texts:
<mask> (March 24, 1945 – May 17, 1974) was an American artist, college trained social worker, and a member of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA). She is best known for her membership in the SLA, the group that kidnapped heiress Patty Hearst. Early life

On March 24, 1945, <mask> was born in Saint Peter, Minnesota. Her parents, <mask> (1908-2000) and <mask> (1911-1995), worked at Gustavus Adolphus College in Saint Peter, Minnesota from 1938 to 1952. In addition, her father was a minister in the Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church and later the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Her mother, Lorena (Daeschner<mask>, helped found Gustavus Adolphus College's Art Department and served as the department head. <mask> was the only surviving child of four; two of her siblings died of a kidney disorder, Peter and Nan, and a third, Terry, of congenital heart disease.In 1952, the <mask> family moved to what is now Tanzania in East Africa. George and Lorena <mask> taught in schools and did mission work, while <mask> and Nan played with the native children. In 1954, when <mask> was nine, the family moved back to Saint Peter because of seven-year-old Nan's poor health. While <mask> <mask> attended elementary school in Minnesota, the family moved to Montclair, New Jersey until <mask> was to start high school. After moving back to Minnesota, <mask> went to Washburn High School in Minneapolis where she was involved in many activities. The 1963 Washburn Yearbook states "Candy was a member of Blue Tri, Class Play, Poplars Staff, Quill Club, Forensics, Pep Club, and Hall of Fame". Blue Tri club was an organization that encouraged Christian ideals and put together service projects.In addition, <mask> <mask> was voted class clown in high school. In 1963, she graduated from Washburn High School. College life

<mask> <mask> attended Gustavus Adolphus College in St. Peter, Minnesota. She transferred to the University of Minnesota after her freshman year at Gustavus. <mask> attended special lectures, exhibits, and concerts at the University. On June 10, 1967, <mask> graduated with a humanities degree

masks:
Camilla Christine Hall
Camilla Christine Hall
George Fridolph Hall
Lorena Daeschner Hall
) Hall
Camilla Hall
Hall
Hall
Camilla
Camilla
Camilla
Hall
Hall
Hall
Camilla
Hall
Camilla
Hall
Hall
Hall


type: original

texts:
 from the University of Minnesota. Post-college

Following graduation, <mask> moved to Duluth, Minnesota where she was a caseworker for St. Louis County, Minnesota.In early 1968 she was elected to carry the Eugene McCarthy banner, in support of the Eugene McCarthy Presidential Campaign, for the St. Louis County precinct. Even though <mask> enjoyed helping people in her work, she found it difficult to separate her feelings while being a caseworker. For her job in Duluth, Minnesota, <mask> used her musical and poetic talents in an advertising campaign. In June 1968, <mask> returned to Minneapolis, Minnesota and worked as a caseworker for the Hennepin County, Minnesota welfare office. Co-workers and friends of <mask> described her as witty, sympathetic, helpful, and compassionate. Also, she had an outgoing personality and had a passion for literature. At the same time, <mask> frequently talked with family and friends about philosophy and how she was disappointed with the state of welfare.In 1968, <mask> was 23 years old and carefully monitored the political situation in America, including the 1968 Democratic National Convention. She was active in the peace movement and food boycotts, including the Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam. Despite her active participation in urging social change and working as a caseworker, <mask>'s mother says Camilla became dissatisfied with her work. In California

In November 1969, <mask> moved to Topanga, a northern suburb of Los Angeles, California. In March, she moved into Los Angeles proper in west Los Angeles. According to Rachael Hanel, "She lived off her savings, interest income from a trust, money from her parents, and selling her simple, Rubenesque line drawings." Even though <mask> didn't express dissatisfaction at being an artist, she decided to move again.<mask> moved to Berkeley in February 1971. In May 1971, <mask> moved into an apartment complex on Channing Way where she met Patricia Soltysik. Previous to this relationship, <mask> had not lived publicly in a lesbian relationship. Patricia Soltysik was the object of <mask>'s

masks: Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall


texts:
 love poem named "Mizmoon". In Berkeley, <mask> continued being politically active. She was one of the activists in the People's Park reoccupation during the summer of 1972. She and Soltysik became involved with the Venceremos prison outreach project, through which they became associates of future Symbionese Liberation Army members Russell Little and Willie Wolfe.In October 1972, <mask> traveled to Europe and stayed with friends while she traveled for three months. Once she returned, she continued being politically active and through her association with Soltysik, Little, and Wolfe became involved in founding the Symbionese Liberation Army. The SLA soon gained notoriety for the murder of Oakland school superintendent Marcus Foster, a bank robbery, and most famously, the kidnapping of heiress Patty Hearst. <mask> was identified from a security camera image as a participant in the April 15, 1974 robbery of the Hibernia Bank in San Francisco during which two civilians were shot. LA shootout

<mask> died in a shootout (May 17, 1974) with police in which five other SLA members were killed. As their hideout burned, <mask> and fellow SLA member Nancy Ling Perry exited from the back door. Police claimed that Perry came out firing a revolver while <mask> was firing an automatic pistol.Police shot them immediately, killing both. Perry was shot twice. One shot hit her right lung, the other shot severed her spine. <mask> was shot once in the forehead. Her body was pulled back into the burning house by SLA member Angela Atwood, who also died. Investigators working for <mask>'s parents claimed that Perry had come walking out of the house intending to surrender. References

External links

Papers Concerning <mask> <mask> Hall are available for research use at the Gustavus Adolphus College and Lutheran Church Archives

1945 births
1974 deaths
University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts alumni
People from St. Peter, Minnesota
Deaths by firearm in California
People shot dead by law enforcement officers in the United States
LGBT people from Minnesota
Symbionese Liberation Army
20th-century LGBT

masks: Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Camilla Hallilla


texts: <mask> (born 13 February 1975) is an English media personality, columnist, far-right political commentator, and former businesswoman. She was a contestant on the third series of The Apprentice in 2007; following further appearances in the media, she became a columnist for British national newspapers. <mask> wrote for The Sun in 2013 and the Daily Mails website MailOnline from 2015 to 2017. In 2015, she hosted her own television talk show If <mask> Ruled the World, and appeared on the fifteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother, finishing as runner-up. The following year, she became a presenter for the talk radio station LBC and underwent major brain surgery to treat her epilepsy. In 2021, <mask> joined the UK Independence Party (UKIP). <mask>' social media presence and outspoken views, especially on UK politics, social class, migrants and race, have attracted controversy, criticism, media scrutiny, legal issues, protests and petitions.She has been accused of racism by journalists, advocacy groups and politicians for her comments about migrants. In 2016, Mail Online was forced to pay significant damages to a Muslim family whom <mask> had falsely accused of extremist links. In the 2017 libel case Monroe v Hopkins, <mask> was required to pay damages and legal costs to Jack Monroe after making defamatory remarks on Twitter. Her role at LBC was terminated in May 2017 following her comments on Twitter about the need for a "final solution" — a term used by the Nazis to refer to the Holocaust — after the Manchester Arena bombing; she later altered it to "true solution", describing the earlier version as a "mis-type". <mask> was permanently suspended from Twitter in June 2020 for what the

masks:
Katie Olivia Hopkins
Hopkins
Katie Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins


texts:
 company described as "violations of our hateful conduct policy"; she joined Parler afterwards. Early life and education
<mask> <mask> was born on 13 February 1975, in Barnstaple, England. Her father was an electrical engineer for the local Electricity Board, and her mother was a bank teller.She has an older sister. She was brought up in Bideford, attended a private convent school from age three to 16, played sports and learned to play the piano and violin. As a child she believed she was "going to be the colonel of the forces. I loved the military. I loved the discipline, the rigour, the big shouty men." She instead studied economics at the University of Exeter, receiving sponsorship from the British Army's Intelligence Corps. She spent weekends with the Officers' Training Corps.She completed her military training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, but suffered an epileptic seizure during the final passing-out ceremony, and as a result was unable to take up her commission. <mask> said she kept her epilepsy secret while attending Sandhurst, as this would have prevented her from being commissioned. Instead, she joined a business consultancy and moved to Manhattan, New York City, before returning to the UK in 2005. In September 2006 she joined the Met Office as a global brand consultant. Career

The Apprentice

In late 2006 <mask> was allowed to take unpaid leave from her Met Office job as part of her probationary period of employment to take part in series three of the reality TV show The Apprentice. In the format used at that time, contestants in The Apprentice competed for a £100,000-a-year job working for the businessman Alan Sugar. <mask> rejected Sugar's offer of a

masks:
Katie Olivia
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins


texts:
 place in the final episode of the programme, citing problems regarding childcare provision for her daughters, and withdrew from the competition at the end of the penultimate task.The episode gained 6.2 million viewers, while the following You're Fired! episode, in which <mask> was interviewed, was watched by 3.1 million. Throughout her time on The Apprentice, <mask> made several critical comments on camera. The comments were directed at her fellow contestants, viewers of television shopping channels, maternity leave, fake tans, and overweight people. Four Weddings and a Funeral and Notting Hill writer Richard Curtis expressed his distaste for <mask>, jokingly vowing to kill her when he accepted his Fellowship award at the 2007 BAFTA awards. When video clips of her comments about other candidates were shown on The Apprentice: You're Fired!, following up on the main programme, <mask> said that they were "quite funny". Michelle Mone, the founder of lingerie company Ultimo and a guest on the panel, criticised <mask>, calling her "exceptionally selfish", said she was not to be trusted, and accused her of giving "businesswomen a bad name".Sugar was criticised over his questioning of <mask> about her childcare arrangements, and accused of violating the Sex Discrimination Act 1975. The incident received substantial media comment. Sugar argued his case in an interview with GMTV host Fiona Phillips, stating that he was aware of the rules. Aftermath
In June 2007, <mask> lost her job at the Met Office, which said she did not meet the required standards to complete her probationary period, and it confirmed that her performance on The Apprentice and confessions about her private life were a

masks: Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins


texts:
 factor in her dismissal. <mask> later stated that the media were informed of her dismissal an hour after she was fired. After her appearance on The Apprentice, <mask> signed two deals to sell her story, one with the News of the World newspaper and the other with EMAP, the company behind Heat and Grazia magazines. <mask> said in an interview with BBC Radio Kent that she had great respect for Sugar and that she believed she would have won the programme had she been in the final episode.She also said that the media's attitudes towards her did not affect her but did affect her family. She made a similar claim of hypothetical victory in an interview with Fiona Phillips on the morning of the final Apprentice episode, although Sugar had said that if she had wanted to press on, he would have fired her, whoever she was competing with. <mask> told BBC Radio 1 that she had not yet ruled out a media career but expressed interest in starting a business venture. Media career

After The Apprentice, <mask> appeared in an episode of 8 Out of 10 Cats, and was a guest star on Loose Women and The Friday Night Project. In 2007, she presented a Five Live Report on family life and working mothers for BBC Radio 5 Live and contributed an article on the same subject to BBC Online. In 2007, <mask> joined the series I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! as a replacement for Malcolm McLaren, who dropped out just before the show started.In January 2015, she took part in the Channel 5 reality series Celebrity Big Brother, finishing in second place. <mask> has appeared twice on Question Time, in the programmes of 10 June 2010 and 27 January 2011. She also appeared on the Young Voters' version of Question Time


texts: on 20 October 2010. She appeared on an episode of 10 O'Clock Live on 24 April 2013, alongside Theo Paphitis and Owen Jones, to discuss the legacy of the former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, who had died that month, and to debate tax policies and the division of wealth among British citizens. In 2015, she deliberately gained and lost  over the course of several months, in an attempt to show that obese people can diet successfully. Her progress was carefully documented by a camera crew and then played on a programme called My Fat Story for TLC. TLC claimed an audience figure of 10 million in the UK and US for the programme.Later that year, she began her own chat show, If <mask> Ruled the World, on the digital channel TLC. She said she wanted to bring a new approach to chat and panel shows. The series was cancelled in December, after the first series, owing to low audience ratings. From April 2016 to May 2017, <mask> presented a Sunday morning talk show on LBC, a London-based national talk and phone-in radio station. She had previously worked as a guest presenter for the station. "The snarling facade remained", wrote Fiona Sturges for The Independent in April 2015 after one such broadcast, "but even <mask> knows when to tone down the panto villain act". LBC announced <mask>'s departure on 26 May 2017, 'effective immediately', following her comments on Twitter soon after the Manchester Arena bombing, in which <mask> claimed "we need a final solution".Speaking about her departure a few days later on Fox News, she said a deal had been made with LBC not to speak about it, but suggested it was part of a "silencing" of people with right-wing views. At a Church and Media

masks:
Katie Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins


texts:
 conference in October 2015, <mask> said she was "pushing back the walls closing in on freedom of speech". Describing herself as "Jesus of the outspoken" during her speech, she said: "I have never apologised for anything I've said. I find it very disappointing when people apologise. You should have the positive moral attitude to stand by what you say". Since appearing on The Apprentice, <mask> has frequently featured in the media for making controversial remarks, being described in The Guardian, HuffPost, and MTV as a "professional troll". She has described herself as a "conduit for truth", declaring "what other people think but are too scared to say"'.In 2019, <mask> presented the documentary Homelands which was about Islam in Europe. Print and online presence
Early in her public career, <mask> wrote a column for Exeter's Express & Echo newspaper, but her articles ceased after an online poll in October 2007 found 84 per cent of readers wanted the feature to end. At the end of October 2013, it emerged that <mask> had joined The Sun as a weekly columnist, with the newspaper promoting her as "Britain's most controversial columnist". In February 2015 <mask> defended her remarks and those of her critics, commenting: "I welcome it because I've had my opinion and it's only right that people have theirs. I welcome the debate and the fact that people are getting involved." In autumn 2015, she left The Sun for the Mail Online website, the online companion to the Daily Mail. The Daily Telegraph contributor Bryony Gordon wrote in April 2015 that media organisations have "a tipping point here, where the marketing men and women don't want to be associated with reality TV's very own Adolf

masks: Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins


texts:
 Hitler.But so far that doesn't seem to have happened." The Mail published a front-page article in June 2017 expressing its low opinion of the liberal The Guardian newspaper, which had attacked it for its coverage of the attack on the Finsbury Park mosque
and also referred to <mask>. It "was a lie" to say <mask> wrote for the Daily Mail, it asserted. "The Guardian and its writer know that Ms <mask> has nothing to do with the Daily Mail, but works for Mail Online – a totally separate entity". The Daily Mail newspaper and Mail Online are part of the same group. Her last column for the Mail website was published on 5 October 2017. In a late November 2017 statement from her employers to the Press Gazette, it emerged that <mask>'s Mail contract had not been renewed "by mutual consent".A large number of Tweets from her Twitter account were deleted around the same time. A few days before, a video was posted online of <mask>'s appearance at the David Horowitz Freedom Center in Florida earlier in November 2017. "It's such a pleasure to be amongst people that are prepared to fight for their country" she said, asserting it is "our time". She continued: "We can commit to arm ourselves, not just with the help of the NRA". In her opinion, there is a "Muslim mafia" in certain areas of Britain and "institutionalised discrimination against whites" in the UK as a whole. In January 2018, <mask> joined The Rebel Media, a Canadian far-right website which Tommy Robinson, founder of the far-right English Defence League has also contributed to. In her first column on her own Hopkins World outlet, she wrote: "When so many platforms are under the control of the Saudis, tied to fickle commercial


texts:
 advertisers or beholden to special interests and religious lobbyists, it is a real thrill to find a place for us to speak without censorship".<mask> no longer writes for Rebel Media and it appears that she was quietly dropped as a contributor around October 2018. In June 2020, <mask> was permanently suspended from social networking site Twitter for what a company spokesperson said were "violations of our hateful conduct policy" – having previously been suspended for one week in January 2020. <mask> subsequently stated that she had joined the social networking site Parler as an alternative. After the announcement a fake account was accidentally verified as hers, and was then used to scam users. Views and controversies
Since appearing on The Apprentice, <mask> has frequently featured in the media for making controversial remarks, being described in The Guardian, HuffPost, and MTV as a "professional troll". She has described herself as a "conduit for truth", declaring "what other people think but are too scared to say"'. Islam
<mask> is anti-Islam.After the 2016 Nice truck attack, <mask> stated "Islam disgusts me", declaring the statement was "entirely rational" and not Islamophobic. She is in favour of a burqa ban and has labelled Islamic culture as homophobic. In March 2017, <mask> gave a speech at a David Horowitz Freedom Center event, in which she criticised Muslims, stating that a "Muslim mafia" controlled areas of Britain, and describing London Mayor Sadiq Khan as the "Muslim mayor of Londonistan". Calling on people to "fight for your country" against Muslims, <mask> stated that "we can commit to arm ourselves, not just with the help of the NRA," adding "get furious and

masks: Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins


texts:
 fight back". Multiculturalism
<mask> is against multiculturalism. Referencing a so-called "multicultural mafia", she has said that increased crime is directly linked to it. Criticising the Notting Hill Carnival in 2016, she said: "I don't buy multiculturalism at all", stating that a "London bubble" believed in it and "the liberal left wing press, the BBC, they love it!They can't get enough of it." Following the 2017 London Bridge attack, <mask> criticised "Liberals in London", saying they "actually think multiculturalism means we all die together", and that they were "so desperately wedded to the multicultural illusion that [they] can only fight those who love the country the most, blame those who are most proud to be British." White genocide
<mask> promotes the antisemitic white genocide conspiracy theory. She has contended that immigration and multiculturalism are intended to make white people minorities. In February 2018, Yahoo News reported that "her intention was to 'expose' the white genocide" happening to farmers in South Africa. She also visited South Africa to report on 'anti-white racism'. Feminism
On the television show Question Time, <mask> said of feminism: "Women don't want equal treatment, they couldn't handle it if they got it.It's a tough world out there. What a lot of women are actually looking for is special treatment. What women need to realise is that they have to toughen up." Tattoos
<mask> has expressed her views on tattoos on television shows including The Nolan Show and If Katie Hopkins Ruled the World. She has stated: "I really think if you have a tattoo you have to wonder about what kind of future you have ahead of you. As an employer, I wouldn't

masks: Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins


texts:
 employ someone with tattoos as I would wonder what customers would think about them. For me, tattoos are just a way for people to find attention who haven't found another way in their life to achieve it by conventional means."Social class
During an appearance on ITV's This Morning in July 2013, <mask> said she would stop her children playing with their classmates based on their given names. She expressed a particular dislike for "lower class" names like Charmaine, Chantelle, and Chardonnay, which met with disapproval from co-host Holly Willoughby. <mask> said that she did not like "geographical location names" either. After Willoughby's colleague, Phillip Schofield, said that she had given the name India to one of her daughters, <mask> said that India is "not related to a place". A viewers' poll conducted by the This Morning programme indicated that 91 per cent of respondents disagreed with <mask>'s opinion. Appearing as a panellist on Channel 5's The Big Benefits Row: Live in February 2014, she was accused by Terry Christian and others of only expressing her controversial opinions to make money from media appearances. <mask> has said that financial motives are not the reason she speaks out, and received a "relatively modest" fee of £300 when she was on This Morning speaking about children's names.In a February 2014 interview with Decca Aitkenhead for The Guardian, <mask> was asked if she is a snob: "Oh, definitely yeah, 100%. I think it's really important to be snobby". Illness and fatalities in the UK
<mask> posted a tweet referring to Scottish life expectancy predictions based upon a 2011 NHS Scotland report, "Healthy Life Expectancy in Scotland: Update of trends to 2010".


texts: This tweet was posted following a heated debate on Scottish Independence during an edition of  The Wright Stuff on which <mask> was a panellist. In the wake of the 2013 Glasgow helicopter crash, the tweet raised widespread condemnation among Twitter users. <mask> retorted "Following Independence I will only be the Biggest Bitch in England", and described people's reactions as "PC tastic". An online petition to ban <mask> from shows such as ITV's This Morning and The Wright Stuff on Channel 5 gained over 75,000 signatures.<mask> issued an apology the following Monday, restating that her original remark was in reference to the NHS report and was simply bad timing. ITV said on 5 December 2013 that "We have no plans for <mask> to appear on This Morning at this present time". On 31 December 2014, police announced they were investigating complaints they had received concerning <mask>'s tweets about Pauline Cafferkey, a Scottish aid worker who was diagnosed with Ebola after returning to the UK from Sierra Leone. <mask> had tweeted: "Little sweaty jocks, sending us Ebola bombs in the form of sweaty Glaswegians just isn't cricket. Scottish NHS sucks." No evidence of criminality was found by the police. On 7 April 2015, <mask> made a series of tweets suggesting that people with dementia are "bed blockers" who take up scarce hospital beds and implied they would be better off dead.Her comments were condemned by leading British Alzheimer's charities. After five Londoners drowned at Camber Sands in August 2016, <mask> tweeted a poll mocking the identities of the deceased. Sussex Police reported the tweet to Twitter under the headings of "abusive or harmful" and "disrespectful or offensive".

masks:
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Katie Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins


texts:
 They decided while the tweet was distasteful it was not criminal. The tweet was deleted. Obesity
<mask> has been accused of fat-shaming by journalists. When appearing on ITV's This Morning, <mask> expressed her views on obesity stating: "Would I employ you if you were obese?No I would not. You would give the wrong impression to the clients of my business. I need people to look energetic, professional and efficient. If you are obese, you look lazy", and "To call yourself 'plus size' is just a euphemism for being fat. Life is much easier when you're thinner. Big is not beautiful, of course a job comes down to how you look." In 2014, <mask> took part in a TLC two-part documentary, <mask>: Fat and Back, where she gained and lost nearly 50 pounds (22 kilograms) of weight.Initially, she ridiculed an overweight woman for being 'a wreck of a human being'. When the TLC show aired in January 2015, <mask> acknowledged that losing excess weight "actually turned out to be a real ordeal...now I know how hard it is to be fat and carry that weight around and I know no one wants to be fat by choice," she said. Pakistani men and Rochdale
<mask> objected to Rochdale commemorating National Pakistan Day on 23 March 2015 and said that she based her objection on a Rochdale sex trafficking case involving nine predominantly Pakistani men. In a series of tweets, she posted images of the felons with the caption "are these your friends too?" On 29 March 2015, <mask> was reported to the police by Labour MP Simon Danczuk for possible race hate crimes. In response, <mask> said: "I asked fair questions and I think it's important that someone has the balls to speak out". Migrants
On 17 April 2015, <mask> wrote

masks:
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Katie Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins


texts: a column in The Sun comparing migrants to "cockroaches" and "feral humans" and said they were "spreading like the norovirus".She wrote that gunships should be used to stop migrants from crossing the Mediterranean. Her remarks were condemned by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein. In a statement released on 24 April 2015, he urged the UK to "curb incitement to hatred" by its "tabloid newspapers". He stated that <mask> used "language very similar to that employed by Rwanda's Kangura newspaper and Radio Mille Collines during the run up to the 1994 genocide", and said that both media organisations were subsequently convicted by an international tribunal of incitement to genocide. <mask>'s column also drew criticism on Twitter, including from Russell Brand, to whom <mask> responded by accusing Brand's "champagne socialist humanity" of neglecting taxpayers. Simon Usborne, writing in The Independent, compared her use of the word "cockroach" to previous uses by the Nazis and just before the Rwandan genocide by its perpetrators. He suspected that if any other contributor had written the piece, it would not have been published, and questioned her continued employment by the newspaper.Zoe Williams commented in The Guardian: "It is no joke when people start talking like this. We are not 'giving her what she wants' when we make manifest our disgust. It is not a free speech issue. I'm not saying gag her: I'm saying fight her". In 2015 a Change.org petition was initiated with the aim of getting The Sun to sack <mask>. By 26 April, it had attracted over 310,000 signatures. In early September, The Sun retweeted an earlier comment from <mask>


texts:
 expressing her disinterest in migrants.The tweet was pulled after the Prime Minister David Cameron publicly announced Britain would do more to help those seeking asylum in the UK. A further Change.org petition for <mask> to be replaced with 50,000 Syrian refugees gained more than 20,000 signatures in less than 48 hours in September 2015. In November 2015, Peter Herbert, chair of the Society of Black Lawyers, reported <mask> and The Sun to Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe, the Metropolitan Police Commissioner. <mask> was questioned and not charged, and subsequently criticised the police for purportedly criminalising opinion, and stated that she would set up a Society of White Lawyers. By December 2016, the original article had been removed from The Suns website. Romani people
On 21 May 2014, <mask> tweeted "Gypsies are not travellers. Travellers are people that commute to work or go on holiday.Gypsies are ferrel [sic] humans - we have no duty to them". Jenn Selby, a writer for The Independent, described her comment as incredibly racist. Donald Trump
<mask> supported Donald Trump's Republican presidential nomination in the Daily Mail during December 2016: "I hear cries that he is a blithering idiot. I have often been called a deranged fool. But if this were true you could ignore me, ignore us,  the two of us shouting naked at the rain. It's because we articulate sentiments repressed by the politically correct consensus that we have a voice". <mask> defended Trump's remarks that all Muslims should be banned from entering the United States.Trump later thanked <mask> for her support and for her "powerful writing on the U.K.'s Muslim problems", calling her a "respected journalist", although the


texts:
 Metropolitan Police and the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson among others, rejected his comments that there are 'no go' areas of London for non-Muslims. <mask> stated that Britain is in part "radicalised" and "it does nobody any favours to deny the obvious". When asked by BBC's Daily Politics presenter Andrew Neil in a December 2015 interview to name the "swathes" of Britain that are no-go areas for non-Muslims, <mask> replied that she couldn't for "legal reasons". When Neil said there could be no legal problems with identifying an area she continued to refuse, saying only: "I know those places exist". Racism, racial profiling, and Black Lives Matter
In January 2017, a caller to her LBC programme named Joseph said she came over as racist, following which she said: "I genuinely believe 'racist' as a word has been used so much. I am sorry for the word racist in a way. I love language so much ... it's like a regular word now, it's lost all meaning to me".When tweeting the clip she added, "Call me racist. I don't care. I will stand up for white women being raped because you're scared to offend Muslims". <mask> tweeted shortly afterwards: "Racial profiling is a good thing, call me racist. I don't care... it has lost all meaning". She later briefly retweeted a favourable response from an account named Anti Juden SS, whose avatar featured the Swastika (and the United States flag), later stating that she had not looked at the handle. Sharing a poster on Twitter for the Netflix series Dear White People at the beginning of May 2017, <mask> added: "Dear black people.If your lives matter why do you stab and shoot each other so much". Although the tweet was deleted, users of the social media

masks: Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins


texts:
 site circulated screenshots of what appeared to be a reference to the Black Lives Matter movement in the United States. In August 2016 she urged the London Mayor Sadiq Khan to use water cannon against Black Lives Matter protesters at Heathrow Airport, who had chained themselves to the tarmac of an approach road. In February 2018, <mask> was detained and had her passport briefly confiscated in South Africa for allegedly spreading racial hatred. Manchester Arena bombing
On the morning following the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing at an Ariana Grande concert, <mask> tweeted about the need for a "final solution", the Nazis' term for the Holocaust:

22 dead - number rising. Schofield. Don't you even dare.Do not be part of the problem. We need a final solution. #Machester

The tweet was soon deleted and reworded as a "true solution". <mask> said the original was a typographical error (she had also misspelled "Manchester"). The motive for the attack, and the background of the suicide bomber, was unknown at the time <mask> made the comment. The journalist Nick Cohen was among those who responded on Twitter: "Even if <mask> knows nothing of Nazism – which I doubt – her "final solution" can only mean ethnic cleansing". Others, such as Owen Jones, called for a boycott of the LBC radio station while they employ her.Interviewed later on Fox News by Tucker Carlson, she called for people to insist on deportations among other responses to terrorist acts. She said: "I used the word 'final solution' in a tweet, and I would not in any way want to use that term and the inference other people lay on that. What I meant was, we need a lasting solution, a resolution to this". The incident led to <mask>


texts:
 leaving LBC. Following the June 2017 London Bridge attack almost a fortnight later, <mask> called for internment camps to be used for those suspected of being Muslim extremists on Fox News' Fox & Friends. The host Clayton Morris said, on behalf of the network staff, that everyone considered the "idea reprehensible". <mask>' comments have been linked in the media with a hate crime against a Muslim in 2017.A Muslim man in Heckmondwike stated that he was attacked by assailants who graffitied his house with <mask>' tweet, including her misspelling "#Machester". Refugees and migrants in the Mediterranean
In July 2017, <mask> flew to Catania in Sicily to visit a ship known as the C-Star hired by the Defend Europe movement, which has the intention of hindering the work of "search and rescue" vessels in the Mediterranean used by charities such as Save the Children to save trafficked migrants and refugees. Defend Europe is supported by the American white-nationalist David Duke and the neo-Nazi Daily Stormer website. <mask> tweeted: "Looking forward to meeting the crew of the C-Star in Catania tomorrow. Setting out to defend the Med. All this week @MailOnline". She tweeted, and then deleted, an image of herself with a Defend Europe activist also present in Sicily at the time, a man known as Peter Sweden, initially reported to be an active Holocaust denier.An article headlined "<mask> on NGOs colluding with traffickers in Sicily" was briefly published on the Mailonline website in mid-July 2017. According to a report on HuffPost website, the article offered no evidence to match the title. Shortly after her article was deleted, Save the Children rejected <mask>' claim that she had "spent

masks:
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Katie Hopkins
Hopkins


texts:
 time" with the crew of one of their ships. "Nor will she set sail with us on any of our rescue missions", they stated. The deleted Mailonline article was her only contribution to the planned series. <mask>' opinions on Mediterranean migrants resurfaced in 2018 after the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. <mask> suggested that Chief Rabbi of the UK's "support for mass migration across the Med″ explained the shooting.She later deleted the tweet. Legal issues

Jack Monroe

Cookery writer and anti-poverty campaigner Jack Monroe threatened a libel action against <mask> after <mask> accused Monroe of vandalising a war memorial, having confused Monroe with journalist Laurie Penny, who had written in support of that vandalism. Monroe called for an apology and a £5,000 donation to a migrants rescue charity. <mask> later admitted that she was mistaken about the identity but did not apologise. Monroe began legal action in January 2016, and was awarded £24,000 in damages and £107,000 in legal costs in March 2017. After the decision became known, <mask> tweeted an image of herself as the Virgin Mary and commented that she saw herself as "the Jesus of the outspoken". An appeal application was refused in January 2018 as it was considered unlikely to succeed.<mask> sold her family home to pay the legal costs. Mahmood family
Mohammad Tariq Mahmood, his brother and their children were stopped from boarding a Norwegian Air flight from Gatwick to Los Angeles on 15 December 2015. At the airport, the family from Walthamstow found their entry visas to the United States had been cancelled. In December 2016, the Daily Mail and General Trust settled a libel case brought by the Mahmood family with £150,000

masks:
Hopkins
Hopkins
Katie Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins
Hopkins


texts:
 damages, plus legal costs, over two articles by <mask> posted on the MailOnline website which claimed members of the Muslim family were extremists. The columns published at the time of the incident falsely claimed that officials were right to stop the family flying to Los Angeles to visit Disneyland because the two men were connected to al-Qaida, and that their stated plans were a "lie". In the settlement, the assertions from the Mahmood family were accepted as true by the Mail and Hopkins; the family had arranged to stay with another brother living in California, The family's MP, Stella Creasy, complained to the prime minister David Cameron at the time about the family's treatment. <mask> said Creasy was a "whinging…blond-bobbed maniac".In a statement from the family's solicitors, Carter-Ruck, they said: "matters are not helped when sensationalist and, frankly, Islamophobic articles such as this are published, and which caused us all a great deal of distress and anxiety. We are very pleased that the record has been set straight". The two articles by <mask> about the Mahmood family have been removed from the MailOnline website. Jackie Teale
In November 2017, <mask>' former employers Mail Online apologised and paid "substantial damages" to teacher Jackie Teale, after <mask> falsely accused Teale of taking her class to a Donald Trump protest in Westminster. Daily Mirror
In May 2018, <mask> won an IPSO case against the Daily Mirror for claiming that she had been detained in South Africa in February 2018 for taking ketamine. The Mirror updated the headline to say that she had been detained for spreading racial hatred, and included a correction in the article. Finsbury Park Mosque
In


texts:
 October 2020, <mask> issued an apology after she was sued by Finsbury Park Mosque for inaccurately linking it to a violent incident in May 2020.Deportation from Australia

<mask> was selected as a cast member of the Australian Big Brother VIP series in 2021. She was sacked on 18 July 2021 while in hotel quarantine in Sydney after posting on social media that she had deliberately breached COVID-19 health regulations. At the time of her sacking the Australian Government was investigating whether she had violated the conditions of her visa, and both senior ministers and the federal opposition were calling for her to be deported. The opposition was also critical of the government's decision to grant <mask> a visa. On 19 July, <mask> was fined $A1,000 for not wearing a mask while in hotel quarantine. Her visa was also cancelled during the day, and she was deported from the country. Political activities
In the 2009 European Parliament Election, <mask> stood as a candidate for the South West England Constituency as an independent candidate.She polled 8,971 votes or 0.6% of the total votes cast. In September 2015, <mask> spoke at an event organised by the Electoral Reform Society at the UK Independence Party (UKIP)'s annual conference. After derogatory comments about the appointment of Michelle Mone to the House of Lords, she said: "Frankly, I don't really mind if we seal up the room and gas the lot of them". UKIP said in 2015 that <mask> was not a party member and, although she has reportedly applied to join on several occasions, her applications had always been rejected. In November 2015, students at Brunel University turned their backs on her, then walked out in protest at her


texts:
 presence in a debate. In January 2021, <mask> successfully joined UKIP. Explaining her intentions to join the party, she said "People always ask me ... when am I going to do something smarter than just gob off on social media?"Personal life
<mask>' first husband was Damian McKinney, a former Royal Marine and founder and Chief Executive of the company McKinney Rogers; they married in September 2004 in Exeter. He was married to another woman when they first met; she has admitted to having "stolen" him. McKinney left <mask> for another woman soon after the birth of the couple's second daughter. While working at the Met Office, she met Mark Cross, a married design manager. In 2010, her marriage to Cross was filmed as part of the reality game show Four Weddings, which is shown on the satellite and cable channel Sky Living. <mask> formerly suffered from epilepsy; she was being hospitalised around once every 10 days in early 2014, she told Decca Aitkenhead: "When I have a fit at night, my arms come out. They dislocate.So I have to go into hospital to have them relocated. That's happened 26 times in the last nine months". The seizures could occur up to ten times at night, according to Sathnam Sanghera who interviewed her for The Times in mid-2015. They began in her late teens whenever she fell asleep and did not respond to prescribed drugs, she said in 2017. In a piece for The Sun, published the following August, she announced she was undergoing surgery to help prevent seizures. In mid-November 2015, her condition led her to fall to the ground in the street, injuring her face, and for an ambulance to be called. In February 2016, she underwent surgery in which a portion of her brain was


texts:
 removed to relieve the severity of the condition.<mask> tweeted a month later that the operation was a success. "I am no longer an epileptic", she tweeted. According to <mask>, the surgery has, however, led to complications. <mask> sold her Exeter home in March 2018 for £930,000. She applied for an individual voluntary arrangement in May 2018 to avoid bankruptcy, after the libel case brought by Jack Monroe. (British TV series) participants
UK Independence Party

masks: Hopkins Hopkins Hopkins


texts:
<mask> (; October 31, 1927 – March 23, 2021) was an American philosopher at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. He is best known for his short 1963 article "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? ", which has generated an extensive philosophical literature trying to respond to what became known as the Gettier problem. Life
<mask> was born on October 31, 1927, in Baltimore, Maryland. <mask> obtained his B.A. from Johns Hopkins University in 1949. He earned his PhD in philosophy from Cornell University in 1961 with a dissertation on “Bertrand Russell’s Theories of Belief” written under the supervision of  Norman Malcolm.<mask> taught philosophy at Wayne State University from 1957 until 1967 initially as an Instructor, then as an assistant professor, and, latterly, as an associate professor. His philosophical colleagues at Wayne State included, amongst others, Alvin Plantinga and Héctor-Neri Castaneda. In the academic year of 1964-65 he held a postdoctoral Mellon Fellowship at the University of Pittsburgh. His recorded field of research being "Bertrand Russell's theories of belief, and their effect on contemporary thought." Whilst at Pittsburgh he met a young Bas C. Van Fraasen and published his second academic paper, a review of John Passmore's Philosophical Reasoning. In 1967 <mask> was recruited to the faculty of philosophy at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, being promoted to full professor there in 1972. He taught there until his retirement, as Professor Emeritus, in 2001.<mask> died on March 23, 2021, aged 93. <mask>'s fame rests on a three-page article, published in Analysis in 1963 that remains one of the most famous in recent philosophical history. In the same, <mask> challenges the "justified true belief" definition of knowledge that dates back to Plato's Theaetetus, but is discounted at the end of that very dialogue. This account was accepted by most philosophers at the time, most prominently the epistemologist Clarence Irving Lewis and his student Roderick Chisholm.

masks:
Edmund Lee Gettier III
Edmund Lee Gettier III
Gettier
Gettier
Gettier
Gettier
Gettier
Gettier


texts:
 <mask>'s article offered counter-examples to this account in the form of cases such that subjects had true beliefs that were also justified, but for which the beliefs were true for reasons unrelated to the justification. Some philosophers, however, thought the account of knowledge as justified true belief had already been questioned in a general way by the work of Wittgenstein. (Later, a similar argument was found in the papers of Bertrand Russell.)Work

Gettier problem

<mask> provides several examples of beliefs that are both true and justified, but that we should not intuitively term knowledge. Cases of this sort are now termed "Gettier (counter-)examples". Because <mask>'s criticism of the justified true belief model is systemic, other authors have imagined increasingly fantastical counterexamples. For example: I am watching the men's Wimbledon Final, and John McEnroe is playing Jimmy Connors, it is match point, and McEnroe wins. I say to myself: "John McEnroe is this year's men's champion at Wimbledon". Unbeknownst to me, however, the BBC were experiencing a broadcasting fault and so had broadcast a tape of last year's final, when McEnroe also beat Connors. I had been watching last year's Wimbledon final, so I believed that McEnroe had bested Connors.But at that same time, in real life, McEnroe was repeating last year's victory and besting Connors! So my belief that McEnroe bested Connors to become this year's Wimbledon champion is true, and I had good reason to believe so (my belief was justified) — and yet, there is a sense in which I could not really have claimed to "know" that McEnroe had bested Connors because I was only accidentally right that McEnroe beat Connors — my belief was not based on the right kind of justification. <mask> inspired a great deal of work by philosophers attempting to recover a working definition of knowledge. Major responses include:
 <mask>'s use of "justification" is too general, and only some kinds of justification count. <mask>'s examples do not

masks: Gettier Gettier Gettier Gettier Gettier Gettier


texts:
 count as justification at all, and only some kinds of evidence are justificatory. Knowledge must have a fourth condition, such as "no false premises" or "indefeasibility". Robert Nozick suggests knowledge must consist of justified true belief that is "truth-tracking" — a belief such that if it was revealed to be false, it would not have been believed, and conversely.Colin McGinn suggests that knowledge is atomic (it is not divisible into smaller components). We have knowledge when we have knowledge, and an accurate definition of knowledge may even contain the word "knowledge". A 2001 study by Weinberg, Nichols, and Stich suggests that the effect of the Gettier problem varies by culture. In particular, people from Western countries seem more likely to agree with the judgments described in the story than do those from East Asia. Subsequent studies were unable to replicate these results. Complete works
"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?" Analysis, Vol.23, pp. 121–123 (1963). "Review: [Untitled]" The Philosophical Review 74, no. 2 (1965): 266–69. https://doi.org/10.2307/2183277
“Comments on A. J. Ayer’s ‘The Concept of a Person’,” in Intentionality, Minds, and Perception: Discussions on Contemporary Philosophy, ed. Hector-Neri Castañeda (Detroit, 1967). See also
American philosophy
List of American philosophers

References

External links
 <mask>'s paper, "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?"1927 births
2021 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
20th-century essayists
American male essayists
American male non-fiction writers
American philosophy academics
Analytic philosophers
Cornell University alumni
Epistemologists
Metaphilosophers
Metaphysicians
Ontologists
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of social science
Philosophy writers
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
University of Massachusetts Lowell faculty
Wayne State University faculty
Wittgensteinian philosophers
Writers from Baltimore
20th-century American


texts:
<mask> (born November 15, 1961) is an American politician, attorney, and urban planner in the state of Washington who is serving his third term as King County Executive, an office he has held since November 2009. He was in the state legislature and on the King County Council, chairing the latter before his election as Executive. <mask> is a self-identified Democrat, though the executive's office is officially nonpartisan. He considered running for Governor of Washington in the 2020 election but decided against it when incumbent Jay Inslee decided to seek a third term. Early life and education
The son of John and <mask>, he was born and raised in West Seattle. In 1980, he graduated from West Seattle High School, where he was student body president and an Eagle Scout. He attended the University of Washington (UW), receiving a Bachelor of Arts in political science and graduated as a member of the Phi Kappa Sigma fraternity.<mask> also served an internship with Washington's 34th Legislative District representative Phil Talmadge. While attending law school, <mask> worked as a disk jockey for the college radio station KCMU. In 1989, <mask> earned a law degree from the University of Washington School of Law. <mask> later returned to obtain a Master's degree in urban planning from UW in 1992. Career
<mask> opened a private law practice in 1990. He served as chair of the 34th District Democrats organization and worked as an aide for King County Council member Greg Nickels. <mask> was elected to the State House of Representatives in 1996.He won re-election in 1998. In 2001, he became a Washington State Senator. He left the state senate in 2002 after being appointed to the King County Council to replace Nickels, who had been elected Seattle mayor. <mask> was a King County Council member from 2002 to 2009, representing the eighth district, which includes West Seattle, parts of Southeast Seattle, North Highline, Burien, Vashon Island, Maury Island, Normandy Park, and

masks:
James Dow Constantine
Constantine
Lois Constantine
Constantine
Constantine
Constantine
Constantine
Constantine
Constantine
Constantine


texts:
 parts of both SeaTac and Tukwila. In 2009, he served as council Chair. King County Executive
<mask> announced his candidacy for King County Executive on February 16, 2009 to replace Ron Sims who was appointed the United States Deputy Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. In the primary election, <mask> received 22% of the votes to advance to a run off against candidate Susan Hutchison, who received 37%.Described as "perhaps the most contentious race on the November [2009] ballot" by Seattle NPR outlet KPLU, the campaign has been characterized by negative campaigning, including "mudslinging" ads paid for by the candidates' supporters. <mask> received press attention for stressing the conservative affiliations of Hutchison, pointing to her involvement with the Discovery Institute and contributions to Republican candidates such as President Bush in 2004 and Mike Huckabee in 2008. Hutchison downplayed any perceived partisanship and criticized <mask> as a political insider with close ties to labor unions. In October 2009, the Washington State Public Disclosure Commission (PDC) investigated allegations that the <mask>'s campaign illegally coordinated with an independent campaign on anti-Hutchison ads. The PDC concluded there was no coordination and dismissed the complaint. The PDC also investigated complaints regarding Hutchison's campaign on allegations that campaign contributions exceeded single election limits and that expenditures by the campaign were not properly documented. The PDC imposed a $100 fine against Hutchison for exceeding campaign limits and dismissed the failure-to-report allegations.<mask> was endorsed by Governor Christine Gregoire, Seattle Mayor Greg Nickels, US Senators Patty Murray and Maria Cantwell, Washington State Senate Majority Leader Lisa Brown as well as state Senators Ed Murray, Ken Jacobsen, Joe McDermott, and Karen Keiser. Organizations that endorsed <mask> included NARAL Pro-Choice Washington, the Sierra Club, the Cascade

masks: Constantine Constantine Constantine Constantine Constantine Constantine Constantine


texts:
 Bicycle Club, International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the UFCW. On election night, November 3, the initial batch of election results had <mask> winning the election over Hutchison, at that time receiving 57% of the votes to her 43%. He was expected to replace interim Executive Kurt Triplett on November 24 following the certification of election results by the King County Elections' Canvassing Board. <mask> was ultimately declared the winner, and was inaugurated November 24, 2009. Potential Gubernatorial Campaign

In early 2019, <mask> was frequently mentioned as a possible candidate for Governor of Washington in the 2020 election. Two-term incumbent Jay Inslee was constitutionally eligible for to run for a third term but had opted to mount a campaign for President of the United States in the 2020 election instead, leaving the Governor's Office open.Several Democrats expressed interest in running should it be an open election but did not want to challenge Inslee should he change his mind. Facing poor polling numbers, Inslee decided to suspend his presidential campaign on August 21 and announced the next day he would indeed seek a third term as governor. <mask>, along with several other potential candidates, released a statement that he would not be running in 2020 and would instead focus on his own 2021 reelection campaign. Personal life
<mask> married his long-time partner Shirley Carlson in a private ceremony on October 31, 2013. The couple met while working at the University of Washington radio station. They live in North Admiral, Seattle. References

External links

Official King County homepage
Campaign website

King County Councillors
Members of the Washington House of Representatives
Washington (state) Democrats
Washington (state) state senators
Living people
1961 births
Politicians from Seattle
University of Washington College of Arts and Sciences alumni
University of Washington School of Law alumni
West Seattle High School

masks: Constantine Constantine Constantine Constantine Constantine


texts: <mask> (born <mask>, 17 January 173212 February 1798), known also by his regal Latin name Stanislaus II <mask>, was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1764 to 1795, and the last monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Born into wealthy Polish aristocracy, Poniatowski arrived as a diplomat at the Russian imperial court in Saint Petersburg in 1755 at the age of 22 and became intimately involved with the future empress Catherine the Great. With her connivance, he was elected King of Poland by the Polish Diet in September 1764 following the death of <mask>. Contrary to expectations, Poniatowski attempted to reform and strengthen the large but ailing Commonwealth. His efforts were met with external opposition from neighbouring Prussia, Russia and Austria, all committed to keeping the Commonwealth weak. From within he was opposed by conservative interests, which saw the reforms as a threat to their traditional liberties and privileges granted centuries earlier. The defining crisis of his early reign was the War of the Bar Confederation (1768–1772) that led to the First Partition of Poland (1772).The later part of his reign saw reforms wrought by the Diet (1788–1792) and the Constitution of 3 May 1791. These reforms were overthrown by the 1792 Targowica Confederation and by the Polish–Russian War of 1792, leading directly to the Second Partition of Poland (1793), the Kościuszko Uprising (1794) and the final and Third Partition of Poland (1795), marking the end of the Commonwealth. Stripped of all meaningful power, <mask> abdicated in November 1795 and spent the

masks:
Stanisław II August
Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski
Augustus
Augustus III
Poniatowski


texts:
 last years of his life as a captive in Saint Petersburg's Marble Palace. A controversial figure in Poland's history, he is criticized primarily for his failure to resolutely stand against and prevent the partitions, which led to the destruction of the Polish state. On the other hand, he is remembered as a great patron of the arts and sciences who laid the foundation for the Commission of National Education, the first institution of its kind in the world, and sponsored many architectural landmarks. Youth

<mask> Antoni <mask> was born on 17 January 1732 in Wołczyn, then in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and now in Belarus. He was one of eight surviving children and fourth son of Princess Konstancja Czartoryska and of Count <mask> Poniatowski, Ciołek coat of arms, Castellan of Kraków, who started as a Lithuanian domestic servant.His older brothers were Kazimierz <mask> (1721–1800), a Podkomorzy at Court, Franciszek <mask> (1723–1749), Canon of Wawel Cathedral who suffered from Epilepsy and Aleksander <mask> (1725–1744), an officer killed in the Rhineland-Palatinate during the War of the Austrian Succession. His younger brothers were, Andrzej <mask> (1734–1773), an Austrian Feldmarschall, Michał Jerzy <mask> (1736–94) who became Primate of Poland. His two older and married sisters were Ludwika Zamoyska (1728–1804) and Izabella Branicka (1730–1808). Among his nephews was Prince Józef <mask> (1763–1813), son of Andrzej. He was a great-grandson of the poet, courtier and alleged traitor, Jan Andrzej Morsztyn and through his great-grandmother, Catherine Gordon, lady-in-waiting

masks: Stanisław Poniatowski Stanisław Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski


texts:
 to Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga, he was related to the House of Stuart and thereby connected to the leading families of Scotland, Spain and France. The Poniatowski family had achieved high status among the Polish nobility (szlachta) of the time. He spent the first few years of his childhood in Gdańsk.He was temporarily kidnapped as a toddler, on the orders of Józef Potocki, Governor of Kiev, as a reprisal for his father's support for King <mask> and held for some months in Kamieniec-Podolski. He was returned to his parents in Gdańsk. Later he moved with his family to Warsaw. He was initially educated by his mother, then by private tutors, including Russian ambassador Herman Karl von Keyserling. He had few friends in his teenage years and instead developed a fondness for books which continued throughout his life. He went on his first foreign trip in 1748, with elements of the Imperial Russian army as it advanced into the Rhineland to aid Maria Theresia's troops during the War of the Austrian Succession which ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). This enabled <mask> both to visit the city, also known as Aachen, and to venture into the Netherlands.On his return journey he stopped in Dresden. Political career

The following year Poniatowski was apprenticed to the office of Michał Fryderyk Czartoryski, the then Deputy Chancellor of Lithuania. In 1750, he travelled to Berlin where he met a British diplomat, Charles Hanbury Williams, who became his mentor and friend. In 1751, Poniatowski was elected to the Treasury Tribunal in Radom, where he served as a commissioner. He

masks:
Augustus III
Poniatowski


texts: spent most of January 1752 at the Austrian court in Vienna. Later that year, after serving at the Radom Tribunal and meeting King <mask> of Poland, he was elected deputy of the Sejm (Polish parliament). While there his father secured for him the title of Starosta of Przemyśl.In March 1753 he travelled to Hungary and Vienna, where he again met with Williams. He returned to the Netherlands, where he met many key members of that country's political and economic sphere. By late August he had arrived in Paris, where he moved among the elites. In February 1754 he travelled on to England, where he spent some months. There he was befriended by Charles Yorke, the future Lord Chancellor of Great Britain. He returned to the Commonwealth later that year, however he eschewed the Sejm, as his parents wanted to keep him out of the political furore surrounding the Ostrogski family's land inheritance (see: fee tail – Ordynacja Ostrogska). The following year he received the title of Stolnik of Lithuania.Poniatowski owed his rise and influence to his family connections with the powerful Czartoryski family and their political faction, known as the Familia, with whom he had grown close. It was the Familia who sent him in 1755 to Saint Petersburg in the service of Williams, who had been nominated British ambassador to Russia. In Saint Petersburg, Williams introduced Poniatowski to the 26-year-old Catherine Alexeievna, the future empress Catherine the Great. The two became lovers. Whatever his feelings for Catherine, it is likely Poniatowski also saw an opportunity to use the relationship for


texts:
 his own benefit, using her influence to bolster his career. Poniatowski had to leave St. Petersburg in July 1756 due to court intrigue. Through the combined influence of Catherine, of Russian empress Elizabeth and of chancellor Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Poniatowski was able to rejoin the Russian court now as ambassador of Saxony the following January.Still in St. Petersburg, he appears to have been a source of intrigue between various European governments, some supporting his appointment, others demanding his withdrawal. He eventually left the Russian capital on 14 August 1758. Poniatowski attended the Sejms of 1758, 1760 and 1762. He continued his involvement with the Familia, and supported a pro-Russian and anti-Prussian stance in Polish politics. His father died in 1762, leaving him a modest inheritance. In 1762, when Catherine ascended the Russian throne, she sent him several letters professing her support for his own ascension to the Polish throne, but asking him to stay away from St. Petersburg. Nevertheless, Poniatowski hoped that Catherine would consider his offer of marriage, an idea seen as plausible by some international observers.He participated in the failed plot by the Familia to stage a coup d'état against King <mask> III. In August 1763, however, Catherine advised him and the Familia that she would not support a coup as long as King <mask> was alive. Kingship

Years of hope

Upon the death of Poland's King <mask> III in October 1763, lobbying began for the election of the new king. Catherine threw her support behind <mask>. The Russians spent about 2.5m rubles in

masks: Augustus Augustus Augustus Poniatowski


texts: aid of his election. <mask>'s supporters and opponents engaged in some military posturing and even minor clashes. In the end, the Russian army was deployed only a few kilometres from the election sejm, which met at Wola near Warsaw.In the event, there were no other serious contenders, and during the convocation sejm on 7 September 1764, 32-year-old Poniatowski was elected king, with 5,584 votes. He swore the pacta conventa on 13 November, and a formal coronation took place in Warsaw on 25 November. The new king's "uncles" in the Familia would have preferred another nephew on the throne, Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski, characterized by one of his contemporaries as "débauché, si non dévoyé" (French: "debauched if not depraved"), but Czartoryski had declined to seek office. "<mask> <mask>", as he now styled himself combining the names of his two immediate royal predecessors, began his rule with only mixed support within the nation. It was mainly the small nobility who favoured his election. In his first years on the throne he attempted to introduce a number of reforms. He founded the Knights School, and began to form a diplomatic service, with semi-permanent diplomatic representatives throughout Europe, Russia and the Ottoman Empire.On 7 May 1765, Poniatowski established the Order of the Knights of Saint Stanislaus, in honour of Saint Stanislaus of Krakow, Bishop and Martyr, Poland's and his own patron saint, as the country's second order of chivalry, to reward Poles and others for noteworthy service to the King. Together with the Familia he tried to reform the ineffective

masks: Poniatowski Stanisław August


texts:
 system of government, by reducing the powers of the hetmans (Commonwealth's top military commanders) and treasurers, moving them to commissions elected by the Sejm and accountable to the King. In his memoirs, Poniatowski called this period the "years of hope." The Familia, which was interested in strengthening its own power base, was dissatisfied with his conciliatory attitude as he reached out to many former opponents of their policies. This uneasy alliance between Poniatowski and the Familia continued for most of the first decade of his rule. One of the points of contention between Poniatowski and the Familia concerned the rights of religious minorities in Poland. Whereas Poniatowski reluctantly supported a policy of religious tolerance, the Familia was opposed to it.The growing rift between Poniatowski and the Familia was exploited by the Russians, who used the issue as a pretext to intervene in the Commonwealth's internal politics and to destabilize the country. Catherine had no wish to see Poniatowski's reform succeed. She had supported his ascent to the throne to ensure the Commonwealth remained a virtual puppet state under Russian control, so his attempts to reform the Commonwealth's ailing government structures were a threat to the status quo. The Bar Confederation and First Partition of Poland
Matters came to a head in 1766. During the Sejm in October of that year, Poniatowski attempted to push through a radical reform, restricting the disastrous liberum veto provision. He was opposed by conservatives such as Michał Wielhorski, who were supported by the Prussian


texts: and Russian ambassadors and who threatened war if the reform was passed. The dissidents, supported by the Russians, formed the Radom Confederation.Abandoned by the Familia, <mask>'s reforms failed to pass at the Repnin Sejm, named after Russian ambassador Nicholas Repnin, who promised to guarantee with all the might of the Russian Empire the Golden Liberties of the Polish nobility, enshrined in the Cardinal Laws. Although it had abandoned the cause of Poniatowski's reforms, the Familia did not receive the support it expected from the Russians who continued to press for the conservatives' rights. Meanwhile, other factions now rallied under the banner of the Bar Confederation, aimed against the conservatives, Poniatowski and the Russians. After an unsuccessful attempt to raise allies in Western Europe, France, England and Austria, Poniatowski and the Familia had no choice but to rely more heavily on the Russian Empire, which treated Poland as a protectorate. In the War of the Bar Confederation (1768–1772), Poniatowski supported the Russian army's repression of the Bar Confederation. In 1770, the Council of the Bar Confederation proclaimed him dethroned. The following year, he was kidnapped by Bar Confederates and was briefly held prisoner outside of Warsaw, but he managed to escape.In view of the continuing weakness of the Polish-Lithuanian state, Austria, Russia, and Prussia collaborated to threaten military intervention in exchange for substantial territorial concessions from the Commonwealth – a decision they made without consulting Poniatowski or any other Polish


texts: parties. Although Poniatowski protested against the First Partition of the Commonwealth (1772), he was powerless to do anything about it. He considered abdication, but decided against it. During the Partition Sejm of 1773–1775, in which Russia was represented by ambassador Otto von Stackelberg, with no allied assistance forthcoming from abroad and with the armies of the partitioning powers occupying Warsaw to compel the Sejm by force of arms, no alternative was available save submission to their will. Eventually Poniatowski and the Sejm acceded to the "partition treaty". At the same time, several other reforms were passed. The Cardinal Laws were confirmed and guaranteed by the partitioning powers.Royal prerogative was restricted, so that the King lost the power to confer titular roles, and military promotions, to appoint ministers and senators. Starostwo territories, and Crown lands would be awarded by auction. The Sejm also created two notable institutions: the Permanent Council, a government body in continuous operation, and the Commission of National Education. The partitioning powers intended the council to be easier to control than the unruly Sejms, and indeed it remained under the influence of the Russian Empire. Nevertheless, it was a significant improvement on the earlier Commonwealth governance. The new legislation was guaranteed by the Russian Empire, giving it licence to interfere in Commonwealth politics when legislation it favoured was threatened. The aftermath of the Partition Sejm saw the rise of a conservative faction opposed to the Permanent Council,


texts:
 seeing it as a threat to their Golden Freedoms.This faction was supported by the Czartoryski family, but not by <mask>, who proved to be quite adept at making the Council follow his wishes. This marked the formation of new anti-royal and pro-royal factions in Polish politics. The royal faction was made up primarily of people indebted to the King, who planned to build their careers on service to him. Few were privy to his plans for reforms, which were kept hidden from the conservative opposition and Russia. <mask> scored a political victory during the Sejm of 1776, which further strengthened the council. Chancellor Andrzej Zamoyski was tasked with the codification of the Polish law, a project that became known as the Zamoyski Code. Russia supported some, but not all, of the 1776 reforms, and to prevent <mask> from growing too powerful, it supported the opposition during the Sejm of 1778.This marked the end of <mask>'s reforms, as he found himself without sufficient support to carry them through. The Great Sejm and the Constitution of 3 May 1791
In the 1780s, Catherine appeared to favour Poniatowski marginally over the opposition, but she did not support any of his plans for significant reform. Despite repeated attempts, <mask> failed to confederate the sejms, which would have made them immune to the liberum veto. Thus, although he had a majority in the Sejms, Poniatowski was unable to pass even the smallest reform. The Zamoyski Code was rejected by the Sejm of 1780, and opposition attacks on the King dominated the Sejms of 1782 and 1786. Reforms became possible again in the

masks: Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski


texts: late 1780s. In the context of the wars being waged against the Ottoman Empire by both the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire, Poniatowski tried to draw Poland into the Austro-Russian alliance, seeing a war with the Ottomans as an opportunity to strengthen the Commonwealth.Catherine gave permission for the next Sejm to be called, as she considered some form of limited military alliance with Poland against the Ottomans might be useful. The Polish-Russian alliance was not implemented, as in the end the only acceptable compromise proved unattractive to both sides. However, in the ensuing Four-Year Sejm of 1788–92 (known as the Great Sejm), <mask> threw his lot in with the reformers associated with the Patriotic Party of <mask> Małachowski, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj, and co-authored the Constitution of 3 May 1791. The Constitution introduced sweeping reforms. According to Jacek Jędruch, the Constitution, despite its liberal provisions, "fell somewhere below the French, above the Canadian, and left the General State Laws for the Prussian States (in German: Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preußischen Staaten) far behind", but was "no match for the American Constitution". George Sanford notes that the Constitution gave Poland "a constitutional monarchy close to the English model of the time." According to a contemporary account, <mask> himself described it, as "founded principally on those of England and the United States of America, but avoiding the faults and errors of both, and adapted as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country."The

masks: Poniatowski Stanisław Poniatowski


texts: Constitution of 3 May remained to the end a work in progress. A new civil and criminal code (provisionally called the "Stanisław Augustus Code") was among the proposals. Poniatowski also planned a reform to improve the situation of Polish Jews. In foreign policy, spurned by Russia, Poland turned to another potential ally, the Triple Alliance, represented on the Polish diplomatic scene primarily by the Kingdom of Prussia, which led to the formation of the ultimately futile Polish–Prussian alliance. The pro-Prussian shift was not supported by <mask>, who nevertheless acceded to the decision of the majority of Sejm deputies. The passing of the Constitution of 3 May, although officially applauded by Frederick William II of Prussia, who sent a congratulatory note to Warsaw, caused further worry in Prussia. The contacts of Polish reformers with the revolutionary French National Assembly were seen by Poland's neighbours as evidence of a conspiracy and a threat to their absolute monarchies.Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives: "The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting in a constitution", elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition; a similar sentiment was later expressed by Prussian Foreign Minister, Count Friedrich Wilhelm von der Schulenburg-Kehnert. Russia's wars with the Ottomans and Sweden having ended, Catherine was furious over the adoption of the Constitution, which threatened Russian influence in Poland. One of


texts:
 Russia's chief foreign policy authors, Alexander Bezborodko, upon learning of the Constitution, commented that "the worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw: the Polish king has become almost sovereign." War in Defence of the Constitution and fall of the Commonwealth

Shortly thereafter, conservative Polish nobility formed the Targowica Confederation to overthrow the Constitution, which they saw as a threat to the traditional freedoms and privileges they enjoyed. The confederates aligned themselves with Russia's Catherine the Great, and the Russian army entered Poland, marking the start of the Polish–Russian War of 1792, also known as the War in Defence of the Constitution. The Sejm voted to increase the Polish Army to 100,000 men, but due to insufficient time and funds this number was never achieved. Poniatowski and the reformers could field only a 37,000-man army, many of them untested recruits.This army, under the command of the King's nephew Józef <mask> and Tadeusz Kościuszko, managed to defeat the Russians or fight them to a draw on several occasions. Following the victorious Battle of Zieleńce, in which Polish forces were commanded by his nephew, the King founded a new order, the Order of Virtuti Militari, to reward Poles for exceptional military leadership and courage in combat. Despite Polish requests, Prussia refused to honour its alliance obligations. In the end, the numerical superiority of the Russians was too great, and defeat looked inevitable. <mask>'s attempts at negotiations with Russia proved futile. In July 1792, when Warsaw was threatened with

masks: Poniatowski Poniatowski


texts:
 siege by the Russians, the king came to believe that surrender was the only alternative to total defeat. Having received assurances from Russian ambassador Yakov Bulgakov that no territorial changes would occur, a cabinet of ministers called the Guard of Laws (or Guardians of Law, ) voted eight to four in favor of surrender.On 24 July 1792, Poniatowski joined the Targowica Confederation. The Polish Army disintegrated. Many reform leaders, believing their cause lost, went into self-exile, although they hoped that Poniatowski would be able to negotiate an acceptable compromise with the Russians, as he had done in the past. Poniatowski had not saved the Commonwealth, however. He and the reformers had lost much of their influence, both within the country and with Catherine. Neither were the Targowica Confederates victorious. To their surprise, there ensued the Second Partition of Poland.With the new deputies bribed or intimidated by the Russian troops, the Grodno Sejm took place. On 23 November 1793, it annulled all acts of the Great Sejm, including the Constitution. Faced with his powerlessness, Poniatowski once again considered abdication; in the meantime he tried to salvage whatever reforms he could. Final years

<mask>'s plans had been ruined by the Kościuszko Uprising. The King had not encouraged it, but once it began he supported it, seeing no other honourable option. Its defeat marked the end of the Commonwealth. Poniatowski tried to govern the country in the brief period after the fall of the Uprising, but on 2 December 1794, Catherine demanded he leave Warsaw, a


texts: request to which he acceded on 7 January 1795, leaving the capital under Russian military escort and settling briefly in Grodno.On 24 October 1795, the Act of the final, Third Partition of Poland was signed. One month and one day later, on 25 November, <mask> signed his abdication. Reportedly, his sister, Ludwika Maria Zamoyska and her daughter also his favourite niece, Urszula Zamoyska, who had been threatened with confiscation of their property, had contributed to persuading him to sign the abdication: they feared that his refusal would lead to a Russian confiscation of their properties and their ruin. Catherine died on 17 November 1796, succeeded by her son, Paul I of Russia. On 15 February 1797, <mask> left for Saint Petersburg. He had hoped to be allowed to travel abroad, but was unable to secure permission to do so. A virtual prisoner in St. Petersburg's Marble Palace, he subsisted on a pension granted to him by Catherine.Despite financial troubles, he still supported some of his former allies, and continued to try to represent the Polish cause at the Russian court. He also worked on his memoirs. <mask> died of a stroke on 12 February 1798. Paul I sponsored a royal state funeral, and on 3 March he was buried at the Catholic Church of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg. In 1938, when the Soviet Union planned to demolish the Church, his remains were transferred to the Second Polish Republic and interred in a church at Wołczyn, his birthplace. This was done in secret and caused controversy in Poland when the matter became known. In 1990, due to the poor state of the

masks: Poniatowski Poniatowski Poniatowski


texts:
 Wołczyn church (then in the Byelorussian SSR), his body was once more exhumed and was brought to Poland, to St. John's Cathedral in Warsaw, where on 3 May 1791 he had celebrated the adoption of the Constitution that he had coauthored.A third funeral ceremony was held on 14 February 1995. Legacy

Patron of culture

<mask> <mask> has been called the Polish Enlightenment's most important patron of the arts. His cultural projects were attuned to his socio-political aims of overthrowing the myth of the Golden Freedoms and the traditional ideology of Sarmatism. His weekly "Thursday Dinners" were considered the most scintillating social functions in the Polish capital. He founded Warsaw's National Theatre, Poland's first public theatre, and sponsored an associated Ballet schoolsballet school. He remodeled Ujazdów Palace and the Royal Castle in Warsaw, and erected the elegant Łazienki (Royal Baths) Palace in Warsaw's Łazienki, Park. He involved himself deeply in the detail of his architectural projects, and his eclectic style has been dubbed the "Stanisław August style" by Polish art historian Władysław Tatarkiewicz.His chief architects included Domenico Merlini and Jan Kammsetzer. He was also patron to numerous painters. They included Poles such as his protégée, Anna Rajecka and Franciszek Smuglewicz, Jan Bogumił Plersch, son of Jan Jerzy Plersch, Józef Wall, and Zygmunt Vogel, as well as foreign painters including, Marcello Bacciarelli, Bernardo Bellotto, Jean Pillement, Ludwik Marteau, and Per Krafft the Elder. His retinue of sculptors, headed by André-Jean Lebrun, included

masks:
Stanisław
August Poniatowski


texts: Giacomo Monaldi, Franz Pinck, and Tommaso Righi. Jan Filip Holzhaeusser was his court engraver and the designer of many commemorative medals. According to a 1795 inventory, <mask> <mask>'s art collection, spread among numerous buildings, contained 2,889 pieces, including works by Rembrandt, Rubens, and van Dyck. His plan to create a large gallery of paintings in Warsaw was disrupted by the dismemberment of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.Most of the paintings that he had ordered for it can now be seen in London's Dulwich Picture Gallery. <mask> also planned to found an Academy of Fine Arts, but this finally came about only after his abdication and departure from Warsaw. Poniatowski accomplished much in the realm of education and literature. He established the School of Chivalry, also called the "Cadet Corps", which functioned from 1765 to 1794 and whose alumni included Tadeusz Kościuszko. He supported the creation of the Commission of National Education, considered to be the world's first Ministry of Education. In 1765 he helped found the Monitor, one of the first Polish newspapers and the leading periodical of the Polish Enlightenment. He sponsored many articles that appeared in the Monitor.Writers and poets who received his patronage included, <mask> Trembecki, Franciszek Salezy Jezierski, Franciszek Bohomolec and Franciszek Zabłocki. He also supported publishers including, Piotr Świtkowski, and library owners such as Józef Lex. He supported the development of the sciences, particularly cartography; he hired a personal cartographer, Karol de Perthees, even before he

masks: Stanisław August Poniatowski Stanisław


texts:
 was elected king. A plan he initiated to map the entire territory of the Commonwealth, however, was never finished. At the Royal Castle in Warsaw, he organized an astronomical observatory and supported astronomers Jan Śniadecki and Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt. He also sponsored historical studies, including the collection, cataloging and copying of historical manuscripts. He encouraged publications of biographies of famous Polish historical figures, and sponsored paintings and sculptures of them.For his contributions to the arts and sciences, <mask> was awarded in 1766 a royal Fellowship of the Royal Society, where he became the first royal Fellow outside British royalty. In 1778 he was awarded fellowship of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and in 1791 of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He also supported the development of industry and manufacturing, areas in which the Commonwealth lagged behind most of Western Europe. Among the endeavours in which he invested were the manufacture of cannons and firearms and the mining industry. Poniatowski himself left several literary works: his memoirs, some political brochures and recorded speeches from the Sejm. He was considered a great orator and a skilled conversationalist. Conflicting assessments
King <mask> <mask> remains a controversial figure.In Polish historiography and in popular works, he has been criticized or marginalized by authors such as, Szymon Askenazy, Joachim Lelewel, Jerzy Łojek whom Andrzej Zahorski describes as <mask>'s most vocal critic among modern historians, Tadeusz Korzon, Karol Zyszewski and

masks: Poniatowski Stanisław Augustus Poniatowski


texts: Krystyna Zienkowska; whereas more neutral or positive views have been expressed by Paweł Jasienica, Walerian Kalinka, Władysław Konopczyński, <mask> Mackiewicz, Emanuel Rostworowski and <mask> Wasylewski. When elected to the throne, he was seen by many as simply an "instrument for displacing the somnolent Saxons from the throne of Poland", yet as the British historian, Norman Davies notes, "he turned out to be an ardent patriot, and a convinced reformer." Still, according to many, his reforms did not go far enough, leading to accusations that he was being overly cautious, even indecisive, a fault to which he himself admitted. His decision to rely on Russia has been often criticized. Poniatowski saw Russia as a "lesser evil" – willing to support the notional "independence" of a weak Poland within the Russian sphere of influence. However, in the event Russia imposed the Partitions of Poland rather than choose to support internal reform. He was accused by others of weakness and subservience, even of treason, especially in the years following the Second Partition.During the Kościuszko Uprising, there were rumours that Polish Jacobins had been planning a coup d'état and <mask>'s assassination. Another line of criticism alleged poor financial management on his part. Poniatowski actually had little personal wealth. Most of his income came from Crown Estates and monopolies. His lavish patronage of the arts and sciences was a major drain on the royal treasury. He also supported numerous public initiatives, and attempted to use the royal treasury to cover the state's expenses when

masks: Stanisław Stanisław Poniatowski


texts:
 tax revenues were insufficient. The Sejm promised several times to compensate his treasury to little practical effect.Nonetheless contemporary critics frequently accused him of being a spendthrift. Andrzej Zahorski dedicated a book to a discussion of Poniatowski, The Dispute over Stanisław August (Spór o Stanisława Augusta, Warsaw, 1988). He notes that the discourse concerning Poniatowski is significantly coloured by the fact that he was the last King of Poland – the King who failed to save the country. This failure, and his prominent position, rendered him a convenient scapegoat for many. Zahorski argues that Poniatowski made the error of joining the Targowica Confederation. Although he wanted to preserve the integrity of the Polish state, it was far too late for that – he succeeded instead in cementing the damage to his own reputation for succeeding centuries. Remembrance

Poniatowski has been the subject of numerous biographies and many works of art.Voltaire, who saw Poniatowski as a model reformist, based his character, King Teucer in the play Les Lois de Minos (1772) on Poniatowski. At least 58 contemporary poems were dedicated to him or praised him. Since then, he has been a major character in many works of Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, in the Rok 1794 trilogy by Władysław <mask> Reymont, in the novels of Tadeusz Łopalewski, and in the dramas of Ignacy Grabowski, Tadeusz Miciński, Roman Brandstaetter and Bogdan Śmigielski. He is discussed in Luise Mühlbach's novel Joseph II and His Court, and appears in Jane Porter's 1803 novel, Thaddeus of Warsaw. On screen he has been


texts:
 played by Wieńczysław Gliński in the 1976 3 Maja directed by Grzegorz Królikiewicz. He appears in a Russian TV series. Poniatowski is depicted in numerous portraits, medals and coins.He is prominent in Jan Matejko's work, especially in the 1891 painting, Constitution of 3 May 1791 and in another large canvas, Rejtan, and in his series of portraits of Polish monarchs. A bust of Poniatowski was unveiled in Łazienki Palace in 1992. A number of cities in Poland have streets named after him, including Kraków and Warsaw. Family
Poniatowski never married. In his youth, he had loved his cousin Elżbieta Czartoryska, but her father <mask> Czartoryski disapproved because he did not think him influential or rich enough. When this was no longer an issue, she was already married. His pacta conventa specified that he should marry a Polish noblewoman, although he himself always hoped to marry into some royal family.Upon his accession to the throne, he had hopes of marrying Catherine II, writing to her on 2 November 1763 in a moment of doubt, "If I desired the throne, it was because I saw you on it." When she made it clear through his envoy Rzewuski that she would not marry him, there were hopes of an Austrian archduchess, Archduchess Maria Elisabeth of Austria (1743–1808). A marriage to Princess Sophia Albertina of Sweden was suggested despite the religious differences, but this match was opposed by his sisters, Ludwika Maria Poniatowska and Izabella Poniatowska, and nothing came of it. The ceremonial role of queen and hostess of his court was played by his favourite niece, Urszula


texts:
 Zamoyska. A few historians believe that he later contracted a secret marriage with Elżbieta Szydłowska. However, according to Wirydianna Fiszerowa, a contemporary who knew them both, this rumour only spread after the death of Poniatowski, was generally disbelieved, and moreover, was circulated by Elżbieta herself, so the marriage is considered by most to be unlikely. He had several notable lovers, including Elżbieta Branicka, who acted as his political adviser and financier,  and had children with two of them.With Magdalena Agnieszka Sapieżyna (1739–1780), he became the father of Konstancja Żwanowa (1768–1810) and Michał Cichocki (1770–1828). With Elżbieta Szydłowska (1748–1810), he became the father of <mask> Konopnicy-Grabowski (1780–1845), Michał Grabowski (1773–1812), Kazimierz Grabowski (1770-? ), Konstancja Grabowska and Izabela Grabowska (1776–1858). Issue

Titles, honours and arms

The English translation of the Polish text of the 1791 Constitution gives his title as Stanisław August, by the grace of God and the will of the people, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and Duke of Ruthenia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Kiev, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlasie, Livonia, Smolensk, Severia and Chernihiv. National
 : Order of the White Eagle (1756)
 : Order of Saint Stanislaus (1765)
 : Order of Virtuti Militari (1792)

Foreign
  Prussia: Order of the Black Eagle (5 April 1764)
 : Order of Saint Andrew (1764)
 : Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky (1797)

See also
 History of Poland (1569–1795)
 Poles in the United Kingdom
 Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning

Notes

a


texts:
 Sources vary as to whether Konstancja Grabowska and Kazimierz Grabowski were <mask>'s children. They are listed as such by several sources, including Jerzy Michalski's article on <mask> <mask> in the Polish Biographical Dictionary. However, Marek Jerzy Minakowski's website on descendants of Great Sejm participants lists neither Kazimierz Grabowski nor Konstancja Grabowska as Poniatowski's children; and for Elżbieta Szydłowska, it lists only Kazimierz Grabowski as Jan Jerzy Grabowski's child.References

Further reading

Bibliography
 Marek Żukow-Karczewski, <mask> <mask> w Petersburgu (Stanisław August in Saint Petersburg), "Życie Literackie", No. 43, 1987, p. 1, 6. External links

 Biography at www.lazienki-krolewskie.pl (Official page of the Royal Łazienki Museum in Warsaw)
 <mask>, in: The Historical Geography of the Ciołek clan AD

masks:
Poniatowski
Stanisław
August Poniatowski
Stanisław
August
Poniatowski


texts:
Memphis Pal <mask>, born <mask>, was an American boxer from Memphis, who claimed the World Bantamweight Championship in 1918 defeating championship claimant Johnny Ertle in Baltimore. He was rated as the seventeenth best bantamweight of all time by boxing.com, and was elected to the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 2010. Managed by Tommy Walsh, <mask> fought over 200 fights. He fought over thirty bouts with fifteen world champions, of which he impressively won nineteen. Boxing record

Early boxing career
<mask> was born on July 28, 1894, in Kenton, Tennessee. Beginning in 1913 in the Memphis area, he was undefeated in his first 10 fights. On March 25, 1915, <mask> defeated Italian boxer Young Zulu Kid in a ten-round points decision in New Orleans, Louisiana.He would defeat the talented Zulu Kid two more times, on January 13, 1916, in an eight-round points decision in his hometown of Memphis and on August 5, 1916, in a ten-round newspaper decision in Brooklyn. On October 28, 1915, <mask> defeated gifted boxer Kid Williams decisively in a non-title, eight-round newspaper decision of The Washington Post. Williams was down twice in the bout. Williams had taken the World Bantamweight Championship in June 1914 and held it through 1917. As early as 1915, <mask> had clearly identified himself as a top bantamweight and a serious contender for the World Bantamweight Championship, but he would be granted precious few shots at the title. Defeating future bantamweight champion Pete Herman in early career

On November 15, 1915, <mask> defeated Pete Herman for the first time in an eight-round points decision in Memphis, Tennessee. On March 24, 1919, <mask> likely defeated Herman again according to the eight-round newspaper decision of the Memphis Commercial Appeal on March 24, 1919, at the New Lyric Theatre in Memphis.The bout was not recorded as a title match, but the title may have changed hands if <mask> had knocked out Herman. Herman held the World Bantamweight Championship

masks:
Moore
Thomas Wilson Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore


texts:
 almost continuously from January 1917 through September 1921 excluding the first seven months of 1921. Surprisingly, <mask> never had the opportunity to challenge Herman again for the World Bantamweight Title. On February 20, 1917, <mask> first met Jack "Kid" Wolfe, losing in a fourth-round technical knockout in Cleveland, Ohio. <mask> claimed he had broken his arm in the bout. Four months later, after healing, on June 18 of that year <mask> defeated Wolfe in an eight-round points decision in his home of Memphis. On May 3, 1920, <mask> would defeat Wolfe again in an eighth round points decision at the Southern Athletic Club in Memphis.In his career, Wolfe would take a version of the Jr. Featherweight Championship in September 1922 against Joe Lynch, thought the NYSAC did not recognize the title. <mask> fought Frankie Burns in Boston to a draw on July 24, 1917, and in a loss by decision on August 2, 1918, in Jersey City, New Jersey. Burns was a top-ranked bantamweight and would contend four times for the World Bantamweight Championship between 1912 and 1917. First bouts with Joe Lynch 1917-8
On October 27, 1917, <mask> first met Joe Lynch, drawing with him in ten rounds at the Fairmont Athletic Club in the Bronx. On December 21, 1917, he lost to Lynch at Thornton, Rhode Island in a twelve-round points decision. On January 11, 1918, he legitimately defeated Lynch in a twelve-round points decision in Providence. Boxing and serving with the US Navy at Great Lakes Station around WWI
He honed his boxing skills while serving as a sailor in the United States Navy.He served as a boxing instructor while in the Navy. He was selected as a boxing representative and sent to England for a tournament of the Allied nations after the end of World War I. He served at the historic Great Lakes Naval Station outside Chicago, and completed his service shortly after 1919. Claiming the World Bantamweight Championship, Johnny Ertle, April 1918
<mask> fought Johnny Ertle claimant of the World

masks: Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore


texts:
 Bantamweight championship in Baltimore on April 10, 1918, defeating Ertle by decision. The Indianapolis News wrote that <mask> had taken the decision with "great ease". <mask> claimed the World Bantamweight Championship as a result of this win, but was not universally recognized to have held the title and is not recognized today. <mask> had first defeated Ertle in a controversial eight-round decision on April 5, 1916, in Memphis.ISBA Allied Forces King's Trophy Bantamweight Competition

<mask> fought Jimmy Wilde on July 17, 1919, in London, while still in the Navy. The bout was part of the Finals for the ISBA King's Trophy Bantamweight Competition. <mask> won by decision and took the King's Bantamweight Trophy by some American accounts, but officially lost the decision according to the British referee and judges present at the bout. Wilde was the Welsh-born World Flyweight Champion impressively for seven years from 1916-1923, and held the title at the time of his bout with <mask>. Match with French champion Eugene Criqui, December 1919
On December 26, 1919, while still serving in the US Navy, <mask> defeated the great French boxer Eugene Criqui at the Royal Albert Hall in Kensington, London in a fourteenth-round technical knockout. According to the Scranton Republican, Criqui was "severely trounced" and the blow that ended the battle was a right hook to the stomach, which the referee did not call as a low blow. The audience contained a number of Americans, including <mask>'s fellow navy companions.Criqui would hold the French Featherweight Title in 1921, the European Featherweight Title in 1922, and the World Featherweight Title in 1923. On March 19, 1920, he defeated Johnny Buff in an eighth-round newspaper decision of the Wilkes-Barre Times Leader. Buff would take the World Bantamweight Championship on September 23, 1921. In another meeting, on December 15, 1921, <mask> defeated Buff in a ten-round newspaper decision of the Milwaukee Journal in Milwaukee. Bouts

masks: Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore Moore