aberdeen architect James Mitchell who provided the setting in 1851 when it was installed in St John's. A Man of his Times

Not only was <mask> a skilled canonist, Master of Works and an influential liturgist, In two ways he was a "man of his times". First, his ability to hold a view of the world that depends on myth and magic. Some time, between 1505 and 1507 <mask> and Hector Boece undertook a series of expeditions on behalf of Bishop Elphinstone. Elphinstone was making preparations for a new Scottish Breviary. To inform the group undertaking the work, Boece and <mask>, both members of the Aberdeen Liturgists, were asked to update stories of the Scottish Saints. On one of their trips to monasteries and abbeys in the west of Scotland, they reached an un-named island.There, according to Boece, <mask> gave his views on origins of barnacle geese. (See also, Barnacle goose myth)

Boece has been accused of writing history that suited his sponsor, James V of Scotland. In many parts of his history of Scotland, Boece draws on medieval explanations based on myth, The lasting feature was that Boece allowed <mask> to express the view that barnacle geese did come from barnacles. The explanation may involve the geese dropping from trees growing on the sea shore fully formed. Or, emerging from barnacles that clung to flotsam. In either case, <mask>

masks: Galloway Galloway Galloway Galloway Galloway Galloway Galloway


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 was reflecting what was known about barnacle geese in the 16th century. His certainty about religion was under-scored by his certainty about the natural world.Second, <mask> had been a frequent visitor to Europe. The Diocese of Aberdeen, under Elphinstone was strongly influenced by scholars from across Europe. Aberdeen had a strong trading link with the Low Countries. On 28/29 February 1528, Patrick Hamilton, considered the first Scottish martyr of the Reformation, was cruelly burned at the stake in St. Andrews. Hamilton had made the fatal mistake of writing about "the errors and absurdities of the papists", so was seen as a heretic by the conservative liturgist <mask>, his Bishop and the arch-conservative Beaton. It appears that both the Bishop of Aberdeen and his loyal Canon were present at the trial and execution of Hamilton. This came about as follows.<mask> had been a frequent visitor to Old University of Leuven Louvain in Belgium. There he became a friend and supporter of Jacobus Latomus who was an outspoken critic of Erasmus. Latomus referred to ‘<mask>ai Scotus Abordonensis canonicus’ as one of the ‘friends’ who persuaded him to publish his reply to Patrick Hamilton's Places. After the burning, <mask> wrote to his friends in Louvain reporting on the "success" of the trial. Lorimer says:

These events and connections are circumstantial; however, the events provide a pointer to an important facet of <mask>’s character. He certainly was more than just the liturgist and Master of Works. <mask>’s liturgical zeal indicates a preference for certainty and deep conservatism.Further, he was prepared to write to others about what he thought. Perhaps it was this conservatism that drove his liturgical zeal. He was "a man of his times with many virtues and a few crimes"(sic)

References

People from Aberdeen
15th century in

masks:
Galloway
Galloway
Galloway
Alexander Galo
Galloway
Galloway
Galloway


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<mask> (December 10, 1906 – February 14, 2000) was an American nuclear physicist who was the first director of the Argonne National Laboratory from 1946 to 1956. He worked at the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory during World War II, and supervised the construction of Chicago Pile-1, the world's first nuclear reactor, which went critical on December 2, 1942, at the University of Chicago. At Argonne he designed and built several new reactors, including  Experimental Breeder Reactor I, the first nuclear reactor to produce electric power, which went live on December 20, 1951. Early life
<mask> was born in Berlin (now Kitchener), Ontario, on December 10, 1906, the son of <mask>, who worked in a tire factory, and Maria Anna Stoskopf. He had an older brother, Albert, who also became a factory worker. <mask> entered Queen's University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics in 1927 and a Master of Arts degree in 1930. He then entered Columbia University in 1930, where he studied physics, writing his Doctor of Philosophy thesis on "Two-crystal study of the structure and width of K X-ray absorption limits".This was subsequently published in the Physical Review. To support himself, <mask> taught at Queen's University from 1927 to 1928, and at Columbia from 1931 to 1932. He became an instructor at the City College of New York in 1932. While at Queen's he met  Jennie A. (Jean) Smith, a fellow student. They were married in 1933 and had two sons, John Eric and Robert James. In 1938, <mask> became a naturalised United States citizen.Manhattan Project
In 1939, the Pupin Physics Laboratories at Columbia where <mask> worked were the center of

masks:
Walter Henry Zinn
Walter Henry Zinn
John Zinn
Zinn
Zinn
Zinn
Zinn


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 intensive research into the properties of uranium and nuclear fission, which had recently been discovered by Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann. At Columbia, <mask>, Enrico Fermi, Herbert L. Anderson, John R. Dunning and Leo Szilard investigated whether uranium-238 fissioned with slow neutrons, as Fermi believed, or only the uranium-235 isotope, as Niels Bohr contended. Since pure uranium-235 was not available, Fermi and Szilard chose to work with natural uranium. They were particularly interested in whether a nuclear chain reaction could be initiated. This would require more than one neutron to be emitted per fission on average in order to keep the chain reaction going. By March 1939, they established that about two were being emitted per fission on average. The delay between an atom absorbing a neutron and fission occurring would be the key to controlling a chain reaction.At this point <mask> began working for Fermi, constructing experimental uranium lattices. To slow neutrons down requires a neutron moderator. Water was Fermi's first choice, but it tended to absorb neutrons as well as slow them. In July, Szilard suggested using carbon, in the form of graphite. The critical radius of a spherical reactor was calculated to be:

In order for a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction to occur, they needed k > 1. For a practical reactor configuration, it needed to be at least 3 or 4 percent more; but in August 1941 <mask>'s initial experiments indicated a disappointing value of 0.87. Fermi pinned his hopes of a better result on an improved configuration, and purer uranium and graphite.In early 1942, with the United States now embroiled World War II,

masks: Zinn Zinn Zinn


texts:
 Arthur Compton concentrated the Manhattan Project's various teams working on plutonium at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago. Zinn used athletes to build Fermi's increasingly large experimental configurations under the stands of the disused Stagg Field. In July 1942, Fermi measured a k = 1.007 from a uranium oxide lattice. This raised hopes that pure uranium would yield a suitable value of k.

By December 1942, <mask> and Anderson had the new configuration ready at Stagg Field. Some  long,  wide and  high, it contained  of graphite and  of uranium metal and uranium oxide. When the experiment was carried out on the afternoon of December 2, 1942, the reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, reached criticality without incident. Since the reactor had no radiation shield, it was run at a maximum power of only 200 W, enough to power a light bulb, and ran for only three months.It was shut down on February 28, 1943, because the US Army did not want to risk an accident near densely populated downtown Chicago. The Army leased a  of the Cook County Forest Preserves known as "Site A" to the Manhattan Project, and "the Country Club" to the hundred or so scientists, guards and others who worked there. <mask> was placed in charge of Site A, under Fermi. Chicago Pile-1 was disassembled and rebuilt, this time with a radiation shield, at Site A. The reactor, now known as Chicago Pile-2, was operational again on March 20, 1943. Within a few months, Fermi began designing a new reactor, which became known as Chicago Pile-3. This was a very different type of reactor.It was much smaller, being only  in diameter and  high. It was power by 120 uranium metal rods, and

masks: Zinn Zinn


texts:
 moderated by  of heavy water. Once again <mask> was in charge of construction, which commenced on New Year's Day in 1944. Chicago Pile-3 went critical on May 15, 1944, and commenced operation on June 23 at its full power of 300 KW. When Fermi departed for the Hanford Site, <mask> became the sole authority at Site A. On September 29, 1944, <mask> received an urgent call from Samuel Allison, the director of the Metallurgical Laboratory. The B Reactor at Hanford had shut down shortly after reaching full power, only to come back to life again some hours later.Norman Hilberry suspected a neutron poison was responsible. If so, it had a half life of around 9.7 hours. Xenon-135 had a half life close to that, but had not been detected in Argonne or by the X-10 Graphite Reactor in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. <mask> quickly brought Chicago Pile-3 up to full power, and within twelve hours, had made a series of measurements that confirmed the Hanford results. Over the following months, some 175 technical personnel were transferred from the Metallurgical Laboratory to Hanford and Los Alamos. Zinn's Argonne Laboratory was reduced to a skeleton staff, but Compton would not countenance its closure. Argonne National Laboratory

On July 11, 1946, the Argonne laboratory officially became the Argonne National Laboratory, with <mask> as its first director.Alvin Weinberg characterized <mask> as "a model of what a director of the then-emerging national laboratories should be: sensitive to the aspirations of both contractor and fund provider, but confident enough to prevail when this was necessary." One of the first problems confronting <mask> was that of accommodation. The Federal

masks: Zinn Zinn Zinn Zinn Zinn Zinn Zinn


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 government had promised to restore Site A to the Cook County Forest Preserves after the war, and despite intervention from the Secretary of War, Robert P. Patterson, the most the Cook County Forest Preserves Commission would agree to was that the Argonne National Laboratory could continue to occupy a portion of the lease until a new site was found. <mask> rejected alternate sites outside the Chicago area, and the Army found a new site for the laboratory's permanent home about  away in DuPage County, Illinois, which became known as Site D.

Under <mask>, the Argonne National Laboratory adopted slightly more progressive hiring practices than other contemporary institutions. Three African American women and seven men, six of whom had worked on the Manhattan Project, were employed in research at Argonne at a time when the Los Alamos National Laboratory had no African American scientists. Argonne also appointed women to positions of authority, with Maria Goeppert-Mayer as a section leader in the theoretical physics division, and Hoylande Young as director of the technical information division. The  Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) replaced the Manhattan Project on January 1, 1947, and on January 1, 1948 it announced that the Argonne National Laboratory would be "focused chiefly on problems of reactor development."<mask> did not seek the additional responsibility, which he realised would divert the Laboratory away from research, and divert him from other responsibilities, such as designing a fast breeder reactor. He even obtained a written assurance from Carroll L. Wilson, the AEC's general manager, that it would not. He was therefore willing to collaborate with Alvin


texts: Weinberg to allow the Oak Ridge National Laboratory to remain involved in reactor design. Nonetheless, reactor research accounted for almost half the laboratory's budget in 1949, and 84 percent of its research was classified. <mask> did not get along well with Captain Hyman G. Rickover, the US Navy's Director of Naval Reactors, but nonetheless Argonne assisted in the development of nuclear marine propulsion, eventually producing two reactors, a land-based prototype Mark I and a propulsion reactor, the Mark II. The STR (Submarine Thermal Reactor) pressurized water reactor designed at Argonne powered the first nuclear-powered submarine, , and  became the basis of nearly all the reactors installed in warships. The other branch of reactor development at the Argonne National Laboratory, and the one closer to <mask>'s heart, was the fast breeder reactor.At the time it was believed that uranium was a scarce resource, so it would be wise to make the best use of it. The breeders were designed to create more fissile material than they consumed. By 1948, he had become convinced that it would be unwise to build large experimental reactors near Chicago, and the AEC acquired land around Arco, Idaho, which became an outpost of Argonne. The Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I, but known at Argonne as "ZIP" — Zinn's Infernal Pile) was the first reactor to be cooled by liquid metal, and the first to produce electricity. It proved the breeder concept. AEC Chairman Gordon Dean described it as a major milestone in nuclear history. The BORAX Experiments were a series of destructive tests of boiling water reactors conducted by Argonne National Laboratory in Idaho.The BORAX-1 test


texts:
 was conducted under <mask>'s supervision in 1954. He had the control rods removed to demonstrate that the reactor would shut down without trouble, and it immediately blew up with a loud bang and a tall column of dark smoke, a turn of events that he had not anticipated. He shouted to Harold Lichtenberg to put the control rods back in again, but Lichtenberg pointed out that one was already flying through the air. <mask> later had to testify on the experiment before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. Later life
After leaving the Argonne National Laboratory in 1956, <mask> moved to Florida, where he founded his own consulting firm, General Nuclear Engineering, with its headquarters in Dunedin, Florida. The company was involved in the design and construction of pressurized water reactors. It was acquired by Combustion Engineering in 1964, and he became a vice president and head of its nuclear division.He stepped down from this position in 1970, but remained a board member until 1986. He served as a member of the President's Science Advisory Committee from 1960 to 1962, and a member of the General Advisory Committee of the AEC and its successor, the Energy Research and Development Administration, from 1972 to 1975. Over the years <mask> received multiple awards for his work, including  a special commendation from the AEC in 1956, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1960, the Enrico Fermi Award in 1969, and the Elliott Cresson Medal from The Franklin Institute in 1970. In 1955 he was elected as the first president of the American Nuclear Society (ANS). <mask>'s wife Jean died in 1964. He married Mary Teresa Pratt in 1966, and thereby acquired two stepsons, Warren and

masks: Zinn Zinn Zinn Zinn Zinn


texts:
 Robert Johnson. He died in Mease Countryside Hospital in Safety Harbor, Florida, on February 14, 2000, after suffering a stroke.He was survived by his wife Mary, sons John and Robert and stepson Warren. Robert had become a professor of astronomy at Yale University. <mask> H. <mask> Award
Since 1976, the American Nuclear Society's Operations and Power Division, has annually presented the <mask> H. Zinn Award to recognize an individual "for a notable and sustained contribution to the nuclear power industry that has not been widely recognized." Notes

References

1906 births
2000 deaths
People from Kitchener, Ontario
Columbia University alumni
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
City College of New York faculty
Canadian nuclear physicists
American nuclear physicists
Manhattan Project people
Atoms for Peace Award recipients
Columbia University

masks: Walter Zinn Walter


texts:
<mask> (9 June 1836 – 17 December 1917) was an English physician and suffragist. She was the first woman to qualify in Britain as a physician and surgeon. She was the co-founder of the first hospital staffed by women, the first dean of a British medical school, the first woman in Britain to be elected to a school board and, as mayor of Aldeburgh, the first female mayor in Britain. Early life

<mask> was born in Whitechapel, London, and the second of eleven children of <mask> (1812–1893), from Leiston, Suffolk, and his wife, Louisa (born Dunnell;  1813–1903), from London. The <mask> ancestors had been ironworkers in East Suffolk since the early seventeenth century. Newson was the youngest of three sons and not academically inclined, although he possessed the family's entrepreneurial spirit. When he finished school, the town of Leiston offered little to Newson, so he left for London to make his fortune.There, he fell in love with his brother's sister-in-law, Louisa Dunnell, the daughter of an innkeeper of Suffolk origin. After their wedding, the couple went to live in a pawnbroker's shop at 1 Commercial Road, Whitechapel. The <mask>s had their first three children in quick succession: Louie, <mask> and their brother (Dunnell Newson) who died at the age of six months. While Louisa mourned the loss of her third child, it was not easy to raise their two daughters in the city of London at that time. When <mask> was three years old, the family moved to 142 Long Acre, where they lived for two years, while one more child was born and her father moved up in the world, becoming not only the manager of a larger

masks:
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson
Elizabeth
Newson Garrett
Garrett
Garrett
Elizabeth
Garrett


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 pawnbroker's shop, but also a silversmith. <mask>'s grandfather, owner of the family engineering works, Richard Garrett & Sons, had died in 1837, leaving the business to his eldest son, <mask>'s uncle. Despite his lack of capital, Newson was determined to be successful and in 1841, at the age of 29, he moved his family to Suffolk, where he bought a barley and coal merchants business in Snape, constructing Snape Maltings, a fine range of buildings for malting barley.The <mask>s lived in a square Georgian house opposite the church in Aldeburgh until 1852. Newson's malting business expanded and more children were born, Edmund (1840), Alice (1842), Agnes (1845), Millicent (1847), who was to become a leader in the constitutional campaign for women's suffrage, Sam (1850), Josephine (1853) and George (1854). By 1850, Newson was a prosperous businessman and was able to build Alde House, a mansion on a hill behind Aldeburgh. A "by-product of the industrial revolution", <mask> grew up in an atmosphere of "triumphant economic pioneering" and the <mask> children were to grow up to become achievers in the professional classes of late-Victorian England. <mask> was encouraged to take an interest in local politics and, contrary to practices at the time, was allowed the freedom to explore the town with its nearby salt-marshes, beach and the small port of Slaughden with its boatbuilders' yards and sailmakers' lofts. Early education
There was no school in Aldeburgh so <mask> learned the three Rs from her mother. When she was 10 years old, a governess, Miss Edgeworth, a poor gentlewoman, was employed to educate <mask> and her sister.Mornings were spent in the schoolroom; there were regimented afternoon walks; educating the young ladies continued

masks: Garrett Garrett Garrett Garrett Garrett Elizabeth Garrett Garrett


texts: at mealtimes when Edgeworth ate with the family; at night, the governess slept in a curtained off area in the girls' bedroom. <mask> despised her governess and sought to outwit the teacher in the classroom. When <mask> was 13 and her sister 15, they were sent to a private school, the Boarding School for Ladies in Blackheath, London, which was run by the step aunts of the poet Robert Browning. There, English literature, French, Italian and German as well as deportment, were taught. Later in life, <mask> recalled the stupidity of her teachers there, though her schooling there did help establish a love of reading. Her main complaint about the school was the lack of science and mathematics instruction. Her reading matter included Tennyson, Wordsworth, Milton, Coleridge, Trollope, Thackeray and George Eliot.<mask> and Louie were known as "the bathing <mask>s", as their father had insisted they be allowed a hot bath once a week. However, they made what were to be lifelong friends there. When they finished in 1851, they were sent on a short tour abroad, ending with a memorable visit to the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, London. After this formal education, <mask> spent the next nine years tending to domestic duties, but she continued to study Latin and arithmetic in the mornings and also read widely. Her sister Millicent recalled <mask>'s weekly lectures, "Talks on Things in General", when her younger siblings would gather while she discussed politics and current affairs from Garibaldi to Macaulay's History of England. In 1854, when she was eighteen, <mask> and her sister went on a long visit to their school friends, Jane and Anne Crow, in Gateshead where she met Emily Davies, the early feminist and future co-founder of Girton

masks: Garrett Garrett Garrett Elizabeth Garrett Garrett Garrett Garrett


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 College, Cambridge. Davies was to be a lifelong friend and confidante, always ready to give sound advice during the important decisions of <mask>'s career.It may have been in the English Woman's Journal, first issued in 1858, that <mask> first read of <mask>, who had become the first female doctor in the United States in 1849. When Blackwell visited London in 1859, <mask> travelled to the capital. By then, her sister Louie was married and living in London. <mask> joined the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women, which organised Blackwell's lectures on "Medicine as a Profession for Ladies" and set up a private meeting between <mask> and the doctor. It is said that during a visit to Alde House around 1860, one evening while sitting by the fireside, <mask> and Davies selected careers for advancing the frontiers of women's rights; <mask> was to open the medical profession to women, Davies the doors to a university education for women, while 13-year-old Millicent was allocated politics and votes for women. At first Newson was opposed to the radical idea of his daughter becoming a physician but came round and agreed to do all in his power, both financially and otherwise, to support <mask>. Medical education

After an initial unsuccessful visit to leading doctors in Harley Street, <mask> decided to first spend six months as a surgery nurse at Middlesex Hospital, London in August 1860.On proving to be a good nurse, she was allowed to attend an outpatients' clinic, then her first operation. She unsuccessfully attempted to enroll in the hospital's Medical School but was allowed to attend private tuition in Latin, Greek and materia medica with the hospital's apothecary, while continuing her work as a nurse. She also employed a

masks:
Garrett
Garrett
Elizabeth Blackwell
Garrett
Garrett
Garrett
Garrett
Garrett
Garrett
Garrett


texts: tutor to study anatomy and physiology three evenings a week. Eventually she was allowed into the dissecting room and the chemistry lectures. Gradually, <mask> became an unwelcome presence among the male students, who in 1861 presented a memorial to the school against her admittance as a fellow student, despite the support she enjoyed from the administration. She was obliged to leave the Middlesex Hospital but she did so with an honours certificate in chemistry and materia medica. <mask> then applied to several medical schools, including Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow, Edinburgh, St Andrews and the Royal College of Surgeons, all of which refused her admittance.A companion to her in this struggle was the lesser known Dr. Sophia Jex-Blake. While both are considered "outstanding" medical figures of the late 19th century, <mask> was able to obtain her credentials by way of a "side door" through a loophole in admissions at the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Having privately obtained a certificate in anatomy and physiology, she was admitted in 1862 by the Society of Apothecaries who, as a condition of their charter, could not legally exclude her on account of her sex. She was the only woman in the Apothecaries Hall who sat the exam that year and among the 51 gentlemen candidates was William Heath Strange, who went on to found the Hampstead General Hospital, which was on the site now occupied by the Royal Free Hospital. She continued her battle to qualify by studying privately with various professors, including some at the University of St Andrews, the Edinburgh Royal Maternity and the London Hospital Medical School. In 1865, she finally took her exam and obtained a licence (LSA) from the Society of Apothecaries to practise medicine,

masks: Garrett Garrett Garrett


texts:
 the first woman qualified in Britain to do so openly (previously there was Dr James Barry who was born and raised female but presented as male from the age of 20, and lived his adult life as a man). On the day, three out of seven candidates passed the exam, <mask> with the highest marks.The Society of Apothecaries immediately amended its regulations to prevent other women obtaining a licence  meaning that Jex-Blake could not follow this same path; the new rule disallowed privately educated women to be eligible for examination. It was not until 1876 that the new Medical Act (39 and 40 Vict, Ch. 41) passed, which allowed British medical authorities to license all qualified applicants whatever their gender. Career

Though she was now a licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries, as a woman, <mask> could not take up a medical post in any hospital. So in late 1865, <mask> opened her own practice at 20 Upper Berkeley Street, London. At first patients were scarce, but the practice gradually grew. After six months in practice, she wished to open an outpatients dispensary, to enable poor women to obtain medical help from a qualified practitioner of their own gender.In 1865, there was an outbreak of cholera in Britain, affecting both rich and poor, and in their panic, some people forgot any prejudices they had in relation to a female physician. The first death due to cholera occurred in 1866, but by then <mask> had already opened St Mary's Dispensary for Women and Children, at 69 Seymour Place. In the first year, she tended to 3,000 new patients, who made 9,300 outpatient visits to the dispensary. On hearing that the Dean of the faculty of medicine at the University of Sorbonne, Paris was in favour of admitting women as medical students,

masks: Garrett Garrett Garrett Garrett


texts: <mask> studied French so that she could apply for a medical degree, which she obtained in 1870 after some difficulty. The same year she was elected to the first London School Board, an office newly opened to women; <mask>'s was the highest vote among all the candidates. Also in that year, she was made one of the visiting physicians of the East London Hospital for Children (later the Queen Elizabeth Hospital for Children), becoming the first woman in Britain to be appointed to a medical post, but she found the duties of these two positions to be incompatible with her principal work in her private practice and the dispensary, as well as her role as a new mother, so she resigned from these posts by 1873. In 1872, the dispensary became the New Hospital for Women and Children, treating women from all over London for gynaecological conditions; the hospital moved to new premises in Marylebone Street in 1874.Around this time, <mask> also entered into discussion with male medical views regarding women. In 1874, Henry Maudsley's article on Sex and Mind in Education appeared, which argued that education for women caused over-exertion and thus reduced their reproductive capacity, sometimes causing "nervous and even mental disorders". <mask>'s counter-argument was that the real danger for women was not education but boredom and that fresh air and exercise were preferable to sitting by the fire with a novel. In the same year, she co-founded London School of Medicine for Women with Sophia Jex-Blake and became a lecturer in what was the only teaching hospital in Britain to offer courses for women. She continued to work there for the rest of her career and was dean of the school from 1883 to 1902. This school was later called the Royal Free


texts:
 Hospital of Medicine, which later became part of what is now the medical school of University College London. BMA membership

In 1873 she gained membership of the British Medical Association (BMA).In 1878 a motion was proposed to exclude women following the election of <mask> and Frances Hoggan. The motion was opposed by Dr Norman Kerr who maintained the equal rights of members. This was "one of several instances where <mask>, uniquely, was able to enter a hitherto all male medical institution which subsequently moved formally to exclude any women who might seek to follow her." In 1892, women were again admitted to the British Medical Association. In 1897, <mask> was elected president of the East Anglian branch of the BMA. <mask> worked steadily at the development of the New Hospital for Women, and (from 1874) at the creation of the London School of Medicine for Women, where she served as its dean. Both institutions were handsomely and suitably housed and equipped.The New Hospital for Women was able to commission a building in the Euston Road; the architect was J. M. Brydon, who took into his employment at this time <mask>'s sister <mask> and her cousin Rhoda <mask>, who contributed to its design. The hospital was for many years worked entirely by medical women. The schools (in Hunter Street, WC1) had over 200 students, most of them preparing for the medical degree of London University (the present-day University College London), which was opened to women in 1877. Women’s suffrage movement

<mask> was also active in the women's suffrage movement. In 1866, <mask> and Davies presented petitions signed by more than 1,500 asking that female heads of household be given the vote. That year, <mask> joined the first British Women's

masks:
Garrett Anderson
Garrett
Garrett Anderson
Garrett Anderson
Anderson
Agnes Garrett
Garrett
Garrett Anderson
Garrett Anderson
Garrett Anderson


texts:
 Suffrage Committee. She was not as active as her sister, Millicent <mask>, though <mask> became a member of the Central Committee of the National Society for Women's Suffrage in 1889.After her husband's death in 1907, she became more active. As mayor of Aldeburgh, she gave speeches for suffrage, before the increasing militant activity in the movement led to her withdrawal in 1911. Her daughter Louisa, also a physician, was more active and more militant, spending time in prison in 1912 for her suffrage activities. Personal life
<mask> <mask> once remarked that "a doctor leads two lives, the professional and the private, and the boundaries between the two are never traversed". In 1871, she married James George Skelton <mask> (died 1907) of the Orient Steamship Company co-owned by his uncle <mask>, but she did not give up her medical practice. She had three children, Louisa (1873–1943), Margaret (1874–1875), who died of meningitis, and Alan (1877–1952). Louisa also became a pioneering doctor of medicine and feminist activist.They retired to Aldeburgh in 1902, moving to Alde House in 1903, after the death of <mask>'s mother. Skelton died of a stroke in 1907. She enjoyed a happy marriage and in later life, devoted time to Alde House, gardening, and travelling with younger members of the extended family. On 9 November 1908, she was elected mayor of Aldeburgh, the first female mayor in England. Her father had been mayor in 1889. She died in 1917 and is buried in the churchyard of St Peter and St Paul's Church, Aldeburgh. Legacy

The New Hospital for Women was renamed the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital in 1918 and amalgamated with the Obstetric Hospital in 2001 to form the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital before

masks:
Garrett Fawcett
Garrett Anderson
Elizabeth Garrett
Anderson
Anderson
Arthur Anderson
Elizabeth


texts:
 relocating to become the University College Hospital Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Wing at UCH.The former Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital buildings are incorporated into the new National Headquarters for the public service trade union UNISON. The <mask> Garrett Anderson Gallery, a permanent installation set within the restored hospital building, uses a variety of media to set the story of <mask>, her hospital, and women's struggle to achieve equality in the field of medicine within the wider framework of 19th and 20th century social history. The critical care centre at Ipswich Hospital was named the <mask> Centre in her honour, in recognition of her connection to the county of Suffolk. <mask> Anderson School, a secondary school for girls in Islington, London, is named after her. The archives of <mask> <mask> are held at the Women's Library at the London School of Economics. The archives of the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital (formerly the New Hospital for Women) are held at the London Metropolitan Archives. On 9 June 2016, Google Doodle commemorated her 180th birthday.The <mask> <mask> programme of the NHS Leadership Academy is a master's degree in leadership and management. References

Further reading

External links

 <mask> <mask>
 BBC page on <mask> <mask>. Picture of The United Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital and Hospital for Women Soho, near Euston Station in London. 19th-century English medical doctors
English feminists
English women medical doctors
English suffragists
Women of the Victorian era
Mayors of places in Suffolk
People from Aldeburgh
People from Whitechapel
1836 births
1917 deaths
Women mayors of places in England
Members of the London School Board
19th-century women physicians
National Society for

masks:
Elizabeth
Garrett Anderson
Garrett Anderson
Elizabeth Garrett
Elizabeth Garrett
Anderson
Elizabeth Garrett
Anderson
Elizabeth Garrett
Anderson
Elizabeth Garrett
Anderson


texts:
<mask> (20 July 190222 January 1985) was an Austrian physical chemist. In 1945 under Operation Epsilon in "the big sweep" throughout Germany, <mask> was arrested by the allied British and American Armed Forces for suspicion of aiding the Nazis in their nuclear weapons program and he was incarcerated at Farm Hall, an English house fitted with covert electronic listening devices, for six months. Education

<mask> studied chemistry at the University of Vienna and the Humboldt University of Berlin from 1921 to 1924. He received his doctorate at the latter under Max Bodenstein in 1926. From 1926 to 1928 he was Arnold Eucken’s teaching assistant at the University of Breslau. Career

From 1928 to 1933, <mask> was a staff scientist at the KWI für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie (KWIPC) (Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Elektrochemistry)  located in Dahlem-Berlin, where he worked with Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer on experiments on parahydrogen and orthohydrogen. While at the KWIPC, he completed his habilitation in 1931 at the Humboldt University of Berlin where he also supervised the dissertation of Karl-Hermann Geib who later developed the Girdler sulfide process.In 1933, <mask> went to do research with Ernest Rutherford at the University of Cambridge. During this time, Rutherford was working on accelerator-driven nuclear fusion, and <mask> was credited in the 1934 paper on the topic. Upon his return from England in 1934, he became an ordinarius professor and director

masks:
Paul Karl Maria Harteck
Harteck
Harteck
Harteck
Harteck
Harteck


texts: of the physical chemistry department at the University of Hamburg. From 1937, he was an advisor to the Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office). In April 1939, along with his teaching assistant Wilhelm Groth, <mask> made contact with the Reichskriegsministerium (RKM, Reich Ministry of War) to alert them to the potential of military applications of nuclear chain reactions. From that year, his department as a whole did research for the HWA, with emphasis on uranium isotope separation. From 1940, with Hans Suess, his focus was on the use of heavy water as a neutron moderator.In 1941, his department constructed a conversion unit for, then I.G. Farben controlled, Norsk Hydro in German-occupied Norway for the catalytic production of heavy water. The Norwegians were forced to install the plant at their own cost, as their contribution to German war effort. In 1942, with the help of Werner Heisenberg, <mask> circumvented an appointment in Russia. In February 1943, <mask> and his colleague Johannes Jensen suggested a new type of centrifugal isotope separation, which was adopted by the Anschütz Company. Under his supervision Wilhelm Groth conducted the last enrichment experiments with the ultracentrifuge in Celle, a small town 120 km south of Hamburg. In late spring 1945, <mask> was arrested by the allied British and American Armed Forces and incarcerated at Farm Hall for six months under Operation Epsilon.In 1946, upon his return from incarceration, he became director of the chemistry

masks: Harteck Harteck Harteck Harteck


texts:
 department at the University, a position he held until 1950. In 1951, <mask> became a resident professor at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, where he taught until 1968. In 1937 and 1952, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Internal reports

The following reports were published in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte (Research Reports in Nuclear Physics), an internal publication of the German Uranverein. The reports were classified Top Secret, they had very limited distribution, and the authors were not allowed to keep copies. The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation. In 1971, the reports were declassified and returned to Germany.The reports are available at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center and the American Institute of Physics. II. The Ortho-Para Conversion, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Vol. 144, No. 852,  pp. 481–493 (29 March 1934)
 M. L. E. Oliphant, P<mask>, Lord Rutherford Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.Series A. Vol. 144, No. 853, pp. 692–703 (1 May 1934)

Books

 K. F. Bonhoeffer and P. <mask>, Grundlagen Der PhotoChemie (Verlag Von Theodor Steinkopff, 1933)
 Konrad Beyerle, Wilhelm Groth, <mask>, and Johannes Jensen Über Gaszentrifugen: Anreicherung der Xenon-, Krypton- und der Selen-Isotope nach dem Zentrifugenverfahren (Chemie, 1950); cited in Walker,

masks:
Harteck
. Harteck
Harteck
Paul Harteck


texts:
<mask>, otherwise known as <mask>, (born Aina or Ina; 1843 – 15 August 1880), was ward and goddaughter of Queen Victoria. She was believed to have been a titled member of the Egbado clan of the Yoruba people in West Africa, was orphaned during a war with the nearby Kingdom of Dahomey as a child, and later became enslaved to King Ghezo of Dahomey. In a remarkable twist of events, she was "liberated" from slavery by being given as a "gift" to Captain Frederick E<mask> of the British Royal Navy and became a goddaughter of Queen Victoria. She was married to Captain James Pinson Labulo Davies, a wealthy Lagos philanthropist. Early life

Originally named Aina (or Ina), she was born in 1843 in Oke-Odan, an Egbado Yoruba village in West Africa which recently became independent from the Oyo Empire (present-day southwestern Nigeria) after its collapse. The Kingdom of Dahomey was under subjugation by Oyo, and it was a historical enemy of the Yoruba people. Oyo and Dahomey began to engage in a war in 1823 after Ghezo, the new King of Dahomey, refused to pay annual tributes to Oyo.During Oyo's war with Dahomey, Oyo was weakened and destabilised by the Islamic jihads launched by the growing Sokoto Caliphate. The Oyo Empire began to disintegrate by the 1830s, fragmenting Yorubaland into various small states. Dahomey's army began to expand eastwards into Oyo's former and defenseless Egbado territory, capturing Egbado slaves in the process. In 1848, Oke-Odan was invaded and captured by the army of Dahomey. Aina's parents died during the attack and other residents were either killed or sold into the Atlantic slave trade. Aina ended up in the court of King Ghezo of Dahomey as a young child slave. Dahomey was a major West African power that immensely profited from the Atlantic slave

masks:
Sara Forbes Bonetta
Sarah Forbes Bonetta
. Forbes


texts: trade.After the British abolition of slavery, King Ghezo fought against British attempts to curtail Dahomey's exportation of slaves. Biographer and historian of Africa Martin Meredith quotes King Ghezo telling the British, "The slave trade has been the ruling principle of my people. It is the source of their glory and wealth. Their songs celebrate their victories and the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery." In July 1850, Captain Frederick E<mask> of the Royal Navy arrived to West Africa on a British diplomatic mission, where he unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate with King Ghezo to end Dahomey's participation in the Atlantic slave trade. As was customary, Captain <mask> and King Ghezo exchanged gifts with each other. King Ghezo offered <mask> a footstool, rich country cloth, a keg of rum, ten heads of cowry shells, and a caboceers stool.King Ghezo also offered him Aina, who was intended to be a gift for Queen Victoria. <mask> estimated that Aina was enslaved by King Ghezo for two years. Although her actual ancestry is unknown, <mask> came to the conclusion that Aina was likely to have come from a high status background since she had not been sold to European slave traders. Describing Aina in his journal, he wrote: "one of the captives of this dreadful slave-hunt was this interesting girl. It is usual to reserve the best born for the high behests of royalty and the immolation on the tombs of the deceased nobility…". Dahomey was notorious for mass executing its captives in spectacular human sacrifice rituals as part of the Annual Customs of Dahomey. <mask> was aware of Aina's potential deadly fate in Dahomey, and as he wrote in his journal, refusing Aina "would have been to have signed her death-warrant, which

masks:
. Forbes
Forbes
Forbes
Forbes
Forbes
Forbes


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 probably would have been carried into execution forthwith."Captain <mask> accepted Aina on behalf of Queen Victoria and embarked on his journey back to Britain. Captain <mask> renamed her <mask> Bonetta, after himself and his ship HMS Bonetta. <mask> initially intended to raise her himself. However,  Queen Victoria was impressed by the young princess's "exceptional intelligence", and had the girl, whom she called Sally, raised as her goddaughter in the British middle class. In 1851, <mask> developed a chronic cough, which was attributed to the climate of Great Britain. Her guardians sent her to school in Africa in May of that year, when she was aged eight. She attended the Annie Walsh Memorial School (AWMS) in Freetown, Sierra Leone.The school was founded by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in January 1849 as an institution for young women and girls who were relatives of the boys in the Sierra Leone Grammar School founded in 1845 (at first named CMS Grammar School). In the school register, her name appears only as <mask>, pupil number 24, June 1851, who married Captain Davies in England in 1862 and was the ward of Queen Victoria. She returned to England in 1855, when she was 12. She was entrusted to the care of Rev Frederick Scheon and his wife, who lived at Palm Cottage, Canterbury Street Gillingham. The house survives. In January 1862, she was invited to and attended the wedding of Queen Victoria's daughter Princess Alice. Marriage and children

She was later commanded by the Queen to marry Captain James Pinson Labulo Davies at St Nicholas' Church in Brighton, East Sussex, in August 1862, after a period spent in the town preparing for the wedding.During her subsequent time in Brighton, she lived at 17 Clifton Hill in the Montpelier area. Captain Davies was a

masks:
Forbes
Forbes
Sara Forbes
Forbes
Sara
Sally Bonetta


texts:
 Yoruba businessman of considerable wealth, and after their wedding the couple moved back to their native Africa, where they had three children: Victoria Davies (1863), Arthur Davies (1871), and Stella Davies (1873). <mask> <mask> continued to enjoy such a close relationship with Queen Victoria that she and Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther were the only Lagos indigènes the Royal Navy had standing orders to evacuate in the event of an uprising in Lagos. Victoria Matilda Davies, Bonetta's first daughter, was named after Queen Victoria, who was also her godmother. She married the successful Lagos doctor Dr. John Randle, becoming the stepmother of his son, Nigerian businessman and socialite J. K. Randle. Bonetta's second daughter Stella Davies and Herbert Macaulay, the grandson of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, had a daughter together: <mask> Idowu Macaulay Adadevoh, named after her maternal grandmother <mask> and her paternal grandmother Abigail. A descendant of <mask>'s through her line was the Ebola heroine Ameyo Adadevoh.Many of <mask>'s other descendants now live in either Britain or Sierra Leone; a separate branch, the Randle family of Lagos, remains prominent in contemporary Nigeria. Death and legacy
<mask> <mask> died of tuberculosis on 15 August 1880 in the city of Funchal, the capital of Madeira Island, a Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean. In her memory, her husband erected an over-eight-foot granite obelisk-shaped monument at Ijon in Western Lagos, where he had started a cocoa farm. The inscription on the obelisk reads:

IN MEMORY OF PRINCESS SARAH FORBES BONETTA
WIFE OF THE HON J.P.L. DAVIES
WHO DEPARTED THIS LIFE AT MADEIRA AUGUST 15TH 1880
AGED 37 YEARS

Her grave is number 206 in the British Cemetery of Funchal near the Anglican Holy Trinity Church, Rua

masks:
Sara Forbes
Bonetta
Sarah Abigail
Sara
Sara
Sara
Sara Forbes
Bonetta


texts:
 Quebra Costas Funchal, Madeira. A plaque commemorating <mask> was placed on Palm Cottage in 2016, as part of the television series Black and British: A Forgotten History. A newly commissioned portrait of <mask> by artist Hannah Uzor went on display at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight in October 2020 as part of an effort by English Heritage to recognise black history in England.<mask> was portrayed by Zaris-Angel Hator in the 2017 British ITV television series Victoria. Gallery

See also
 Black British elite

References

Further reading

 Kemi Morgan and Christine Bullock, eds, The making of Good Wives, Good Mothers, Leading Lights of Society. The Story of St Anne's School Ibadan. Y Books & Associated Bookmakers of Nigeria Ltd, 1989. Oyinkan Ade-Ajayi, Heritage Schools Nigeria. Phoenix Visions World Limited, 2020. The two books state that she was the Acting Principal of CMS Female Institution in 1870, the school was founded in 1869, the first principal was Mrs Annie Roper wife of Reverend Roper of CMS Mission Ijaiye, Mrs <mask> was succeeded by Rev & Mrs Henry Townsend

External links

 "In focus: <mask> Bonetta".Kamal Simpson talks to Clare Gittings about <mask> <mask>, who was photographed by Camille Silvy and featured in the National Portrait Gallery, London. YouTube. The Lost Child (BBC documentary)

1843 births
1880 deaths
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Annie Walsh Memorial School alumni
Burials in Madeira Island
English people of Nigerian descent
English people of Yoruba descent
History of women in Lagos
Tuberculosis deaths in Portugal
Kidnapped Nigerian children
People from Ogun State
People of colonial Nigeria
Queen Victoria
Randle family
Women in 19th-century warfare
Yoruba slaves
Black British history
19th-century Nigerian women
19th-century

masks:
Forbes Bonetta
Forbes Bonetta
Forbes Bonetta
Forbes Davies
Sarah Forbes
Sarah Forbes
Bonetta


texts:
<mask> (Maulla Bux Usta) (1901–1978) was an early Indian communist, who was born to artistic USTA family of Bikaner and a member of the émigré Communist Party of India (Tashkent group), established in Tashkent in 1920, and a founding member of the Communist Party of India (CPI) formed in Kanpur in 1925. He was also the only candidate to the British Parliament contesting elections, while he was residing in India—that too in a prison. He was sentenced to a total of 16 years in jail after being tried in the Kanpur (Cawnpore) Case of 1923 and later the Meerut Conspiracy Case of 1929. In émigré Communist Party of India
M.N. Roy, an ex-member of the Anushilan Samiti,  a powerful secret revolutionary organization operating in East Bengal in the opening years of the 20th century, went to Moscow by the end of April 1920, and soon after founded the émigré Communist Party of India at Tashkent on 17 October 1920. The fledgling party became a part of Communist International (Comintern) in 1921. <mask> had been a very early leading activist of the émigré Communist Party of India.M.N. Roy was sent by Lenin to Tashkent as head of Central Asiatic Bureau of Comintern as well as the Indian Military School to train an Indian army of revolutionaries. The Indian Military School was closed in April 1921, as a quid pro quo for industrial assistance that Britain promised to Soviet Russia, under Anglo-Russian Trade Pact in March 1921. But before its closure, the School indoctrinated many Muslim volunteers(muhajireens) who were on their way to Turkey to fight for the restoration of Caliphate. After the closing down of the School, the Comintern started Communist

masks:
Shaukat Usmani
Usmani


texts:
 University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow. <mask> was one of the muhajireens who was tutored both at Moscow as well as at Tashkent. Early in 1922 thirteen Indians belonging to the émigré Indian Communist Party crossed the Pamirs and reached India.They were all arrested and put in jail in Moscow-Peshawar conspiracy case. <mask> was not in this group, but a later batch, upon many of whom the British government clamped the Kanpur conspiracy case. The Tashkent-Moscow alumni who had dispersed all over the country did not have a smooth working relationship with the local leadership in India under S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, S.S. Mirajkar, S.V. Ghate etc. At the same time a different kind of tension was building up between the Communist Party of Great Britain and the émigré communists. As a result, four members of the émigré CPI, including <mask>, went to attend the sixth congress of Comintern without seeking émigré Communist Party of India's nomination. All these tensions did not come into open because of the strict police surveillance.By this stage, <mask> was operating underground under the nom de guerre of Sikander Sur; his Comintern code name was D A Naoroji (sometimes wrongly rendered as Naoradji). Kanpur conspiracy case

After Peshawar in 1922, two more conspiracy cases were instituted by the British government, one in Kanpur (1924) and Meerut (1929). The accused in the cases included, among others, important Communist organisers who worked in India, such as S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmad, Nalini Gupta and S.V. Ghate, and members of the émigré party, such as Rafiq Ahmad and <mask> <mask>. On 17 March 1924, M.N. Roy, S.A. Dange, Muzaffar

masks: Usmani Usmani Usmani Usmani Shaukat Usmani


texts: Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, <mask> <mask>, Singaravelu Chettiar, Ghulam Hussain and others were charged that they as communists were seeking "to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of British India, by complete separation of India from imperialistic Britain by a violent revolution. ", in what was called the Cawnpore (now spelt Kanpur) Bolshevik Conspiracy case.The case attracted interest of the people towards Comintern plan to bring about violent revolution in India. "Pages of newspapers daily splashed sensational communist plans and people for the first time learned such a large scale about communism and its doctrines and the aims of the Communist International in India." Singaravelu Chettiar was released on account of illness. M.N. Roy was out of the country and therefore could not be arrested. Ghulam Hussain confessed that he had received money from the Russians in Kabul and was pardoned. Muzaffar Ahmed, <mask> <mask> and Dange were sentenced for four years of imprisonment.This case was responsible for actively introducing communism to the Indian masses. After Kanpur, Britain had triumphantly declared that the case had "finished off the communists". But the industrial town of Kanpur, in December 1925, witnessed a conference of different communist groups, under the chairmanship of Singaravelu Chettiar. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, <mask> <mask> were among the key organizers of the meeting. The meeting adopted a resolution for the formation of the Communist Party of India with its headquarters in Bombay (now: Mumbai) . The British Government's extreme hostility  towards the bolsheviks, made them to decide not to openly function

masks: Shaukat Usmani Shaukat Usmani Shaukat Usmani


texts:
 as a communist party; instead, they chose a more open and non-federated platform, under the name the Workers and Peasants Parties. Meerut conspiracy case

The British Government was worried about the growing influence of the Communist International in India.The government's immediate response was to foist yet another conspiracy case—the Meerut Conspiracy Case—on them. <mask> along with 32 persons were arrested on or about March 20, 1929  and were put on trial under Section 121A of the Indian Penal Code, which declares, Whoever within or without British India conspires to commit any of the offenses punishable by Section 121 or to deprive the King of the sovereignty of British India or any part thereof, or conspires to overawe, by means of criminal force or the show of criminal force, the Government of India or any local Government, shall be punished with transportation for life, or any shorter term, or with imprisonment of either description which may extend to ten years. The charges
Though all the accused were not communists, the charges framed against them betrayed the government's fear of growth of communist ideas in India. "For example, Lester Hutchinson, later released as innocent after spending four years in prison, was arrested as an afterthought when he took up the task of carrying on some of the trade union and agitational work after the arrest of the others, was a merely journalist on the Indian Daily Mail and unconnected with the trade union movement." The main charges were that in 1921 Dange, <mask> <mask> and Muzaffar Ahmad entered into a conspiracy to establish a branch of Comintern in India and they were helped by various

masks: Usmani Shaukat Usmani


texts: persons, including the accused Philip Spratt and Benjamin Francis Bradley, sent to India by the Communist International. The aim of the accused persons, according to the charges, was  to deprive the King Emperor of the sovereignty of British India, and for such purpose to use the methods and carry out the programme and plan of campaign outlined and ordained by the Communist International. The Sessions Court in Meerut awarded stringent sentences to the accused in January 1933.Out of the accused 27 persons were convicted with various durations of 'transportation'. While Muzaffar Ahmed was transported for life, Dange, Spratt, Ghate, Joglekar and Nimbkar were each awarded transportation for a period of 12 years. <mask> was given ten years. On appeal, in July 1933, the sentences of Ahmed, Dange and <mask>ut trial <mask> stood unsuccessfully as a candidate in a British general election for the Communist Party of Great Britain from his prison cell in India, for the  1929 general election for the constituency of Spen Valley. <mask> is believed to be the only candidate ever to stand in a British General Election whilst resident in India.The Spen Valley seat was significant since it was the focus of an attempt by the leader of a pro-Tory group of right-leaning Liberals, Sir John Simon, to get back into Parliament. He had been the man who declared in 1926 that the General Strike was illegal, and who in 1930 headed the Commission to report on the situation in India. <mask>’s selection as candidate arose from his prominence in the Meerut trial. Since he was a prisoner thousands of miles away, he was unable to conduct the campaign himself, so a deputy

masks: Usmani Usmanier Usmani Usmani Usmani


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 to represent him was chosen - one Billy Brain. Communists from many parts of Britain converged at Spen Valley. The  campaign was successful in the sense  that it brought into focus Meerut and harshness of British rule in  India, which were hitherto unknown to many. Candidate from South East St Pancras
The long drawn Meerut trial enabled the Communist Party to again run <mask> in the 1931 general election for St. Pancras South East against  Tory South African mining millionaire, Sir Alfred Lane Beit.The candidature of <mask> was aimed by the Communist Party of Great Britain to ensure freedom for India, and to highlight the plight of the Meerut prisoners. In this election, the communists polled seventy five thousand votes, which was a 50% increase on the previous, 1929 General election figure. The party was dismayed at the result. Harry Pollitt, the new general secretary of the Party, had expected that between one hundred and fifty thousand and two hundred thousand would vote communist. He was shocked, and told a meeting of the British Commission of the Communist International that he could not understand why after two Labour Governments, and the betrayal of the General Strike, that still almost seven million workers could vote Labour. Later life
Aftermath of the Meerut case was the emergence of a stronger CPI, instead of what the British planned for—obliteration of the party. After the release of the Meerut prisoners, in 1933, a party with a centralized apparatus came into being.The CPI came out with its own manifesto and was affiliated to the Communist International in 1934 However, <mask> did not figure in  the Party building exercise.

masks: Usmani Usmani Usmani


texts:
 The leadership had gone to local (as opposed to  émigré Tashkent-Moscow cadre) communists like S.A. Dange, P.C. Joshi, P. Sundarayya etc. Nothing much had been heard about <mask> after release from the jail. Similar fate happened to other members of  the émigré CPI. Muhammad Ali Sepassi, M.N. Roy's close aide stayed back in Paris and was shot dead by the Nazis in 1940.Muhammed Shafique, first secretary of  émigré CPI, wandered about in Europe until 1932 and then vanished. Abdulla Safdar came to India only in 1933 when most of the comrades were booked under the Meerut case. He remained with M.N. Roy, who had by then, had only little standing in the international communist movement. G.A.K. Lohani who had joined Roy in 1921 never returned to India. Like other émigré CPI members, <mask> also slipped into oblivion.Books
Peshawar to Moscow Leaves from an Indian Muhajireen's diary, <mask> <mask>'s earliest book was published by Swarajya Publishing House, Benares in 1927. Much later in life, <mask> published a book on the same theme, Historic Trips of a Revolutionary - Sojourn in the Soviet Union. The book gives an account of Usmai's part in the émigré Communist Party of India, and other examples of progress in his homeland like the Indian Military School. He gives colorful descriptions of his stays in Moscow, during which he lodges at the Hotel Delovoi Dior (which has a meaning something akin to the “Business Courtyard”), and boards at the Hotel De Lux, once a gathering place for Communist leaders from all over the world. He also describes a trip from Tashkent through the Ukraine to Crimea. This book is focused mainly on the Middle Eastern

masks: Usmani Usmani Shaukat Usmani Usmani


texts:
 states of the Soviet Union. <mask> published in 1939 Char Yatri in Hindi and Char Musafir in Urdu and later in English as Four Travellers.It is an account of a journey of four Indian revolutionaries through Jagdalak, Kabul, Mazar-i-Sharif, Termiz, Bukhara and Samarkand. He had also published a collection of eight stories in 1951 called Night of the eclipse; a collection of 8 short stories. Karachi: Usta Publications Corp.

See also
S.A. Dange
M.N. Roy

Notes

External links
Stevenson, Graham, <mask> (pron. Shavkat) <mask>. Compendium of Communist Biographies. He fought to be British MP while in Indian jail

1901 births
1978 deaths
Indian communists
Communist Party of Great Britain members
Comintern people
People from Bikaner
Indian Muslims
Indian expatriates in the Soviet Union
Communist Party of India politicians from