texts:
<mask> (d. 1299 × 1300) was a thirteenth-century Scottish bishop. Probably from the MacDougall kindred of Argyll, <mask> had become a Dominican friar and presumably university graduate before being elected Bishop of Argyll, an election which took place sometime between 1262 and 1264. Although the election was quashed by the Pope in 1264, the Pope gave him a fresh provision to the bishopric. <mask> appears intermittently in the records during his three and a half decade episcopate, but his activities in his own diocese are badly recorded. He died as Bishop of Argyll sometime in either 1299 or 1300. Biography

Background
<mask> is given the cognomen <mask>rgardia in a late note written into the margins of the Chronicle of Melrose. It is simply the Latin for "of Argyll", a region encompassing (roughly) the west coast of central Scotland; it does suggest, especially if it is meant as a surname, that <mask> came from the family of the MacDougall Lords of Argyll, who used <mask> as a "surname" in the Latin documents of the period.<mask> was a Dominican friar by the time he became Bishop of Argyll in 1264, which meant he would have spent many of his earlier years abroad, and must have received a university education in the process. It is notable that during the long vacancy of the bishopric between the death of Bishop William in 1241 and the election of Bishop Alan 1248 × 1250, the bishopric was for several years under the custody of

masks:
Laurence de Ergadia
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
de E
Laurence
de Ergadia
Laurence


type: original

texts:
 Clement, Bishop of Dunblane, himself a Dominican, the first Dominican to hold a bishopric in Scotland. This custody occurred in a period when, urged on by Bishop Clement, King <mask> of Scotland had become more assertive in the area, particularly in relation to overlordship over its MacDougall ruler, Eóghan of Argyll. The events of that decade thus may have induced Eóghan, at Clement's urging, to send a kinsman to be trained as a Dominican, and <mask> was indeed the first of three Dominican bishops of Argyll in the following century, another of whom appears to have been a MacDougall also. It might also be noted that the bishopric of Dunblane was partly dedicated to St Laurence, after whom <mask> may have been named. Bishop of Argyll

After the death of Bishop Alan in 1262, three compromissarrii (voting delegates) were selected by the cathedral chapter of the diocese of Argyll to elect a new bishop, and after the election of <mask>, the Dean of the chapter travelled to the papal curia to obtain confirmation. Pope Urban IV declared the election void on a technicality, but on 31 March 1264, issued a mandate to Gamelin, Bishop of St Andrews, and <mask> Inverkeithing, Bishop of Dunkeld, authorising them to confirm the election of <mask> to the bishopric of Argyll, and instructed them to arrange for his consecration, if they found him fit.Although it is not definitively known when <mask> was consecrated, he had received consecration by the

masks:
Alexander II
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
Richard de
Laurence
Laurence


texts: date he is found witnessing charters of Bishop Gamelin of St Andrews at Loch Leven, namely on 20–28 June 1268. He is found at Ayr on 23 October 1269, confirming the rights of Paisley Abbey to some churches in the bishopric of Argyll; and is found at Paisley on 6 May – 9 July 1270, attaching his seal to two charters granted by a landowner from Cowal to the abbey. A papal mandate of 15 March 1273 named Bishop <mask> as one of the three bishops authorised to consecrate William Wishart as Bishop of St Andrews, though there is no direct proof he was present at the latter's consecration, which took place on 15 October, at Scone. In the summer of 1274 <mask> was one of the four bishop from the Kingdom of Scotland to attend the Second Council of Lyon, and his seal is found attached to one of the Council's acts, dated 13 July 1274. Later in the year he was chosen as a papal mandatory to help resolve a dispute between Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow, and the Glasgow cathedral chapter; at Muthill on 19 July 1275, <mask> and the other papal mandatory, <mask> Prebenda, Bishop of Dunblane, ordered the case to be heard later in that year, but details of the outcome have not survived. In 1275 he was named as one of the three bishops chosen to consecrate Archibald Herok as Bishop of Caithness, the other two being Archibald, Bishop of Moray, and <mask> Benin, Bishop of Aberdeen. Bishop <mask> is named as a papal mandatory once more on 5 April 1281,

masks:
Laurence
Laurence
Laurence
Robert de
Hugh de
Laurence


texts:
 being authorised to legitimise a marriage of <mask> Abernethy to Maria, sister of <mask> of Argyll, <mask>'s probable kinsman.On 2 September 1284, he issued a charter to Paisley Abbey from Kilfinan in the diocese of Argyll; sometime between 1286 and 1292 his seal was appended to a charter issued to the same abbey by <mask>, Lord of Islay. On 3 October 1289, a papal mandate was issued to him regarding the relationship between Iona Abbey and the Bishop of the Isles, with the former seeking to be removed from the sphere of authority of the latter bishop, at that time Bishop Mark. <mask> is found among the prelates, magnates and barons of Scotland giving their assent to the Treaty of Birgham on 17 March 1290, but unlike most of Scotland's senior political figures, is not found giving King Edward I of England an oath of fealty before the Great Cause in 1291, nor at any time afterwards. He largely disappeared from the records in the 1290s, and his last known act was to send a proctor to argue on his behalf in front of a papal judge-delegate at Glasgow on 29 October 1299; he was dead by 18 December 1300, the date that the Pope provided and consecrated his successor Andrew. Notes

References
 <mask>, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History, 2 vols, (Edinburgh, 1922)
 <mask>, Alan Orr, Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, <mask> (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)
 Boardman, Stephen, The Campbells,

masks:
Hugh de
Alexander
Laurence
Alexander Óg
Laurence
Anderson
Anderson
Marjorie Anderson


texts:
 1250-1513, (Edinburgh, 2006)
 Cowan, Ian B. & Easson, David E., Medieval Religious Houses: Scotland With an Appendix on the Houses in the Isle of Man, Second Edition, (London, 1976)
 <mask>, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed.J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912)
 Lindsay, <mask>, Dowden, John, & Thomson, J. Maitland (eds. ), Charters, bulls and other documents relating to the Abbey of Inchaffray, chiefly from the originals in the charter chest of the Earl of Kinnoull, (Publications of the Scottish History Society ; v. 56; Edinburgh, 1908)
 Sellar, W. D. H., "MacDougall, Ewen, lord of Argyll (d. in or after 1268)", in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 , retrieved 17 Oct 2007
 Stevenson, Joseph (ed. ), Chronica de Mailros; E Codice Unico in Biblioteca Cottoniana Servato, Nunc Iterum in Lucem Edita. Notulis Indiceque Aucta., (Edinburgh, 1835)
 Turner, Dennis, "The Bishops of Argyll and the Castle of Achanduin, Lismore, AD 1180-1343", in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 128 (1998), pp. 645–53
 Watt, D. E. R., A Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Graduates to A. D. 1410, (Oxford, 1977)
 Watt, D. E. R., Fasti Ecclesiae Scotinanae Medii Aevi ad annum 1638, 2nd Draft, (St Andrews, 1969)

13th-century births
Year of death uncertain
13th-century Scottish Roman Catholic bishops
Bishops of Argyll
<mask>re, Scotland
Scottish Dominicans
Medieval Gaels from Scotland
People from

masks:
Dowden
William Alexander
Laurence Lismo


texts:
<mask> (20 December 1915 – 21 May 1997) was an Irish politician who served as Minister for Health from 1948 to 1951 and Leader of the National Progressive Democrats from 1958 to 1963. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1948 to 1954, 1957 to 1973 and 1977 to 1982. He was a Senator for the Dublin University from 1973 to 1977. He holds the distinction of being one of only seven TDs to be appointed to the cabinet on the start of their first term in the Dáil. His controversial Mother and Child Scheme in effect brought down the First Inter-Party Government of Taoiseach John A. Costello in 1951. <mask> was a well-known, but at times highly controversial public representative, and managed to be a TD for five political parties (two of which he co-founded), as well as an independent TD. These were Clann na Poblachta (resigned), Fianna Fáil (expelled), National Progressive Democrats (co-founder), Labour Party (resigned) and the Socialist Labour Party (co-founder).Early life and career
<mask> <mask> was born in Waterford, but grew up in the Bogside area of Derry. The <mask> family also lived in Athlone and Ballinrobe for a period of time. His mother Mary Therese Cooney was born in 1885 in Hollymount, County Mayo; a plaque has been erected there in her memory. His father worked as an inspector for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and, partly as a result of this work, all of the <mask> family became infected with tuberculosis. Both parents died of the disease during the 1920s; his father was the first to die,

masks:
Noël Christopher Browne
Browne
Noël
Browne
Browne
Browne


texts: leaving only £100 behind to support a wife and seven children. Fearing that if she and the children remained in Ireland that they would be forced into a workhouse, Mary (already by this point dying of TB) sold every possession the <mask>s' had and took the family to London, England. With two days of their arrival, Mary was dead, later buried in a pauper's grave.Of her seven children, six contracted tuberculosis. <mask> was only one of two <mask> children to survive into adulthood those bouts with TB. The only sibling who survived with him was his brother Jody, who developed both a hunchback and a cleft palate. Because of Jody's conditions, <mask> described Jody as completely unwanted by society, which led his sister to commit Jody to a workhouse. There, Jody later died on an operating table when, in <mask>'s own words, a doctor performed experimental plastic surgery on Jody. Jody too was buried in a pauper's grave. In 1929, he was admitted free of charge to St Anthony's, a preparatory school in Eastbourne, England.He then won a scholarship to Beaumont College, the Jesuit public school near Old Windsor, Berkshire, where he befriended Neville Chance, a wealthy boy from Dublin. Neville's father, the eminent surgeon Arthur Chance (son of surgeon Sir Arthur Chance), subsequently paid <mask>'s way through medical school at Trinity College Dublin. In 1940, while still a student, <mask> suffered a serious relapse of tuberculosis. His treatment at a sanatorium in Midhurst, Sussex was paid for by the Chance family. He recovered, passed his

masks: Browne Noël Browne Noël Noël Browne Browne


texts:
 medical exams in 1942, and started his career as a medical intern at Dr Steevens' Hospital in Dublin, where he worked under Bethel Solomons He subsequently worked in numerous sanatoria throughout Ireland and England, witnessing the ravages of the disease. He soon concluded that politics was the only way in which he could make an attack on the scourge of tuberculosis. Entry into Politics
The poverty and tragedy that had shaped <mask>'s childhood deeply affected him.He considered both his survival and his level of education a complete fluke, a stroke of random chance that saved him when he was seemingly destined to die unknown and in poverty like the rest of his family. <mask> found this completely distasteful and was moved to enter politics as a means to ensure no one else would suffer the same fate that had befallen his family. <mask> joined the new Irish republican party Clann na Poblachta and was elected to Dáil Éireann for the Dublin South-East constituency at the 1948 general election. To the surprise of many, party leader Seán MacBride chose <mask> to be one of the party's two ministers in the new government. <mask> became one of the few TDs appointed a Minister on their first day in Dáil Éireann, when he was appointed Minister for Health. Minister for Health
A 'White Paper' on proposed healthcare reforms had been prepared by the previous government, and resulted in the 1947 Health Act. In February 1948, <mask> became Minister for Health and started the reforms advocated by the Paper and introduced by the Act.The health reforms

masks: Browne Browne Browne Browne Browne Browne


texts: coincided with the development of a new vaccine and of new drugs (e.g. BCG and penicillin) that helped to treat a previously untreatable group of medical conditions. <mask> introduced mass free screening for tuberculosis sufferers and launched a huge construction program to build new hospitals and sanitoria, financed by the income and accumulated investments from the Health Department-controlled Hospital Sweeps funds. This, along with the introduction of Streptomycin, helped dramatically reduce the incidence of tuberculosis in Ireland. As Minister for Health <mask> came into conflict with the bishops of the Catholic Church and the medical profession over the Mother and Child Scheme. This plan, also introduced by the 1947 Health Act, provided for free state-funded healthcare for all mothers and children aged under 16, with no means test, a move which was regarded as radical at the time in Ireland, but not in the rest of Europe. Virtually all doctors in private practice opposed the scheme, because it would undermine the "fee for service" model on which their income depended.The Church hierarchy, which controlled many hospitals, vigorously opposed the expansion of "socialised medicine" in the Irish republic (though they never objected to its provision via the British National Health Service in Northern Ireland). They claimed that the Mother and Child Scheme interfered with parental rights, and feared that the provision of non-religious medical advice to mothers would lead to birth control contrary to Catholic teaching. They greatly

masks: Browne Browne


texts: disliked <mask>, seeing him as a "Trinity Catholic" (one who had defied the Church's ruling that the faithful should not attend Trinity College Dublin, which had been founded by Protestants and for many years did not allow Catholics to study there). He was the only government Minister to attend the 1949 Church of Ireland funeral of Douglas Hyde, first President of Ireland. Under pressure from bishops, the coalition government backed away from the Mother and Child Scheme and forced <mask>'s resignation as Minister for Health. He gave his version of events in his resignation speech to the Dáil on 12 April 1951. In particular, he deplored that the government had referred his Scheme to the Church for approval, taking care to describe it to the Church as his plan and not as government policy, giving him no option but to resign as Minister.The Taoiseach, John A. Costello, immediately retorted that "I have seldom listened to a statement in which there were so many—let me say it as charitably as possible—inaccuracies, misstatements and misrepresentations", and delivered his full reply several hours later. Following his departure from government, <mask> embarrassed his opponents by arranging for The Irish Times to publish Costello's and MacBride's correspondence with the Catholic hierarchy, which detailed their capitulation to the bishops. The controversy over the Mother and Child Scheme led to the fall of the coalition government in which <mask> had served as a Minister. But Church opposition to socialised medicine continued under the

masks: Browne Browne Browne Browne


texts:
 subsequent Fianna Fáil-led government. The hierarchy would not accept a no-means-test mother-and-infant scheme even when Fianna Fáil reduced the age limit from sixteen years to six weeks, and the government again backed down. Later political career

After his resignation as Minister for Health, <mask> left Clann na Poblachta, but was re-elected to the Dáil as an Independent TD from Dublin South-East in the subsequent election. <mask> joined Fianna Fáil in 1953, but lost his Dáil seat at the 1954 general election and was later expelled from the party.At the 1957 general election he was re-elected for Dublin South-East as an Independent TD. In 1958, he founded the National Progressive Democrats with Jack McQuillan. <mask> held on to his seat at the 1961 general election, but in 1963, he and McQuillan joined the Labour Party, disbanding the National Progressive Democrats. However, <mask> lost his seat at the 1965 general election. He was re-elected as a Labour Party TD at the 1969 general election, again for Dublin South-East. He failed to be nominated by the Labour Party for the 1973 general election, but instead won a seat in Seanad Éireann. He remained in the Seanad until the 1977 general election, when he gained the Dublin Artane seat as an Independent Labour TD, having again failed to get the Party nomination.In 1977 <mask> was the first Irish parliamentarian to call for law reforms in regards to homosexuality (which was illegal at the time), and in 1979 was one of the few Irish politicians to attend the opening of the Hirschfeld

masks: Browne Browne Browne Browne Browne


texts:
 Centre, Dublin’s first full-time LGBT community space. Upon its formation, <mask> identified with the new Socialist Labour Party and was briefly its only TD, securing election for Dublin North-Central at the 1981 general election. <mask> retired from politics at the February 1982 general election. Offer of presidential candidacy
In 1990, a number of left-wing representatives within the Labour Party, led by Michael D. Higgins, approached <mask> and suggested that he should be the party's candidate in the presidential election due later that year. Though in failing health, <mask> agreed. However, the offer horrified party leader Dick Spring and his close associates for two reasons. Firstly, the leadership had secretly decided to run Mary Robinson, a barrister and former senator.Secondly, many around Spring were "appalled" at the idea of running <mask>, believing he had "little or no respect for the party" and "was likely in any event to self-destruct as a candidate." When Spring informed <mask> by telephone that the party's Administrative Council had chosen Robinson over him, <mask> hung up the telephone. <mask> spent the remaining seven years of his life constantly criticising Robinson who had gone on to win the election, thus becoming the seventh President of Ireland, and who was considered highly popular during her term. During the campaign he also indicated support for the rival Fine Gael candidate, Austin Currie. Personality
Few figures in 20th-century Ireland were as controversial as <mask> <mask>. To his supporters he was a

masks: Browne Browne Browne Browne Browne Browne Browne Browne Noël Browne


texts:
 dynamic liberal who stood up to conservative and reactionary Catholicism. To his opponents he was an unstable, temperamental and difficult individual who was the author of most of his own misfortune.<mask> further alienated the middle ground in 1986, with the publishing of his autobiography Against the Tide which became what the Irish Times called a "publishing sensation" and sold over 80 thousand copies in short order. Historians like Dr. Ruth Barrington, who had written extensively about Irish health policy and had access to the files from the 1940s and 1950s, questioned the book's reliability. Writing a decade later, one of the chief officials of the Labour Party, Fergus Finlay, said <mask> had developed into a "bad tempered and curmudgeonly old man". Historian and political scientist Maurice Manning wrote that <mask> "had the capacity to inspire fierce loyalty, but many of those who worked with and against him over the years found him difficult, self-centred, unwilling to accept the good faith of his opponents and often profoundly unfair in his intolerance of those who disagreed with him". A riposte to these depictions appeared in 2000, based on a much earlier extensive interview with <mask>. However, some of this alleged "difficulty" arose from the fact that <mask> <mask> was deaf in one ear from an infection. After retiring from politics, <mask> moved with his wife Phyllis to Baile na hAbhann, County Galway, where he died on 21 May 1997, aged 81.Legacy
In a 2010 RTÉ public poll, he came in the top 10 of Ireland's Greatest.

masks: Browne Browne Browne Browne Noël Browne Browne


texts:
 References

Sources
 <mask> <mask>, Against the Tide, Gill & Macmillan, . Ruth Barrington, Health, Medicine and Politics in Ireland 1900-1970, Institute of Public Administration, 1987, . Fergus Finlay, Snakes and Ladders, New Island Books, 1998, . Kurt Jacobsen, "An Interview with Dr <mask>" in Maverick Voices: Conversations wth Political and Cultural Rebels. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. Gabriel Kelly et al.(eds), Irish Social Policy in Context, UCD Press, 1999, . Maurice Manning, James Dillon: A Biography, Wolfhound Press, 2000, . Lorna Siggins, The Woman Who Took Power in the Park, Mainstream Publishing, 1997, . John Horgan, <mask> <mask>: Passionate Outsider, Gill & Macmillan, 2000, . 1915 births
1997 deaths
Labour Party (Ireland) TDs
Clann na Poblachta TDs
Fianna Fáil TDs
National Progressive Democrats TDs
Independent TDs
Members of the 13th Dáil
Members of the 14th Dáil
Members of the 16th Dáil
Members of the 17th Dáil
Members of the 19th Dáil
Members of the 13th Seanad
Members of the 21st Dáil
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Ministers for Health (Ireland)
Politicians from County Waterford
20th-century Irish medical doctors
Members of Seanad Éireann for Dublin

masks:
Noël
Browne
Noel Browne
Noël
Browne


texts:
<mask> (November 27, 1884 - September 11, 1982) was a Spanish-born American artist, sculptor, and teacher known for modern sculpture in stone, metal, and wood, particularly figural works of women. His 16 ft bronze Alice in Wonderland sculpture climbing sculpture in Central Park is well known to both adults and children in New York City. He was an early adopter, and prominent exponent of the direct carving approach to sculpture. He also developed the technique of lead chasing, and was among the first to create modern sculpture from found objects. He taught at Black Mountain College, the Art Students League of New York, and the New School for Social Research. His works are in the Whitney Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art, the Smithsonian American Art Museum, and many other public and private collections. Early life
<mask> was born in Guadalajara, Spain, on November 27, 1884, to <mask> and Rosa Champane y Ortiz.Four years later the family moved to Barcelona. In 1890, when his father died leaving the family destitute, <mask>, his mother and two sisters moved in with an aunt. At six years of age, <mask> took his first job earning pennies by carrying stone and sand at the construction site of La Sagrada Familia, designed and built by the architect Antonio Gaudi. In 1895, <mask> began modeling religious figures in clay to sell at the Festival Santa Lucia, Barcelona, which he fired at home in his kiln and sold near the steps of the Cathedral of Barcelona. Two years later he began his first apprenticeship with the craftsman and imagier, Barnadas who carved religious figures in wood. A year later, he was apprenticed at the Artistic

masks:
José Mariano de Creeft
José de Creeft
Mariano de Creeft y Masdeu
de Creeft
de Creeft
de Creeft


texts: Foundry of Masriera & Campins, under the sculptor Mariano Benlliure, followed by studies with Manolo Hugué. In 1900, <mask> moved to Madrid and studied in the workshop of Don Augustin Querol Subirats, Official Sculptor of Spain.This was <mask>'s first experience with stone carving. He also studied drawing with Rafael Hidalgo and Gutierrez <mask>edes, and sculpture with Ignacio Zuloaga. The following year he worked as a draftsman for the Madrid Administration of Bridges and Roads, where he learned perspective and precision drawing. In 1902, he opened his first studio with a friend on "Calle Españoletto". At this time he observed the art work of a group of Eskimos (Inuit) in El Retiro Park which had a profound impact on his developing aesthetic. “The Eskimos impressed me with their simplicity and their directness of expression. With tiny pieces of ivory they made monumental sculptures that had strength, power and serenity, though they were less than hand-sized.” A year later, his first exhibition of portraits of children in clay and plaster was held at El Circulo de Bellas Artes in Madrid.In 1905, he moved to Paris. Upon the recommendation of Ignacio Zuloaga, and with the concurrence of Rodin, he entered the Académie Julian where he studied for two years. He opened his first studio at 14 rue Chamberry before establishing a second studio at the Bateau Lavoir in Montmartre, where he interacted with Pablo Picasso, Juan Gris, Manolo, and Pablo Gargallo, who also had studios there. During this period, <mask> befriended the artist <mask>. <mask> was awarded the Grand Prix in the 1906 Concours de Sculpture exhibition at the Académie Julian for his piece in

masks:
de Creeft
de Creeft
de Cavi
de Creeft
Mateo Hernandez
De Creeft


texts: clay, "Torso," which was the first recognition he had ever received for his work. After a time in Spain, he returned to Paris in 1909, where he exhibited for the first time at the Salon de la Société des Artistes Français, showing a bronze head of a man and a plaster bust of a child. From 1909 to 1928 he exhibited periodically at the Société des Artistes Français, Société d’Encouragement Aux Artes, Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, Salon d’Automne, Salon des Artes, Salon des Tuileries, Salon des Artes Indépendents, Exposición de Bellas Artes, Salon des Humoristes, and the Exposición de Artes Decorativas y Industriales Modernas.From 1911 to 1914 he was employed at the workshop of La Maison Greber, learning traditional techniques of reproducing sculpture in stone with pointing machines known as "mise aux point". In 1915, he eschewed the purely classical methods of sculpture which consisted of copying from plaster models and enlarging with a pointing machine. He began using the technique of "taille directe", or direct carving. He referred to this method of carving as “pure sculpture.” Inspired by modernism, <mask>ft destroyed all his previous casts, molds, and clay pieces. When he had destroyed all but two pieces, his friend <mask> Diego came to visit him. They took the remaining two sculptures outside to the traffic circle surrounding the Arc de Triomphe and placed bets on which car would hit which sculpture. De Creeft completed Barbare, his first direct sculpture in wood in 1915.The next year he produced a red granite head, his first in stone, and displayed it at the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts. He also completed his first portrait carved directly

masks:
de Cree
Julio de


texts: from life, Enigma, in Black Belgium Marble. The following year he taught his first group of private students from Mexico and South America. At the conclusion of World War I, there was a demand for artistic tributes to the heroes of the war, and in 1918, he was awarded a commission to carve a seven-foot granite war memorial of a French Infantryman. This sculpture, Le Poilu in Saugues (Puy-de-Dome), stands on a ten-foot base in the town square. He completed this work in 1921, and as a result was elected Officier de I’Instruction Publique, Paris. This led to his execution of twenty-one drawings for Twenty-one Meditations, a book by Albert Rid.In 1924, <mask>ft developed the process of chased lead, the first of several original techniques he employed. After casting the large, rough forms, he hammered, carved and incised the lead with typical chasing tools used in foundries for finishing work. Examples of sculptures made with this technique included Portrait of César Vallejo and Orchidia. Both works, made in 1924, featured solid forms with open spaces. At that time no other artists attempted to use this technique. In 1925, <mask> developed another new technique, now known as found object, or assemblage art, when he was asked to create a piece for the Gran Bal Español by the world-famous flamenco dancer <mask>. At the time, <mask> was bedridden with fever and flu.Upon being told the piece must be ready in days, <mask> dismantled his stove to create Le Picador, an eight-foot figure on horseback. Adding used tire tubes to depict the horse's intestines protruding from its belly, <mask>ft paraded his piece through the streets of Paris to great acclaim and the

masks:
de Cree
de Creeft
Vicente Escudero
de Creeft
de Creeft
de Cree


texts:
 event received worldwide press coverage. It was the first time an artist turned scrap metal into sculpture. The inspiration for this piece came from his youth, when <mask> witnessed the mistreatment of horses. A relative took him behind the scenes at the bullfight arena where he saw people putting the intestines back in the horses, sewing them up with straw and sending them back to the bullfight. Le Picador was displayed at the Société des Artistes Independants the following year. It was at that time he met <mask>, who became his student in direct carving.Upon seeing <mask>'s mechanical toys, <mask> encouraged him to display them. <mask> put his Circus together for the first time in <mask>'s studio where he showed it to other artists. Later, <mask> and <mask> became lifelong friends after <mask> and his family moved to the United States. In 1927, <mask> moved to Mallorca, Spain, when he was commissioned by the painter, Roberto Ramonge to create sculptures for his fourteenth-century fortress, La Fortaleza. Granted complete artistic freedom, he undertook the work with such vigor and enthusiasm that in eighteen months he carved more than two hundred pieces in stone. While maintaining his residence in Mallorca he exhibited in Paris, and visited there periodically during the following year. Emigration to the United States

In 1929, <mask> married an American, Alice Robertson Carr, in London.She had been one of his private students in Paris. While in Paris, Alice Carr also studied etching with <mask>'s friend Stanley W. Hayter. Later, she became well known for her bronze portraits of show and race horses. Alice Carr and <mask> <mask> traveled to the United

masks:
de Creeft
Alexander Calder
Calder
de Creeft
Calder
de Creeft
Calder
de Creeft
de Creeft
de Creeft
de Creeft
de Creeft
José de
Creeft


texts: States in June, 1929. This was <mask>'s first trip to America, and the newly married couple stayed with Alice's father. In July, <mask> held his first solo exhibition in the United States at The Art Institute of Seattle, Washington State. The couple settled in New York City in September and <mask> established a studio at 1 Washington Square.In December, he had his first solo exhibition at the Ferargil Galleries in New York City which was to be his home for the next 54 years. Among the sculptures were The Portrait of Cesar Vallejo in chased lead, and The Silver Fox made of found materials. His second exhibit at the Ferargil Galleries in September, coincided with the stock market crash and as an unfortunate consequence, no sales resulted from the exhibition. In 1930, he took a studio at 22 Minetta Lane, and a residence at 1 Washington Place, in Greenwich Village. While in New York, he continued to innovate and developed a technique known as "Beaten Lead" which involved the creation of three-dimensional sculptures from one-quarter inch thick sheets of lead. His process involved suspending a lead sheet from the ceiling with clamps, and using ball peen hammers to work both sides of the sheet simultaneously. During this year he also created his first beaten lead portrait from life, Portrait of Jolas, and had solo exhibitions at the Arts Club of Chicago, and the 56th Street Gallery in New York City.1931, he traveled to Paris, and later returned to Mallorca, where he completed a life-size portrait bust of <mask> in beaten lead (collection of The Museum of the City of New York) that was exhibited at the opening of Lawrence's play, Can a Leopard? Throughout the

masks:
de Creeft
de Creeft
de Creeft
Gertrude Lawrence


texts: 1930s, the family spent periods of time in France and Spain. Their son, William, was born in Paris in 1932. In the summer of 1932, <mask> took a group of American students to Mallorca, where he had a solo exhibition at the Galleria Costa Palma. In 1932, <mask> was also offered a position teaching sculpture at The New School for Social Research in New York, which he accepted. His first comprehensive exhibition was held at The New School that year. Alice gave birth to their daughter, Nina, in 1933.In 1936, while the <mask>fts were living in Mallorca, the Spanish Civil War erupted in Pollensa. The Fortaleza was bombed, damaging many of <mask>ft's sculptures. The family was separated. He was forced to flee, while Alice Carr <mask> and their two children were evacuated separately on an American ship. Upon his return to America, <mask> established himself in New York City, and that year became a founding member of the American Artists' Congress. He joined the Georgette Passedoit Gallery in New York City, where his first show included sculpture and watercolors of Mallorca and Connecticut. From 1936 to 1948, <mask> had eleven solo exhibitions at the Passedoit Gallery.In 1936, he took a group of students to Paris for instruction during the summer. Santa Barbara, California became his home for three months during 1937 while he visited his wife and children. During that stay trip he exhibited watercolors and sculpture at the Faulkner Memorial Art Gallery, Santa Barbara, California. In 1938 he became a founding member of the Sculptors Guild, an exhibiting group based in New York City. He and Alice Carr <mask>ft divorced in February 1939, and he relocated his

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texts: studio to 218 Greene Street, New York. Eva Campos, one of <mask>reeft's private students, introduced her husband, Jules, to <mask>reeft. Jules Campos taught <mask>ft fencing, which they enjoyed together, and they became close friends.In 1940, at Campos’ urging, <mask> became a U.S. citizen. In 1945, Jules Campos wrote the book, The Sculpture of <mask> de Creeft (© 1945, 1972 Jules Campos, Kennedy Graphics, Da Capo Press Inc. NYC 1972). As war came to Spain and then the rest of Europe in the 1930s, many artists emigrated to the United States, and <mask> was reconnected with a number of his artist friends from Spain, including Esteban Vicente, Luis Quintanilla Isasi, Salvador Dalí. In 1940, <mask> resigned from the Artist's Congress due to its unquestioning support of the Soviet Union, and he formed the alternative Federation of Modern Painters and Sculptors. In 1940 and 1941, <mask> was a resident at the Yaddo Art colony in Saratoga Springs, New York. While there he became friends with Eudora Welty, who wrote an article about <mask>ft in 1944, in the Magazine of Art. In 1944, <mask> taught in the notable summer program at Black Mountain College, North Carolina.During that term, he met his future wife, Lorrie Goulet, of Los Angeles, CA. who was studying there. They were married the following November in a ceremony performed by Society of Ethical Culture. While at Black Mountain College, <mask> met the director and artist <mask>, his wife Annie and the architect Walter Gropius (all formerly of the Bauhaus school) as well as the Spanish architect <mask> Lluis Sert and the French artists Jean Charlot and Amédée Ozenfant. That same year he began teaching at

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 The Art Students' League, was elected to Board of Directors of the Society of Independent Artists and had a solo exhibition at the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia. In 1946, <mask> and Goulet purchased a hundred-acre farm in Hoosick Falls, NY where they established a studio and part-time residence. During the summers, <mask> was assisted by a steady stream of students including Gary Lawrence Sussman who stayed with him over the course of six and a half years and became a valued family friend.Working outdoors improved <mask>'s health and relieved the pulmonary difficulties he had developed from carving stone. In addition to the unique renovations and repairs he enjoyed making on his house, <mask> was also an avid woodsman, cutting, splitting and stacking all of the wood used for heating and cooking. It was there that he created the second portrait of his wife, Lorrie, carved directly from life in English Caen stone. Their daughter, Donna Maria, was born in New York City in 1948. <mask> became a founding member of the Artists Equity Association. In 1956 he joined the Contemporary Galleries, New York City, where he had solo exhibitions biannually until 1966, and in 1970 he joined the Kennedy Galleries, New York City, where he had solo exhibitions in ’72, ’73, ’74, and ’79. Commissions

1951 marked the beginning of a five years work on Poetess, an eight-foot granite figure, for the Ellen Phillips Samuel Memorial, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia.Working upstate during the summers, <mask> utilized his forging skills to sharpen and re-temper over two hundred points (tools) daily in the forge he built at his farm. He was awarded a commission in

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texts: 1957 for a hammered-copper sculpture, Theme, for the Jewish Community Center, in White Plains, New York. He was commissioned to do the bronze Alice in Wonderland sculpture group by George T. Delacorte Jr. as a memorial for his wife, Margarita in 1956. The 12’ x 16’ bronze work, near East 74th Street in Central Park, was dedicated by Parks Commissioner Robert Moses during a gala public event in 1959. The sculpture was intended to be climbed on by children. <mask>'s daughter, Donna Maria was the model for the face of Alice. Alice sits on a large mushroom at a tea party held by the Mad Hatter (whose face is supposedly modeled on that of George Delacorte) with the March Hare, the White Rabbit, the Dormouse, the Cheshire Cat, the Caterpillar, and Alice's kitten Dinah in her lap.It was patterned on illustrations drawn by John Tenniel. It is favored by children who enjoy climbing on it, which was contemplated in its design. At the base of the statue, among other inscriptions, is a line from Lewis Carroll's nonsense poem "Jabberwocky". In 1995, the short film, The Making of <mask> de <mask>’s Alice In Wonderland Sculpture Garden – Narrated By Lorrie Goulet was produced and directed by J. D’Alba. Due to the amount of usage the piece received, the mold it was cast from was eventually stored by the Parks Department for future replacements. The monument, one of <mask>'s major works, gave him worldwide recognition. The City of New York awarded a commission to <mask>ft in 1961 for a mosaic mural at the Bronx Municipal Hospital Center, Nurses Residence and School, Bronx, New York which was completed in 1962.<mask> was also commissioned by the City of New York to

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 create a bronze relief Medical Science – The Gift of Health, for the Public Health Laboratory of Bellevue Hospital in 1966. Later life
The Whitney Museum held the first major retrospective of <mask>'s work In May 1960, organized by the American Federation of Arts. The exhibition traveled for the next two years to thirteen museums throughout the United States. That summer, <mask> and his family spent three months driving through France, Italy and Spain, visiting the places where he had worked and lived, including the Fortaleza in Mallorca to survey the damages to his outdoor works that were inflicted during the Spanish Civil War. During the trip they had the occasion to visit his friend Salvador Dalí at his house in Cadaqués. In 1965, <mask> exhibited at The White House in the Festival of the Arts, where he and Goulet attended the opening dinner in the Rose Garden hosted by Lady Bird Johnson. Robert Hanson produced a documentary film in 1966, showing <mask> sculpting The Hand of Creation, from white Carrara marble (Collection of the Art Students League of New York).This is the only filmed record of <mask>ft carving directly. In the film he states: "I love the stones. I respect the stones like my grandfather.” <mask> and Goulet also purchased a four-story building on West 20th Street, New York City where they established a permanent residence and studio. <mask> became one of three American artists chosen to be represented in The Vatican Permanent Collection of Religious Art, Rome, Italy, when the museum purchased his work, The Baby’s Sleep in 1972. He was awarded the "Comendador" of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, Madrid, Spain in 1973. The following

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texts: year a special exhibition of <mask>'s works from the collection of the Hirshhorn Museum, Washington, DC, was held in honor of his 90th birthday, including a display of his tools. A major retrospective exhibition of his work was held at the New School for Social Research, New York City.In 1976 he was honored by the Spanish Consulate in New York City, Alberto López Herce, who arranged an audience with King Juan Carlos I of Spain for <mask> and Goulet on the occasion of the King's first visit to the United States. In 1977 <mask> was named Hijo Predilicto (Honored Son) of Guadalajara, Spain. A street was named in his honor; and a plaque was placed on the house of his birth. He was awarded the keys to the city, but was unable to attend the ceremony. His wife, Lorrie Goulet gave the acceptance speech on his behalf. In 1981, La Aventura humana de José de Creeft, a major retrospective at the Fundació Joan Miró in Barcelona. was organized by Carles Fontseré.Though <mask> was unable to attend, he was represented by his wife, Lorrie Goulet. The exhibition was well received by the Spanish press and traveled to seven museums throughout Spain for two years. <mask> donated Le Picador, his 1925 metal assemblage, to the Fundació Joan Miró in honor of his father. In 1976, the town of Hoosick Falls, New York, passed a resolution for a memorial honoring <mask> to be placed in Wood Park. <mask> donated his granite sculpture The Guardian, and he designed the marble seating and pedestal on which it was placed. The citizens of the town raised the funds for this project. The Guardian, 1918, was produced as a demonstration for the French government showing his ability to carve

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 granite for the commission of Le Poilu.Death
On September 11, 1982, <mask> <mask> died at the age of 97 in his home in Manhattan, New York City. His ashes were buried in Hoosick Falls, New York, at the foot of "The Guardian" in a granite urn carved by a group of his students, with the help of his son-in-law, Charles Perkins. The monument reads:
<mask> Creeft
November 27, 1884 - September 11, 1982                                                                 “Love and Respect One Another”

In addition to memorials held in the Great Hall at Cooper Union and the Art Students' League, a major retrospective honoring the life and art of <mask>ft, was held the following year at the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC

“The Figure in American Sculpture – A Question of Modernity” was an exhibition organized by the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, and <mask>'s work The Cloud, was chosen for the cover of the catalog (University of Washington Press, 1995). Two Solo Exhibitions of <mask>'s work were held in 1997, an exhibition of drawings, at the MB Modern Gallery, and Sculpture and Drawings at The Child's Gallery, both in New York City. Recognition
 1906 - awarded the Grand Prix in the Concours de Sculpture for his piece in clay, Torso, at the Académie Julian. 1933 - awarded the Crowninshield Prize for sculpture at the Twenty-fifth Annual (Massachusetts) Art Exhibition. <mask> <mask> is elected to the Board of Directors for the New York Society of Independent Artists, and he installs the

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 sculpture section of the Nineteenth Exhibition of Society of Independent Artists at Grand Central Palace, New York City
 1940 and 1941- wins a fellowship to spend the summer at Yaddo Art colony, Saratoga Springs, New York
 1941- elected President of the Federation of Modern Painters and Sculptors
 1942 - at the "Artists For Victory" exhibition at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, he is awarded first prize and the purchase prize of $5,000.00 for Maternity.Art News selects Maternity as the best sculpture of the year. His show at the Passedoit Gallery is selected as one of the ten outstanding exhibitions of the year. 1945 - Gold Medal Recipient for Rachmaninoff, Beaten Lead, at the 140th annual of The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Is “Critics Choice” at the Seventeenth Regiment Armory Show, New York, New York
 1946 - elected to the National Sculpture Society. 1948 - elected Associate of National Academy of Design. 1951 - Les Adieux (The Farewell), beaten lead, is awarded top prize of $10,000 in the American Sculpture competition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
 1952 - becomes a member of Board of Directors of Audubon Artists. 1954 - Gold Medal for Young Woman, marble, at the twelfth annual exhibition of Audubon Artists.1956 - Acrobats, stone, wins Medal of Honor at the Audubon Artists. 1958 - elected Fellow of the National Sculpture Society
 1961 - elected first Vice-President, New York Chapter of the Artists Equity Association
 1969 - awarded the Therese and Edwin H. Richard Prize for Dream, pink Tennessee marble, by the National Sculpture Society. Elected to Chair at the American Academy of Arts and


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 Letters, New York City. 1975 - Columbia University in New York City awards de Creeft the Florence Eickemeyer Award for Excellence on recommendation of the National Academy Museum and School
 1980 - receives a Merit Award from Artists Equity Association. Exhibitions
 1903 - first exhibition at El Círculo de Bellas Artes in Madrid
 1929 - first solo exhibition in the United States at the Seattle Art Museum, Washington
 1929 - December solo exhibition at the Ferargil Galleries in New York. 1932 - joint exhibition with etcher, Alphonse Legros, at the Philadelphia Art Alliance, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1943 - solo exhibition at the St. Paul Gallery, Minnesota.1961 - exhibition of drawings at the Louis Alexander Gallery, New York City
 1989 - solo exhibition of <mask>'s Sculpture and Drawings 1917–1940, at the Child's Gallery, New York City, and <mask> <mask> (1884-1982), a survey of drawings, is held at Louis Newman Galleries, Beverly Hills, California
 1992 - Snyder Fine Arts Gallery, New York City hosts a solo exhibition of his watercolors. Teaching
 In 1944, <mask> teaches during summer term at Black Mountain College, North Carolina
 From 1944 to 1948, teaches at The Art Students League of New York City
 From 1949 to 1950 he is a visiting Instructor at Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture, Maine, during the summer, and in the winter he is visiting instructor at the Norton Gallery and School of Fine Arts, West Palm Beach, Florida. From 1957 to 1960 <mask>ft is on the faculty of The New School For Social Research, New York City
 From 1957- 81 he teaches at The Art Students League, New York City

Collections
 1938: The Brooklyn Museum, New York

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 purchases Semitic Head, beaten lead; and Woman in The Sun, white marble, is purchased by Billy Rose for the Art Garden at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 1939: Maya, black Belgium marble, is purchased by Wichita University. 1940: Museum of Modern Art purchases Saturnia, beaten lead. 1941: Whitney Museum of American Art purchases The Cloud, limestone; the Metropolitan Museum of Art purchased Emerveillement, serpentine marble
 1943: Whitney Museum, New York, NY, purchases Himalaya, beaten lead
 1945: Atlantis, green serpentine marble is purchased by the University of Pennsylvania. 1951: Rachmaninoff, beaten lead, is purchased by the Pennsylvania Academy
1967: New Being, marble, is purchased by The Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas
 1976: Nude, walnut, is acquired by the Smithsonian Museum of American Art.1983: Marguerite, bronze on stone base, is acquired by Smithsonian American Art Museum, Luce Foundation Center as a Gift of Lorrie Goulet De Creeft and "Head of Gertrude Stein," ceramic and shell, 1931, was purchased by the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Luce Foundation. 1986: Continuite, marble, is acquired by the Smithsonian American Art Museum, as a gift of the Sara Ruby Foundation. Southern Alleghenies Museum of Art

Publications
 Campos, Jules. <mask> Creeft. Erich S. Herrmann, NY, 1945
 Cunningham, John J. <mask> Creeft. University of Georgia Press/National Sculpture Society, Athens, Georgia, 1950. Campos, Jules.The Sculpture of <mask> Creeft. Kennedy Graphics, Inc., NY, 1972

See also
 List of American artists

References

External links

 <mask> at Levis Fine Art, 20th Century Modern Masters
 <mask> <mask>ft on ArtNet
 Getty Images

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1884 births
1982 deaths
Alumni of the Académie Julian
Art Students League of New York faculty
Modern sculptors
Spanish male sculptors
20th-century Spanish sculptors
20th-century male artists
People from Hoosick Falls, New York
20th-century American sculptors
American male sculptors
Sculptors Guild members
Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
People of Montmartre
Sculptors from New York (state)
Society of Independent


texts:
<mask> (; <mask>, <mask> after 1932; 6 January 1861 – 8 September 1947) was a Belgian architect and designer, and one of the founders of the Art Nouveau movement. His Hôtel Tassel in Brussels, built in 1892–93, is often considered the first Art Nouveau house. The curving stylized vegetal forms that <mask> used influenced many others, including architect Hector Guimard, who used it in the first house he designed in Paris and in the entrances he designed for the Paris Metro. He is also considered a precursor of modern architecture for his open floor plans and his innovative use of iron, steel and glass. <mask>'s later work moved away from Art Nouveau, and became more geometric and formal, with classical touches, such as columns. He made a highly original use of steel frames and skylights to bring light into the structures, open floor plans, and finely-designed decorative details. His later major works included the Maison du Peuple/Volkshuis (1895–1899); Brussels' Centre for Fine Arts (1923–1929); and Brussels Central Station (1913–1952).In 1932, King Albert I conferred on <mask> the title of Baron for his services to the field of architecture. Four of the buildings he designed have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Life and early work
<mask> was born in Ghent, Belgium, on 6 January 1861. His father was a master shoemaker, who, as <mask> recalled, considered craftsmanship a high form of art. The young <mask> began by studying music at the Royal Conservatory of Ghent. He was expelled for misbehavior and went instead to study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Ghent. At the Ghent Conservatory, an aula is named after him today.When he was seventeen, he moved to Paris and found work with the architect and designer Jules Debuysson. <mask>'s father died in 1880, and <mask> returned to Belgium. He moved to Brussels and married his first wife, with whom he later fathered two daughters. He began to study architecture at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels.

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texts: He became friends with Paul Hankar, another early pioneer of Art Nouveau architecture. <mask> did well in his studies and was taken on as an assistant by his professor Alphonse Balat, the architect to King Leopold II. <mask> worked with Balat on the construction of the Royal Greenhouses of Laeken in northern Brussels, <mask>'s first work to utilise glass and iron.In 1884, <mask> won the first Prix Godecharle to be awarded for architecture for a proposed new building for the Belgian Parliament. On his graduation from the Royal Academy, he was awarded the Grand Prize in architecture. In the years that followed, <mask> joined the Central Society of Belgian Architecture, designed and completed three houses in a traditional style, and took part in several competitions. In 1892, he was named head of the Department of Graphic Design for Architecture at the Free University of Brussels, and promoted to professor in 1893. At this time, through lectures and exhibitions organised by the artists' group Les XX, <mask> became familiar with the British Arts and Crafts Movement, the developments in book design, and especially textiles and wallpaper, which influenced his later work. In 1893, <mask> built a town house, the Autrique House for his friend Eugène Autrique. The interior had a traditional floor plan, due to a limited budget, but the facade previewed some of the elements he developed into the full Art Nouveau style, including iron columns, and ceramic floral designs.In 1894, <mask> was elected President of the Central Society of Belgian Architecture, although he resigned the following year following a dispute caused when he was awarded the commission for a kindergarten on the / in the Marolles/Marollen district of Brussels, without a public competition. Throughout his life, <mask> was greatly influenced by the French architectural theorist Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, whose ideas he completely identified with. In 1925, he wrote: {{Blockquote|Since 1840, the theories of

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 Viollet-le-Duc are a sharp, precise and constructive analysis of each element in architecture, bringing the whole of architecture to its absolute origin – a construction out of which any form of art can emerge.}} The Town Houses and the beginning of Art Nouveau

Hôtel Tassel (1892–1893)
The major breakthrough for <mask> came in 1892, when he was commissioned to design a home for the scientist and professor Émile Tassel. The Hôtel Tassel was completed in 1893. The stone facade, designed to harmonize with the neighboring buildings, was fairly traditional, but the interior was strikingly new. <mask> used the technologies of glass and iron, which he had practiced on the Royal Greenhouses of Laeken, to create an interior filled with light and space.The house was built around an open central stairway. The decoration of the interior featured curling lines, modeled after vines and flowers, which were repeated in the ironwork railings of the stairway, in the tiles of the floor, in the glass of the doors and skylights, and painted on the walls. The building is widely recognized as the first appearance of Art Nouveau in architecture.Space Time and Architecture, Sigfreid Giedion, 1941 In 2000, it was designated, along with three other town houses designed soon afterwards, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In designating these sites, UNESCO explained: "The stylistic revolution represented by these works is characterised by their open plan, the diffusion of light, and the brilliant joining of the curved lines of decoration with the structure of the building." Hôtel Solvay (1898–1900)
The Hôtel Solvay, on the Avenue Louise/Louizalaan in Brussels, was constructed for Armand Solvay, the son of the chemist and industrialist Ernest Solvay. Horta had a virtually unlimited budget, and used the most exotic materials in unusual combinations, such as marble, bronze and rare tropical woods in the stairway decoration. The stairway walls were decorated by the pointillist painter Théo van

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 Rysselberghe.<mask> designed every detail including the bronze doorbell and the house number, to match the overall style. Hôtel Van Eetvelde (1898–1900)
The Hôtel van Eetvelde is considered one of Horta's most accomplished and innovative buildings, because of highly original Winter Garden interior and the imaginative details throughout. The open floor plan of the Hôtel Van Eetvelde was particularly original, and offered an abundance of light, both horizontally and vertically, and a great sensation of space. A central court went up the height of the building, bringing light from the skylight above. On the main floor, the oval-shaped salons were open to the courtyard, and also received light from large bay windows. It was possible to look from one side of the building to other from any of the salons on the main floor. Horta House and Studio (1898–1901)
The Horta House and Studio, now the Horta Museum, was Horta's residence and office, and was certainly more modest than the other houses, but it had its own original features and equally fine craftsmanship and mastery of details.He made unusual combinations of materials, such as wood, iron and marble in the staircase decoration. The novel element in <mask>'s houses and then his larger buildings was his search for maximum transparency and light, something often difficult to achieve with the narrow building sites in Brussels. He achieved this by use of large windows, skylights, mirrors, and especially by his open floor plans, which brought in light from all sides and from above. Hôtel Aubecq (1899–1902)
The Hôtel Aubecq in Brussels was one of his late houses, made for the industrialist Octave Aubecq. As with his other houses, it featured a skylight over the central staircase, filling the house with light. Its peculiarity was the octagonal shape of the rooms, and the three facades with windows, designed to give maximum light. The owner originally wished to keep his original family furniture, but because of the odd shape of


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 the rooms, <mask> was commissioned to create new furniture.By 1948, Art Nouveau was out of style, the house was sold to a new owner, who wished to demolish it. A movement began to preserve the house, but in the end only the facade and the furnishings were saved by the City of Brussels. The facade was disassembled and put into storage, and many proposals were made for its reconstruction, but none were carried out. Some of the furnishings are now on display at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. Maison du Peuple (1895–1899)
While <mask> was building luxurious town houses for the wealthy, he also applied his ideas to more functional buildings. From 1895 to 1899, he designed and built the Maison du Peuple/Volkshuis ("House of the People"), the headquarters for the Belgian Workers' Party (POB/BWP). This was a large structure including offices, meeting rooms, a café and a conference and concert hall seating over 2,000 people.It was a purely functional building, constructed of steel columns with curtain walls. Unlike his houses, there was virtually no decoration. The only recognizable Art Nouveau feature was a slight curving of the steel pillars supporting the roof. As with his houses, the building was designed to make a maximum use of light, with large skylights over the main meeting room. It was demolished in 1965, despite an international petition of protest by over 700 architects. The materials of the building were saved for possible reconstruction, but were eventually scattered around Brussels. Some parts were used for the construction of the Brussels Metro system.Beginning in about 1900, <mask>'s buildings gradually became more simplified in form, but always made with great attention to functionality and to craftsmanship. Beginning in 1903, he constructed the Grand Bazar Anspach, a large department store, with his characteristic use of large windows, open floors, and wrought iron decoration. In 1907, <mask> designed the Museum for Fine Arts in Tournai, although it did not

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 open until 1928 due to the war. Magasins Waucquez (1905)
The Magasins Waucquez (now the Belgian Comic Strip Center) was originally a department store specializing in textiles. In its design, <mask> used all his skill with steel and glass to create dramatic open spaces and to give them an abundance of light from above. The steel and glass skylight is combined with decorative touches, such as neoclassical columns. After Waucquez's death in 1920, the building began to languish away, and in 1970, the firm closed its doors.Jean Delhaye, a former aid of <mask>, saved the building from demolition, and by 16 October 1975, because of its connection to Horta, it was declared a protected historical site. Now a museum of a particular Belgian speciality, the comic strip, it also has a room devoted to <mask>. Brugmann University Hospital (1906)
In 1906, <mask> accepted the commission for the new Brugmann University Hospital (now the Victor Horta Site of the Brugmann University Hospital). Developed to take into account the views of the clinicians and hospital managers, <mask>'s design separated the functions of the hospital into a number of low-rise pavilions spread over the  park based campus, and work began in 1911. Although used during World War I, the official opening was delayed until 1923. Its unusual design and layout attracted great interest from the European medical community, and his buildings continue in use to this day. The First World War – travel to the United States
In February 1915, as World War I was underway and Belgium was occupied, <mask> moved to London and attended the Town Planning Conference on the Reconstruction of Belgium, organised by the International Garden Cities and Town Planning Association.Unable to return to Belgium, at the end of 1915, he traveled to the United States, where he gave a series of lectures at American universities, including Cornell, Harvard, MIT, Smith College, Wellesley College and Yale. In 1917, he was named Charles Eliot Norton

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 Memorial Lecturer and Professor of Architecture at George Washington University. Later Projects – debut of modernism (1919–1939)
On <mask>'s return to Brussels in January 1919, he sold his home and workshop on the /, and also became a full member of the Belgian Royal Academy. The post-war austerity meant that Art Nouveau was no longer affordable or fashionable. From this point on, <mask>, who had gradually been simplifying his style over the previous decade, no longer used organic forms, and instead based his designs on the geometrical. He continued to use rational floor plans, and to apply the latest developments in building technology and building services engineering. The Centre for Fine Arts in Brussels, a multi-purpose cultural centre designed in a more geometric style similar to Art Deco.Centre for Fine Arts (1923–1929)
<mask> developed the plans for the Centre for Fine Arts beginning in 1919, with construction starting in 1923. It was completed in 1929. It was originally intended to be built of stone, but <mask> made a new plan of reinforced concrete with a steel frame. He had intended the concrete to be left exposed in the interior, but the final appearance did not meet his expectations, and he had it covered. The concert hall itself is in an unusual ovoid, or egg shape, and is accompanied by art galleries, meeting rooms, and other functional rooms. The building is placed on a complex hillside site, and occupies eight levels, much of it underground. It also had to be designed to avoid blocking the view from the Royal Palace, on the hill just above it.In 1927, <mask> became the Director of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels, a post he held for four years until 1931. In recognition of his work, <mask> was awarded the title of Baron by King Albert I in 1932. Brussels Central Station (1913–1952)
In 1910, <mask> began working on drawings on his most ambitious and longest running project: Brussels Central Station. He was formally commissioned as the

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 architect in 1913, but work did not actually begin until after World War II, in 1952. It was originally planned that the station would just part of a much larger redevelopment project, which <mask> had conceived in the 1920s, but this was never realized. The start of construction was seriously delayed due to the lengthy process of purchasing and demolishing over thousand buildings along the route of the new railway between Brussels' main stations, and then because of World War I. Construction finally began in 1937 as part of the plans to boost the economy during the Great Depression, before being delayed again by the outbreak of World War II.<mask> was still working on the station when he died in 1947. The station was finally completed, to his plans, by his colleagues led by Maxime Brunfaut. It opened on 4 October 1952.La rénovation de la gare de Bruxelles-Central – Passion-Trains

Furniture
<mask> typically designed not only the building, but also the furniture, to match his particular style. His furniture became as well known as his houses; a displays of his furniture were shown at the 1900 Universal Exposition in Paris, and the 1902 Turin Exposition of Modern Decorative Arts. It was typically hand-made, and the furniture for each house was different. In many cases the furniture lasted longer than the house. Its drawback was that, since it matched the house, it could not be changed to any other style, without disrupting the harmony of the room.Later work and personal life
<mask> and his first wife divorced in 1906. He married his second wife, Julia Carlsson, in 1908. In 1925, he was an architect of honor for the Belgian Pavilion at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, the exposition which gave its name to Art Deco. In the same year, he became director of the Fine Arts section of the Belgian Royal Academy of Fine Arts. In 1937, he completed the design of his final work, Brussels Central Station. In 1939, he began editing


texts:
 his memoirs. He died on 8 September 1947 and was interred in Ixelles Cemetery in Brussels.Heritage
After Art Nouveau lost favor, many of <mask>'s buildings were destroyed, most notably the Maison du Peuple/Volkshuis, demolished in 1965, as mentioned above. However, several of <mask>'s buildings are still standing in Brussels up to this day and some are available to tour. Most notable are the Magasins Waucquez, formerly a department store, now the Belgian Comic Strip Center and four of his private houses (hôtels), which were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site:
 Hôtel Tassel, designed and built for Prof. Émile Tassel in 1892–93
 Hôtel Solvay, designed and built 1895–1900
 Hôtel van Eetvelde, designed and built 1895–1898
 House and Studio Horta, designed in 1898, now the Horta Museum, dedicated to his work

Honors
 1919
 Officer of the Order of the Crown. Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium
 1920: Officer of the Order of Leopold
 1925: Director of the Classe des Beaux-Arts of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium
 1932: Created Baron <mask> by Royal Decree and given a coat of arms

On 6 January 2015, Google Doodle commemorated his 154th birthday. 1979: Inventaris van het cultuurbezit in België, Architectuur, Stad Gent, Bouwen door de eeuwen heen in Vlaanderen 4NB Z-W, Brussel – Gent

External links

 UNESCO Word Heritage List entry
 <mask>rta
 Horta Museum
 Cupola's Art Nouveau Architecture Gallery One at www.cupola.com
 art-nouveau-around-the-world.org <mask>
 <mask> on BALaT - Belgian Art Links and Tools (KIK-IRPA, Brussels)

1861 births
1947 deaths
Architects from Ghent
Barons of Belgium
Art Nouveau architects
Flemish designers
Burials at Ixelles Cemetery
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
Victor Horta buildings
Belgian Freemasons
Flemish architects
Officers of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts alumni
Royal Academy of Fine Arts (Ghent) alumni
Académie Royale

masks:
Horta
Horta
Horta
Victor Ho
Victor Horta
Victor Horta


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<mask> (born November 11, 1974) is a Canadian senator from Quebec. At the age of 34, he was and is the youngest member of the Senate during his appointment. From February 2006 until January 2009 he held the position of national chief of the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples. <mask> was expelled from the Conservative caucus following his February 7, 2013 arrest for domestic assault and sexual assault. On September 15, 2015, <mask> pleaded guilty to simple assault and cocaine possession as part of a plea deal in which other assault charges were dropped, and he was acquitted of sexual assault. On October 28, 2015, he was granted an absolute discharge by a Quebec court; he was thus not incarcerated and avoided having a criminal record. However, Brazeau remained suspended until September 2016, when separate charges of fraud and breach of trust related to his disallowed expense claims were withdrawn by the Crown.Life and career
Brazeau is an Algonquin from the Kitigan Zibi reserve near Maniwaki. He worked at , a Royal Canadian Naval Reserve unit based in Ottawa that operates under the Canadian Forces Maritime Command. Brazeau earned a Quebec Diploma of College Studies in social sciences from CEGEP Heritage College (Gatineau) and studied, but dropped out of, civil law at the University of Ottawa. Fluent in both official Canadian languages, English and French, Brazeau's language preference is French. Brazeau joined the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (CAP) in 2001 and was elected vice-chief in April 2005. He acted as national chief from February 2006 until his election later in November of the same year. He is a member of CAP's affiliate, Alliance Autochtone du Quebec Inc. also known as the Native Alliance of Quebec, or the AAQ or

masks:
Patrick Brazeau
Brazeau
Brazeau


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 NAQ.Brazeau pursued a very vocal strategy to obtain repeal of Section 67 of the Canadian Human Rights Act as his CAP vision. His position was that Section 67 impeded the individual human rights of aboriginals by its insistence that communal Indian Act rights superseded the CHRA. In this position he was supported by editorials of the National Post and the Globe and Mail. Brazeau endorsed passage of Bill C-21 as a step toward reform of Aboriginal governance, suggesting on 20 June 2008 that the extension of human rights protection “will ultimately lead to the dismantling of the Indian Act.”

On December 22, 2008, <mask> was appointed to the Senate on the advice of Prime Minister Stephen Harper. He was sworn in as a senator on January 8, 2009. On March 31, 2012, Brazeau lost in a celebrity boxing match to Liberal MP (and future Prime Minister) Justin Trudeau. Brazeau has stated that he would like a rematch with Trudeau but Trudeau declined to participate in another boxing match.On May 30, 2015, Brazeau acted as a guest referee at a Great North Wrestling event at the Earl Armstrong Arena in Ottawa. Brazeau ended up getting bodyslammed through a table during the course of the match. In the early hours of January 19, 2016, Brazeau was admitted to hospital in critical but stable condition after he was found seriously injured in his home. The Quebec provincial police issued a statement indicating Brazeau's injuries did not appear related to criminal activity, and the Hull hospital released a statement saying his injuries were treated by successful surgery and were not considered life-threatening. On February 24, 2016, reports came out that Brazeau was hospitalized because of a suicide attempt in his house. Controversy

Two


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 salaries
Brazeau was criticized for stating his intention to accept a seat in the Senate and concurrently remain national chief of the CAP thus collecting two publicly funded six-figure salaries; a decision from which he subsequently retreated by resigning as CAP chief. He has also come under fire over a sexual harassment complaint made against him to the Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario and for allegedly condoning heavy drinking during business hours.<mask> resigned from his position of national chief of the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples on January 9, 2009, issuing the following statement on the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples' website:

Use of CAP funds
In addition, he has faced allegations regarding the spending of funds received by the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples for aboriginal health programs. The Globe and Mail reported on January 19, 2009, that Health Canada auditors rejected almost $260,000 in congress expenses out of a budget of $472,900 allocated to the congress by the ministry, alleging that much of the money had been spent on board meetings where health issues were not discussed. Conservative Party spokesman Kory Teneycke indicated that the alleged misspending occurred before Brazeau became chief of the organization, and that Brazeau took steps to address the problem once he took over the leadership. Senate attendance record
On June 26, 2012, Brazeau came under fire after attacking Canadian Press journalist Jennifer Ditchburn via his official Twitter account. Brazeau publicly called Ditchburn a "bitch" after she reported on his poor Senate attendance record. Brazeau did in fact have poor attendance on the Senate floor: the Senate attendance register showed that he was absent for 25% of the Senate's 72


texts:
 sittings between June 2011 and April 2012. He was also absent for 31% of the meetings of the human rights committee, where he is deputy-chair, and for 65% of meetings at the Senate Standing Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, on which he sits.Residency controversy

Without the knowledge of his ex-wife's father, Brazeau used Daryl Tenasco's address at Kitigan Zibi, Quebec, for the purpose obtaining an aboriginal income tax exemption from 2004 to 2008. Kitigan Zibi Chief Gilbert Whiteduck said: “Normally you have income tax exemption when you live on a reserve and you are employed by a reserve.” Neighbours said it did not appear that Brazeau lived in the community. According to Jean Guy Whiteduck “I’ve never seen him, it’s right across from my place. I’ve never seen him there. He may have visited. That’s about it." On February 28, 2013, the Senate committee of Internal Economy announced that Brazeau, along with fellow senators Pamela Wallin, Mike Duffy, and Mac Harb, would be subject to a forensic audit to determine appropriateness of their expense claims.Deloitte accountants Timm and Stewart conducted an independent audit and came to the conclusion that Brazeau had made no false claims and reached no conclusions as to whether he met the Senate’s definition of primary residence because there was none. The audit document can be found in Senate papers dated 7 May 2013 and can be said to be an indictment of vague (to the point of meaningless) policies:
2.1.2. There is a lack of clarity in the terminology used for the different residences mentioned or discussed in the applicable regulations and guidelines. The following terms are used without being clearly defined: primary residence, secondary residence, NCR residence, provincial


texts: residence. In addition, the term registered residence is not defined. 2.1.3. The regulations and guidelines applicable during the period of our examination do not include criteria for determining “primary residence”.As such, we are not able to assess the status of the primary residence declared by Senator Brazeau against existing regulations and guidelines. Undeterred by the conclusions of Deloitte, the Senate's Subcommittee on Living Allowances, chaired by Senator Elizabeth Marshall with Senators Comeau and Campbell, then ignored selected parts of the Deloitte audit and wrote their own conclusions for the Internal Economy committee, who then recommended on 9 May to the entire Senate, after several secret sessions, that he be ordered to reimburse a minimum of $51,482 in expense money. "Liberal Senator Mac Harb and Independent Senator <mask>au must immediately repay inappropriately claimed expenses or the Senate will seize the funds," said Marjory LeBreton, the then-current Leader of the Government in the Senate. A spokeswoman from LeBreton's office said Brazeau's pay may be withheld as a means of recovering the funds. Brazeau challenged the internal economy committee's order. On August 1, 2013, in an affidavit filed in an Ottawa court, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police alleged that Brazeau inappropriately claimed his father’s home in Maniwaki as his primary residence in order to claim a $22,000 a year taxpayer funded housing allowance. The affidavit said that Brazeau actually resided in a rented Gatineau home right across the Ottawa river from his workplace, while claiming the housing allowance for living in Maniwaki.CTV news employee Robert Fife reported that the RCMP investigation revealed that Brazeau was being


texts:
 investigated for breach of trust. Brazeau later singled out Fife in his Senate farewell speech on 4 November 2013. Chief Theresa Spence
Brazeau was criticized for mocking Attawapiskat Chief Theresa Spence at a Conservative fundraiser in an Ottawa suburb on 29 January 2013. In an audio recording from the event provided to CTV News by Metroland Media, Brazeau is heard stating publicly "Oh, poor Theresa Spence. Oh, poor her," in regards to the six-week-long hunger strike that the aboriginal leader had recently ended. The hunger strike was aimed to force a meeting with Prime Minister Stephen Harper and Governor General of Canada David Johnston to discuss aboriginal treaty rights and socioeconomic issues. Brazeau was also critical of the Idle No More movement, saying that he felt many Canadian aboriginals simply expected to be supported by taxpayers.The recording also revealed <mask> stating "To sit back, wait for the government to give me handouts. Maybe be on welfare, maybe drink, maybe take up drugs", in regards to aboriginal Canadians. He later returned to the subject of dismantling the Indian Act when he added "The best way to get our land back is to buy it back. Just like every other Canadian." Brazeau also insinuated in the recording that Spence had actually gained weight during her "so-called hunger strike". Legal troubles and suspension from Senate
On February 7, 2013, scarcely nine days after the Spence incident, Brazeau was arrested for an incident relating to domestic violence. He was charged with assault and sexual assault in Gatineau court house the next day.After a short court appearance Brazeau was released on $1000 bail on the condition he not go within 150 metres of the victim's work or home. Government


texts: Senate Leader Marjory LeBreton later announced that, pending a resolution to Brazeau's legal situation, the Senator will be removed from the Conservative caucus and barred from taking his seat, although the Senator will still be paid his full salary. April 10, 2014, the day before a trial was to be set, police allege that he was intoxicated and got into an altercation with a woman. They arrested him on new charges of assault, cocaine possession, uttering threats and breach of bail conditions. He has pleaded not guilty. In October 13, 2014, Brazeau was charged with intoxicated driving. An officer investigated an unconscious Brazeau as he parked and was seated behind the steering wheel and he detected a strong scent of liquor.Brazeau tested for .16 BAC at the police station. He is officially charged with:violating bail conditions and intoxicated driving. A knife was found in his vehicle, and he was charged with weapons possession violating bail conditions. Brazeau was court ordered to two months of detox rehabilitation as he awaits trial. On September 15, 2015, Brazeau pleaded guilty to simple assault and possessing cocaine as part of a plea bargain in which he was acquitted of sexual assault. The simple assault plea was connected to the February 2013 assault, and the cocaine possession plea was connected to the April 2014, for which the assault charges were dropped after the plea deal. The October 2014 impaired driving charges are still outstanding as of the guilty plea.On October 28, 2015, he was granted an absolute discharge by the Quebec Court but remained suspended from the Senate, despite still facing a criminal trial for fraud and breach of trust arising from his Senate expenses. On July 13, 2016, the fraud and


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 breach of trust charges were withdrawn by the Crown as there was no reasonable possibility of conviction, and as a result, his leave of absence from the Senate was ended. Suspension from and return to Senate
Since Brazeau was facing charges of assault and sexual assault, the Senate voted to suspend him on 12 February 2013. The motion stated that "in order to protect the dignity and reputation of the Senate and public trust and confidence in Parliament, the Senate order a leave of absence for the Honourable Senator Brazeau to last until this order is rescinded". On 5 November 2013, the Senate voted to suspend Brazeau, along with fellow Senators Mike Duffy and Pamela Wallin, for the remainder of the session, likely until the next federal election in 2015. The Senate also cut their salaries and use of office resources. The specific motion to suspend Brazeau without pay was voted on as follows: 50 yeas, 29 nays, and 13 abstentions.It marked the first time in Senate history that a senator had been sanctioned over expenses without being convicted of a criminal offence. With the early election call by Prime Minister Harper on August 2, 2015, Senators <mask>, Duffy and Wallen recommenced receiving their salaries and benefits. <mask> returned to his seat in the Senate in September 2016 after charges of fraud and breach of trust related to his expense claims were withdrawn by the Crown. Reflecting on his suspension two years later, Brazeau admitted to making "bad decisions" in the past, but felt vindicated by the courts, saying that the controversy surrounding his expenses was politically motivated. Work outside the Senate
Denied his salary as a Senator and without other means of support, Brazeau embarked on a very public search

masks: Brazeau Brazeau


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 for employment following his suspension, resorting to soliciting work via Twitter. In December 2013, <mask> was hired as a freelance reporter for the Halifax edition of the satirical magazine Frank but was fired after writing one column. In January 2014, Brazeau wrote a column for the political website Loonie Politics where he outlines his argument why Prime Minister Stephen Harper is not serious about senate reform.<mask> was hired as day manager of an Ottawa strip club known as the Bare Fax in February 2014. "A job is a job", he was quoted by an Ottawa reporter as saying in regards to his new occupation. As day manager he was in charge of 25-30 staff members, including everything from hiring and firing to scheduling. Brazeau later described the move as an act of desperation, after being unable to find a job. He had also expressed interest in writing a book or starring in a reality show as means of earning an income, prior to his suspension being lifted. References

External links

Algonquin people
University of Ottawa alumni
Living people
Conservative Party of Canada senators
Canadian senators from Quebec
1974 births
Indigenous leaders in Quebec
People acquitted of sex crimes
People from Outaouais
Independent Canadian senators
21st-century Canadian politicians
Independent Senators Group
Indigenous Canadian


texts:
<mask> (in Middle Persian: 𐭌𐭀𐭍𐭉/𐭬𐭠𐭭𐭩/𐮋𐮀𐮌𐮈/𐬨𐬁𐬥𐬌/𐫖𐫀𐫗𐫏 Māni, New Persian:  Māni, Chinese:  Móní, Syriac Mānī, Greek , Latin ; also ,  Latin , from Syriac  Mānī ḥayyā "Living Mani", –2 March AD 274 or 26 February AD 277), of Iranian origin, was the prophet and the founder of Manichaeism, a religion of late antiquity strongly influenced by Gnosticism which was once widespread but is no longer prevalent by name. <mask> was born in or near Seleucia-Ctesiphon in Babylonia, at the time still part of the Parthian Empire. Seven of his major works were written in Syriac, and the eighth, dedicated to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I, was written in Middle Persian. He died in Gundeshapur. Etymology
The exact meaning of the name is a question still unsolved. It may have derived from Babylonian-Aramaic Mânâ [luminescence]. Mandaeans used the term, mânâ rabba meaning the "Enlightened Lord/King.".Ancient Greek interpretations were skeuos (σκεῦος, vessel, instrument) and homilia (ὁμιλία, intercourse, company, communion, instruction). The same slightly contemptuous "a certain" (Manes quidam) also appears in Hegemonius' Acta Archelai (4th century), however, Hegemonius contributes a detailed description of Mani's looks. Mani’s names became the object of uplifting transformation (Greek, Coptic Mannichaios, Latin Mannichaeus, i.e., Mannam fundens "pouring out Manna". Sources
In 1969 in Upper Egypt a Greek parchment codex dating to  was discovered. It is now designated Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis because it is conserved at the University of Cologne. Combining a hagiographic account of <mask>'s career and spiritual development with information about <mask>'s religious teachings, and containing fragments of his writings, it is now considered the most reliable source

masks: Mani Mani Mani Mani


texts:
 of information about the historical <mask>. All other medieval and pre-medieval accounts of his life are either legendary or hagiographical, such as the account in Fihrist by Ibn al-Nadim, purportedly by al-Biruni, or were anti-Manichaean polemics, such as the 4th-century Acta Archelai.Among these medieval accounts, Ibn al-Nadim's account of Mani's life and teachings is generally speaking the most reliable and exhaustive. Notably, the (in other accounts prominent) image of the "Third Ambassador" is only represented through a brief mention of the name bašīr, "messenger of good news", and the topos of "Mani the Painter" (which in other Islamic accounts almost completely replaces that of "the founder of a religion") is completely absent. Life

This work and other evidence discovered in the 20th century establishes Mani as a historical individual. Early life
<mask> was born near Seleucia-Ctesiphon, perhaps in the town Mardinu in the Babylonian district of Nahr Kutha; according to other accounts in the town Abrumya. Mani's father Pātik (Middle Persian Pattūg; , ), a native of Ecbatana (now Hamadan, Iran), was a member of the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcesaites. His mother was of Parthian descent (from "the Armenian Arsacid family of Kamsarakan"); her name is reported variously, among others Maryam. Mani was raised in a heterodox environment in Babylon.The Elcesaite community was ostensibly Jewish Christian, though with some Gnostic features due to their Ebionite heritage, such as the belief in recurring incarnations of heavenly apostles, one of whom was a docetic Christ. At ages 12 and 24 Mani had visionary experiences of a "heavenly twin" of his (syzygos), calling him to leave his father's sect and preach the true message of Jesus in a

masks: Mani Mani


texts:
 new gospel. Travelling to India
<mask> then travelled to India (Sakas in present day Afghanistan), where he studied Hinduism and its various extant philosophies, including Buddhism. Al-Biruni says Mani only traveled to India after being banished from Persia, but this might be an error or a second journey. It is believed that his Christian roots might have been influenced by Marcion and Bardaisan. Return from India
Returning in 242, <mask> presented himself to Shapur I, to whom he dedicated his only work written in Persian, known as the Shabuhragan. Shapur was not converted to Manichaeism and remained Zoroastrian, but he favored Mani's teachings, which mixed Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, and took him into his court.<mask> is said to have performed miracles, including levitation, teleporting and healing, which helped him to gain converts in the Iranian elite. He was also famed as a painter. Imprisonment and martyrdom
Shapur's successor Hormizd I, who reigned only for one year, continued to patronize <mask>, but his successor Bahram I, a follower of the intolerant Zoroastrian reformer Kartir, began to persecute the Manichaeans. He incarcerated <mask>, who died in prison within a month, in 274. According to sources, he passed his last days comforting his visiting disciples, teaching that his death would have no other consequence than the return of his soul to the realm of light. <mask>'s followers depicted <mask>'s death as a crucifixion in a conscious analogy to the crucifixion of Jesus; al-Biruni says that Bahram ordered the execution of Mani. There is a story which claims that he was flayed, and his corpse suspended over the main gate of the great city of Gundeshapur; however, there is no historical basis for this

masks: Mani Mani Mani Mani Mani Mani Mani


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 account.It is more plausible that his body was mutilated via post-mortem decapitation, and his head put on display, which may be the original source of the embellishment. Works
The canon of Mani included six works originally written in Syriac, and one in Persian, the Shapuragan. While none of his books have survived in complete form, there are numerous fragments and quotations of them, including a long Syriac quotation from one of his works, as well as a large amount of material in Middle Persian, Coptic, and numerous other languages. Examples of surviving portions of his works include:  the Shabuhragan (Middle Persian), the Book of Giants (numerous fragments in many languages), the Fundamental Epistle (quoted in length by Saint Augustine), a number of fragments of his Living Gospel (or Great Gospel), a Syriac excerpt quoted by Theodore Bar Konai, and his Letter to Edessa  contained in the  Cologne Mani-Codex. Mani also wrote the book Arzhang, a holy book of Manichaeism unique in that it contained many drawings and paintings to express and explain the Manichaeist creation and history of the world. Teaching

Mani's teaching was intended to succeed and surpass the teachings of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. It is based on a rigid dualism of good and evil, locked in eternal struggle.In his mid-twenties, Mani decided that salvation was possible through education, self-denial, fasting and chastity. According to Al-Biruni, a 10th-century Iranian scholar, <mask> claimed to be the Paraclete promised in the New Testament, and the Last Prophet. However according to Lodewijk J. R. Ort, the term last prophet may "in all probability derived from the Quran by Al-Buruni in order to formulate Mani's pretensions and religious claims".


texts:
 Therefore Lodewijk J. R. Ort concludes that a definitive pronouncement about the final character of <mask>'s appearance is not mentioned in Manichaeistic scriptures.While his religion was not strictly a movement of Christian Gnosticism in the earlier mode, Mani did declare himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ", and extant Manichaean poetry frequently extols Jesus and his mother, Mary, with the highest reverence. Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of different religious figures including Jesus, Zoroaster, and the historical Buddha. Mani's followers were organized in a church structure, divided into a class of "elects" (electi) and "auditors" (auditores). Only the electi are required to follow the laws strictly, while the auditores care for them, hoping to become electi in their turn after reincarnation.Christian and Islamic tradition
Late Antique Christian accounts in the West
The Western Christian tradition of Mani is based on Socrates of Constantinople, a historian writing in the 5th century. According to this account, one Scythianos, a Saracen, husband of an Egyptian woman, "introduced the doctrine of Empedocles and Pythagoras into Christianity"; that he had a disciple, "Buddas, formerly named Terebinthus," who travelled in Persia, where he alleged that he had been born of a virgin, and afterwards wrote four books, one of Mysteries, a second The Gospel, a third The Treasure, and a fourth Heads. While performing some mystic rites, he was hurled down a precipice by a daimon, and killed. A woman at whose house he lodged buried him, took over his property, and bought a boy of seven, named Cubricus. This boy she freed and educated, leaving him the property and books of Buddas-Terebinthus.


texts: Cubricus then travelled into Persia, where he took the name of Manes and gave forth the doctrines of Buddas Terebinthus as his own. The king of Persia, hearing that he worked miracles, sent for him to heal his sick son, and on the child's dying put Manes in prison.Thence he escaped, flying into Mesopotamia, but was traced, captured, and flayed alive by the Persian king's orders, the skin being then stuffed with chaff and hung up before the gate of the city. According to Jerome, Archelaus wrote his account of his disputation with "Manichæus" in Syriac, whence it was translated into Greek. The Greek is lost, and the work, apart from extracts, subsists only in a Latin translation from the Greek, of doubtful age and fidelity,   probably made after the 5th century. By Photius it is stated that Heraclean, bishop of Chalcedon, in his book against the Manichæans, said the  Disputation of Archelaus was written by one Hegemonius, an author not otherwise traceable, and of unknown date. In the Latin narrative, "Manes" is said to have come, after his flight from court, from Arabion, a frontier fortress, to Caschar or Carchar, a town said to be in Roman Mesopotamia, in the hope of converting an eminent Christian there, named Marcellus, to whom he had sent a letter beginning: "Manichæus apostle of Jesus Christ, and all the saints and virgins with me, send peace to Marcellus." In his train he brought twenty-two (or twelve) youths and virgins. At the request of Marcellus, he debated on religion with bishop Archelaus, by whom he was vanquished, whereupon he set out to return to Persia.On his way he proposed to debate with a priest at the town of Diodorides. But Archelaus came to take the priest's place, and again defeated him, whereupon, fearing to be


texts:
 given up to the Persians by the Christians, he returned to Arabion. At this stage Archelaus introduces in a discourse to the people his history of "this Manes," very much to the effect of the recapitulation in Socrates. Among the further details are these: that Scythianus lived "in the time of the Apostles",  that Terebinthus said the name of Buddas had been imposed on him, that in the mountains he had been brought up by an angel, that he had been convicted of imposture by a Persian prophet named Parcus, and by Labdacus, son of Mithra. Furthermore, that in the disputation he taught concerning the sphere, the two luminaries, the transmigration of souls, and the war of the Principia against God, that "Corbicius" or Corbicus, about the age of sixty, translated the books of Terebinthus. He made three chief disciples, Thomas, Addas, and Hermas, of whom he sent the first to Egypt, and the second to Scythia, keeping the third with him. The two former returned when he was in prison, and that he sent them to procure for him the books of the Christians, which he then studied.According to the Latin narrative, finally, Manes on his return to Arabion was seized and taken to the Persian king, by whose orders he was flayed, his body being left to the birds, and his skin, filled with air, hung at the city gate. Medieval Islamic accounts

<mask> is described as a painter who set up a sectarian movement in opposition to Zoroastrianism. He was persecuted by Shapur I and fled to Central Asia, where he made disciples and embellished with paintings a Tchighil (or picturarum domus Chinensis) and another temple called Ghalbita. Provisioning in advance a cave which had a spring, he told his disciples he was going to heaven, and would not return for a year, after


texts:
 which time they were to seek him in the cave in question. They then came back there after a year and found him, whereupon he showed them an illustrated book, called Ergenk, or Estenk Arzhang, which he said he had brought from heaven. Whereafter he had many followers, with whom he returned to Persia at the death of Shapur. The new king, Hormisdas, joined and protected the sect, and built Mani a castle.The next king, Bahram or Varanes, at first favoured <mask>. After getting him to debate with certain Zoroastrian teachers, caused him to be flayed alive, and his skin to be stuffed and hung up. Thereupon most of his followers fled to India and China. See also
 Mar Ammo
 Arzhang
 Cologne Mani-Codex The Gardens of Light Gospel of Mani
 Mandaeism

References

Sources

 Asmussen, Jes Peter, comp., Manichaean Literature: Representative Texts, Chiefly from Middle Persian and Parthian Writings, 1975, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, . Alexander Böhlig, 'Manichäismus' in: Theologische Realenzyklopädie 22 (1992),  25–45. Amin Maalouf, The Gardens of Light'' [Les Jardins de Lumière], translated from French by Dorothy S. Blair, 242 p. (Interlink Publishing Group, New York, 2007). External links
 Manichaeist art - University of Washington
 "Mani and Manichaeism in the J.R.Ritman Library"
 The Book of the Giants by W.B.Henning, 1943
 Acta Archelai

Manichaeism
216 births
274 deaths
3rd-century Iranian people
3rd-century writers
Ancient occultists
Anti-natalists
Creators of writing systems
Founders of religions
Iranian painters
Iranian poets
Iranian prophets
Iranian religious leaders
People executed by crucifixion
People executed by flaying
People executed by the Sasanian Empire
Writers of lost works
Year of birth uncertain
3rd-century religious