texts: Johannes Matthiae, influenced by John Dury and Comenius, who since 1638 had been working on a new Swedish school system, represented a gentler attitude than most Lutherans. In 1644, he suggested a new church order, but it was voted down as this was interpreted as Crypto-Calvinism. Queen Christina defended him against the advice of Chancellor Oxenstierna, but three years later, the proposal had to be withdrawn. In 1647, the clergy wanted to introduce the Book of Concord () – a book defining correct Lutheranism versus heresy, making some aspects of free theological thinking impossible. Matthiae was strongly opposed to this and was again backed by Christina. The Book of Concord was not introduced. She had long conversations about Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Bacon, and Kepler with Antonio Macedo, secretary, and interpreter for Portugal's ambassador.Macedo was a Jesuit, and in August 1651, smuggled on his person a letter from Christina to his general in Rome. In reply, Paolo Casati and Francesco Malines came to Sweden in the spring of 1652, trained in both natural sciences and theology. She had more conversations with them, being interested in Catholic views on sin, the immortality of the soul, rationality, and free will. The two scholars revealed her plans to Cardinal Fabio Chigi. Around May 1652 Christina decided to become Catholic. She sent Matthias Palbitzki to Madrid; in August King Philip IV of Spain sent the Spanish diplomat Antonio Pimentel de Prado to Stockholm. After reigning almost twenty years, working at least ten hours a day, Christina had what some have interpreted as a nervous breakdown.She suffered


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 from high blood pressure, complained about bad eyesight and pain in her neck. Grégoire François Du Rietz, since 1642 the court physician, was called when she suddenly collapsed in 1651. In February 1652, the French doctor Pierre Bourdelot arrived in Stockholm. Unlike most doctors of that time, he held no faith in blood-letting; instead, he ordered sufficient sleep, warm baths, and healthy meals, as opposed to Christina's hitherto ascetic way of life. She was only twenty-five and advising that she should take more pleasure in life, Bourdelot asked her to stop studying and working so hard and to remove the books from her apartments. For years, Christina knew by heart all the sonnets from the Ars Amatoria and was keen on the works by Martial and Petronius. The physician showed her the 16 erotic sonnets of Pietro Aretino, which he kept secretly in his luggage.By subtle means Bourdelot undermined her principles. Having been stoic, she now became an Epicurean. Her mother and de la Gardie were very much against the activities of Bourdelot and tried to convince her to change her attitude towards him; Bourdelot returned to France in 1653 "laden in riches and curses". Abdication

When Christina decided she wanted her first cousin Charles to be heir to the throne, she agreed to stay on the condition the councils never again asked her to marry. In 1651, Christina lost much of her popularity after the beheading of Arnold Johan Messenius, together with his 17-year-old son, who had accused her of serious misbehavior and of being a "Jezebel". According to them "Christina was bringing everything to ruin, and that she cared


texts: for nothing but sport and pleasure." In 1653, she founded the Amaranten order.Antonio Pimentel was appointed as its first knight; all members had to promise not to marry (again). In the same year, she ordered Vossius (and Heinsius) to make a list of about 6,000 books and manuscripts to be packed and shipped to Antwerp. In February 1654, she plainly told the Council of her plans to abdicate. Oxenstierna told her she would regret her decision within a few months. In May, the Riksdag discussed her proposals. She had asked for 200,000 rikstalers a year, but received dominions instead. Financially she was secured through a pension and revenue from the town of Norrköping, the isles of Gotland, Öland Ösel and Poel, Wolgast, and Neukloster in Mecklenburg and estates in Pomerania.Her plan to convert was not the only reason for her abdication, as there was increasing discontent with her arbitrary and wasteful ways. Within ten years, she and Oxenstierna had created 17 counts, 46 barons and 428 lesser nobles. To provide these new peers with adequate appanages, they had sold or mortgaged crown property representing an annual income of 1,200,000 rikstalers. During the ten years of her reign, the number of noble families increased from 300 to about 600, rewarding people such as Lennart Torstenson, Du Rietz, Louis De Geer and Johan Palmstruch for their efforts. These donations took place with such haste that they were not always registered, and on some occasions, the same piece of land was given away twice. Christina abdicated her throne on 6 June 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustav. During the abdication ceremony at


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 Uppsala Castle, Christina wore her regalia, which were ceremonially removed from her, one by one.Per Brahe, who was supposed to remove the crown, did not move, so she had to take the crown off herself. Dressed in a simple white taffeta dress, she gave her farewell speech with a faltering voice, thanked everyone, and left the throne to Charles X Gustav, who was dressed in black. Per Brahe felt that she "stood there as pretty as an angel." Charles Gustav was crowned later on that day. Christina left the country within a few days. Departure and exile

In the summer of 1654, Christina left Sweden in men's clothing with the help of Bernardino de Rebolledo, and rode as Count Dohna, through Denmark. Relations between the two countries were still so tense that a former Swedish queen could not have traveled safely in Denmark.Christina had already packed and shipped abroad valuable books, paintings, statues, and tapestries from her Stockholm castle, leaving its treasures severely depleted. Christina visited Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and while there thought that her successor should have a bride. She sent letters recommending two of the Duke's daughters to Charles. Based on this recommendation, he married Hedwig Eleonora. On 10 July Christina arrived in Hamburg and stayed with Jacob Curiel at Krameramtsstuben. Christina visited Johann Friedrich Gronovius, and Anna Maria van Schurman in the Dutch Republic. In August, she arrived in the Southern Netherlands and settled down in Antwerp.For four months Christina was lodged in the mansion of a Jewish merchant. She was visited by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of


texts: Austria; the Prince de Condé, the ambassador Pierre Chanut, as well as the former governor of Norway, Hannibal Sehested. In the afternoons she went for a ride, and each evening parties were held; there was a play to watch or music to listen to. Christina ran quickly out of money and had to sell some of her tapestries, silverware, and jewelry. When her financial situation did not improve, the archduke invited her to his Brussels palace on Coudenberg. On  24 December 1654, she converted to the Catholic faith in the archduke's chapel in the presence of  the Dominican Juan Guêmes,  Raimondo Montecuccoli and Pimentel. Baptized as Kristina Augusta, she adopted the name Christina Alexandra.She did not declare her conversion in public, in case the Swedish council might refuse to pay her alimony. In addition, Sweden was preparing for war against Pomerania, which meant that her income from there was considerably reduced. The pope and Philip IV of Spain could not support her openly either, as she was not publicly a Catholic yet. Christina succeeded in arranging a major loan, leaving books and statues to settle her debts. In September, she left for Italy with her entourage of 255 persons and 247 horses. The pope's messenger, the librarian Lucas Holstenius, himself a convert, waited for her in Innsbruck. On 3 November 1655, Christina announced her conversion to Catholicism in the Hofkirche and wrote to Pope Alexander VII and her cousin Charles X about it.To celebrate her official conversion, , an opera by Antonio Cesti, was performed. Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria, already in financial trouble, is said to have


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 been almost ruined by her visit. Her departure was on 8 November. Setting off to Rome

The southbound journey through Italy was planned in detail by the Vatican and had a brilliant triumph in Ferrara, Bologna, Faenza and Rimini. In Pesaro, Christina became acquainted with the handsome brothers Santinelli, who so impressed her with their poetry and adeptness of dancing that she took them into service, as well as a certain Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi. The official entry into Rome took place on 20 December, in a couch designed by Bernini through Porta Flaminia, which today is known as Porta del Popolo. Christina met Bernini on the next day, she invited him to her apartment the same evening and they became lifelong friends."Two days afterwards she was conducted to the Vatican Basilica, where the pope gave her confirmation. It was then that she received from the pope her second name of Alexandra, the feminine form of his own." She was granted her own wing inside the Vatican, decorated by Bernini. Christina's visit to Rome was the triumph of Pope Alexander VII and the occasion for splendid Baroque festivities. For several months, she was the only preoccupation of the Pope and his court. The nobles vied for her attention and treated her to a never-ending round of fireworks, jousts, mock duels, acrobatics, and operas. On 31 January Vita Humana an opera by Marco Marazzoli was performed.At the Palazzo Barberini, where she was welcomed on 28 February by a few hundred privileged spectators, she watched an amazing carousel in the courtyard. Palazzo Farnese

Christina had settled down in the Palazzo Farnese, which belonged


texts: to the Duke of Parma. Every Wednesday she held the palace open to visitors from the higher classes who kept themselves busy with poetry and intellectual discussions. Christina opened an academy in the palace on 24 January 1656, called Academy of Arcadia, where the participants enjoyed music, theater, and literature. The poet Reyer Anslo was presented to her. Belonging to the Arcadia-circle was also Francesco Negri, a Franciscan from Ravenna who is regarded as the first tourist to visit North Cape, Norway. Another Franciscan was the Swede Lars Skytte, who, under the name pater Laurentius, served as Christina's confessor for eight years.Twenty-nine-year-old Christina gave occasion to much gossip when socializing freely with men her own age. One of them was Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who had been a secretary to the ambassador in Spain, and responsible for the Vatican's correspondence with European courts. He was also the leader of the Squadrone Volante, the free-thinking "Flying Squad" movement within the Catholic Church. Christina and Azzolino were so close that the pope asked him to shorten his visits to her palace, but they remained lifelong friends. In a letter on 26 January 1676 to Azzolino Christina writes (in French) that she would never offend God or give Azzolino reason to take offense, but this "does not prevent me from loving you until death, and since piety relieves you from being my lover, then I relieve you from being my servant, for I shall live and die as your slave." As he had promised to remain celibate, his replies were more reserved. In the meantime Christina learned that the Swedes had


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 confiscated all her revenue as the princess had become a Catholic.Visits to France and Italy

King Philip IV of Spain ruled the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples. The French politician Mazarin, an Italian himself, had attempted to liberate Naples from Spanish rule, against which the locals had fought before the Neapolitan Republic was created. A second expedition in 1654 had failed and the Duke of Guise gave up. Christina's goal was to become a mediator between France and Spain in their contest to control Naples. Her plan detailed that she would lead French troops to take Naples and rule until bequeathing the crown to France after her death. Christina sent home all her Spanish servants, including her confidant Pimentel and her confessor Guêmes. On 20 July 1656 Christina set sail from Civitavecchia for Marseille where she arrived nine days later.In early August, she traveled to Paris, accompanied by the Duke of Guise. Mazarin gave her no official sponsorship but gave instructions that she be celebrated and entertained in every town on her way north. On 8 September she arrived in Paris and was shown around; ladies were shocked by her masculine appearance and demeanor and the unguarded freedom of her conversation. When visiting the ballet with la Grande Mademoiselle, she, as the latter recalls, "surprised me very much – applauding the parts which pleased her, taking God to witness, throwing herself back in her chair, crossing her legs, resting them on the arms of her chair, and assuming other postures, such as I had never seen taken but by Travelin and Jodelet, two famous buffoons... She was in all


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 respects a most extraordinary creature". Christina was treated with respect by the young Louis XIV and his mother, Anne of Austria, in Compiègne. On 22 September 1656, the arrangement between her and Louis XIV was ready. He would recommend Christina as queen to the Kingdom of Naples and serve as guarantor against Spanish aggression.As Queen of Naples, she would be financially independent of the Swedish king, and also capable of negotiating peace between France and Spain. On her way back Christina visited the beautiful and atheistic Ninon de l'Enclos in the convent at Lagny-sur-Marne. In early October, she left France and arrived in Torino. During the winter Christina lived in the apostolic palace in Pesaro, probably to flee the plague which infested several regions including Naples. During the Naples Plague (1656) almost half of the population died within two years.) In July 1657, she returned to France, likely being impatient. It is not known where she stayed that summer.The death of Monaldeschi

On 15 October 1657 apartments were assigned to her at the Palace of Fontainebleau, where she committed an action that stained her memory: the execution of marchese Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi, her master of the horse and formerly leader of the French party in Rome. For two months she had suspected Monaldeschi of disloyalty; she secretly seized his correspondence, which revealed that he had betrayed her interests. Christina gave three packages of letters to Le Bel, a priest, to keep them for her in custody. Three days later, at one o'clock on Saturday afternoon, she summoned Monaldeschi into the Galerie des Cerfs,


texts: discussing the matter and letters with him. He insisted that betrayal should be punished with death. She was convinced that he had pronounced his own death sentence. After an hour or so Le Bel was to receive his confession.Both Le Bel and Monaldeschi entreated for mercy, but he was stabbed by her domestics – notably Ludovico Santinelli – in his stomach and in his neck. Wearing his coat of mail, which protected him, he was chased around in an adjacent room before they finally succeeded in dealing him a fatal wound in his throat. "In the end, he died, confessing his infamy and admitting [Santinelli's] innocence, protesting that he had invented the whole fantastic story in order to ruin [him]." Father Le Bel was told to have him buried inside the church, and Christina, seemingly unfazed, paid an abbey to say a number of Masses for his soul. She "was sorry that she had been forced to undertake this execution, but claimed that justice had been carried out for his crime and betrayal. Mazarin, who had sent her old friend Chanut, advised Christina to place the blame due to a brawl among courtiers, but she insisted that she alone was responsible for the act. She wrote to Louis XIV who two weeks later paid her a friendly visit without mentioning it.In Rome, people felt differently; Monaldeschi had been an Italian nobleman, murdered by a foreign barbarian with Santinelli as one of her executioners. The letters proving his guilt are gone; Christina left them with Le Bel and only he confirmed that they existed. Christina never revealed what was in the letters, but according to Le Bel, it is supposed to have dealt with her


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 "amours", either with Monaldeschi or another person. She herself wrote her version of the story for circulation in Europe. The killing of Monaldeschi in a French palace was legal, since Christina had judicial rights over the members of her court, as her vindicator Gottfried Leibniz claimed. As her contemporaries saw it, Christina as queen had to emphasize right and wrong, and her sense of duty was strong. She continued to regard herself as queen regnant all her life.She would gladly have visited England, but she received no encouragement from Cromwell and stayed in Fontainebleau as nobody else offered her a place. Anne of Austria, the mother of Louis XIV, was impatient to be rid of her cruel guest; Christina had no choice but to depart. She returned to Rome and dismissed Santinelli in 1659, claiming to be her ambassador in Vienna without her approval. Back to Rome

On  15 May 1658, Christina arrived in Rome for the second time, but this time it was definitely no triumph. With the execution of Monaldeschi, her popularity was lost. Pope Alexander VII remained in his summer residence and wanted no further visits from her. He described her as 'a woman born of a barbarian, barbarously brought up and living with barbarous thoughts [...] with a ferocious and almost intolerable pride'.She stayed at the Palazzo Rospigliosi, which belonged to Mazarin, the French cardinal, situated close to the Quirinal Palace; so the pope was enormously relieved when in July 1659, she moved to Trastevere to live in Palazzo Riario, below the Janiculum, designed by Bramante. It was Cardinal Azzolino, her "bookkeeper" who signed the


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 contract, as well as provided her with new servants to replace Francesco Santinelli, who had been Monaldeschi's executioner. The Riario Palace became her home for the rest of her life. She decorated the walls with tapestries by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi and paintings, mainly from the Venetian School and Renaissance; and almost no paintings from northern European painters, except Holbein, Van Dyck and Rubens. Her collections included very little religious subject matter and an abundance of mythological imagery, so it seems that Christina was also much interested in classical history, prompting misbegotten academic speculation about the genuineness of her conversion. No Roman collection of art could match hers. She owned Correggio's Danaë and two versions of Titian's Venus and Adonis, tapestries, sculpture, medaillons, drawings by Raphael, Michelangelo, Caravaggio, Titian, Veronese and  Goltzius and portraits of her friends Azzolino, Bernini, Ebba Sparre, Descartes, ambassador Chanut and doctor Bourdelot.Revisiting Sweden

In April 1660 Christina was informed that Charles X Gustav had died in February. His son, Charles XI, was only five years old. That summer,  she went to Sweden, pointing out that she had left the throne to her first cousin and his descendant, so if Charles XI died, she would take over the throne again. But as she was a Catholic that was impossible, and the clergy refused to let the priests in her entourage celebrate any Masses. Christina left Stockholm and went to Norrköping. Eventually she submitted to a second renunciation of the throne, spending a year in Hamburg to get her finances in


texts: order on her way back to Rome. Already in 1654, she had left her income to the banker Diego Teixeira in return for him sending her a monthly allowance and covering her debts in Antwerp.She visited the Teixeira family at Jungfernstieg and entertained them in her own lodgings. In the summer of 1662, she arrived in Rome for the third time, followed by some fairly happy years. A variety of complaints and allegations made her resolve in 1666 once more to return to Sweden. She proceeded no farther than Norrköping, where she received a decree she was only allowed to settle in Swedish Pomerania. Christina immediately decided to go back to Hamburg. There she was informed that Alexander VII, her patron and tormentor, had died in May 1667. The new pope Clement IX, a victory for the Squadrone Volante, had been a regular guest at her palace.In her delight at his election, she threw a brilliant party at her lodgings in Hamburg, with illuminations and wine in the fountain outside. The party enraged Hamburg's Lutheran populace, and the party ended in a shooting, an attempt to seize the Queen, and her escape in disguise through a back door. Again she met with the charlatan Giuseppe Francesco Borri. On 16 September 1668, John II Casimir abdicated the Polish–Lithuanian throne and returned to France. The Polish monarchy was elective and Christina, as a member of the House of Vasa, put herself forward as a candidate for the throne. She recommended herself being Catholic, an old maid and intended to remain one. She had Pope Clement IX's support; but her failure seemed to please her since this meant that she could return to her


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 beloved Azzolino.She left the city on 20 October 1668. Later life

Christina's fourth and last entry in Rome took place on 22 November 1668. Clement IX often visited her; they had a shared interest in plays. Christina organized meetings of the Accademia in the Great Hall which had ‘a platform for singers and players’. When the pope suffered a stroke, she was among the few he wanted to see at his deathbed. In 1671, Christina established Rome's first public theatre in a former jail, Tor di Nona. The new pope, Clement X, worried about the influence of theatre on public morals.When Innocent XI became pope, things turned even worse; within a few years he made Christina's theatre into a storeroom for grain, although he had been a frequent guest in her royal box with the other cardinals. He forbade women to perform with song or acting, and the wearing of decolleté dresses. Christina considered this sheer nonsense, and let women perform in her palace. In 1675, she invited António Vieira to become her confessor. Itinerant doctor and scapegrace, Nicolaas Heinsius the Younger, the legitimized son of a former literatus at Christina's court in Stockholm, arrived in Rome in 1679, converted and was appointed the Queen's personal physician until about 1687, providing autobiographical material for his picaresque novel,The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor (1695). Christina wrote an unfinished autobiography, of which there are several drafts extant, essays on her heroes Alexander the Great, Cyrus the Great and Julius Cæsar, on art and music (“Pensées, L’Ouvrage du Loisir” and “Les Sentiments Héroïques”) and


texts: acted as patron to musicians and poets as Vincenzo da Filicaja. Carlo Ambrogio Lonati and Giacomo Carissimi were Kapellmeister; Lelio Colista luteplayer; Loreto Vittori and Marco Marazzoli singers and Sebastiano Baldini librettist.She had Alessandro Stradella and Bernardo Pasquini to compose for her; Arcangelo Corelli dedicated his first work, Sonata da chiesa opus 1, to her. On 2 February 1687 Corelli or Alessandro Scarlatti directed a tremendous orchestra  performing a Pasquini cantata in praise for James II, England's first Catholic monarch since Mary I to welcome Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine as the new ambassador to the Vatican, accompanied by the painter John Michael Wright, who knew Rome and spoke Italian. In 1656, Christina had appointed Carissimi as her maestro di cappella del concerto di camera. Lars Englund of Uppsala University' Department of Musicology has hypothesized  that Christina’s early involvement with Italian music, and in particular church music from Rome, "was part of a deliberate self-transformation, from a ruling Lutheran regent to a Catholic Queen without a land." Christina's politics and rebellious spirit persisted long after her abdication of power. When Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, abolishing the rights of French Protestants (Huguenots), Christina wrote an indignant letter, dated  2 February 1686, directed at the French ambassador Cesar d'Estrees. Louis did not appreciate her views, but Christina was not to be silenced.In Rome, she made Pope Clement X prohibit the custom of chasing Jews through the streets during the carnival. On 15 August 1686, she issued a


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 declaration that Roman Jews were under her protection, signed la Regina – the queen. Christina remained very tolerant towards the beliefs of others all her life. She on her part felt more attracted to the views of the Spanish priest Miguel Molinos, whom she employed as a private theologian. He had been investigated by the Holy Inquisition for proclaiming that sin belonged to the lower sensual part of man and was not subject to man's free will. Christina sent him food and hundreds of letters when he was locked up in Castel Sant'Angelo. Death and burial
In February 1689, the 62-year-old Christina fell seriously ill after a visit to the temples in Campania, and received the last rites.She suffered from diabetes mellitus. Christina seemed to recover, but in the middle of April she developed an acute streptococcus bacterial infection known as erysipelas, then contracted pneumonia and a high fever. On her deathbed, she sent the pope a message asking if he could forgive her insults. She died on 19 April 1689 in Palazzo Corsini at six in the morning. Christina had asked for a simple burial in the Pantheon, Rome, but the pope insisted on her being displayed on a lit de parade for four days in the Riario Palace. She was embalmed, covered with white brocade, a silver mask, a gilt crown, and a scepter. "The Queen wore a thin mantle, decorated with hundreds of crowns and fur bordered with ermine, under this a splendid garment in two pieces, thin gloves and drawers of knitted silk and a pair of elegant textile bootees".In similar fashion to the popes, her body was placed in three coffins – one of cypress, one of lead and


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 finally one made of oak. The funeral procession on 2 May led from Santa Maria in Vallicella to St. Peter's Basilica, where she was buried within the Grotte Vaticane – one of only three women ever given this honor (the other two being Matilda of Tuscany and Maria Clementina Sobieska). Her intestines were placed in a high urn. In 1702, Clement XI commissioned a monument for the queen, in whose conversion he vainly foresaw a return of her country to the Faith and to whose contribution towards the culture of the city he looked back with gratitude. This monument was placed in the body of the basilica and directed by the artist Carlo Fontana. Christina had named Azzolino her sole heir to make sure her debts were settled, but he was too ill and worn out even to join her funeral, and died in June the same year. His nephew, Pompeo Azzolino, was his sole heir, and he rapidly sold off Christina's art collections.Art collector

Until 1649, when Christina was twenty-three, the Swedish royal art collection was unimpressive, with good tapestries but for paintings, little more than "about a hundred works by minor German, Flemish, and Swedish painters". But in May 1649, the fabulous loot from the occupation of Prague Castle the previous year arrived, with the pick of the collection amassed by the obsessive collector Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1552–1612), one of the most important in Europe. Rudolf's bulk purchases had included the famous collection of Emperor Charles V's leading minister Cardinal Granvelle (1517–86), which he had forced Granvelle's nephew and heir to sell to him. Granvelle had been the "greatest private


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 collector of his time, the friend and patron of Titian and Leoni and many other artists",

Christina was entranced by her new possessions, and remained a keen collector for the rest of her life, and as a female art collector is only exceeded by Catherine the Great of Russia in the Early Modern period. Rudolf had collected old and contemporary works from both Italy and northern Europe, but it was the Italian paintings that excited Christina, and by her death, her collection contained relatively few northern works other than portraits. Most of the Prague booty remained in Sweden after Christina's departure for exile: she only took about 70 to 80 paintings with her, including about 25 portraits of her friends and family, and some 50 paintings, mostly Italian, from the Prague loot, as well as statues, jewels, 72 tapestries, and various other works of art. She was concerned that the royal collections would be claimed by her successor, and prudently sent them ahead to Antwerp in a ship in August 1653, almost a year before she abdicated, an early sign of her intentions.Christina greatly expanded her collection during her exile in Rome, for example adding the five small Raphael predella panels from the Colonna Altarpiece, including the Agony in the Garden now reunited with the main panel in New York, which were bought from a convent near Rome. She was apparently given Titian's Death of Actaeon by the greatest collector of the age, Archduke Leopold William of Austria, Viceroy in Brussels – she received many such gifts from Catholic royalty after her conversion, and gave some generous gifts herself, notably Albrecht


texts: Dürer's panels of Adam and Eve to Philip IV of Spain (now Prado). She also gave away two paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Dull Gret and The Cripples (now Louvre). In such ways, the balance of her collection shifted to Italian art. The Riario Palace finally provided a suitable setting for her collection, and the Sala dei Quadri ("Paintings Room") had her finest works, with thirteen Titians and eleven Veroneses, five Raphaels and several Correggios. Titian's Venus Anadyomene was among them. Venus mourns Adonis by Veronese was from Prague, and is now back in Sweden (Nationalmuseum).Christina liked to commission portraits of herself, friends, and also notable people she had not met, from 1647 sending David Beck, her Dutch court painter, to several countries to paint notabilities. She encouraged artists to study her collection, including the drawings, and exhibited some of her paintings, but apart from portraits she commissioned or bought few works by living painters, except for drawings. Sculptors did rather better, and Bernini was a friend, while others were commissioned to restore the large collection of classical sculpture which she had begun to assemble while still in Sweden. On her death she left her collection to Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who himself died within a year, leaving the collection to his nephew, who sold it to Don Livio Odescalchi, commander of the Papal army, at which point it contained 275 paintings, 140 of them Italian. The year after Odescalchi's death in 1713, his heirs began protracted negotiations with the great French connoisseur and collector Pierre Crozat, acting as intermediary


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 for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, from 1715 the Regent of France. The sale was finally concluded and the 123 paintings included in the sale were delivered in 1721, forming the core of the Orleans Collection, the paintings from which were mostly sold in London after the French Revolution, with many of them being on display in the National Gallery. The French experts complained that Christina had cut down several paintings to fit her ceilings, and had over-restored some of the best works, especially the Correggios, implicating Carlo Maratti.At first, removing her collections from Sweden was seen as a great loss to the country; but in 1697, Stockholm castle burned down with the loss of almost everything inside, so they would have been destroyed if they had remained there. Today very few major works from her collection still remain in the country. The sculpture collection was sold to the King of Spain and mostly remains in Spanish museums and palaces. Her large and important library was bought by Alexander VIII for the Vatican Library, while most of the paintings ended up in France, as the core of the Orleans Collection – many remain together in the National Gallery of Scotland. 1700 drawings from her collection (among them works by Michelangelo (25) and Raphael) were acquired in 1790 by Willem Anne Lestevenon for the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands. Appearance

Historical accounts of Christina include regular reference to her physical features, mannerisms and style of dress. Christina was known to have a bent back, a deformed chest, and irregular shoulders.Some historians have speculated that


texts: references to her physical attributes may be over-represented in related historiography, thus giving the impression that this was of greater interest to her contemporaries than was actually the case. However, given how influential Christina became in her own era (especially for those in Rome), it is likely her style and mannerisms were at least of general interest to those around her, and this is reflected in many accounts. As a result of conflicting and unreliable accounts (some no better than gossip), the way in which Christina is described, even today, is a matter of debate. According to Christina's autobiography, the midwives at her birth first believed her to be a boy because she was "completely hairy and had a coarse and strong voice". Such ambiguity did not end with her birth; Christina made cryptic statements about her "constitution" and body throughout her life. Christina also believed a wet nurse had carelessly dropped her to the floor when she was a baby. A shoulder bone broke, leaving one shoulder higher than the other for the rest of her life.A number of her contemporaries made reference to the differing height of her shoulders. As a child, Christina's mannerisms could probably best be described as those of a tomboy. Her father insisted she should receive "the education of a prince", and some have interpreted this as acceptance, on the part of the king, that she had masculine features or that there was some form of gender ambiguity in her upbringing. She was educated as a prince and taught (and enjoyed) fencing, horse riding and bear hunting. As an adult, it was said that Christina "walked like a


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 man, sat and rode like a man, and could eat and swear like the roughest soldiers". Christina's contemporary John Bargrave described her comportment in a similar fashion but said witnesses ascribed her style more to childishness or madness than masculinity. When she arrived in Rome in 1655, she had shaven her head and wore a big, dark wig.By 1665, according to Edward Browne, she regularly wore a velvet justacorps, cravat, and peruke (man's wig). While Christina may not have been alone in her own time for choosing masculine dress (Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, for example, was known for dressing the same way), she also had physical features some described as masculine. According to Henry II, Duke of Guise, "she wears men's shoes and her voice and nearly all her actions are masculine". When she arrived in Lyon, she again wore a toque and had styled her hair like that of a young man. It was noted that she also wore large amounts of powder and face cream. In one account she "was sunburnt, and she looked like a sort of Egyptian street girl, very strange, and more alarming than attractive". Living in Rome, she formed a close relationship with Cardinal Azzolino, which was controversial but symbolic of her attraction to relationships that were not typical for a woman of her era and station.She abandoned her manly clothes and took to wearing décolleté dresses so risqué that they drew a rebuke from the Pope. As an older woman, Christina's style changed a little. François Maximilian Misson (visiting Rome in the spring of April 1688) wrote:

Gender ambiguity and sexuality

In her Autobiography (1681), Christina is flirting


texts: with her androgynous personality. The question of her sexuality has been debated, even as a number of modern biographers generally consider her to have been a lesbian, and her relationships with women were noted during her lifetime; Christina seems to have written passionate letters to Ebba Sparre, and Guilliet suggested a relationship between Christina and Gabrielle de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Rachel, a niece of Diego Teixeira, and the singer Angelina Giorgino. Some historians assert she maintained heterosexual, non-sexual, lesbian, or bisexual relationships during the course of her life  depending on which source is consulted. According to Veronica Buckley, Christina was a "dabbler" who was "...painted a lesbian, a prostitute, a hermaphrodite, and an atheist" by her contemporaries, though "in that tumultuous age, it is hard to determine which was the most damning label". Christina wrote near the end of her life that she was "neither Male nor Hermaphrodite, as some People in the World have pass'd me for".Bargrave recounted that Christina's relationship with Azzolino was both "familiar" (intimate) and "amorous" and that Azzolino had been sent (by the Pope) to Romania as punishment for maintaining it. Buckley, on the other hand, believed there was "in Christina a curious squeamishness with regard to sex" and that "a sexual relationship between herself and Azzolino, or any other man, seems unlikely". Based on historical accounts of Christina's physicality, some scholars believe that she may have been an intersex individual. In 1965, these conflicting accounts led to an investigation of Christina's remains.


texts:
 Physical anthropologist Carl-Herman Hjortsjö, who undertook the investigation, explained: "Our imperfect knowledge concerning the effect of intersex on the skeletal formation [...] makes it impossible to decide which positive skeletal findings should be demanded upon which to base the diagnosis" of an intersex condition. Nevertheless, Hjortsjö speculated that Christina had reasonably typical female genitalia because it is recorded by her physicians Bourdelot and Macchiati that she menstruated. Hjortsjö's osteological analysis of Christina's skeleton led him to state that they were of a "typically female" structure.Some of the symptoms could be due to polycystic ovary syndrome, a complex multi-endocrine disorder including hirsutism (male pattern/type hair growth) due to increased androgen hormone levels, and abdominal obesity due to the hormone insulin receptor defects. Buckley suggested that her low comprehension of the need for most social norms, little desire to act, dress, or do other social norms, and her preference to wear, act, and do only that which she deemed logically practical, point to her having a pervasive developmental disorder, such as Asperger syndrome. Legacy
The complex character of Christina has inspired numerous plays, books, and operatic works:
 Jacopo Foroni's 1849 opera Cristina, regina di Svezia is based on the events surrounding her abdication. Other operas based on her life, include Alessandro Nini's Cristina di Svezia (1840), Giuseppe Lillo's Cristina di Svezia (1841), and Sigismond Thalberg's Cristina di Svezia (1855)
 August Strindberg's published Kristina (1901)
 Zacharias


texts:
 Topelius  wrote a historical allegory Stjärnornas Kungabarn (1899–1900)
 Christina's life was famously fictionalized in the classic feature film Queen Christina (1933). This film, starring Greta Garbo, depicted a heroine whose life diverged considerably from that of the real Christina. In the Italian film Love and Poison (1950/52) Christina is played by actress Lois Maxwell. Kaari Utrio published Kartanonherra ja kaunis Kristin (1969).In The Abdication (1974), starring Liv Ullmann, Christina arrives in the Vatican and falls in love with cardinal Azzelino. The script was based on a play by Ruth Wolff. Herta J. Enevoldsen wrote two novels in Danish on her life, Heltekongens Datter (1975) and En Dronning Værdig (1976). Laura Ruohonen wrote "Queen C" (2003), which presents a woman centuries ahead of her time who lives by her own rules. In Eric Flint 's alternative history 1632 series, part of his Assiti Shards universe, she is a major character. Comedian Jade Esteban Estrada portrayed her (2004) in the solo musical ICONS: The Lesbian and Gay History of the World Vol. 2.Michel Marc Bouchard's play Christina, The Girl King, is a biographical depiction of Queen Christina's short rule premiered in 2012. Mika Kaurismäki's film, The Girl King, based on the play, premièred December 11, 2015. In it, she is portrayed as a lesbian, lover of Countess Ebba Sparre. She is featured as the leader of the Swedish civilization in the video game expansion pack Civilization VI: Gathering Storm, although her name is spelled, Kristina. Her unique ability grants her buildings and wonders with Great Works slots (Must be 3 slots for


texts:
 buildings and 2 slots for wonders) automatic theming (granting Tourism and Culture bonuses) once they are filled with Great Works without regard to normal theming rules. In addition, she has a unique Government Plaza building that grants her multiple Great Works slots and extra points towards Great People that can create said Great Works. Place names:
Kristiine District of Tallinn, Estonia.Queen Village, Philadelphia. Christina River
Kristinestad, Finland. Family tree

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

 Clarke, Martin Lowther (1978) "The Making of a Queen: The Education of Christina of Sweden." In: History Today, Volume 28 Issue 4, April 1978

Grate, Pontus, "Vasa, House of. (5) Christina, Queen of Sweden" Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed July 22, 2017, subscription required

 Jonsson, L. Ann-Marie Nilsson & Greger Andersson (1994) Musiken i Sverige.Från forntiden till stormaktstidens slut 1720 ("Music in Sweden. From Antiquity to the end of the Great power era 1720")
 Löfgren, Lars (2003) Svensk teater (Swedish Theatre)

Penny, Nicholas,  National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume II, Venice 1540-1600, 2008, National Gallery Publications Ltd,

 Torrione, Margarita  (2011), Alejandro, genio ardiente. El manuscrito de Cristina de Suecia sobre la vida y hechos de Alejandro Magno, Madrid, Editorial Antonio Machado (212 p., color ill.) . Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976
 Turner, Nicholas, Federico Barocci, 2000,


texts:
 Vilo
Watson, Peter; Wisdom and Strength, the Biography of a Renaissance Masterpiece, Hutchinson, 1990,
 Daniela Williams, "Joseph Eckhel (1737-1798) and the coin collection of Queen Christina of Sweden in Rome", Journal of the History of Collections 31 (2019). Further reading

External links

 Project presentation Queen Christina of Sweden, the European
 Encyclopædia Britannica

 Coins of Sweden by David Ruckser
 Queen Christina of Sweden Windweaver

|-

1626 births
1689 deaths
17th-century Swedish monarchs
17th-century women rulers
17th-century Swedish women
Swedish queens
Queens regnant
Rulers of Finland
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Candidates for the Polish elective throne
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Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism
Women rulers of Finland
Modern child rulers
Aphorists
Burials at St. Peter's Basilica
Monarchs who abdicated
People of the Swedish Empire

Swedish


texts: <mask>n (born November 21, 1985) is a Canadian singer, songwriter, and actress. Born and raised in Mission, British Columbia, Jepsen pursued a musical theatre program at the Canadian College of Performing Arts in Victoria, British Columbia. After completing her studies, she relocated to Vancouver and competed on the fifth season of Canadian Idol in 2007, placing third. In 2008, Jepsen released her folk-influenced debut studio album, Tug of War, in Canada. Jepsen's breakthrough came in 2012, when her single "Call Me Maybe" achieved significant mainstream popularity; the song was the best-selling single of that year, reaching number one in 18 countries. As a result, she was signed to a joint worldwide record deal with School Boy Records and Interscope Records. Jepsen's second studio album, Kiss, was released later that year.It marked a greater shift into mainstream pop music and saw fair commercial success, reaching the top ten in Canada and the United States. In 2014, Jepsen made her Broadway stage debut as the titular character in Cinderella. The following year, she released her third studio album, Emotion. It is noted for its influence from 1980s music as well as blending dance-pop and synth-pop with indie sensibilities. While less commercially successful than Kiss, it saw the success of its lead single, "I Really Like You", and received wide critical acclaim. In 2016 Jepsen performed in the television special Grease: Live and lent her voice to the animated


texts:
 film Ballerina. Her fourth studio album, Dedicated, was released on May 17, 2019 and was similarly well-received by fans and critics.Jepsen released a follow-up album titled Dedicated Side B one year later. Jepsen has received numerous awards and accolades, including three Juno Awards, a Billboard Music Award, and an Allan Slaight Award, as well as nominations for Grammy Awards, MTV Video Music Awards, Polaris Music Prize and People's Choice Awards. , Jepsen has sold over 25 million records worldwide. Life and career

1985−2006: Early life and career beginnings
Jepsen was born in Mission, British Columbia, to Alexandra Lanzarotta and <mask>, the second of their three children. She is of Danish, English and Scottish descent. Jepsen has an older brother, Colin, and a younger sister, Katie. She attended Heritage Park Secondary School, and she pursued her passion for musical theatre by appearing in student productions of Annie, Grease, and The Wiz, playing the respective lead roles of Annie, Sandy Olsson and Dorothy Gale.Her parents and stepparents were teachers, so Jepsen considered a career in music instruction as a second option. She applied to music-related programs, including those at Capilano University and the University of British Columbia. Her high school drama teacher, Beverly Holmes, persuaded her to audition for the Canadian College of Performing Arts in Victoria, British Columbia. She was one of 25 female students to gain admission into its year-long


texts:
 program: "It was very clear to me after that school, as much fun as I had, I really did want to pursue more of a purely musical career rather than acting and all the dancing." After graduation, Jepsen relocated to Vancouver's west side, and was fortunate to hold several jobs. She worked at Trees Organic Coffee as a barista and pastry chef assistant, starting its open mic night. Jepsen describes this as "the happiest time in her life"; she slept on a pull-out sofa, wrote songs in her downtime with a guitar her parents gave her, and "performed multiple nights a week at musician-friendly holes in the wall".Bartending at the Media Club, Jepsen once requested an extra-late shift to see Sia, prior to their collaboration. 2007–2010: Canadian Idol and Tug of War

While assembling a swing band, Jepsen was convinced to audition for Canadian Idol by her drama teacher. She performed her original song "Sweet Talker" and finished in third place, which she considered the best possible outcome in retrospect: "It was like all the exposure without the devilish contract at the end." Her demo recording attracted the attention of music manager Jonathan Simkin, who signed Jepsen to a management deal with 604 Records that year. Performances

Jepsen released her debut single, a cover of John Denver's song "Sunshine on My Shoulders", in June 2008. Her debut album, Tug of War, was released in September 2008, and sold 10,000 copies in Canada. The singles "Tug of War" and "Bucket"


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 peaked in the top 40 of the Canadian Hot 100, and received Gold certifications for sales of 40,000 units each."Sour Candy", a duet with Josh Ramsay of Marianas Trench was released as the final single. 2009, Jepsen toured western Canada with Marianas Trench and Shiloh. 2011–2014: Mainstream success with Curiosity and Kiss

2011, Jepsen recorded material for her second album with Josh Ramsay, Ryan Stewart, and Tavish Crow, her co-writer of "Call Me Maybe". The track "Call Me Maybe" was released in September of that year. 2012, fellow Canadian pop singer Justin Bieber promoted the single on Twitter, and the next month, it was featured in a viral video in which Bieber, Selena Gomez, Carlos Pena from Big Time Rush and Ashley Tisdale lip-synced and danced to it. Bieber's manager, Scooter Braun, signed Jepsen to a joint worldwide record deal with his label, Schoolboy Records, and the major label Interscope Records. "Call Me Maybe" later peaked at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, making Jepsen the fourth Canadian artist to top the chart.In the United States, the single spent nine weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, earning the title "Song of the Summer" from Billboard magazine. The single also topped the charts in 18 countries, including the United Kingdom, where it was the year's second best-selling single. It was the best-selling single of 2012 worldwide, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). The song was


texts: included on Jepsen's six-track EP, Curiosity, released in February 2012 in Canada. Following the success of "Call Me Maybe", Jepsen recorded the duet "Good Time" with Owl City, released in June 2012. The song peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and preceded Jepsen's second album, Kiss, released in September 2012, and reached top ten chart positions in Australia, the UK, and the US. In Canada, the album is certified gold.The album also produced the singles "This Kiss" and "Tonight I'm Getting Over You". 2012, Jepsen appeared on the fifth-season premiere episode of The CW primetime soap opera 90210, and became a spokesperson for clothing retailer Wet Seal. Jepsen received the Rising Star Award at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards, the first Canadian recipient. At the 2013 Juno Awards, Kiss won the awards for Album of the Year and Pop Album of the Year. "Call Me Maybe" won in the Single of the Year category. The single also received nominations for Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards. In 2013, Jepsen became a spokesperson for clothing/footwear brand Candie's.2013, Kiss: The Remix, a compilation album containing remixes and instrumentals of singles from Kiss, was released in Japan, and peaked at number 157 on the Oricon albums chart. From June to October Jepsen embarked on The Summer Kiss Tour in North America and Asia. During 2014, she performed in the Broadway production of Rodgers & Hammerstein's Cinderella


texts:
 for 12 weeks. Later that year, Jepsen won the International Achievement Award at the SOCAN Awards, alongside co-writers Josh Ramsay and Tavish Crowe. 2015–2017: Emotion and other projects

Jepsen released her third album's lead single, "I Really Like You", in March 2015. Accompanied by a music video in which actor Tom Hanks lip-synced to the song, it peaked at number 14 in Canada and the top five in the UK. The album, titled Emotion, was released in June 2015 and received positive reviews; the album appeared on many publications' year-end albums lists.Emotion became a cult favourite, attracting a more mature audience to her music. The album peaked at number eight in Canada and at number 16 on the US Billboard 200. It includes collaborations with Rostam Batmanglij (of Vampire Weekend), Sia, Dev Hynes, Greg Kurstin, and Ariel Rechtshaid. The second single, "Run Away with Me", was released in July 2015. Later that year, Jepsen embarked on the Gimmie Love Tour in support of Emotion. Jepsen was also featured on a new version of Bleachers' song "Shadow" from their album Terrible Thrills, Vol. 2 and released a cover of Wham!'s "Last Christmas". Jepsen played Frenchy in Grease Live, Fox's live television presentation of the musical Grease in January 2016. As part of her role, she performed a new song entitled "All I Need Is an Angel". In late 2015, Jepsen recorded the theme song for the Netflix series Fuller House, a remake of the theme to Full House. In 2016, she


texts:
 appeared on The Knocks' debut album 55. Jepsen released Emotion: Side B in August 2016, an EP containing eight cut tracks from Emotion. The EP was listed on several end-of-year lists from publications such as Rolling Stone and Pitchfork.In May 2017, Jepsen released the single "Cut to the Feeling". The song was originally intended for Emotion, but instead appeared in the animated film Ballerina, in which Jepsen voices a supporting role. It also appeared in a deluxe version of Emotion: Side B only released in Japan. 2018–present: Dedicated
In January and February 2018, Jepsen appeared as the opening act for Katy Perry's Witness: The Tour. "Party for One", the lead single from Jepsen's upcoming fourth studio album, was released on November 1, 2018. Two more songs, "Now That I Found You" and "No Drug Like Me" followed on February 27, 2019. As of 2019, Braun was no longer Jepsen's manager, although she was still signed to School Boy Records.Her fourth album, Dedicated, came out May 17, 2019, with a tour beginning June 27. The album has 13 tracks on the standard edition, with 2 additional tracks on the deluxe. Jepsen performed a NPR Tiny Desk Concert in November. On May 21, 2020, the companion album Dedicated Side B was released, containing twelve additional tracks from Dedicated. Following its release, Jepsen also confirmed the same month that she was making a "quarantine album" with songwriter Tavish Crowe with whom she wrote "Call Me Maybe". On October 30, 2020,


texts:
 Jepsen released "It's Not Christmas Till Somebody Cries" which peaked at 11 on the US Holiday Digital Songs chart. Artistry

Musical style
Jepsen is classified as a soprano.Paul Bradley of LA Weekly describes Jepsen's voice as "hushed" and "flawless" while Maura Johnston of Slate Magazine characterizes it as "airy yet precise". She says she shares her parents' interest in folk music as a result of her upbringing, naming artists such as Leonard Cohen, Bruce Springsteen, James Taylor, and Van Morrison as inspirations for her debut album, Tug of War (2008). During the recording of her EP Curiosity and her second album, Kiss (both 2012), Jepsen said she became increasingly influenced by pop and dance music, in particular the works of Dragonette, Kimbra, La Roux, and Robyn. Her third album, Emotion (2015), drew from her love of pop music from the 1980s and the "old-school" albums of Cyndi Lauper, Madonna, and Prince. Jepsen has also expressed admiration for Cat Power, Christine and the Queens, Tegan and Sara, Bleachers, Kate Bush, Bob Dylan, Sky Ferreira, Dev Hynes, Solange Knowles, Joni Mitchell, Sinéad O'Connor, the Spice Girls, and Hank Williams. Impact

Lyndsey McKenna, writer for NPR wrote that "Jepsen's career is instructive. The internet's reception of Jepsen's music has given her a longevity and a lifespan beyond its limited, though influential, time on the charts".McKenna went on to say that she "doesn't have to be queen of the charts [...] Instead, she


texts:
 can have her own world: technicolored-hued, insular but not exclusionary, where absurdity and enthusiasm are equally cherished". In 2019, Insider writer, Libby Torres, called Jepsen an "Artist of the Decade" saying that her "impact extends far beyond music, as she's often celebrated as a queer icon". She also stated that Jepsen's "subversively catchy lyrics, slick musical arrangements, and pop experimentation have made her a true star". Time writer, Raisa Bruner, stated that Jepsen had a "cult of popularity" and mentioned the "ongoing compliment-spam that adorns her social media profiles, with each fan proclaiming her queen of something". Marie-Ève Venne, writer for Dress to Kill stated that recently, Jepsen has "embraced a more mature pop queen persona, showcasing a modern and sophisticated sound". American Singer-Songwriter Maggie Rogers credits Jepsen's 'Emotion' with inspiring her to pursue Pop music. She told The Line of Best Fit, "'Run Away With Me' was the first pop song that I ever really fell in love with and it made me understand there was a version of pop music that I could make, that could combine all the things I love."Activism
<mask> was scheduled to perform at the Boy Scouts of America 2013 National Scout Jamboree, along with the band Train, but in March 2013, both cited the BSA policy on homosexuals as a barrier to their performance. Jepsen released a statement stating, "As an artist who believes in equality for all people, I will not be


texts:
 participating in the Boy Scouts of America Jamboree this summer." Discography

 Tug of War (2008)
 Kiss (2012)
 Emotion (2015)
 Dedicated (2019)
Dedicated Side B (2020)

Tours

Headlining
 The Summer Kiss Tour (2013)
 Gimmie Love Tour (2015–2016)
 The Dedicated Tour (2019–2020)

Co-headlining
 Marianas Trench, The New Cities and The Mission District – Beside You Tour (2009)

Opening act
 Hanson – Shout It Out World Tour (Canadian dates) (2012)
 Justin Bieber – Believe Tour (North American, European, and South American dates) (2012–2013)
 Hedley – Hello World Tour (Canadian dates) (2016)
 Katy Perry – Witness: The Tour (North American dates) (2018)

Credits

Television

Film

Theatre

References

External links

1985 births
21st-century Canadian women singers
APRA Award winners
Canadian expatriate musicians in the United States
Canadian women pop singers
Canadian women singer-songwriters
Canadian folk singer-songwriters
Canadian Idol participants
Canadian people of Danish descent
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian sopranos
Canadian women activists

Dance-pop musicians
Fontana North artists
Interscope Records artists
Juno Award for Album of the Year winners
Juno Award for Pop Album of the Year winners
Juno Award for Single of the Year winners
LGBT rights activists from Canada
Living people
MapleMusic Recordings artists
MTV Europe Music Award winners
People from Mission, British Columbia
Pop rock


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<mask> (born 20 October 1951) is an Australian Christian fundamentalist, young Earth creationist and apologist, living in the United States. He is the founder, CEO, and former president of Answers in Genesis (AiG), a Christian apologetics organization that operates the Creation Museum and the Ark Encounter. <mask> advocates biblical literalism, accepting the Book of Genesis creation narrative as historical fact and believing the universe and the Earth were created together approximately 6,000 years ago, contrary to the scientific consensus that the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old and the universe is about 13.8 billion years old. Early life
<mask> was born 20 October 1951 in Cairns, Queensland. His father, Mervyn, was a Christian educator who served as a school principal in several schools throughout Queensland. <mask> earned a bachelor's degree in applied science (with an emphasis on environmental biology) from the Queensland Institute of Technology and holds a Diploma in Education from the University of Queensland. While at university, he was influenced by John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris's 1961 book The Genesis Flood.Upon graduation in 1975, <mask> began teaching science at a high school in Dalby, Queensland. Career

In 1977, <mask> began teaching at a high school in Brisbane, where he met John Mackay, another teacher who believed in young Earth creationism. According to Susan and William Trollinger, <mask> was "appalled by the fact that some of his students assumed their textbooks that taught evolutionary science successfully proved the Bible to be untrue," and he said the experience "put a 'fire in my bones' to do something about the influence that evolutionary thinking was having on students and the public as a whole." In 1979, he resigned his teaching position and, with his wife, founded Creation Science Supplies and Creation Science Educational Media Services, which provided resources for the teaching of creationism in the public schools of Queensland, a practice allowed at the time. In 1980, the Hams and Mackay merged the two organizations with Carl Wieland's

masks:
Kenneth Alfred Ham
Ham
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Ham
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Ham
Ham


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 Creation Science Association to form the Creation Science Foundation (CSF). As CSF's work expanded, <mask> moved to the United States in January 1987 to engage in speaking tours with another young Earth creationist organization, the Institute for Creation Research (ICR). His "Back to Genesis" lecture series focused on three major themes – that evolutionary theory had led to cultural decay, that a literal reading of the first eleven chapters of the Book of Genesis contained the true origin of the universe and a pattern for society, and that Christians should engage in a culture war against atheism and humanism.With his popularity growing in the United States, <mask> left ICR in 1994 and, with colleagues Mark Looy and Mike Zovath, founded Creation Science Ministries with the assistance of what is now Creation Ministries International (Australia). In 1997, <mask>'s organization changed its name to Answers in Genesis. From the time AiG was founded, <mask> planned to open a museum and training center near its headquarters in Florence, Kentucky, telling an Australian Broadcasting Corporation interviewer in 2007, "Australia's not really the place to build such a facility if you're going to reach the world. Really, America is." In a separate interview with The Sydney Morning Herald'''s Paul Sheehan, <mask> explained, "One of the main reasons [AiG] moved [to Florence] was because we are within one hour's flight of 69 percent of America's population." The  museum, located in Petersburg, Kentucky,  west of the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, opened 27 May 2007. In February 2018, <mask> was disinvited from the University of Central Oklahoma, where he was scheduled to speak, after an LGBTQ student group objected.Later that month, UCO reinvited <mask> to speak, and <mask> spoke on March 5 as planned. Disputes with CMI and GHC
At the end of 2005, the AiG Confederation crumbled due to a disagreement between <mask> and Carl Wieland over the "differences in philosophy and operation". This disagreement led to <mask> effectively retaining the leadership of the UK and American

masks: Ham Ham Ham Ham Ham Ham Ham Ham Ham Ham


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 branches while Wieland served as managing director of the Australian branch and the smaller offices in Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa. This splitting into two groups led to the Australian branch renaming themselves Creation Ministries International (CMI). The AiG stayed with Ham and continued to expand its staff and work closely with the Institute for Creation Research (ICR). Young Earth creationist Kurt Wise was recruited by <mask> as a consultant to help with the concluding phases of the museum project. In May 2007, Creation Ministries International (CMI) filed a lawsuit against Ham and AiG in the Supreme Court of Queensland seeking damages and accusing him of deceptive conduct in his dealings with the Australian organization.Members of the group expressed "concern over Mr. <mask>'s domination of the groups, the amount of money being spent on his fellow executives and a shift away from delivering the creationist message to raising donations." <mask> was accused of trying to send the Australian ministry into bankruptcy. According to the CMI website, this dispute was amicably settled in April 2009. In 2008, <mask> appeared in Bill Maher's comedy-documentary Religulous. AiG criticized the movie for what it called Maher's "dishonesty last year in gaining access to the Creation Museum and AiG President <mask>." In March 2011, the board of Great Homeschool Conventions, Inc. (GHC) voted to disinvite <mask> and AiG from future conventions. Conference organizer Brennan Dean stated <mask> had made "unnecessary, ungodly, and mean-spirited statements that are divisive at best and defamatory at worst".Dean stated further, "We believe Christian scholars should be heard without the fear of ostracism or ad hominem attacks." The disinvitation occurred after <mask> criticized Peter Enns of The BioLogos Foundation, who advocated a symbolic, rather than literal, interpretation of the fall of Adam and Eve. <mask> accused Enns of espousing "outright liberal theology that totally undermines the authority of the Word of God". Bill Nye–<mask> debate

In February 2014, <mask> debated American

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Ham
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Ken Ham
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 science educator and engineer Bill Nye (popularly known as "Bill Nye the Science Guy") on the topic of whether young Earth creationism is a viable model of origins in the contemporary scientific era. Critics expressed concern that the debate lent the appearance of scientific legitimacy to creationism while also stimulating <mask>'s fundraising. Nye said the debate was "an opportunity to expose the well-intending <mask> and the support he receives from his followers as being bad for Kentucky, bad for science education, bad for the U.S., and thereby bad for humankind." <mask> said that publicity generated by the debate helped stimulate construction of the Ark Encounter theme park, which had been stalled for lack of funds.The Ark Encounter opened on 7 July 2016, a date (7/7) chosen to correspond with Genesis 7:7, the Bible verse that describes Noah entering the ark. The following day, Nye visited Ark Encounter, and he and <mask> had an informal debate. Beliefs
Creationism
According to <mask>, he was inspired by his father, also a young Earth creationist, to interpret the Book of Genesis as "literal history" and first rejected what he termed "molecules-to-man evolution" during high school. As a young Earth creationist and biblical inerrantist, <mask> believes that the Book of Genesis is historical fact. <mask> believes the age of the Universe to be about 6,000 years and asserts that Noah's flood occurred about 4,400 years ago in approximately 2348 BC. Astrophysical measurements and radiometric dating show that the age of the universe is about 13.8 billion years and the age of the Earth is about 4.5 billion years. Arguing that knowledge of evolution and the Big Bang require observation rather than inference, <mask> urges asking scientists and science educators, "Were you there?"The Talk.origins archive responds that the evidence for evolution "was there," and that knowledge serves to determine what occurred in the past and when. "Were you there?" questions also invalidate creationism as science—an argument with which <mask> himself agrees. Sexuality
<mask> believes that abortion,

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Ham
Ken Ham
Ham
Ham
Ham
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Ham


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 same-sex marriage, homosexuality, and being transgender "are all attacks on the true family God ordained in Scripture". He believes that Christians should "take back the rainbow", a popular symbol for the LGBT movement. As a condition for employment at the Ark Encounter, AiG, as directed by <mask>, requires workers to sign a statement that they view homosexuality as a sin. Other beliefs
<mask> rejects the scientific consensus on climate change.Reception
Chris Mooney, of Slate'' magazine, believes <mask>'s advocacy of young Earth creation will "undermine science education and U.S. science literacy". But Andrew O'Hehir of Salon argues that the "liberal intelligentsia" have grossly overstated the influence of <mask> and those espousing similar views because, while "religious ecstasy, however nonsensical, is powerful in a way reason and logic are not", advocates like <mask> "represent a marginalized constituency with little power". <mask> has been awarded honorary degrees by six Christian colleges: Temple Baptist College (1997), Liberty University (2004), Tennessee Temple University (2010), Mid-Continent University (2012), Bryan College (2017), and Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary (2018). Personal life
<mask> is married to Marylin <mask>; the couple have five children and sixteen grandchildren. Works

Notes

References

External links

 Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:

1951 births
Living people
20th-century Australian male writers
20th-century Australian writers
20th-century Baptists
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century Australian writers
21st-century Baptists
American Christian writers
American evangelicals
American male non-fiction writers
Australian Baptists
Australian emigrants to the United States
Australian religious writers
Baptist writers
Baptists from the United States
Christian apologists
Christian fundamentalists
Christian Young Earth creationists
Creation scientists
Critics of atheism
People from Cairns
Queensland University of Technology alumni
University of Queensland alumni
Writers from Queensland
21st-century American

masks:
Ham
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Ken Ham
Ham
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<mask> (March 20, 1783 – April 13, 1842) was an early pioneer and explorer of the Oregon Country in the Pacific Northwest of North America. Employed as an agent in the fur trade under John Jacob Astor, <mask> organized and led the greater part of a group of about 60 men on an overland expedition to establish a fur trading outpost at the mouth of the Columbia River. The Astorians, as they have become known, were the first major party to cross to the Pacific after the Lewis and Clark expedition. Biography
Historical records refer to <mask> both as "William" and as "<mask>." Originally from Trenton, New Jersey, <mask> moved to St. Louis in 1804 and worked selling various merchandise for several years. In 1810 he became connected with John Jacob Astor. Astor, as part of his plan to gain a foothold on the Northwest coast and enable the development and prosecution of a more profitable trade with the Chinese, formed the Pacific Fur Company.The six partners in the Company (not including Astor) were all Canadians and former prominent figures in the North West Company, except for <mask> who was the sole American. <mask> was second in line behind Astor as "partner and first resident agent", acting as his personal representative in his absence. The company sent two simultaneous expeditions: one by sea directly to the mouth of the Columbia to establish the post, and one over the land in order to demonstrate the practicability of the route as a supply line. <mask> was placed in charge of the overland expedition and as was to assume charge at Astoria upon his arrival. <mask> had never before traveled into the interior of the west but had been engaged in the Indian trade second hand while at St. Louis supplying traders with goods and equipment. Donald McKenzie, also a partner in the company, accompanied <mask>. McKenzie had extensive wilderness

masks:
Wilson Price Hunt
Hunt
Hunt
Wilson
Hunt
Hunt
Hunt
Hunt
Hunt
Hunt


texts: experience, having served ten years in the interior as a clerk for the Northwest Company."Under… two such leaders as <mask> and McKenzie, he [Astor] had, in fact, everything to hope and little to fear." On July 5, 1810, <mask> and McKenzie set out for St. Louis from Montreal with a number of Canadian voyageurs. En route, they continued to recruit men for the expedition. <mask> had difficulty finding quality men at Mackinaw and St. Louis. At Mackinaw, he was discouraged by the quality of the men, finding most to be "drinking in the morning, drunk at noon and dead drunk at night." In addition, he faced a steady competition for recruits amongst the more established Northwest and Mackinaw companies in Michilimackinac and the Missouri Fur Company in St. Louis. Having finally assembled a party, <mask> arrived at Nodaway, Missouri, on November 16, 1810, and settled into winter quarters.They departed April 22, 1811. In the course of traveling up the Missouri River, <mask> recruited several former Missouri Fur Company men returning from the interior. His original plan had been to ascend the Missouri and then the Yellowstone rivers, but information provided by these men regarding the hostility of the Blackfoot on the upper Missouri caused him to change course and cross to the Columbia by land. <mask> purchased horses from the Arikara tribe near present-day Pierre, South Dakota and began the long trek over land westward. The party passed along the borders of the Black Hills and Bighorn mountains then crossed the Wind River mountains into the valley of the Green River by way of Union Pass. Here they descended the Hoback River to its junction with the Snake River and crossed Teton Pass to the abandoned Fort Henry, arriving October 18, 1811. Knowing that they were now on the headwaters of the Columbia, the party anticipated the majority of their

masks: Hunt Hunt Hunt Hunt Hunt Hunt


texts: struggles to be over, and <mask> yielded to the desires of his men to abandon the horses and embark downstream by canoe.This was a fateful decision as the course of the Snake River later proved to be completely unnavigable by canoe, forcing the party to travel by foot and causing the men to endure severe hardship. After nine days of attempting to travel the river, they lost a man and two canoes in the rapids and reconsidered their plan. Embarking on foot, they divided into four parties and took different routes to approach the mouth of the Columbia. <mask>'s party arrived on February 15, 1812. The trip from Missouri to the future site of Astoria, Oregon took 340 days. According to his own account, <mask> traveled  from the village of the Arikaras, in present-day South Dakota, to the end of the journey. A return expedition overland was led by Robert Stuart, who discovered South Pass, a key feature of the soon-to-be-established Oregon Trail.On August 4, 1812, <mask> sailed on the newly arrived ship sent by Astor, the Beaver, in order to establish trade with the Russian establishment at New Archangel in modern day Alaska, leaving Duncan McDougall in charge of the fort. <mask> remained absent from Astoria longer than intended, forced to wait for payment at New Archangel and then detouring to the Hawaiian Islands to repair damage to the Beaver sustained in a storm. While in the Hawaiian Islands, he learned of the war that had broken out between the US and Britain and chartered the ship Albatros to land him at Astoria. In the meantime, McDougal, faced with managing the precarious situation of Astoria, concluded an agreement to sell the fort to the Northwest Company. Upon his return to Astoria, <mask> was displeased with the decision and questioned the motives of the Canadian partners, but despite his protest he was bound to their


texts:
 decision. Soon after arriving, he again left the fort, this time on the Albatros bound for the Marquesas and the Hawaiian Islands for the purposes of bringing a large quantity of the furs accumulated at Astoria to market, acquiring a ship and a load of provisions, and returning home the Hawaiian Islanders who were in the employ of the Company at Astoria. While in the Hawaiian Islands, <mask> purchased the brig the Pedlar, which he provisioned and sailed to Astoria in order to conduct business related to the transfer of the fort to the British.The Pedlar then traveled again to New Archangel and then to Kamchatka before being captured in August 1814 by the Spanish on smuggling charges and held on the coast of California at San Louis Obispo for two months. After being released, the Pedlar made its way back to the Hawaiian Islands then ultimately onto China to procure a cargo of Chinese goods for trade in New York. <mask> arrived in New York with his cargo in October 1816. <mask> ultimately returned to St. Louis in 1817 and purchased a large tract of land southwest of the city, upon which he farmed and made improvements until his death in 1842. He was appointed postmaster of St. Louis in 1822 by President Monroe and held the position until 1840. <mask>'s expedition is one of many scenes depicted on the Astoria Column, and his name is inscribed in a frieze in the Oregon State Senate chamber of the Oregon State Capitol. See also
 John Jacob Astor
 Pacific Fur Company
 North West Company
 David Thompson, a Canadian explorer who arrived at Astoria shortly before the <mask> party.Beaver (ship)

References

External links
Wilson Price Hunt notes, Vault MSS 534, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University

Oregon Country
People from Asbury Park, New Jersey
People from St. Louis
1783 births
1842

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<mask>, ForMemRS (; 4 October 1916 – 8 November 2009) was a Russian theoretical physicist who was honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2003, together with Alexei Abriksov and Anthony Leggett for their "pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids." His career in physics was spent in Soviet Union and was one of the leading Soviet scientists in the Soviet Union's atomic bomb project, working towards designs of the thermonuclear devices. He became a member of the  Russian Academy of Sciences and succeeded Igor Tamm as head of the Department of Theoretical Physics of the Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (FIAN). In his later life, Ginzburg become an outspoken atheist and was critical of clergy's influence in Russian society. Biography
<mask> was born to a Jewish family in Moscow on 4 October 1916— the son of an engineer, <mask>, and a doctor, Augusta Wildauer who was a graduate from the Physics Faculty of Moscow State University in 1938. After attending his mother's alma mater, he defended his qualifications of the candidate's (Kandidat Nauk) dissertation in 1940, and his comprehensive thesis for the doctor's (Doktor Nauk) qualification in 1942. In 1944, he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.Among his achievements are a partially phenomenological theory of superconductivity, the Ginzburg–Landau theory, developed with Lev Landau in 1950; the theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas (for example, in the ionosphere); and a theory of the origin of cosmic radiation. He is also known to biologists as being part of the group of scientists that helped bring down the reign of the politically connected anti-Mendelian agronomist Trofim Lysenko, thus allowing modern genetic science to return to the USSR. In 1937, <mask> married Olga Zamsha. In 1946, he married his second wife, <mask> (nee Yermakova), who had spent more than a year in custody on fabricated charges of plotting to

masks:
Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg
Vitaly Ginzburg
Lazar Yefimovich Ginzburg
Ginzburg
Nina Ginzburg


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 assassinate the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. <mask> was the editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk. He also headed the Academic Department of Physics and Astrophysics Problems, which Ginzburg founded at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology in 1968. <mask> identified as a secular Jew, and following the collapse of communism in the former Soviet Union, he was very active in Jewish life, especially in Russia, where he served on the board of directors of the Russian Jewish Congress.He is also well known for fighting anti-Semitism and supporting the state of Israel. In the 2000s (decade), Ginzburg was politically active, supporting the Russian liberal opposition and human rights movement. He defended Igor Sutyagin and Valentin Danilov against charges of espionage put forth by the authorities. On 2 April 2009, in an interview to the Radio Liberty Ginzburg denounced the FSB as an institution harmful to Russia and the ongoing expansion of its authority as a return to Stalinism. Ginzburg worked at the P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute of Soviet and Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow since 1940. Russian Academy of Sciences is a major institution where mostly all Nobel Prize laureates of physics from Russia have done their studies and/or research works. Stance on religion
Ginzburg was an avowed atheist, both under the militantly atheist Soviet government and in post-Communist Russia when religion made a strong revival.He criticized clericalism in the press and wrote several books devoted to the questions of religion and atheism. Because of this, some Orthodox Christian groups denounced him and said no science award could excuse his verbal attacks on the Russian Orthodox Church. He was one of the signers of the Open letter to the President Vladimir V. Putin from the Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences against clericalisation of Russia. Death
A spokeswoman for the Russian Academy of Sciences announced that Ginzburg died in

masks: Ginzburg Ginzburg


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 Moscow on 8 November 2009 from cardiac arrest. He had been suffering from ill health for several years, and three years before his death said "In general, I envy believers. I am 90, and [am] being overcome by illnesses. For believers, it is easier to deal with them and with life's other hardships.But what can be done? I cannot believe in resurrection after death." Prime Minister of Russia Vladimir Putin sent his condolences to <mask>'s family, saying "We bid farewell to an extraordinary personality whose outstanding talent, exceptional strength of character and firmness of convictions evoked true respect from his colleagues". President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev, in his letter of condolences, described <mask> as a "top physicist of our time whose discoveries had a huge impact on the development of national and world science." <mask> was buried on 11 November in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow, the resting place of many famous politicians, writers and scientists of Russia. Honors and awards

Medal "For Valiant Labour in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1946)
Medal "In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow" (1948)
Stalin Prize in 1953
Order of Lenin (1954)
Order of the Badge of Honour, twice (1954, 1975)
Order of the Red Banner of Labour, twice (1956, 1986)
Lenin Prize in 1966
Medal "For Valiant Labour. To commemorate the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin" (1970)
Marian Smoluchowski Medal (1984)
Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1987
Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1991
Wolf Prize in Physics in 1994/5
Vavilov Gold Medal (1995) – for outstanding work in physics, including a series of papers on the theory of radiation by uniformly moving sources
Lomonosov Gold Medal in 1995  – for outstanding achievement in the field of theoretical physics and astrophysics
3rd class (3 October 1996) – for outstanding scientific achievements and the training of highly qualified personnel
Elected a  Fellow

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 of the American Physical Society in 2003.Nobel Prize in Physics in 2003, together with Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov and Anthony James Leggett for their "pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids"
 Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 1st class (4 October 2006) – for outstanding contribution to the development of national science and many years of fruitful activity

References

External links

 including the Nobel Lecture On Superconductivity and Superfluidity
Ginzburg's homepage
Curriculum Vitae
Open letter to the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir V. Putin
Obituary The Daily Telegraph 11 Nov 2009. Obituary The Independent November 14, 2009 (by Martin Childs). Biography
 Obituary

1916 births
2009 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physics
Russian Nobel laureates
Scientists from Moscow
People from Moscow Governorate
Russian Jews
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Members of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union
Russian atheism activists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Jewish atheists
Jewish Russian physicists
Jewish scientists
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology faculty
Moscow State University alumni
Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union
Stalin Prize winners
Lenin Prize winners
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Recipients of the Lomonosov Gold Medal
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 1st class
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Soviet astronomers
Soviet inventors
Russian skeptics
Soviet physicists
Superconductivity
Wolf Prize in Physics laureates
Theoretical physicists
UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal recipients
Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery
Academic journal


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<mask> (born October 21, 1984) is a former American football quarterback in the National Football League. He played college football for the Fresno State Bulldogs. He was drafted by the Denver Broncos in the sixth round of the 2009 NFL Draft. He was also a member of the Indianapolis Colts, Miami Dolphins, Dallas Cowboys, and St. Louis Rams. Early life and high school
<mask>r was born and raised in Turlock, California, a town in Stanislaus County. He is the first son and second child of William and Sharen Brandstater and has three siblings. He began playing football at the age of eight with the Turlock Vikings Youth Football program, where he lists Mike  Hibden and Mike Huber as his most influential youth coaches.Several other WAC teammates and opponents, notably Colin Kaepernick of the Nevada Wolf Pack and fellow Fresno State Bulldog Anthony Harding, also played for the youth football program. He was the starting quarterback from the age of eight, but also played other positions. Brandstater attended Turlock High School. He achieved several distinctions as a high school player, including being named to the First-team All District team by the Modesto Bee as a defensive back, and guiding Turlock to the San Joaquin Section Division I South championship against Stockton Lincoln High. As a high school quarterback, he directed an offense that was primarily focused on rushing and did not display his true passing ability, though he still threw for over 1,000 yards in his last season in high school. He was the top quarterback in Fresno State's Summer Football Camp in 2003. College career

2004 season
As a freshman, he was given a redshirt year so he did not play during the team's 2004 season.He served as the quarterback for the scout team in practice against the starting defense. During this time, he was officially

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Thomas Brandstater
Tom Brandstate


texts:
 listed as the number three quarterback behind Paul Pinegar and Jordan Chrisensen. Brandstater did not play in any games during the season, as coach Pat Hill elected to keep him on the bench so that 2004 did not count as one of his four years of eligibility. 2005 season
After redshirting as a true freshman, Brandstater became the backup quarterback to Paul Pinegar in 2005, and was occasionally brought in by Coach Hill in late quarters of games where the Bulldogs had a blowout lead. In the season opener on September 10, 2005, he was brought in late against Weber State, completing 2 out of 4 attempts for 11 yards with a touchdown. He was also credited with a single rushing attempt, for a loss of two yards; this was to be his only rushing attempt of the season. He did not play in the next game, a close away loss to Oregon, and was brought out late in the 44–14 home victory against Toledo, where he attempted a single pass, which went for an incompletion.His next game was against Utah State, where he went 3 for 6 for 36 yards. He played his last game of the season in November against the San José State Spartans, where he completed a single pass for a two-yard gain. As Pinegar's backup, Brandstater played in eight games, completed 6 of 13 passes for 49 yards, with one touchdown and an interception. 2006 season
The 2005 season ended with three losses, including a Liberty Bowl loss to Tulsa, along with a number of losses of senior leadership, including senior quarterback Paul Pinegar and running back Wendell Mathis, both of whom were 2nd in the WAC in passing efficiency and rushing yards per game, respectively. Offensive coordinator Frank Cignetti, Jr., who had led the Bulldogs to two consecutive top ten finishes in NCAA scoring offense in 2004 and 2005, left for North Carolina, and was replaced for the 2006 season by


texts:
 Steve Hagen, the second offensive coordinator to work with Pinegar in as many seasons as a Bulldog. Fresno State opened the 2006 season at home against Nevada on September 1, 2006, and Brandstater passed for 124 yards with a touchdown in his first start with Fresno State, getting revenge for the upset loss the previous season and adding interest to the 83-year-old rivalry. The next week brought a home game against the Oregon Ducks on Sep 9, with Oregon entering the game ranked #20.Brandstater went 16 of 33 attempts for 150 yards, with a touchdown and two interceptions, as Fresno State lost to the Ducks on account of several special teams errors. The remainder of the season turned out to be problematic for the Bulldogs and Brandstater, as the team proceeded to lose the next six games, including a loss to Utah State. On Oct 14 against Hawaii, Coach Hill replaced Brandstater in the second quarter with his backup, Sean Norton, as the Bulldogs lost to the Warriors 68–37 at home. In the next game against LSU, Brandstater did not play. He returned to go 7 of 14 with 72 yards against Boise State, and proceeded to lead the Bulldogs to victories in the next three games against New Mexico State, Idaho, and Louisiana Tech. He started in the season finale at San José State, a loss, but the Bulldogs did end the season with some momentum heading into the 2007 season. 2007 season

Brandstater led the 2007 Fresno State Bulldogs football team to a 9-4 season, capped by back-to-back victories over BCS opponents Kansas State and Georgia Tech in the Humanitarian Bowl where <mask> earned The Most Valuable Player award.2008 season
Going into the 2008 season, the Bulldogs found themselves ranked in several national preseason polls, including Athlon Sports, ranking the Bulldogs #25, CBS Sportsline ranking the team #24, and ESPN ranking


texts:
 them at #21. Brandstater returned for his senior year along with 17 returning starters. He was listed as a darkhorse Heisman Trophy candidate, and was rated number 6 out of 129 quarterbacks going into 2008 by nfldraftscout.com. On July 17, 2008, the <mask>'Brien Watch List was released by the Davey O'Brien Foundation and its National Selection Committee highlighting 31 quarterbacks vying for the award honoring the nation's best quarterback for the 2008 football season, and Brandstater was listed alongside other top prospects. <mask>r was the starting quarterback for the Fresno State Bulldogs as they opened their 2008 season against Rutgers in New Brunswick, New Jersey in a non-conference away game on Labor Day. Behind Brandstater, Fresno State opened the game slowly, with neither team scoring any points in the first half. The Fresno State offense was only able to muster 102 yards and six first downs in the first half, but the defense was able to keep the Scarlet Knights from getting any points on the board.
.The Bulldogs would go on to score three touchdowns and a field goal, with all three touchdowns run into the end zone by running back Ryan Mathews. Brandstater completed the game with 11 completions on 24 attempts for a total of 216 yards and a quarterback rating of 121.4. NCAA statistics

Professional career

Denver Broncos
The Denver Broncos selected Brandstater in the 6th round (174th overall) of the 2009 NFL Draft. On July 26, 2009, Brandstater signed a four-year, $1.60 million contract with a $124,000 signing bonus. He would have earned an additional $2.285 million through final-year escalators. His base salary was $400,000 in 2009, and would have been $395,000 in 2010, $480,000 in 2011, and $565,000 in 2012. The Broncos acquired Tim Tebow through the 2010 NFL draft and brought in Brady Quinn from the

masks:
Tom O
Tom Brandstate


texts:
 Cleveland Browns, and therefore they released Brandstater on June 4, 2010.Indianapolis Colts
The Colts released their injured backup quarterback Jim Sorgi on March 5, 2010, and signed Brandstater off waivers on June 7, 2010, as the backup to Peyton Manning. On September 4, 2010, the Colts waived Brandstater, retaining Curtis Painter as the second string QB, and placing Brandstater on their practice squad on September 6, 2010. The Colts released Brandstater from the practice squad on September 29, 2010. Miami Dolphins
Brandstater was signed to the Miami Dolphins practice squad on November 15, 2010 following injuries to their first and second-string quarterbacks, Chad Henne and Chad Pennington. At the end of the 2010 season, he was signed to a contract. He was waived on August 5, 2011. Dallas Cowboys
Brandstater signed with the Dallas Cowboys on August 6, 2011, but was waived on September 3.St. Louis Rams
The St. Louis Rams signed him to their practice squad on September 13, 2011. He was promoted to the active roster, released from the team, re-signed to the practice squad, and once again promoted to the active roster during the 2011 season. On January 1, 2012 Brandstater played in the 4th quarter of the Week 17 game between the Rams and the San Francisco 49ers. After Kellen Clemens was injured on a second down sack at the hands of linebacker NaVorro Bowman, Brandstater saw his first career NFL action with two incomplete passes. He was released by the Rams on September 1, 2012. References

External links

 Fresno State Bulldogs bio

1984 births
Living people
People from Turlock, California
Players of American football from California
American football quarterbacks
Fresno State Bulldogs football players
Denver Broncos players
Indianapolis Colts players
Miami Dolphins players
Dallas Cowboys players
St. Louis Rams


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<mask> (15 September 1910 – 25 October 1993) was an American media executive and entrepreneur. He is known for creating the Duncan Hines brand of packaged food products, and for his television/radio/newspaper conglomerate, Park Communications. He created the Park Foundation, which has funded many programs in his name at Ithaca College, Cornell University, and North Carolina State University. Biography
<mask> was born in Dobson, North Carolina, the son of a tenant farmer. He began writing for two local North Carolina newspapers at the age of 12; although he suffered a severe bout with rheumatic fever at 13, <mask> graduated from Dobson High School at the age of 15 and followed his brother to North Carolina State University. After crashing his brother's automobile, <mask> took his first job to pay off the damages; this job was at the local Associated Press bureau, where he worked his way up from office boy to reporter by the time of this graduation from college. He also wrote for the college's student newspaper, Technician, and extended his term of study at college so that he could serve as the paper's editor-in-chief.Upon graduation in 1931 with a degree in business administration, he was awarded the senior superlative of "Best Writer." After graduation, <mask> accepted the position of public relations director for the North Carolina Cotton Growers Cooperative Association; there, he pioneered innovative ways of promoting cotton, including "Cotton Balls," with dancers and performers dressed in cotton formal wear. In 1936, he married Dorothy Goodwin Dent, one of the "Maids of Cotton," whom he met prior to these events. At the Cotton Cooperative, <mask> founded and published three periodicals, the Carolina Cooperator, the Rural Electrification Guide, and Cooperative Digest and Farm Power, which attracted the attention of H. E. Babcock, the founder of the Grange League Federation. Babcock offered <mask> a position at the agency, in Ithaca, New York, which <mask> accepted in 1942. <mask>
In the late 1940s, the Grange approached <mask> to find a way to market their

masks:
Roy Hampton Park
Park
Park
Park
Park
Park
Park
Park
Duncan Hines
Park


texts:
 excess food products; <mask> approached well-known food critic <mask> to lend his name to a brand of packaged food products. The resulting company, Hines-Park Foods, was a stunning success in the American food market, especially with its flagship product, Duncan Hines Cake Mix.Only five years after releasing its first products, <mask>nes-<mask> was acquired by Procter & Gamble in 1956 for 360,000 shares of Procter & Gamble stock and an undisclosed amount of cash. <mask> stayed with Procter & Gamble as a senior executive until 1962. Park Communications

After selling Duncan Hines, <mask> began to look around for new business opportunities. In 1961, he used his shares of Procter & Gamble as collateral to acquire two radio stations in North Carolina and established Park Broadcasting, Inc. He left Procter & Gamble the following year and began rapidly purchasing other radio and TV stations. In 1972, he started purchasing newspapers; five years later, he owned 40 of them. Most of his acquisitions were in small to medium-sized markets, far away from big cities."<mask> saw gold in owning broadcast stations," said his longtime deputy Johnny Babcock. "They are reasonably invulnerable to competition, not overburdened with depreciable assets, high profile in their community, and while regulated by the government, the franchise for the assigned frequency on the airwaves is protected by Uncle Sam." <mask>'s TV stations operated at a 45% profit margin, with radio in the high 30s, "outdoor billboards in the low 30s, newspapers in the mid to high 20s. A big grocery retailer does well to turn a profit of 2-3 percent; industrial concerns score success if they exceed 10 percent operating profit. Broadcasting was a pretty fat cat." By 1977, <mask> had become the first broadcaster to acquire seven television stations, seven AM radio, and seven FM radio stations—the legal limit at the time. In 1983, Congress relaxed limits on ownership, and <mask> resumed buying.<mask> changed the name of the company and went public in 1983, selling 10% of his shares and retaining 90% of the company.

masks:
Park
Duncan Hines
Hi
Park
Park
Park
Park
Park
Park
Park
Park