texts:
 Staatliche Verwaltungen, Parteien, gesellschaftliche Organisationen und ihre Führungskräfte in der Sowjetischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1945–1949. Oldenbourg, Munich 1993, page 1053.Klaus Schwabe: Zwischen Krone und Hakenkreuz. Die Tätigkeit der sozialdemokratischen Fraktion im Mecklenburg-Schwerinschen Landtag 1919–1932. Verlag A. Tykve, Böblingen 1994, page 199. Martin Schumacher: M.d.L. Das Ende der Parlamente 1933 und die Abgeordneten der Landtage und Bürgerschaften der Weimarer Republik in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus. Politische Verfolgung, Emigration und Ausbürgerung 1933–1945. Droste, Düsseldorf 1995, page 172.Friederike Sattler: Wirtschaftsordnung im Übergang. Politik, Organisation und Funktion der KPD/SED im Land Brandenburg bei der Etablierung der zentralen Planwirtschaft in der SBZ/DDR 1945–52. Lit, Münster 2002, page 969. Berit Olschewski: „Freunde“ im Feindesland. Rote Armee und deutsche Nachkriegsgesellschaft im ehemaligen Großherzogtum Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1945–1953. BWV Verlag, Berlin 2008, page 528. Handbuch der Volkskammer der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 3.Wahlperiode, Kongress-Verlag Berlin, 1959

References

1885 births
1964 deaths
People from Ludwigslust-Parchim
People from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Members of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany
Members of the Provisional Volkskammer
Members of the 1st Volkskammer
Members of the 2nd Volkskammer
Members of the 3rd Volkskammer
Peasants Mutual Aid Association members
Members of the Landtag of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
German military personnel of World War I
German anti-fascists
Recipients of the Order of Karl Marx
Recipients of the Patriotic Order of


type: original

texts:
<mask> (born <mask>; 14 August 1927 – 11 September 2020) was a French actor and voice talent, known for his recurring film roles as Asterix, the French voice of Star Wars' C-3PO, and the French voice of Winnie-the-Pooh, Piglet, and Rabbit in Winnie the Pooh. He has also dubbed David Suchet as Hercule Poirot in Agatha Christie's Poirot. He also voiced Wally Gator, Mickey Mouse, Yogi Bear, Fred Flintstone, Kermit the Frog, Heathcliff, Danger Mouse, Foghorn Leghorn, ALF and many other famous characters in French. He was born in Paris, France. Carel died in Aigre, Charante at 93. Filmography

Voice animation

 The Benny Hill Show (1951–1991, TV Series) as Benny Hill (French dubbing)
 Pixie and Dixie and Mr. Jinks (1958-1961) as Pixie / Dixie (French dubbing)
 The Flintstones (1960–1966) (TV series) as Fred Flintstone (French dubbing)
 One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961) as Pongo (French dubbing)
 The Yogi Bear Show (1961-1962) as Yogi Bear (2nd French dubbing)
 Hey There, It's Yogi Bear! (1983) as Olivier (French dubbing)
 Lucky Luke (1984) as Jolly Jumper
 Welcome to Pooh Corner (1983–1987, TV Series) as Pooh / Piglet / Rabbit (French dubbing)
 Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi (1983) as C-3PO (French dubbing)
 The

masks:
Roger Carel
Roger Bancharel


texts:
 Right Stuff (1983) as Narrator (french dubbing)
 Heathcliff and The Catillac Cats (1984–1988, TV Series) as Heathcliff (French dubbing)
 Dumbo (1984) as Timothy Q.(1968) as Camberlin
 A Flea in Her Ear (1968) as M. Plommard
 Béru et ces dames (1968) as Maximilien Bernal dit 'Max'
 Clérambard (1969) as Le curé
 The Brain (1969) as Frankie Scannapieco (voice, uncredited)
 A Golden Widow (1969) as Aristophane Percankas – un riche armateur grec
 Et qu'ça saute! (1970) as Fedorovitch
 On est toujours trop bon avec les femmes (1971) as Frank Dillon
 Delusions of Grandeur (1971) (uncredited)
 Le Viager (1972) as La voix du speaker des actualités (voice)
 Églantine (1972) as Ernest
 Elle cause plus, elle flingue (1972) as Sammy
 Le petit poucet (1972) as Récitant / Narrator (voice)
 Les Charlots font l'Espagne (1972) as Le capitaine du grand voilier (voice, uncredited)
 Joë petit boum-boum (1973) as Bzz
 L'Heptaméron (Joyeux compères) (1973) as Maître Bornet
 The Big Store (1973) as Le commissaire priseur
 The Holes (1974) as Alberto Sopranelli, le ténor
 Le plumard en folie (1974) as La voix du lit (voice)
 Q (1974) as Récitant / Narrator (uncredited)
 Soldat Duroc, ça va être ta fête! (1975) as Oberst Strumpf
 Les grands moyens


texts:
 (1976) as Commissaire Honoré Compana
 La grande récré (1976) as Le pharmacien
 La grande frime (1977) as Chomer
 Dis bonjour à la dame!.. (1977) as L'inspecteur des PTT
 La Gueule de l'autre (1979) as Roland Favereau
 Les phallocrates (1980) as Le directeur de l'asile
 Jupiter's Thigh (1980) as Sacharias, le conservateur
 The Umbrella Coup (1980) as Salvatore Bozzoni
 Signé Furax (1981) as Grigor Sokolodovenko
 Le retour des bidasses en folie (1983) as Kolonel von Berg
 One Deadly Summer (1983) as Henri dit 'Henri IV'
 Le jeune marié (1983) as M. Santoni, Nina's father
 Les malheurs d'Octavie (1983) as André Perlin
 L'émir préfère les blondes (1983) as Sam Moreau
 Y a-t-il un pirate sur l'antenne? (1983) as Le commissaire Keller
 Le diable rose (1988) as General Von Goteborg
 Les Gauloises blondes (1988) as Cuchulain
 La folle journée ou Le mariage de Figaro (1989) as Don Guzman Brid'Oison
 Comédie d'amour (1989) as Le docteur
 1001 Nights (1990) as The Great Vizier
 My Man (1996) as Passerby In Hat

Bibliography

References

External links

1927 births
2020 deaths
20th-century French male actors
21st-century French male actors
French male film actors
French male television actors
French male voice actors
Male actors from


texts:
Anthony Louis "<mask><mask> (July 9, 1921 – June 2, 2010) was an American comic book and comic strip artist active from the 1940s Golden Age of comic books. He was the longtime successor artist of the comic strip Joe Palooka (1959–84) and drew the Rex Morgan, M.D. daily strip from 1983 until <mask>'s retirement in 2000. Early life and career
Born July 9, 1921, in Stamford, Connecticut, to a family that included brothers Joe and Leonard, <mask> grew up during the Great Depression, during which his father had little or no work and his mother sewed in a sweat shop for $7 a week. He decided while in junior high school that he would pursue an art career after reading in the local newspaper that cartoonist H. T. Webster made $50,000 a year. "I thought, 'Boy, that's a lot.' I went down and saw him, and he talked to me.Then I started drawing for my junior high school. It made me feel like I could really draw." <mask> took art classes when he attended Stamford High School. After graduating, <mask> and fellow future professionals Red Wexler and Bob Fujitani took classes at the Silvermine Guild, where the trio drew from live models. <mask> had worked for a local advertising agency while attending high school, and after a year doing that, he obtained a union job at McCalls Photo Engraving, also in Stamford. During his subsequent year at McCalls, <mask> began coloring comic books for company client Quality Comics, located a half-mile away. Separately, <mask> freelanced as a fill-in letterer for Lyman Young's newspaper comic strip Tim Tyler's Luck.<mask> recalled, "My brother Joe used to caddy [at the old Greenwich golf course]. ... Lyman Young, who did Tim Tyler's Luck, used to play there, and my brother was once lucky enough to caddy for Lyman Young. He told Lyman Young

masks:
Tony
" DiPreta
DiPreta
Tony DiPreta
DiPreta
DiPreta
DiPreta
DiPreta
DiPreta
DiPreta


texts:
 that I wanted to be a cartoonist, and Young said, 'Well, bring him down.' ... I went to see him and he said, 'Why don't you letter my strip?' But this wasn't a permanent job. He'd call me on a Saturday afternoon — when he wanted to play golf — and I'd come over and letter his strips."After seeing the portfolio samples that <mask> brought to him during a lunch hour in 1940, Quality publisher Everett M. "Busy" Arnold hired <mask> as a staff letterer for $25 per week, a wage equal to that of his now-working father's well-paying job as a defense industry worker. Under editor Ed Cronin and Cronin's assistant Gill Fox, <mask> was sent to Quality artist Lou Fine's Tudor City studio in Manhattan to observe and learn from Fine's highly regarded draftsmanship. Shortly afterward, Arnold was concerned over what he saw as Fine's undynamic storytelling, and had Fujitani and <mask> do pencil-breakdowns for a story each that Fine would finish penciling and inking; <mask>'s starred the character Uncle Sam. At some point, he studied at Columbia University and the University of Connecticut. <mask>'s first generally accepted solo art credit in comics is a one-page humor filler in publisher Quality's National Comics #8 (Feb. 1941). His first confirmable credit is a similar filler in the company's Doll Man #2 (Spring 1942). Golden Age of Comics
In 1941, <mask> visited New York City's Timely Comics, the 1940s predecessor of Marvel Comics.Going on a Saturday, <mask> recalled, he nonetheless met editor-in-chief Stan Lee, who had <mask> ink a story for the humor feature "Ziggy Pig and Silly Seal". <mask> recalled, "I was paid either seven bucks or eight bucks a page. The story was seven or eight pages long. However, it all worked out, I was going to get $57 for this job", which he

masks: DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta


texts: delivered to Lee the following Saturday. "I thought, 'Hey, 25 bucks a week from Arnold is pretty good, but 57 bucks a week is better'. I decided to go freelance", and did so beginning April 1, 1941. Following that initial Timely story, <mask> drew only sporadically for the company during the 1940s due to steady work from former Quality editor Cronin, who by then was at Hillman Periodicals.DiPreta drew such Hillman humor features as "Buttons the Rabbit", "Captain Codfish", "Earl the Rich Rabbit", "Fatsy McPig", "One Wing Spin", "Skinny McGinty" (in Air Fighters Comics) and "Stupid Manny" (in Clue Comics). DiPreta concurrently drew Quality humor features, including "Blimpy" (in Feature Comics), "Windy Breeze", and "Mayor Midge" for Quality. <mask> did his first dramatic work, a war story, for editor Vin Sullivan's Columbia Comics. He also drew the lead feature, "Airboy", in at  Air Fighters Comics #7-9 (April–June 1943). Also, DiPreta occasionally drew the superheroes "Boy King" and "Zippo" — no relation to the popular brand of cigarette lighter — for Hillman's Clue Comics and "Magno" for Ace Magazines' Super-Mystery Comics, as well as a small amount of comics work for Et-Es-Go Magazines, Lev Gleason Publications, and editor Leonard B. Cole at Holyoke Publishing. DiPreta also drew public service announcement one-pagers with Airboy and Iron Ace. Afflicted by a heart murmur since age 13, <mask> was rejected for World War II military service as 4F.As the war progressed, <mask> read a newspaper article saying anyone not doing war-related work would be drafted no matter their physical condition, and at least work stateside. <mask> recalled he was re-designated 4C, although 4C is the designation for an alien or dual national. In any event, <mask> was never called

masks: DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta


texts:
 into service. Post-war career

Comic books
During the 1950s, <mask> drew comic books primarily for Lev Gleason's "Little Wise Guys" kid-gang feature in that company's Daredevil (no relation to Marvel Comics'), and for anthological horror titles from Atlas Comics, Marvel's 1950s iteration. His Atlas work, the first known credit of which is also included a Western story in Texas Kid #5 (Sept. 1951), includes work in Journey into Mystery #1 (June 1952), and issues of Adventures into Terror, Adventures Into Weird Worlds, Astonishing, Marvel Tales, Menace, Mystery Tales, Strange Tales, Strange Tales of the Unusual, Uncanny Tales, and World of Fantasy. He also drew occasional stories for such Atlas crime fiction titles as Tales of Justice, war comics such as Battlefront, and, returning to humor, the sole two issues of the Casper the Friendly Ghost-like Adventures of Homer Ghost. <mask> gained some recognition in comics during the 1970s, long after he'd left the field to concentrate on comic strips, when some of his Atlas work was reprinted in the Marvel comics Beware, Chamber of Chills, Creatures on the Loose, Vault of Evil, Weird Wonder Tales, Where Monsters Dwell, and even in an issue each of the superhero series Marvel Feature and the supernatural-hero series Giant-Size Werewolf.<mask>'s 1950s horror work was also considered mature enough to appear in Marvel's black-and-white, non-Comics Code horror-comics magazines Dracula Lives, Monsters Unleashed, Tales of the Zombie, and Vampire Tales. Most reprints were faithful, though <mask>'s "Escape From Nowhere", from World of Suspense #7 (April 1957), was reprinted in Amazing Adventures #28 (Jan. 1975) minus one of its original three pages. Comic strips
In 1945, DiPreta broke into the field of syndicated newspaper

masks: DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta


texts:
 comic strip art as an assistant to cartoonist Frank E. "Lank" Leonard's popular strip about a suburban beat cop, Mickey Finn. <mask> continued in that position, while concurrently drawing freelance for comic books, through 1955. In 1959, DiPreta succeeded creator Ham Fisher and first successor artist Moe Leff on the long-running boxing strip Joe Palooka. He continued on that strip, written by Jim Lawrence, Bob Gustafson, Ken Fitch, Morris Weiss, and Ed Moore, through its end in 1984. In 1983, he became the latest successor, following artists Marvin Bradley, Frank Springer, and Fernando Da Silva, of Rex Morgan, M.D., working with writer-creator Nicholas P. Dallis, also known as Dal Curtis, and Dallis' assistant, writer Woody Wilson.The strip continued after <mask>'s 2000 retirement. Fellow Stamford cartoonist Mort Walker said in 2010 that <mask> did an unspecified amount of work at some point on Walker's strip Beetle Bailey. Later career
<mask>'s last known comics credit is A.C.E. Comics' Fantastic Adventures #3 (Oct. 1987), for which he penciled and inked the cover, the four-page humor story "The Score Board Kid" (by writer Jerry DeFuccio), and "The Motor-Man On Wheels! ", a six-page DeFuccio profile of <mask> and the artist's Golden Age character Zippo. Personal life
In November 1960, <mask> married Frances, who died September 26, 2009. The couple had two sons, Richard and Edward, and a daughter, Janet.<mask> died of respiratory and cardiac arrest in Greenwich, Connecticut on June 2, 2010, aged 88. References

External links

1921 births
2010 deaths
American comic strip cartoonists
Atlas Comics
Artists from Stamford, Connecticut
Deaths from respiratory failure
Marvel Comics people
American people of Italian descent
Stamford High School (Stamford,

masks: DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta


texts:
<mask> (November 14, 1886 – July 30, 1958) was a Spanish anthropologist and prehistorian, although in the course of his life he also became involved in writing, primarily essays and fiction. Like several other Galician intellectuals of his generation, he was a member of Xeración Nós, of the Seminar of Galician Studies and the Irmandades da Fala, combining the cultural and linguistic activities he carried out in those institutions with a discrete participation in pro-Galician politics. However, his social and political activities were profoundly disrupted by the victory of nationalists in the Spanish Civil War, although in the 1940s he returned to his commitment to the spread of Galician culture as a full member of the Royal Galician Academy, and of the Instituto de Estudios Gallegos Padre Sarmiento. Like the other members of his generation, he contributed to the maturation of Galician literature, but he was renown as a result of his efforts in the field of science. Galvanized by Hugo Obermaier's book (Impresiones de un viaje prehistórico por Galicia), Cuevillas undertook the complicated task of developing the field of archeology in Galicia with the aim of reconstructing and studying a period of history that had been hitherto forgotten. His field research, mostly directed at the study of megalithic art and the Celtic Castro culture, as well as his systematization of Galician prehistory, lead him to be crowned as the most important figure in Galicia in the field of prehistory. Indirectly, his scientific work contributed to the normalization of the Galician language.Biography
<mask> <mask>-Cuevillas was born on November 14, 1886 at 77 Progress Street, Ourense. He was the only son of don <mask> <mask>, an agent of the tax

masks:
Florentino López Alonso Cuevillas
Florentino
López Alonso
Florentino
López Barbán


texts: office who practiced his profession in Ourense as well as Lugo, and doña Vicenta Alonso-Cuevillas Álvarez, daughter of a famous brigadier who carried out many important military duties in Ourense and who belonged to the prestigious Seara family. Cuevillas's father's death in Lugo before his birth quickly caused his mother to  move in with her family in Ourense. From that moment on, <mask> <mask> was raised and educated by his maternal family, receiving an education few people would have been able to afford at that time. As a preschooler he attended a girls' school, which accepted very young children, and later attended the Colegio León XIII. It was at this time that he began to develop an interest in music, and he went on to learn the violin in his youth. Between 1896 and 1901 he studied at the Instituto de Orense where he was taught by teachers of great renown, such as the professor of rhetoric and poetry, Marcelo Macías.After five years of study he completed his baccalaureate studies (at the time still regulated by the Ley Moyano), and subsequently attended the University of Santiago de Compostela to study pharmacology, although he never went on to practice that profession. During the course of his college years, he displayed a great interest in literature and during this time he attended literary outings of the Ateneo León XIII as well as conferences organized by the alumni of the medical and legal departments. He was licensed in June 1906, and five years later he moved to Madrid to take classes in the social sciences. In the capital he came into contact with Otero Pedrayo, Primitivo Rodríguez Sanjurjo and Urbano Feijoo de Sotomayor, attended meetings in the Ateneo, theatrical and opera performances, and frequented

masks: Florentino Cuevillas


texts: social gatherings of the most famous Madrilenians of the era. In Madrid he worked as a functionary of the government, returning for brief spells to Galicia. Feeling lost in Madrid, he returned to Ourense. Upon his return to the city of his birth, he abandoned the field of pharmacology to work as a tax official.Afterwards he wed Milagros Rodríguez, which whom he had three daughters. Cuevillas's first writings were political articles and articles of literary criticism that were published in the newspaper El Miño, a newspaper which Risco also frequently contributed to. Cuevillas also contributed to other publications like  La Zarpa, El Pueblo Gallego, Diario de Orense, El Heraldo, , Faro de Vigo, La Noche and La Región. In 1917, members of a theosophical church called Roso de Luna (Rodríguez Sanjurjo, Vicente Risco y Cuevillas) decided to found the magazine La Centuria. Cuevillas was a contributor to this new literary project, with a sociopolitical slant manifesting itself more and more in his lectures and works. In the same year, and due to the influence of Antón Losada Diéguez, Cuevillas got involved in Galicianism. In addition he joined las Irmandades da Fala, and was involved in the founding of the magazine Nós as well as the Republican Nationalist Party of Ourense and he was appointed minister of the Irmandade Nazonalista Galega.In 1922 he published his first work of archeology in Nós, the article Dos nosos tempos which forms along with the works of Otero Pedrayo and Vicente Risco a generational manifesto of the Ourensian group. After the end of the Spanish Civil War, like many other Galician nationalists, he was forced to abandon his political activities. In 1939 he continued his archeological studies, but later as a


texts:
 result of worsening of rheumatism in his joints he had to abandon fieldwork and dedicated himself to the systematization of Galician prehistory. On July 7, 1941, <mask> was admitted as a full member of the Royal Galician Academy at the proposition of Ramón Otero Pedrayo, Ángel del <mask> y Alejandro Barreiro Noya. Three years later, in 1944, he was admitted to the Instituto de Estudios Padre Sarmiento. That same year he wrote Prehistoria which would become the third volume of Historia de Galiza, edited by Otero Pedrayo. On July 30, 1958 he died in his house on Santo Domingo in Ourense, as a result of a worsening of the rheumatism from which he suffered.He was interred at the Cementerio de San Francisco de Orense. At the moment of his interment, Requiem a Cuevillas, written for him by Fermín Bouza Brey, was sung. The sixth celebration of Galician Literature Day, in 1968, was dedicated to his memory. Archeological and Historical Work

Cuevillas's archeological work, which grew with the assistance of the people associated with the Museo da Comisión de Monumentos, is reflected in the study A mansión de Aquis Querquernis (1921) contained a vast amount of work on pre-Roman Galicia. In fact, it was him and his group of collaborators that began a brief excavation in the early 1920s on the site of the Roman encampment of Aquis Querquennis, discovering the wall of the encampment, although they didn't this short wall as the principle wall of the complex, and other walls of small size related to habitable structures. Cuevillas was a great scholar of the Castro culture, with his initial work on that topic appearing in the magazine Nós. The first Castro site he studied was located in the parish of San Cibrao de Las (Orense),

masks:
Cuevillas
Castillo López


texts: consisting of a fortress nine hectares in area, and one of the largest sites in Galicia.The excavations, overseen at all times by Cuevillas, began in 1922 and continuing until 1925, when they came to a halt. Although the investigation lasted only three years, (in the 1940s he would resume the excavation), it served as a source of data for his works, published in Nós (which also published his Catálogo dos Castros Galegos) under the title A Edade de Ferro no Galiza. After being founded in 1923, <mask> joined the Seminario de Estudos Galegos and began to collaborate closely with Fermín Bouza Brey. Out of this professional relationship came the study and excavation of the Castro de O Neixón in 1925, the site where Cuevillas discovered the remains of a Punic aryballos that was produced in Carthaginian workshops in the Mediterranean, consequently bringing to light the existence of commercial relationships between the ancient settlers of Galicia and merchants on the edges of the Mediterranean. His work on this site formed a major part of the work  (1929). In 1927 he undertook the first archaeological journey across all of Galicia, along with Fermín Bouza Brey, through the financial support of the Comisión de Estudios de Galicia. The journey resulted in the study of archaeological sites in Sobroso and Briteiros.In 1929 Cuevillas worked with the archeologist Lluís Pericot on the excavation of the Castro de Troña, removing numerous pieces of handicrafts and coins of both Celtic and Roman origin from the complex. Furthermore, in their initial work in the area they discovered around 30 circular structures, the moat and defensive walls on the eastern side. On some occasions, Cuevillas limited himself to only the search and


texts:
 exploration of the Castro culture without doing any excavation in the areas in which they had settled. This is what happened in el Outeiro do Castro, a diminutive site in the parish of Canda. He, along with Otero Pedrayo and Vicente Risco, argued against the theory that held that there was a possibility that the ruins of the Castro culture and the dolmens were contemporaneous structures, thinking the prior were produced by a Celtic culture, and had no relation to the Stone Age. Historical study of the birth of Ourense in the Roman period
In 1934, Cuevillas carried out a historical study regarding the possible origin of Ourense, in which he considered the transportation infrastructure as a determining factor in the birth of the city. During the Roman period an imperial road of notable importance passed through the city, as well as a confluence of various secondary roads and natural passageways like the Miño, Loña and Barbaña-Barbadás rivers.The main defining idea of Cuevillas's theory was the belief that the original population nucleus in the region developed nearby As Burgas and not along the path of the Miño river, to argue for an indigenous foundation tied to the thermal springs and not to the Romans. The existence of these hot springs made Cuevillas think of them as a possible site of pilgrimage for the nearby members of the Castro culture before the Roman conquest, which lead to the appearance of small markets and other structures of a commercial nature. Therefore, upon Roman arrival they would have discovered a limited existing community, to which they would have added a certain degree of development. Works

Prosas Galegas, 1920 - 1958
Prosas Galegas, 1920 – 1958, a posthumous collection of 32 essays, was


texts:
 published in 1962, and is not strictly about science, but also literature. Although some of these essays had already come to light earlier, for example Como nasceu a cidade de Ourense, and O Trasno na vila, these essays reveal an unpublished Cuevillas, a creator who coexisted with the investigator. Beginning even in the prologue of the collection, written by Marino Dónega, critics increasingly came to appreciate his magnificent and serene prose, even though in his time it hadn't gained much attention. The book is divided into four untitled sections.The first two sections contain the prose that most praises the nature and values of Galicia, introducing the countryside, the cities and traditions, while others serve as critical commentary on current society (such as Dos nosos tempos, in which the intellectual evolution of society is reflected in the same way as it occurred to the other members of his generation). The third group, characterized by its short length, contains three biographical sketches of Galician writers (specifically Curros Enríquez, Valentín Lamas Carvajal and Otero Pedrayo)and a commentary on the work of Castelao As cruces de pedra na Galiza. All of the essays were written in the period after the Spanish Civil War. Finally, the fourth group of essays deals more with his work in the study and exploration of Galician pre-history, featuring works with significant names such as Relaciós prehistóricas entre Galicia e as Illas Británicas. In this last block, the prose usually has an informative value typical of essays (some of the pieces can be considered studies, like Paleopaisaxe and Mitoloxía e historia da paisaxe de Trasalba). Characterization of Prosas galegas
In the words of Ricardo Carballo Calero,


texts:
 Prosas galegas is characterized by its conviction and rhetorical harmony, evident sincerity and idealism. Miscelánea
Various investigative works Cuevilla produced over the course of his life that were published in Nós, Boletín de la Real Academia Gallega, the Arquivos do Seminario de Estudos Galegos, the Boletín da Comisión Provincial de Monumentos de Ourense, the Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos as well as other publications, were partially compiled in the volume Miscelánea (1987).See also
 Castro de San Cibrao de Las
 List of castros in Galicia

References

Bibliography

External links
 Biografía de Florentino López Cuevillas en lengua gallega. People from Galicia (Spain)
Galician nationalists
Writers from Galicia (Spain)
Royal Galician Academy
People from Ourense
Galician-language writers
Politicians from Galicia (Spain)
Partido Galeguista (1931) politicians
Prehistorians
Spanish


texts:
<mask><mask> (April 5, 1903 – January 30, 1978) is generally credited as the creator of the sport of roller derby, and was the founder and head of the original Roller Derby league from 1935 until his son <mask> took over the business in 1958. Early life
<mask> was born in Helena, Montana on April 5, 1903. Seltzer attended Lincoln High School in Portland, Oregon where he was a member of the school's basketball team. He competed in the amateur and semi-pro basketball circuits in Portland after high school. As a young adult, Seltzer was in the motion picture distributing field with the Universal film company. This eventually led him to own a chain of struggling movie theaters in Oregon. In 1929, after observing the popularity of cash prize-awarding dance marathons among out-of-work contestants and spectators, Seltzer sought ways to capitalize on the trend.In 1931, he helped organize and promote "walkathon"s, which at that time was another name for dance marathons, since most dancers ended up merely shuffling around for the duration of the contests, which could run as long as 40 days. His first commercial walkathon was held in Denver, Colorado, with twenty-two more to follow, including events at the Lotus Isle amusement park in Portland, Oregon. He grossed $2 million before retiring, citing that the events had become "vulgar." Seltzer moved his family to Chicago in 1933, and began booking events into the Chicago Coliseum, a fortress-like structure at 15th & Wabash. Transcontinental Roller Derby
Sometime in early 1935, <mask> read an article in Literary Digest magazine that said ninety-three percent of Americans roller skated at one time or another during their lives. Discussing the article with some of the regulars at Ricketts, a restaurant in Chicago's Near North Side, Seltzer was challenged

masks:
Leo A
. Seltzer
Jerry Seltzer
Seltzer
Leo


texts: to come up with a sport utilizing roller skating participants. Bicycle races and dance marathons were very popular at the time, and in previous decades there had been successful 24-hour and multi-day roller skating races, at least one of which was called a "roller derby" in the press.Seltzer began jotting ideas onto the tablecloth, incorporating these popular entertainment forms with a roller skating theme. The name Roller Derby was trademarked on July 14, 1935 (No. 336652), and on August 13, 1935, twenty thousand spectators filled the Chicago Coliseum to see 'Colonel' <mask>er's Transcontinental Roller Derby, a mythical marathon race from one end of the country to the other which incorporated both male and female participants on a banked track. Seltzer's decision to use women was a double-edged sword for the sport, since it guaranteed a large female audience at a sporting event, but the presence of women athletes made the mainstream press view Roller Derby as a sideshow, not a legitimate sport. The premier race in Chicago was a tremendous success, but subsequent engagements throughout the country were not as successful, and Seltzer's entire enterprise almost ended with a tragic bus crash in 1937 when nineteen members of a touring group of Roller Derby skaters and support personnel were killed. The number 1 was never worn again in Roller Derby, as a tribute to Joe Kleats and the other skaters who died in the crash. In December 1937, sportswriter Damon Runyon saw the game in Coral Gables Florida, became enthralled, and with <mask>er created a more structured game with more contact between the skaters and a new version of Roller Derby was created.Seltzer's game and traveling troupe of skaters evolved and continued to have moderate growth, but it was not until November 29, 1948, when Roller

masks:
Leo Seltz
Leo Seltz


texts:
 Derby, broadcast on television from New York City's 69th Regiment Armory, captivated the nation. Roller Derby was finally the smash hit <mask> had always envisioned, although within a few years, the sport was overexposed on TV, the brand new medium that had catapulted it to prominence. Roller Derby's fluctuating popularity

With dwindling attendance, Roller Derby left America to tour Europe in 1953, but returned the following year. Seltzer moved the headquarters to the West Coast, a few years before major league baseball would make the same move. <mask> never lost his vision that the game would once again be embraced by the country, but by 1958, it was time for son Jerry to take over day-to-day operation of the family business. <mask> (born June 3, 1932), once again took the sport to great heights by syndicating Roller Derby telecasts, featuring the San Francisco Bay Bombers, which were shown on a network of 120 TV stations across the country. Roller Derby broadcasts beat all competition in most markets.Derby's national tour became so successful that by 1969, the Bay Bombers were broken up into a San Francisco and Oakland team. These two units filled arenas across the country from 1969 through 1971, when a third unit was added. <mask> lived to see his game once again break attendance records all over the country and become the darling of the mainstream press under Jerry's guardianship. However, the original Roller Derby skated its last game on December 8, 1973, when Jerry closed the family business. <mask> was married to Rose Weinstein <mask> from 1926 to 1942 when she died from breast cancer. Their two children were Gloria (born May 23, 1929) and Jerry. From April 19, 1942 to December 11, 1944, Seltzer was married to Lois Reynolds Atkins.Atkins had been employed by <mask> as the manager

masks:
Leo Seltzer
Leo
Jerry Seltzer
Leo Seltzer
Leo
Seltzer
Seltzer


texts:
 of his Arcadia Roller Rink in Chicago. When she married, Atkins turned over management of the rink to a relative named Phil Hayes, but she continued to draw income from a concession business she operated there. One month after their marriage, Seltzer turned over operation of the rink to Atkins and a partner, Fred Morelli. In late 1943, Seltzer asked Atkins to transfer her half of the partnership to him, but she refused. In January 1944, <mask> colluded with Hayes to overdraw the Atkins-Morelli partnership's account. The partnership was then replaced by one in which Atkins, Morelli, <mask> and Sol Morelli had equal interests. Atkins claimed, in a 1950 lawsuit disputing her income taxes, that Seltzer, seeking to evade taxes, only allowed her into the new partnership after she agreed, in writing, to deposit her earnings into a joint bank account the two of them shared for payment of living expenses.She filed for divorce two months after the partnership was formed, and the divorce was granted that December. Death, honors, and hope
<mask>er died January 30, 1978. In 2005, during the 70th anniversary celebration of the first Transcontinental Roller Derby, Seltzer posthumously became the first inductee into the Executive Wing of the National Roller Derby Hall of Fame in Chicago. His son Jerry, was inducted at the same celebration. <mask> had always wanted roller derby to be a legitimate sport and to be in the Olympics. His son Jerry said that with the recent grassroots movement of roller derby, including the advent of WFTDA, he thinks roller derby can now be an Olympic sport. See also
 History of roller derby

References

Roller derby
Sportspeople from Helena, Montana
1903 births
1978 deaths
Lincoln High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni
Jewish American sportspeople
20th-century American

masks:
Seltzer
Seltzer
Leo Seltz
Leo Seltzer


texts:
<mask> (1825–1890) was a 19th-century Scottish minister and prolific author. In the second half of his life, he repeatedly ran into trouble for setting up publication societies from which he gained financial benefit. Life

The only son of James Roger(s) (1767–1849), minister of Dunino in Fife, he was born in the manse there on 18 April 1825; His mother, who died at his birth, was Jane, second daughter of William Haldane, minister successively at Glenisla and Kingoldrum. After attending the parish school at Denino for seven years, he matriculated at the University of St Andrews in 1839, and spent seven years there. Licensed by the presbytery of St Andrews in June 1846, he was employed in the capacity of assistant minister at Western Anstruther, Kinglassie, Abbotshall, Dunfermline, Ballingry, and Carnoustie. He then opened a preaching station at the Bridge of Allan, and from January 1855 until 11 August 1863 was chaplain of the garrison at Stirling Castle. During his time in Stirling, <mask> was elected in 1861 as a member of the town council, and took part in the erection of the Wallace Monument.In 1855 he inaugurated at Stirling a short-lived Scottish Literary Institute. In 1862 he opened the British Christian Institute, for the dissemination of religious tracts and issued a weekly paper, The Workman's Friend, and then monthly serials, The Briton and The Recorder. The scheme ended in 1863, when he founded and edited The Stirling Gazette, but its career was brief. In the aftermath of acrimony he resigned his chaplaincy, went to

masks:
Charles Rogers
Rogers


texts:
 England, and became a writer. <mask> went into journalism. In November 1865 set up London a short-lived Naval and Military Tract Society, and he edited a quarterly periodical, The British Bulwark. It was followed by The London Book and Tract Depository, which he carried on until 1874.The Grampian Club, for Scottish literature, history, and antiquities, was inaugurated in London on 2 November 1868, and he was secretary and chief editor until his death. The Royal Historical Society was established in London on 23 November 1868. <mask> did much to promote it, but ran into the same issues with his financial interests as had occurred in Stirling. He was secretary and "historiographer" to the society until 1880, when he was called to account for running it for his personal benefit. In 1873 a number of his friends presented <mask> with a house in London, which he called Grampian Lodge. He returned to Scotland some years before his death, which took place at his house in Edinburgh on 18 September 1890, at the age of 65. He is buried in Grange Cemetery in south Edinburgh.The grave lies in the north-east section not far from the main entrance. Awards and honours
In 1854 Columbia College, New York, awarded <mask> the degree of LLD and in 1881 the University of St Andrews awarded him a DD. He was a member, fellow, or correspondent of numerous learned societies, British, foreign, and colonial, and an associate of the Imperial Archæological Society of Russia. Works
<mask>' major original writings, classified below as listed in the Dictionary of

masks: Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers


texts:
 National Biography, fall under a number of headings: Scottish history, literature, and genealogy. He defended himself against detractors in a pamphlet, Parting Words to the Members, 1881, and reviewed his past life in The Serpent's Track: a Narrative of twenty-two years' Persecution (1880). He edited eight volumes of the Historical Society's Transactions, in which he published much himself. Historical and biographical
Notes in the History of Sir Jerome Alexander, 1872.Three Scots Reformers, 1874. Life of George Wishart, 1875. Memorials of the Scottish House of Gourlay, 1888. Memorials of the Earls of Stirling and House of Alexander, 2 vols. 1877. The Book of Wallace, 2 vols. 1889.The Book of Burns, 3 vols. 1889–91. Topographical
History of St. Andrews, 1849. A Week at the Bridge of Allan, 1851; 10th edit. 1865. The Beauties of Upper Strathearn, 1854. Ettrick Forest and the Ettrick Shepherd, 1860.Genealogical
Genealogical Chart of the Family of Bain, 1871. The House of Roger, 1872. Memorials of the Strachans of Thornton and Family of Wise of Hillbank, 1873. Robert Burns and the Scottish House of Burnes, 1877. Sir Walter Scott and Memorials of the Haliburtons, 1877. The Scottish House of Christie, 1878. The Family of Colt and Coutts, 1879.The Family of John Knox, 1879. The Scottish Family of Glen, 1888. Ecclesiastical
Historical Notices of St. Anthony's Monastery, Leith, 1849. History of the Chapel Royal of Scotland, 1882. Social
Familiar Illustrations of Scottish Life, 1861; 2nd edit. 1862. Traits and Stories of the Scottish People,


texts:
 1867.Scotland, Social and Domestic, 1869. A Century of Scottish Life, 1871. Monuments and Monumental Inscriptions in Scotland, 2 vols. 1871–2. Social Life in Scotland, 3 vols. 1884–6. Religious
Christian Heroes in the Army and Navy, 1867.Our Eternal Destiny, 1868. Poetical
The Modern Scottish Minstrel, 6 vols. 1855–7. The Sacred Minstrel, 1859. The Golden Sheaf, 1867. Lyra Britannica, 1867. Life and Songs of the Baroness Nairne, 1869.Autobiographical and general
Issues of Religious Rivalry, 1866. Leaves from my Autobiography, 1876. The Serpent's Track, 1880. Parting Words to the Members of the Royal Historical Society, 1881. Threads of Thought, 1888. The Oak, 1868. Editions
<mask> also edited:

Aytoun's Poems, 1844.Campbell's Poems, 1870. Sir John Scot's Staggering State of Scottish Statesmen, 1872. Poetical Remains of King James, 1873. Hay's Estimate of the Scottish Nobility. Glen's Poems, 1874. Diocesan Registers of Glasgow, 2 vols. 1875 (with Joseph Bain).Boswelliana, 1874. Register of the Church of Crail, 1877. Events in the North of Scotland, 1635 to 1645, 1877. Chartulary of the Cistercian Priory of Coldstream, 1879. Rental-book of the Cistercian Abbey of Cupar-Angus, 1880. The Earl of Stirling's Register of Royal Letters, 2 vols. 1884–5.Family
On 14 December 1854, <mask> married Isabella Bain (d. 1880), the eldest daughter of John Bain of St Andrews. Notes

External links
Attribution

1825 births
1890 deaths
19th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
Scottish writers
Scottish newspaper editors
People from Fife
Scottish

masks: Rogers Rogers


texts:
<mask> (born 1958) is a physicist and professor in the Division of Solar System Physics at the Danish National Space Institute (DTU Space) in Copenhagen. He is known for his work on the hypothesis that cosmic rays are an indirect cause of global warming via cloud formation. Early life and education
<mask> obtained a Master of Science in Engineering (Cand. Polyt) in 1985 and a Ph.D. in 1987 from the Physics Laboratory I at the Technical University of Denmark. Career

<mask> is director of the Center for Sun-Climate Research at the Danish Space Research Institute (DSRI), a part of the Danish National Space Center. He previously headed the sun-climate group at DSRI. He held postdoctoral positions in physics at three other organizations: University of California, Berkeley, Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics, and the Niels Bohr Institute.In 1997, <mask> and Eigil Friis-Christensen popularised a theory that linked galactic cosmic rays and global climate change mediated primarily by variations in the intensity of the solar wind, which they have termed cosmoclimatology. This theory had earlier been reviewed by Dickinson. One of the small-scale processes related to this link was studied in a laboratory experiment performed at the Danish National Space Center (paper published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A, February 8, 2007). Svensmark's conclusions from his research downplay the significance of the effects of man-made increases in atmospheric CO2 on recent and historical global warming, with him arguing that while the climate change role of greenhouse gases is considerable, solar variations play a larger role. Cosmoclimatology theory of climate change
Svensmark detailed his theory of cosmoclimatology in a paper published in 2007. The Center for Sun-Climate Research at the Danish National Space Institute "investigates the connection between solar activity and climatic changes on Earth". Its homepage lists several publications earlier works related to cosmoclimatology.Svensmark and Nigel Calder published a book The Chilling Stars: A New Theory of Climate Change (2007)

masks:
Henrik Svensmark
Henrik Svensmark
Henrik Svensmark
Svensmark


texts:
 describing the Cosmoclimatology theory that cosmic rays "have more effect on the climate than manmade CO2":
"During the last 100 years cosmic rays became scarcer because unusually vigorous action by the Sun batted away many of them. Fewer cosmic rays meant fewer clouds—and a warmer world." A documentary film on Svensmark's theory, The Cloud Mystery, was produced by Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen and premiered in January 2008 on Danish TV 2. In April 2012, Svensmark published an expansion of his theory in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

In the new work he claims that the diversity of life on Earth over the last 500 million years might be explained by tectonics affecting the sea-level together with variations in the local supernova rate, and virtually nothing else. This suggests that the progress of evolution is affected by climate variation depending on the Galactic Cosmic Ray flux. The director of DTU Space, Prof. Eigil Friis-Christensen, commented: "When this enquiry into effects of cosmic rays from supernova remnants began 16 years ago, we never imagined that it would lead us so deep into time, or into so many aspects of the Earth's history. The connection to evolution is a culmination of this work."Hypothesis tests
Preliminary experimental tests have been conducted in the SKY Experiment at the Danish National Space Science Center. CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research in Geneva, is preparing comprehensive verification in the CLOUD Project. SKY Experiment
Svensmark conducted proof of concept experiments in the SKY Experiment at the Danish National Space Institute. To investigate the role of cosmic rays in cloud formation low in the Earth's atmosphere, the SKY experiment used natural muons (heavy electrons) that can penetrate even to the basement of the National Space Institute in Copenhagen. The hypothesis, verified by the experiment, is that electrons released in the air by the passing muons promote the formation of molecular clusters that are building blocks for cloud condensation nuclei. Critics of the hypothesis claimed that particle clusters


texts:
 produced measured just a few nanometres across, whereas aerosols typically need to have a diameter of at least 50 nm in order to serve as so-called cloud condensation nuclei. Further experiments by Svensmark and collaborators published in 2013 that  showed that aerosols with diameter larger than 50 nm are produced by ultraviolet light (from trace amounts of ozone, sulfur dioxide, and water vapor), large enough to serve as cloud condensation nuclei.CLOUD Project Experiments

Scientists are preparing detailed atmospheric physics experiments to test Svensmark's thesis, building on the Danish findings. CERN started a multi-phase project in 2006, including rerunning the Danish experiment. CERN plans to use an accelerator rather than rely on natural cosmic rays. CERN's multinational project will give scientists a permanent facility where they can study the effects of both cosmic rays and charged particles in the Earth's atmosphere. CERN's project is named CLOUD (Cosmics Leaving OUtdoor Droplets). Dunne et al. (2016) have presented the main outcomes of 10 years of results obtained at the CLOUD experiment performed at CERN.They have studied in detail the physico-chemical mechanisms and the kinetics of aerosols formation. The nucleation process of water droplets/ice micro-crystals from water vapor reproduced in the CLOUD experiment and also directly observed in the Earth atmosphere do not only involve ions formation due to cosmic rays but also a range of complex chemical reactions with sulfuric acid, ammonia and organic compounds emitted in the air by human activities and by organisms living on land or in the oceans (plankton). Although they observe that a fraction of cloud nuclei is effectively produced by ionisation due to the interaction of cosmic rays with the constituents of Earth atmosphere, this process is insufficient to attribute the present climate modifications to the fluctuations of the cosmic rays intensity modulated by changes in the solar activity and Earth magnetosphere. Debate and controversy

Galactic Cosmic Rays vs Global Temperature

Oceanographer Paul Farrar (2000)


texts:
argued that, based on the spatial distribution of the cloud variation during Svensmark's study period, the variation was due to an El Niño which was synchronized with the cosmic ray signal used by Svensmark during the data period of his study. A (2003) critique by physicist Peter Laut of Svensmark's theory reanalyzed Svensmark's data and suggested that it does not support a correlation between cosmic rays and global temperature changes; it also disputes some of the theoretical bases for the theory. Svensmark replied to  the paper, stating that "...nowhere in Peter Laut’s (PL) paper has he been able to explain, where physical data have been handled incorrectly, how the character of my papers are misleading, or where my work does not live up to scientific standards"

Mike Lockwood of the UK's Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and Claus Froehlich of the World Radiation Center in Switzerland published a paper in  2007 which concluded that the increase in mean global temperature observed since 1985 correlates so poorly with solar variability that no type of causal mechanism may be ascribed to it, although they accept that there is "considerable evidence" for solar influence on Earth's pre-industrial climate and to some degree also for climate changes in the first half of the 20th century. Svensmark's coauthor Calder responded to the study in an interview with LondonBookReview.com, where he put forth the counterclaim that global temperature has not risen since 1999.Later in 2007, Svensmark and Friis-Christensen brought out a Reply to Lockwood and Fröhlich which concludes that surface air temperature records used by Lockwood and Fröhlich apparently are a poor guide to Sun-driven physical processes, but tropospheric air temperature records do show an impressive negative correlation between cosmic-ray flux and air temperatures up to 2006 if a warming trend, oceanic oscillations and volcanism are removed from the temperature data. They also point out that Lockwood and Fröhlich present their data by using running means of around 10 years, which creates the illusion of a continued


texts:
 temperature rise, whereas all unsmoothed data point to a flattening of the temperature, coincident with the present maxing out of the magnetic activity of the Sun, and which the continued rapid increase in CO2 concentrations seemingly has been unable to overrule. Galactic Cosmic Rays vs Cloud Cover
In April 2008, Professor Terry Sloan of Lancaster University published a paper in the journal Environmental Research Letters titled "Testing the proposed causal link between cosmic rays and cloud cover", which found no significant link between cloud cover and cosmic ray intensity in the last 20 years. Svensmark responded by saying "Terry Sloan has simply failed to understand how cosmic rays work on clouds". Dr. Giles Harrison of Reading University, describes the work as important "as it provides an upper limit on the cosmic ray-cloud effect in global satellite cloud data". Harrison studied the effect of cosmic rays in the UK. He states: "Although the statistically significant non-linear cosmic ray effect is small, it will have a considerably larger aggregate effect on longer timescale (e.g.century) climate variations when day-to-day variability averages out". Brian H. Brown (2008) of Sheffield University further found a statistically significant (p<0.05) short term 3% association between Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR) and low level clouds over 22 years with a 15-hour delay. Long-term changes in cloud cover (> 3 months) and GCR gave correlations of p=0.06. Debate updates
More recently, Laken et al. (2012) found that new high quality satellite data show that the El Niño Southern Oscillation is responsible for most changes in cloud cover at the global and regional levels. They also found that galactic cosmic rays, and total solar irradiance did not have any statistically significant influence on changes in cloud cover. Lockwood (2012) conducted a thorough review of the scientific literature on the "solar influence" on climate.It was found that when this influence is included appropriately into climate models causal climate change claims such as those made by Svensmark are shown to have been


texts:
 exaggerated. Lockwood's review also highlighted the strength of evidence in favor of the solar influence on regional climates. Sloan and Wolfendale (2013) demonstrated that while temperature models showed a small correlation every 22 years, less than 14 percent of global warming since the 1950s could be attributed to cosmic ray rate. The study concluded that the cosmic ray rate did not match the changes in temperature, indicating that it was not a causal relationship. Another 2013 study found, contrary to Svensmark's claims, "no statistically significant correlations between cosmic rays and global albedo or globally averaged cloud height." In 2013, a laboratory study by Svensmark, Pepke and Pedersen published in Physics Letters A showed, that there is in fact a correlation between cosmic rays and the formation of aerosols of the type that seed clouds. Extrapolating from the laboratory to the actual atmosphere, the authors asserted that solar activity is responsible for ca.50 percent of temperature variation. In a detailed 2013 post on the scientists' blog RealClimate, Rasmus E. Benestad presented arguments for considering Svensmark's claims to be "wildly exaggerated". (Time magazine has characterized the main purpose of this blog as a "straightforward presentation of the physical evidence for global warming".) Selected publications

Books

 Contribution in Die kalte Sonne. Warum die Klimakatastrophe nicht stattfindet (The Cold Sun),  by Fritz Vahrenholt and Sebastian Lüning (edrs)

Film
The Cloud Mystery

Awards
2001, the Energy-E2 Research Prize
1997, Knud Hojgaard Anniversary Research Prize

References

External links
Calder, Nigel, An experiment that hints we are wrong on climate change Nigel Calder, former editor of New Scientist, says the orthodoxy must be challenged, TimesOnline, February 11, 2007
DISCOVER Interview with <mask>, by Marion Long. Sun's shift may cause global warming - June 2007
LondonBookReview.com - Book review of The Chilling Stars

The CLOUD project

Danish climatologists
Danish physicists
Danish nuclear physicists
1958 births
Environmental


texts: <mask> (; 29 October 1897 – 1 May 1945) was a German Nazi politician who was the Gauleiter (district leader) of Berlin, chief propagandist for the Nazi Party, and then Reich Minister of Propaganda from 1933 to 1945. He was one of Adolf Hitler's closest and most devoted acolytes, known for his skills in public speaking and his deeply virulent antisemitism, which was evident in his publicly voiced views. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust. <mask>, who aspired to be an author, obtained a Doctor of Philology degree from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in its northern branch. He was appointed Gauleiter of Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, <mask>'s Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted control over the news media, arts, and information in Germany.He was particularly adept at using the relatively new media of radio and film for propaganda purposes. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on the Christian churches, and (after the start of the Second World War) attempting to shape morale. In 1943, Goebbels began to pressure Hitler to introduce measures that would produce "total war", including closing businesses not essential to the war effort, conscripting women into the labour force, and enlisting men in previously exempt occupations into the Wehrmacht. Hitler finally appointed him as Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War on 23 July 1944, whereby Goebbels undertook largely unsuccessful measures to increase the number of people

masks:
Paul Joseph Goebbels
Goebbels
Goebbels


texts:
 available for armaments manufacture and the Wehrmacht. As the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda <mask> and the Goebbels children joined him in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitler's underground bunker complex, on 22 April 1945. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April.In accordance with Hitler's will, <mask> succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany; he served one day in this post. The following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide. Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, an industrial town south of Mönchengladbach near Düsseldorf, Germany. Both of his parents were Roman Catholics with modest family backgrounds. His father Fritz was a German factory clerk; his mother Katharina Maria (née Odenhausen) was born to Dutch and German parents in the Netherlands. Goebbels had five siblings: Konrad (1893–1949), Hans (1895–1947), Maria (1896–1896), Elisabeth (1901–1915), and Maria (1910–1949), who married the German filmmaker Max W. Kimmich in 1938. In 1932, Goebbels commissioned the publication of a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumours that his maternal grandmother was of Jewish ancestry.During childhood, Goebbels suffered from ill health, which included a long bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a deformed right foot that turned inwards, due to a congenital deformity. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot. He underwent a failed operation to correct it just prior to starting grammar school. Goebbels wore a metal brace and special shoe because of his shortened leg and walked with a limp. He was rejected for military service in World War I because of this deformity.

masks:
Goebbels
Goebbels
Paul Joseph
Goebbels


texts: <mask> was educated at a Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur (university entrance examination) in 1917.He was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honour to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest, which Goebbels seriously considered. He studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church. Historians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels' lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disability. At Freiburg, he met and fell in love with Anka Stalherm, who was three years his senior. She went on to Würzburg to continue school, as did Goebbels.In 1921, he wrote a semi-autobiographical novel, Michael, a three-part work of which only Parts I and III have survived. Goebbels felt he was writing his "own story". Antisemitic content and material about a charismatic leader may have been added by Goebbels shortly before the book was published in 1929 by Eher-Verlag, the publishing house of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party; NSDAP). By 1920, the relationship with Anka was over. The break-up filled Goebbels with thoughts of suicide. At the University of Heidelberg, Goebbels wrote his doctoral thesis on Wilhelm von Schütz, a minor 19th-century romantic dramatist. He had hoped to write his thesis under the supervision of Friedrich Gundolf, a literary historian.It did not seem to bother Goebbels that Gundolf was Jewish. Gundolf was no longer teaching, so directed Goebbels to associate professor Max


texts: Freiherr von Waldberg. Waldberg, also Jewish, recommended Goebbels write his thesis on Wilhelm von Schütz. After submitting the thesis and passing his oral examination, Goebbels earned his PhD in 1921. By 1940, he had written 14 books. Goebbels returned home and worked as a private tutor. He also found work as a journalist and was published in the local newspaper.His writing during that time reflected his growing antisemitism and dislike for modern culture. In the summer of 1922, he met and began a love affair with Else Janke, a schoolteacher. After she revealed to him that she was half-Jewish, Goebbels stated the "enchantment [was] ruined." Nevertheless, he continued to see her on and off until 1927. He continued for several years to try to become a published author. His diaries, which he began in 1923 and continued for the rest of his life, provided an outlet for his desire to write. The lack of income from his literary works (he wrote two plays in 1923, neither of which sold) forced him to take employment as a caller on the stock exchange and as a bank clerk in Cologne, a job he detested.He was dismissed from the bank in August 1923 and returned to Rheydt. During this period, he read avidly and was influenced by the works of Oswald Spengler, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the British-born German writer whose book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899) was one of the standard works of the extreme right in Germany. He also began to study the "social question" and read the works of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Rosa Luxemburg, August Bebel and Gustav Noske. According to German historian Peter Longerich, Goebbels's diary entries from late 1923 to early 1924 reflected the writings


texts:
 of a man who was isolated, preoccupied with "religious-philosophical" issues, and lacked a sense of direction. Diary entries of mid-December 1923 forward show <mask> was moving towards the Völkisch nationalist movement. Nazi activist
<mask> first took an interest in Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1924. In February 1924, Hitler's trial for treason began in the wake of his failed attempt to seize power in the Beer Hall Putsch of 8–9 November 1923.The trial attracted widespread press coverage and gave Hitler a platform for propaganda. Hitler was sentenced to five years in prison, but was released on 20 December 1924, after serving just over a year. <mask> was drawn to the Nazi Party mostly because of Hitler's charisma and commitment to his beliefs. He joined the Nazi Party around this time, becoming member number 8762. In late 1924, <mask> offered his services to Karl Kaufmann, who was Gauleiter (Nazi Party district leader) for the Rhine-Ruhr District. Kaufmann put him in touch with Gregor Strasser, a leading Nazi organiser in northern Germany, who hired him to work on their weekly newspaper and undertake secretarial work for the regional party offices. He was also put to work as party speaker and representative for Rhineland-Westphalia.Members of Strasser's northern branch of the Nazi Party, including Goebbels, had a more socialist outlook than the rival Hitler group in Munich. Strasser disagreed with Hitler on many parts of the party platform, and in November 1926 began working on a revision. Hitler viewed Strasser's actions as a threat to his authority, and summoned 60 Gauleiters and party leaders, including Goebbels, to a special conference in Bamberg, in Streicher's Gau of Franconia, where he gave a two-hour

masks: Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels


texts: speech repudiating Strasser's new political programme. Hitler was opposed to the socialist leanings of the northern wing, stating it would mean "political bolshevization of Germany." Further, there would be "no princes, only Germans," and a legal system with no "Jewish system of exploitation ... for plundering of our people." The future would be secured by acquiring land, not through expropriation of the estates of the former nobility, but through colonising territories to the east. Goebbels was horrified by Hitler's characterisation of socialism as "a Jewish creation" and his assertion that a Nazi government would not expropriate private property.He wrote in his diary: "I no longer fully believe in Hitler. That's the terrible thing: my inner support has been taken away." After reading Hitler's book Mein Kampf, Goebbels found himself agreeing with Hitler's assertion of a "Jewish doctrine of Marxism". In February 1926, Goebbels gave a speech titled "Lenin or Hitler?" in which he asserted that communism or Marxism could not save the German people, but he believed it would cause a "socialist nationalist state" to arise in Russia. In 1926, Goebbels published a pamphlet titled Nazi-Sozi which attempted to explain how National Socialism differed from Marxism. In hopes of winning over the opposition, Hitler arranged meetings in Munich with the three Greater Ruhr Gau leaders, including Goebbels.Goebbels was impressed when Hitler sent his own car to meet them at the railway station. That evening, Hitler and Goebbels both gave speeches at a beer hall rally. The following day, Hitler offered his hand in reconciliation to the three men, encouraging them to put their differences behind them. Goebbels capitulated


texts:
 completely, offering Hitler his total loyalty. He wrote in his diary: "I love him ... He has thought through everything," "Such a sparkling mind can be my leader. I bow to the greater one, the political genius."He later wrote: "Adolf Hitler, I love you because you are both great and simple at the same time. What one calls a genius." As a result of the Bamberg and Munich meetings, Strasser's new draft of the party programme was discarded. The original National Socialist Program of 1920 was retained unchanged, and Hitler's position as party leader was greatly strengthened. Propagandist in Berlin
At Hitler's invitation, <mask> spoke at party meetings in Munich and at the annual Party Congress, held in Weimar in 1926. For the following year's event, <mask> was involved in the planning for the first time. He and Hitler arranged for the rally to be filmed.Receiving praise for doing well at these events led Goebbels to shape his political ideas to match Hitler's, and to admire and idolise him even more. Gauleiter
<mask> was first offered the position of party Gauleiter for the Berlin section in August 1926. He travelled to Berlin in mid-September and by the middle of October accepted the position. Thus Hitler's plan to divide and dissolve the northwestern Gauleiters group that Goebbels had served in under Strasser was successful. Hitler gave Goebbels great authority over the area, allowing him to determine the course for organisation and leadership for the Gau. Goebbels was given control over the local Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS) and answered only to Hitler. The party membership numbered about 1,000 when Goebbels arrived, and he reduced it to a core of 600 of the most active and promising members.To

masks: Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels


texts: raise money, he instituted membership fees and began charging admission to party meetings. Aware of the value of publicity (both positive and negative), he deliberately provoked beer-hall battles and street brawls, including violent attacks on the Communist Party of Germany. Goebbels adapted recent developments in commercial advertising to the political sphere, including the use of catchy slogans and subliminal cues. His new ideas for poster design included using large type, red ink, and cryptic headers that encouraged the reader to examine the fine print to determine the meaning. Like Hitler, Goebbels practised his public speaking skills in front of a mirror. Meetings were preceded by ceremonial marches and singing, and the venues were decorated with party banners. His entrance (almost always late) was timed for maximum emotional impact.Goebbels usually meticulously planned his speeches ahead of time, using pre-planned and choreographed inflection and gestures, but he was also able to improvise and adapt his presentation to make a good connection with his audience. He used loudspeakers, decorative flames, uniforms, and marches to attract attention to speeches. Goebbels' tactic of using provocation to bring attention to the Nazi Party, along with violence at the public party meetings and demonstrations, led the Berlin police to ban the Nazi Party from the city on 5 May 1927. Violent incidents continued, including young Nazis randomly attacking Jews in the streets. Goebbels was subjected to a public speaking ban until the end of October. During this period, he founded the newspaper Der Angriff (The Attack) as a propaganda vehicle for the Berlin area, where few supported the party. It was a modern-style


texts:
 newspaper with an aggressive tone; 126 libel suits were pending against Goebbels at one point.To his disappointment, circulation was initially only 2,000. Material in the paper was highly anti-communist and antisemitic. Among the paper's favourite targets was the Jewish Deputy Chief of the Berlin Police Bernhard Weiß. Goebbels gave him the derogatory nickname "Isidore" and subjected him to a relentless campaign of Jew-baiting in the hope of provoking a crackdown he could then exploit. Goebbels continued to try to break into the literary world, with a revised version of his book Michael finally being published, and the unsuccessful production of two of his plays (Der Wanderer and Die Saat (The Seed)). The latter was his final attempt at playwriting. During this period in Berlin he had relationships with many women, including his old flame Anka Stalherm, who was now married and had a small child.He was quick to fall in love, but easily tired of a relationship and moved on to someone new. He worried too about how a committed personal relationship might interfere with his career. 1928 election
The ban on the Nazi Party was lifted before the Reichstag elections on 20 May 1928. The Nazi Party lost nearly 100,000 voters and earned only 2.6 per cent of the vote nationwide. Results in Berlin were even worse, where they attained only 1.4 per cent of the vote. Goebbels was one of the first 12 Nazi Party members to gain election to the Reichstag. This gave him immunity from prosecution for a long list of outstanding charges, including a three-week jail sentence he received in April for insulting the deputy police chief Weiß.The Reichstag changed the immunity regulations in February 1931, and Goebbels was forced to pay


texts:
 fines for libellous material he had placed in Der Angriff over the course of the previous year. <mask> continued to be elected to the Reichstag at every subsequent election during the Weimar and Nazi regimes. In his newspaper Berliner Arbeiterzeitung (Berlin Workers Newspaper), Gregor Strasser was highly critical of Goebbels' failure to attract the urban vote. However, the party as a whole did much better in rural areas, attracting as much as 18 per cent of the vote in some regions. This was partly because Hitler had publicly stated just prior to the election that Point 17 of the party programme, which mandated the expropriation of land without compensation, would apply only to Jewish speculators and not private landholders. After the election, the party refocused their efforts to try to attract still more votes in the agricultural sector. In May, shortly after the election, Hitler considered appointing Goebbels as party propaganda chief.But he hesitated, as he worried that the removal of Gregor Strasser from the post would lead to a split in the party. <mask> considered himself well suited to the position, and began to formulate ideas about how propaganda could be used in schools and the media. By 1930 Berlin was the party's second-strongest base of support after Munich. That year the violence between the Nazis and communists led to local SA troop leader Horst Wessel being shot by two members of the Communist Party of Germany. He later died in hospital. Exploiting Wessel's death, Goebbels turned him into a martyr for the Nazi movement. He officially declared Wessel's march Die Fahne hoch (Raise the flag), renamed as the Horst-Wessel-Lied, to be the Nazi Party anthem.Great Depression
The Great Depression

masks: Goebbels Goebbels


texts: greatly impacted Germany and by 1930 there was a dramatic increase in unemployment. During this time, the Strasser brothers started publishing a new daily newspaper in Berlin, the Nationaler Sozialist. Like their other publications, it conveyed the brothers' own brand of Nazism, including nationalism, anti-capitalism, social reform, and anti-Westernism. Goebbels complained vehemently about the rival Strasser newspapers to Hitler, and admitted that their success was causing his own Berlin newspapers to be "pushed to the wall". In late April 1930, Hitler publicly and firmly announced his opposition to Gregor Strasser and appointed <mask> to replace him as Reich leader of Nazi Party propaganda. One of Goebbels' first acts was to ban the evening edition of the Nationaler Sozialist. Goebbels was also given control of other Nazi papers across the country, including the party's national newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter (People's Observer).He still had to wait until 3 July for Otto Strasser and his supporters to announce they were leaving the Nazi Party. Upon receiving the news, Goebbels was relieved the "crisis" with the Strassers was finally over and glad that Otto Strasser had lost all power. The rapid deterioration of the economy led to the resignation on 27 March 1930 of the coalition government that had been elected in 1928. A new cabinet was formed, and Paul von Hindenburg used his power as president to govern via emergency decrees. He appointed Heinrich Brüning as chancellor. <mask> took charge of the Nazi Party's national campaign for Reichstag elections called for 14 September 1930. Campaigning was undertaken on a huge scale, with thousands of meetings and speeches held all over the country.Hitler's


texts: speeches focused on blaming the country's economic woes on the Weimar Republic, particularly its adherence to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which required war reparations that had proven devastating to the German economy. He proposed a new German society based on race and national unity. The resulting success took even Hitler and Goebbels by surprise: the party received 6.5 million votes nationwide and took 107 seats in the Reichstag, making it the second largest party in the country. In late 1930 Goebbels met Magda Quandt, a divorcée who had joined the party a few months earlier. She worked as a volunteer in the party offices in Berlin, helping Goebbels organise his private papers. Her flat on the Reichskanzlerplatz soon became a favourite meeting place for Hitler and other Nazi Party officials. <mask> and Quandt married on 19 December 1931.Hitler was his best man. For two further elections held in 1932, Goebbels organised massive campaigns that included rallies, parades, speeches, and Hitler travelling around the country by aeroplane with the slogan "the Führer over Germany". Goebbels wrote in his diary that the Nazis must gain power and exterminate Marxism. He undertook numerous speaking tours during these election campaigns and had some of their speeches published on gramophone records and as pamphlets. Goebbels was also involved in the production of a small collection of silent films that could be shown at party meetings, though they did not yet have enough equipment to widely use this medium. Many of Goebbels' campaign posters used violent imagery such as a giant half-clad male destroying political opponents or other perceived enemies such as "International High Finance". His propaganda


texts: characterised the opposition as "November criminals", "Jewish wire-pullers", or a communist threat.Support for the party continued to grow, but neither of these elections led to a majority government. In an effort to stabilise the country and improve economic conditions, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Reich chancellor on 30 January 1933. To celebrate Hitler's appointment as chancellor, Goebbels organised a torchlight parade in Berlin on the night of 30 January of an estimated 60,000 men, many in the uniforms of the SA and SS. The spectacle was covered by a live state radio broadcast, with commentary by longtime party member and future Minister of Aviation Hermann Göring. Goebbels was disappointed not to be given a post in Hitler's new cabinet. Bernhard Rust was appointed as Minister of Culture, the post that Goebbels was expecting to receive. Like other Nazi Party officials, Goebbels had to deal with Hitler's leadership style of giving contradictory orders to his subordinates, while placing them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped.In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. The Nazi Party took advantage of the Reichstag fire of 27 February 1933, with Hindenburg passing the Reichstag Fire Decree the following day at Hitler's urging. This was the first of several pieces of legislation that dismantled democracy in Germany and put a totalitarian dictatorship—headed by Hitler—in its place. On 5 March, yet another Reichstag election took place, the last to be held before the defeat of the Nazis at the end of the Second World War. While the Nazi Party increased their number of seats and percentage of


texts: the vote, it was not the landslide expected by the party leadership. <mask> finally received Hitler's appointment to the cabinet, officially becoming head of the newly created Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda on 14 March. The role of the new ministry, which set up its offices in the 18th-century Ordenspalais across from the Reich Chancellery, was to centralise Nazi control of all aspects of German cultural and intellectual life.Goebbels hoped to increase popular support of the party from the 37 per cent achieved at the last free election held in Germany on 25 March 1933 to 100 per cent support. An unstated goal was to present to other nations the impression that the Nazi Party had the full and enthusiastic backing of the entire population. One of Goebbels' first productions was staging the Day of Potsdam, a ceremonial passing of power from Hindenburg to Hitler, held in Potsdam on 21 March. He composed the text of Hitler's decree authorising the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, held on 1 April. Later that month, Goebbels travelled back to Rheydt, where he was given a triumphal reception. The townsfolk lined the main street, which had been renamed in his honour. On the following day, Goebbels was declared a local hero.Goebbels converted the 1 May holiday from a celebration of workers' rights (observed as such especially by the communists) into a day celebrating the Nazi Party. In place of the usual ad hoc labour celebrations, he organised a huge party rally held at Tempelhof Field in Berlin. The following day, all trade union offices in the country were forcibly disbanded by the SA and SS, and the Nazi-run German Labour Front was created to take their place. "We are the masters of


texts: Germany," he commented in his diary entry of 3 May. Less than two weeks later, he gave a speech at the Nazi book burning in Berlin on 10 May, a ceremony he suggested. Meanwhile, the Nazi Party began passing laws to marginalise Jews and remove them from German society. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933, forced all non-Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service.Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise. The first Nazi concentration camps (initially created to house political dissenters) were founded shortly after Hitler seized power. In a process termed Gleichschaltung (co-ordination), the Nazi Party proceeded to rapidly bring all aspects of life under control of the party. All civilian organisations, including agricultural groups, volunteer organisations, and sports clubs, had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members. By June 1933, virtually the only organisations not in the control of the Nazi Party were the army and the churches. On 2 June 1933, Hitler appointed <mask> a Reichsleiter, the second highest political rank in the Nazi Party. On 3 October 1933, on the formation of the Academy for German Law, <mask> was made a member and given a seat on its executive committee.In a move to manipulate Germany's middle class and shape popular opinion, the regime passed on 4 October 1933 the Schriftleitergesetz (Editor's Law), which became the cornerstone of the Nazi Party's control of the popular press. Modelled to some extent on the system in Benito Mussolini's Italy, the law defined a Schriftleiter as anyone who wrote, edited, or selected texts and/or illustrated


texts:
 material for serial publication. Individuals selected for this position were chosen based on experiential, educational, and racial criteria. The law required journalists to "regulate their work in accordance with National Socialism as a philosophy of life and as a conception of government." At the end of June 1934, top officials of the SA and opponents of the regime, including Gregor Strasser, were arrested and killed in a purge later called the Night of Long Knives. Goebbels was present at the arrest of SA leader Ernst Röhm in Munich. On 2 August 1934, President von Hindenburg died.In a radio broadcast, Goebbels announced that the offices of president and chancellor had been combined, and Hitler had been formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). Workings of the Ministry
The propaganda ministry was organised into seven departments: administration and legal; mass rallies, public health, youth, and race; radio; national and foreign press; films and film censorship; art, music, and theatre; and protection against counter-propaganda, both foreign and domestic. Goebbels's style of leadership was tempestuous and unpredictable. He would suddenly change direction and shift his support between senior associates; he was a difficult boss and liked to berate his staff in public. Goebbels was successful at his job, however; Life wrote in 1938 that "[p]ersonally he likes nobody, is liked by nobody, and runs the most efficient Nazi department." John Gunther wrote in 1940 that Goebbels "is the cleverest of all the Nazis", but could not succeed Hitler because "everybody hates him". The Reich Film Chamber, which all members of the film industry were required to join, was created in June 1933.Goebbels


texts: promoted the development of films with a Nazi slant, and ones that contained subliminal or overt propaganda messages. Under the auspices of the Reichskulturkammer (Reich Chamber of Culture), created in September, Goebbels added additional sub-chambers for the fields of broadcasting, fine arts, literature, music, the press, and the theatre. As in the film industry, anyone wishing to pursue a career in these fields had to be a member of the corresponding chamber. In this way anyone whose views were contrary to the regime could be excluded from working in their chosen field and thus silenced. In addition, journalists (now considered employees of the state) were required to prove Aryan descent back to the year 1800, and if married, the same requirement applied to the spouse. Members of any chamber were not allowed to leave the country for their work without prior permission of their chamber. A committee was established to censor books, and works could not be re-published unless they were on the list of approved works.Similar regulations applied to other fine arts and entertainment; even cabaret performances were censored. Many German artists and intellectuals left Germany in the pre-war years rather than work under these restrictions. Goebbels was particularly interested in controlling the radio, which was then still a fairly new mass medium. Sometimes under protest from individual states (particularly Prussia, headed by Göring), Goebbels gained control of radio stations nationwide, and placed them under the Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft (German National Broadcasting Corporation) in July 1934. Manufacturers were urged by Goebbels to produce inexpensive home receivers, called Volksempfänger (people's receiver), and


texts: by 1938 nearly ten million sets had been sold. Loudspeakers were placed in public areas, factories, and schools, so that important party broadcasts would be heard live by nearly all Germans. On 2 September 1939 (the day after the start of the war), Goebbels and the Council of Ministers proclaimed it illegal to listen to foreign radio stations.Disseminating news from foreign broadcasts could result in the death penalty. Albert Speer, Hitler's architect and later Minister for Armaments and War Production, later said the regime "made the complete use of all technical means for domination of its own country. Through technical devices like the radio and loudspeaker, 80 million people were deprived of independent thought." A major focus of Nazi propaganda was Hitler himself, who was glorified as a heroic and infallible leader and became the focus of a cult of personality. Much of this was spontaneous, but some was stage-managed as part of <mask>' propaganda work. Adulation of Hitler was the focus of the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, where his moves were carefully choreographed. The rally was the subject of the film Triumph of the Will, one of several Nazi propaganda films directed by Leni Riefenstahl.It won the gold medal at the 1935 Venice Film Festival. At the 1935 Nazi party congress rally at Nuremberg, Goebbels declared that "Bolshevism is the declaration of war by Jewish-led international subhumans against culture itself." <mask> was involved in planning the staging of the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. It was around this time that he met and started having an affair with the actress Lída Baarová, whom he continued to see until 1938. A major project in 1937 was the Degenerate Art Exhibition, organised by


texts:
 Goebbels, which ran in Munich from July to November. The exhibition proved wildly popular, attracting over two million visitors. A degenerate music exhibition took place the following year.Meanwhile, Goebbels was disappointed by the lack of quality in the National Socialist artwork, films, and literature. Church struggle

In 1933, Hitler signed the Reichskonkordat (Reich Concordat), a treaty with the Vatican that required the regime to honour the independence of Catholic institutions and prohibited clergy from involvement in politics. However, the regime continued to target the Christian churches to weaken their influence. Throughout 1935 and 1936, hundreds of clergy and nuns were arrested, often on trumped up charges of currency smuggling or sexual offences. Goebbels widely publicised the trials in his propaganda campaigns, showing the cases in the worst possible light. Restrictions were placed on public meetings, and Catholic publications faced censorship. Catholic schools were required to reduce religious instruction and crucifixes were removed from state buildings.Hitler often vacillated on whether or not the Kirchenkampf (church struggle) should be a priority, but his frequent inflammatory comments on the issue were enough to convince Goebbels to intensify his work on the issue; in February 1937 he stated he wanted to eliminate the Protestant church. In response to the persecution, Pope Pius XI had the "Mit brennender Sorge" ("With Burning Concern") Encyclical smuggled into Germany for Passion Sunday 1937 and read from every pulpit. It denounced the systematic hostility of the regime toward the church. In response, Goebbels renewed the regime's crackdown and propaganda against Catholics. His speech of 28


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 May in Berlin in front of 20,000 party members, which was also broadcast on the radio, attacked the Catholic church as morally corrupt. As a result of the propaganda campaign, enrolment in denominational schools dropped sharply, and by 1939 all such schools were disbanded or converted to public facilities. Harassment and threats of imprisonment led the clergy to be much more cautious in their criticism of the regime.Partly out of foreign policy concerns, Hitler ordered a scaling back of the church struggle by the end of July 1937. Antisemitism and the Holocaust

Goebbels was antisemitic from a young age. After joining the Nazi Party and meeting Hitler, his antisemitism grew and became more radical. He began to see the Jews as a destructive force with a negative impact on German society. After the Nazis seized control, he repeatedly urged Hitler to take action against the Jews. Despite his extreme antisemitism, Goebbels spoke of the "rubbish of race-materialism" and of the unnecessity of biological racism for the Nazi ideology. He also described Himmler's ideology as "in many regards, mad" and thought Alfred Rosenberg's theories were ridiculous.The Nazi Party's goal was to remove Jews from German cultural and economic life, and eventually to remove them from the country altogether. In addition to his propaganda efforts, Goebbels actively promoted the persecution of the Jews through pogroms, legislation, and other actions. Discriminatory measures he instituted in Berlin in the early years of the regime included bans against their using public transport and requiring that Jewish shops be marked as such. In November 1938, the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath was killed in Paris by the young Jewish man Herschel


texts:
 Grynszpan. In response, <mask> arranged for inflammatory antisemitic material to be released by the press, and the result was the start of a pogrom. Jews were attacked and synagogues destroyed all over Germany. The situation was further inflamed by a speech <mask> gave at a party meeting on the night of 8 November, where he obliquely called for party members to incite further violence against Jews while making it appear to be a spontaneous series of acts by the German people.At least a hundred Jews were killed, several hundred synagogues were damaged or destroyed, and thousands of Jewish shops were vandalised in an event called Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). Around 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps. The destruction stopped after a conference held on 12 November, where Göring pointed out that the destruction of Jewish property was in effect the destruction of German property since the intention was that it would all eventually be confiscated. Goebbels continued his intensive antisemitic propaganda campaign that culminated in Hitler's 30 January 1939 Reichstag speech, which Goebbels helped to write:

While Goebbels had been pressing for expulsion of the Berlin Jews since 1935, there were still 62,000 living in the city in 1940. Part of the delay in their deportation was that they were needed as workers in the armaments industry. Deportations of German Jews began in October 1941, with the first transport from Berlin leaving on 18 October. Some Jews were shot immediately on arrival in destinations such as Riga and Kaunas.In preparation for the deportations, Goebbels ordered that all German Jews wear an identifying yellow badge as of 5 September 1941. On 6 March 1942, Goebbels received a


texts:
 copy of the minutes of the Wannsee Conference, which indicated indirectly that the Jewish population of Europe was to be sent to extermination camps in occupied areas of Poland and killed. His diary entries of the period show that he was well aware of the fate of the Jews. "In general, it can probably be established that 60 per cent of them will have to be liquidated, while only 40 per cent can be put to work. ... A judgment is being carried out on the Jews which is barbaric but thoroughly deserved," he wrote on 27 March 1942. Goebbels had frequent discussions with Hitler about the fate of the Jews, a subject they discussed almost every time they met. He was aware throughout that the Jews were being exterminated, and completely supported this decision.He was one of the few top Nazi officials to do so publicly. World War II
As early as February 1933, Hitler announced that rearmament must be undertaken, albeit clandestinely at first, as to do so was in violation of the Versailles Treaty. A year later he told his military leaders that 1942 was the target date for going to war in the east. Goebbels was one of the most enthusiastic supporters of Hitler aggressively pursuing Germany's expansionist policies sooner rather than later. At the time of the Reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936, Goebbels summed up his general attitude in his diary: "[N]ow is the time for action. Fortune favors the brave! He who dares nothing wins nothing."In the lead-up to the Sudetenland crisis in 1938, Goebbels took the initiative time and again to use propaganda to whip up sympathy for the Sudeten Germans while campaigning against the Czech government. Still, Goebbels was well aware there was a growing "war panic" in Germany and so by


texts: July had the press conduct propaganda efforts at a lower level of intensity. After the western powers acceded to Hitler's demands concerning Czechoslovakia in 1938, Goebbels soon redirected his propaganda machine against Poland. From May onwards, he orchestrated a campaign against Poland, fabricating stories about atrocities against ethnic Germans in Danzig and other cities. Even so, he was unable to persuade the majority of Germans to welcome the prospect of war. He privately held doubts about the wisdom of risking a protracted war against Britain and France by attacking Poland. After the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, Goebbels used his propaganda ministry and the Reich chambers to control access to information domestically.To his chagrin, his rival Joachim von Ribbentrop, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, continually challenged Goebbels' jurisdiction over the dissemination of international propaganda. Hitler declined to make a firm ruling on the subject, so the two men remained rivals for the remainder of the Nazi era. Goebbels did not participate in the military decision-making process, nor was he made privy to diplomatic negotiations until after the fact. The Propaganda Ministry took over the broadcasting facilities of conquered countries immediately after surrender, and began broadcasting prepared material using the existing announcers as a way to gain the trust of the citizens. Most aspects of the media, both domestically and in the conquered countries, were controlled by Goebbels and his department. The German Home Service, the Armed Forces Programme, and the German European Service were all rigorously controlled in everything from the information they were permitted to disseminate to the music


texts: they were allowed to play. Party rallies, speeches, and demonstrations continued; speeches were broadcast on the radio and short propaganda films were exhibited using 1,500 mobile film vans.Hitler made fewer public appearances and broadcasts as the war progressed, so Goebbels increasingly became the voice of the Nazi regime for the German people. From May 1940 he wrote frequent editorials that were published in Das Reich which were later read aloud over the radio. He found films to be his most effective propaganda medium, after radio. At his insistence, initially half the films made in wartime Germany were propaganda films (particularly on antisemitism) and war propaganda films (recounting both historical wars and current exploits of the Wehrmacht). Goebbels became preoccupied with morale and the efforts of the people on the home front. He believed that the more the people at home were involved in the war effort, the better their morale would be. For example, he initiated a programme for the collection of winter clothing and ski equipment for troops on the eastern front.At the same time, Goebbels implemented changes to have more "entertaining material" in radio and film produced for the public, decreeing in late 1942 that 20 per cent of the films should be propaganda and 80 per cent light entertainment. As Gauleiter of Berlin, Goebbels dealt with increasingly serious shortages of necessities such as food and clothing, as well as the need to ration beer and tobacco, which were important for morale. Hitler suggested watering the beer and degrading the quality of the cigarettes so that more could be produced, but Goebbels refused, saying the cigarettes were already of such low quality that it was impossible to


texts: make them any worse. Through his propaganda campaigns, he worked hard to maintain an appropriate level of morale among the public about the military situation, neither too optimistic nor too grim. The series of military setbacks the Germans suffered in this period – the thousand-bomber raid on Cologne (May 1942), the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein (November 1942), and especially the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad (February 1943) – were difficult matters to present to the German public, who were increasingly weary of the war and sceptical that it could be won. On 16 November 1942 <mask>, like all Gauleiters, was appointed the Reich Defense Commissioner for his Gau. This enabled him to issue direct instructions to authorities within his jurisdiction in matters concerning the civilian war effort.On 15 January 1943, Hitler appointed Goebbels as head of the newly created Air Raid Damage committee, which meant Goebbels was nominally in charge of nationwide civil air defences and shelters as well as the assessment and repair of damaged buildings. In actuality, the defence of areas other than Berlin remained in the hands of the local Gauleiters, and his main tasks were limited to providing immediate aid to the affected civilians and using propaganda to improve their morale. By early 1943, the war produced a labour crisis for the regime. Hitler created a three-man committee with representatives of the State, the army, and the Party in an attempt to centralise control of the war economy. The committee members were Hans Lammers (head of the Reich Chancellery), Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command; OKW), and Martin Bormann, who