texts: silver plane astrolabe as a gift for an official. An astrolabe is a device used to calculate date and time based on the positions of the stars and planets. It can also be used to predict where the stars and planets will be on any given date. A "little astrolabe", or "plane astrolabe", is a kind of astrolabe that used stereographic projection of the celestial sphere to represent the heavens on a plane surface, as opposed to an armillary sphere, which was globe-shaped. Armillary spheres were large and normally used for display, whereas a plane astrolabe was portable and could be used for practical measurements. The statement from Synesius's letter has sometimes been wrongly interpreted to mean that Hypatia invented the plane astrolabe herself, but the plane astrolabe was in use at least 500 years before Hypatia was born.Hypatia may have learned how to construct a plane astrolabe from her father Theon, who had written two treatises on astrolabes: one entitled Memoirs on the Little Astrolabe and another study on the armillary sphere in Ptolemy's Almagest. Theon's treatise is now lost, but it was well-known to the Syrian bishop Severus Sebokht (575–667), who describes its contents in his own treatise on astrolabes. Hypatia and Theon may have also studied Ptolemy's Planisphaerium, which describes the calculations necessary in order to construct an astrolabe. Synesius's wording indicates that Hypatia did not design or construct the astrolabe herself, but merely acted as a guide and mentor during the process of constructing it. In another letter, Synesius requests Hypatia to construct him


type: original

texts:
 a "hydroscope", a device now known as a hydrometer, to determine the density or specific gravity of liquids. Based on this request, it has been claimed that Hypatia invented the hydrometer herself. The minute detail in which Synesius describes the instrument, however, indicates that he assumes she has never heard of the device, but trusts she will be able to replicate it based on a verbal description.Hydrometers were based on Archimedes' 3rd century BC principles, may have been invented by him, and were being described by the 2nd century AD in a poem by the Roman author Remnius. Although modern authors frequently credit Hypatia with having developed a variety of other inventions, these other attributions may all be discounted as spurious. Booth concludes, "The modern day reputation held by Hypatia as a philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, and mechanical inventor, is disproportionate to the amount of surviving evidence of her life's work. This reputation is either built on myth or hearsay as opposed to evidence. Either that or we are missing all of the evidence that would support it." Legacy

Antiquity
Neoplatonism and paganism both survived for centuries after Hypatia's death, and new academic lecture halls continued to be built in Alexandria after her death. Over the next 200 years, Neoplatonist philosophers such as Hierocles of Alexandria, John Philoponus, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Olympiodorus the Younger made astronomical observations, taught mathematics, and wrote lengthy commentaries on the works of Plato and Aristotle.Hypatia was not the last female Neoplatonist


texts: philosopher; later ones include Aedesia, Asclepigenia, and Theodora of Emesa. According to Watts, however, Hypatia had no appointed successor, no spouse, and no offspring and her sudden death not only left her legacy unprotected, but also triggered a backlash against her entire ideology. Hypatia, with her tolerance towards Christian students and her willingness to cooperate with Christian leaders, had hoped to establish a precedent that Neoplatonism and Christianity could coexist peacefully and cooperatively. Instead, her death and the subsequent failure by the Christian government to impose justice on her killers destroyed that notion entirely and led future Neoplatonists such as Damascius to consider Christian bishops as "dangerous, jealous figures who were also utterly unphilosophical." Hypatia became seen as a "martyr for philosophy", and her murder led philosophers to adopt attitudes that increasingly emphasized the pagan aspects of their beliefs system and helped create a sense of identity for philosophers as pagan traditionalists set apart from the Christian masses. Thus, while Hypatia's death did not bring an end to Neoplatonist philosophy as a whole, Watts argues that it did bring an end to her particular variety of it. Shortly after Hypatia's murder, a forged anti-Christian letter appeared under her name.Damascius was "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death", and attributed responsibility for her murder to Bishop Cyril and his Christian followers. A passage from Damascius's Life of Isidore, preserved in the Suda, concludes that Hypatia's murder was due to


texts:
 Cyril's envy over "her wisdom exceeding all bounds and especially in the things concerning astronomy". Damascius's account of the Christian murder of Hypatia is the sole historical source attributing direct responsibility to Bishop Cyril. At the same time, Damascius was not entirely kind to Hypatia either; he characterizes her as nothing more than a wandering Cynic, and compares her unfavorably with his own teacher Isidore of Alexandria, remarking that "Isidorus greatly outshone Hypatia, not just as a man does over a woman, but in the way a genuine philosopher will over a mere geometer." Middle Ages

Hypatia's death was similar to those of Christian martyrs in Alexandria, who had been dragged through the streets during the Decian persecution in 250. Other aspects of Hypatia's life also fit the mold for a Christian martyr, especially her lifelong virginity. In the Early Middle Ages, Christians conflated Hypatia's death with stories of the Decian martyrs and she became part of the basis for the legend of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, a virgin martyr said to have been exceedingly wise and well-educated.The earliest attestation for the cult of Saint Catherine comes from the eighth century, around three hundred years after <mask>'s death. One story tells of Saint Catherine being confronted by fifty pagan philosophers seeking to convert her, but instead converting all of them to Christianity through her eloquence. Another legend claimed that Saint Catherine had been a student of Athanasius of Alexandria. In the Laodikeia of Asia Minor (today Denizli in Turkey) till late 19th century


texts:
 <mask> was venerated as identical to St. Catherine. The Byzantine Suda encyclopedia contains a very long entry about <mask>, which summarizes two different accounts of her life. The first eleven lines come from one source and the rest of the entry comes from Damascius's Life of Isidore. Most of the first eleven lines of the entry probably come from Hesychius's Onomatologos, but some parts are of unknown origin, including a claim that she was "the wife of Isidore the Philosopher" (apparently Isidore of Alexandria).Watts describes this as a very puzzling claim, not only because Isidore of Alexandria was not born until long after <mask>'s death, and no other philosopher of that name contemporary with <mask> is known, but also because it contradicts Damascius's own statement quoted in the same entry about Hypatia being a lifelong virgin. Watts suggests that someone probably misunderstood the meaning of the word gynē used by Damascius to describe Hypatia in his Life of Isidore, since the same word can mean either "woman" or "wife". The Byzantine and Christian intellectual Photios ( 810/820–893) includes both Damascius's account of Hypatia and Socrates Scholasticus's in his Bibliotheke. In his own comments, Photios remarks on Hypatia's great fame as a scholar, but does not mention her death, perhaps indicating that he saw her scholarly work as more significant. The intellectual Eudokia Makrembolitissa (1021–1096), the second wife of Byzantine emperor Constantine X Doukas, was described by the historian Nicephorus Gregoras as a "second Hypatia". Early modern period

Early

masks: Hypatia Hypatia Hypatia Hypatia


texts: eighteenth-century Deist scholar John Toland used the murder of Hypatia as the basis for an anti-Catholic tract, portraying Hypatia's death in the worst possible light by changing the story and inventing elements not found in any of the ancient sources. A 1721 response by Thomas Lewis defended Cyril, rejected Damascius's account as unreliable because its author was "a heathen" and argued that Socrates Scholasticus was "a Puritan", who was consistently biased against Cyril.Voltaire, in his Examen important de Milord Bolingbroke ou le tombeau de fanatisme (1736) interpreted Hypatia as a believer in "the laws of rational Nature" and "the capacities of the human mind free of dogmas" and described her death as "a bestial murder perpetrated by Cyril's tonsured hounds, with a fanatical gang at their heels". Later, in an entry for his Dictionnaire philosophique (1772), Voltaire again portrayed Hypatia as a freethinking deistic genius brutally murdered by ignorant and misunderstanding Christians. Most of the entry ignores Hypatia herself altogether and instead deals with the controversy over whether or not Cyril was responsible for her death. Voltaire concludes with the snide remark that "When one strips beautiful women naked, it is not to massacre them." In his monumental work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the English historian Edward Gibbon expanded on Toland and Voltaire's misleading portrayals by declaring Cyril as the sole cause of all evil in Alexandria at the beginning of the fifth century and construing Hypatia's murder as evidence to support his thesis


texts:
 that the rise of Christianity hastened the decline of the Roman Empire. He remarks on Cyril's continued veneration as a Christian saint, commenting that "superstition [Christianity] perhaps would more gently expiate the blood of a virgin, than the banishment of a saint." In response to these accusations, Catholic authors, as well as some French Protestants, insisted with increased vehemence that Cyril had absolutely no involvement in <mask>'s murder and that Peter the Lector was solely responsible.In the course of these heated debates, Hypatia herself tended to be cast aside and ignored, while the debates focused far more intently on the question of whether Peter the Lector had acted alone or under Cyril's orders. Nineteenth century

In the nineteenth century European literary authors spun the legend of Hypatia as part of neo-Hellenism, a movement that romanticised ancient Greeks and their values. Interest in the "literary legend of Hypatia" began to rise. Diodata Saluzzo Roero's 1827 Ipazia ovvero delle Filosofie suggested that Cyril had actually converted Hypatia to Christianity, and that she had been killed by a "treacherous" priest. In his 1852 Hypatie and 1857 Hypathie et Cyrille, French poet Charles Leconte de Lisle portrayed Hypatia as the epitome of "vulnerable truth and beauty". Leconte de Lisle's first poem portrayed Hypatia as a woman born after her time, a victim of the laws of history. His second poem reverted to the eighteenth-century Deistic portrayal of Hypatia as the victim of Christian brutality, but with the twist that Hypatia tries and fails to convince Cyril


texts: that Neoplatonism and Christianity are actually fundamentally the same.Charles Kingsley's 1853 novel Hypatia; Or, New Foes with an Old Face was originally intended as a historical treatise, but instead became a typical mid-Victorian romance with a militantly anti-Catholic message, portraying Hypatia as a "helpless, pretentious, and erotic heroine" with the "spirit of Plato and the body of Aphrodite." Kingsley's novel was tremendously popular; it was translated into several European languages and remained continuously in print for the rest of the century. It promoted the romantic vision of Hypatia as "the last of the Hellenes" and was quickly adapted into a broad variety of stage productions, the first of which was a play written by Elizabeth Bowers, performed in Philadelphia in 1859, starring the writer herself in the titular role. On 2 January 1893, a much higher-profile stage play adaptation Hypatia, written by G. Stuart Ogilvie and produced by Herbert Beerbohm Tree, opened at the Haymarket Theatre in London. The title role was initially played by Julia Neilson, and it featured an elaborate musical score written by the composer Hubert Parry. The novel also spawned works of visual art, including an 1867 image portraying Hypatia as a young woman by the early photographer Julia Margaret Cameron and an 1885 painting by Charles William Mitchell showing a nude Hypatia standing before an altar in a church. At the same time, European philosophers and scientists described Hypatia as the last representative of science and free inquiry before a "long medieval decline".In 1843, German


texts:
 authors Soldan and Heppe argued in their highly influential History of the Witchcraft Trials that Hypatia may have been, in effect, the first famous "witch" punished under Christian authority (see witch-hunt). Hypatia was honored as an astronomer when 238 Hypatia, a main belt asteroid discovered in 1884, was named for her. The lunar crater Hypatia was also named for her, in addition to craters named for her father Theon. The 180 km Rimae Hypatia are located north of the crater, one degree south of the equator, along the Mare Tranquillitatis. Twentieth century

In 1908, American writer Elbert Hubbard published a putative biography of Hypatia in his series Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Teachers. The book is almost entirely a work of fiction. In it, Hubbard relates a completely made-up physical exercise program which he claims Theon established for his daughter, involving "fishing, horseback-riding, and rowing".He claims that Theon taught Hypatia to "Reserve your right to think, for even to think wrongly is better than to never think at all." Hubbard claims that, as a young woman, <mask> traveled to Athens, where she studied under Plutarch of Athens. All of this supposed biographical information, however, is completely fictional and is not found in any ancient source. Hubbard even attributes to Hypatia numerous completely fabricated quotations in which she presents modern, rationalist views. The cover illustration for the book, a drawing of Hypatia by artist Jules Maurice Gaspard showing her as a beautiful young woman with her wavy hair tied back in the classical style, has


texts:
 now become the most iconic and widely reproduced image of her. Around the same time, Hypatia was adopted by feminists, and her life and death began to be viewed in the light of the women's rights movement. The author Carlo Pascal claimed in 1908 that her murder was an anti-feminist act and brought about a change in the treatment of women, as well as the decline of the Mediterranean civilization in general.Dora Russell, the wife of Bertrand Russell, published a book on the inadequate education of women and inequality with the title Hypatia or Woman and Knowledge in 1925. The prologue explains why she chose the title: "Hypatia was a university lecturer denounced by Church dignitaries and torn to pieces by Christians. Such will probably be the fate of this book." <mask>'s death became symbolic for some historians. For example, Kathleen Wider proposes that the murder of Hypatia marked the end of Classical antiquity, and Stephen Greenblatt writes that her murder "effectively marked the downfall of Alexandrian intellectual life". On the other hand, Christian Wildberg notes that Hellenistic philosophy continued to flourish in the 5th and 6th centuries, and perhaps until the age of Justinian I.

Falsehoods and misconceptions about Hypatia continued to proliferate throughout the late twentieth century. Although Hubbard's fictional biography was intended for children, Lynn M. Osen relied on it as her main source in her influential 1974 article on Hypatia in her 1974 book Women in Mathematics.Fordham University used Hubbard's biography as the main source of information about Hypatia in a


texts: medieval history course. Carl Sagan's 1980 PBS series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage relates a heavily fictionalized retelling of Hypatia's death, which results in the "Great Library of Alexandria" being burned by militant Christians. In actuality, though Christians led by Theophilus did indeed destroy the Serapeum in 391 AD, the Library of Alexandria had already ceased to exist in any recognizable form centuries prior to Hypatia's birth. As a female intellectual, Hypatia became a role model for modern intelligent women and two feminist journals were named after her: the Greek journal Hypatia: Feminist Studies was launched in Athens in 1984, and Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy in the United States in 1986. In the United Kingdom, the Hypatia Trust maintains a library and archive of feminine literary, artistic and scientific work; and, sponsors the Hypatia-in-the-Woods women's retreat in Washington, United States. Judy Chicago's large-scale art piece The Dinner Party awards Hypatia a table setting. The table runner depicts Hellenistic goddesses weeping over her death.Chicago states that the social unrest leading to Hypatia's murder resulted from Roman patriarchy and mistreatment of women and that this ongoing unrest can only be brought to an end through the restoration of an original, primeval matriarchy. She (anachronistically and incorrectly) concludes that Hypatia's writings were burned in the Library of Alexandria when it was destroyed. Major works of twentieth century literature contain references to Hypatia, including Marcel Proust's stories "Madame Swann At Home" and


texts:
 "Within a Budding Grove" from In Search of Lost Time, and Iain Pears's The Dream of Scipio. Twenty-first century
Hypatia's life continues to be fictionalized by authors in many countries and languages. In Umberto Eco's 2002 novel Baudolino, the hero's love interest is a half-satyr, half-woman descendant of a female-only community of Hypatia's disciples, collectively known as "hypatias". Charlotte Kramer's 2006 novel Holy Murder: the Death of Hypatia of Alexandria portrays Cyril as an archetypal villain, while Hypatia is described as brilliant, beloved, and more knowledgeable of scripture than Cyril. Ki Longfellow's novel Flow Down Like Silver (2009) invents an elaborate backstory for why Hypatia first started teaching.Youssef Ziedan's novel Azazeel (2012) describes Hypatia's murder through the eyes of a witness. Bruce MacLennan's 2013 book The Wisdom of Hypatia presents Hypatia as a guide who introduces Neoplatonic philosophy and exercises for modern life. In The Plot to Save Socrates (2006) by Paul Levinson and its sequels, Hypatia is a time-traveler from the twenty-first century United States. In the TV series The Good Place, Hypatia is played by Lisa Kudrow as one of the few ancient philosophers eligible for heaven, by not having defended slavery. The 2009 film Agora, directed by Alejandro Amenábar and starring Rachel Weisz as Hypatia, is a heavily fictionalized dramatization of Hypatia's final years. The film, which was intended to criticize contemporary Christian fundamentalism, has had wide-ranging impact on the popular conception of Hypatia. It emphasizes Hypatia's


texts:
 astronomical and mechanical studies rather than her philosophy, portraying her as "less Plato than Copernicus", and emphasizes the restrictions imposed on women by the early Christian church, including depictions of Hypatia being sexually assaulted by one of her father's Christian slaves, and of Cyril reading from  forbidding women from teaching.The film contains numerous historical inaccuracies: It inflates Hypatia's achievements and incorrectly portrays her as finding a proof of Aristarchus of Samos's heliocentric model of the universe, which there is no evidence that Hypatia ever studied. It also contains a scene based on Carl Sagan's Cosmos in which Christians raid the Serapeum and burn all of its scrolls, leaving the building itself largely intact. In reality, the Serapeum probably did not have any scrolls in it at that time, and the Christians demolished the building. The film also implies that Hypatia is an atheist, directly contradictory to the surviving sources, which all portray her as following the teachings of Plotinus that the goal of philosophy was "a mystical union with the divine." See also
 Timeline of women in science

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

 . See also The Life of Hypatia from The Suda (Jeremiah Reedy, trans. ), pp.57–58, The Life of Hypatia by Socrates Scholasticus from his Ecclesiastical History 7.13, pp. 59–60, and The Life of Hypatia by John, Bishop of Nikiu, from his Chronicle 84.87–103, pp. 61–63.

 . External links
 International Society for Neoplatonic Studies
 Socrates of Constantinople, Ecclesiastical


texts:
 History, VII.15, at the Internet Archive
  Socrates of Constantinople, Ecclesiastical History, VII.15 (pp. 760–761), at the Documenta Catholica Omnia

4th-century births
415 deaths
4th-century Egyptian people
5th-century Egyptian people
4th-century Greek people
5th-century Greek people
4th-century mathematicians
5th-century mathematicians
4th-century philosophers
5th-century philosophers
4th-century women writers
5th-century women writers
Late-Roman-era pagans
Egyptian people of Greek descent
Hellenistic-era philosophers
Assassinated educators
Neoplatonists
Pagan martyrs
Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire
Roman-era Alexandrians
Roman-era philosophers
Women inventors
Women mathematicians
4th-century Byzantine women
5th-century Byzantine women
4th-century Byzantine writers
5th-century Byzantine writers
5th-century astronomers
Byzantine astronomers
Lynching deaths
Executed


texts:
<mask> (born May 11, 1966) is a billionaire American investor and hedge fund manager. He is the founder and CEO of Pershing Square Capital Management, a hedge fund management company. His investment approach makes him an activist investor. Early life and education
<mask> was raised in Chappaqua, New York, the son of Ronnie I. (née Posner) and <mask>, the chairman of a New York real estate financing firm, Ackman-Ziff Real Estate Group. He is of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. In 1988, he received a Bachelor of Arts degree magna cum laude in Social Studies from Harvard College.His thesis was "Scaling the Ivy Wall: the Jewish and Asian American Experience in Harvard Admissions." In 1992, he received an MBA from Harvard Business School. Career

Gotham Partners
In 1992, <mask> founded the investment firm Gotham Partners with fellow Harvard graduate David P. Berkowitz. The firm made small investments in public companies. In 1995, <mask> partnered with the insurance and real estate firm Leucadia National to bid for Rockefeller Center. Although they did not win the deal, the bid generated interest in Gotham from investors: three years later, Gotham had $500 million in assets under management (AUM). By 2002, Gotham had become entrenched in litigation with various external shareholders who also owned an interest in the companies in which Gotham invested.Despite an ongoing probe of his trading activities by New York state and federal authorities, in 2002 <mask> researched MBIA in order to challenge Standard & Poor's AAA rating of its bonds. He was charged fees for copying 725,000 pages of statements regarding the financial services company as part of his law firm's compliance with a subpoena. <mask> called for a division between MBIA's structured finance business and its municipal bond insurance business. He argued that MBIA was legally restricted from trading billions of dollars of credit default swap (CDS) protection that MBIA had sold against various mortgage-backed collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), and was using a second corporation, LaCrosse Financial

masks:
William Albert Ackman
Ackman
Lawrence David Ackman
Ackman
Ackman
Ackman
Ackman


texts:
 Products, which MBIA described as an "orphaned transformer." <mask> bought credit default swaps against MBIA corporate debt and sold them for a large profit during the financial crisis of 2007–2008. He reported covering his short position on MBIA on January 16, 2009, according to the 13D filed with the SEC. In 2003, a feud developed between <mask> and Carl Icahn over a deal involving Hallwood Realty.They agreed to a "shmuck insurance" arrangement, under which, if Icahn were to sell the shares within 3 years and made a profit of 10% or more, he and <mask> would split the proceeds. Icahn paid $80 per share. In April 2004, HRPT Property Trust acquired Hallwood, paying $136.16 per share. Under the terms of the "contract", Icahn owed <mask> and his investors about $4.5 million. Icahn refused to pay. <mask> sued. Eight years later, Icahn was forced to pay the $4.5 million plus 9% interest per year, by court order.Pershing Square Capital Management
In 2004, with $54 million from his personal funds and from his former business partner Leucadia National, <mask> started Pershing Square Capital Management. In 2005, Pershing bought a significant share in the fast food chain Wendy's International and successfully pressured it to sell its Tim Hortons doughnut chain. Wendy's spun off Tim Hortons through an IPO in 2006 and raised $670 million for Wendy's investors. After a dispute over executive succession that led <mask> to sell his shares at a substantial profit, the stock price collapsed, raising criticism that the sale of Wendy's fastest-growing unit left the company in a weaker market position. <mask> blamed the poor performance on their new CEO. In December 2007, his fund held a 10% stake in Target Corporation, valued at $4.2 billion, through the purchase of stock and derivatives. In December 2010, his funds held a 38% stake in Borders Group and on December 6, 2010, <mask> indicated he would finance a buyout of Barnes & Noble for .At a panel meeting discussing Bernie Madoff in January 2009, <mask> defended his longtime friend Ezra Merkin, saying, "Has Ezra

masks: Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman


texts: committed a crime? I don't think so," and "I think [Merkin] is an honest person, an intelligent person, an interesting person, a smart investor." In April 2009, Merkin was charged with civil fraud by the State of New York for "secretly steering $2.4 billion in client money into Bernard Madoff's Ponzi fraud without their permission." A settlement was reached in June 2012 requiring Merkin to pay $405 million to victims including the Metropolitan Council on Jewish Poverty. In December 2012, Pershing Square Capital Management launched a new closed-end fund called Pershing Square Holdings, which raised $3 billion in an October 2014 IPO on Amsterdam's Euronext stock market. As a closed-end fund valued at $6.7 billion, PSH was designed as a permanent capital vehicle from which investors would not be able to directly withdraw funds. PSH reported 17.1% in returns since inception (Dec. 2012 – November 2017) under <mask>'s management, 80% below the S&P 500.<mask> started buying J. C. Penney shares in 2010, paying an average of $22 for 39 million shares or 18% of J.C. Penney's stock. In August 2013, <mask>'s two-year campaign to transform the department store came to an abrupt end after he decided to step down from the board following an argument with fellow board members. In a statement dated August 27, 2013, Pershing Square reported that it had hired Citigroup to liquidate the 39.1 million shares the firm then owned of the Plano, Texas-based department-store chain at a price of $12.90 per share, resulting in a loss of approximately $500 million. In January 2015, LCH Investments named <mask> one of the world's top 20 hedge fund managers after Pershing Square delivered $4.5 billion in net gains for investors in 2014, bringing the fund's lifetime gains to $11.6 billion since its launch in 2004 through year-end 2014. On April 27, 2016, <mask>, along with Valeant Pharmaceuticals' outgoing CEO, J. Michael Pearson, and the company's former interim CEO, Howard Schiller, testified before the United States Senate Special Committee on Aging. The testifying panel answered

masks: Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman


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 questions related to the committee's concerns about repercussions to patients and the health care system posed by Valeant's business model and controversial pricing practices. <mask> opened his testimony saying, "As a shareholder of Valeant, I recognize my investment was an… endorsement of Valeant’s strategy."<mask> sold his remaining 27.2 million share position in Valeant to the investment bank Jefferies for about $300 million in March 2017. It has been estimated that the total cost of the position, including direct stock purchases and 9.1 million shares that were underlying stock options traded with Nomura Global Financial Products, was $4.6 billion, leading to a substantial loss. According to Forbes Magazine, <mask> has a net worth of US$1.9 billion as of July 25, 2020, ranking him No. 391 on the Forbes 400. According to Institutional Investor, <mask> made an estimated $1.4 billion in 2020. Herbalife short

In December 2012, <mask> issued a research report that was critical of Herbalife's multi-level marketing business model, calling it a pyramid scheme. <mask> disclosed that his hedge fund, Pershing Square Capital Management, sold short the company's shares directly (not with derivatives) starting in May 2012, causing Herbalife's stock price to drop.At an investor conference in January 2013, the company released results of a Nielsen Research International survey showing 73% of Herbalife distributors never intended to make money by reselling the product. Instead, they wanted to buy products at a discount for personal use. To make the distinction clearer, the company announced on its June 2013 earnings call that it would begin referring to these discount buyers as "members" rather than "distributors." A few months after <mask>'s initial comments, billionaire investor Carl Icahn challenged <mask>'s comment in a public spat on national TV. Shortly thereafter, Icahn bought shares of Herbalife International. As Icahn continued to buy up HLF shares, the stock price continued to show strength. By May 2013, Icahn owned 16.5% of the company.That number had

masks: Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman


texts: declined to 6.4% by November 2013. In 2014, Ackman spent $50 million on a public relations campaign against Herbalife, which was designed to hurt the company's stock price. Former Rep. Bob Barr (R-GA) called on Congress to investigate <mask>'s use of public relations and regulatory pressure in his short campaign, and Harvey L. Pitt, a former chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission, has questioned whether <mask> aims to move the price rather than spread the truth. In 2014, Senator Ed Markey wrote letters to federal regulators, including the FTC and the SEC, demanding they open an investigation into Herbalife's business practices. The day the letters were released, the company's stock dropped 14%. Markey later told the Boston Globe that his staff had not informed him that <mask> stood to benefit financially from his actions and defended the letters as a matter of consumer rights. In March 2014, the New York Times reported that Ackman had employed tactics to undermine public confidence in Herbalife to lower its stock price, including pressuring state and federal regulators to investigate the company, paying individuals to travel to and participate in rallies against it, and boosting its spending on donations to nonprofit Latino organizations.According to the article, groups such as the Hispanic Federation and the National Consumers League sent federal regulators numerous letters. "Each person contacted by The Times acknowledged in interviews that they wrote the letters after being lobbied by representatives from Pershing Square, or said they did not remember writing the letters at all. Mr. <mask>'s team also then started to make payments totaling about $130,000 to some of these groups, including the Hispanic Federation — money he said was being used to help find victims of Herbalife." By December 2, 2014, stock prices had fallen nearly 50% to $42.08 from their January 8 high of $83.48. Later that month, Pershing Square Capital released a 2005 Herbalife distributor training session, in which an employee described high turnover rates and implied

masks: Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman


texts: that the company's business model was not sustainable. According to an unnamed source speaking to the New York Post, the video had previously been subpoenaed by federal investigators. In an interview with Bloomberg, <mask> predicted that the company would experience an "implosion" in 2015 or early 2016, citing federal scrutiny and debt.On March 12, 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported that prosecutors in the Manhattan U.S. attorney's office and the FBI were investigating whether people hired by <mask> "made false statements about Herbalife's business model to regulators and others in order to spur investigations into the company and lower its stock price." In March 2015, U.S. District Judge Dale Fischer, in Los Angeles, California, dismissed a suit filed by Herbalife investors alleging the company is operating an illegal pyramid scheme. In response to Fischer's ruling, Herbalife stock rose approximately 13%. Herbalife and the FTC reached a settlement agreement in July 2016, ending the agency's investigation into the company. On the day of the settlement, Fortune estimated that <mask> lost $500 million. <mask>'s position on Herbalife led to a discussion on live television with Herbalife supporter Carl Icahn for nearly half an hour on CNBC on January 25, 2013. During the segment, Icahn called <mask> "a crybaby in the schoolyard" and claimed that going public with his short position would eventually force <mask> into the "mother of all short squeezes".On November 22, 2013, <mask> admitted on Bloomberg Television that Pershing Square's open short position in Herbalife was "$400 million to $500 million" in the red, but that he wouldn't be squeezed out and would hold the short "to the end of the earth." In November 2017, <mask> told Reuters that he had covered his short-sell position, but would continue to bet against Herbalife using put options with no more than 3% of Pershing Square's funds. On February 28, 2018, <mask> exited his near billion-dollar bet against Herbalife after the company's stock price continued to rise, choosing to build his position

masks: Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman Ackman


texts:
 in United Technologies instead. COVID-19 response
Ahead of the 2020 stock market crash, <mask> hedged Pershing Square's portfolio, risking $27 million to purchase credit protection, insuring the portfolio against steep market losses. The hedge was effective, generating $2.6 billion in less than one month. On March 18, 2020, in an emotional interview with CNBC, <mask> called upon President Trump for a "30-day shutdown" of the American economy to slow the spread of coronavirus and minimize loss of life and ensuing economic destruction resulting from the shutdown. <mask> warned that without intervention, hotel stocks were “going to zero” and said that America could “end as we know it."He also cautioned U.S. companies to stop stock buyback programs because “hell is coming.”

<mask> later received criticism for actively buying discounted equity stakes in the very companies he was warning could fail; however, <mask> already had realized roughly half of the gains before appearing during the CNBC interview. In a November 2020 interview, <mask> said that he had grown concerned about COVID-19 because he had seen the film Contagion and offered qualified praise for Trump's presidency, saying that Trump has "done a lot of good. He's done some harm as well". Pershing Square Tontine Holdings
In June 2020, <mask>'s Pershing Square Tontine Holdings, Ltd, filed $3 billion for the largest-ever blank-check company IPO. Investment style
Research published at the University of Oxford characterizes <mask>'s activities with Canadian Pacific Railway as paradigmatic of "engaged activism", which is longer-term in nature with correlated benefits to the real economy, and distinct from shorter-term "financial activism". <mask> has said that his most successful investments have always been controversial, and that his first rule of activist investing is to "make a bold call that nobody believes in". <mask>'s investing style has been praised and criticized by U.S. government officials, heads of other hedge funds, various retail investors, and the general public.His most notable


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 market plays include shorting MBIA's bonds during the financial crisis of 2007–2008, his proxy fight with Canadian Pacific Railway, and his stakes in the Target Corporation, Valeant Pharmaceuticals, and Chipotle Mexican Grill. From 2012 to 2018, <mask> held a US$1 billion short against the nutrition company Herbalife, a company he has claimed is a pyramid scheme designed as a multi-level marketing firm. His efforts were reported in the documentary film Betting on Zero. After weak performance in 2015–2018, <mask> told investors in January 2018 that he was going to go back to basics by cutting staff, ending investor visits that were eating into his time, and hunkering down in the office to do research. As a result of these changes, his firm Pershing Square returned 58.1% in 2019, which Reuters says qualified it as "one of the world’s best performing hedge funds" for 2019. <mask> has said that he admires short sellers such as Carson Block of Muddy Waters Capital and Andrew Left of Citron Research. Philanthropy
<mask> has given to charitable causes such as the Center for Jewish History, where he spearheaded a successful effort to retire $30 million in debt, personally contributing $6.8 million.This donation and those of Bruce Berkowitz, founder of Fairholme Capital Management, and Joseph Steinberg, president of Leucadia National, were the three largest individual gifts the center has ever received. <mask>'s foundation donated $1.1 million to the Innocence Project in New York City and Centurion Ministries in Princeton, N.J. He is a signatory of The Giving Pledge, committing himself to give away at least 50% of his wealth to charitable causes. In 2006, <mask>, and then wife Karen, founded the Pershing Square Foundation to support innovation in economic development, education, healthcare, human rights, arts and urban development. The foundation is a major donor to Planned Parenthood. Since its inception, the foundation has committed more than $400 million in grants since 2006. In 2011, the <mask>s were on The Chronicle of Philanthropy'''s "Philanthropy 50"

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 list of the most generous donors.In July 2014, Challenged Athletes Foundation, which provides sports equipment to those with physical disabilities, honored <mask> at a gala fundraiser at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City for helping raise a record $2.3 million. <mask> endorsed Michael Bloomberg as a prospective candidate for President of the United States in the 2016 presidential election. He is a longtime donor to Democratic candidates and organizations, including Richard Blumenthal, Chuck Schumer, Robert Menendez, the Democratic National Committee, and the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee. On March 15, 2021 he announced that he donated 26.5 million shares in South Korean e-commerce company Coupang, valued at $1.36 billion, to three entities, one of them his own foundation. Personal life
<mask> married Karen Ann Herskovitz, a landscape architect, on July 10, 1994, and they have three children:  Eloise <mask>, <mask>, and <mask>. On December 22, 2016, it was reported that the couple had separated. As of 2013, <mask> owned a Gulfstream G550 business jet.In 2018, <mask> became engaged to Neri Oxman. In January 2019, Oxman and <mask> married at the Central Synagogue in Manhattan, and they had their first child together in spring 2019. Books
 <mask>, <mask> with Pershing Square Capital Management (2014). Who Wants to be a Millionaire?References

Further reading

 Richard, Christine. Confidence Game (Wiley, 2010) with Bloomberg News.'' 1966 births
Living people
American billionaires
American chief executives of financial services companies
American financial company founders
American financiers
American hedge fund managers
American investors
American money managers
American stock traders
Businesspeople from New York (state)
Canadian Pacific Railway people
Giving Pledgers
21st-century philanthropists
Harvard Business School alumni
Jewish American philanthropists
People from Chappaqua, New York
Stock and commodity market managers
Philanthropists from New York (state)
Harvard College alumni
People from Westchester County, New

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texts: <mask> (born April 6, 1939) is an American businessman, entrepreneur and investor in high-tech startups. <mask> was vice-president (1970–1977) and president of PepsiCo (1977–1983), until he became chief executive officer (CEO) of Apple Inc. on April 8, 1983, a position he held until leaving in 1993. In May 1987, <mask> was named Silicon Valley's top-paid executive, with an annual salary of US$10.2 million. Sales at Apple increased from $800 million to $8 billion under <mask>'s management, although many attribute his success to <mask> joining the company just when Steve Jobs' visions and Steve Wozniak's creations had become highly lucrative. His stint at Apple remains controversial due to his departure from co-founder Steve Jobs's sales structure, particularly regarding <mask>'s decision to compete with IBM in selling computers to the same types of customers. Others say that the "two clashed over management styles and priorities, Jobs focusing on future innovation and <mask> more on current product lines and profitability". But <mask> ultimately was forced to step down as Apple CEO because he was opposed to licensing Macintosh software and was talking to Goldman Sachs about splitting Apple into two companies.When <mask> left in May 1993, Apple had $2 billion in cash and $200 million in debt. <mask> is recognized as an expert in marketing, in part because of his early successes at PepsiCo, notably his introduction of the Pepsi Challenge, which allowed the company to gain market share from primary rival Coca-Cola. He used similar marketing strategies throughout the 1980s and 1990s at Apple to mass-market Macintosh personal computers, and today he continues to speak

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 and write about disruptive marketing strategies. <mask> is currently invested in and involved with a number of high-tech start-up companies, including 3CInteractive, Zeta Global, Inflexion Point, Mobeam, OpenPeak, x10 Credit, Pivot Acquisition Corp., nextSource and WorldMate. He is currently Chairman of the PeopleTicker and SkillsVillage. Jeff Daniels portrayed <mask> in the film Steve Jobs, Matthew Modine portrayed him in the 2013 film Jobs, and Allan Royal portrayed him in the 1999 TNT film Pirates of Silicon Valley. Early life
<mask> was born in New York City, the son of Margaret Blackburn (Smith), a horticulturist, and <mask>, Jr., a Wall Street lawyer.<mask> and his brothers spent much of their childhood in Bermuda before moving back to New York. He attended high school at St. Mark's School in Southborough, Massachusetts. <mask> received a bachelor's degree in Architectural Design from Brown University and an MBA from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Career
<mask> began work at Marschalk Co. in New York City in 1963. 1967–82: Pepsi-Cola
Sculley joined the Pepsi-Cola division of PepsiCo in 1967 as a trainee, where he participated in a six-month training program at a bottling plant in Pittsburgh. In 1970, at the age of 30, <mask> became the company's youngest marketing vice-president. Sculley initiated one of the company's first consumer-research studies, an extended in-home product test in which 350 families participated.As a result of the research, Pepsi decided to launch new, larger, and more varied packages of their soft drinks, including the two-liter bottle Sculley worked with DuPont to develop. In 1970, Pepsi set out to dethrone

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texts: Coca-Cola as the market leader of the industry, in what eventually became known as the Cola Wars. Pepsi began spending more on marketing and advertising, typically paying between US$200,000 and $300,000 for each television spot, while most companies spent between $15,000 and $75,000. With the Pepsi Generation campaign, Pepsi aimed to overturn Coca-Cola's classic marketing. In 1974, <mask> became president of PepsiCo's International Food Operations division, shortly after he visited a failing potato-chip factory in Paris. PepsiCo's food division was their only money-losing division, with revenues of US$83 million and losses of $156.5 million. To make the food division profitable, <mask> improved product quality, enhanced accounts, and established financial controls.Within three years, the food division was making US$300 million in revenues and $40 million in profit. <mask> was best known at Pepsi for the Pepsi Challenge, an advertising campaign he started in 1975 to compete against Coca-Cola to gain market share, using heavily advertised taste tests. It claimed based on <mask>'s own research that Pepsi-Cola tasted better than Coca-Cola. The Pepsi Challenge included a series of television advertisements that first aired in the early 1970s, featuring lifelong Coca-Cola drinkers participating in blind taste tests. Pepsi's soft drink was always chosen as the preferred product by the participant; however, these tests have been criticized as being biased. The Pepsi Challenge was mostly targeted at the Texas market, where Pepsi had a significantly lower market share at the time. The campaign was successful, significantly increasing Pepsi's market share in that state.At

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 the time the Pepsi Challenge was started, <mask> was senior vice-president of United States sales and marketing operations at Pepsi. <mask> himself took the taste test and picked Coke instead of Pepsi. In 1977, <mask> was named Pepsi's youngest-ever president. Although commonly called the CEO of Pepsi, this was never the case. At the time of his departure, Don Kendall was CEO of Pepsi. 1983–93: Apple Computer, Inc.

Apple lured <mask> away from Pepsi in order to apply his marketing skills to the personal computer market. Steve Jobs successfully sealed the deal after he made his legendary pitch to <mask>: "Do you want to sell sugared water for the rest of your life?Or do you want to come with me and change the world?" Apple's president, Mike Markkula, wanted to retire and believed that Jobs, who wished to be the company's president, lacked the discipline and temperament needed to run Apple on a daily basis. <mask>, with his solid business background and considerable recent success, would give Apple an image of greater reliability and stability. When <mask> started at Apple, he got a $1-million signing bonus, $1 million in annual pay and options on 350,000 shares of Apple. From the time they first met in 1982 until 1985, Jobs and <mask> had what both acknowledged as an amazing partnership. <mask> used his marketing experience to help keep the aging Apple II generating much-needed cash and helped Jobs launch the Mac with the most admired consumer marketing campaign of its time. Once Jobs took over the Macintosh project from Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak and early Apple employee Jef Raskin, he became the executive product manager and made all the product

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texts: decisions.The Lisa computer, an innovative model designed by a team initially led by Jobs, became available in January 1983, and had disastrous sales. When Jobs's Macintosh, the first of a new series of models with a pioneering black-and-white graphical user interface, was shipped to stores in January 1984, Sculley raised the initial price to $2,495 from the originally planned $1,995, allocating the additional money to hypothetically higher profit margins and to expensive advertising campaigns. Macintosh sold well, and received excellent reviews, but it did not eliminate the IBM PC. Some of the privileges of Jobs's elite development groups were trimmed, and projects were subject to stricter review for usefulness, marketability, feasibility, and reasonable cost. At the peak of the Macintosh success, Apple made an attempt to move unsold inventory of Lisa computers by renaming it to "Macintosh XL" and positioning it as a top-of-the-line pro Macintosh model. At this point, a power struggle between Jobs and <mask> was becoming obvious. Jobs became "non-linear": he kept meetings running past midnight, sent out lengthy faxes, then called new meetings at 7:00 am.<mask> had little control over the Macintosh division where Jobs was the general manager. The Apple board of directors instructed <mask> to "contain" Jobs and limit his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products. Rather than submit to <mask>'s direction, Jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at Apple. <mask> found out about Jobs's plans and called a board meeting at which Apple's board of directors sided with <mask> and removed Jobs from his managerial duties. Jobs resigned from

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texts: Apple and founded NeXT Inc. the same year. <mask> said in 2015 that Jobs never forgave him and their friendship was never repaired. After Jobs left, <mask> was named president and the company experienced a turnaround in 1986; one journalist wrote "since <mask> joined the company … many things have changed", and that his "strategy has worked".Wozniak credited the Macintosh's initial success to <mask>, saying that he "worked to build a Macintosh market when the Apple II went away". Apple introduced a faster microprocessor and renamed "The Macintosh Office" to "Desktop Publishing." Under the direction of <mask>, who had learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky Macintosh Portable in 1989, Apple introduced the PowerBook in 1991. The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the operating system, which added color to the interface and introduced new networking capabilities. It remained the architectural basis for Mac OS until 2001, when the classic Mac OS was replaced by Mac OS X. The success of the PowerBook and other products brought increasing revenue. For some time, it appeared that Apple could do no wrong, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process.The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the "first golden age" of the Macintosh. Under the leadership of <mask>, Apple's sales multiplied from $982 million in 1983 to $7.9 billion in 1993. Microsoft threatened to discontinue Microsoft Office for the Macintosh if Apple did not license parts of the Macintosh graphical user interface to use in the Windows operating system. Under pressure, <mask> agreed, a decision which later

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texts: affected the Apple v. Microsoft lawsuit. About that time, <mask> coined the term personal digital assistant (PDA) referring to the Apple Newton, one of the world's first PDAs. In 1987, <mask> made several predictions in a Playboy interview. He predicted that the Soviet Union would land a man on Mars within the next 20 years and claimed that optical storage media such as the CD-ROM would revolutionize the use of personal computers.Some of his ideas for the Knowledge Navigator were eventually fulfilled by the Internet and the World Wide Web during the 1990s and others by Apple itself with the introduction of Siri. On December 5, 1992, <mask>, as Chairman, CEO, and CTO of Apple Computer, Inc., gave a seminal speech regarding the future of the Internet, titled "The Dawn of a $3.5 Trillion Communications Mega-Industry: Information Access, Processing and Distribution in a Digital World." This was the keynote address to a packed house at the Harvard Business School's Burden Auditorium, as part of the inaugural student-run Harvard/MIT Communications 2000 Symposium (now known as the Harvard Business School Tech Club's annual Cyberposium). In the early 1990s, <mask> led Apple to port its operating system to run on a new microprocessor, the PowerPC. <mask> later acknowledged such an act was his greatest mistake, indicating that he should instead have targeted the dominant Intel architecture. After a bad first quarter in 1993, amid a personal-computer price war and internal tension over the company's direction, Apple's board forced <mask> out. He resigned on October 15, 1993  and was replaced by German-born Michael Spindler, who had been Chief Operating Officer.Spindler was


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 ousted three years later. 1993–present: tech investment
After leaving Apple on October 23, 1993, <mask> became chairman and chief executive officer at Spectrum Information Technologies, a New York-based company that held key computer patents for wireless data transmission. Only four months later he resigned from the company and filed a lawsuit against Spectrum president Peter Caserta, seeking more than $10 million in damages. <mask> alleged that he was misled when he was hired at Spectrum by not being told of SEC inquiries and "aggressive revenue recognition accounting" for license fees. <mask> has been a founding investor in MetroPCS (formerly General Wireless) and helped guide the company's brand marketing; MetroPCS became a multibillion-dollar public company on the New York Stock Exchange until its acquisition by T-Mobile in 2013. He built NFO Research from $25 million to $550 million in revenue, and sold it to IPG for $850 million. He helped launch and advised Hotwire.com, Intralinks (which was co-founded by his brother Arthur), and InPhonic, Buy.com, and PeoplePC—each of which became billion dollar market cap public companies in the 1990s.In 1997, <mask> became the chairman of Live Picture, a California-based company, to oversee its push into high-quality, low-bandwidth imaging over the Internet. US$22M in venture capital was provided for the company. <mask> later left the company, but remained an investor. In 1999, Live Picture filed for federal bankruptcy protection as part of a plan to be acquired by MGI Software. In 1997, <mask> co-founded PopTech with Bob Metcalfe and several other dignitaries from the technology industry. In 1998, he joined the board


texts: of directors of BuyComp LLC (now Buy.com), an Internet-only computer store. Two years later, he partnered with Dennis M. Lynch to launch Signature21, providing marketing services to small to medium-sized businesses.In 2001, Sculley and Lynch transitioned the company into a learning program for rising entrepreneurs. Months later, Lynch left the company, while <mask> continued to consult and work with small businesses, including InPhonic, whose board of directors he later joined. InPhonic was an online retailer of cell phones and wireless plans. <mask>'s early leadership helped steer InPhonic towards its successful IPO in 2004. <mask> served as the vice chairman of the InPhonic board of directors. InPhonic filed for bankruptcy in 2007. In 2002, <mask> endorsed and invested in the Wine Clip, a wine accessory product, which claims to accelerate the aeration of wine by exposure to magnets.A year later he helped in the founding of Verified Person Inc., an online pre-employment screening company. As of 2012, he serves on the board of directors. In 2004, <mask> joined the board of directors at OpenPeak, a maker of software for wireless consumer electronics, digital media, computers, and home systems. In the same year, <mask> became a venture partner at Rho Ventures. In March 2006, <mask> was named Chairman of IdenTrust (formerly Digital Signature Trust Company) a San Francisco-based firm focusing on verifying identity and boosting financial security. Before speaking at the Silicon Valley 4.0 conference, <mask> was interviewed by CNET in October 2003, where he explained the mistakes he made at Apple concerning the Apple Newton and HyperCard. Sculley had cancelled Apple's

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 first hand-held mobile tablet PenMac led by Paul Mercer with applications by Samir Arora and instead signed an agreement to work with Sharp Electronics on the Newton technology.Also in 2003, <mask> was interviewed by the BBC for the television documentary The World's Most Powerful episode Steve Jobs vs. Bill Gates, discussing his time at Apple during the 1980s as CEO. In 2010, he was interviewed for Cult of Mac on the topics of Steve Jobs and design. In 2007, <mask> co-founded the data company Zeta Global with business partner David A. Steinberg, and in January 2014 the data analytics firm XL Marketing, rebranded and incorporated its resources into Zeta Interactive, re-launching it as a Big Data-Driven Marketing firm. On January 30, 2014, <mask> was a panelist at a forum organized by Zeta, which featured ad executives, marketers and NFL executive to discuss the changes in the way companies market and reach consumers since <mask>'s time at Apple in 1984 when the computer company featured what became one of the first iconic Super Bowl ads—the 1984 commercial. In October 2016, Zeta Interactive was again rebranded as Zeta Global. In 2014, <mask> co-founded Obi Mobiles, a smartphone brand aimed at the emerging markets. The company was renamed Obi Worldphone.In September 2017, <mask> Worldphone and told that his name was used for PR only. He has also been working in the health care industry, focusing on RxAdvance, a cloud-based platform that helps pharmaceutical companies, hospitals and insurers manage chronically ill patients living at home. Other
Sculley went political in the early 1990s on behalf of Republican Tom Campbell, who in 1992 was running in the

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 California Republican primary to be the party candidate for a United States Senate seat. <mask> hosted a fundraiser for Campbell at his ranch in Woodside. <mask> had become acquainted with Hillary Clinton, serving with her on a national education council. When Bill Clinton ran for president, Sculley supported him. <mask> sat next to Hillary Clinton during the President's first State of the Union address in January 1993.Personal life
<mask> married Ruth, stepdaughter of PepsiCo president Donald Kendall in 1960, with whom he had two children. The couple divorced in 1965. In 1978, he married Carol Lee Adams, ex-wife of a former PepsiCo vice president, ultimately divorcing in 2011. In 2015, Adams filed a lawsuit alleging that <mask> did not disclose over $25 million in assets during their divorce proceedings. A spokesman for Sculley denied the allegations. In 2013, <mask> married Diane Gibbs Poli, vice president and design coordinator for Wittman Building Corporation, and they live in Palm Beach, Florida. In 2016, while visiting Japan, Sculley saw Steve Jobs’ autograph in a sushi restaurant, and broke down in tears.The owner said “He told me that since they were retired from the frontlines of business, they could have enjoyed sushi at Steve’s favorite restaurant and had a good time together, but he has passed away and now he’s in heaven.”

References

Further reading
 Owen W. Linzmayer, Apple Confidential 2.0, pages 153–68,  (January 1, 2004)

External links

 PBS.org – <mask> Biography
 Rho Ventures – <mask> Venture Partner Biography
 2001 Interview with InPhonic vice chairman <mask> by Wireless Business & Technology
 <mask>'s official public speaking site, with

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 videos of speeches including technology, reinvention of health care
 Obi Worldphone website

1939 births
Apple Inc. executives
Brown University alumni
Living people
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni
St. Mark's School (Massachusetts) alumni
Amateur radio people
Silicon Valley people
PepsiCo people
Businesspeople from the San Francisco Bay Area
Directors of Apple Inc.
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American


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<mask> (born August 14, 1939) is an American lawyer who served as New Jersey Attorney General under Democratic Governor Jim McGreevey from 2002 to 2003. He served as the Chairman of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) from 2011 until his resignation on March 28, 2014 in the aftermath of the Fort Lee lane closure scandal. <mask> is a partner and founding member of the law firm Wolff & Samson from which he resigned in April 2015, and had been an ally of Governor Chris Christie. On July 14, 2016, <mask> pleaded guilty to a felony for conspiring to impede an airport project to coerce United Airlines to reinstate a discontinued flight to an airport in South Carolina, near a home that he owned. <mask> was ordered to pay a $100,000 fine and sentenced to a year of home confinement at the South Carolina vacation house that was subject of the crime. Early life and education
<mask> was born to a Jewish family in Newark and was raised in Hillside, New Jersey. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Rutgers University in 1961 and a law degree from the University of Pennsylvania Law School in 1965.Career in New Jersey government and politics

Early in his career, he served a judicial clerkship with Associate Justice Nathan L. Jacobs of the New Jersey Supreme Court. During 2002-2003, <mask> served as New Jersey Attorney General under Democratic Governor Jim McGreevey serving as the chief law enforcement officer for New Jersey. In this role, he supervised the statewide Divisions of Criminal Justice, New Jersey State Police, Civil Rights, Consumer Affairs and Gaming Enforcement, as well as the Division of Law, which represents all executive departments in New Jersey State government. As Chairman of the New Jersey Domestic Security Preparedness Task Force, he worked hand-in-hand with federal agencies in organizing and directing counter-terrorism efforts

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texts: throughout the New Jersey-New York area. <mask> was formerly a close associate and confidant of Chris Christie. In 2009, <mask> was counsel to the gubernatorial election campaign of Chris Christie and thereafter served as the Chairman of Christie's Transition Committee. <mask> has also acted as a court-appointed labor union trustee, a civil litigation discovery master and as a federal monitor pursuant to a United States Department of Justice deferred prosecution agreement.Among his public positions, <mask> was appointed by Governor James Florio as a member of the Governor’s Commission on Health Care Costs and by Governor Thomas Kean as the Chairman of the Governor’s Task Force on the Laws Governing the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. He also served from 1982-1990 as General Counsel to the New Jersey Turnpike Authority. <mask> was appointed by the Supreme Court of New Jersey to serve on its Ethics Committee and was a member of the Court's Committee on Reporting of Court Decisions. He was also the legal consultant to the Advisory Committee to the Attorney General on Governmental Immunity. In addition, <mask> served on the New Jersey Bar Association Committee on Judicial and Prosecutorial Appointments. Christie nominated <mask> to the Board of Commissioners of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey on September 30, 2010. He was confirmed by the New Jersey Senate on January 25, 2011, and was elected as the agency's Chairman on February 3, 2011.<mask> was presented with Essex County, New Jersey's Star of Essex award during the county’s annual Jewish Heritage Celebration on May 7, 2013. After United States Senator Frank Lautenberg died on June 3, 2013, there was speculation that Gov. Christie would appoint <mask> to fill the vacant seat in the United States Senate. Instead, Christie picked <mask>'s former law partner, New Jersey Attorney General

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 Jeffrey Chiesa. Controversies

Fort Lee lane closure scandal

In January 2014, it was revealed in subpoenaed e-mails that <mask> had tried to retaliate against PANYNJ Executive Director Patrick J. Foye, who allegedly leaked his own September 13, 2013, e-mail criticizing the closure of two of three local toll lanes to the George Washington Bridge without following regular protocols and without notifying Foye, and supported <mask>, who resigned from the Port Authority in December 2013, for his role in closing those dedicated toll lanes for an entrance in Fort Lee, New Jersey. This fueled speculation that <mask> was involved in the scandal. Official e-mails sent from <mask> to other Port Authority officials sharply criticized Foye's order to re-open the two closed toll lanes for the George Washington Bridge, accusing the latter of "stirring up trouble."<mask> hired Michael Chertoff from Covington & Burling and Genova Burns Giantomasi Webster as legal representation. On February 19, 2014 <mask> apologized on behalf of the commissioners "for inconvenience caused to our travelers" without directly stating that it was due to plans by some individuals to cause traffic jams with the toll lane closings at the bridge, and without acknowledging the detrimental effects on the borough of Fort Lee and its public services, mayor, and  officials The editorial board of The Star-Ledger, a New Jersey newspaper with the largest circulation in the state, assessed <mask>'s apology as "too little, too late", noted a list of his failures and conflicts of interests, and called for him to resign. According to records released by subpoena, <mask> is said to have been intimately involved with day-to-day operations at the Port Authority. Allegations of conflict of interest and resignation
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 possible conflict of interest

A report by The Star-Ledger found <mask> voted at the Port Authority to award multimillion-dollar contracts to Railroad Construction Company Inc,  a company whose owner is represented by <mask>'s law firm. In March 2014, The New York Times reported in a front-page article that a "comprehensive examination" had shown the extent to which clients of <mask>'s law firm had profited from dealings with the Port Authority during <mask>'s term as chairman. The Times reported that "<mask> and his law firm benefited financially," and that Christie "benefited politically." On February 25, 2013, Patrick Foye, the Executive Director of the Port Authority, said he does not believe Chairman <mask> has moral authority to run the Port Authority.The New Jersey Working Families Alliance claimed that <mask> misused his authority as chairman of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, alleging that <mask> traded his public position to benefit the private clients of his law firm, and filed an ethics complaint with the New Jersey State Ethics Commission. The Bergen County freeholders (county legislature), which has no oversight over the PA, called for the resignation of both Chairman <mask> (since his political activity allegedly conflicted with his actions regarding the aftermath of the lane closures and other PA issues) and the other five New Jersey appointed commissioners (based on their failure to exercise oversight in the aftermath of the Bridgegate controversy). Bergen County is the most populous New Jersey county and includes Fort Lee and surrounding communities that were impacted by the lane closures. Calls for <mask>'s resignation and/or removal came from The Star-Ledger, The Record (twice),   The New York Times, Daily News (New York), and the Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders. In response to these matters, Christie said in late


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 February 2014 that he "strongly, firmly" stands behind <mask> as chairman of the Port Authority. However, on March 28, 2014, Christie announced <mask>'s resignation from the Port Authority, "effective immediately, at a press conference. In December 2014 <mask> and his law firm sued the New Jersey State Ethics Commission in U.S. District Court, claiming it does not have the authority to investigate Port Authority commissioners.The suit was dropped on December 24, 2014. Federal investigations into the "chairman's flight" and guilty plea
The Public Corruption Unit of the U.S. Attorney's Office in the Southern District of New York, led by U.S. Attorney Preet Bharara, opened an investigation into <mask>'s conduct as Port Authority chairman. On March 7, 2014, federal prosecutors subpoenaed the Port Authority for documents related to <mask>'s private business interests, but rescinded the request on March 10, 2014, due to an overlapping investigation into the toll lane closures by Paul J. Fishman, United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey. In January 2015, federal prosecutors subpoenaed records related to <mask>'s personal travel, and his relationship with Newark Liberty International Airport's largest carrier, United Airlines, as part of a probe into a flight route initiated by United while <mask> was chairman of the transportation agency that operates the region's airports. The route provided non-stop service between Newark and Columbia Metropolitan Airport in South Carolina, located about 50 miles from a home where <mask> often spent weekends. United halted the non-stop route on April 1, 2014, three days after <mask> resigned from the position. <mask> referred to the twice-a-week route — with a flight leaving Newark on Thursday evenings and another returning on Monday mornings — as “the chairman’s flight.” The PANYNJ is cooperating with the


texts:
 investigation.Additional records were subpoenaed from the PANYNJ in August 2015. In September 2015 top officials at United resigned in conjunction with the investigation. In April 2015, amid reports of a "sprawling investigation", <mask> retired from Wolff & Samson. He had been at the firm for 44 years. At that time, a Wolff & Samson spokesperson announced the firm was changing its name to Chiesa Shahinian & Giantomasi P.C. On July 14, 2016, <mask> pleaded guilty in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey to one felony count of conspiracy. The indictment charged that <mask> impeded an airport hangar project to coerce the airline to reinstate the flight to Columbia.<mask> was ordered to pay a $100,000 fine and sentenced to a year of home confinement at the South Carolina vacation house that was subject of the crime. Official misconduct charges
On April 4, 2017 Bill Brennan, Democratic activist and candidate for Democratic nominee governor, filed a citizen's complaint against <mask> in Newark municipal court stating that <mask>'s confession to extortion and bribery amounted to a confession of official misconduct. Essex County Judge Marvin Adames dismissed the charges, ruling that Brennan did not have standing to bring the suit. See also
Governorship of Chris Christie
List of people involved in the Fort Lee lane closure scandal

References

External links
 Timeline of "Chairman's Flight" events, according to
 WNYC-FM/AM (New York Public Radio)
 Information (indictment) against <mask>, filed July 14, 2016

|-

1939 births
Living people
Politicians from Newark, New Jersey
New Jersey Attorneys General
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey people
Rutgers University alumni
University of Pennsylvania Law School alumni
Jewish American attorneys
Chairmen of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
Lawyers from Newark, New Jersey
New Jersey Turnpike

masks:
Samson
Samson
Samson
Samson
Samson
Samson
David Samson


texts:
<mask> (born Sharon Lee Myers, August 21, 1941) is an American singer-songwriter with a string of hit song credits from the 1960s onwards, as both singer and composer. She was one of the first female singer-songwriters of the Rock and Roll period. She is best known as the singer of "What the World Needs Now Is Love" and "Put a Little Love in Your Heart", and as the composer of "When You Walk in the Room" and "Bette Davis Eyes", which were covered by The Searchers and Kim Carnes, whose versions have been hits for both these acts. Since 2009, <mask> has been an entertainment broadcast correspondent reporting Beatles band members' news for the radio program Breakfast with the Beatles. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Hazel, Kentucky, the daughter of musically inclined farming parents, James Erwin Myers and the former Sandra Jeanne Laporte. By age six, she was singing country tunes on a local radio show. By age 11, she was hosting her own radio program.When life on the farm became too difficult, the family moved to her mother's hometown, Aurora, Illinois, where her father resumed his other career as a barber. After a year, they moved to Batavia, Illinois, where she attended high school. In May 1955, while in 8th grade, Sharon Lee Myers, then 13 years old, was featured in the local newspaper for her vocal talents and personal appearances at community gatherings, the local hospitals, and for assorted organizations. According to the Batavia Herald, she had her own Saturday morning radio show Breakfast Melodies

masks:
Jackie DeShannon
DeShannon
DeShannon


texts:
 on radio station WMRO. Further:
Though only 13, the youngster can boast almost 11 years of voice training and experience and in the past she has toured most of the south making personal appearances. Also she has sung on radio with a rhythm band for 2 years and has appeared on television 3 times. In March 1956, "Sherry Lee Myers" made "another guest appearance on Pee Wee King's popular Country and Western Television Show" on Saturday evening, March 3, on Channel 2—the CBS network affiliate in Chicago, Illinois.According to the Batavia Herald:Sherry Lee is a busy young lady. Each Saturday morning at 9:30 she is on the WMRO radio show. She had made appearances with the Pee Wee King Show at Ottawa, Rockford and LaSalle in recent weeks. Following her television appearance this Saturday night, the young Batavia artist will appear at the West Aurora Junior High School auditorium on Sunday, March 4th for three shows, 2, 4, and 8 pm. She attended Batavia High School for two years (1955–1957), leaving school after her second year. Early career
She began to record under various names such as Sherry Lee, <mask>, and <mask>, with mixed success. Billboard noted (June 10, 1957) that Sherry Lee Myers, "16-year-old C&W singer of Batavia, Illinois," had recently signed to George Goldner's Gone label in New York as a rockabilly artist, and that her "handlers" (Irving Schacht and Paul Kallett) had changed her name to <mask>.Her only release on Gone included "I'll Be True" (A) and "How Wrong I Was" (B), which appeared in both 78 rpm

masks:
Jackie Dee
Jackie Shannon
Jackie Dee


texts: and 45 rpm versions. <mask> almost certainly sang these songs at the Uptown Theater in Philadelphia on July 3, 1957, and at the Paramount Theater in New York, two weeks later, with Alan Freed's Big Rock 'n' Roll Show. However, her interpretations of country songs "Buddy" (as <mask>) and "Trouble" (as <mask>) gained the attention of rock and roll star Eddie Cochran, who arranged for her to travel to California to meet his girlfriend, singer-songwriter Sharon Sheeley, who formed a writing partnership with DeShannon in 1960. Their partnership produced Brenda Lee's hits "Dum Dum" and "Heart in Hand". In 1960, DeShannon signed with Liberty Records, adopting the name <mask>, believed to be the name of an Irish ancestor, after executives at Liberty thought the name Sharon Myers would not help sell records. In a Fresh Air interview (June 14, 2010), DeShannon said that she chose "<mask>" as a cross-gender name. Since she had a low singing voice, she could be heard as either male or female.When she found that "<mask>" was too similar to Brenda Lee, Sandra Dee, et al., she changed it to <mask> Shannon, which people heard as <mask>. The name stuck. Armed with her new name, she made the WLS Chicago radio survey with the single "Lonely Girl" in late 1960. A string of mostly flop singles followed, although "The Prince" bubbled under at No. 108 in the United States in early 1962, and "Faded Love" became her first US Billboard Top 100 entry, squeaking in at No. 97 in February 1963. She fared better with the Sonny Bono-Jack

masks:
Jackie
Jackie Dee
Jackie Shannon
Jackie DeShannon
Jackie
Jackie Dee
Jackie Dee
DeShannon


texts: Nitzsche song "Needles and Pins" and the self-penned "When You Walk in the Room" later in 1963.Both reached the lower rungs of the US pop charts, but were Top 40 hits in Canada, where "Needles and Pins" made it all the way to No. 1. "Needles and Pins" and "When You Walk in the Room" later became US and UK hits for The Searchers. A version of "When You Walk in the Room" by Pam Tillis topped the country charts in 1994, and the song was also recorded by ex-Byrds member Chris Hillman in 1998 and by ex-ABBA vocalist Agnetha Fältskog in 2004. DeShannon recorded many other singles that encompassed teen pop, country ballads, rockabilly, gospel, and Ray Charles-style soul that didn't fare as well on the charts. During these years it was her songwriting and public profile rather than her recording career that kept her contracted to Liberty. DeShannon dated Elvis Presley and formed friendships with The Everly Brothers and Ricky Nelson.She also co-starred and sang with Bobby Vinton in the 1964 teen surf movie Surf Party. DeShannon's biggest break came in February 1964 when she supported The Beatles on their first US tour, and formed a touring band with guitarist Ry Cooder. DeShannon co-wrote "Breakaway" with Sharon Sheeley, which was recorded by Irma Thomas in 1964, and by Tracey Ullman in 1983. She also wrote "Don't Doubt Yourself Babe" for Mr. Tambourine Man, the 1965 debut album of The Byrds. Her music at this stage was heavily influenced by the American West Coast sounds and folk music. Staying briefly in England in 1965,


texts:
 DeShannon formed a songwriting partnership with Jimmy Page, which resulted in the songs "Dream Boy" and "Don't Turn Your Back on Me". DeShannon also wrote material for singer Marianne Faithfull, including her Top Ten UK and US hit "Come and Stay With Me", which became Faithfull's biggest UK hit, peaking at No.4 in 1965. That same year, Cher covered the song on her solo debut album All I Really Want to Do. It would be three more years before <mask> would record the song for herself, on her 'Laurel Canyon' album in 1968. She also appeared on the television show Ready Steady Go! Hit love songs
Moving to New York City, <mask> co-wrote with Randy Newman, producing such songs as "She Don't Understand Him Like I Do" and "Did He Call Today Mama? ", as well as writing "You Have No Choice" for Delaney Bramlett. In March 1965, <mask> recorded Burt Bacharach and Hal David's "What the World Needs Now Is Love", which led to club tours and regular appearances on television and went to No.7 on the US charts and No. 1 in Canada. (<mask>'s recording of the song was subsequently used in the 1969 film Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice). She appeared in the 1967 film C'mon, Let's Live a Little, with Bobby Vee, as a folk singer. DeShannon continued writing and recording, but it was not until 1969 that she scored her next smash single and album, both entitled "Put a Little Love in Your Heart". The self-penned single (co-written with her brother, Randy Myers and Jimmy Holiday) sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. "Put a

masks:
Jackie DeShannon
DeShannon
DeShannon
DeShannon


texts:
 Little Love in Your Heart" was performed as the closing number at the Music for UNICEF Concert, broadcast worldwide from the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, and was covered in 1988 as a duet by Annie Lennox and Al Green (reaching No.9 in the Billboard Hot 100), and by Dolly Parton in 1993. The single "Love Will Find a Way" from the same album was also a moderate hit. Later career
Switching to Atlantic Records in 1970 and moving to Los Angeles, DeShannon recorded the critically acclaimed albums Jackie (1972) and Your Baby Is a Lady (1974), but they failed to produce the same commercial success as previous releases. In 1973, she was invited by Van Morrison to sing on his album, Hard Nose the Highway (singing backup on both the title track and "Warm Love"). In 1974, DeShannon released New Arrangement for Columbia Records. She co-wrote four songs on the album with Donna Weiss, including "Queen of the Rodeo" and "Bette Davis Eyes". The latter went on to become a worldwide No.1 single for Kim Carnes in 1981, earning Weiss and DeShannon the 1982 Grammy Award for Song of the Year. She released You're the Only Dancer in 1977, and a single from that album, "Don't Let The Flame Burn Out", was a minor hit, reaching No. 65 in the Billboard Hot 100. DeShannon continued to record into the 21st century. She released You Know Me, an album of original songs, for Varèse Sarabande in 2000, and When You Walk in the Room, a new recording of her best-known songs, in 2011. She was portrayed by singer Liz Phair in an episode of


texts:
 American Dreams. On June 17, 2010, <mask> was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.In 2012 she wrote and recorded "For Africa, In Africa", a song inspired by the urgent need for action to provide clean water for the African Continent. Using her continuing access and friendship with Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr, DeShannon has appeared as a contributing entertainment broadcast correspondent reporting historical anecdotes and current touring and personal news and publicity pertaining to the two surviving Beatles for Breakfast with the Beatles on Sirius XM Satellite Radio on the weekends since October 2009. Personal life
She had a brother, Randy James Myers, with whom she has sometimes written songs. In the mid 1960s, she was a companion of Jimmy Page and dated Love guitarist Bryan MacLean. It is likely that Page wrote the song "Tangerine" (which appeared on the third Led Zeppelin album) after the breakup of his relationship with DeShannon in early 1965. Her first husband was Liberty Records executive Irving "Bud" Dain, whom she married on January 29, 1966 (annulled in 1967). DeShannon has been married to singer-songwriter and film composer Randy Edelman since 1976.They have one son, Noah (born 1978). Discography

Albums
 <mask> (1963)
Breakin' It Up on the Beatles Tour (1964)
 Don't Turn Your Back on Me (1964)
 Surf Party (1964, soundtrack)
 This Is <mask>hannon (1965)
 Jackie: In the Wind (1965)
 You Won't Forget Me (1965, compilation)
 C'mon, Let's Live a Little (1966, soundtrack)
 Are You Ready for This?

masks:
DeShannon
Jackie DeShannon
Jackie DeS


texts:
 (1966)
 New Image (1967)
 For You (1967)
 Me About You (1968)
 What the World Needs Now Is Love (1968, compilation)
 Lonely Girl (1968, compilation)
 Great Performances (1968, compilation)
 Laurel Canyon (1969)
 Put a Little Love in Your Heart (1969)
 To Be Free (1970)
 Songs (1971)
 Jackie (1972)
 Your Baby Is a Lady (1974)
 New Arrangement (1975)
 The Very Best of <mask>non (1975, compilation)
 You're the Only Dancer (1977)
 Quick Touches (1978)
 Together (1980, soundtrack)
 Pop Princess (1981, compilation)
 <mask>non (1985, compilation)
 What the World Needs Now Is ...: The Definitive Collection (1994, compilation)
 Good as Gold! (1990, compilation)
 The Best of <mask>non (1991, compilation)
 Trouble with <mask> (1991)
 The Early Years (1998, compilation)
 Come and Get Me: Best of... 1958–1980 (2000, compilation)
 You Know Me (2000)
 High Coinage: The Songwriters Collection 1960–1984 (2007, compilation)
 You Won't Forget Me: The Complete Liberty Singles Volume 1 (2009, UK compilation)
 Come and Get Me: The Complete Liberty and Imperial Singles Volume 2 (2011, UK compilation)
 When You Walk in the Room (2011, songs newly recorded)
 Keep Me in Mind: The Complete Imperial and Liberty Singles, Volume 3 (2012, UK compilation)
 All the Love: The Lost Atlantic Recordings (2015, previously unreleased 1971 album)
 Stone Cold Soul: The Complete Capitol Recordings (2018, compilation)

Singles
Images of each record from 1956 to 1960, including additional liner notes, are found at "Sweet Sherry: The Early Recording Career

masks:
Jackie DeShan
Jackie DeShan
Jackie DeShan
Jackie Dee


texts:
 of Jackie DeShannon" by Pete Lerner. Film appearances
 Surf Party (1963)
 Intimacy (1966)
 C'mon Let's Live a Little (1967)

TV appearances
 Hollywood A Go Go (1965)
 Hullabaloo (1965)
 My Three Sons (1967)
 Playboy After Dark (1969)
 The Wild Wild West (1969) (The Night of the Janus)
 The Johnny Cash Show (1970)
 Flip Wilson Show (1970)
 The Virginian (1970)
 The Catcher (1972)
 The Midnight Special (1976)
 Later... with Jools Holland, Series 41, Episode 6, BBC TWO (2012)

References

External links

 Official website
 Jackie DeShannon at the Internet Movie Database
 "Sweet Sherry: The Early Recording Career of Jackie DeShannon" by Pete Lerner

American women singer-songwriters
American rock songwriters
American women rock singers
Rock musicians from Kentucky
People from Calloway County, Kentucky
American rockabilly musicians
1941 births
Living people
Grammy Award winners
Imperial Records artists
Liberty Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Kentucky
People from Batavia, Illinois
People from Aurora, Illinois
Kentucky women singers
Country musicians from Illinois
Country musicians from Kentucky
21st-century American women
Singer-songwriters from


texts:
<mask> (also known by other orthographic variation including Keali'inohomoku) (1930–2015) was an American anthropologist and educator, co-founder of the dance research organization Cross-Cultural Dance Resources (CCDR). She has written and/or edited numerous books and articles, including contributions on dance-related subjects to multiple encyclopedias, such as writing the entry for "Music and dance in the United States" in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Some of her best-known works are "An anthropologist looks at ballet as a form of ethnic dance" (1970) and "Theory and methods for an anthropological study of dance" (1976). An associate professor of anthropology at Northern Arizona University, she was named professor emerita in 1987. In 1997, she received the first annual award for "Outstanding Contribution to Dance Research" from  Congress on Research in Dance. In 2000, the CCDR collection was named by  President Bill Clinton's White House Millennium Council, as something that needed to be preserved under the "Save America's Treasures" program. Biography
She was born <mask> on May 20, 1930 in Kansas City, Missouri, to  George V. and Leona Lavena (Moore) Wheeler.Wheeler attended grammar school in Des Plaines, Illinois and Whitefish Bay High School in the village of Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin. She later studied at Northwestern University, receiving a Bachelor of Specialized Studies degree in 1955, an MA in 1965, and a PhD from Indiana University in 1976, with her dissertation being "Theory and methods for an anthropological study of dance." In 1953, she married Thomas Samuel <mask>, and they had one child, Halla, before divorcing in 1963. She was the dance reviewer for the Honolulu

masks:
Joann Wheeler Kealiinohomoku
Joann Marie Wheeler
Kealiinohomoku


texts:
 Star-Bulletin from 1960 to 1963. In 1969, she published one of her best-known works, "An anthropologist looks at ballet as a form of ethnic dance". <mask> served on the Board of Directors of Native Americans for Community Action in Flagstaff, Arizona from 1977 to 1982. She was also a member of the Society of Ethnomusicology, where she was co-founder of their Southwestern Chapter.From 1974–1977 she was on the Board of Directors of the Congress on Research in Dance, and in 1981 was co-founder of Cross-Cultural Dance Resources, a dance research organization in Flagstaff, Arizona, where she was a permanent member of the board of directors. In 2008, it was announced that the CCDR collection was to be transferred to the Herberger College of the Arts at Arizona State University Dance Department in Tempe, Arizona for permanent curation. In 1992, <mask> was the series advisor for Dancing, an eight-part public television series on Thirteen/WNET, which first aired in 1993. Awards
 1996, "Outstanding Contribution to Dance Research", Congress on Research in Dance
 1996, Distinguished Public Scholar award, Arizona Humanities Council
 2000, CCDR collection recognized by President Clinton's White House Millennium Council's "Save America's Treasures" project

Selected works
"An anthropologist looks at ballet as a form of ethnic dance" (1970)
“An anthropologist looks at ballet as a form of ethnic dance” is one of <mask> <mask>’s most well-known works in the field of dance-anthropology. Her principal goals are to challenge the field of western dance history in its inconsistent definitions of what dance is, and its racist and ethnocentric accounts of non-Western dance practices; she does this by arguing that ballet is

masks: Kealiinohomoku Kealiinohomoku Joann Kealiinohomoku


texts: a form of ethnic dance, a claim which both shocks the dominant narrative and redefines the term “ethnic”. The piece is subdivided into sections, “Paradigm”, “Definitions” and “Ethnicity of Ballet”. Kealiinohomoku begins by addressing historically inconsistent and ethnocentric definitions of dance, used by western dance history scholars and choreographers to describe non-Western dance traditions.She engages with the work of Walter Sorell, Lincoln Kirstein, Walter Terry, Claire Holt, Agnes DeMille and John Martin. For Kealiinohomoku, much of the previous work in the field of dance history illuminates a “pervasive ethnocentric bias” (534). Paradigm: Some of the inaccuracies that she addresses are the misconception of non-Western dance traditions as formless, frenzied, hyper-sexual, and the assumption that the dances formed spontaneously through community activity, but without dance leaders. She uses the example of dances of the Hopi people (which she studied from 1965 and 1968)  to dismiss many of these inaccuracies, arguing that the Hopi dances are “immaculately organized, and never frenzied…” (538). Definitions: She introduces her anthropological definition of ethnic dance, a phrase which, “convey(s) the idea that all forms of dance reflect the cultural traditions within which they develop” (533). For Kealiinohomoku, all dance is ethnic dance. Ethnicity of Ballet: In this section, Kealiinohomoku argues that ballet is ethnic, in the sense that its aesthetic qualities reflect its origin heritages, and that it is not acultural.She highlights “chivalry, courting, weddings, Christenings, burial and mourning customs” are presented in ballets, as well as “aesthetic values” in long, extended, slender bodies


texts:
 of dancers. Ballet’s ethnicity can also be seen in the “flora and fauna” of the stage, including “horses and swans...grains, roses and lilies” (546). She continues to analyze the ways that dance history has mis-defined the term “ethnic” to mean “heathen, pagan, savage, or more recently, exotic” (546), and argues that to use the term appropriately would be to consider all dances ethnic.. Reception: Many scholars have responded to Kealiinohomoku’s text as well as have used it as a jumping off point for their own research. In “On Dance Ethnography”, Deidre Sklar offers an application of Kealiinohomoku’s approach, exploring how an ethnographic approach to dance offers cultural context to movement. She incorporates physical movement and discovery through kinesthetic empathy as imperative research methods. Referencing Keallinohomoku’s work and building upon it she concludes, “My point is that, not only does every dance genre emerge from and depend upon cultural traditions, so does every dance researcher and writer.Cultural background influences what one perceives and how one interprets what she perceives” (8). Sklar’s work is just one of many pieces of a progressive cultural project. "Music and dance of the Hawaiian and Hopi peoples", Richard L. Anderson and Karen L. Field (editors). Art in small scale societies: contemporary readings: pp. 334–348. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. : Prentice-Hall  1993
 "Theory and methods for an anthropological study of dance", 1976 PhD dissertation, published in book form in 2008
“The would-be Indian,” Charlotte J. Frisbie (editor), Explorations In ethnomusicology: essays in honor of David McAllester, pp.111–126. Detroit Monographs in Musicology Number 9. Detroit:


texts:
 Information Coordinators in Detroit. 1986
 1967, "Hopi and Polynesian dance: a study in cross-cultural comparison,"Ethnomusicology, 11:343-368

Encyclopedia articles
 1970, "Hula" The Encyclopedia Americana 14:542, Danbury,  Connecticut: Grolier, Inc. reprinted in subsequent editions., 2002
 1994, "Dance," Native America in the Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia, Mary B. Davis, ed. Garland Reference Library of Social Science, vol. 452:164-169. NY & London: Garland (corrected paperback edition in 1995)
 1995, "Dance in traditional religions," HarperCollins, Encyclopedia of Religion, Jonathan Z. Smith, general ed.,  Sam D. Gill, area ed.: 304-307. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco
1996, "Gestures," American Folklore: an encyclopedia,  Jan Harold Brunvand, general editor: Garland Reference Library, of the Humanities vol. 1551:333-335. NY & London: Garland. 1998, "Gertrude Prokosch Kurath" " Hopi dance", "Primitive dance." Selma Jeanne Cohen (founding editor), International encyclopedia of dance, New York: Oxford,   University Press. 1998,     "Folk dance," Academic American Encyclopedia,  8:199-201.Barbara Winard, editor. Danbury CT: Grolier. 2002
2001, “Music and dance in the United States,” pp. 206–222,  volume 3, The United States and Canada, Ellen Koskoff,  editor. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, NY & London: Garland Publishing Co.
2002,  "Hula," Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Danbury, Connecticut
2008, "Folk Dance", online entry in Encyclopædia Britannica

References

1930 births
2015 deaths
People from Kansas City, Missouri
Whitefish Bay High School alumni
American women anthropologists
Dance historians
20th-century American women scientists
20th-century American


texts: Sir <mask> bin <mask>SI  (; 17 October 1817 – 27 March 1898), commonly known as Sir <mask> (also <mask>), was an Indian Muslim pragmatist, Islamic reformer, philosopher, and educationist in nineteenth-century British India. Though initially espousing Hindu-Muslim unity, he became the pioneer of Muslim nationalism in India and is widely credited as the father of the two-nation theory, which formed the basis of the Pakistan movement. Born into a family with strong debts  to the Mughal court, <mask> studied the Quran and Sciences within the court. He was awarded an honorary LLD from the University of Edinburgh in 1889. In 1838, <mask> entered the service of East India Company and went on to become a judge at a Small Causes Court in 1867, retiring from 1876. During the War of Independence of 1857, he remained loyal to the British Raj and was noted for his actions in saving European lives. After the rebellion, he penned the booklet The Causes of the Indian Mutiny – a daring critique, at the time, of various British policies that he blamed for causing the revolt.Believing that the future of Muslims was threatened by the rigidity of their orthodox outlook, Sir <mask> began promoting Western–style scientific education by founding modern schools and journals and organising Islamic entrepreneurs. In 1859, <mask>

masks:
Syed Ahmad Taqvi
Syed Muhammad Muttaqi KC
Syed Ahmad Khan
Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Ahmad
Syed Ahmad
Ahmad
Syed


texts:
 established Gulshan School at Muradabad, Victoria School at Ghazipur in 1863, and a scientific society for Muslims in 1864. In 1875, founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, the first Muslim university in Southern Asia. During his career, <mask> repeatedly called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Raj and promoted the adoption of Urdu as the lingua franca of all Indian Muslims. <mask> criticized the Indian National Congress. Sir <mask> maintains a strong legacy in Pakistan and among Indian Muslims. He strongly influenced other Muslim leaders including Allama Iqbal and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.His advocacy of Islam's rationalist tradition, and at broader, radical reinterpretation of the Quran to make it compatible with science and modernity, continues to influence the global Islamic reformation. Many universities and public buildings in Pakistan bear Sir <mask>'s name. Aligarh Muslim University celebrated Sir <mask>'s 200th birth centenary with much enthusiasm on 17 October 2017. Former President of India Pranab Mukherjee was the chief guest. Early life

<mask> Taqvi '<mask>' was born on 17 October 1817 to <mask>  Muhammad Muttaqi and Aziz-un-Nisa in Delhi, which was the capital of the Mughal Empire in the ruling times of Mughal Emperor Akbar II. Many generations of his family had since been highly

masks:
Syed
Syed
Syed
Syed
Syed
Syed Ahmad
Khan Bahadur
Syed


texts:
 connected with the administrative position in Mughal Empire. His maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as Wazir (lit.Minister) in the court of Emperor Akbar Shah II. His paternal grandfather <mask> Jawwad bin Imaduddin held a mansab (lit. General)– a high-ranking administrative position and honorary name of "Mir Jawwad <mask>" in the court of Emperor Alamgir II. Sir <mask>'s father, <mask>  Muhammad Muttaqi, was personally close to Emperor Akbar Shah II and served as his personal adviser. However, <mask> was born at a time when his father was regional insurrections aided and led by the East India Company, which had replaced the power traditionally held by the Mughal state, reducing its monarch to figurehead. <mask> was the youngest of three siblings. With his elder brother <mask> bin Muttaqi <mask> and elder sister Safiyatun Nisa, Sir <mask> was raised in the house of his maternal grandfather in a wealthy area of the city.They were raised in strict accordance with Mughal noble traditions and exposed to politics. Their mother Aziz-un-Nisa played a formative role in <mask>'s early life, raising him with rigid discipline with a strong emphasis on modern education. Education
Sir <mask>'s education was initiated by Shah Ghulam Ali, his father's spiritual mentor in 1822. He was taught to read and

masks:
Syed Hadi
Ali Khan
Syed
Syed
Syed Ahmad
Syed Ahmad
Syed Muhammad
Khan
Syed
Sir Syed
Syed