texts: <mask> (, ; 26 March 1875 – 19 July 1965) was a founding father of the Republic of Korea, who served as the first president of South Korea from 1948 to 1960. <mask> was also the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea from 1919 to his impeachment in 1925 and from 1947 to 1948. As President of South Korea, <mask>'s government was characterised by authoritarianism, limited economic development, and in the late 1950s growing political instability and public opposition. Authoritarianism continued in South Korea after <mask>'s resignation until 1988, except for a few short breaks. Born in Hwanghae Province, Joseon, <mask> attended an American Methodist school, where he converted to Christianity. He became involved in anti-Japanese activities after the 1894–95 First Sino-Japanese War and was imprisoned in 1899. Released in 1904, he moved to the United States, where he obtained degrees from American universities and met President Theodore Roosevelt.After a brief 1910–12 return to Korea, he moved to Hawaii in 1913. From 1918 to 1924, he was promoted to several high positions in some Korean provisional governments and served as a representative of these to Western powers. He moved to Washington, D.C., in 1939. In 1945, he was returned to US-controlled Korea by the US military, and on 20 July 1948 he was elected President of the Republic of Korea with 92.7% of the vote, beating Kim Gu. <mask> adopted a hardline anti-communist and pro-American stance as president. Early on in his presidency, his government put down a communist uprising on Jeju Island, and the Mungyeong and Bodo League massacres were committed against suspected communist sympathisers, leaving at least 100,000 people dead. <mask>

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 was president during the outbreak of the Korean War (1950–1953), in which North Korea invaded South Korea.He refused to sign the armistice agreement that ended the war, wishing to have the peninsula reunited by force. After the fighting ended, the country remained at a low level economically, lagging behind North Korea, and was heavily reliant on U.S. aid. After being re-elected in 1956, the constitution was modified to remove the two-term restriction, despite protests from the opposition. He was elected uncontested in March 1960, after his opponent Cho Byeong-ok died before voting day. After <mask>'s ally Lee Ki-poong won the corresponding vice-presidential election by a wide margin, the opposition rejected the result as rigged, which triggered protests. These escalated into the student-led April Revolution when police shot demonstrators in Masan, which forced <mask> to resign on 26 April and ultimately led to the establishment of the Second Republic of Korea. On 28 April, as protesters converged on the presidential palace, the CIA covertly flew him out to Honolulu, Hawaii, where he spent the rest of his life in exile.He died of a stroke in 1965. Early life and career

Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on 26 March 1875 in Daegyeong, a village in Pyeongsan County, Hwanghae Province of Joseon-ruled Korea. <mask> was the third but only surviving son out of three brothers and two sisters (his two older brothers both died in infancy) in a rural family of modest means. <mask>'s family traced its lineage back to King Taejong of Joseon, and was a 16th-generation descendant of Grand Prince Yangnyeong through his second son, Yi Heun who known as Jangpyeong Dojeong (장평도정;長平都正). His mother is a member of Gimhae Kim clan. In 1877, at

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 the age of two-years-old, <mask> and his family moved to Seoul, where he had traditional Confucian education in various seodang in Nakdong () and Dodong (). When <mask> was nine-years-old a smallpox infection rendered him virtually blind until he was cured by Horace Newton Allen, an American medical missionary.<mask> was portrayed as a potential candidate for the gwageo, the traditional Korean civil service examination, but in 1894 reforms abolished the gwageo system, and in April he enrolled in the Pai Chai School (), an American Methodist school, where he converted to Christianity. <mask> studied English and sinhakmun (). Near the end of 1895, he joined a Hyeopseong (Mutual Friendship) Club () created by Seo Jae-pil, who returned from the United States after his exile following the Gapsin Coup. He worked as the head and the main writer of the newspapers Hyeopseong-hoe Hoebo () and Maeil Shinmun (), the latter being the first daily newspaper in Korea. During this period, <mask> earned money by teaching the Korean language to Americans. In 1895, <mask> graduated from Pai Chai School. Independence activities
<mask> became involved in Anti-Japanese circles after the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, which saw Joseon passed from the Chinese sphere of influence to the Japanese.<mask> was implicated in a plot to take revenge for the assassination of Empress Myeongseong, the wife of King Gojong who was assassinated by Japanese agents; however, a female American physician helped him avoid the charges. <mask> acted as one of the forerunners of the Korean independence movement through grassroots organizations such as the Hyeopseong Club and the Independence Club (). <mask> organized several protests against corruption

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 and the influences of the Japan and the Russian Empire. As a result, in November 1898, <mask> attained the rank of Uigwan () in the Imperial Legislature, the Jungchuwon (). After entering civil service, <mask> was implicated in a plot to remove King Gojong from power through the recruitment of Park Yeong-hyo. As a result, <mask> was imprisoned in the Gyeongmucheong Prison () in January 1899. Other sources place the year arrested as 1897 and 1898.<mask> attempted to escape on the 20th day of imprisonment but was caught and was sentenced to life imprisonment through the Pyeongniwon (). He was imprisoned in the Hanseong Prison (). In prison, <mask> translated and compiled The Sino–Japanese War Record (), wrote The Spirit of Independence (), compiled the New English–Korean Dictionary () and wrote in the Imperial Newspaper (). He was also tortured. Political activities in home and abroad

In 1904, <mask> was released from prison at the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War with the help of Min Young-hwan. In November 1904, with the help of Min Yeong-hwan and Han Gyu-seol (), <mask> moved to the United States. In August 1905, <mask> and Yun Byeong-gu () met with the Secretary of State John Hay and U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt at peace talks in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and attempted unsuccessfully to convince the US to help preserve independence for Korea.<mask> continued to stay in the United States; this move has been described as an "exile." He obtained a Bachelor of Arts from George Washington University in 1907, and a Master of Arts from Harvard University in 1908. In 1910, he obtained a PhD from Princeton University with the thesis "Neutrality as influenced by the United States" (). In August 1910, <mask> returned to


texts: Japanese occupied Korea. He served as a YMCA coordinator and missionary. In 1912, <mask> was implicated in the 105-Man Incident, and was shortly arrested. However, he fled to the United States in 1912 with M. C. Harris's rationale that <mask> was going to participate in the general meeting of Methodists in Minneapolis as the Korean representative.In the United States, <mask> attempted to convince Woodrow Wilson to help the people involved in the 105-Man Incident, but failed to bring any change. Soon afterwards, he met Park Yong-man, who was in Nebraska at the time. In February 1913, as a consequence of the meeting, he moved to Honolulu, Hawaii, and took over the Han-in Jung-ang Academy (). In Hawaii, he began to publish the Pacific Ocean Magazine (). In 1918, he established the Han-in Christian Church (). During this period, he opposed Park Yong-man's stance on foreign relations of Korea and brought about a split in the community. In December 1918, he was chosen, along with Dr. Henry Chung DeYoung, as a Korean representative to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 by the Korean National Association () but they failed to obtain permission to travel to Paris.After giving up travelling to Paris, <mask> held the First Korean Congress () in Philadelphia with Seo Jae-pil to make plans for future political activism concerning Korean independence. Following the March 1st Movement in March 1919, <mask> discovered that he was appointed to the positions of foreign minister in the Noryeong Provisional Government (), prime minister for the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, and a position equivalent to president for the Hanseong Provisional Government (). In June, in the acting capacity of the President of the

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texts: Republic of Korea, he notified the prime ministers and the chairmen of peace conferences of Korea's independence. On 25 August, <mask> established the Korean Commission to America and Europe () in Washington, D.C. On 6 September, <mask> discovered that he had been appointed acting president for the Provisional Government in Shanghai. From December 1920 to May 1921, he moved to Shanghai and was the acting president for the Provisional Government. However, <mask> failed to efficiently act in the capacity of Acting President due to conflicts inside the provisional government in Shanghai. In October 1920, he returned to the US to participate in the Washington Naval Conference.During the conference, he attempted to set the problem of Korean independence as part of the agenda and campaigned for independence but was unsuccessful. In September 1922, he returned to Hawaii to focus on publication, education, and religion. In November 1924, <mask> was appointed the position of president for life in the Korean Comrade Society (). In March 1925, <mask> was impeached as the president of the Provisional Government in Shanghai over allegations of misuse of power and was removed from office. Nevertheless, he continued to claim the position of president by referring to the Hanseong Provisional Government and continued independence activities through the Korean Commission to America and Europe. In the beginning of 1933, he participated in the League of Nations conference in Geneva to bring up the question of Korean independence. In November 1939, <mask> and his wife left Hawaii for Washington, D.C.He focused on writing the book Japan Inside Out and published it during the summer of 1941. With the attack on Pearl Harbor and the consequent

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 Pacific War, which began in December 1941, <mask> used his position as the chairman of the foreign relations department of the provisional government in Chongqing to convince President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the United States Department of State to approve the existence of the Korean provisional government. As part of this plan, he cooperated with anti-Japan strategies conducted by the U.S. Office of Strategic Services. In 1945, he participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization as the leader of the Korean representatives to request the participation of the Korean provisional government. Presidency (1948-60)

Return to Korea and rise to power

After the surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, <mask> was flown to Tokyo aboard a U.S. military aircraft. Over the objections of the Department of State, the U.S. military government allowed <mask> to return to Korea by providing him with a passport in October 1945, despite the refusal of the Department of State to issue <mask> with a passport. The British historian Max Hastings wrote that there was "at least a measure of corruption in the transaction" as the U.S. OSS agent Preston Goodfellow who provided <mask> with the passport that allowed him to return to Korea was apparently promised by <mask> that if he came to power, he would reward Goodfellow with commercial concessions."Following the independence of Korea and a secret meeting with Douglas MacArthur, <mask> was flown in mid-October 1945 to Seoul aboard MacArthur's personal airplane, The Bataan. After the return to Korea, he assumed the posts of president of the Independence Promotion Central Committee (), chairman of the Korean People's Representative Democratic Legislature (), and president

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texts: of the Headquarters for Unification (). At this point, he was strongly anti-communist and opposed foreign intervention; he opposed Soviet Union and United States' proposal in the Moscow Conference (1945) to establish a trusteeship for Korea and the cooperation between the left-wing (communist) and the right-wing (nationalist) parties. He also refused to join the U.S.–Soviet Cooperation Committee () as well as the negotiations with the north. For decades, the Korean independence movement was torn by factionalism and in-fighting, and most of the leaders of the independence movement hated each other as much as they hated the Japanese. <mask>, who had lived for decades in the United States, was a figure known only from afar in Korea, and therefore regarded as a more or less acceptable compromise candidate for the conservative factions. More importantly, <mask> spoke fluent English, whereas none of his rivals did, and therefore he was the Korean politician most trusted and favored by the American occupation government.The British diplomat Roger Makins later recalled, "the American propensity to go for a man rather than a movement — Giraud among the French in 1942, Chiang Kai-shek in China. Americans have always liked the idea of dealing with a foreign leader who can be identified as 'their man'. They are much less comfortable with movements." Makins further added the same was the case with <mask>, as very few Americans were fluent in Korean in the 1940s or knew much about Korea, and it was simply far easier for the American occupation government to deal with <mask> than to try to understand Korea. <mask> was "acerbic, prickly, uncompromising" and was regarded by the U.S. State Department, which long had dealings with him as "a


texts: dangerous mischief-maker", but the American General John R. Hodge decided that <mask> was the best man for the Americans to back because of his fluent English and his ability to talk with authority to American officers about American subjects. Once it became clear from October 1945 onward that <mask> was the Korean politician most favored by the Americans, other conservative leaders fell in behind him. When the first U.S.–Soviet Cooperation Committee meeting was concluded without a result, he began to argue in June 1946 that the government of Korea must be established as an independent entity.In the same month, he created a plan based on this idea and moved to Washington, D.C. from December 1946 to April 1947 to lobby support for the plan. During the visit, Harry S. Truman's policies of Containment and the Truman Doctrine, which was announced in March 1947, enforced <mask>'s anti-communist ideas. In November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly recognized Korea's independence and established the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK) through Resolution 112. In May 1948, the South Korean Constitutional Assembly election was held under the oversight of the UNTCOK. He was elected without competition to serve in the South Korean Constitutional Assembly () and was consequently selected to be Speaker of the Assembly. <mask> was highly influential in creating the policy stating that the president of South Korea had to be elected by the National Assembly. The 1948 Constitution of the Republic of Korea was adopted on 17 July 1948.On 20 July 1948, <mask> was elected president of the Republic of Korea in the 1948 South Korean presidential election with 92.3% of the vote; the second candidate, Kim Gu, received 6.7%


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 of the vote. On 15 August the Republic of Korea was formally established in South Korea and <mask> was inaugurated as the first President of the Republic of Korea. The next month, on 9 September, the north also proclaimed statehood as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. <mask> himself had been an independence activist, and his relations with the chinilpa Korean elites who had collaborated with the Japanese were, in the words of the South Korean historian Kyung Moon Hwang, often "contentious", but in the end an understanding was reached in which, in exchange for their support, <mask> would not purge the elites. In particular, the Koreans who had served in the colonial-era National Police, whom the Americans had retained after August 1945, were promised by <mask> that their jobs would not be threatened by him. Upon independence in 1948, 53% of South Korean police officers were men who had served in the National Police during the Japanese occupation. Political repression

Soon after taking office, <mask> enacted laws that severely curtailed political dissent.There was much controversy between <mask> and his leftist opponents. Allegedly, many of the leftist opponents were arrested and in some cases killed. The most controversial issue has been Kim Gu's assassination. On 26 June 1949, Kim Gu was assassinated by Ahn Doo-hee, who confessed that he assassinated Kim Gu by the order of Kim Chang-ryong. The assassin was described by the British historian Max Hastings as one of <mask>'s "creatures". It soon became apparent that <mask> was a dictator. He allowed the internal security force (headed by his right-hand man, Kim Chang-ryong) to detain and torture suspected communists and North Korean agents.His government also

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 oversaw several massacres, including the suppression of the Jeju uprising on Jeju island, of which South Korea's Truth Commission reported 14,373 victims, 86% at the hands of the security forces and 13.9% at the hands of communist rebels, and the Mungyeong Massacre. By early 1950, <mask> had about 30,000 alleged communists in his jails, and had about 300,000 suspected sympathizers enrolled in an official "re-education" movement called the Bodo League. When the Communist army attacked from the North in June, retreating South Korean forces executed the prisoners, along with several tens of thousands of Bodo League members. Korean War

Both <mask> and Kim Il-sung wanted to unite the Korean peninsula under their respective governments, but the United States refused to give South Korea any heavy weapons, to ensure that its military could only be used for preserving internal order and self-defense. By contrast, Pyongyang was well equipped with Soviet aircraft, vehicle, and tanks. According to John Merrill, "the war was preceded by a major insurgency in the South and serious clashes along the thirty-eighth parallel," and 100,000 people died in "political disturbances, guerrilla warfare, and border clashes". At the outbreak of war on 25 June 1950, North Korean troops launched a full-scale invasion of South Korea.All South Korean resistance at the 38th parallel was overwhelmed by the North Korean offensive within a few hours. By 26 June, it was apparent that the Korean People's Army (KPA) would occupy Seoul. <mask> stated, "Every Cabinet member, including myself, will protect the government, and parliament has decided to remain in Seoul. Citizens should not worry and remain in their workplaces." However, <mask> had already left

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texts: the city with most of his government on 27 June. At midnight on 28 June, the South Korean military destroyed the Han Bridge, thereby preventing thousands of citizens from fleeing. On 28 June, North Korean soldiers occupied Seoul.During the North Korean occupation of Seoul, <mask> established a temporary government in Busan and created a defensive perimeter along the Naktong Bulge. A series of battles ensued, which would later be known collectively as the Battle of Naktong Bulge. After the Battle of Inchon in September 1950, the North Korean military was routed, and the United Nations (UN)—of whom the largest contingents were the Americans and South Koreans—not only liberated all of South Korea, but overran much of North Korea. In the areas of North Korea taken by the UN forces, elections were supposed to be administered by the United Nations but instead were taken over and administered by the South Koreans. <mask> insisted on Bukjin Tongil – ending war by conquering North Korea, but after the Chinese entered the war in November 1950, the UN forces were thrown into retreat. During this period of crisis, <mask> ordered the December massacres of 1950. <mask> was absolutely committed to reunifying Korea under his leadership and strongly supported MacArthur's call for going all-out against China, even at the risk of provoking a nuclear war with the Soviet Union.Hastings notes that, during the war, <mask>'s official salary was equal to $37.50 (U.S. dollars) per month. Both at the time and since, there has been much speculation about precisely how <mask> managed to live on a salary equivalent to $37.50 per month. The entire <mask> regime was notorious for its corruption, with everyone in the government from the President


texts: downwards stealing as much they possibly could from both the public purse and aid from the United States. The <mask> regime engaged in the "worst excesses of corruption," with the soldiers in the Army of the Republic of Korea (ROK) going unpaid for months as their officers embezzled their pay, equipment provided by the United States being sold on the black market, and the size of the ROK army being bloated by hundreds of thousands of "ghost soldiers" who only existed on paper, allowing their officers to steal pay that would have been due had these soldiers actually existed. The problems with low morale experienced by the ROK army were largely due to the corruption of the <mask> regime. The worst scandal during the war—indeed of the entire <mask> government—was the National Defense Corps Incident. <mask> created the National Defense Corps in December 1950, intended to be a paramilitary militia, comprising men not in the military or police who be drafted into the corps for internal security duties.In the months that followed, thousands of National Defense Corps men either starved or froze to death in their unheated barracks, as the men lacked winter uniforms. Even <mask> could not ignore the deaths of so many of the National Defense Corps and ordered an investigation. It was revealed that commander of the National Defense Corps, General Kim Yun Gun, had stolen millions of American dollars that were intended to heat the barracks and feed and clothe the men. General Kim and five other officers were publicly shot at Daegu on 12 August 1951, following their convictions for corruption. In the spring of 1951, <mask>—who was upset about MacArthur's dismissal by President Truman—lashed out in a press interview against Britain, whom


texts: he blamed for MacArthur's sacking. <mask> was absolutely committed to reunifying Korea under his leadership and strongly supported MacArthur's call for going all-out against China, even at the risk of provoking a nuclear war with the Soviet Union. <mask> declared, "The British troops have outlived their welcome in my country."Shortly thereafter, <mask> told an Australian diplomat about the Australian troops fighting for his country, "They are not wanted here any longer. Tell that to your government. The Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British troops all represent a government which is now sabotaging the brave American effort to liberate fully and unify my unhappy nation." <mask> was strongly against the armistice negotiations the U.S. entered into in 1953. Accordingly, in April of the same year, he demanded of President Eisenhower a total withdrawal of his troops from the peninsula if an armistice were to be signed, declaring that the ROK would rather fight on its own than negotiate a cease-fire. He also deliberately carried out some actions that would deter the armistice and reignite conflicts in the region, the most provocative one being his unilateral release of 25,000 prisoners of war in June 1953. Such actions, which hindered the progress of armistice talks, upset China and the North.Moreover, for such unpredictability in his authoritarian leadership, the Truman and Eisenhower administrations considered him one of the "rogue allies" in East Asia and engaged in "powerplay", or the construction of asymmetric alliances, which helped the U.S. maximize economic and political influence over the ROK and increase ROK's dependency on the United States. On 27 July 1953, at last, "one of the 20th century's most vicious and


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 frustrating wars" came to an end with no apparent victor. Ultimately, the armistice agreement was signed by military commanders from China, North Korea and the United Nations Command, led by the U.S. Its signatories did not include the ROK, however, as <mask> refused to agree to the armistice, and neither was it supposed to be a permanent cease-fire, as a peace treaty was never signed. Re-election
Because of widespread discontent with <mask>'s corruption and political repression, it was considered unlikely that <mask> would be re-elected by the National Assembly. To circumvent this, <mask> attempted to amend the constitution to allow him to hold elections for the presidency by direct popular vote. When the Assembly rejected this amendment, <mask> ordered a mass arrest of opposition politicians and then passed the desired amendment in July 1952. During the following presidential election, he received 74% of the vote.Resignation and exile
After the war ended in July 1953, South Korea struggled to rebuild following nationwide devastation. The country remained at a Third World level of development and was heavily reliant on U.S. aid. <mask> was easily re-elected for what should have been the final time in 1956, since the 1948 constitution limited the president to two consecutive terms. However, soon after being sworn in, he had the legislature amend the constitution to allow the incumbent president to run for an unlimited number of terms, despite protests from the opposition. In March 1960, the 84-year-old <mask> won his fourth term in office as president. His victory was assured with 100% of the vote after the main opposition candidate, Cho Byeong-ok, died shortly before the 15 March elections. <mask> wanted his protégé,


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 Lee Ki-poong, elected as Vice President—a separate office under Korean law at that time.When Lee, who was running against Chang Myon (the ambassador to the United States during the Korean War, a member from the opposition Democratic Party) won the vote with a wide margin, the opposition Democratic Party claimed the election was rigged. This triggered anger among segments of the Korean populace on 19 April. When police shot demonstrators in Masan, the student-led April Revolution forced <mask> to resign on 26 April. On 28 April, a DC-4 belonging to the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), piloted by Captain Harry B. Cockrell Jr. and operated by Civil Air Transport, covertly flew <mask> out of South Korea as protesters converged on the Blue House. During the flight, <mask> and Francesca Donner, his Austrian wife, came up to the cockpit to thank the pilot and crew. <mask>'s wife offered the pilot a valuable diamond ring in thanks, which was courteously declined. The former president, his wife, and their adopted son subsequently lived in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii.Personal life and death
<mask> was married to Seungseon Park from 1890 to 1910. Park divorced <mask> shortly after the death of their son <mask> Bong-su in 1908, supposedly because their marriage had no intimacy due to his political activities. In February 1933, <mask> met Austrian Franziska Donner in Geneva. At the time, <mask> was participating in a League of Nations meeting and Donner was working as an interpreter. In October 1934, they were married in New York City. She also acted as his secretary. Over the years after the death of Bong-su, <mask> adopted three sons.The first was <mask> Un-soo, however, the elder <mask> ended the adoption in 1949. The

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 second adopted son was Lee Kang-seok, eldest son of Lee Ki-poong, who were descendants of Prince Hyoryeong and therefore distant cousins of <mask>; but Lee committed suicide in 1960. After <mask> was exiled, <mask>-In-soo, who is a descendant of Prince Yangnyeong just like <mask>, was adopted by him as his heir. <mask> died of a stroke on 19 July 1965. A week later, his body was returned to Seoul and buried in the Seoul National Cemetery. Legacy
<mask>'s former Seoul residence, Ihwajang, is currently used for the presidential memorial museum. The Woo-Nam Presidential Preservation Foundation has been set up to honor his legacy.There is also a memorial museum located in Hwajinpo near Kim Il Sung's cottage. In popular culture
 Portrayed by Lee Chang-hwan in the 1991–1992 MBC TV series Eyes of Dawn. Portrayed by Kwon Sung-deok in the 2006 KBS1 TV series Seoul 1945. In the M*A*S*H episode titled "Mail Call Again", Radar mentions a parade in Seoul due to <mask> <mask> being "elected dictator again." <mask> is referenced in the lyrics to singer Billy Joel's 1989 music single, "We Didn't Start the Fire". <mask> is mentioned in Philip Roth's "I Married A Communist". Works
 The Spirit of Independence (1904)
Neutrality as influenced by the United States
 Japan Inside and Out (1941)

See also

 List of Korea-related topics
 President of South Korea
 Francesca Donner
 Inha University
 Korean independence movement
 Korean National Association

Notes

References

Further reading

 Fields, David.Foreign Friends: <mask> <mask>, American Exceptionalism, and the Division of Korea. University Press of Kentucky, 2019, 264 pages,
 Lew, Yong Ick. The Making of the First Korean President: <mask> <mask>'s Quest for Independence (University

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 of Hawai'i Press; 2013); scholarly biography; 576 pages;

External links

<mask> <mask>'s FBI files hosted at the Internet Archive

1875 births
1965 deaths
Converts to Methodism
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease
Exiled politicians
First Republic of Korea
George Washington University alumni
Harvard University alumni
House of Yi
19th-century Korean people
Korean expatriates in China
Korean independence activists
Korean nationalists
Korean revolutionaries
Liberal Party (South Korea) politicians
Conservatism in South Korea
Far-right politics in South Korea
People from Haeju
People of the Cold War
Politicide perpetrators
Presidents of South Korea
Prime Ministers of Korea
Princeton University alumni
South Korean anti-communists
South Korean expatriates in the United States
South Korean Methodists
Speakers of the National Assembly (South Korea)
Jeonju Yi clan
Burials at Seoul National

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was a Japanese photographer particularly known for his depiction of architecture, gardens, and Japanese crafts. Career
<mask> was born on 4 January 1920 in Yonago, Tottori, the second son of parents running a shop selling traditional confectionery. An uncle of his ran a commercial photography studio, and this triggered the boy's interest in photography; but as a high school student he was keenest on baseball. After graduation from high school he worked Hankyu Department Store in Umeda (Osaka), where he entered the Mitsuwa photography club (, Mitsuya shashin kurabu), led by Bizan Ueda and Nakaji Yasui. Following success in a photographic contest arranged by Asahi Shinbun, <mask> was invited to join the Tampei Photography Club and went on to become an assistant of Yasui's. He joined the Nankai Hawks in 1939 but left after half a year and in 1941 was sent to Manchukuo as a photographer. Iwamiya returned to [mainland] Japan before the end of the war, and after the war opened a photofinishing shop serving a US base at Sannomiya (Kobe).While recuperating from tuberculosis in 1954, he photographed a mannequin factory nearby in Osaka; these photographs won the gold medal in the second Fuji Photo Contest, and were exhibited in the Matsushima Gallery (,

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 Matsushima gyararī) in Ginza (Tokyo), as Iwamiya's first solo show. He also exhibited in West Germany, and at around this time got to know Ken Domon, who exerted a great influence on him. In 1955 he set up Iwamiya Photos (, Iwamiya fotosu) for commercial photography. Iwamiya's photographs of Sado island were exhibited at the Osaka Fuji Photo Salon and elsewhere in 1956; these would later appear in book form. Two of Iwamiya's apprentices went on to be famous photographers in their own right. Seiryū Inoue joined Iwamiya's studio in 1951 and was encouraged by Iwamiya in his photographic work in Kamagasaki. Daidō Moriyama joined Iwamiya's studio in 1959 and was taken under Inoue's wing until Moriyama's departure for Tokyo in 1961.From 1962, Iwamiya brought out a considerable number of books, mostly depicting Japanese crafts and architecture; several won awards. In 1966 he became a professor of Osaka University of Arts. <mask> died in Osaka on 26 June 1989. Exhibitions

Solo exhibitions
"Iwamiya Takeji-ten" (). Fuji Photo Salon (Osaka), Matsushima Gallery (, Matsushima gyararī, Tokyo), 1955. "Sado" (). Fuji Photo Salon (Osaka), Matsushima Gallery (Tokyo), 1956.(Photographs of Sado island)
"Hawai" (). Takashimaya (Osaka), Fuji Photo Salon (Tokyo),


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 1960. (Photographs of Hawai'i)
"Katachi" (). Takashimaya (Osaka), Fuji Photo Salon (Tokyo), 1963. "Ankōru Watto" (). Ginza Nikon Salon (Tokyo), 1964. (Photographs of Angkor Wat)
"Kyūtei no niwa" ().Sogo (Kobe), 1968. "Expo '70 Iwamiya Takeji shashin-ten" (). Hanshin (Osaka), 1970. "Foto irasutorēshon arufoto" (). Imahashi Garō (, Osaka), Art Gallery U (Tokyo), 1970. [Title unknown]. Honolulu, 1970."Sumi to sue to watakushi to" (). Pentax Gallery (Tokyo), 1974. "Butsuzō no imēji" (). Takashimaya (Kyoto), Sogo (Hiroshima) 1976. "Mita, totta" (). Naniwa Photopia Gallery (, , Osaka), 1974. "Mita, totta" ().Nikon Salon (Tokyo and Osaka), 1975. (Photographs of Spain and Portugal)
 (). Imai Gallery (Osaka), 1975. "Hyōkai" (). Shinsaibashi Gallery (Osaka), 1975. (Oil paintings)
"Iwamiya Takeji shashin-ten" (). Fuji Photo Salon (Tokyo), 1976."Butsuzō no imēji" (). Takashimaya (Kyoto), Sogo (Hiroshima) 1976. "Sumi to watakushi to" (). Shinsaibashi Gallery (Osaka), 1977. "Kyō no katachi" (). Asahi Kaikan (Kyoto), 1976. "Iwamiya Takeji shashin-ten" ().Asahi Kaikan (Kyoto and Tokushima), 1976. "Serigurafī to Tapistorī" (). Shinsaibashi Gallery (Osaka), 1977. "Shirukusukurīn ni yoru 'mado'" (). Shinsaibashi Gallery (Osaka and Tottori), 1977. "Works from 30


texts: years". Fuji Photo Salon (Tokyo and Osaka), Wakita Gallery (Nagoya), Tokushima Arts Foundation for Culture (Tokushima), Daimaru (Tottori), Imai Gallery (Yonago), 1977."Sumi to serigurafi" (). Iida Garō Bekkan (. Tokyo), 1977. "Serigurafu-ten" (). Mingei Garō (, Kurayoshi), Imai Gallery (Yonago), 1978. "Nepāru no katachi" (). Fuji Photo Salon (Osaka), Shinjuku Minolta Photo Space (Tokyo), Kathmandu, 1979."Indo ni okeru butsuzō, shinzō, megamizō" (). Ban Garow (, , Osaka), 1980. "Mucho Sol: Taiyō ga ippai" (). Canon Salon (Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya), 1980. "Suiboku-ga to insatsu inku" (). Nakamura Garō (, Osaka), 1981. "Sobyō" ().Shinsaibashi Gallery (Osaka), 1981. "Iwamiya Takeji-ten" (). Shinjuku Olympus Gallery (Tokyo), Naniwa Photopia Gallery (, , Osaka), 1981. "Iwamiya Takeji no me: 35-nen no kiseki-ten" (). Minolta Photo Space (Osaka), 1981. "Butsuzō no imēji" () Nagase Photo Salon (Tokyo), 1981. "Iwamiya Takeji-ten" ().Professional Space, 1982. "Fotorama no tabi: Indo, Nepāru" (). Fuji Photo Salon (Osaka), 1982. "Yōroppa no hikari to kage" (). Minolta Photo Space (Tokyo), 1982. "Iwamiya Takeji-ten" (). Olympus Gallery (Tokyo), 1982."Kioku: Yōroppa kikō" (). Minolta Photo Space (Tokyo, Osaka and Fukuoka), 1982–83. "Butsuzō no imēji" () Osaka,


texts: 1982. "Sho, __ sobyō" (). Shinjuku Olympus Gallery (Tokyo), 1982. "Mitsu no mezotto ni yoru onna shirīzu" (). Chaya Garō (.Osaka), 1984. "Ankōru" (). Ginza Wako Hall (Tokyo), Keihan Gallery of Arts and Science (Osaka), 1987. "Abstraction". Kodak Photo Salon (Tokyo and Osaka), 1987. "The Image of the Buddha". Bijutsu Gyararī Itami (, Itami), 1987."Portrait". Pentax Forum (Tokyo and Osaka), 1989. "Ima ni ikiru" (). Navio Art Museum (Hankyu, Osaka), 1989. "Iwamiya Takeji-ten" (). Yonago City Museum of Art (Yonago), 1990. "Yomigaeru Borobudūru" ().Nikon Salon (Tokyo and Osaka), 1990. "Ima ni ikiru" (). Fuji Photo Salon (Tokyo and Osaka), 1990. "Iwamiya Takeji-ten" (). Brain Center Gallery (, Burēn sentā gyararī), 1996. "Iwamiya Takeji sakuhin-ten: Sengo kara 1970 nendai made no sakka katsudō" (). JCII Photo Salon (Tokyo), 1996."Iwamiya Takeji: Kekkai no bi" (). Photo Art Gallery, Canon Sales Makuhari head office building (, Kyanon hanbai Makuhari honsha biru Fotoāto gyararī, Chiba), 1996. "Iwamiya Takeji no shashin sekai 1946–1975: Works from 30 years" (). Osaka Contemporary Art Center (Osaka), 2001. "Iwamiya Takeji: Ima ni ikiru" (). Museum of Arts and Crafts, Itami (Itami), 2001. "Iwamiya Takeji no shashin sekai / Ima ni ikiru" ().Osaka


texts:
 Contemporary Art Center (Osaka), 2001. "<mask> Iwamiya: Photo and Drawing Exhibition". Osaka Contemporary Art Center (Osaka), January–February 2007. Selection of other exhibitions
"Tōkyō dai-ikkai demokurāto bijutsuten" (). Matsushima Gallery (, Matsushima gyararī, Tokyo), 1952. Tanpei 8-nin shashinten" (). Tokyo, 1952.(Work by eight members of the Tampei Photography Club)
"Subjektive Fotografie 2". Saarbrücken, 1954–55. "Iwamiya Takeji Horiuchi Hatsutarō-ten" (). Fuji Film Gallery (Tokyo), 1955. Work by Iwamiya and Hatsutarō Horiuchi)
"Rokunin-ten / Akiyama Shōtarō, Hayashi Tadahiko, Horiuchi Hatsutarō, Ueda Shōji, Midorikawa Yōichi, Iwamiya Takeji" (). Fuji Film Gallery (Tokyo), 1959. (Work by Shōtarō Akiyama, Tadahiko Hayashi, Hatsutarō Horiuchi, Shōji Ueda, and Yōichi Midorikawa)
"Sannin-ten / Akiyama Shōtarō, Nakamura Masaya, Iwamiya Takeji" ().Pentax Gallery (Tokyo), 1969 and annually thereafter. (Work by Shōtarō Akiyama, Masaya Nakamura, and Iwamiya)
"Ei-Q to Demokurāto-ten" (). Umeda Kindai Bijutsukan (), 1974. (On Ei-Q and the "Democrat" group)
"Butsuzō no imēji-ten" (). Ginza Wako Hall (Tokyo), Amagasaki Cultural Center (Amagasaki), museum of Hongik University (Seoul), 1975. "Sengo shashin / Saisei to tenkai" () / Twelve Photographers


texts:
 in Japan, 1945–55. Yamaguchi Prefectural Museum of Art (Yamaguchi), 1990."Ueda Shōji to sono nakama-tachi: 1935–55" (). Yonago City Museum of Art (Yonago), 1992. (Exhibition of works by Shōji Ueda and his friends)
"Maeda Tōshirō, Itō Tsugurō, Iwamiya Takeji" (. Osaka Contemporary Art Center, March–April 2008. An exhibition of Tōshirō Maeda, Tsugurō Itō, and Iwamiya. Works in permanent collections
Works by Iwamiya are in the permanent collections of the following institutions:
Canon Marketing Japan; 30 works acquired in the 1990s
Osaka University of Arts; 735 works acquired in the 1990s
Osaka Contemporary Art Center (Osaka)
Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography; 30 works acquired in the 1990s
Yamaguchi Prefectural Museum of Art (Yamaguchi City); 12 works acquired in the 1990s
Yonago City Museum of Art; 735 works acquired in the 1990s

Books showing Iwamiya's works
Sadogashima () / Sado Island. Kadokawa Shashin Bunko 34.Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten, 1956. Black-and-white photographs of Sado island. Captions and text in Japanese only (despite the color photographs and English title on the cover). Nikkō (). Nihon no yashiro (). Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1962. Photographs of Nikkō.Text by Ichirō Hariu () and Toshio Fukuyama (). Katachi: Nihon no denshō


texts:
 (). Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1962. Two volumes. Text by Shūji Takashina (). 1. Ki kami tsuchi ()
2.Ishi kane suji take ()
Sado (). Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1962. Photographs of Sado island. Katachi: Japanese Pattern and Design in Wood, Paper, and Clay. New York: Abrams, 1963. London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964. Text by Donald Richie.Design and Craftsmanship of Japan: Stone, Metal, Fibers and Fabrics, Bamboo. Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1963. New York: Abrams, 1965. Le Japon des formes: Bois, papier, argile. Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha; Fribourg: Office du Livre; Paris: Société Française du Livre, 1963. Text by Atsuko N. Nii and Donald Richie, translation by Edith Combe. Forme giapponesi.Milano, Silvana editoriale d'arte, 1963. Text by Atsuko N. Nii and Donald Richie. Tōshōgū (). Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1963. Photographs of Tōshō-gū. Text by Isamu Kurita () and Kiyofumi Yajima (). Japon, beauté des formes: Pierre, métal, fibres, bambou.Tokyo, Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1964. Die Schönheit japanischer Formen: Stein, Metall, Textilien, Stroh, Bambus. Tokyo, Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1964. Itsukushima (). Nihon no yashiro (). Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1964. Photographs of Itsukushima.Text by Masatake Uwayokote () and Toshio Fukuyama. Nihon no shi () Tokyo:


texts: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1965. Nihon no yashiro (). Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1965. Impressions of Japan. Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1965. Kyō () / Kyoto in Kyoto.Kyoto: Tankō Shinsha, 1965. Photographs of Kyoto. Text by Jirō Osaragi. Ishi no tera (). Kyoto: Tankō Shinsha, 1965. Text by Isamu Kurita. Yamato no sekibutsu ().Kyoto: Tankō Shinsha, 1965. Text by Tatsuko Hoshino. Kekkai no bi: Koto no dezain (). Kyoto: Tankō Shinsha, 1966. Text by Teiji Itō (). Ryūkyū (). Nihon no kōgei ().Tokyo: Tankōsha, 1966. Photographs of the Ryūkyū islands. Text by Seikō Hokama (). Kamera kikō: Ryūkyū no shinwa (). Tokyo: Tankōsha, 1966. Photographs of the Ryūkyū islands. Text by Torigoe Kenzaburō ().Tōka no bi: Koto no dezain (). Kyoto: Tankō Shinsha, 1967. Photographs of lanterns. Text by Teiji Itō. The World of the Japanese Garden: From Chinese Origins to Modern Landscape Art. New York: Weatherhill, 1968. Kyōto no niwa: Karā ().Kyoto: Tankō Shinsha, 1968. Photographs of the gardens of Kyoto. Text by Michio Takeyama (). Kyūtei no niwa (). Kyoto: Tankō Shinsha, 1968. Photographs of Japanese palace gardens. 1.Sentō Gosho (). Photographs of Sentō Imperial Palace. Text by Yukio Mishima and Teiji Itō. 2. Katsura Rikyū (). Photographs of Katsura Detached Palace. Text by


texts: Yasushi Inoue and Teiji Itō.3. Shugakuin Rikyū (). Photographs of Shugakuin Detached Palace. Text by Jirō Osaragi and Teiji Itō. Arte del objeto japonés / Art of the Japanese Object / Art de l'objet japonais / Kunst des japanischen Gegenstands. Text by Maria Lluïsa Borràs. Barcelona: Ediciones Polígrafa, 1969.Nihon Bankokuhaku no kenchiku () / The Edifice in Expo 70. Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1970. Photography by <mask>, Yasuhiro Ishimoto, and Shōzō Kitadai of the buildings of Expo 70 (Osaka). Imperial Gardens of Japan: Sento Gosho, Katsura, Shugaku-in. New York: Weatherhill, 1970. . 1978. , . Text by Teiji Itoh, Yukio Mishima, Yasushi Inoue, Jirō Osaragi, and Loraine Kuck. Shinpen Kyūtei no niwa 2 ().Kyoto: Tankōsha, 1971. Kyōto (). Tokyo: Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1971. The Japanese Garden: An Approach to Nature. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972. . Text by Teiji Ito, translation by Donald Richie. Kyōto no miryoku.Karā: Rakuchū (). Kyoto: Tankōsha, 1972. Photographs of Kyoto. Text by Naokatsu Nakamura (). Nihon no niwa (). Tokyo: Chūōkōronsha, 1972. Text by Itō Teiji and Yūsaku Kamekura ().Nihonkai (). Kyoto: Tankōsha, 1972. Photographs of the Japan Sea. Text by Tsutomu Minakami. Nihon no kokoro: Hyakunin isshu (). Special Winter 1972 issue of


texts: Taiyō (). Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1973.Much of the photography, of hyakunin isshu, is by Iwamiya. The Graphic Design of Yusaku Kamekura. New York: Weatherhill, 1973. Text by Herbert Bayer, Masaru Katsumi, and Yusaku Kamekura. Ōsaka (). Osaka: Toppan Sēruzu, 1973. Photographs of Osaka.Text by Takeshi Ōtaka (). Tōrō (). Tokyo: Shūeisha, 1973. Photographs of garden lanterns. Text by Masatarō Kawakatsu (). Shiragi no sekibutsu (). Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1974.Photographs, by Iwamiya and , of stone Buddhist statuary of Silla. Text by . Nihon no teien (). Tokyo: Shūeisha, 1974. Photographs of Japanese gardens. Text by Osamu Mori (). Nihon no senshoku ().Tokyo: Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1975. Photographs of Japanese dyed and woven materials. Text by Tomoyuki Yamanobe (). Butsuzō no imēji: Shashinten (). Osaka: Osaka University of Arts, 1975. Catalogue of an exhibition of photographs of Buddhist statuary. Iwamiya Takeji shashinshū () / Takeji Iwamiya Works from 30 Years.Tokyo: Nihon Shashin Kikaku, 1976. A retrospective of <mask>'s work. Kyō no niwa (). Tokyo: Kokusai Jōhōsha, 1976. Photographs of the gardens of Kyoto. Text by Kantō Shigemori (). Sado () / Sado.Sonorama Shashin Sensho 2. Tokyo: Asahi Sonorama, 1977. Black-and-white photographs of Sado island. With


texts:
 a short text in English, but the captions are in Japanese only. Karā Kyūtei no niwa (). Kyoto: Tankōsha, 1977. Color photographs of the gardens of Japanese palaces.Sentō Gosho (). Photographs of Sentō Imperial Palace. Text by Yukio Mishima and Teiji Itō. Katsura Rikyū (). Photographs of Katsura Detached Palace. Text by Yasushi Inoue and Teiji Itō. Shugakuin Rikyū ().Photographs of Shugakuin Detached Palace. Text by Jirō Osaragi and Teiji Itō. The Japanese Garden. 2nd ed. Tokyo: Zokeisha, 1978. . Text by Itō Teiji. Translation of Nihon no niwa.Kyō: Iro to katachi (). Nihon no Bi (). Tokyo: Shūeisha, 1978. Nihon no katachi (). Kyoto: Tankōsha, 1978. Text by Mitsukuni Yoshida () and Yoshio Hayakawa ()
Kyōto: Iwamiya Takeji jisenshū (). Osaka: Toki Shobō, 1979.Photographs of Kyoto. Forms, Textures, Images: Traditional Japanese Craftmanship in Everyday Life. New York: Weatherhill, 1979. . Text by Mitsukuni Yoshida and Richard L. Gage. Mokuzen shingo (). Osaka: Iwamiya Takeji Shashin Jimusho, 1980. A collection of writings by Iwamiya.Ankōru: Iwamiya Takeji shashinshū (). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1984. . Photographs of Angkor Wat. Text by Yoshiaki Ishizawa ). Utsukushii Hyōgo () / The Beautiful Hyogo. Hyōgo: Hyōgo Prefecture, 1986. Iwamiya is editor and


texts: contributing photographer. Radakku mandara: Iwamiya Takeji shashinshū ().Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1987. . Color photographs of Ladakh and its mandalas. Iwamiya Takeji-ten: Ima ni ikiru (). Tokyo: PPS Tsūshinsha, 1989. . Exhibition catalogue. Ajia no butsuzō: Iwamiya Takeji shashinshū (). Tokyo: Shūeisha, 1989. 2 vols. . Photographs of Asian Buddhist statuary. Text by Takashi Koezuka ().Sengo shashin / Saisei to tenkai () / Twelve Photographers in Japan, 1945–55. Yamaguchi: Yamaguchi Prefectural Museum of Art, 1990. Despite the alternative title in English, almost exclusively in Japanese. Photographs by Iwamiya, pp. 115–21; text pp. 205–208. Japanese Gardens: Images, Concepts, Symbolism.Tokyo: Hitachi, 1990. Borobudūru: Iwamiya Takeji shashinshū (). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1990. . Black-and-white photographs of Borobudur. Les cimes de l'éveil: Monastères bouddhiques du Ladakh. Paris: Hologramme, 1990. Text by Gilles Béguin.Ueda Shōji to sono nakama-tachi: 1935–55 (, Shōji Ueda and his friends, 1935–55). Yonago, Tottori: Yonago City Museum of Art, 1992. Catalogue of an exhibition held in February–March 1992, with works by Iwamiya on pp. 131–42. Iwamiya Takeji sakuhin-ten: Sengo kara 1970 nendai made no sakka katsudō (). JCII Photo Salon Library 55.


texts:
 Tokyo: JCII Photo Salon, 1995.Catalogue of an exhibition of Iwamiya's works from the end of the war till the 1970s..
Katachi: Classic Japanese Design. San Francisco: Chronicle, 1999. . Text by Kazuya Takaoka. Nihon no katachi () / Katachi: Japanese Sacred Geometry. Tokyo: Pie, 1999. . Text by Kazuya Takaoka (). 2005. .
Kyōdo-sakka Iwamiya Takeji-ten zuroku: Shashin de toraeta bi to fūdo ().Amagasaki, Hyōgo: Amagasaki Cultural Center, 2001. Exhibition catalogue. Ajia e no shiten: Anri Karutie-buresson / Iwamiya Takeji (). Osaka: Osaka University of Arts Museum, 2002. Exhibition of photographs of Asia by Henri Cartier-Bresson and Iwamiya. References

External links
Site about Iwamiya, 1997. Site about Iwamiya hosted by Osaka Contemporary Art Center.Iwamiya at Fujifilm Museum. Japanese photographers
Osaka University of Arts faculty
Photography academics
1920 births
1989 deaths
Artists from Tottori Prefecture
Photography in India
People from Yonago,


texts:
<mask> (January 12, 1940 – October 19, 2013) was an American jazz drummer and composer from Fort Worth, Texas. A pioneer of avant-garde jazz, free funk, and jazz fusion, he appeared on over 50 albums as a bandleader, sideman, arranger, and producer. <mask> and bassist Sirone are the only musicians to have performed and recorded with the three prime shapers of free jazz: pianist Cecil Taylor, and saxophonists Ornette Coleman and Albert Ayler. Musician, Player and Listener magazine writers David Breskin and Rafi Zabor called him "the most stately free-jazz drummer in the history of the idiom, a regal and thundering presence." Gary Giddins wrote "<mask> is an astounding drummer, as everyone agrees…he has emerged as a kind of all-purpose new-music connoisseur who brings a profound and unshakably individual approach to every playing situation." In 1979, he founded his own group, the Decoding Society, playing what has been dubbed free funk: a blend of funk rhythm and free jazz improvisation. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Fort Worth, Texas.As a child, he was immersed in music. His father monopolized the local jukebox business and established the only African American-owned record store in the Fort Worth area. His mother played piano and organ at their local church. Between the ages of five and nine he took piano lessons. In the third grade, he studied music with John Carter. <mask> graduated from I.M. Terrell High School, where he played with the marching band and learned about symphonic percussion.During lunch breaks, students would conduct jam sessions in the band room. Around the same time, <mask>'s mother bought him his first drum set to encourage him to graduate from high school. By the age of 15, he was playing professionally. His first paid gig was with tenor

masks:
Ronald Shannon Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson


texts:
 saxophonist James Clay, who went on to join Ray Charles as a sideman. <mask> recalled that "we were playing four nights a week, with two gigs each on Saturday and Sunday, anything from Ray Charles to bebop. People were dancing, and when it was time to listen, they'd listen. But I was brainwashed into thinking you couldn't make a living playing music."After graduation, <mask> attended Lincoln University in Jefferson City, Missouri. He chose Lincoln because of its proximity to St. Louis and accessibility to great musicians touring the Midwest. His roommate was pianist John Hicks. As undergraduates, they "spent as much time performing together as studying." The Lincoln University band included <mask>, Hicks, trumpeter Lester Bowie, and Julius Hemphill on saxophone. <mask> then transferred to Texas Southern University, and from there went to Prairie View A & M. He decided to study history and sociology at the University of Bridgeport in Connecticut. <mask> intended not to play music at all, but after exposure to various artists and styles, he concluded that "the beat is in your body" and "the music you play comes from your life."By 1966, <mask> received a full music scholarship to New York University through trumpeter Kenny Dorham. New York and the Avant-Garde (1966–1978)
Once in New York, <mask> performed with many jazz musicians, including Charles Mingus, Betty Carter, Jackie McLean, Joe Henderson, Kenny Dorham, McCoy Tyner, Stanley Turrentine, and others. Whenever he would ask Charles Mingus to consider him for his group, Mingus used to push him "rudely out of his way". After <mask> sat in with pianist Toshiko Akiyoshi, he heard loud clapping behind him. It was Mingus, who asked him to play with his band. In 1966 <mask> recorded drums for saxophonist Charles Tyler's release,

masks: Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson


texts:
 Charles Tyler Ensemble. Between 1966 and 1967, he played with saxophonist Albert Ayler and is featured on At Slug's Saloon, Vol.1 & 2. He is also on disks 3 and 4 of Ayler's Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962–70). <mask> said Ayler was "the first (leader) that really opened me up. He let me play the drums the way I did in Fort Worth when I wasn't playing for other people." John Coltrane's death in July 1967 devastated <mask>. He spent the next few years addicted to heroin. He said, "I couldn't play drums then, spiritually....I just didn't feel right." From 1970-74, he did not perform, but continued to practice. In 1974, pianist Onaje Allan Gumbs introduced <mask> to Nichiren Buddhism and chanting. Although initially reluctant, <mask> decided to try it for three weeks. "Then three months had passed. It pulled me together and pulled me out and I was able to focus. I was a Buddhist and a vegetarian for 17 years."By 1975 he joined saxophonist Ornette Coleman's electric free funk band, Prime Time. During his stint in Prime Time, Coleman taught <mask> composition and harmolodics. <mask> says that Coleman told him he was hearing music "in that piccolo range," and encouraged him to compose on the flute. <mask> went to Paris with Prime Time in 1976 to perform concerts and record Dancing in Your Head and Body Meta. In 1978, <mask> played on four albums with pianist Cecil Taylor: Cecil Taylor Unit, 3 Phasis, Live in the Black Forest, and One Too Many Salty Swift and Not Goodbye. The Decoding Society and Other Projects (1979–1999)
<mask> formed his band, The Decoding Society, in 1979, as a showcase for his blend of avant-garde jazz, rock, funk, and ethnic music. The instrumentation and arrangements, along with <mask>'s compositions and drum style, brought The Decoding Society

masks: Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson


texts: critical acclaim.Although considered to be part of the "new fusion" movement that emerged from Ornette Coleman's harmolodic concepts, <mask> was able to implement a voice of his own. The Decoding Society's music can be hot, savage, and danceable, or cool, gentle, and contemplative. American, Eastern, and African sounds are distilled under <mask>'s guidance. Meters, feels, tempos, and stylistic references are heard throughout different compositions; many times within a single piece of music. Unlike many of <mask>'s contemporaries, The Decoding Society incorporates pop music elements into its avant-garde approach. Guitarist Vernon Reid has said of <mask> that he "wasn't an ideological avant-gardist. He made the music he made from an outsider's view, but not to the exclusion of rock and pop – he wasn't mad at pop music for being popular the way some of his generation are.He synthesized blues shuffles with African syncopations through the lens of someone who gave vent to all manner of emotions…the collision of values in his music really represents American culture." Common characteristics among the incarnations of The Decoding Society include doubled instrumentation (basses, saxophones, or guitars). Polyphony often predominates harmony; compositions are not focused on one key. Polyphonic textures equalize harmony, rhythm, and melody, dispensing with traditional ideas of key and pitch. Each instrument can play a rhythmic, harmonic, or melodic role, or any combination of the three. The lines between solos, lead instruments, and accompaniment are blurred. Looseness in pitch and rhythm create heterophony within unison-based parts, which also adds to the tonal ambiguity.Melodies can alternate from busy, frenetic, multiple themes to simple, lazy, lyrical phrases. They often function

masks: Jackson Jackson Jackson Shannon


texts:
 as both heads and melodic material to accompany one or more soloist. Sometimes the melodies are diatonic, other times they are bluesy; occasionally they sound "Eastern". Although The Decoding Society is more of a composer's band rather than a vehicle for soloing or drumming, free-blowing solos abound, and <mask>'s thunderous playing is heavily featured. Throughout the years, the Decoding Society has featured the performances of Akbar Ali, Bern Nix, Billy Bang, Byrad Lancaster, Cary Denigris, Charles Brackeen, David Fiuczynski, David Gordon, Tomchess, Dominic Richards, Eric Person, Henry Scott, Jef Lee Johnson, John Moody, Khan Jamal, Lee Rozie, Masujaa, Melvin Gibbs, Onaje Allan Gumbs, Reggie Washington, Reverend Bruce Johnson, Robin Eubanks, Vernon Reid, and Zane Massey. In addition to leading Decoding Society lineups, <mask> was involved in other projects. Guitarist and fellow Coleman alumnus James Blood Ulmer recruited <mask> for another group that intended to push harmolodics to a new level

In 1986 <mask>, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, and Bill Laswell formed the free jazz supergroup, Last Exit, which performed and released five live albums and one studio album, before Sharrock's death in 1994 saw the end of the band.In the late 1980s, <mask> teamed up with Laswell on two other projects: SXL, with violinist L. Shankar, Senegalese drummer Aiyb Dieng, and Korean percussion group SamulNori, and the free jazz trio, Mooko, with Japanese saxophonist Akira Sakata. With the help of some grants, <mask> took a three-month trip to West Africa and visited nine countries. The trip, both a personal and artistic milestone, inspired music for the Decoding Society's When Colors Play, recorded live at the Caravan of Dreams in September 1986. Author Norman C. Weinstein detailed the

masks: Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson


texts:
 excursion in a chapter of his book, A Night in Tunisia: Imaginings of Africa in Jazz, titled "<mask> <mask>: Journey to Africa Without End." In 1987, <mask> formed an avant-garde power trio with bassist Melvin Gibbs and guitarist Bill Frisell called Power Tools. They released and toured behind an album titled Strange Meeting. Writer Greg Tate referred to the project as "that awesome and under-sung Power Tools album…in my humble opinion, the most paradigm-shifting power trio record since Band of Gypsys."Later career (2000-2013)
His output slowed in the early 2000s due to nerve damage in his left arm. After consulting with a neurologist, <mask> declined surgery and was able to regain his strength through years of physical therapy. Physical limitations did not diminish his output as a composer, and he unveiled new material on YouTube in 2012. <mask> joined trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet with pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg in 2005. Their collaboration is documented on the Tabligh CD and the Eclipse DVD. He played with the Punk Funk All Stars in 2006, which included Melvin Gibbs, Joseph Bowie, Vernon Reid, and James Blood Ulmer. In 2008 <mask> and Jamaaladeen Tacuma toured Europe with The Last Poets; this collaboration was documented in the film "The Last Poets / Made in Amerikkka" directed by Claude Santiago.In 2011 <mask>, Vernon Reid and Melvin Gibbs formed a power trio called Encryption. During their trip to the Moers Festival in Germany, <mask> suffered a heart attack and underwent an angioplasty. The next day, he checked himself out of the hospital to play with Reid and Gibbs at the festival. Afterwards, <mask> checked himself back in for medical observation. On July 7, 2012, <mask> performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the

masks:
Ronald Shannon
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson
Jackson


texts:
 latest version of the Decoding Society, which includes violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs. The new compositions were described as being as strong as the best of his recorded work. The performance was voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer.<mask> died of leukemia on October 19, 2013, aged 73. 1&2 (ESP, 1966)
Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962–70) (Revenant, 1962–70)
With Ornette Coleman
Dancing in Your Head (A&M, 1973, 1975)
Body Meta (Artists House, 1975)
With Bertrand Gallaz
Talk To You In A Minute (Plainisphare, 1993)
With Bill Laswell
Baselines (Elektra Musician, 1982)
With Mooko
Japan Concerts (Celluloid, 1988)
With Music Revelation Ensemble
 No Wave (Moers Music, 1980)
Music Revelation Ensemble (DIW, 1988)
With Power Tools
Strange Meeting (Antilles, 1987)
With SXL
Live in Japan (Terrapin/Sony Japan, 1987)
Into the Outlands (Celluloid, 1987)
With Wadada Leo Smith
Tabligh (Cuneiform, 2008)
With Cecil Taylor
Cecil Taylor Unit (New World, 1978)
3 Phasis (New World, 1978)
One Too Many Salty Swift and Not Goodbye (hat Hut, 1978)
Live in the Black Forest (MPS, 1978)
With Charles Tyler
Charles Tyler Ensemble (ESP, 1966)
With James Blood Ulmer
Are You Glad to Be in America? (Rough Trade, 1980)
America – Do You Remember the Love? (Blue Note, 1986)
with John Zorn
Spillane (Nonesuch, 1986–87)

References

External links

Avant-garde jazz musicians
1940 births
2013 deaths
American jazz drummers
Jazz fusion drummers
People from Fort Worth, Texas
Antilles Records artists
Last Exit (free jazz band) members
DIW Records artists
Moers Music artists
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in Texas
Jazz musicians from Texas
SXL (band) members
Knitting Factory Records artists
Prime Time


texts:
<mask> (born September 4, 1971) is an American writer, adventurer, and journalist known for her travels in Mali and Papua New Guinea. She has written two books of nonfiction and a book of fiction based on her travels and is a contributing editor at National Geographic magazine. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born on September 4, 1971, in a western suburb of Chicago, Illinois. Her mother was a waitress and her father repaired mainframe computers. When <mask> was 13, her parents sent her to Wayland Academy, a boarding school in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, where she participated in cross-country activities and set a state level track record when she was 14. Though she began training for National and Olympic trials, she dropped out of the sport and decided to travel instead. <mask> received her B.F.A.in writing, literature and publishing from Emerson College. She received her M.F.A. in creative writing (fiction) from the University of Arizona. In 2004, she graduated from the University of Missouri, with a PhD in English; her two areas of specialization were 20th century American prose literature and travel literature. Career
At the age of 24, <mask> took a year off from graduate school to backpack around Papua New Guinea, the Pacific Island nation, and became the first American woman to cross the country. Her first book,  Four Corners: One Woman’s Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea, describes that journey. After the book was published, an editor of National Geographic Adventure magazine asked her to write for the magazine and <mask>'s career as a freelance writer began.<mask> gained a reputation for being a tough adventurer, surviving war zones, coup attempts, and life-threatening bouts with malaria and cholera (the New York Times described her as a "tough, real life Lara Croft" and Book Magazine described her as "the gutsiest – and some say, craziest – woman adventurer of our day.") Several of <mask>'s short stories have been published in journals such as Prairie Schooner, The Massachusetts Review, Quarterly West and Witness. One story, "Beheadings", about a war correspondent's search for

masks:
Kira Salak
Kira Salak
Salak
Kira Salak
Salak
Salak
Salak
Salak


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 her lost brother, is published in the anthology Best New American Voices. According to <mask>, she started writing at the age of six. After the death of her brother, Marc, in 2005, <mask> took a year off from her magazine work to write her first novel The White Mary. In an interview, she described the experience:
"I wrote the entire book not long after my brother died. It was like an obsession.I lived in a tiny basement apartment in Columbia, Missouri, unemployed for a year. I didn't tell anyone what I was doing. It was a very private experience. I almost feel that the book wasn't so much written by me, but channeled through me." <mask> now writes regularly for National Geographic Adventure, National Geographic, and other magazines about her travels to places which include Iran, Rwanda, Libya, Burma, Borneo, Uganda and Peru. In 2003, she convinced some Ukrainian gun-runners to fly her to the Democratic Republic of the Congo so she could report on the war. Salak stayed in the Congolese town of Bunia, which was taken over by child soldiers, an experience she described as "an endless stream of the worst, most inconceivable acts of inhumanity".She received a PEN literary award for her article about that experience. Her articles have also appeared in publications that include the New York Times Magazine, Travel & Leisure, The Washington Post, and Backpacker, and her work has appeared five times in Best American Travel Writing. Her fiction was selected for Best New American Voices (judged by Charles Baxter). Her fiction and nonfiction have appeared in various anthologies, including Adrenaline 2002: The Year's Best Stories of Adventure and Survival, The Best Women's Travel Writing, and Nixon Under the Bodhi Tree and Other Works of Buddhist Fiction. Awards
<mask> received the PEN Award for journalism in 2004 and has appeared five times in Best American Travel Writing. In 2005, the National Geographic Society awarded <mask> with an Emerging Explorer Award. She has been awarded two Lowell Thomas Gold Awards for Best Foreign Article and Environmental Reporting.She has been awarded the AWP/ Prague

masks: Salak Salak Salak Salak Salak


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 Fellowship Award in creative nonfiction. Accomplishments
<mask> is described by the National Geographic Society's website as being the "first documented person to kayak solo  down the Niger river" and by the New York Times as "a real-life Lara Croft". <mask> has been selected by the Library of Congress for its "Women Who Dare" publications, which highlight the world's top women explorers and leaders. She was the first woman to cross Papua New Guinea, following the route taken by Australian patrol officer Ivan Champion in 1927. First person to kayak up the Niger River

Media
<mask> was profiled on the CBS Evening News. She has appeared on the CBC's prime-time news show, The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos. She has been profiled in: The New York Times Book Review, Glamour, Vogue, The Observer, The Times, NY Post, Travel & Leisure, National Geographic, Book Magazine, National G

Books
 Four Corners: A Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea, National Geographic Books, 2004: an account of her journey across Papua New Guinea, retracing the 1927 route of explorer Ivan Champion.The Cruelest Journey: Six Hundred miles to Timbuktu, National Geographic Books, 2004: an account of her 600-mile journey down the Niger River from Old Segou, Mali, to Timbuktu, following the route taken by the explorer Mungo Park. The White Mary'', Henry Holt & Co., 2008: a novel concerning a traumatised war reporter, Marika Vecera, who embarks on a journey into Papua New Guinea to investigate a mysterious letter claiming that a Pulitzer-winning journalist, generally reported as having committed suicide, has been seen alive in a remote jungle there. See also
 List of female adventurers

References

External links
National Geographic magazine profile
Personal website of <mask>
Wall Street Journal Review of Salak's The White Mary
National Geographic Adventure Review of Salak's The White Mary

1971 births
Living people
American explorers
American travel writers
American women travel writers
Writers from Illinois
University of Missouri alumni
People from Westmont, Illinois
Wayland Academy, Wisconsin alumni
21st-century

masks:
Kira Salak
Salak
Salak
Kira Salak


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<mask>  (September 7, 1925April 16, 2011) was the tenth premier of Saskatchewan from 1971 to 1982, and leader of the Saskatchewan New Democratic Party (NDP). Early life and career
Born in Bridgewater, Nova Scotia, <mask> took his law degree at Dalhousie Law School, winning the gold medal. He was a Rhodes Scholar at Queen's College, Oxford, where he played for the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club. He earned a bachelor's degree, second class, in politics and economics. On returning to Canada, he passed the Nova Scotia bar exam in 1950. He then took a job with the Saskatchewan civil service, eventually becoming a senior civil servant in Saskatchewan, before he entered politics in 1960 and represented part of Regina. He would represent a Regina-based riding without interruption until his retirement in 1988.<mask> served as a cabinet minister in the governments of Tommy Douglas and Woodrow S. Lloyd until the government was defeated in 1964. As minister of health, he played a crucial role in the introduction of Medicare. In 1969, <mask> was elected national president of the New Democratic Party of Canada, and succeeded James Renwick. NDP leader
In 1970, <mask> succeeded Lloyd as leader of the Saskatchewan NDP, which was then in opposition. Historically, his election as leader has been interpreted as a victory of the provincial NDP's "establishment" over the left-wing Waffle faction, because Lloyd was trying to move the party more to the left and supported the Waffle Manifesto at the October 1969 federal NDP convention in Winnipeg. As well, Lloyd backed the Waffle's right to debate issues after the convention, which disturbed many of

masks:
Allan Emrys Blakeney
Blakeney
Blakeney
Blakeney
Blakeney


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 his MLAs, who eventually forced him to resign in March 1970. Premier
In the 1971 provincial election, <mask> led the party to power and defeated Ross Thatcher's Liberal government.<mask>'s government practiced state-led economic intervention in the economy. The farmers were a high priority, as globalization began transforming agriculture and weakened the traditional family farm through consolidation,
mechanization, and corporatization. The NDP promised a "revitalized
rural Saskatchewan," and  <mask>'s introduced programs to stabilize crop prices, retain transportation links, and modernize rural life. Looking back, he lamented the gradual conversion of Saskatchewan's family farms into larger agricultural ventures: without resorting to the "very high costs" and "billions of dollars" that preserved family farming in Europe and the United States, "[w]e were, it seems, King Canute trying to hold back the tide." His government created a crown corporation in the potash industry in an attempt to further diversify the province's agrarian economy and threatened the expropriation of private potash mines in the province. <mask> pointed out that the sums paid for the mines were slightly in excess of their appraised "book" value. However, the mere threat of expropriation created a political firestorm that involved even the US government.<mask> also created a state-owned oil and gas corporation, SaskOil, to handle oil exploration and production. The private oil industry had essentially abandoned Saskatchewan after the NDP's policy of imposing extremely-high royalty rates in the early 1970s. Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's policies

masks: Blakeney Blakeney Blakeney Blakeney Blakeney


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 to centralize control in Ottawa outraged Blakeney, and he moved closer to Alberta's position of open hostility. <mask> joined Alberta Progressive Conservative Premier Peter Lougheed in a fight for provincial rights over minerals, oil, and gas. <mask> played an important role in the federal-provincial negotiations that led to the 1982 patriation of the Canadian constitution. Later career
<mask>'s government was defeated in the 1982 provincial election, its attempt to win a fourth successive term, being defeated by the Progressive Conservative Party, led by Grant Devine. The NDP lost 35 of its 44 seats, then the third-worst defeat of a sitting government in the province's history.The party was cut down to only nine seats, its smallest presence in the legislature since its first election in 1934 (as the Saskatchewan CCF). Once in opposition, <mask> continued to lead the party up to the 1986 provincial election. The NDP not only regained much of what it had lost in its severe beating of four years earlier, but also gained more votes overall than Devine's Progressive Conservatives. However, much of that margin was wasted on landslide margins in Regina and Saskatoon, which left the NDP eight seats short of regaining power. <mask> resigned in 1987 and was succeeded by Roy Romanow. On April 30, 1992, he was appointed as an Officer of the Order of Canada for his work as Premier of Saskatchewan, his enormous contribution to the field of public administration, and a key player in introducing the first comprehensive public medical health care plan in Canada. In 2000, he was awarded the Saskatchewan Order of Merit.In 2001, he was made a


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 Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. <mask> was also a past president of the Canadian Civil Liberties Association. As a private citizen, Blakeney served as a consultant to the Romanow government in the 1990s, when it sold the SaskOil to Occidental Petroleum. Blakeney then served on the board of directors of the successor corporation. Death
Blakeney died on April 16, 2011 at his home in Saskatoon of complications from cancer. Federal NDP leader Jack Layton dedicated the rest of his federal election campaign to Blakeney, who died about halfway through the campaign. About 600 people attended his memorial, including federal NDP leaders Jack Layton and Ed Broadbent, former provincial premiers Roy Romanow, Lorne Calvert, Peter Lougheed, Ed Schreyer, Bill Davis, and Bob Rae, as well as then Saskatchewan premier Brad Wall.Notes

References
 <mask>. An Honourable Calling: Political Memoirs (University of Toronto Press, 2008) 258 pp. .

1925 births
2011 deaths
Deaths from liver cancer
Canadian Rhodes Scholars
Alumni of The Queen's College, Oxford
Lawyers in Saskatchewan
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Canadian socialists
Schulich School of Law alumni
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the Saskatchewan Order of Merit
People from Bridgewater, Nova Scotia
Premiers of Saskatchewan
Queen's Counsel 1901–2000
Saskatchewan Co-operative Commonwealth Federation MLAs
20th-century Canadian legislators
Saskatchewan New Democratic Party MLAs
Leaders of the Saskatchewan CCF/NDP
Deaths from cancer in Saskatchewan
Members of the Executive Council of

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Blakeney
Allan Blakeney


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<mask>. (October 13, 1883 – July 4, 1972) was a German-born American revolutionary socialist political activist, journalist, and functionary who helped establish the Communist Party of America. Bedacht is best remembered as the long-time head of the International Workers Order, a Communist Party-sponsored fraternal benefit organization. Biography

Early years

<mask>, Sr. was born in Munich, Germany to an ethnically German mother on October 13, 1883. He was the son of a single mother who worked as a domestic servant and was raised  Catholic by a maternal aunt and uncle. Early labor activities

Bedacht apprenticed and worked as a barber in Germany and Switzerland, working in the towns of Gossau and Herisau. He organized fellow journeymen barbers into a union during his European years. In 1905 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Switzerland.In 1907, Bedacht was elected president of the Swiss National Barbers' Union and edited the organization's newspaper. That same year he took part in his first labor action, a sympathy strike held for the striking chocolate workers on the banks of Lake Geneva. During a barbers' strike the following year, Bedacht rented a building for a cooperative barber shop in his name. In the settlement of the strike, the plan for the cooperative facility was abandoned, however, and Bedacht was sued for breach of contract by the building's landlord. While the union's members offered to pay the money for him, Bedacht decided to emigrate to the United States rather than allow this to take place. Activities:  New York City

Bedacht immigrated to the United States in 1908 and

masks:
Max Bedacht Sr
Max Bedacht


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 joined the Socialist Party of America (SPA) during that same year. He lived and worked in Manhattan from 1910 to 1912, cutting hair by day while spending his evenings as a German-language socialist agitator.After this he spent a brief period in Detroit as editor of both German-language and English-language Socialist newspapers. Activities:  San Francisco
In June 1913 he moved to San Francisco to become the editor of the German-language labor newspaper Vorwärts der Pacific Küste (Forward of the Pacific Coast), a job which he retained until the paper's termination in 1917 due to draconian postal regulations being placed on the foreign language press during World War I. He briefly moved to South Dakota to edit a paper called The New Era following the demise of the  Vorwärts, but soon returned to San Francisco when he found that publication unviable, taking up the barbers' shears again. Bedacht was long an adherent of the so-called impossibilist wing of the Socialist Party, placing his faith in socialist revolution rather than the ameliorative reform of elected officials. As was the case with many radicals in America, Bedacht was inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and was an early adherent of the 1919 Left Wing Manifesto written by Louis C. Fraina and the Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party, which emerged in conjunction with that document. Bedacht was a Left Wing candidate for the SPA's governing National Executive Committee in 1919 and a delegate to the SPA's pivotal 1919 Emergency National Convention. Chicago convention of 1919

At the Chicago convention in August 1919, the Left


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 Wing California delegation was challenged at the time the gathering was convened, placing the delegates in limbo, their fate held in the mercy of a committee firmly controlled by the "Regular" faction of National Executive Secretary Adolph Germer and James Oneal.The Credentials Committee, headed by Judge Jacob Panken of New York City, stalled the hearings on the California delegation until after the convention was underway and until it was clear that a safe majority of delegates were in the Regulars' camp. As a result, although they were ultimately approved by the committee, the California delegation refused to take their seats in protest and went downstairs to attend the parallel convention of the Communist Labor Party (CLP) convened by NEC members Alfred Wagenknecht and L.E. Katterfeld. Bedacht was elected at the founding convention to the 5 member National Executive Committee which governed the CLP. During the Palmer Raids in California and Chicago, Bedacht was arrested and tried for conspiracy. However, despite conviction, he avoided prison. Soon afterwards, he traveled to Europe and Russia as an international delegate for the Communist Party.In 1924, Bedacht was a delegate of the Workers Party of America to the 5th World Congress of the Communist International. Bedacht lived in Chicago at 3101 North Nordica Avenue, from 1923 to 1928, according to his testimony before HUAC in 1949. Activities:  New York City

In 1929, Bedacht took over as liaison with the Soviet underground after the expulsion of Jay Lovestone from the Party in 1929. In the summer of 1932, Bedacht invited Whittaker Chambers


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 to join the Soviet underground. Chambers described Bedacht's approach as follows:

In 1934, he ran on the Communist ticket for U.S. Senator from New York and received 45,396 votes (1.23%). In 1937, he said under oath in 1948, "I went to Spain with a committee of eight to the International Brigade in Spain.I think it was 1937." In 1939, Time Magazine cited Bedacht in connection with the arrest of Party leader Earl Browder on charges of indicted a Federal Grand Jury in New York City on two counts connected to passport:  "Possible was the bagging by Frank Murphy of such Reds as Executive Committeeman <mask>, Publisher Alexander Trachtenberg." International Workers Order

In the 1930s, Bedacht became general secretary of the International Workers Order (IWO), a Communist Party-affiliated insurance, mutual benefit, and fraternal organization (1930–1954), whose membership peaked in the late 1940s at 200,000 members. In the mid-1940s, Bedacht appeared under subpoena before the Special Committee on Un-American Activities of the US House of Representatives (or "Dies Committee"). Expulsion

In November 1948, Bedacht was expelled from the national CPUSA. In November 1949, Bedacht appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Regarding his activities, he answered when asked:    Mr. Tavenner: Will you please state for the committee the official positions which you have held in the past in the Communist Party of the United States?Mr. Bedacht: Almost everything up to secretary. I was never the editor of the Daily Worker. Regarding his expulsion from the CPUSA, he held this exchange:   Mr.


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 Tavenner:  I believe you have recently been expelled from Communist Party, have you not? Mr. Bedacht. Yes, sir. Mr. Tavenner. On what grounds did this expulsion take place?Mr. Bedacht: I don't know that I know myself, but, anyway, this committee is surely not a court of appeals against my expulsion, and my explanation for it would take quite a while, and you would have to listen to the other side, too. Mr. Tavenner: I will not go into that. It was the result of a factional dispute within the party; is that substantially right? Mr. Bedacht: You may say so. Personal life and death
Bedacht was married and had four children, three daughters and a son:  Elsie, Edith, Ethel, and <mask>. His eldest daughter worked for a time in the National Office of the American Communist Party in the early 1930s. <mask>t died on July 4, 1972.His Communist Party membership had been reinstated a few years prior. Works

Books and pamphlets

 In Memoriam: To our comrades Karl Liebknecht, 1871–1919, Rosa Luxemburg, 1871–1919, Martyrs to the German Revolution. San Francisco : Socialist Party of San Francisco, 1919
 Principles of Communism: Engel's Original Draft of the Communist Manifesto. (Editor.) Chicago: Daily Worker Publishing Co., 1925
 The Menace of Opportunism: A Contribution to the Bolshevization of the Workers (Communist) Party. Chicago: Daily Worker Publishing Co., 1926
 Anti-Soviet Lies and the Five-Year Plan: The "Holy" Capitalist War Against the Soviet Union. New York: Workers Library Publishers, 1931
 Karl Marx, 1883-1933 With Earl Browder and Sam Don.New York: Workers Library Publishers, 1933
 Unity of the

masks:
Max
Max Bedach


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 Workers' Fraternal Movement: A Speech. New York: Cultural Committee of the International Workers Order, 1936
 Labor Fraternalism: The Fraternal Principles and Program of the IWO. New York: National Education Dept., International Workers Order, 1941
 An Appeal of the German Communists: Destroy Hitler! Free Germany! With Alfred Wagenknecht. New York: Workers Library Publishers, 1942
 The International Workers Order from the Fifth to the Sixth Convention: Report of the General Secretary <mask>t to the IWO Sixth National Convention, July 2–7, 1944, New York City. New York: International Workers Order, 1944
 The Task Before Us: Address.New York: International Workers Order, 1944
 Complete Equality: Democracy and the Negroes. New York: International Workers Order, 1945
 Your Health — America's Wealth. New York: International Workers Order, 1945
 On the Path of Life (memoirs), 1967

Articles

All articles listed here come from the Marxists Internet Archive except the 1926 Daily Worker article entitled "Eastman Drops His Mask." Communist Labor Party Mail Referendum for NEC Motions 3 and 4 (1919)
 Letter to the Central Executive Committee of the United Communist Party (1921)
 To the CEC of the CPA (PDF) (1926)
 Report on the 4th Comintern Congress to the CEC of the Workers Party of America (1921)
 Circular Letter to All District Organizers of the Unified CPA (1922)
 Letter to the Executive Committee of the Communist International in Moscow (1924)
 "Eastman Drops His Mask," The Daily Worker, vol. 3, no. 237 (October 20, 1926), pp. 1, 6
 Editorial (1927)

Miscellaneous

 Letter to Theodore Draper


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 (1954)

Footnotes

External sources

 Emory University:  Manunscripts and Archives on Communism:  Theodore Draper Papers
 Marxists Internet Archive:  Max Bedacht Library

1883 births
1972 deaths
People from Munich
Members of the Socialist Party of America
Members of the Communist Labor Party
Members of the Communist Party USA
American atheists
German emigrants to the United States
American political


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<mask> (January 20, 1920 – November 21, 1998) was a Filipino military officer who served as the Commanding Officer of the Armed Forces of the Philippines under President Ferdinand Marcos. Early life and education
<mask> was born on January 20, 1920 and grew up in the town of Sarrat in Ilocos Norte. <mask> attended the University of the Philippines and was an alumnus of its reserve program. He also joined the UP Vanguard in 1941. However, the outbreak of World War II disrupted his studies. After the war, he resumed his studies at the University of Manila where he obtained a Bachelor of Law degree and later the University of Louisville where he graduated with a degree in police administration in 1963. He also undertook training in Hawaii and with the Los Angeles Police Department.Military and political career

During World War II, he acted as a guerrilla intelligence officer with the rank of third lieutenant and after the war, he went on in the military service. During then Senator Ferdinand Marcos' term as Senate President in the early 1960s, he was one of his military advisers. He was at
that time serving in the Criminal Investigation Service of the Philippine Constabulary with the rank of captain. The Philippine Constabulary was at that time, a major service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines that deals with law enforcement
and peace and order in the country. It is now at present, the Philippine National Police. According to the autobiography book of former Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile entitled, "Juan Ponce Enrile: A Memoir", Ver was a man of Marcos through and through. He could not and would not say no to Marcos and would blindly carry out the wishes and orders of Marcos without question.Thus, he became the most loyal officer to Marcos and upon the latter's election as President of the Philippines in 1965, he became part of the latter's inner circle. And, Ver worked his way up through the military ranks. He was most trusted military officer of then President Ferdinand Marcos as Martial Law was declared on

masks:
Fabian Crisologo Ver
Fabian Ver
Ver


texts: September 21, 1972. and he was also known as one of Marcos' chief enforcers, and was the highest among the Rolex 12. Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, as the Martial Law Architect, the highest among the Rolex 12. He became further fiercely loyal to Marcos, and Marcos repaid his loyalty by appointing him as the commanding general of the Presidential Security Group, then known as the Presidential Security Command or PSC that tasked to secure Marcos and his family. When he was due for retirement in 1976, Marcos extended his term indefinitely. He also headed the then National Intelligence and Security Authority or NISA (now, the National Intelligence and Coordinating Agency), then, the vast and well-armed and well-equipped intelligence department of the Philippines, sending government agents to search for anti-Marcos critics.It placed spies in all government and private entities. In effect, NISA acts as secret police force of the Marcos regime. And since NISA was under the direct control of the Office of the President, Ver directly reports to Marcos. And under the 1978 National Security Code, NISA also was given functional supervision and control over the Intelligence Service of the AFP or ISAFP, thus its chief reports to Ver directly, thus widening his powers in the military gaining full suzerainty of the ISAFP to further NISA's functions. In fact in the Batas Militar documentary on 1997, the late General Romeo Espino, the then chief of staff of the AFP said Ver was a powerful man and he checks his recommendations for promotions and appointments before it reaches Marcos. And, if Ver decides to release any political prisoner detained by NISA, it equals that of Marcos as his signature is also considered as the latter's. Martial law was lifted in 1981, and <mask> was appointed Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines over a cousin, then Major-General Fidel Valdez Ramos, then the chief of the Philippine Constabulary.Thus, <mask> became the most powerful officer in the military, as he headed now three institutions:

masks: Ver Ver


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 the entire AFP, the PSC and NISA. Police officials, military men, businessmen, politicians, bureaucrats and other prominent figures kowtowed to him. Many feared to displease him as he has direct access to Marcos and has his ear as well as of then First Lady Imelda Marcos. In fact, his three sons, who are all military officers like him were in the zenith of power. His eldest son, Irwin was rapidly promoted to colonel and named chief of staff of the Presidential Security Command. His other son, Rexor was the chief of the close- in security of Marcos and youngest son, Wyrlo, was the commander of the Armored Unit of Malacanang Palace. <mask> graduated no.1 in the Philippine Military Academy in 1970. During <mask>'s term as AFP chief of staff, he was biased in favor of the military officers that came from ROTC program by giving them incentives and named them to key important posts in the military, thus, this made the military officers who graduated from the Philippine Military Academy resentful, with some officers forming a faction called Reform the Armed Forces Movement led by Col. Gregorio Honasan, Victor Batac, & Eduardo "Red" Kapunan who all graduated in the academy in 1971. He also extended schooling privileges to his relatives, friends in the military especially the graduates of professional military schools that are close to him, to Marcos and to Imelda, including those who paid homage to him and filled the high
posts in the military with Ilocano ROTC-trained military officers. This
was the era of favoritism in the AFP. General Romeo Espino, <mask>'s predecessor, was AFP Chief of Staff for the longest term in the Philippines military, was like <mask>, Espino was too an ROTC graduate in the University of the Philippines, but he was fair in administration of military affairs during his time, unlike Ver. <mask> also instituted, along with Marcos, the extension of services in the military of those military officers loyal to them, who overreached their retirement age. As Marcos disregarded the authority of then Defense

masks:
Irwin Ver
Ver
Ver
Ver
Ver


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 Minister Juan Ponce Enrile in the 1980s, he changed the military chain of command.Under the new chain of command, the authority would evolve from Marcos as president and commander-in-chief of the armed forces up to <mask>, the chief of staff of the armed forces. As such, <mask> replaced Enrile as the second most-powerful high government official in the country, the status which the latter held during martial law when he was tasked to administer it. Aquino assassination and acquittal by <mask> kept aging officers loyal to himself and also to Marcos on the armed forces, thus making young officers disgruntled. The Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) was formed by these young officers, led by then Colonel Gregorio Honasan and then Captain Proceso Maligalig as a result of this. The RAMboys, as they were known in the Philippines, played a key role in Marcos' overthrow. As the Marcos regime grew unpopular during these years, Marcos would be in and out of office due to kidney ailments. Political mismanagement would ensue, culminating with the 1983 assassination of popular opposition leader and senator Benigno Aquino Jr. upon his return from exile in the United States.The Agrava Commission, an independent fact-finding body put up by Marcos, found evidence to verify that the military and Ver were involved, but  he was subsequently acquitted in 1985 by the Sandiganbayan. After the tumultuous snap election on February 7, 1986, Marcos announced that he was replacing Ver with Fidel Ramos due to his alleged ties with Ninoy Aquino's assassination, although he tacitly kept Ver in power. Awards in military service
  Philippine Republic Presidential Unit Citation
  Martial Law Unit Citation
  Presidential Medal of Merit
  Distinguished Conduct Star Medals
  Distinguished Service Star Medals
  Gold Cross Medals
  Military Merit Medals
   Military Commendation Medals
  Philippine Defense Medal
  Philippine Liberation Medal
  Anti-dissidence Campaign Medal
  Luzon Anti-Dissidence Campaign Medal
  Mindanao Anti-Dissidence Campaign Medal

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Ver
Ver
Marcos Ver


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 Disaster Relief and Rehabilitation Operations Ribbon
  Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal
  World War II Victory Medal
 PAF Gold Wings Badge

Later life and death
After the tumultuous snap elections of 1986, the EDSA Revolution would come. During a television conference, Ver insistently advised Marcos to give him orders to fire on the swelling number of protesters, but Marcos refused to and gave the order to disperse the crowd without shooting. However, <mask> later confirmed that Marcos approved the kill order after the general met with Marine commandant General Artemio Tadia. Following the People Power Revolution, <mask> and his family along with the Marcoses were exiled to Hawaii. Facing federal racketeering charges, <mask> left the United States using a Paraguayan passport, and transited to Austria, then finally to Mannheim, Germany where he joined his younger children.He was not allowed to return to the country during the administration of Presidents Corazon Aquino and Fidel V. Ramos. He returned during the presidency of Joseph Estrada but faced lawsuits that linked him to the assassination of Ninoy Aquino and fall guy Rolando Galman. In November 21, 1998, Ver died of pulmonary complications in a hospital in Bangkok, Thailand, two months before his 79th Birthday. See also
Rolex 12
Presidential Security Group / Presidential Security Command
National Intelligence Coordinating Agency (NICA)
Sterling Seagrave
University of the Philippines ROTC Unit

References

External links
The Filipino Express, 10-27-1994 - Graft cases brought against Ver and Ongpin
The Filipino Express, 08-27-1998 - Let Ver come home - Erap
The Filipino Express, 12-13-1998 - Family feud: Quarrel avoided over Ver remains

Philippine Army personnel
Filipino generals
People from Ilocos Norte
1920 births
1998 deaths
Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs (Philippines)
University of Manila alumni
University of Louisville alumni
Heads of government agencies of the Philippines
Marcos Administration personnel
People of the People Power Revolution
Filipino military

masks: Ver Ver Ver


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<mask> (February 7, 1912 – February 15, 2000) was an American mountaineer, environmentalist, and music teacher. Early years
<mask> was born in San Francisco on February 7, 1912, to Hilmar and <mask>, who were immigrants from Germany. As a youngster, he often hiked on the slopes of Mount Tamalpais in Marin County, California with his parents and siblings. He showed musical talent and began studying violin from Ansel Adams at a young age. In 1927, he began piano lessons, and his first instructor was Ansel Adams. <mask> was also Adams's first piano student. That summer, <mask> joined Adams on the Sierra Club annual High Trip, which included a climb of Alta Peak in Sequoia National Park.That climb sparked the 15-year-old <mask>'s love of mountaineering. Eichorn worked for Ansel Adams washing photographic prints and hauling photographic equipment in exchange for piano lessons, and their friendship lasted until Adams's death in 1984. After graduating from Lick-Wilmerding High School in San Francisco in 1929, Eichorn traveled to the Teton Range of Wyoming in 1930 for a summer climbing trip. Mountaineering achievements

On July 6, 1930, during the Sierra Club's annual High Trip, he first teamed up with Glen Dawson to make the third ascent of Red and White Mountain in the Sierra. They continued at a fast pace to climb Mount Abbot, Bear Creek Spire, Mount Dade, Turret Peak, Mount Darwin, The Hermit, Mount McGee, a first ascent of the (later named) Mount Mendel, Mount Goddard, Devils Crags, Mount Woodworth, Middle Palisade, Mount Sill, North Palisade, Polemonium Peak, Mount Winchell and Mount Agassiz. All of these climbs were completed in 24 days. Sierra

masks:
Jules Marquard Eichorn
Jules Marquard Eichorn
Frieda Eichorn
Eichorn
Eichorn
Eichorn


texts: Club Secretary Will Colby wrote, "Some youthful enthusiasts, including Glen Dawson, <mask> and John Olmstead, swarmed over everything that looked formidable in the way of a mountain peak."In 1931, Sierra Club leader Francis P. Farquhar invited Harvard philosophy professor and Appalachian Mountain Club member Robert L. M. Underhill to come to the Sierra Nevada to teach the latest techniques of roped climbing. Underhill had learned these techniques in the Alps, and had used them earlier that summer in the Tetons and the Canadian Rockies. <mask> was among the first group of Californians who practiced these techniques on Mount Ritter and Banner Peak in the Ritter Range. After the basic course was completed, the more advanced students, including <mask>, his climbing partner Glen Dawson, Norman Clyde, Lewis Clark, and Bestor Robinson traveled south to the Palisades, the most rugged and alpine part of the Sierra Nevada. There, on August 13, 1931, the party completed the first ascent of the last unclimbed 14,000+ foot peak in California, which remained unnamed due to its remote location above the Palisade Glaciers. After a challenging ascent to the summit, the climbers were caught in an intense lightning storm, and Eichorn barely escaped electrocution when "a thunderbolt whizzed right by my ear". The mountain was named Thunderbolt Peak to commemorate that close call.Underhill called Dawson and Eichorn "young natural-born rock climbers of the first water." Three days later on August 16, Eichorn, Clyde, Underhill and Dawson completed the first ascent of the East Face of Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the contiguous United States. The route was

masks:
Jules Eichorn
Jules Eichorn
Eichorn