texts:
 tells that her grandmother was quite ill when she exited the train in Denver and "fell... into the arms" of her future husband. For one year she lived with Bishop Randall and his wife and was then married to <mask>. Mary Caroline, an Episcopalian, was involved in important works within the Denver community and played a leadership role in the St. John in the Wilderness church efforts. She authored the book A Retrospective Sketch of the Fortnightly Club, 1881–1888.The <mask>s had four children: Mary McLean (1872–1949), <mask> (1873–1945), Anna Chloe (1875–1878), and <mask> (1880–1963). <mask> <mask> became a physician. <mask>'s granddaughter, <mask>, was a journalist and author of Colorado history. The family lived on Capitol Hill on Grant Street, "the Avenue of Kings". Their street address was 1775 Grant Street. <mask> had two working ranches and a summer home on 2,400 acres between Kittredge and Evergreen. In 1923, the buildings were donated to the Evergreen Conference Historic District.Charles Partridge Adams, who visited the ranch, made a painting in 1897 of the house and ranch for the family. Death
Mary Caroline died in 1899 soon after the marriage of her son George. <mask> died in 1903. A few years after he retired, <mask> died of heart failure in San Diego, California on January 17, 1903. His remains were buried in Denver, Colorado. The Walsenburg World said of him, "Dr. <mask> was prominent In his profession and foremost as a citizen, and iad been identified with the best in the city's progress for almost forty years." <mask>
Mount Bancroft, a  peak in Grand and Clear Creek counties, is named for him.Noted for his work in public health and the state's history, the summit was named for the

masks:
Frederick
Bancroft
George Jarvis
Frederick Wolcott
Frederick Wolcott
Bancroft
Bancroft
Caroline Bancroft
Bancroft
Frederick
Bancroft
Bancroft
Mount Bancroft


type: original

texts:
 doctor, at the request of his son, <mask> <mask> (1873–1945). The decision by the United States Geological Survey to name the summit Mount Bancroft was made on March 7, 1906. It is located west of the town of Empire, within a group of summits including Mount Flora, Mount Eva, Parry Peak, James Peak, and Colorado Mines Peak. Below the summit is Lake Caroline, named for his granddaughter, <mask>. See also
 Dr. <mask> Williams Douglas, one of the state's first female doctors and owner and operator of a Denver sanitarium
 Frances Wisebart <mask>, advocate for tuberculosis healthcare and founder of Denver's Jewish Hospital

Notes

References

Further reading

1834 births
1903 deaths
Physicians from Colorado
Union Army surgeons
American surgeons
People from Enfield, Connecticut
University at Buffalo alumni
American public health doctors
Historians from

masks:
George Jarvis
Bancroft
Caroline Bancroft
Josepha
Jacobs


texts: <mask>, FACMT, FRCP(C) (; born August 27, 1947 in Tel Aviv,  Israel) is an Israeli-Canadian pediatrician, clinical pharmacologist, toxicologist, and a composer of Israeli folk music. He was a doctor at the Hospital for Sick Children and a professor at the University of Toronto. In 1985, <mask> founded the Motherisk Program in Toronto, which was later shut down amid controversy. Furthermore, multiple scientific papers authored by Koren have been subject to concerns regarding academic and research misconduct, leading to the retraction of five research articles and editorial expression of concerns on multiple others. <mask> currently has relinquished his licence to practice medicine due to an ongoing investigation into whether he committed “professional misconduct or was incompetent” while he was in charge of the Hospital for Sick Children’s Motherisk laboratory. <mask> is perhaps best known for multiple scientific and public scandals. He was at the centre of the Motherisk scandal which has thrown into doubt the findings of 16,000 child protection cases and six criminal cases.An independent review found that neither the laboratory's director, clinical toxicologist <mask>, nor his staff, had the qualifications or expertise to do the kind of forensic work that was performed. Even before this scandal came to light, Koren was officially reprimanded by the Ontario College of Physicians and Surgeons for writing harassing anonymous letters to Nancy Olivieri and three other colleagues, about which he then lied repeatedly to conceal his responsibility. On December 16, 2018, an investigative article in The Toronto Star uncovered a series of problems in the research papers authored by Koren, including that some papers "[were]

masks:
Gideon Koren
Koren
Koren
Koren
Gideon Koren


texts:
 inadequately peer-reviewed, fail to declare, perhaps even obscure, conflicts of interest and, in a handful of cases, contain lies about the methodology", leading to the retraction of five research articles and editorial expression of concerns on multiple others. Biography

Early life and academic background
Born in 1947 in Tel Aviv in the British Mandate of Palestine, prior to the establishment of the State of Israel, <mask> was raised in the neighbouring town of Kiryat Ono. His father was the chief engineer of Reading Power Station of the Israel Electric Corporation. <mask> received his Doctor of Medicine from the Sackler School of Medicine at Tel Aviv University in 1973. After a period of military service, he pursued postgraduate clinical studies in pediatrics and pediatric nephrology, and research training in pediatric toxicology and pharmacology and membrane biology at the Hospital for Sick Children and the University of Toronto.He joined the staff of the university and hospital, ultimately attaining the rank of professor. He later received the endowed Ivey Chair in Molecular Toxicology at the Schulich School of Medicine at The University of Western Ontario. At UWO, he participated in the establishment of a national program in human toxicology, in parallel with his continuing work at the University of Toronto and the Hospital for Sick Children. Arts background
In parallel to his academic career, <mask> is an established composer and author. In 1971, while studying medicine at TAU, <mask> "Gidi" <mask> founded the Israeli musical group, The Brothers & the Sisters (ha'achim veha'achayot), which features an Israeli folk/country style. The band performed many of Koren's songs and musical plays for children. In

masks: Koren Koren Koren Gideon Koren


texts:
 1974, in collaboration with Israeli performer Shlomo Artzi, Koren composed a record album based on his grandmother Keri's story, A Journey to Noteland.A musical based on the book and CD of A Journey to Noteland had its stage debut in Israel in 2008 and continues to be performed. In 1992 <mask> founded the Bear Theatre at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto. In July 2007 the theatre celebrated 15 years and 750 shows. In 2005, The Brothers & The Sisters toured North America following the publication of a commemorative Hebrew-English book of the Israeli poet Natan Yonatan’s poetry, accompanied by a CD of his songs, set to music by Koren and performed by the band. The Brothers and the Sisters continue to perform throughout Israel in programs featuring <mask>'s songs, many of which were written to the words of Israeli poets, including Yehudah Amichai, Leah Goldberg, Rachel, Amir Gilboa, and Ze’ev Jabotinsky. Professional career
In 1985, <mask> founded The Hospital for Sick Children's Motherisk Program in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, which he directed until his retirement in June 2015. The program has since been shut down amid controversy.Publications
Koren has published 15 medical books, among them:
 Retinoids in Clinical Practice: The Risk-Benefit Ratio (Medical Toxicology). New York: M. Dekker, 1993. ()
 The Children of Neverland: The Silent Human Disaster. Toronto: Kid in Us, 1997. ()
 The Complete Guide to Everyday Risks in Pregnancy & Breastfeeding: Answers to Your Questions About Morning Sickness, Medications, Herbs, Diseases, Chemical Exposures & More. Toronto: R. Rose, 2004. ()
 Medication Safety in Pregnancy and Breastfeeding.New York: McGraw-Hill, Health Professions Division, 2007. ()
 Medication Safety in

masks: Koren Koren Koren


texts:
 Pregnancy and Breastfeeding: The Evidence-Based, A to Z Clinician's Pocket Guide. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2007. ()

Deferiprone controversy

In 1996, a controversy erupted with regard to the safety and effectiveness of deferiprone. Koren believed the drug was effective for certain patients. Nancy Olivieri of Toronto believed the drug was unsafe and ineffective. Following the initial controversy surrounding this drug trial in Toronto, Koren sent five anonymous harassing letters to colleagues and later denied having done so.Two independent inquiries by the CAUT and CPSO found that <mask> had lied about sending the anonymous letters and only admitted guilt when confronted with DNA evidence against him. Both also found academic misconduct with respect to the way in which <mask> published the research article cited above on the safety and effectiveness of deferiprone. CAUT accepted "the parties’ submissions that this misconduct should not be represented as fraudulent" and further remarked that "It was the behaviour that preceded the research misconduct that the Committee found most unsettling." A later study reported no evidence that long-term therapy with deferiprone caused progression of hepatic fibrosis. Cumulative worldwide experience has confirmed <mask>'s position on deferiprone, indicating that deferiprone is safe and effective for some patients. As a direct result of Olivieri's public media campaign, approval for the medication was stalled, meaning that North American children continued to be denied a medication which had since been approved around the world in dozens of countries and could be the only hope for survival for some children. <mask> was officially reprimanded by the Ontario College of

masks: Koren Koren Koren Koren


texts:
 Physicians and Surgeons for writing harassing anonymous letters to Nancy Olivieri and three other colleagues, about which he then lied repeatedly to conceal his responsibility.The Ontario College of Physicians and Surgeons also cited him for additional misconduct in research. Scientific misconduct
On December 16, 2018, an investigative article in The Toronto Star reported apparent problems in more than 400 papers coauthored by Koren, including that the papers "[were] inadequately peer-reviewed, fail to declare, perhaps even obscure, conflicts of interest and, in a handful of cases, contain lies about the methodology.” In 2019 <mask> threatened a defamation lawsuit against the editor of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring for retracting one of Koren's papers. In February 2019, <mask> agreed to relinquish his licence to practice medicine in Ontario in the face of an investigation by the College of Physicians and Surgeons into whether he committed “professional misconduct or was incompetent” while he was in charge of the Hospital for Sick Children’s Motherisk laboratory. He also agreed never to re-apply for a medical licence in the province. As of 2021, Koren has had five of his research publications retracted, three others have received an expression of concern, and four others have been corrected. See also
 List of scientific misconduct incidents

References

External links

1947 births
Living people
Canadian medical researchers
Canadian toxicologists
Canadian pediatricians
Canadian pharmacologists
Israeli songwriters
Israeli emigrants to Canada
Jewish Canadian musicians
Jewish Canadian writers
Jewish songwriters
Jews in Mandatory Palestine
People from Tel Aviv
University of Toronto faculty
University of Western

masks: Koren Koren


texts:
<mask> (<mask>) <mask> is a Canadian neuroscientist and the scientific director of the Vision: Science to Applications(VISTA) program. He is a professor at York University where he holds the Canada Research Chair in Visuomotor Neuroscience and the title of Distinguished Research Professor in Neuroscience. Biography

<mask> grew up in London Ontario, where he attended the University of Western Ontario. He completed his BSc in Physiology & Psychology in 1987, studying electrophysiology with Stanley Caveney and Gordon Mogenson. He then studied three-dimensional eye movements with Tutis Vilis at Western, where he held a Medical Research Council (MRC) Studentship (1989-1992) and earned his PhD in Physiology in 1993. Following that, he spent two years (1993-1994) studying head-unrestrained gaze control as an MRC post-doctoral fellow with Daniel Guitton at the Montreal Neurological Institute. in 1995 he joined York University's Department of Psychology and York Centre for Vision Research in Toronto as an assistant professor, later attaining cross appointments to the department of Biology, School of Kinesiology & Health Sciences, and the Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program.During this period he held a MRC Faculty Scholarship (1996-2001), Tier II Canada Research Chair (2001-2007) and Tier I Canada Research Chair (2007-2021). He became an Associate Professor in 1999, Full Professor in 2005, and Distinguished Research Professor in 2013. <mask> was the founding National Coordinator of the Canadian Action and Perception Network (CAPnet), the founding Canadian director of the Brain in Action International Research Training Program, and the founding coordinator of the York Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program. He founded York's neurophysiology laboratories, was a founding member of Melvyn A. Goodale's CIHR Group for Action and Perception  and founding co-principal investigator for the CIHR Strategic Training Program in Vision Health Research. He Founded the VSS Canadian Vision Social and is a member of the Canadian Brain Research Strategy Neuroscience Leaders Group. He is currently the scientific director of Vision: Science to Applications(VISTA), a Canada

masks:
John Douglas
Doug
Crawford
Crawford
Leadership Crawford


texts:
 First Research Excellence Fund supported research program that integrates York University's biological and computational vision research. Training

<mask> has supervised over 60 graduate students and post-doctorals, many graduating to successful careers in academia, medicine, and industry.Among his noteworthy former trainees are Pieter Medendorp, Director of the Donders Centre for Cognition in Nijmegen, Julio Martinez-Trujillo, Provincial Endowed Academic Chair in Autism at Western University, Gunnar Blohm, Queens Professor and Founding Co-Director of the International Summer School in Computational Sensory-Motor Neuroscience and Neuromatch Academy, Aarlenne Khan, Canada Research Chair in Vision and Action at Université de Montréal, and Denise Henriques, York Professor and Director of the NSERC CREATE Brain in Action Program. For these activities <mask> received York University's 2003 Faculty of Graduate Studies Teaching Award and 2019 Post-Doctoral Supervisor of the Year Award. Research

<mask>'s research investigates the neural mechanisms of visuospatial memory and sensorimotor transformations for eye, head, and hand motion. Recurrent themes in his work include 1) the idea that early representations of movement goals are stored in visual coordinates, updated during self-motion, and then transformed into three-dimensional (3D) commands for different body parts, 2) the use of theory-driven, multimodal neuroscience techniques, and 3) the use of 3D measurements and analysis of eye and body orientation. Some noteworthy findings and discoveries by <mask> and co-workers include:
 the first recordings of 3D Vestibulo–ocular reflex axes and Listing's law during head rotation
 discovery of the midbrain neural integrators for holding vertical and torsional eye orientation and head orientation. the use of psychophysics and fMRI to show that human parietal lobe retains and updates saccade and reach goals in gaze-centered coordinates,
 the use of stimulation-evoked eye-head movements to show that the superior colliculus encodes gaze goals in retinal coordinates, whereas frontal cortex employs multiple coordinate frames
 the use of visual psychophysics and

masks: Crawford Crawford Crawford Crawford


texts:
 eye tracking to show that ocular dominance reverses for left and right visual stimuli, how Listing's law of two eyes interacts with stereopsis and that optimal integration theory can explain perisaccadic change blindness
 the use of fMRI and TMS to map saccade vs. reach function in human posterior parietal cortex
 the use of TMS  and neuroimaging  to show that frontal and parietal cortex are both involved in Transsaccadic memory of visual features. the discovery that remembered visual stimuli are continuously updated across the superior colliculus during smooth pursuit eye movements,
 the use of MEG and neurophysiological recordings to track visuomotor transformations within neural populations in real time.the use of computational modeling & psychophysics, neuroimaging, and neurophysiology to determine how allocentric and egocentric representations are stored and integrated for goal-directed action. <mask> and colleagues have also applied this research to understand the mechanisms behind visual and neurological disorders such as amblyopia, cervical dystonia and optic ataxia. Research Awards

<mask> has been listed amongst the world's top 2% researchers. In addition to the research fellowships, research chairs and teaching awards cited above, <mask> has received various research awards. He was awarded the Governor General's Academic Gold medal for his PhD work with Tutis Vilis. Since then, he has won various research prizes, including the 1995 Polanyi Prize in Physiology/Medicine, an Alfred P Sloan Fellowship, the 2000 Ontario Premier's Research Excellence Award, the 2002 CIFAR Young Explorer Award (awarded to the "top 20 young investigators in Canada"), the 2004 Steacie Prize (awarded to "a scientist or engineer of 40 years of age or less for outstanding scientific research carried out in Canada. "), the 2016 Canadian Physiological Society Sarrazin Award., and the 2018 York President's Research Excellence Award.References

Scientists from Ontario
York University faculty
Canadian neuroscientists
Living people
University of Western Ontario alumni
20th-century Canadian scientists
21st-century Canadian scientists
Year of birth missing (living

masks: Crawford Crawford Crawford


texts:
<mask>-<mask>'  (Persian: ) (1930 – April 2, 1993), known as <mask>, was an Afghan singer who was born in Kabul. He is known as the Frank Sinatra of Afghanistan and was the first Afghan artist to break away from the prevalent musical forms in Afghanistan at the time, the Indian inspired pure classical tradition (epitomized by Ustad Sarahang, <mask>), and the 'Mohali' (regional & folk) musical traditions exemplified by the Dari music, logari, qataghani, qarsak. <mask>'s music fused elements, rhythms and orchestration of the western musical traditions of Jazz and "Belle Chanson" with the prevalent Afghan musical tradition to create a unique style which became an inspiration for ensuing artists. Career
<mask> gained popularity due to his music style, which was highly unconventional for its time, but it went on to become the gold standard of Afghan musical style. <mask>'s popularity is mainly with the elite and educated classes in Afghanistan where appreciation of his music is considered the height of sophistication, learning, and elegance. <mask>'s path to art and his immortality was purely accidental. Being born in a highly educated and accomplished family, <mask> was the only male family members who had not gone to university.<mask>'s career in art began when the director and "father" of the Afghan National Theatre, Ustad <mask> Latifi overheard him hum a song in a hamaam (communal baths customary in Kabul at the time). Ustad Latifi, however, did not conceive of <mask> as a singer since singing, at that time in Afghanistan, was a profession chosen very early in life

masks:
Abdul
Rahim Sārbān
Sarban
Rahim Bakhsh
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Abdul Rashid
Sarban


texts: and required years of work and training. Instead, Latifi asked <mask> to join his theatre as an actor, mainly due to his elegant & erudite elucidation and accent in Dari. <mask> accepted the offer to work as an actor because, according to him, he had no prospects of employment and of feeding his young family. While acting in the theatre, <mask> was rediscovered by the composers Nainawaz and Taranasaz for his extraordinary and evocative baritone voice. Without any training in voice or singing, <mask> was offered the opportunity to become a singer. His first recorded song was "Man Akher Az Ghamat Ay Mahro," and "Tu Aftabi Wo Man."The songs, played in Kabul Radio, generated a great degree of interest and enthusiasm among the public in <mask>'s voice. He had an acute ear for musical sound and a broad and profound understanding of Persian poetry. Because of his lack of training and background in the predominant musical traditions in Afghanistan, <mask> became the artist who has freed Afghan music from subservience to the Indian, Iranian, and folkloric musical traditions. In cooperation with composers <mask> managed to create a musical language that was unique to Afghanistan. Although his first few songs "Tu Aftabi wo man," and "Man akher az ghamat," were made strictly in the Indian classical model, his ensuing songs "Rahm kon ram kon," "Saqi dile ma," "ya maula dilam tang amada," "shod abro para para," and the hit songs, "Az bas ke nazanini," "Asare shikanje maujam," "Man nainawaz am," and "Harja ke safer karma," became models of a new sound that broke away from the

masks: Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban


texts: traditional musical vocabulary in Afghanistan at the time. This new sound was made immortal by the creation of a slew of songs in later years (such as Ahesta Bero, Ay <mask>, Dar Damane Sahra, Khorsheede Man, Ay Shakhe Gul, Moshke Taza Mebarad, Dosh Az Masjid, Deshab ba khoda, Nameporsi Naame man, Sobhe Keshaare Maiwar, Take nabashad ham dame jani, Ta ba kai ay mah liqa, Een ghame be haya mara, haal ke deewana shodam merawi, Aye shake gul) which defined Afghan music (especially the Persian musical genre) for decades to come. Sarban sang in Dari as well as Pashto, possessing a comprehensive understanding of the Persian poetic tradition.Apart from his first few songs, <mask> chose the poems to his songs, based on his own personal knowledge of the Persian literary canon. During the early stages of his career, <mask> worked with many musicians and composers such as Nainawaz and Taranasaz. During the late stages of his career, he worked almost exclusively with the composer Salim Sarmast. <mask>'s songs are ranked among the highest in the Afghan musical repertoire. <mask>'s legacy permanently altered the Persian (Dari) musical tradition in Afghanistan. Almost every artist that came after him considered him their primary source of inspiration, and they ranked his musical repertoire as their main model of emulation. A national icon and celebrity in Afghanistan, <mask> is also widely admired in other Persian-speaking countries like Iran and Tajikistan, where he gave live performances at the height of his career.<mask>'s artistic greatness due to his eccentric and mysticist


texts:
 temperament, did not translate into financial prosperity. He was famed for refusing to do home (majlisi) shows for pay, and for giving the proceeds from his highly successful concerts to the beggars, without regard for his own or his family's financial well-being. <mask> stopped producing songs in the 1960s. During the 1970s, he was mainly involved in concerts & in re-recording his earlier music for audio cassettes (his original recordings at Radio Kabul at the time could not be converted to audio cassette form due to lack of high quality sound equipment in Afghanistan. Contributions

<mask>'s greatest contribution to Afghan music was the creation of a unique Afghan sound—distinct from the Indian, Iranian, regional (folkloric), western traditions. His songs set an example for all pursuing Afghan artists to compose & perform in a style that was distinctly identifiable as Afghan, as opposed to mere imitation of other musical traditions. His work with the legendary composer Salim Sarmast led to the creation of a rhythm, melody line, harmony, and texture which became the essence of the Dari (Persian) sound.This sound was a major influence on many later musicians including Nainawaz, Ahmad Zahir, Ustad Zaland, Ahmad Wali, & later Farhad Darya. Besides a unique and new musical sound, <mask> was the first artist to choose poems & lyrics for his songs which were not primarily about romantic love. The majority of songs in Afghanistan up to that point chose poems/lyrics about romance, love, longing, and the trials and tribulations related to love. <mask> considered this trend

masks: Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban


texts: to be frivolous and glib. He made a sharp departure from this tradition, and chose social, political, economic, spiritual, and even religious matters as subject for his songs. An astute student of Dari/Persian literature, he personally picked poems which were considered to be not only unconventional but unsuitable for being turned into songs. For instance, Een Ghame Be Haya, Ay <mask>, and Dar Damane Sahra, Ay Shakhe Gul, Harja Ke Safar Kardam, Beya Ta Gal Beyafshanem, were considered too erudite, abstract, and gloomy to be composed into songs.Almost all composers declined to consider them for composition. If he did not get his way and was pressured by his employer (Kabul Radio) to sing more conventional love songs, he picked a completely unrelated verse or two from another poem & inserted it in the romantic song composed for him. For example, in his song "Soraya chara Am kon," which contains a traditional romantic subject, he violently inserted a completely unrelated verse. <mask> was the first person to put lyrics to the iconic "Ahesta Boro" (Step slowly) anthem played for all brides on their wedding day. These lyrics, along with the composition, have become an expected and celebrated feature of Afghan weddings, with the composition also having been sung by many popular Afghan artists. Muslim singer Sami Yusuf used the tune of a Sarban composition, "Beyake Berem Ba Mazaar" (Come, Lets Go to Mazaar), in his song "Hasbi Rasbi". Many others have covered the song and composition within Afghanistan and in other Persian cultures.<mask>'s "Moshke Taza Mebarad" became one

masks: Sarban Sarban Sarban


texts: of the models for patriotic and national songs, and is still one of the most evocative and emotionally stirring Patriotic songs of Afghanistan due to its original and moving composition and evocative singing. It is said that many composers laughed at <mask> when he suggested the poem for composition into a national song due to the poem's complex vocabulary and imagery, but his collaborator Salim Sarmast set the lyrics to a sublime composition which moves Afghans until now. In addition to the compositions and lyrics he contributed, <mask> was also arguably symbolic and typical of Afghanistan's culture in his day, reflected in his singing of the beautiful poetry of many famous poets from ages past, such as Hafiz Shirazi, to whom he paid tribute with the song "Dozh as Masjid (Soye Maykhanaa Aamad Peer e Ma)" (Last night, upon departing the Mosque, our Master headed towards the Tavern). <mask>'s cover is a cut down version of the original poem, retaining 3 of the 10 verses composed by Shirazi. <mask>'s compositions, like "Dozh as Masjid", feature various styles of Sufi or mystical poetry, which use the metaphorical language of romantic love, to describe the author's relationship with God. Often such poems use words such as "beloved" figuratively regarding God, and it could be argued that <mask> was part of a musical movement in Afghanistan which sought to enlighten the audience as much as it entertained them. In his own personal life, <mask> was highly influenced by the Sufi tradition of mysticism.This is evident not only in his choice of poetry, but also in his

masks: Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban


texts: mannerisms, such as his constant raising of his forefinger when speaking or singing. <mask>'s songs "Ay Sarban" (based on a poem by Saadi), Dar Damane Sahra are considered among the most accomplished examples of the Afghan musical repertoire. Almost all of <mask>'s songs were recorded in the first decade of his career—1960s. The vast majority of his original repertoire, which was recorded with a full orchestra, is not available. Except for a few songs from the original recordings (Khorsheede Man, Asare Shikanje Maujam, Az Bas Ke Nazanini), the majority of <mask>'s songs are re-recordings which were done in the late 1970s and released in audio cassettes. These later versions lack the full orchestra and chorus and rely on only a few instruments. <mask>'s vocal gifts were past their prime at that point.Most originals recordings which were held at Kabul Radio, were destroyed by the Taliban in the late 1990s. Recently a few vintage and rare recordings of <mask>'s records (for instance the original of his song Khorsheede Man, and Asare Shikanje Moujam) were uploaded on YouTube. <mask>'s songs have been covered both live and in recording by a vast number of Persian singers. In Afghanistan, his song "Ahesta Bero" is played in every Persian wedding as the bride walks to the aisle, in the same manner as Wagner's Bridal Chorus is played each time a bride in the west walks the aisle. His song such as Ay <mask> is covered by hugely popular singers such as Googoosh (from Iran) and Ahmad Zahir from Afghanistan. Every successful musician cite him as one of their main influences.


texts:
 Personal life
<mask> was born in Saragy, an old area of Kabul to the prominent and highly respected Mahmoody family.His father was a well-educated, highly respected, and prosperous rice merchant. The Mahmoody's were a family of illustrious doctors and surgeons highly respected among the educated elite of Kabul. However, The Mahmoody family had been leading social agitation and political activism for decades. As a result, his family was continuously persecuted by the monarchy at first, and then by successive governments which came after the monarchy. This persecution resulted in a huge diminishment of the family's wealth to the point that by the time <mask> was in his teens, they were virtually penniless. The majority of the most prominent and successful family members (including <mask>'s only two brothers, and almost all of his first cousins) had been either executed or exiled by the time <mask> had begun his musical career. These conditions profoundly influenced his choice of poetry and his music.For example, he chose the poem "Een Ghame Be Haya," for composition when his first cousin Latif Mahmoody had been arrested and executed. <mask> was shy and reclusive throughout his life. He seemed indifferent to fame, celebrity, and wealth for his entire life, even when through the prime of his career, which began peaking in the 1960s. At the peak of his celebrity, he polarized the Afghan intellectual class between those who loved and referred him for his art and those who criticized him for his personal life. Speculations said he had a constant problem with alcohol with

masks: Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban Sarban


texts:
 claims he couldn't sing live on Kabul Radio without having a drink first. <mask> did fight with severe bouts of depression throughout his life. Many of his close relatives (including his younger brother) were arrested for their political activities and executed by the regime at the time, and many others were imprisoned or forced to flee in exile.This and the difficulties of raising a family without any reliable source of income were the main reasons for his depressive bouts. His close friends and family all dismiss this as urban legend. <mask> was indeed married to one of his cousins, and he has four children (three daughters and a son). His son <mask> <mask> recorded an album covering some of <mask>'s famous songs. In 1984, <mask> suffered a stroke which left him paralysed and unable to speak. This ended his musical career. During political turmoil in Afghanistan in the 1990s, he and his family emigrated to Pakistan and became impoverished.He died in Pakistan and twelve years after his death, the Afghan Government made arrangements with his family to relocate his remains to Kabul. References

20th-century Afghan male singers
1930 births
1993 deaths
Afghan expatriate musicians in

masks: Sarban Sarban Abdulrab Sarban Sarban Sarban


texts:
<mask> (November 1, 1874 – October 22, 1956) was an American historian at the University of Texas, the managing director of the Texas State Historical Association, and the editor of the Southwestern Historical Quarterly. He chaired the history department while soliciting gifts to the university, which he used to build a collection of archives and artifacts. In 1950, the university dedicated the Eugene C. Barker History Center as a repository for his collections. These collections are an important part of the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History at the University of Texas. Early life
<mask> was born to Joseph and Fannie (Holland<mask> on November 1, 1874, in Walker County, Texas. Joseph operated a general store in Riverside, Texas, at the Houston and Great Northern Railroad station on the Trinity River. <mask>'s early education took place in a one-room school.<mask> was about 14 years old when his father died, and he started working at the Missouri Pacific shops after he moved with the family to Palestine, Texas. He attended a local night school while holding down a job as a blacksmith. He started matriculating at the University of Texas in 1895, though he continued his employment with the Missouri Pacific in Austin as a mail clerk. He earned his baccalaureate in 1899 and his master’s degree the following year. His thesis was The Unification of Public Sentiment for the Texas Revolution. Career

Academics
In 1899, <mask> began his career at the University of Texas as a history tutor before ascending the professional ladder as an instructor and then as an adjunct professor. He started a sabbatical in 1901 in order to continue graduate work, at the University of Chicago, the University of Pennsylvania (where he received his doctoral degree in 1908), and Harvard University.He taught at Radcliffe College concurrently with his post-doctoral studies at Harvard. He returned to the University of Texas as an associate professor and was promoted to full professor in 1913, a title he retained through 1951. <mask>’s early influences as a young scholar were Lester Gladstone Bugbee and George P. Garrison, both University of Texas professors and early organizers of the Texas State Historical Association. In 1901, he published his first article,

masks:
Eugene Campbell Barker
Eugene Campbell Barker
) Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker


texts: "The Difficulties of a Mexican Revenue Officer in Texas", which appeared in the January issue of the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society. That same year he successfully submitted multiple articles on the Texas Revolution to publications of the Southern Historical Association. He published two more articles in history journals in 1903. <mask> assumed the chair of the history department at the University of Texas in 1910.At that time, only two other history professors worked for the department. During the first few years of his chairmanship, he recruited six professors to the department, including Walter Prescott Webb. He took on other responsibilities in 1910. That year he was appointed as managing director of the Texas State Historical Association, while also assuming the role as editor of the organization's journal, the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association. <mask> also asserted himself as a fundraiser for building a historical archive for the university. He courted a wealthy Confederate Civil War veteran, Major George W. Littlefield, who joined the Board of Regents in 1911. Littlefield remained sympathetic to the southern cause and <mask> convinced him that funding for the acquisition of old documents would assist in balancing the narrative.Littlefield's contributions started with an initial $25,000 grant to establish the Littlefield Fund for Southern History, which was followed after his death by a $100,000 bequest. <mask> also assisted professors Bugbee and Garrison in the acquisition of important Texas history documents for the university's archival collection. These included the Bexar Archives, which document the Spanish and Mexican periods of Texas history; the papers of Stephen F. Austin; and the Texas Declaration of Independence. Another find for the archives came from J. Evetts Haley, who received a commission from <mask> to travel throughout Texas in search of old documents and other artifacts. Haley's most important discovery was later known as the James Harper Starr Collection, which included the only known extant part from the diary of William B. Travis. <mask>'s historical interests extended beyond Texas. He was president of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association in 1923.His

masks: Barker Barker Barker Barker Barker Barker


texts:
 editorship of the Southwestern Historical Quarterly lasted for 27 years, until 1937, the same year the University of Texas recognized him as a Distinguished Professor. In addition to scholarly works, such as his biography of Stephen F. Austin in 1926 and his co-editorship of Sam Houston's papers with Amelia W. Williams between 1837 and 1843, <mask> also collaborated on several history textbooks. Politics
Governor James "Pa" Ferguson attempted to pressure acting University of Texas president William J. Battle into firing six faculty members in 1915. Battle resisted this demand. Ferguson, however, continued to push for these dismissals the next year after Robert A. Vinson received his appointment as president. Frustrated a second time, Ferguson foreshadowed "the biggest bear fight that has ever taken place in the history of Texas".Ferguson cut off all state appropriation to the university by a veto during the 1917 legislative session. <mask> inserted himself in the feud by protesting Ferguson's nomination to replace the state librarian. <mask> stood in resolute defense of the incumbent state librarian, Ernest W. Winkler. As the chair of the university's history department, he was an ex-officio member of the State Library and Historical Commission, a body responsible for vetting and appointing the state librarian. He reviewed Ferguson's nominee, A. F<mask>, but concluded in a letter that his lack of experience disqualified him from the position. <mask> remitted a copy of the letter to Ferguson. The governor responded directly, making it known that he was insulted and that <mask> had created an enemy.<mask> became more involved in the broader politics of the university, meeting with alumni and administrators and taking the side of the university in its defense against Ferguson's attacks. <mask> survived this dispute; Ferguson did not, as he was impeached and removed from office for reasons unrelated to his feud with the university. Personal life
<mask> married Matilda LeGrand Weeden on August 6, 1903. Death and legacy

<mask> died on October 22, 1956. He was interred at Oakwood Cemetery in Austin. Early during his tenure as managing director of the Texas State Historical Association, <mask> changed the name of its academic journal to

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. Cunningham
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texts:
 Southwestern Historical Quarterly, and as of 2020, the journal is still published under the same name. Several notable historians studied under <mask>, including Nettie Lee Benson, <mask>, Harry Ransom, and Walter Prescott Webb.In 1946, the university’s Board of Regents resolved to house the Eugene C. Barker Texas History Center in the building known as "<mask> Gilbert's Old Library". The building was so named because it had been designed by <mask>, who had been contracted as the university’s architect in 1910. On April 27, 1950, about six years before <mask>’s death, the university celebrated the new location of the center with a dedication ceremony. However, the building has since been renamed Battle Hall and reallocated to the School of Architecture, a name and purpose it retained as of 2020. Among the documents in the <mask> collection representing early Texas history are the Bexar Archives, the Stephen F. Austin Papers, and the Texas Declaration of Independence. <mask> was successful in soliciting $125,000 from George W. Littlefield to establish an archive of southern Civil War history, a collection which remains an important resource for modern historians. Ironically, these papers and letters from plantations, which were collected ostensibly to present the southern narrative in a better light, have revealed evidence to support critics of the southern plantation practices instead.The Eugene C. Barker Texas History Center is an important part of the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, a repository at the University of Texas. <mask> published his biography of Stephen F. Austin in 1925. Despite the importance of Austin to Texas history, no other scholarly biographer completed a full-length biography of Austin until 1999. In Stephen F. Austin, Empresario of Texas, <mask> claims that <mask> presents an image of Austin too much as the empresario wanted to present himself, though <mask> admits that <mask>'s biography "was a model of scholarly research in its presentation of the facts of Austin's public career". Selected works

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

1874 births
1956 deaths
People from Walker County, Texas
Historians from Texas
University of Texas alumni
University of Texas faculty
Historians

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Carlos Castañeda
Cass
Cass Gilbert
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Greg Cantrell
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<mask> (born 2 November 1973) is a former Australian soccer player and the most recent head coach of Philippines women's national football team. While as a footballer he was a NSW Premier League player and Australian Youth Representative. Since turning his hand to coaching he had become the head coach of NSWIS for Women's Soccer, Head Coach of The Hills Sports High School Football Program, Head Coach of the Australian Under 20 Women's National Team. He was appointed coach for Sydney FC in the first season of the Australian W-League. From 2014 to 2019, he was the head coach of the Matildas. He helped the Philippines qualify for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, their first ever, when he stirred the team to the semifinals of the 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup. Club career
A former NSW Premier League player and Captain with Bonnyrigg, Bankstown and Sutherland, <mask> represented NSW at the youth level and played for several clubs within the National Youth League and Winter Super League.Managerial career
<mask> <mask> had been the head coach of the NSWIS Women's Football Program from 2002–2013. Widely considered as the one of the best football nurseries in Australia, the program produced over 30 senior Internationals in that 10-year period. He was also the head coach of the Women's National Soccer League side, the NSW Sapphires, which he guided to a premiership in the 2003/04 season. He started as head coach of HSHS in the foundation year (2003) and has gone on to win many titles and good performances. In 2006, he was the assistant coach for the Young Matilda's while they were competing at the FIFA U/20's Women's Championships in Russia. Unfortunately they bowed out in the group stage, missing the next round by 1 point to Brazil and Russia. As of 05/03/07 Stajcic became

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Alen Stajcic
Alen
Alen
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texts:
 the Young Matildas Coach.In 2008, Stajcic became the inaugural Sydney FC Women's head coach, until 2014. They qualified for the semi finals in all 6 seasons, winning 2 grand finals and 2 premierships along the way. In 2013, Sydney FC beat Japanese powerhouse NTV Beleza and Sth American Champions Colo Colo to claim 3rd place the IWCC in Japan. Australia women
As of September 2014, Stajcic was appointed full-time head coach of the Australian Women's National Football team, the Matildas. In the 2015 Women's World Cup in Canada, they became the 1st Senior Australian Football Team to win a knockout match in a World Cup when they defeated Brazil 1–0 in the Round of 16 before losing 1–0 to Japan in the quarter finals. Earlier in 2014, Stajcic had led the Matildas in an Interim capacity, to a Silver Medal at the Asian Championships. Currently, Stajcic stands as the only Australian-born head coach to win a match at a FIFA World Cup.In March 2016, the Matildas qualified for the Olympic Games for the first time in 12 years. Along the way eliminating World Cup finalists Japan. The Matildas topped the Asian Qualifying group and were undefeated in the tournament. The Matildas subsequently attained their highest-ever FIFA Ranking of 5. At the 2016 Rio Olympics Australia were grouped with Canada, Germany and Zimbabwe. Australia progressed through to the Quarter Finals, where they were beaten 7–6 on penalties by Hosts Brazil after a 0–0 draw. Despite qualifying for the 2019 Women's World Cup, <mask> was sacked from his position by Football Federation Australia for reasons that were not made clear by the FFA at the time of the sacking, with FFA board member Heather Reid making cryptic remarks about how people "would be shocked" if they knew the reasons, with leaks to the media


texts:
 resulting in Lucy Zelic claiming the facts were legally confidential.Australian player Sam Kerr posted on twitter saying "My trust was in Staj to lead us to the World Cup final & I believe he was the best coach for that". Stajcic took legal action against the FFA for the sacking and the veil of secrecy behind it, and in May 2019 this legal action lead to a settlement with a 'six figure' settlement accounting for the loss of potential World Cup bonuses and reputation damage. Heather Reid said in a statement following the settlement, "I apologise unreservedly for the damage, distress and hurt that I have caused to <mask> Stajcic as a professional football coach". Central Coast Mariners
Following the sacking of Mike Mulvey from Central Coast Mariners, on 12 March 2019 Stajcic was appointed as the caretaker head coach for the club. On 2 May 2019, Stajcic was appointed head coach on a 3-year contract until the end of the 2021–22 A-League season. In the final 6 games of season he was in charge for 2 wins and 4 losses. The 2019/20 season was his first as the full time head coach, and the Mariners finished in last place with 5 wins, 3 draws and 18 losses from 26 games.The early stages of the 2020/21 season went very well for the Mariners, and they won 5 of the first 7 matches, putting them in outright first place with 15 points. Philippines women
In late October 2021, Stajcic was appointed as head coach of the Malditas, the Philippines women's national football team, ahead of the 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup. By reaching the semifinals, following a penalty shootout win over Chinese Taipei, the Philippines qualified for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, the first time the side had ever qualified. Stajcic  became the only Australian-born coach to qualify for 3 FIFA World


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<mask> ( ,  , ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was a German philosopher and mathematician who established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality. In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as a transcendental-idealist philosophy. Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond. Husserl studied mathematics, taught by Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy taught by Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf. He taught philosophy as a Privatdozent at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928, after which he remained highly productive.In 1933, under racial laws, having been born to a Jewish family, he was expelled from the library of the University of Freiburg, and months later resigned from the Deutsche Akademie. Following an illness, he died in Freiburg in 1938. Life and career

Youth and education
<mask> was born in

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Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl
Husserl


texts: 1859 in Proßnitz, a town in the Margraviate of Moravia, which was then in the Austrian Empire, and which today is Prostějov in the Czech Republic. He was born into a Jewish family, the second of four children. His father was a milliner. His childhood was spent in Prostějov, where he attended the secular elementary school. Then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the Realgymnasium there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olomouc (Ger.: Olmütz). At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy. At Leipzig he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology. Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin (the present-day Humboldt University of Berlin) in 1878 where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker and the renowned Karl Weierstrass. In Berlin he found a mentor in Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia. There Husserl also attended Friedrich Paulsen's philosophy lectures. In 1881 he left for the University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass).At Vienna in 1883 he obtained his


texts: PhD with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations). Evidently as a result of his becoming familiar with the New Testament during his twenties, Husserl asked to be baptized into the Lutheran Church in 1886. Husserl's father Adolf had died in 1884. Herbert Spiegelberg writes, "While outward religious practice never entered his life any more than it did that of most academic scholars of the time, his mind remained open for the religious phenomenon as for any other genuine experience." At times Husserl saw his goal as one of moral "renewal". Although a steadfast proponent of a radical and rational autonomy in all things, Husserl could also speak "about his vocation and even about his mission under God's will to find new ways for philosophy and science," observes Spiegelberg. Following his PhD in mathematics, Husserl returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass.Yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy. Then professor Weierstrass became very ill. Husserl became free to return to Vienna where, after serving a short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy. In 1884 at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy and philosophical psychology. Brentano introduced


texts:
 him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano, Hermann Lotze, J. Stuart Mill, and David Hume. Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy; indeed, Franz Brentano is often credited as being his most important influence, e.g., with regard to intentionality. Following academic advice, two years later in 1886 Husserl followed Carl Stumpf, a former student of Brentano, to the University of Halle, seeking to obtain his habilitation which would qualify him to teach at the university level. There, under Stumpf's supervision, he wrote Über den Begriff der Zahl (On the Concept of Number) in 1887, which would serve later as the basis for his first important work, Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891).In 1887 Husserl married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years. In 1892 their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart, and in 1894 their son Wolfgang. Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923; Wolfgang, however, became a casualty of the First World War. Gerhart would become a philosopher of law, contributing to the subject of comparative law, teaching in the United States and after the war in Austria. Professor of philosophy

Following his marriage Husserl began his long teaching career in philosophy. He started in


texts: 1887 as a Privatdozent at the University of Halle. In 1891 he published his Philosophie der Arithmetik.Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen which, drawing on his prior studies in mathematics and philosophy, proposed a psychological context as the basis of mathematics. It drew the adverse notice of Gottlob Frege, who criticized its psychologism. In 1901 Husserl with his family moved to the University of Göttingen, where he taught as extraordinarius professor. Just prior to this a major work of his, Logische Untersuchungen (Halle, 1900–1901), was published. Volume One contains seasoned reflections on "pure logic" in which he carefully refutes "psychologism". This work was well received and became the subject of a seminar given by Wilhelm Dilthey; Husserl in 1905 traveled to Berlin to visit Dilthey. Two years later in Italy he paid a visit to Franz Brentano his inspiring old teacher and to Constantin Carathéodory the mathematician.Kant and Descartes were also now influencing his thought. In 1910 he became joint editor of the journal Logos. During this period Husserl had delivered lectures on internal time consciousness, which several decades later his former student Heidegger edited for publication. In 1912 at Freiburg the journal Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische


texts: Forschung ("Yearbook for Philosophy and Phenomenological Research") was founded by Husserl and his school, and which published articles of their phenomenological movement from 1913 to 1930. His important work Ideen was published in its first issue (Vol. 1, Issue 1, 1913). Before beginning Ideen Husserl's thought had reached the stage where "each subject is 'presented' to itself, and to each all others are 'presentiated' (Vergegenwärtigung), not as parts of nature but as pure consciousness."Ideen advanced his transition to a "transcendental interpretation" of phenomenology, a view later criticized by, among others, Jean-Paul Sartre. In Ideen Paul Ricœur sees the development of Husserl's thought as leading "from the psychological cogito to the transcendental cogito." As phenomenology further evolves, it leads (when viewed from another vantage point in Husserl's 'labyrinth') to "transcendental subjectivity". Also in Ideen Husserl explicitly elaborates the phenomenological and eidetic reductions. In 1913 Karl Jaspers visited Husserl at Göttingen. In October 1914 both his sons were sent to fight on the Western Front of World War I and the following year one of them, <mask>, was badly injured. On 8 March 1916, on the battlefield of Verdun, Wolfgang was killed in action.The next year his other


texts: son Gerhart <mask> was wounded in the war but survived. His own mother Julia died. In November 1917 one of his outstanding students and later a noted philosophy professor in his own right, Adolf Reinach, was killed in the war while serving in Flanders. Husserl had transferred in 1916 to the University of Freiburg (in Freiburg im Breisgau) where he continued bringing his work in philosophy to fruition, now as a full professor. Edith Stein served as his personal assistant during his first few years in Freiburg, followed later by Martin Heidegger from 1920 to 1923. The mathematician Hermann Weyl began corresponding with him in 1918. Husserl gave four lectures on Phenomenological method at University College, London in 1922.The University of Berlin in 1923 called on him to relocate there, but he declined the offer. In 1926 Heidegger dedicated his book Sein und Zeit (Being and Time) to him "in grateful respect and friendship." Husserl remained in his professorship at Freiburg until he requested retirement, teaching his last class on 25 July 1928. A Festschrift to celebrate his seventieth birthday was presented to him on 8 April 1929. Despite retirement, Husserl gave several notable lectures. The first, at Paris in 1929, led to Méditations cartésiennes (Paris 1931). Husserl here reviews the


texts: phenomenological epoché (or phenomenological reduction), presented earlier in his pivotal Ideen (1913), in terms of a further reduction of experience to what he calls a 'sphere of ownness.'From within this sphere, which Husserl enacts in order to show the impossibility of solipsism, the transcendental ego finds itself always already paired with the lived body of another ego, another monad. This 'a priori' interconnection of bodies, given in perception, is what founds the interconnection of consciousnesses known as transcendental intersubjectivity, which Husserl would go on to describe at length in volumes of unpublished writings. There has been a debate over whether or not Husserl's description of ownness and its movement into intersubjectivity is sufficient to reject the charge of solipsism, to which Descartes, for example, was subject. One argument against Husserl's description works this way: instead of infinity and the Deity being the ego's gateway to the Other, as in Descartes, Husserl's ego in the Cartesian Meditations itself becomes transcendent. It remains, however, alone (unconnected). Only the ego's grasp "by analogy" of the Other (e.g., by conjectural reciprocity) allows the possibility for an 'objective' intersubjectivity, and hence for community. In 1933, the racial laws of


texts: the new Nazi regime were enacted.On 6 April <mask> was banned from using the library at the University of Freiburg, or any other academic library; the following week, after a public outcry, he was reinstated. Yet his colleague Heidegger was elected Rector of the university on 21–22 April, and joined the Nazi Party. By contrast, in July Husserl resigned from the Deutsche Akademie. Later Husserl lectured at Prague in 1935 and Vienna in 1936, which resulted in a very differently styled work that, while innovative, is no less problematic: Die Krisis (Belgrade 1936). Husserl describes here the cultural crisis gripping Europe, then approaches a philosophy of history, discussing Galileo, Descartes, several British philosophers, and Kant. The apolitical Husserl before had specifically avoided such historical discussions, pointedly preferring to go directly to an investigation of consciousness. Merleau-Ponty and others question whether Husserl here does not undercut his own position, in that Husserl had attacked in principle historicism, while specifically designing his phenomenology to be rigorous enough to transcend the limits of history.On the contrary, Husserl may be indicating here that historical traditions are merely features given to the pure ego's intuition, like any other. A longer


texts:
 section follows on the "lifeworld" [Lebenswelt], one not observed by the objective logic of science, but a world seen in our subjective experience. Yet a problem arises similar to that dealing with 'history' above, a chicken-and-egg problem. Does the lifeworld contextualize and thus compromise the gaze of the pure ego, or does the phenomenological method nonetheless raise the ego up transcendent? These last writings presented the fruits of his professional life. Since his university retirement Husserl had "worked at a tremendous pace, producing several major works." After suffering a fall the autumn of 1937, the philosopher became ill with pleurisy.<mask> died at Freiburg on 27 April 1938, having just turned 79. His wife Malvine survived him. Eugen Fink, his research assistant, delivered his eulogy. Gerhard Ritter was the only Freiburg faculty member to attend the funeral, as an anti-Nazi protest. Heidegger and the Nazi era
<mask> was rumoured to have been denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation of April 1933. However, among other disabilities Husserl was unable to publish his works in Nazi Germany [see above footnote to Die Krisis (1936)]. It was also rumoured that his former pupil Martin Heidegger informed Husserl that he was discharged,

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Edmund Husserl
Husserl


texts: but it was actually the previous rector.Apparently <mask> and Heidegger had moved apart during the 1920s, which became clearer after 1928 when <mask> retired and Heidegger succeeded to his university chair. In the summer of 1929 Husserl had studied carefully selected writings of Heidegger, coming to the conclusion that on several of their key positions they differed:  e.g., Heidegger substituted Dasein ["Being-there"] for the pure ego, thus transforming phenomenology into an anthropology, a type of psychologism strongly disfavored by Husserl. Such observations of Heidegger, along with a critique of Max Scheler, were put into a lecture Husserl gave to various Kant Societies in Frankfurt, Berlin, and Halle during 1931 entitled Phänomenologie und Anthropologie. In the war-time 1941 edition of Heidegger's primary work, Being and Time (Sein und Zeit, first published in 1927), the original dedication to Husserl was removed. This was not due to a negation of the relationship between the two philosophers, however, but rather was the result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book might otherwise be banned by the Nazi regime. The dedication can still be found in a footnote on page 38, thanking Husserl for his guidance and generosity. Husserl, of course, had

masks: Husserl Husserl


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 died three years earlier.In post-war editions of Sein und Zeit the dedication to Husserl is restored. The complex, troubled, and sundered philosophical relationship between Husserl and Heidegger has been widely discussed. On 4 May 1933, Professor <mask>l addressed the recent regime change in Germany and its consequences:The future alone will judge which was the true Germany in 1933, and who were the true Germans—those who subscribe to the more or less materialistic-mythical racial prejudices of the day, or those Germans pure in heart and mind, heirs to the great Germans of the past whose tradition they revere and perpetuate.After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of "Gabelsberger" stenography and his complete research library, were in 1939 smuggled to the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium by the Franciscan priest Herman Van Breda. There they were deposited at Leuven to form the Husserl-Archives of the Higher Institute of Philosophy. Much of the material in his research manuscripts has since been published in the Husserliana critical edition series. Development of his thought

Several early themes
In his first works, Husserl tries to combine mathematics, psychology and philosophy with the main goal to provide a sound foundation for


texts: mathematics. He analyzes the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then tries to build up a systematical theory on this analysis.To achieve this he uses several methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derives the idea that we generate the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he takes over the distinction between proper and improper presenting. In an example Husserl explains this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as he also calls it) one if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. <mask>'s Logical Investigations (1900–1901) is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology.Another important element that <mask> took over from Brentano is intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. While


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 often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of mental phenomena, by which they could be distinguished from physical phenomena. Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act, has a content, is directed at an object (the intentional object). Every belief, desire, etc. has an object that it is about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.The elaboration of phenomenology
Some years after the 1900–1901 publication of his main work, the Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations), Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the objects as intended). Knowledge of essences would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he


texts: called "epoché". These new concepts prompted the publication of the Ideen (Ideas) in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the Logische Untersuchungen. From the Ideen onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the reality of what we perceive, as distinct from the perceiving subject, was of little interest to Husserl in spite of his being a transcendental idealist. Husserl proposed that the world of objects—and of ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects—is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural attitude", which is characterized by a belief that objects exist distinct from the perceiving subject and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them (this attitude is also called physicalist objectivism).Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we, in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators


texts: about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which we regard objectsinstead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things we perceive (or an assumption underlying how we perceive objects). The major dividing line in Husserl's thought is the turn to transcendental idealism. In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity, specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity (Cartesian Meditations, Meditation V). Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to psychology) and what it means to "bracket" the natural attitude. The Crisis of the European Sciences is <mask>'s unfinished work that deals most directly with


texts:
 these issues.In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) empirical and naturalistic orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that a science of the mind ('Geisteswissenschaft') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed: "It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge." <mask>'s thought

Husserl's thought is revolutionary in several ways, most notably in the distinction between "natural" and "phenomenological" modes of understanding. In the former, sense-perception in correspondence with the material realm constitutes the known reality, and understanding is premised on the accuracy of the perception and the objective knowability of what is called the "real world". Phenomenological understanding strives to be rigorously "presuppositionless" by means of what Husserl calls "phenomenological reduction". This reduction is not conditioned but rather


texts:
 transcendental: in Husserl's terms, pure consciousness of absolute Being. In Husserl's work, consciousness of any given thing calls for discerning its meaning as an "intentional object".Such an object does not simply strike the senses, to be interpreted or misinterpreted by mental reason; it has already been selected and grasped, grasping being an etymological connotation, of percipere, the root of "perceive". Meaning and object
From Logical Investigations (1900/1901) to Experience and Judgment (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object. He identified several different kinds of names. For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object. Each of these names expresses a meaning and designates the same object. Examples of this are "the victor in Jena" and "the loser in Waterloo", or "the equilateral triangle" and "the equiangular triangle"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate the same object. There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: "Aristotle", "Socrates", and so on.Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects. These are called "universal names"; their meaning is a "concept" and refers to a series of objects


texts: (the extension of the concept). The way we know sensible objects is called "sensible intuition". Husserl also identifies a series of "formal words" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates. Examples of formal words are "a", "the", "more than", "over", "under", "two", "group", and so on. Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls "formal categories". There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal-ontological categories.Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction, disjunction, forms of plural, among others. Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number, ordinal number, part and whole, relation, and so on. The way we know these categories is through a faculty of understanding called "categorial intuition". Through sensible intuition our consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a "situation of affairs" (Sachlage). It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented to us. To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, we are able to constitute a "state of affairs" (Sachverhalt). One situation of affairs through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as the basis for


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 constituting multiple states of affairs.For example, suppose a and b are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs. We can use it as basis to say, "a<b" and "b>a", two judgments which designate the same state of affairs. For Husserl a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as a reference base. Formal and regional ontology
Husserl sees ontology as a science of essences. Sciences of essences are contrasted with factual sciences: the former are knowable a priori and provide the foundation for the later, which are knowable a posteriori. Ontology as a science of essences is not interested in actual facts, but in the essences themselves, whether they have instances or not. Husserl distinguishes between formal ontology, which investigates the essence of objectivity in general, and regional ontologies, which study regional essences that are shared by all entities belonging to the region.Regions correspond to the highest genera of concrete entities: material nature, personal consciousness and interpersonal spirit. Husserl's method for studying ontology and sciences of essence in general is called eidetic variation. It involves imagining an object of the kind under investigation and varying its


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 features. The changed feature is inessential to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the kind's essence. For example, a triangle remains a triangle if one of its sides is extended but it ceases to be a triangle if a fourth side is added. Regional ontology involves applying this method to the essences corresponding to the highest genera. Philosophy of logic and mathematics
Husserl believed that truth-in-itself has as ontological correlate being-in-itself, just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates.Logic is a formal theory of judgment, that studies the formal a priori relations among judgments using meaning categories. Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology; it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects). Hence for both logic and mathematics, the different formal categories are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves. The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that this approach is about formal categories, and not simply about abstractions from sensibility alone. The reason why we do not deal with sensible objects in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called "categorial abstraction." Through


texts: this faculty we are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves. Thanks to "eidetic reduction" (or "essential intuition"), we are able to grasp the possibility, impossibility, necessity and contingency among concepts and among formal categories.Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic reduction, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge. Husserl criticized the logicians of his day for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that give us objective knowledge of pure logic. All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically) as it is constituted by consciousness needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness). Husserl stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness and psychology than those that precede it. The first stratum is what Husserl called a "morphology of meanings" concerning a priori ways to relate judgments to make them meaningful. In this stratum we elaborate a "pure grammar" or a logical syntax, and he would call its rules "laws to prevent non-sense", which would be similar to what logic calls today "formation rules". Mathematics, as logic's ontological


texts: correlate, also has a similar stratum, a "morphology of formal-ontological categories".The second stratum would be called by Husserl "logic of consequence" or the "logic of non-contradiction" which explores all possible forms of true judgments. He includes here syllogistic classic logic, propositional logic and that of predicates. This is a semantic stratum, and the rules of this stratum would be the "laws to avoid counter-sense" or "laws to prevent contradiction". They are very similar to today's logic "transformation rules". Mathematics also has a similar stratum which is based among others on pure theory of pluralities, and a pure theory of numbers. They provide a science of the conditions of possibility of any theory whatsoever. Husserl also talked about what he called "logic of truth" which consists of the formal laws of possible truth and its modalities, and precedes the third logical third stratum.The third stratum is metalogical, what he called a "theory of all possible forms of theories." It explores all possible theories in an a priori fashion, rather than the possibility of theory in general. We could establish theories of possible relations between pure forms of theories, investigate these logical relations and the deductions from such general connection. The logician is


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 free to see the extension of this deductive, theoretical sphere of pure logic. The ontological correlate to the third stratum is the "theory of manifolds". In formal ontology, it is a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in a general and indeterminate manner. It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all.Through the posit of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between them, as long as consistency is preserved. According to Husserl, this view of logic and mathematics accounted for the objectivity of a series of mathematical developments of his time, such as n-dimensional manifolds (both Euclidean and non-Euclidean), Hermann Grassmann's theory of extensions, William Rowan Hamilton's Hamiltonians, Sophus Lie's theory of transformation groups, and Cantor's set theory. Jacob Klein was one student of Husserl who pursued this line of inquiry, seeking to "desedimentize" mathematics and the mathematical sciences. Husserl and psychologism

Philosophy of arithmetic and Frege
After obtaining his PhD in mathematics, Husserl began analyzing the foundations of


texts: mathematics from a psychological point of view. In his habilitation thesis, On the Concept of Number (1886) and in his Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891), Husserl sought, by employing Brentano's descriptive psychology, to define the natural numbers in a way that advanced the methods and techniques of Karl Weierstrass, Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor, Gottlob Frege, and other contemporary mathematicians. Later, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, the Prolegomena of Pure Logic, Husserl, while attacking the psychologistic point of view in logic and mathematics, also appears to reject much of his early work, although the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the Prolegomena did not apply directly to his Philosophy of Arithmetic. Some scholars question whether Frege's negative review of the Philosophy of Arithmetic helped turn Husserl towards modern Platonism, but he had already discovered the work of Bernard Bolzano independently around 1890/91.In his Logical Investigations, Husserl explicitly mentioned Bolzano, G. W. Leibniz and Hermann Lotze as inspirations for his newer position. Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder, published before Frege's landmark 1892 article, clearly distinguishes sense from reference; thus Husserl's notions of noema and object also arose


texts: independently. Likewise, in his criticism of Frege in the Philosophy of Arithmetic, Husserl remarks on the distinction between the content and the extension of a concept. Moreover, the distinction between the subjective mental act, namely the content of a concept, and the (external) object, was developed independently by Brentano and his school, and may have surfaced as early as Brentano's 1870s lectures on logic. Scholars such as J. N. Mohanty, Claire Ortiz Hill, and Guillermo E. Rosado Haddock, among others, have argued that Husserl's so-called change from psychologism to Platonism came about independently of Frege's review. For example, the review falsely accuses Husserl of subjectivizing everything, so that no objectivity is possible, and falsely attributes to him a notion of abstraction whereby objects disappear until we are left with numbers as mere ghosts. Contrary to what Frege states, in <mask>'s Philosophy of Arithmetic we already find two different kinds of representations: subjective and objective.Moreover, objectivity is clearly defined in that work. Frege's attack seems to be directed at certain foundational doctrines then current in Weierstrass's Berlin School, of which Husserl and Cantor cannot be said to be orthodox representatives. Furthermore, various sources indicate


texts: that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before he published the Philosophy of Arithmetic. Husserl stated that by the time he published that book, he had already changed his mind—that he had doubts about psychologism from the very outset. He attributed this change of mind to his reading of Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume. Husserl makes no mention of Frege as a decisive factor in this change. In his Logical Investigations, Husserl mentions Frege only twice, once in a footnote to point out that he had retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic, and again to question Frege's use of the word Bedeutung to designate "reference" rather than "meaning" (sense).In a letter dated 24 May 1891, Frege thanked Husserl for sending him a copy of the Philosophy of Arithmetic and <mask>'s review of Ernst Schröder's Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik. In the same letter, Frege used the review of Schröder's book to analyze Husserl's notion of the sense of reference of concept words. Hence Frege recognized, as early as 1891, that Husserl distinguished between sense and reference. Consequently, Frege and Husserl independently elaborated a theory of sense and reference before 1891. Commentators argue that Husserl's notion of


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 noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense, because noemata are necessarily fused with noeses which are the conscious activities of consciousness. Noemata have three different levels:
 The substratum, which is never presented to the consciousness, and is the support of all the properties of the object;
 The noematic senses, which are the different ways the objects are presented to us;
 The modalities of being (possible, doubtful, existent, non-existent, absurd, and so on). Consequently, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema.Frege, however, did not conceive of objects as forming parts of senses: If a proper name denotes a non-existent object, it does not have a reference, hence concepts with no objects have no truth value in arguments. Moreover, Husserl did not maintain that predicates of sentences designate concepts. According to Frege the reference of a sentence is a truth value; for Husserl it is a "state of affairs." Frege's notion of "sense" is unrelated to Husserl's noema, while the latter's notions of "meaning" and "object" differ from those of Frege. In detail, Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differs from that of Frege, who held that arithmetic could be derived from logic. For Husserl this


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 is not the case: mathematics (with the exception of geometry) is the ontological correlate of logic, and while both fields are related, neither one is strictly reducible to the other. Husserl's criticism of psychologism
Reacting against authors such as J. S. Mill, Christoph von Sigwart and his own former teacher Brentano, Husserl criticised their psychologism in mathematics and logic, i.e.their conception of these abstract and a priori sciences as having an essentially empirical foundation and a prescriptive or descriptive nature. According to psychologism, logic would not be an autonomous discipline, but a branch of psychology, either proposing a prescriptive and practical "art" of correct judgement (as Brentano and some of his more orthodox students did) or a description of the factual processes of human thought. Husserl pointed out that the failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism was a result of being unable to distinguish between the foundational, theoretical side of logic, and the applied, practical side. Pure logic does not deal at all with "thoughts" or "judgings" as mental episodes but about a priori laws and conditions for any theory and any judgments whatsoever, conceived as propositions in themselves. "Here 'Judgement' has the same meaning as 'proposition',


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 understood, not as a grammatical, but as an ideal unity of meaning. This is the case with all the distinctions of acts or forms of judgement, which provide the foundations for the laws of pure logic. Categorial, hypothetical, disjunctive, existential judgements, and however else we may call them, in pure logic are not names for classes of judgements, but for ideal forms of propositions."Since "truth-in-itself" has "being-in-itself" as ontological correlate, and since psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology, the inevitable consequence is scepticism. Psychologists have also not been successful in showing how from induction or psychological processes we can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction. It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind. This confusion made by psychologism (and related disciplines such as biologism and anthropologism) can be due to three specific prejudices:

1. The first prejudice is the supposition that logic is somehow normative in nature. Husserl argues that logic is theoretical, i.e., that logic itself proposes a priori laws which are themselves the basis of the normative side of logic. Since mathematics is


texts: related to logic, he cites an example from mathematics: If we have a formula like "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²" it does not tell us how to think mathematically.It just expresses a truth. A proposition that says: "The product of the sum and the difference of a and b should give us the difference of the squares of a and b" does express a normative proposition, but this normative statement is based on the theoretical statement "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²". 2. For psychologists, the acts of judging, reasoning, deriving, and so on, are all psychological processes. Therefore, it is the role of psychology to provide the foundation of these processes. Husserl states that this effort made by psychologists is a "metábasis eis állo génos" (Gr. μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος, "a transgression to another field").It is a metábasis because psychology cannot provide any foundations for a priori laws which themselves are the basis for all the ways we should think correctly. Psychologists have the problem of confusing intentional activities with the object of these activities. It is important to distinguish between the act of judging and the judgment itself, the act of counting and the number itself, and so on. Counting five objects is undeniably a psychological process, but the number 5 is not. 3. Judgments can be


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 true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become "evidently" true to us.This evidence, a psychological process that "guarantees" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological "evidence" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the a priori objectivity of these logical truths. From this criticism to psychologism, the distinction between psychological acts and their intentional objects, and the difference between the normative side of logic and the theoretical side, derives from a Platonist conception of logic. This means that we should regard logical and mathematical laws as being independent of the human mind, and also as an autonomy of meanings. It is essentially the difference between the real (everything subject to time) and the ideal or irreal (everything that is atemporal), such as logical truths, mathematical entities, mathematical truths and meanings in general. Influence

David Carr commented on Husserl's following in his 1970 dissertation at Yale: "It is well known that Husserl was always disappointed at the tendency of his students to go their own way, to embark upon fundamental revisions of phenomenology rather


texts: than engage in the communal task" as originally intended by the radical new science.Notwithstanding, he did attract philosophers to phenomenology. Martin Heidegger is the best known of Husserl's students, the one whom Husserl chose as his successor at Freiburg. Heidegger's magnum opus Being and Time was dedicated to Husserl. They shared their thoughts and worked alongside each other for over a decade at the University of Freiburg, Heidegger being Husserl's assistant during 1920–1923. Heidegger's early work followed his teacher, but with time he began to develop new insights distinctively variant. Husserl became increasingly critical of Heidegger's work, especially in 1929, and included pointed criticism of Heidegger in lectures he gave during 1931. Heidegger, while acknowledging his debt to Husserl, followed a political position offensive and harmful to Husserl after the Nazis came to power in 1933, Husserl being of Jewish origin and Heidegger infamously being then a Nazi proponent.Academic discussion of <mask> and Heidegger is extensive. At Göttingen in 1913 Adolf Reinach (1884–1917) "was now Husserl's right hand. He was above all the mediator between Husserl and the students, for he understood extremely well how to deal with other persons, whereas Husserl was pretty much helpless in


texts: this respect." He was an original editor of Husserl's new journal, Jahrbuch; one of his works (giving a phenomenological analysis of the law of obligations) appeared in its first issue. Reinach was widely admired and a remarkable teacher. <mask>, in his 1917 obituary, wrote, "He wanted to draw only from the deepest sources, he wanted to produce only work of enduring value. And through his wise restraint he succeeded in this."Edith Stein was Husserl's student at Göttingen and Freiburg while she wrote her doctoral thesis The Empathy Problem as it Developed Historically and Considered Phenomenologically (1916). She then became his assistant at Freiburg in 1916–18. She later adapted her phenomenology to the modern school of modern Thomism. Ludwig Landgrebe became assistant to Husserl in 1923. From 1939 he collaborated with Eugen Fink at the Husserl-Archives in Leuven. In 1954 he became leader of the Husserl-Archives. Landgrebe is known as one of Husserl's closest associates, but also for his independent views relating to history, religion and politics as seen from the viewpoints of existentialist philosophy and metaphysics.Eugen Fink was a close associate of <mask> during the 1920s and 1930s. He wrote the Sixth Cartesian Meditation which Husserl said was the truest expression and


texts: continuation of his own work. Fink delivered the eulogy for Husserl in 1938. Roman Ingarden, an early student of Husserl at Freiburg, corresponded with Husserl into the mid-1930s. Ingarden did not accept, however, the later transcendental idealism of Husserl which he thought would lead to relativism. Ingarden has written his work in German and Polish. In his Spór o istnienie świata (Ger.: "Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt", Eng. : "Dispute about existence of the world") he created his own realistic position, which also helped to spread phenomenology in Poland. Max Scheler met <mask> in Halle in 1901 and found in his phenomenology a methodological breakthrough for his own philosophy. Scheler, who was at Göttingen when Husserl taught there, was one of the original few editors of the journal Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung (1913). Scheler's work Formalism in Ethics and Nonformal Ethics of Value appeared in the new journal (1913 and 1916) and drew acclaim. The personal relationship between the two men, however, became strained, due to Scheler's legal troubles, and Scheler returned to Munich. Although Scheler later criticised Husserl's idealistic logical approach and proposed instead a "phenomenology of love", he states that he remained "deeply indebted" to


texts: Husserl throughout his work.Nicolai Hartmann was once thought to be at the center of phenomenology, but perhaps no longer. In 1921 the prestige of Hartmann the Neo-Kantian, who was Professor of Philosophy at Marburg, was added to the Movement; he "publicly declared his solidarity with the actual work of die Phänomenologie." Yet Hartmann's connections were with Max Scheler and the Munich circle; <mask> himself evidently did not consider him as a phenomenologist. His philosophy, however, is said to include an innovative use of the method. Emmanuel Levinas in 1929 gave a presentation at one of Husserl's last seminars in Freiburg. Also that year he wrote on Husserl's Ideen (1913) a long review published by a French journal. With Gabrielle Peiffer, Levinas translated into French Husserl's Méditations cartésiennes (1931).He was at first impressed with Heidegger and began a book on him, but broke off the project when Heidegger became involved with the Nazis. After the war he wrote on Jewish spirituality; most of his family had been murdered by the Nazis in Lithuania. Levinas then began to write works that would become widely known and admired. Alfred Schutz's Phenomenology of the Social World seeks to rigorously ground Max Weber's interpretive sociology in Husserl's phenomenology. Husserl was


texts: impressed by this work and asked Schutz to be his assistant. Jean-Paul Sartre was also largely influenced by Husserl, although he later came to disagree with key points in his analyses. Sartre rejected Husserl's transcendental interpretations begun in his Ideen (1913) and instead followed Heidegger's ontology.Maurice Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception is influenced by <mask>'s work on perception, intersubjectivity, intentionality, space, and temporality, including Husserl's theory of retention and protention. Merleau-Ponty's description of 'motor intentionality' and sexuality, for example, retain the important structure of the noetic/noematic correlation of Ideen I, yet further concretize what it means for Husserl when consciousness particularizes itself into modes of intuition. Merleau-Ponty's most clearly Husserlian work is, perhaps, "the Philosopher and His Shadow." Depending on the interpretation of Husserl's accounts of eidetic intuition, given in Husserl's Phenomenological Psychology and Experience and Judgment, it may be that Merleau-Ponty did not accept the "eidetic reduction" nor the "pure essence" said to result. Merleau-Ponty was the first student to study at the Husserl-archives in Leuven. Gabriel Marcel explicitly rejected existentialism, due to Sartre, but not


texts: phenomenology, which has enjoyed a wide following among French Catholics. He appreciated Husserl, Scheler, and (but with apprehension) Heidegger.His expressions like "ontology of sensability" when referring to the body, indicate influence by phenomenological thought. Kurt Gödel is known to have read Cartesian Meditations. He expressed very strong appreciation for Husserl's work, especially with regard to "bracketing" or "epoché". Hermann Weyl's interest in intuitionistic logic and impredicativity appears to have resulted from his reading of Husserl. He was introduced to Husserl's work through his wife, Helene Joseph, herself a student of Husserl at Göttingen. Colin Wilson has used Husserl's ideas extensively in developing his "New Existentialism," particularly in regards to his "intentionality of consciousness," which he mentions in a number of his books. Rudolf Carnap was also influenced by Husserl, not only concerning Husserl's notion of essential insight that Carnap used in his Der Raum, but also his notion of "formation rules" and "transformation rules" is founded on Husserl's philosophy of logic.Karol Wojtyla, who would later become Pope John Paul II, was influenced by Husserl. Phenomenology appears in his major work, The Acting Person (1969). Originally published in Polish, it was


texts: translated by Andrzej Potocki and edited by Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the Analecta Husserliana. The Acting Person combines phenomenological work with Thomistic ethics. Paul Ricœur has translated many works of Husserl into French and has also written many of his own studies of the philosopher. Among other works, Ricœur employed phenomenology in his Freud and Philosophy (1965). Jacques Derrida wrote several critical studies of Husserl early in his academic career.These included his dissertation, The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy, and also his introduction to The Origin of Geometry. Derrida continued to make reference to Husserl in works such as Of Grammatology. Stanisław Leśniewski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz were inspired by Husserl's formal analysis of language. Accordingly, they employed phenomenology in the development of categorial grammar. José Ortega y Gasset visited Husserl at Freiburg in 1934. He credited phenomenology for having 'liberated him' from a narrow neo-Kantian thought. While perhaps not a phenomenologist himself, he introduced the philosophy to Iberia and Latin America.Wilfrid Sellars, an influential figure in the so-called "Pittsburgh School" (Robert Brandom, John McDowell) had been a student of Marvin Farber, a pupil of Husserl, and was influenced by