texts:
 Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Office of Naval Research, Air Force Research Laboratory, (October 1964). <mask>, R. "K-edge Subtraction Angiography with Synchrotron X-Rays: Final Technical Report, (February 1, 1984 to January 31, 1987)", Stanford University, United States Department of Energy, (September 1987).External links
  including his Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1961 The Electron-Scattering Method and Its Application to the Structure of Nuclei and Nucleons
<mask>er: An Oral History, Stanford Historical Society Oral History Program, 1985. 1915 births
1990 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physics
American Nobel laureates
20th-century American physicists
City College of New York alumni
Experimental physicists
National Medal of Science laureates
American nuclear physicists
American people of German-Jewish descent
Jewish American scientists
Jewish physicists
Scientists from New York City
Princeton University alumni
Stanford University Department of Physics faculty
University of Pennsylvania staff
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Physical

masks:
Hofstadter
Robert Hofstadt


type: original

texts:
<mask> or MacPhee (1916–1997) was a Scottish Outsider Artist, who lived as a young man in the community of Eochar (Sc.Gaelic: Iochdar) on the island of South Uist, part of the Outer Hebrides. He  made his art by weaving found vegetation, such as grasses, into extraordinary garments. He also used sheep's wool picked from barbed wire fences, and leaves. MacPhee created most of his work whilst in the Craig Dunain Hospital near Inverness. He chose not to speak for 50 years. Biography
MacPhee was born into a crofting family from Eochar/Iochdar, South Uist (Outer Hebrides), although he was actually born in Nettlehole, west of Glasgow, whilst his father worked as a hired hand before returning to Uist to settle when <mask> was 7. As a young boy on the croft, he learnt how to make ropes and horse-harness from the abundant marram grass or muirineach on the island.He showed some skills playing music and singing, loved horses, but otherwise appeared to be a normal child of a poor crofting family. Although as a young child he was brought up in a Scots English-speaking community, on the island he soon became a fluent speaker of Gaelic. MacPhee served with the Lovat Scouts, and rode on horseback to join them at Beaufort Castle, where the horse was sold for £70. <mask> was garrisoned in the Faroe Islands during World War II, where he became increasingly mentally ill. No one knew what caused this illness. He returned home on the croft, but he became mute, sullen and self-absorbed. His family noticed his animals became neglected, and soon he was moved to Larbert

masks:
Angus McPhee
Angus
Angus


texts: Asylum. He was diagnosed with schizophrenia in 1946, and spent much of the rest of his life in Craig Dunain Hospital.He fell largely silent and according to Joyce Laing, an art therapist who came across MacPhee in the 1970s, he didn't speak for more than 50 years. There is some uncertainty about how totally mute MacPhee actually was, and the first full biography of MacPhee, by Roger Hutchinson shows there was evidence that MacPhee spoke a little to a few close friends in Craig Dunain, in Gaelic. Whatever, the fact seems to be that he remained largely silent for 50 years. Described as 'the quiet big man', he was admitted to the farm ward of the hospital, Kinmylies House. There he tended the animals and worked on the lands. He was a steady and hard worker and had a particular affection for horses. During his free time, MacPhee wandered the hospital grounds in search of materials and created objects woven mostly from grass, sheep wool and beech leaves.He made garments, hats, caps, pouches, harnesses and the like, which he liked to hide under the bushes. He was completely silent as to their purpose. In the 1990s, as part of the movement to return psychiatric patients to the community, <mask> was moved back to South Uist, and lived until his death in the Old People's Nursing Home in Daliburgh within an hours' drive of his remaining family. Joyce Laing recalls visiting him and showing him a photograph of a favourite horse. To her surprise <mask> briefly spoke, commenting on the horse. She hoped that he might eventually reveal his story to her but within

masks: Angus Angus


texts:
 a short time he died. Work and influence

 In 1977 he was found as an inmate of Craig Dunain by Joyce Laing, an art therapist.Under the influence of Jean Dubuffet and others, she was searching, with the playwright Tom McGrath, for 'Art Brut' artists. Laing was able to rescue a number of pieces of work by MacPhee which are now in the collection of the Pittenweem 'Art Extraordinary Gallery'. She wrote the book <mask>hee: Weaver of Grass for an April 2000 exhibition for the Taigh Chearsabhagh Art Trust in Lochmaddy, and she continued to visit MacPhee until his death. In Roger Hutchinson's 'The Silent Weaver' he develops a case for seeing MacPhee's weaving as a way of <mask> finding his way back to a kind of health or mental equilibrium by creatively using traditional craft skills and developing them into a unique form of expression. In 1997 the Mackenzie Sisters included a self-written song 'A'fighe le feur' (Weaver of Grass) on their first album Camhanach, inspired by the unusual story of <mask>. Sung in Gaelic the English translation of the opening is "Have you ever heard a stranger sound than <mask> knitting with grass?". In 2004 Donnie Munro (ex-Runrig) included his song 'Weaver of Grass' inspired by the story of <mask> in his album 'Fields of the Young'.In 2004, a documentary was made of his life by Nick Higgins: Hidden Gifts: The Mystery of <mask> (IMDB), which won the 2005 Britspotting award. This includes some home-movie footage of <mask> back in Uist, towards the end of his life. In 2011 a new book entitled The Silent Weaver by Roger

masks:
Angus McP
Angus
Angus MacPhee
Angus MacPhee
Angus MacPhee
Angus MacPhee
Angus


texts:
 Hutchinson was published, the fullest and best researched account yet of MacPhee's life and his place as an artist. His story has also been developed as a theatre production, called 'Angus – Weaver of Grass', by Horse and Bamboo Theatre which has toured extensively in the Highlands and Islands during the summers of 2012 and 2013, also appearing in London, Oxford and Lancashire. The Caithness fibre artist, Joanne B Kaar, has worked alongside Horse + Bamboo Theatre on their production, and directly with Joyce Laing. In the process she has rediscovered the techniques used by <mask> and has recreated some of his garments both for the theatre production, for the collection in Pittenweem, and for Scottish Museums. In 2011/2012 artist Mike Inglis incorporated textures and outfits directly influenced by the stories and artefacts of <mask> into his 65-metre permanent Public Art wall installation in Inverness.He is currently developing a new body of work entitled "Chasing the Ghost of <mask>" supported by Creative Scotland and University of Edinburgh research grants which further develops themes surrounding Scottish identity and culture as well as his obsession with <mask> and it will be shown in 2014. References

 The Weaver of Grass, biography, Weaver of Grass exhibition, Am Baile Gaelic village

External links
 Am Baile: work
 Weaver of Grass blog
 Joanne B Kaar blog
 Mike Inglis website

1916 births
1997 deaths
Scottish artists
Outsider artists
People with schizophrenia
Outsider art
British Army personnel of World War II
People from Uist
Lovat Scouts

masks:
Angus MacPhee
Angus
Angus McPhee
Angus


texts:
Saint Meletius (Greek: Μελέτιος, Meletios) was a Christian bishop of Antioch from 360 until his death in 381. He was opposed by a rival bishop named Paulinus and his episcopate was dominated by the schism, usually called the Meletian schism. As a result, he was exiled from Antioch in 361–362, 365–366 and 371–378. One of his last acts was to preside over the First Council of Constantinople in 381. There are contrasting views about his theological position: on the one hand, he was exiled three times under Arian emperors; on the other, he was strongly opposed by those faithful to the memory of the staunchly pro-Nicene Eustathius of Antioch, whom the synod of Melitene deposed for his Homoousianism, which they considered a heresy, and by Saint Athanasius of Alexandria, a firm opponent of Arianism. Meletius' asceticism was remarkable in view of his great private wealth. He is venerated as a saint and confessor in both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.His feast day is 12 February. Bishop of Sebaste
Meletius was born at Melitene in Lesser Armenia of wealthy and noble parents. He first appears around 357 as a supporter of Acacius, bishop of Caesarea, the leader of that local faction that supported the Homoean formula by which the emperor Constantius II sought for a compromise between the Homoiousians and the Homoousians. The Homoiousians held that God and Jesus Christ are of like essence, the Homoousians that they are, as stated in the Nicene Creed, of the same essence. Meletius thus first appears as an ecclesiastic of the court party, and as such became bishop of Sebaste in succession to Eustathius, an Arian. The appointment was resented by the Homoousian clergy, and Meletius resigned the see. Bishop of Antioch

First period and exile
According to Socrates Scholasticus,


texts:
 Meletius attended the synod of Seleucia in the autumn of 359, and then subscribed to the Acacian (Homoean) formula.Early in 360 he became bishop of Antioch, succeeding Eudoxius, who had been translated to the see of Constantinople. Early the following year (361), he was in exile. According to an old tradition, supported by evidence drawn from Epiphanius of Cyprus and John Chrysostom, this was due to a sermon preached before the emperor Constantius II, in which he revealed Homoousian views. This explanation, however, is rejected by G. F<mask>s on the grounds that the sermon contains nothing inconsistent with the Acacian position favoured by the court party; on the other hand, there is evidence of conflicts with the clergy, quite apart from any questions of orthodoxy, which may have led to the bishop's deposition. Meletius believed that truth lay in delicate distinctions, but his formula was so indefinite that it is difficult to grasp it with precision. He was neither a thorough Nicene nor a decided Arian. The successor of Meletius was Euzoeus, an Arian.In Antioch itself Meletius continued to have adherents, who held separate services in the apostolic church in the old town. The Meletian schism was complicated, moreover, by the presence in the city of another anti-Arian sect, stricter adherents of the Homoousian formula, maintaining the tradition of the deposed bishop Eustathius and governed at this time by the presbyter Paulinus. The synod of Alexandria (362) sent deputies to attempt an arrangement between the two anti-Arian churches; but before they arrived Paulinus had been consecrated bishop by Lucifer of Calaris. When in consequence of the emperor Julian's contemptuous policy Meletius returned, he found himself as one of three rival bishops. Second and third exiles
Athanasius of


texts:
 Alexandria came to Antioch by order of the emperor, and expressed to Meletius his wish of entering into communion with him. Meletius, ill-advised, delayed answering him, and Athanasius went away having admitted Paulinus, whom he had not yet recognized as bishop, to his communion. The orthodox Nicene party, notably Athanasius himself, held communion with Paulinus only.Twice, in 365 and 371 or 372, Meletius was exiled by decree of the Arian emperor Valens. A further complication was added when, in 375, Vitalius, one of Meletius' presbyters, was consecrated bishop by the heretical bishop Apollinaris of Laodicea. After the death of Valens in 378, the Western emperor Gratian removed Euzoeus from Antioch, handing over the churches to Meletius. Theodosius I, the new emperor in the East, also favoured Meletius, who had been more and more approximating to the views of the Nicene Creed. Triumph
Upon his return to Antioch, Meletius was hailed as the leader of orthodoxy. As such he presided in October 379 over the great synod of Antioch, in which the dogmatic agreement of East and West was established. He helped Gregory Nazianzus to the see of Constantinople and consecrated him and also presided over the First Council of Constantinople, the second ecumenical council, in 381.Paulinus, however, was the man favoured by Rome and Alexandria. Jerome accompanied Paulinus back to Rome in order to secure him more support. Meanwhile, Ambrose, bishop of Milan, was dealing with Arians in the West. He persuaded Gratian to call a church synod. The Council of Aquileia (381) deposed two bishops of the eastern province of Dacia, Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum, and requested the emperors Theodosius and Gratian to convene at Alexandria a general council of all bishops in order to put an end to


texts:
 the Meletian schism at Antioch. The two remaining factions which divided the Antiochene Church were orthodox, the supporters of Meletius and the adherents of Paulinus. Uniting them was a difficult move.A temporary pacification ensued, when six of the leading presbyters took an oath not to seek episcopal consecration themselves but to accept as bishop of Antioch whichever of the two rivals outlived the other. Schism after his death
Meletius died soon after the opening of the First Council of Constantinople and the emperor Theodosius, who had received him with special distinction, ordered his body to be carried to Antioch and buried with the honours of a saint. The Meletian schism, however, did not end immediately with his death. In spite of the advice of Gregory Nazianzus, Paulinus was not recognized as the sole bishop and Flavian was consecrated as Meletius' successor. The Eustathians, on the other hand, elected Evagrius as bishop on Paulinus' death in 388. In 399, John Chrysostom, who had been ordained a deacon by Meletius, but later separated from his group and accepted ordination to the priesthood at the hands of Evagrius, secured reconciliation between Flavian and the sees of Alexandria and Rome. However, it would take the Eustathians at Antioch until 415 to accept Flavian.Notes

Further reading
Cavallera, F. Le Schisme de Mélèce. Paris: Picard, 1906. External links
Saints.sqpn: Meletius of Antioch
Catholic Online: Meletius of Antioch
Santiebeati: Meletius of Antioch

381 deaths
4th-century births
Armenian saints
Patriarchs of Antioch
Schisms in Christianity
Syrian Christian saints
4th-century Romans
4th-century archbishops
Ancient Christians involved in controversies
4th-century Christian saints
4th-century Christian theologians
Arianism
John Chrysostom
Syrian people of Armenian


texts:
<mask><mask> (born 24 September 1951) is a Cuban American novelist and short story writer. He is noted for his grotesque satires of the Cuban American community, especially in his English-language novels, Raining Backwards and Holy Radishes! In 2001, he was named the Dorothy Lois Breen Hoffman Professor of Modern Languages and Linguistics at Florida State University. Biography

Early life
<mask>'s family immigrated to the States in 1961, when <mask> was 10. He grew up in Miami, which he now considers his home, although he lives and teaches in Tallahassee, Florida. Literary work
<mask> has been said to be part of the Cuban American avant-garde. His writing is said to engage the links among history, exile, personal, and collective identity, and simultaneously defamiliarize them through parody and pastiche, counteracting in such a move the underlying poignancy of the diasporic experience.<mask> is known for the way he satirizes the Cuban community in Miami. One critic says that he "has mastered like no other the carnivalesque art of portraying grotesquely a community in a perpetual state of crisis". For instance, Raining Backwards depicts a generation "caught between two cultural worlds that they do not fully understand and to which they do not fully belong". Although <mask>'s first two books, written in Spanish, were "well received within the Cuban exile literary community", he did not gain wide critical attention until he published in English. Published works
 Cuentos sin rumbo [Aimless Tales] (story collection; 1975)
 La vida es

masks:
Roberto G
. Fernández
Fernández
Fernández
Fernández
Fernández
Fernández


texts:
 un special [Life is a Bargain] (1982)
 La montaña rusa [The Roller Coaster] (story cycle; 1985)
 Raining Backwards (1988)
 Holy Radishes! (1995)
 En la ocho y la doce [The Corner of Eighth and Twelfth] (2001)
 Entre dos aguas (2007)
 Short stories include "Wrong Channel", "The Brewery", "Is in the Stars" and "It’s not Easy"

Awards
Cintas Foundation Fellowship (1986–87)
Florida Arts Council Fellowship (1993)

See also

 Cuban American literature
List of Cuban American writers
List of famous Cuban-Americans. References

Critical studies in English
as of April 2012:

Water as Creator and Destroyer of Dreams and (Hyper)Realities: Hydro Symbolism in the Works of <mask><mask> By: David de Posada, http://labelmelatin.com, Volume II, Spring 2012.Operational (Hyper)realities in the Exilic Labyrinth: <mask><mask>'s Construction and Destruction of Identity through Parodic Simulacra By: David de Posada. In: DeRosa, Simulation in Media and Culture: Believing the Hype. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books; 2011. pp& nsbs; 187–197. Cuban; American Literature: Suspicion of a Rupture in the Assimilation Pattern? By: Humberto López Cruz. In: N: <mask>, The Hyphenate Writer and the Legacy of Exile. New York: Bordighera Press; 2010. pp.85–97. Three Waves of Immigration Waving of Immigration:Waving (Wavene) the Flag of Patriotic Fervor By: William O. Deaver. In: <mask>, The Hyphenate Writer and the Legacy of Exile. New York: Bordighera Press; 2010. pp. 67–84. Operatic Transposition and the Romantic Aesthetic in the Works of <mask><mask> By: David de

masks:
Roberto G
. Fernández
Roberto G
. Fernández
Giordano
Giordano
Roberto G
. Fernández


texts:
 Posada, "Caribe: Revista de Cultura y Literatura", 11.2 (2009): 23–42. Treacherous Pilgrimages: Identity and Travel in <mask><mask>'s The Augustflower By: Rafael Miguel Montes.In: <mask>, Tolchin, and Brahlek, Florida Studies Proceedings of the 2005 Annual Meeting of the Florida College English Association. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars; 2006. pp. 218–27
Memory and Desire in Exile: The Narrative Strategies of Raining Backwards By: Arlene <mask>-Watanabe; Caribe: Revista de Cultura y Literatura, 2004 Summer; 7 (1): 25–42. La tríada Belle Glade, Miami, Xawa: Tres nombres, tres culturas y un solo espacio novelesco en la narrativa de <mask>. <mask> By: Jorge Febles, Hispanic Journal, 2004 Spring–Fall; 25 (1–2): 225–41. <mask><mask> (1951–) By: <mask>. Irizarry, In: West-Durán, Herrera-Sobek, and Salgado, Latino and Latina Writers, I: Introductory Essays, Chicano and Chicana Authors; II: Cuban and Cuban American Authors, Dominican and Other Authors, Puerto Rican Authors. New York: Scribner's; 2004. pp. 591–611
Janus Identities and Forked Tongues: Two Caribbean Writers in the United States By: Rosanna Rivero Marín.New York: Peter Lang; 2004. viii, 153 pp. (book)
Is Memory the Amnesia You Like? Some Remarks on Self-Invention and the Presence of Caribbean Literature in North America By: Wolfgang Binder, GRAAT: Publication des Groupes de Recherches Anglo-Américaines de l'Université François Rabelais de Tours, 2003; 27: 293–99. Geographies of Identity in Cuban American Narrative By: Antonia Domínguez Miguela, In: <mask>

masks:
Roberto G
. Fernández
Glassman
Guerrero
Roberto G
Fernández
Roberto G
. Fernández
Guillermo B
Alonso Gallo


texts:
 and Domínguez Miguela, Evolving Origins, Transplanting Cultures: Literary Legacies of the New Americans. Huelva, Spain: Universidad de Huelva; 2002. pp. 267–75
The Intercepted Space: Desired and Summed Identity in Holly [Holy] Radishes by Cuban American Writer, <mask>. <mask> By: Clementina R. Adams, Diáspora: Journal of the Annual Afro-Hispanic Literature and Culture Conference, 2001; 11: 66–71. Generational Conflicts in Raining Backwards by <mask>. <mask> By: Henry Pérez, Publications of the Arkansas Philological Association, 2000 Fall; 26 (2): 33–44.Memories of Cuba in <mask><mask>'s Raining Backwards By: Henry Pérez, Publications of the Arkansas Philological Association, 1998 Fall; 24 (2): 47–57. Intimate Dwellings: Meditations on Shelter and Sheltered Meditations in <mask><mask>'s Coquina House By: William O. Deaver, Jr.; RLA: Romance Languages Annual, 1998; 10 (2): 529–33. Holy Radishes! Image is Everything By: William O., Deaver, Jr. In: Berry, NAHLS Bringing the World Together. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan; 1997. pp. 218–29
From Polyglossia to Disglossia: Defining Chronotope, Authority, and Subversion in Raining Backwards By: William O. Deaver, Jr.; RLA: Romance Languages Annual, 1997; 9: 448–52.The Prodigal Son in the Structure of Raining Backwards, Crazy Love, and Latin Jazz By: William O. Deaver, Jr.; Americas Review: A Review of Hispanic Literature and Art of the USA, 1996 Fall–Winter; 24 (3–4): 179–90. A Technological Novelty in Raining Backwards: The Creation of a Virtual Reality By: Humberto López Cruz,

masks:
Roberto G
Fernández
Roberto G
Fernández
Roberto G
. Fernández
Roberto G
. Fernández


texts:
 Americas Review: A Review of Hispanic Literature and Art of the USA, 1996 Fall–Winter; 24 (3–4): 191–200. Menippean Satire and Skaz in Raining Backwards By: William O. Deaver, Jr.; Confluencia: Revista Hispánica de Cultura y Literatura, 1996 Fall; 12 (1): 168–77. Structure, Theme, Motif, and Dialogue in Raining Backwards By: William O. Deaver, Jr.; Chattahoochee Review: The DeKalb College Literary Quarterly, 1996 Summer; 16 (4): 100–12. Raining Backwards: Stylization and Mimicry By: William O. Deaver, Jr.; RLA: Romance Languages Annual, 1995; 7: 446–49. American Contradictions: Interviews with Nine American Writers By: Wolfgang Binder (ed.). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England; 1995.A Connecticut Yankee in Cuban Miami: Reflections on the Meaning of Underdevelopment and Cultural Change By: Juan Leon, Michigan Quarterly Review, 1994 Fall; 33 (4): 690–701. A Character's Indictment of Authorial Subterfuge: The Parody of Texts in <mask>. Fernandez's Fiction By: Jorge Febles, In: Cancalon and Spacagna, Intertextuality in Literature and Film. Gainesville: University Press of Florida; 1994. pp. 21–35
Raining Backwards: Colonization and the Death of a Culture By: William O. Deaver, Jr.; The Americas Review: A Review of Hispanic Literature and Art of the USA, 1993 Spring; 21 (1): 112–18. English and Spanish Pop Songs as Part of Character Speech: Cultural Hybridity in <mask>. <mask>'s Raining Backwards By: Jorge Febles, IN: Ryan-Ransom, Imagination, Emblems and Expressions: Essays on Latin American, Caribbean, and Continental

masks:
Roberto G
Roberto G
Fernández


texts:
 Culture and Identity. Bowling Green, OH: Popular; 1993. pp. 99–108
Gender in Exile: Mothers and Daughters in <mask><mask>'s Raining Backwards By: Mary S. Vásquez, IN: Whitlark and Aycock, The Literature of Emigration and Exile.Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press; 1992. pp. 79–85
Family, Generation, and Gender in Two Novels of Cuban Exile: Into the Mainstream? By: Mary S. Vásquez, The Bilingual Review/La revista bilingüe, 1991 Jan–Apr; 16 (1): 23–34. The Fantastic and the Grotesque in the Fiction of <mask>: The Case of Raining Backwards By: Mary S. Vásquez, Confluencia: Revista Hispanica de Cultura y Literatura, 1990 Fall; 6 (1): 75–84. Parody, Intertextuality and Cultural Values in <mask><mask>' Raining Backwards By: Mary S. Vásquez, The Americas Review: A Review of Hispanic Literature and Art of the USA, 1990 Summer; 18 (2): 92–102. Transcending the Culture of Exile: Raining Backwards By: <mask> Ibieta, In: Bevan, Literature and Exile. Amsterdam: Rodopi; 1990. pp.67–76

External links
Arte Público bio
Henry Pérez, "Culture and Sexuality: Women in Raining Backwards"

1951 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American writers of Cuban descent
American male novelists
Florida State University faculty
Hispanic and Latino American novelists
Living people
Hispanic and Latino American short story writers
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists

masks:
Roberto G
. Fernández
Roberto Fernández
Roberto G
. Fernández
Gabriella


texts:
<mask>  (2 July 1862 – 12 March 1942) was an English physicist, chemist, mathematician, and active sportsman who uniquely shared a Nobel Prize with his son <mask> – the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics: "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays". The mineral <mask>ite is named after him and his son. He was knighted in 1920. Biography

Early years
<mask> was born at Westward, near Wigton, Cumberland, England, the son of <mask>, a merchant marine officer and farmer, and his wife Mary née Wood, a clergyman's daughter. When <mask> was seven years old, his mother died, and he was raised by his uncle, also named <mask>, at Market Harborough, Leicestershire. He was educated at the Grammar School there, at King William's College on the Isle of Man and, having won an exhibition (scholarship), at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1884 as third wrangler, and in 1885 was awarded a first class honours in the mathematical tripos.University of Adelaide
In 1885, at the age of 23, <mask> was appointed (Sir Thomas) Elder Professor of Mathematics and Experimental Physics in the University of Adelaide, Australia, and started work there early in 1886. Being a skilled mathematician, at that time he had limited knowledge of physics, most of which was in the form of applied mathematics he had learnt at Trinity. Also at that time, there were only about a hundred students doing full courses at Adelaide, of whom less than a handful belonged to the science school, whose deficient teaching facilities <mask> improved by apprenticing himself to a firm of instrument makers. <mask> was an able and popular lecturer; he encouraged the formation of the student union, and the attendance, free of charge, of science teachers at his lectures. <mask>'s interest in physics developed, particularly in the field of electromagnetism. In 1895, he was visited by Ernest Rutherford, en route from New Zealand to Cambridge; this was the commencement of a lifelong friendship. <mask> had a keen interest in the new

masks:
Sir William Henry Bragg
Lawrence Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
Robert John Bragg
Bragg
William Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg


texts: discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen.On 29 May 1896 at Adelaide, <mask> demonstrated before a meeting of local doctors the application of "X-rays to reveal structures that were otherwise invisible". Samuel Barbour, senior chemist of F. H. Faulding & Co., an Adelaide pharmaceutical manufacturer, supplied the necessary apparatus in the form of a Crookes tube, a glass discharge tube. The tube had been obtained at Leeds, England, where Barbour visited the firm of Reynolds and Branson, a manufacturer of photographic and laboratory equipment. Barbour returned to Adelaide in April 1896. Barbour had conducted his own experiments shortly after return to Australia, but results were limited due to limited battery power. At the University, the tube was attached to an induction coil and a battery borrowed from Sir Charles Todd, <mask>'s father-in-law. The induction coil was utilized to produce the electric spark necessary for <mask> and Barbour to "generate short bursts of X-rays".The audience was favorably impressed. <mask> availed himself as a test subject, in the manner of Röntgen and allowed an X-ray photograph to be taken of his hand. The image of the fingers in his hand revealed "an old injury to one of his fingers sustained when using the turnip chopping machine on his father's farm in Cumbria". As early as 1895, Professor <mask>. (later <mask>) <mask> was working on wireless telegraphy, though public lectures and demonstrations focussed on his X-ray research which would later lead to his Nobel Prize. In a hurried visit by Rutherford, he was reported as working on a Hertzian oscillator. There were many common practical threads to the two technologies and he was ably assisted in the laboratory by Arthur Lionel Rogers who manufactured much of the equipment. On 21 September 1897 <mask> gave the first recorded public demonstration of the working of wireless telegraphy in Australia during a lecture meeting at the University of Adelaide as part of the Public Teachers' Union conference.<mask> departed Adelaide in

masks:
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
William H
Sir William
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg


texts: December 1897, and spent all of 1898 on a 12-month leave of absence, touring Great Britain and Europe and during this time visited Marconi and inspected his wireless facilities. He returned to Adelaide in early March 1899, and already on 13 May 1899, <mask> and his father-in-law, Sir Charles Todd, were conducting preliminary tests of wireless telegraphy with a transmitter at the Observatory and a receiver on the South Road (about 200 metres). Experiments continued throughout the southern winter of 1899 and the range was progressively extended to Henley Beach. In September the work was extended to two way transmissions with the addition of a second induction coil loaned by Mr. Oddie of Ballarat. It was desired to extend the experiments cross a sea path and Todd was interested in connecting Cape Spencer and Althorpe Island, but local costs were considered prohibitive while the charges for patented equipment from the Marconi Company were exorbitant. At the same time <mask>'s interests were leaning towards X-rays and practical work in wireless in South Australia was largely dormant for the next decade. The turning-point in <mask>'s career came in 1904 when he gave the presidential address to section A of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science at Dunedin, New Zealand, on "Some Recent Advances in the Theory of the Ionization of Gases".This idea was followed up "in a brilliant series of researches" which, within three years, earned him a fellowship of the Royal Society of London. This paper was also the origin of his first book Studies in Radioactivity (1912). Soon after the delivery of his 1904 address, some radium bromide was made available to <mask> for experimentation. In December 1904 his paper "On the Absorption of α Rays and on the Classification of the α Rays from Radium" appeared in the Philosophical Magazine, and in the same issue a paper "On the Ionization Curves of Radium", written in collaboration with his student Richard Kleeman, also appeared. At the end of 1908, <mask>

masks: Bragg Bragg Bragg Bragg Bragg


texts:
 returned to England. During his 23 years in Australia "he had seen the number of students at the University of Adelaide almost quadruple, and had a full share in the development of its excellent science school." He had returned to England on the maiden voyage of the SS Waratah, a ship which vanished at sea on its second voyage the next year.He had been alarmed at the ship's tendency to list during his voyage, and had concluded that the ship's metacentre was just below her centre of gravity. In 1911, he testified his belief that the Waratah was unstable at the Inquiry into the ship's disappearance. University of Leeds

<mask> occupied the Cavendish chair of physics at the University of Leeds from 1909 until 1915. He continued his work on X-rays with much success. He invented the X-ray spectrometer and with his son, <mask>, then a research student at Cambridge, founded the new science of X-ray crystallography, the analysis of crystal structure using X-ray diffraction. World War I

Both of his sons were called into the army after war broke out in 1914 . The following year he was appointed Quain Professor of physics at University College London.He had to wait for almost a year to contribute to the war effort: finally, in July 1915, he was appointed to the Board of Invention and Research set up by the Admiralty. In September, his younger son Robert died of wounds at Gallipoli. In November, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with elder son <mask>. The Navy was struggling to prevent sinkings by unseen, submerged U boats. The scientists recommended that the best tactic was to listen for the submarines. The Navy had a hydrophone research establishment at Aberdour Scotland, staffed with navy men. In November 1915, two young physicists were added to its staff.Bowing to outside pressure for using science, in July 1916, the Admiralty appointed <mask> as scientific director at Aberdour, assisted by three additional young physicists. They developed an improved directional hydrophone, which convinced the Admiralty

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 of their usefulness. Late in 1916, <mask> with his small group moved to Harwich, where the staff was enlarged and they had access to a submarine for tests. In France, where scientists had been mobilized since the beginning of the war, the physicist Paul Langevin made a major stride with echolocation, generating intense sound pulses with quartz sheets oscillated at high frequency, which were then used as microphones to listen for echoes. Quartz was usable when vacuum tubes became available at the end of 1917 to amplify the faint signals. The British made sonar practicable by using mosaics of small quartz bits rather than slices from a large crystal. In January 1918, <mask> moved into the Admiralty as head of scientific research in the anti-submarine division.By war's end British vessels were being equipped with sonar manned by trained listeners. Inspired by <mask>'s methods for locating enemy guns by the sound of their firing, the output from six microphones miles apart along the coast were recorded on moving photographic film. Sound ranging is much more accurate in the sea than in the turbulent atmosphere. They were able to localize the sites of distant explosions, which were used to obtain the precise positions of British warships and of minefields. University College London
After the war he returned to University College London, where he continued to work on crystal analysis. Royal Institution
From 1923, he was Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution and director of the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory. This institution was practically rebuilt in 1929–30 and, under <mask>'s directorship many valuable papers were issued from the laboratory.In 1919, 1923, 1925 and 1931 he was invited to deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on The World of Sound; Concerning the Nature of Things, Old Trades and New Knowledge and The Universe of Life respectively. The Royal Society and the coming war
<mask> was elected President of the Royal Society in 1935. The physiologist A. V. Hill was

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William Lawrence
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 Biological Secretary and soon ACG Egerton became Physical Secretary. During World War I all three had stood by for frustrating months before their skills were employed for the war effort. Now the cause of science was strengthened by the report of a high level Army committee on lessons learned in the last war; their first recommendation was to "keep abreast of modern scientific developments". Anticipating another war, the Ministry of Labour was persuaded to accept Hill as a consultant on scientific manpower. The Royal Society compiled a register of qualified men.They proposed a small committee on science to advise the Committee on Imperial Defence, but this was rejected. Finally in 1940, as <mask>'s term ended, a Scientific Advisory Committee to the War Cabinet was appointed. <mask> died in 1942. Honours and awards
<mask> was joint winner with his son, <mask>, of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915: "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-ray". <mask> was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1907, vice-president in 1920, and served as President of the Royal Society from 1935 to 1940. He was elected as a member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium on 1 June 1946. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1917 and Knight Commander (KBE) in the 1920 civilian war honours.He was admitted to the Order of Merit in 1931. Matteucci Medal (1915)
 Rumford Medal (1916)
 Copley Medal (1930)
 Franklin Medal (1930)
 John J. Carty Award of the National Academy of Sciences (1939)

Private life
In 1889, in Adelaide, <mask> married Gwendoline Todd, a skilled water-colour painter, and daughter of astronomer, meteorologist and electrical engineer Sir Charles Todd. They had three children, a daughter, Gwendolen and two sons, <mask>, born in 1890 in North Adelaide, and Robert. Gwendolen married the English architect Alban Caroe, <mask> taught <mask> at the University of Adelaide, and Robert was killed in the Battle of Gallipoli. <mask>'s

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Lawrence Bragg
Bragg
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William Lawrence
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William
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 wife, Gwendoline, died in 1929. <mask> played tennis and golf, and as a founding member of the North Adelaide and Adelaide University Lacrosse Clubs, contributed to the introduction of lacrosse to South Australia and was also the secretary of the Adelaide University Chess Association. <mask> died in 1942 in England and was survived by his daughter Gwendolen and his son, Lawrence.Legacy
The lecture theatre of King William's College (KWC) is named in memory of <mask>; the Sixth-Form invitational literary debating society at KWC, the Bragg Society, is also named in his memory. One of the school "Houses" at Robert Smyth School, Market Harborough, Leicester, is named "<mask>" in memory of him being a student there. Since 1992, the Australian Institute of Physics has awarded The Bragg Gold Medal for Excellence in Physics for the best PhD thesis by a student at an Australian university. The two sides of the medal contain the images of Sir <mask> and his son Sir <mask>. The Experimental Technique Centre at Brunel University is named the Bragg Building. The Sir William Henry <mask> Building at the University of Leeds opened in 2021. In 1962, the Bragg Laboratories were constructed at the University of Adelaide to commemorate 100 years since the birth of Sir <mask><mask>.The Australian Bragg Centre for Proton Therapy also in Adelaide, Australia is expected to be completed in late 2013. It is named for both father and son and will offer radiation therapy for cancer patients. In August 2013, <mask>'s relative, the broadcaster Melvyn <mask>, presented a BBC Radio 4 programme "<mask> on the Braggs" on the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics winners. Publications
 <mask> <mask>, <mask> <mask>, "X Rays and Crystal Structure", G. Bell & Son, London, 1915. <mask> <mask>, The World of Sound (1920)
 <mask> <mask>, The Crystalline State – The Romanes Lecture for 1925. Oxford, 1925. <mask> <mask>, Concerning the Nature of Things (1925)
 <mask> <mask>, Old Trades and New Knowledge (1926)
 <mask> <mask>, An Introduction to Crystal

masks:
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
William Henry
Lawrence Bragg
Bragg
William H
. Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
Bragg
William Henry
Bragg
William Lawrence
Bragg
William Henry
Bragg
William Henry
Bragg
William Henry
Bragg
William Henry
Bragg
William Henry
Bragg


texts:
 Analysis (1928)
 <mask> <mask>, The Universe of Light (1933)

See also
 George Gamow – has 1931 photograph with <mask>, location unspecified.List of Nobel laureates in Physics

References

Further reading
"[a] most valuable record of his work and picture of his personality is the excellent obituary written by Professor Andrade of London University for the Royal Society of London." Statement made by Sir Kerr Grant, in:
"The Life and work of Sir <mask>", the John Murtagh Macrossan Memorial Lecture for 1950, University of Queensland. Written and presented by Sir Kerr Grant, Emeritus Professor of Physics, University of Adelaide. Reproduced as pages 5–37 of Bragg Centenary, 1886–1986, University of Adelaide. "<mask> and <mask>, Father and Son: The Most Extraordinary Collaboration in Science", John Jenkin, Oxford University Press 2008. Ross, John F. A History of Radio in South Australia 1897–1977 (J. F. Ross, 1978)

External links

 Annotated Bibliography for <mask> <mask> from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
 Data from the University of Leeds
 Fullerian Professorships
 Nobelprize.org – The Nobel Prize for Physics in 1915

1862 births
1942 deaths
20th-century British physicists
Academics of University College London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Australian people of English descent
Australian lacrosse players
British lacrosse players
Experimental physicists
Optical physicists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
Academics of the University of Leeds
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Members of the Order of Merit
Nobel laureates in Physics
People from Wigton
Presidents of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Copley Medal
University of Adelaide faculty
People educated at King William's College
Presidents of the Institute of Physics
Presidents of the Physical Society
X-ray crystallography
Crystallographers
English Nobel laureates
X-ray pioneers
Leeds Blue Plaques
Recipients of the

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William Bragg
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Lawrence Bragg
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<mask> (born July 1, 1984) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. He grew up in Iowa City, Iowa before locating to California in 2005, where he began a long-standing working relationship with producer Mikal Blue and singer Colbie Caillat. He co-wrote many songs with Caillat, most notably the songs "Bubbly", "Realize" and "I Never Told You". "Bubbly" has been <mask> most successful work to date, hitting No. 1 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary charts, No. 5 on the Hot 100 and being certified Platinum (along with "Realize") by the RIAA. He has won awards from ASCAP.<mask> works as a solo artist and also as a co-writer with other artists, including Australian artist Lenka, with whom he wrote "The Show". He self-released four albums and an EP before he signed to major label Warner Bros. Records in 2008 with the help of Kara DioGuardi and released an album and an EP with the label. He again self-released an album in 2011 with The Lovesick. His work has led to being named one of the Top Indie Singer-Songwriters by iTunes in 2007 and a No. 1 Folk Artist by Myspace. From 2018 to 2020, he was a member of the band Gone West. Early life
<mask> was born in Arlington, Texas and relocated to Iowa City, Iowa when he was around 3 years old with his father, a worker at Maytag/Whirlpool, and his mother, a food stylist/ice skating teacher.When <mask> was five years old his mother started him on piano lessons, lessons that he continued for five years before quitting. After the piano, he began to take drum lessons for a few years, before eventually settling on the guitar at 17 and teaching himself how to play. Around this time he began listening to artists such as Bob Dylan, Led Zeppelin and James Taylor, which he'd later cite as personal influences. Attending Iowa City High School, <mask> was involved with various choirs and vocal groups, even touring Europe with the Midwest Honor Choir in 2002. During this time he

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Jason Bradford Reeves
Reeves
Reeves
Jason Reeves
Reeves
Reeves


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 also performed in a band with friends and recorded his own full-length album with a local community music program. Music career

Early career in Iowa
<mask> began to get into musical recording at the end of high school, with his first CD being a self-produced album with a run of about 200 copies. After graduating high school, he went on to attend college at the nearby University of Iowa but quickly dropped out due to a lack of interest.He continued on with music, playing at local venues and bars. For the next two years he continued to play around Iowa City and self-released two albums with a local producer, Ken Heaton. These two albums, Makeshift Aircraft (2003) and Nervous Mind of Love (2004), were sold at his shows as well as on independent, online music seller cdbaby.com. Around late 2004/early 2005 he was contacted by California producer Mikal Blue who was interested in working together. Blue became aware of <mask> through his own manager, Anna Rambeau, who herself became aware of <mask> through cdbaby.com. Blue offered to have <mask> come out to his California studio, Revolver, to record some tracks together. <mask> accepted and flew out to Los Angeles, California, with the intention of recording and coming back to Iowa.Mikal Blue and Colbie Caillat

<mask> arrived in California around February 2005 and met with Blue to begin recording songs. Shortly after arriving, Blue introduced <mask> to a young female singer he was working with, Colbie Caillat. Caillat and <mask> formed a quick friendship and Caillat's family invited <mask> to stay with them during his recordings with Blue. This eventually became Reeve's home as he decided to stay in California and not return to Iowa. Caillat and <mask> began a working partnership, hanging out and co-writing many songs together and playing local venues. Caillat also introduced <mask> to the social networking site Myspace, using the site to release music they

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 wrote. After the release of the Blue-produced EP Hearts Are Magnets in 2006, Caillat and <mask> kept composing and posting songs to Myspace.They wrote Chasing The Sun for Hilary Duff. Coco and The Magnificent Adventures of Heartache
Caillat was gaining traction and attention with her music on Myspace, leading her to be declared the No. 1 unsigned artist on the site. This attention and the popularity of the Myspace-hosted song "Bubbly" lead to a record deal for Caillat with Universal Republic Records. Using the material that Caillat had worked on with <mask>, Caillat released her debut album Coco in 2007. The Mikal Blue-produced album featured 10 song co-written with <mask>. The lead single from the album, the Reeve's co-write "Bubbly", was a commercial success, reaching up to the top 5 on the Billboard charts.The song "Realize", which featured vocals by <mask>, also performed well on the charts. <mask> and Caillat would eventually win three ASCAP awards for these two songs. <mask> continued to work on his own music as well, and in 2007 self-released the album The Magnificent Adventures of Heartache (And Other Frightening Tales...), which was again produced by Mikal Blue, as well two tracks produced by Lenka producer Stuart Brawley. The album had modest success on iTunes, debuting at No. 2 on the folk charts and went to being named one of the top indie albums of the year on iTunes. He also had popularity as an artist on Myspace, being named the site's No. 1 unsigned folk artist for nine months.Kara DioGuardi and Warner Bros. Records

In 2007/2008, <mask> was playing many shows around Los Angeles and had residencies at places like the Hotel Café. Kara DioGuardi became aware of <mask> after the release of his album The Magnificent Adventures of Heartache and listened to the CD during a long car trip in Maine. As the vice president of A&R at Warner Bros. Records, she contacted <mask> and brought him to

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Reeves
Reeves
Reeves
Reeves
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Jason Reeves
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 then-president Tom Whalley who signed <mask> to the label. DioGuardi and <mask> would end up working together on music, most notably co-writing the song "Terrified" which they would perform together on YouTube and Lopez Tonight. The song was later covered by Didi Benami on the ninth season of American Idol and Katharine McPhee for her second album Unbroken and featured vocals from <mask>. Now signed to major label, <mask>' recently completed album, The Magnificent Adventures of Heartache, was re-released under the Warner Bros. Records label in 2008 with four remixed tracks. Songs from that and previous albums would also be featured on TV shows such as Army Wives and One Tree Hill around this time.<mask> also began touring nationally to support The Magnificent Adventures of Heartache with musician Tyrone Wells and others. <mask> began work on an EP and also doing co-writing sessions with Colbie Caillat for her second album, Breakthrough, as well as writing sessions with other artists. He did more frequent bouts of touring, including a May 2009 Vespa-sponsored "green tour" with Brendan James and Amber Rubarth during which they toured the California Coast on Vespa scooters while focusing on environmental friendliness. Near the end of 2009, Reeve's EP Patience for the Waiting was released by Warner Bros. Records. The Lovesick and Caged Birds Set Free

<mask> had completed material for a new album, The Lovesick, with producer Adam B Smith in Nashville, in early 2010 but the album was put on hold during the transition at Warner. Bros Records when CEO Tom Whalley stepped down in September 2010. The album featured collaborations with Kara DiaGuardi and Colbie Caillat.Warner Bros. Records eventually released a track from the album, "Helium Hearts", as a single in July 2010. With the single, a music video was also released. Months passed and <mask> was dropped from Warner Bros. Records following the aftermath of

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 Tom Whalley leaving, but was allowed to keep his master tapes. He self-released the album The Lovesick in August 2011, a whole year after the initial single was released and nearly four years since his last full-length album. On November 15, 2011, <mask> released another EP, Caged Birds Set Free, which hailed back to acoustic styles from The Magnificent Adventures of Heartache. The EP features a re-recording of "Wishing Weed" featuring Colbie Caillat and a song featuring Kara DioGuardi, "New York in Wintertime". <mask> also continues to work as a co-writer, writing songs for such artists as Lenka, Angel Taylor, Demi Lovato, The JaneDear Girls and the Japanese group Kimaguren.The song "The Show" that <mask> co-wrote with artist Lenka did well, being used in advertisements for Old Navy and Ugly Betty. "The Show" was also featured in the films Moneyball and Angus, Thongs and Perfect Snogging. Songs Are Silent Films
<mask> released his new full-length album called Songs Are Silent Films on June 12, later than expected, on all digital retailers. He again worked with Nashville Producer, Adam Smith, on many of the tracks. Through pledgemusic.com, <mask> asked fans to pledge to support the production of his new album, after being dropped by the Major Label. Pledgers get access to updates about the album as well as some of the songs to be released on the album. “There's a little bit of everything on it," <mask> said about the new record."It goes from really stripped-down acoustic to full band. There's a couple things on there that I’ve never tried before, but for the most part it's a return to the way I have been doing it all along – just the acoustic, organic feel." The first song from the album is called "Back With Me" and was released on March 27 along with a video on YouTube, which was directed by <mask>. The second promotional released song from Songs Are Silent Films is "You're My Best Friend" and was

masks: Reeves Reeves Reeves Reeves Jason Reeves Reeves


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 released on April 17. The first official single is called "More In Love With You" and features Nelly Joy, who formerly recorded under her real name Danelle Leverett as one-half of the JaneDear girls. High Dive Heart
<mask> released the single "Vintage" on April 21, 2015, from his newest project High Dive Heart, a pop duo consisting of himself and Nelly Joy, who formerly recorded under her real name Danelle Leverett in the group the JaneDear girls. On July 17, 2015, High Dive Heart released their first EP: Sonic Graffiti – EP.Personal life

<mask> is mainly interested in the arts and besides music is into writing, photography and illustration. He has done the artwork for his own albums and is passionate about taking photos. After years of living in Los Angeles, <mask> currently resides in Nashville, Tennessee. <mask> is married to fellow singer-songwriter Danelle Leverett, also known as Nelly Joy. Both were in the country band, Gone West, which disbanded in August 2020. Discography

Albums
 Makeshift Aircraft (2003)
 The Nervous Mind of Love (2004)
 Hearts Are Magnets (EP) (2006)
 The Magnificent Adventures of Heartache (And Other Frightening Tales...) (2007)- The album was re-released by Warner Bros. Records in 2008 with four remixed tracks
 Patience for the Waiting (2009)
 The Lovesick (August 2011)
 Caged Birds Set Free (EP) (November 2011)
 Songs Are Silent Films (June 12, 2012, charted at number 15 on the Billboard Americana/Folk Albums chart)
 Sketches (September 30, 2016)
Alien Artform (October 6, 2017)
Portals (September 21, 2018)
 Canyons (June 12, 2020) - with Gone West
What A Mess, The Human Mind  (August 27, 2021)

References

External links
 <mask>'s Myspace
 <mask>'s Facebook
 <mask>'s Twitter
 <mask>'s Youtube

1984 births
Living people
Writers from Iowa City, Iowa
Musicians from Iowa City, Iowa
Warner Records artists
21st-century American singers
Iowa City High School

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Jason
Jason Reeves
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<mask> (February 15, 1929 – March 27, 2014) was an American economist and public servant who was best known for serving as Secretary of Defense from 1973 to 1975 under Presidents <mask> and Gerald Ford. Prior to becoming Secretary of Defense, he served as Chair of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) from 1971 to 1973, and as CIA Director for a few months in 1973. He became America's first Secretary of Energy under Jimmy Carter in 1977, serving until 1979. While Secretary of Defense, he opposed amnesty for draft resisters and pressed for development of more sophisticated nuclear weapon systems. Additionally, his support for the A-10 and the lightweight fighter program (later the F-16) helped ensure that they were carried to completion. Early life and career
<mask> was born in New York City, the son of Jewish parents, <mask> (née <mask>) and <mask>. His mother was a Lithuanian emigrant from what was then part of the Russian Empire and his father's family was from Austria.He converted to Lutheranism in his early twenties. <mask> was educated at the Horace Mann School and Harvard University, where he earned a B.A. (1950), M.A. (1952), and Ph.D. (1956) in economics. Between 1955 and 1963 he taught economics at the University of Virginia and in 1960 published The Political Economy of National Security. In 1963, he moved to the RAND Corporation, where he worked until 1969, in the later years as director of strategic studies. Nixon Administration
In 1969, <mask> joined the Nixon administration as assistant director of the Bureau of the Budget, devoting most of his time to Defense matters.In 1971, President Nixon appointed <mask> a member of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and designated him as chairman. Serving in this position for about a year and a half, Schlesinger

masks:
James Rodney Schlesinger
Richard Nixon
James Rodney Schlesinger
Rhea Lillian
Rogen
Julius Schlesinger
Schlesinger
Schlesinger
Schlesinger


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 instituted extensive organizational and management changes in an effort to improve the AEC's regulatory performance. CIA Director
<mask> was CIA Director from February 2, 1973, to July 2, 1973,. being succeeded by William Colby. <mask> was extremely unpopular with CIA staff, as he reduced CIA staff by 7%, and was considered a Nixon loyalist seeking to make the agency more obedient to Nixon. He had a CCTV camera installed near his official portrait at the CIA headquarters in Langley, Va., as it was believed that vandalism of the portrait by disgruntled staff was likely. Secretary of Defense (1973–1975)
<mask> left the CIA to become Secretary of Defense on July 2, aged 44. As a university professor, researcher at Rand, and government official in three agencies, he had acquired an impressive resume in national security affairs.Nuclear strategy

Shortly after assuming office, <mask> outlined the basic objectives that would guide his administration: maintain a "strong defense establishment";  "assure the military balance so necessary to deterrence and a more enduring peace"; obtain for members of the military "the respect, dignity and support that are their due"; assume "an . . . obligation to use our citizens' resources wisely"; and "become increasingly competitive with potential adversaries.... [W]e must not be forced out of the market on land, at sea, or in the air. Eli Whitney belongs to us, not to our competitors." In particular, Schlesinger saw a need in the post-Vietnam era to restore the morale and prestige of the military services; modernize strategic doctrine and programs; step up research and development; and shore up a DoD budget that had been declining since 1968. Analyzing strategy, Schlesinger maintained that the theory and practice of the 1950s and 1960s

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texts: had been overtaken by events, particularly the rise of the Soviet Union to virtual nuclear parity with the United States and the effect this development had on the concept of deterrence. Schlesinger believed that "deterrence is not a substitute for defense; defense capabilities, representing the potential for effective counteraction, are the essential condition of deterrence." He had grave doubts about the assured destruction strategy, which relied on massive nuclear attacks against an enemy's urban-industrial areas.Credible strategic nuclear deterrence, the secretary felt, depended on fulfilling several conditions: maintaining essential equivalence with the Soviet Union in force effectiveness; maintaining a highly survivable force that could be withheld or targeted against an enemy's economic base in order to deter coercive or desperation attacks against U.S. population or economic targets; establishing a fast-response force that could act to deter additional enemy attacks; and establishing a range of capabilities sufficient to convince all nations that the United States was equal to its strongest competitors. To meet these needs, Schlesinger built on existing ideas in developing a flexible response nuclear strategy, which, with the President's approval, he made public by early 1974. The United States, Schlesinger said, needed the ability, in the event of a nuclear attack, to respond so as to "limit the chances of uncontrolled escalation" and "hit meaningful targets" without causing widespread collateral damage. The nation's assured destruction force would be withheld in the hope that the enemy would not attack U.S. cities. In rejecting assured destruction, Schlesinger quoted President Nixon: "Should a President, in the event of a nuclear attack, be left with the


texts:
 single option of ordering the mass destruction of enemy civilians, in the face of the certainty that it would be followed by the mass slaughter of Americans?" With this approach, <mask> moved to a partial counterforce policy, emphasizing Soviet military targets such as ICBM missile installations, avoiding initial attacks on population centers, and minimizing unintended collateral damage. He explicitly disavowed any intention to acquire a destabilizing first-strike capability against the USSR.But he wanted "an offensive capability of such size and composition that all will perceive it as in overall balance with the strategic forces of any potential opponent." Schlesinger devoted much attention to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, citing the need to strengthen its conventional capabilities. He rejected the old assumption that NATO did not need a direct counter to Warsaw Pact conventional forces because it could rely on tactical and strategic nuclear weapons, noting that the approximate nuclear parity between the United States and the Soviets in the 1970s made this stand inappropriate. He rejected the argument that NATO could not afford a conventional counterweight to Warsaw Pact forces. In his discussions with NATO leaders, Schlesinger promoted the concept of burden-sharing, stressing the troubles that the United States faced in the mid-1970s because of an unfavorable balance of international payments. He urged qualitative improvements in NATO forces, including equipment standardization, and an increase in defense spending by NATO governments of up to five percent of their gross national product. Yom Kippur War and Cyprus crisis

Schlesinger had an abiding interest in strategic theory, but he also had to deal with a succession of immediate crises that tested his


texts: administrative and political skills.In October 1973, three months after he took office, Arab countries launched a surprise attack on Israel and started the Yom Kippur War. A few days after the war started, with Israel not faring as well as expected militarily, the Soviets resupplying some Arab countries and the Israeli government having authorized the use and assembly of nuclear weapons, the United States began an overt operation to airlift materiel to Israel. As <mask> explained, the initial U.S. policy to avoid direct involvement rested on the assumption that Israel would win quickly. But when it became clear that the Israelis faced more formidable military forces than anticipated, and could not meet their own resupply arrangements, the United States took up the burden. According to Henry Kissinger, with the president's authority, the directive was made to resupply Israel with the needed equipment and eliminate State Department delay. "It was alleged that the airlift was deliberately delayed as a maneuver to pressure Israel." <mask> rejected charges that the Defense Department delayed the resupply effort to avoid irritating the Arab states and that he had had a serious disagreement over this matter with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger.Eventually the combatants agreed to a cease-fire, but not before the Soviet Union threatened to intervene on the Arab side and the United States declared a higher level worldwide alert of its forces. Another crisis flared in July 1974 within the NATO alliance when Turkish forces, concerned about the long-term lack of safety for the minority Turkish community, invaded Cyprus after the Cypriot National Guard, supported by the government of Greece, overthrew President Archbishop Makarios. When the fighting stopped, the Turks held the

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 northern portion of country and about 40 percent of the island. Turkey's military action caused controversy in the United States, because of protests and lobbying by supporters of the Greek Cypriot side and, officially, because Turkish forces used some U.S.-supplied military equipment intended solely for NATO purposes. He felt the Turks had overstepped the bounds of legitimate NATO interests in Cyprus and suggested that the United States might have to reexamine its military aid program to Turkey. During this time, President Gerald R. Ford had succeeded Nixon after his resignation; eventually Ford and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger made it clear with two presidential vetoes that they favored continued military assistance to Turkey as a valued NATO ally, but Congress overrode both vetoes and in December 1974 prohibited such aid, which instituted an arms embargo that lasted five years. Indochina

The last phase of the Vietnam War occurred during <mask>'s tenure.Although all U.S. combat forces had left South Vietnam in the spring of 1973, the United States continued to maintain a military presence in other areas of Southeast Asia. Some senators criticized Schlesinger and questioned him sharply during his confirmation hearings in June 1973 after he stated that he would recommend resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam and Laos if North Vietnam launched a major offensive against South Vietnam. However, when the North Vietnamese began their 1975 Spring Offensive, the United States could do little to help the South Vietnamese, who collapsed completely as the North Vietnamese captured Saigon in late April. Schlesinger announced early in the morning of 29 April 1975 the evacuation from Saigon by helicopter of the last U.S. diplomatic, military and civilian personnel.


texts:
 Only one other notable event remained in the Indochina drama. In May 1975 Khmer Rouge forces boarded and captured the crew of the Mayaguez, an unarmed U.S.-registered freighter. The United States bombarded military and fuel installations on the Cambodian mainland while Marines landed by helicopter on an offshore island to rescue the crew.The 39 captives were retrieved, but the operation cost the lives of 41 U.S. military personnel. Nevertheless, the majority of the American people seemed to approve of the administration's decisive action. Defense budget

Unsurprisingly, given his determination to build up U.S. strategic and conventional forces, Schlesinger devoted much time and effort to the Defense budget. Even before becoming secretary, in a speech in San Francisco in September 1972, he warned that it was time "to call a halt to the self-defeating game of cutting defense outlays, this process, that seems to have become addictive, of chopping away year after year." Shortly after he took office, he complained about "the post-war follies" of Defense budget-cutting. Later he outlined the facts about the DoD budget: In real terms it had been reduced by one-third since FY 1968; it was one-eighth below the pre-Vietnam War FY 1964 budget; purchases of equipment, consumables, and R&D were down 45 percent from the wartime peak and about $10 billion in constant dollars below the prewar level; Defense now absorbed about 6 percent of the gross national product, the lowest percentage since before the Korean War; military manpower was at the lowest point since before the Korean War; and Defense spending amounted to about 17 percent of total national expenditures, the lowest since before the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941. Armed with these statistics, and alarmed by continuing Soviet


texts:
 weapon advances, <mask> became a vigorous advocate of larger DoD budgets.But he had little success. For FY 1975, Congress provided TOA of $86.1 billion, compared with $81.6 billion in FY 1974; for FY 1976, the amount was $95.6 billion, an increase of 3.4 percent, but in real terms slightly less than it had been in FY 1955. Dismissal as Secretary of Defense

<mask>'s insistence on higher defense budgets, his disagreements within the administration and with Congress on this issue, and his differences with Secretary of State Kissinger all contributed to his dismissal from office by President Ford in November 1975. <mask>'s legacy included the development of the close-air support aircraft the A-10 and the lightweight F-16 fighter. Kissinger strongly supported the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks process, while Schlesinger wanted assurances that arms control agreements would not put the United States in a strategic position inferior to the Soviet Union. The secretary's harsh criticism of some congressional leaders dismayed President Ford, who was more willing than Schlesinger to compromise on the Defense budget. On 2 November 1975, the president dismissed <mask> and made other important personnel changes.Kissinger lost his position as special assistant to the President for national security affairs but remained as secretary of state. <mask> left office on 19 November 1975, explaining his departure in terms of his budgetary differences with the White House. The unreported, but important, main reason behind <mask>'s dismissal, though, was his insubordination toward President Ford. During the Mayaguez incident, Ford ordered several retaliatory strikes against Cambodia. <mask> told Ford the first strike was carried out, but Ford later learned that <mask>, who disagreed with the

masks: Schlesinger Schlesinger Schlesinger Schlesinger Schlesinger Schlesinger Schlesinger Schlesinger


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 order, had none of them carried out. According to Bob Woodward's 1999 book, Shadow, Ford let the incident go, but when Schlesinger committed further insubordination on other matters, Ford finally fired him. Woodward observes, "The United States had just lost a war for the first time. . . . That the president and the secretary of defense could not agree on who was in charge was appalling.. . . [This] unpublicized breakdown in the military chain of command was ... perhaps the most significant scandal of the Ford presidency."<mask> had also disobeyed Ford when told to send as many military aircraft as possible to evacuate South Vietnam. <mask> disagreed with doing so and didn't send the aircraft. Woodward says that an elected president, which Ford was not, would never have tolerated the insubordination. In spite of the controversy surrounding both his tenure and dismissal, <mask> was by most accounts an able secretary of defense. A serious and perceptive thinker on nuclear strategy, he was determined that the United States not fall seriously behind the Soviet Union in conventional and nuclear forces and devoted himself to modernization of defense policies and programs. He got along well with the military leadership because he proposed to give them more resources, consulted with them regularly, and shared many of their views. Because he was a forthright speaker who could be blunt in his opinions and did not enjoy the personal rapport with legislators that prior Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird had, his relations with Congress were often strained.A majority of its members may have approved <mask>'s strategic plans, but they kept a tight rein on the money for his programs. Secretary of Energy (1977-1979)

After leaving the Pentagon, Schlesinger wrote and spoke forcefully


texts:
 about national security issues, especially the Soviet threat and the need for the United States to maintain adequate defenses. When Jimmy Carter became president in January 1977 he appointed <mask>, a Republican, as his special adviser on energy and subsequently as the first Secretary of Energy in October 1977. According to one account, "Schlesinger impressed candidate Jimmy Carter with his brains, his high-level experience... and with secrets regarding the defense spending vacillations of his old boss, Ford, just in time for the presidential debates." As Energy Secretary, <mask> launched the Department's Carbon Dioxide Effects and Assessment Program shortly after the creation of that department in 1977. Secretary <mask> also oversaw the integration of the energy powers of more than 50 agencies, such as the Federal Energy Administration and the Federal Power Commission. In July 1979, Carter replaced him as part of a broader Cabinet shakeup.According to journalist Paul Glastris, "Carter fired Schlesinger in 1979 in part for the same reason Gerald Ford had—he was unbearably arrogant and impatient with lesser minds who disagreed with him, and hence inept at dealing with Congress." Post-government activities

After leaving the Energy Department, Schlesinger resumed his writing and speaking career, including the 1994 lecture at the Waldo Family Lecture on International Relations at Old Dominion University. He was employed as a senior adviser to Lehman Brothers, Kuhn, Loeb Inc., of New York City. He advised Congressman and presidential candidate <mask> in 1988. In 1995, he was the Chairman of the National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA). They wrote a report in conjunction with the National Research Council called "The Global Positioning System: Charting the Future"

masks:
Schlesinger
Schlesinger
Schlesinger
Richard Gephardt


texts: The report advocated for the opening GPS up to the private sector. On February 8, 2002, he appeared at a hearing before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee in support of the creation of a commission to investigate the 9/11 attacks.On June 11, 2002, he was appointed by U.S. President George W. Bush to the Homeland Security Advisory Council. He also served as a consultant to the United States Department of Defense, and was a member of the Defense Policy Board. In 2004, he served as chairman to the Independent Panel to Review DoD Detention Operations. On January 5, 2006, he participated in a meeting at the White House of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials. On January 31, 2006, he was appointed by the Secretary of State to be a member of the Arms Control and Nonproliferation Advisory Board. On May 2, 2006, he was named to be a co-chairman of a Defense Science Board study on DOD Energy Strategy. He was an honorary chairman of The OSS Society.He was also a Bilderberg Group attendee in 2008. In 2007, NASA Administrator Michael Griffin appointed Schlesinger to be the Chairman of the National Space-based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) Advisory Board. The "PNT Board" is composed of recognized Global Positioning System (GPS) experts from outside the U.S. government that advise the Deputy Secretary level PNT Executive Committee in their oversight management of the GPS constellation and its governmental augmentations. On June 5, 2008, Defense Secretary <mask> appointed Schlesinger to head a task force to ensure the "highest levels" of control over nuclear weapons. The purpose of the review was to prevent a repeat of recent incidents where control was lost over components of nuclear


texts:
 weapons, and even over nuclear weapons themselves. Schlesinger was chairman of the Board of Trustees of The MITRE Corporation, having served on it from 1985 until his death in 2014; on the advisory board of The National Interest; a Director of BNFL, Inc., Peabody Energy, Sandia Corporation, Seven Seas Petroleum Company, Chairman of the executive committee of The Nixon Center. He was also on the advisory board of GeoSynFuels, LLC.Schlesinger penned a number of opinion pieces on global warming, expressing a strongly skeptical position. Peak oil
Schlesinger raised awareness of the peak oil issue and supports facing it. In the keynote speech at a 2007 conference hosted by the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas in Cork, Schlesinger said that oil industry executives now privately concede that the world faces an imminent oil production peak. In his 2010 ASPO-USA keynote speech, Schlesinger observed that the Peak Oil debate was over. He warned of political inaction as a major hindrance, like those in Pompeii before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. On June 5, 2008, U.S. Secretary of Defense <mask> announced that he had asked Schlesinger to lead a senior-level task force to recommend improvements in the stewardship and operation of nuclear weapons, delivery vehicles and sensitive components by the US DoD following the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident. Members of the task force came from the Defense Policy Board and the Defense Science Board.Personal life
In 1954, Schlesinger married <mask> Mellinger (February 27, 1930 – October 11, 1995); they had eight children: Cora (1955), Charles (1956), Ann (1958), William (1959), Emily (1961), Thomas (1964), Clara (1966) and <mask> (1970). Though raised in a Jewish household, Schlesinger converted to

masks:
Robert Gates
Rachel Line
James


texts:
 Lutheranism as an adult. <mask> was an accomplished violinist and board member of the Arlington Symphony. In the early 1990s, she was a leader in the fundraising effort to create a premier performing arts center on the Virginia side of the Potomac River. She died from cancer before seeing the center's completion. After her death, Dr. Schlesinger donated $1 million to have the center named in his wife's memory. The <mask>nger Concert Hall and Arts Center at Northern Virginia Community College, Alexandria Campus opened in September, 2001.It is an up-to-date building that features the Mary Baker Collier Theatre, the Margaret W. and Joseph L. Fisher Art Gallery, the Wachovia Forum and Seminar Room spaces. Clients of the Schlesinger Center include the Alexandria Symphony, the United States Marine Band, "The President's Own", and the U.S. Marine Chamber Orchestra, the United States Army Band, "Pershing's Own", and the U.S. Army Strings, the United States Navy Band, the New Dominion Chorale, the American Balalaika Symphony, Festivals of Music, various ethnic groups and many others. Schlesinger worked consistently with distinction long after his government and academic experiences, serving on numerous governmental advisory boards until only weeks before his death at the age of 85. He was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Springfield, Ohio. Selected publications
 <mask>, <mask>. America at Century's End. New York: Columbia University Press, 1989. <mask>, <mask>. American Security and Energy Policy.Manhattan, Kan: Kansas State University, 1980. <mask>, <mask>. Defense Planning and Budgeting: The Issue of Centralized Control. Washington: Industrial College of the Armed Forces, 1968. <mask>, <mask>. The Political Economy of National Security; A Study of the Economic Aspects of the

masks:
Rachel Schlesinger
Rachelhlesi
Schlesinger
James R
Schlesinger
James R
Schlesinger
James R
Schlesinger
James R


texts:
 Contemporary Power Struggle. New York: Praeger, 1960. References

External links

Annotated Bibliography for <mask><mask> from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Chris Mooney, American Prospect, August 2005, "Stop Him Before He Writes Again: Will someone please make <mask> disclose his energy-industry ties next time he writes an anti-global warming op-ed?" "We are all peakists now", a 17 September 2007 interview
MITRE Biography
MITRE mourns the death of its chairman

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1929 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American politicians
Economists from New York (state)
American Lutherans
American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Jewish American members of the Cabinet of the United States
Carter administration cabinet members
Chairmen of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
Converts to Lutheranism from Judaism
Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
English-only movement
Ford administration cabinet members
Harvard University alumni
Horace Mann School alumni
Mitre Corporation people
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Nixon administration cabinet members
Nixon administration personnel involved in the Watergate scandal
Scientists from New York City
United States Secretaries of Defense
United States Secretaries of Energy
University of Virginia faculty
Foreign Policy Research Institute
Writers from New York

masks:
James R
. Schlesinger
James Schlesinger


texts:
<mask> (6 June 1780 – 8 May 1844) was a minister of the Quaker meeting at Hardshaw East, Manchester. He wrote A Beacon to the Society of Friends, a work published in 1835 which had a schismatic effect on English Quakerism. Early life
<mask> was born into a Quaker family in Kendal in the English Lake District. He entered the cotton trade and became a successful mill owner in Manchester. He was appointed as a Quaker minister in 1816. The Beaconite Controversy
In 1831, controversy arose amongst Manchester Quakers over the spiritual emphasis of Quakerism, and these differences culminated in 1835 when <mask>'s A Beacon to the Society of Friends was published. His book highlighted the distinction many Manchester Quakers drew between the guidance of Scripture and the central feature of Quakerism, the Inner Light, the direct and personal experience of God.<mask> and his followers believed that too much emphasis was placed by Quakers on the Inner Light, at the expense of Biblical authority. In his book <mask> criticized the American Quaker, Elias Hicks (1748–1830), who considered "obedience to the light within" to be the most important principle of worship and who regarded the Bible as a "dead letter" unless read "under the regulating influence of the spirit of God". Hicks had been responsible for the first schism in Quakerism in 1827. Initially, Hardshaw East Monthly Meeting was thrown into disorder by the controversy. The matter was discussed at the 1835 London Yearly Meeting and a Visiting Committee was appointed to investigate and seek the reconciliation of members there. The

masks:
Isaac Crewdson
Isaac Crewdson
Crewdson
Crewdson
Crewdson


texts: committee, which included <mask>'s close friend, Joseph John Gurney, the leading English Quaker evangelical of his time, was inclined to be sympathetic to <mask>. Even so, the correspondence that took place between <mask> and the Committee in 1835 was published by them without his knowledge and consent in A Few Particulars of the Correspondence Between the Committee Appointed by the Friends' Yearly Meeting, and <mask>.Eventually, the Committee brought matters to a head by asking <mask> to withdraw his book from circulation, but he refused to do so. He was then suspended from his ministry to prevent further internal strife. In 1836 the situation was again discussed at the London Yearly Meeting. There Gurney spoke, upholding the supremacy of Scripture, but he also stressed the "true soundness of Friends' views in regard to silent meetings". He also declared that if Friends were to "give way in our meetings for worship to any ministry except that which flows immediately from the Lord's anointing we should suffer loss." Gurney also indicated that "to place the impressions received from our own minds" was a prelude to a Quaker form of Deism. Gurney declared himself to be a "middle man" between the two opposing views and the London Yearly Meeting did not resolve the issue.The discord was effectively determined when <mask> tendered his resignation from the Hardshaw East Monthly Meeting, this being accepted on 15 December 1836, along with those of 38 of his supporters. However, the great majority of the Manchester membership chose to remain. In 1836 and the following year, some 50

masks:
Crewdson
Crewdson
Crewdson
Isaac Crewdson
Crewdson
Crewdson


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 Quakers left Manchester Meeting and another 300 left other meetings throughout the country, including those in Bristol, Birmingham, Tottenham and Plymouth. After Manchester, the largest group leaving were from Kendal. <mask>'s daughter Margaret (1808-1864) had married a fellow-Quaker, Henry Waterhouse, in 1832, and they, like her father, resigned from Hardshaw East Monthly Meeting in 1836. The Beaconite split also divided some Quaker families on partisan lines, as with the Braithwaites and the Lloyd banking family, and ended commercial relations, as with the Benson and Cropper partnership. The Evangelical Friends
Together with his brother-in-law, the former Hardshaw East Quaker elder William Boulton, <mask> founded the short-lived "Evangelical Friends", who were termed "Beaconites" by Quakers.They first met for Sunday worship on 18 September 1836 at an infant school in Manchester, before opening their 600-seat chapel at Chorlton-on-Medlock on Sunday 17 December 1837. They incorporated into their worship baptism and taking the Lord's Supper, which had been rejected by Quakers as rituals that obstructed the relationship between the worshipper and God. The Evangelical Friends held a Yearly Meeting in the style of a Quaker Yearly Meeting in London in 1837 and for a short while published a monthly journal, The Inquirer. An active abolitionist, <mask> attended the June 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. <mask> died at Bowness on 8 May 1844 and was buried at Rusholme Road Cemetery, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester. The Evangelical Friends did not flourish and gradually

masks:
Crewdson
Crewdson
Crewdson
Legacy Crewdson


texts:
 dispersed in the decade after <mask>'s death. Many joined the Plymouth Brethren and brought Quaker simplicity of worship to that movement.Notable Quakers who moved to the Brethren included John Eliot Howard and Robert Mackenzie Beverley. The Beaconite chapel, which was sparsely attended, languished and was sold to the Baptists in 1844, the year of <mask>'s death. In 1870, the last surviving member of the 1835 Visiting Committee, Doctor Edward Ash, wrote that the committee had been mistaken in suspending <mask>'s membership. It has been suggested that A Beacon to the Society of Friends was twenty years ahead of its time and that by the 20th century some Quaker evangelicals had reached a position close to that of <mask> in the 1830s. Publications

Hints on a Musical Festival at Manchester, (1827)
Trade to the East Indies(c.1827), referring to the Slave Trade. Andrew Fuller's Religious Declension, abridgment (1829)
Baxter's Saint's Rest, abridgment (1829)
The Doctrine of the New Testament on Prayer  (1831)
A Beacon to the Society of Friends (1835)
A Defence of the Beacon (1836)
The Beacon Controversy Between the Society of Friends and <mask>dson (1836)
Water Baptism an Ordinance of Christ (1837)
Water Baptism and the Lord's Supper: Scriptural arguments in behalf of the perpetual obligation of these ordinances (1837)
The Trumpet Blown, or an Appeal to the Society of Friends (1838)
Observations on the New Birth (1844)

References

1780 births
1844 deaths
19th-century Quakers
Quaker abolitionists
English abolitionists
English Quakers
People from Kendal
Quaker theologians
Quaker

masks:
Crewdson
Crewdson
Crewdson
Crewdson
Isaac Crew


texts:
<mask> (; 23 May 179410 March 1870) was a Bohemian piano virtuoso and composer. He was based initially in London and later at Leipzig, where he joined his friend and sometime pupil Felix Mendelssohn as professor of piano at the Conservatory. Life

Early life and career
<mask> was born 1794 in Prague, Bohemia, the son of Klara Popper (Lieben) and <mask>. He was from an affluent German-speaking Jewish merchant family. His first name was originally Isaac. His father played the guitar and was keen for one of his children to become a musician. Initially his hopes fixed on <mask>'s sister, but when she demurred, her piano lessons were transferred to her brother.<mask> developed an early passion for the (then revolutionary) piano music of Beethoven, which the Mozartean Bedřich Diviš Weber, his teacher at the Prague Conservatory, attempted to curb, urging him to focus on Bach, Mozart and Muzio Clementi. After his father's early death, <mask> settled in Vienna in 1808. His abilities were such that he was able to study in the city under Albrechtsberger for counterpoint and theory and Salieri for composition. At this time he changed his first name from "Isaac" to "<mask>". He was one of the leading virtuosi resident in Vienna during the 1814–1815 Congress of Vienna and it was at this time that he wrote his enormously popular virtuosic Alexander Variations, Op. 32 for piano and orchestra, which he later played throughout Europe. Here, too, he became a close friend of Meyerbeer (at that time still a piano virtuoso, not yet a composer) and their extemporized piano-duets were highly acclaimed.<mask> was also familiar

masks:
Isaac Ignaz Moscheles
Moscheles
Joachim Moises Moscheles
Ignaz
Ignaz
Moscheles
Ignaz
Moscheles


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 with Hummel and Kalkbrenner. Among the virtuosi of the 1820s, Hummel, Kalkbrenner, Cramer, Herz and Weber were his most famous rivals. While in Vienna, <mask> was able to meet his idol Beethoven, who was so impressed with the young man's abilities that he entrusted him with the preparation of the piano score of his opera Fidelio, commissioned by his publisher Artaria. At the end of his manuscript, before presenting it to Beethoven, <mask> wrote the words Fine mit gottes Hülfe ("Finished with God's help"). Beethoven approved <mask>'s version, but appended the words O Mensch, hilf dir selber ("O Man, help thyself!"). <mask>'s good relations with Beethoven were to prove important to both at the end of Beethoven's life. Faith and family

<mask> was still a practising Jew in Vienna in 1814–15.His wife noted that he was a member of the congregation in Vienna, and that he wrote for the Vienna Jewish community an oratorio celebrating the peace. Throughout his life, like many other musicians of Jewish origin, he remained close to other musicians of similar descent such as Felix Mendelssohn, Anton Rubinstein, Joseph Joachim and Ferdinand Hiller. He also remained in contact with patrons of Jewish origin such as the Eskeles family in Vienna, the Leo family in Paris, and the Rothschilds in England. He married Charlotte Emden, daughter of a Hamburg Jewish banker and a cousin of Heinrich Heine, in a Hamburg synagogue in 1825. Nonetheless, after he settled in England, <mask> became a member of the Church of England. His children, two sons and three daughters, were all baptised at birth and he and his wife were

masks: Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles


texts:
 baptised in 1832. They were parents to the painters Felix (1833–1917), their second son, and Serena Anna <mask> (1830–1902), their second daughter and wife of Georg Rosen.Rosen was an orientalist like his brother of Friedrich August Rosen, another friend of Mendelssohn, like <mask>. His granddaughter Jelka Rosen, also a painter, married the composer Frederick Delius. Another granddaughter, Marie-Thérèse, married Henry Fielding Dickens, the son of author Charles Dickens. Moscheles travelled extensively in Europe as a pianist and conductor, eventually settling in London (1825–1846) where he became co-director of the Royal Philharmonic Society in 1832. He never disavowed his Jewish origins and frequently took his family to visit his relatives in Prague, all of whom had retained their Jewish allegiances. Through his Dickens descendants, he is a great-grandfather of Admiral Gerald Charles Dickens and a great-great-great-great-grandfather of actor Harry Lloyd. Mendelssohn and the London period
After his Viennese period there followed for Moscheles a sensational series of European concert tours – it was after hearing Moscheles play at Carlsbad that the boy Robert Schumann was fired to become a piano virtuoso himself.But <mask> found an especially warm welcome in London, where in 1822 he was awarded an honorary membership of the London Academy of Music (later to become the Royal Academy of Music). At the end of the year he wrote in his diary, "I feel more and more at home in England", and he had no hesitation in settling there after his marriage. <mask> visited most of the great capitals of Europe, making his

masks: Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles


texts: first appearance in London in 1822, and there securing the friendship of Muzio Clementi and Johann Baptist Cramer. <mask> was also a student of Muzio Clementi. In March 1823, <mask> paid a long visit to Bath in Somerset and started work on his Piano Concerto No. 4 (Op. 64).On an excursion to Bristol, Coleridge says that, "Moscheles delights in the view of the Bristol Channel and adds, "What can be finer than the first view of the Welsh mountains from Clifton? an enchanting panorama? The very place to write an adagio; the blue mountains form such a grand background to this bright channel." The piano concerto had its first performance, in London, shortly afterwards, on 16 June. Before that, however, in 1824, he had accepted an invitation to visit Abraham Mendelssohn Bartholdy in Berlin to give some lessons to his children Felix and Fanny. His comments on meeting them were: "This is a family the like of which I have never known. Felix, a boy of fifteen is a phenomenon.What are all prodigies compared with him? ... He is already a mature artist. His elder sister Fanny is also extraordinarily gifted." Shortly afterwards he wrote: "This afternoon ... I gave Felix Mendelssohn his first lesson, without losing sight for a moment of the fact that I was sitting next to a master, not a pupil." Thus began a relationship of extraordinary intensity which lasted throughout and beyond Mendelssohn's life (he died in 1847).Moscheles was instrumental in bringing Felix to London for the first time in 1829 – Abraham entrusted Felix to his care for this visit. Moscheles had carefully prepared for it. In London, apart from

masks: Moscheles Moscheles


texts: becoming a regular and successful performer, as well as a musical adviser for the soirées of the Rothschilds, he had become an invaluable aid for Sir George Smart and the Philharmonic Society, advising them of the talents of European musicians he encountered on his own concert-tours. When Smart himself toured Europe in 1825 looking for new music and musicians for the Society, Moscheles furnished Smart with a list of contacts and letters of introduction, including both Beethoven and Mendelssohn. In Prague, <mask>'s brother acted as Smart's guide. Smart visited the Mendelssohns in Berlin and was impressed with both Felix and Fanny. This eventually led to Mendelssohn's invitation to conduct at the Society on his 1829 visit.In 1827, <mask> acted as intermediary between the Philharmonic Society and the dying Beethoven. He helped persuade the Society to send Beethoven desperately needed funds during the composer's illness. In return, Beethoven offered to write for the Society his (uncompleted) Tenth Symphony. Mendelssohn's great success in England from 1829 until the end of his life also reflected well on his friend. Although <mask>'s music was now being looked on as a little old-fashioned, he was heavily in demand as a music teacher and included amongst his pupils many children of the rich and aristocratic classes. He was also appointed "Pianist to Prince Albert", a sinecure, which nevertheless confirmed his status. Child prodigy pianist Elizabeth Jonas, a student of Moscheles, played several command performances at Windsor Castle.<mask> never ceased to promote the music of Beethoven and gave many recitals


texts:
 of his music: in 1832 he conducted the London premiere of Beethoven's Missa Solemnis, and he translated A.F. Schindler's biography of Beethoven into English. He was an early exponent of the piano recital – the concert of music for piano alone, the innovation of which is disputed between Liszt and <mask>. <mask> notably reintroduced the harpsichord as a solo recital instrument. He also often performed in concert with Mendelssohn in London (and elsewhere) – one great favourite of both musicians were Bach's concerti for multiple keyboard instruments. On these occasions Mendelssohn and <mask> were renowned for vying with each other in impromptu cadenzas. Performances of the three-harpsichord concerto were given, on one occasion with Thalberg at the third keyboard, on another with Clara Schumann.<mask> often appeared as a conductor, especially of Beethoven. The Leipzig years

Although throughout this period <mask> continued to write music and travel on concert tours, he depended heavily on teaching for income, and this placed him under considerable stress. When therefore Mendelssohn established a Conservatory at Leipzig in 1843 he was keen to attract his friend <mask> there as a colleague, promising him ample time in his schedules for concertising and music-making. After several years, <mask> gladly accepted the position in 1846. He became a longstanding and prominent member of the Conservatory faculty, teaching piano there for several decades. The Conservatory became in effect a shrine to Mendelssohn's musical legacy. The critic and pianist Edward Dannreuther, who studied under <mask> at Leipzig between

masks: Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles


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 1859 and 1863, later wrote:

[...] it was whispered that the two old Grands in the pianoforte-room of the Conservatorium were wont to rehearse Mendelssohn's D minor Concerto all alone by themselves, from 12.30 on Sunday night until cock-crow!Force of habit, probably. It thus fell to <mask> to lead the counter-attack on Wagner after the latter's snide attack on Mendelssohn (and Meyerbeer) in his notorious article Das Judenthum in der Musik ("Jewry in Music"), which he did by requesting the resignation from the Conservatory's board of Wagner's editor, Brendel. Like Mendelssohn, <mask> believed that music had reached its Golden Age during the period Bach to Beethoven, and was suspicious of (although not necessarily antagonistic towards) new directions such as those shown by Wagner, Liszt and Berlioz. Nevertheless, his personal relations with all of these (except perhaps Wagner) remained cordial. The Mendelssohn legacy in Britain meant that the Leipzig Conservatory had a high reputation amongst English musicians and amongst those who studied there during <mask>'s time were Arthur Sullivan and Charles Villiers Stanford. <mask> died in Leipzig on 10 March 1870, nine days after attending his last rehearsal with the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra. Music

Among his 142 opus numbers, <mask> wrote a number of symphonic works.Apart from an overture, a ballet and a symphony, all are scored for piano and orchestra: eight piano concertos (of which the last is in fragmentary form only, no orchestral parts having survived) and sets of variations and fantasias on folk songs. The main theme of the finale of his fourth

masks: Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles Moscheles


texts:
 piano concerto is based on the tune "The British Grenadiers". <mask> also left several chamber works (including a piano trio that has been recorded), and a large number of works for piano solo, including sonatas and the études that continued to be studied by advanced students even as <mask>'s music fell into eclipse. There are also some song settings. More recently, with the modest but noticeable revival of interest in compositions by this composer and those of his colleagues, more of <mask>'s works are being made accessible on compact disc, especially by small and independent record labels. All the completed piano concerti and fantasias for piano and orchestra are available on the Hyperion Records label, played by Howard Shelley, who also conducted the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra; they have also issued the complete piano studies, played by Piers Lane. Ian Hobson has also recorded the first six and included a pair of variations not recorded by Shelley.Sources
Much of what is known about <mask>'s life is derived from the biography, with selections from his diaries and correspondence, written after his death by his wife, Charlotte, and published in Germany in 1872; an English edition appeared the following year. The book also gives lively portraits of his era and of his musical contemporaries. The diaries themselves are lost. Another important source is the correspondence between <mask> and Mendelssohn, preserved at the Brotherton Collection at the University of Leeds, and published in 1888 by <mask>'s son (and Felix Mendelssohn's god-son), <mask>. Anon. (1898). "Edward Dannreuther" in Musical Times

masks:
Moscheles
Moscheles
Moscheles
Moscheles
Moscheles
Ignaz
Felix Moscheles