texts: Jean-<mask>. Vallier (November 14, 1653 – December 26, 1727) is most known as Quebec's second bishop. Born in the southeastern French city of Grenoble in 1653, to a wealthy land owning family, Saint-Vallier swiftly became a community figure, known for founding a hospital in St. Valier. His officious and dominating personality, led him to accept the position of bishop in 1685 at the call of Louis XIV and <mask>, former Bishop of Quebec. Often referred to as Abbé Saint-Vallier, he was a controversial figure as Bishop of Quebec, since he rarely listened to advice. He spent large amounts of money that left the seminary in great debt at the time of death in 1727. He was deeply involved in the Catholic reform tradition and promoted several missions throughout Canada. He was seen as a very strict leader for most of his reign.He refused demands for his resignations both by the King and the religious of New France. He was suspected of Jansenism, and his administration of the diocese led to popular revolts and struggles with various religious groups. Accomplishments during his 42-year reign include: the founding of the Hôpital-Général de Québec (1692); the edifice for the bishop (1688); commissioning architect Hilaire <mask> <mask> to build Notre-Dame-des-Victoires Church; and the installations of religious reformist communities in the Montreal area. The development of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec and Roman Catholic faith was his utmost priority and interest; he was particularly sensible

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 on the point of morality, which he believed was failing in his see. He was also greatly involved with the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris. Biography

Born November 14, 1653 to <mask> <mask> <mask>evrières <mask> Saint-Vallier and <mask> Sayve, Jean-Baptiste was part of the <mask> family, known to be ranked among the best in Dauphiné with prestigious posts such as country noblemen, officers, magistrates and ambassadors. Jean-Baptiste's father was a Grenoble magistrate and worked for the diplomatic services and his grandfather was a lawyer and poet, then a judge at the Parliament of Grenoble.The La Croixs owned a large amount of land including the castle of Saint-Vallier in the Rhone, which previously belonged to King Henry II's mistress, <mask> Poitiers. This was where Jean-Baptiste spent most of his childhood. However, little is known about him during that period besides his charitable deeds and his education at the Jesuit College in Grenoble. The La Croix children were much influenced by religion; three out of ten entered religious life. Jean-Baptiste entered the seminary of Saint-Sulpice in Paris and obtained his licentiate in theology in 1672 at 19 years of age. In 1676, he was appointed almoner-in-ordinary to King Louis XIV, a promotion that can be attributed to his family's connections. He was ordained priest in 1681.He personally funded a small hospital in Saint-Vallier in 1683. Jean-Baptiste was known for his austerity, his strong will and his dynamism. He was a close friend

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 of the bishop of Grenoble, Le Camus, and would regularly visit hospitals, prisons and country parishes. At the court of the "Sun King", he kept his religious attire. Ideology
Saint-Valier was a supporter of the Counter Reformation. His initial intent in the New World was to engage in the conversion of the indigenous residents. He introduced Jesuits and Recollects in an attempt to evangelize New France.Many of these missions (Illinois, Louisiana, and Mississippi) resulted in conflicts between Bishop Saint-Vallier, the Jesuits and the seminary of Quebec. His various construction projects reflect a desire to restore and renew the authority in the Catholic Church as the main institution of administrative organization. In 1697, Saint-Valier built a palace in Quebec for his clergy and as a place of hospitality. During the same year, he also established a nuns monastery in Trois-Rivières Saint-Vallier's zeal for religious activities and establishments, stretched from Quebec, Montreal, Acadia and Louisiana. His way of life embodied that of the ideals of the Council of Trent. Diocese of Quebec

The Diocese of Quebec was vast and its population diverse and widespread. It included the whole of French North America, or what was called New France, divided in seven colonies: Newfoundland, Acadia, Île Royale, Louisiana, Illinois, Upper Country and Canada, inhabited by Indigenous people and the European settlers.During the tenure of Saint-Vallier, immigration from France was mostly over; the European


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 colonists were farmers, fishermen, sailors, merchants and ‘coureurs des bois’, overseen by a small elite of aristocratic leaders, but a great demographic explosion occurred between 1685 and 1730, the white population in New France jumping from c. 12,000 inhabitants to c. 41,500. During the same time, the number of Amerindian fell from c. 163,500 to c. 61,500. That loss, mainly in the tribes of Louisiana, was attributed to warfare and diseases brought to the valley of the Mississippi. The number of Aboriginals compared to white settlers is one reason for the presence of so many religious orders in New France. The missions and conversions to Christianity were deemed very important. Priests of the Missions Étrangères of Paris, the Jesuits, the Recollets and the Sulpicians often worked in collaboration with the nuns from different orders like the Congrégation de Notre-Dame or the Canonesses of St. Augustine of the Mercy of Jesus at l’Hôtel-Dieu de Québec. The arrival of Saint-Vallier and his strong views on what should be the duties of the priests created a shock wave in the orders, especially for the Seminary of Quebec, newly founded by his predecessor Bishop <mask>.Beginnings as bishop

Advancing quickly in the religious and social hierarchies, it was but a matter of time before Saint-Vallier would be elevated to the rank of bishop. In 1685, Mgr <mask>, Bishop of Quebec, gave his resignation to the King and proposed Saint-Vallier to replace him. His entourage first pushed him to refuse the

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texts: see, since the Diocese of Quebec was relatively new, poor, far from court and at that time "perhaps the most wretched and difficult of all the dioceses in mission lands". Abbot Saint-Vallier finally decided to accept the position, and left France for a sojourn in his future see with the title of vicar general of Bishop <mask>val, since the ceremony of his investiture had to be postponed due to the difficult relationship between the Pope Innocent XI and Louis XIV. His first stay in Canada lasted a year and a half. Saint-Vallier surprised the clergy with his passion and energy. His trip started in Quebec, down to the parishes along the St. Lawrence River, Montreal and then to Acadia.During this time, he preached to both the French and the Indians. In 1686, he debated going further into the Great Lakes in order to continue his investigations. However, his strong personality intimidated people. The superiors of the seminary later wrote to Bishop <mask> that they believed he wasn't a suitable candidate for the task of governing the Quebec diocese. <mask> sided with them and requested that Saint-Vallier leave his post. This of course offended him and he refused this request, backed by the King, who ‘exiled’ Mgr <mask> in France and refused to permit his return to Quebec. Disappointed and angry, as he had expected to die at the Quebec church he had co-founded, <mask> made many accusations that portrayed Saint-Vallier as a manipulative traitor.Saint-Vallier was consecrated bishop at Saint-Sulpice

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 on January 25, 1688 and allowed his predecessor to go back to Canada. However, this would prove to be detrimental for him as upon his return in the summer of 1688, there was a disagreement between him and the seminary of Quebec. Three priests and the Bishop <mask>val conspired together in order to undermine Saint-Vallier's authority and "three quarters of the clergy in Canada […] [had] already escaped the direct authority of the bishop, who found himself, in addition, obliged to share his jurisdiction over his own secular clergy with his seminary." Autumn of 1688, Bishop Saint-Vallier initiated a turnover of the old system and replaced it with new changes in the organization of the seminary which the latter rejected with backing from the Bishop <mask>val. "Mgr <mask>-Vallier worked on establishing more strict and clear pastoral norms […] the directives that he fixed throughout his episcopate concentrate mainly on the administration of the sacraments, especially the sacrament of penitence, and on the preaching"
At that time, the Iroquois started attacking the French again and the impending approach of the English loomed ahead. Attacked on every side and called a tyrant and a jansenist, he decided to seek for arbitration by higher religious authorities, in this case the Archbishop of Paris and the private confessor of the King, who "both decided in favour of the bishop on the essential points […], the seminary of Quebec lost its privileges and came [back] under the usual rule." Nevertheless,

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 by the end of 1694, Saint-Vallier's relation with his diocese had deteriorated to the point that Louis XIV was forced to recall him to Paris.While Saint-Vallier defended his actions, he was asked to resign, which he refused to do. After being kept in France until 1697, without consenting to resign, Saint-Vallier was allowed to return to Canada after agreeing to be more "prudent" and moderate in his ways. He returned to his see and authorized a new establishment of Ursulines at Trois-Rivières. Quarrels with different institutions

Saint-Vallier's tenure as bishop was defined by interminable quarrels with governmental and religious institutions in French North America. Even before he was officially consecrated as bishop, Saint-Vallier's active leadership style brought him into conflict with various groups, who perceived him as, at times, domineering and micromanaging. He quarreled with Governor Frontenac over their respective social standing, going so far as to threaten to place an interdict on the Recollet order for giving the Governor precedence. He also clashed with the female religious order of the Congrégation de Notre-Dame.The order was active in teaching and nursing, and the Bishop sought to impose upon them a stricter cloistered lifestyle. In addition, he demanded they assent to dowry payments, solemn vows, and that they swear obedience to him as bishop. While the Congregation resisted, they were eventually forced to accept many of Saint-Vallier's dictates. Upon his return from


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 France, Saint-Vallier quickly became entangled in more intra-religious disputes. Further conflict arose in regard to competing claims to evangelization rights. In 1698, the seminary of Quebec requested permission to send a mission to the Tamaroa tribe. Saint-Vallier, who, after the "great quarrel" with the seminary, was eager to remain on good terms, consented.This was a slap in the face to the Jesuits, who felt their evangelizing efforts were under pressure worldwide from the secular church. Claiming the Tamaroas were included in the Illinois tribe, whose conversion had been entrusted to them, they objected. When the dispute was put to his arbitration, Saint-Vallier decided in favour of the Seminary. When the Jesuits appealed to the King Louis XIV in 1700, the Bishop returned to France to defend his decision. Although it was upheld, the damage done to his relation with the Jesuits was lasting. While subject to much criticism, Saint-Vallier was also admired in his diocese for his dedication and self-sacrifice. Rather than staying in Quebec or Montreal, he tirelessly traveled the back-country.The founding of the Hôpital Général and installation of Jesuits and Recollets at Montreal were also to his credit. Saint-Vallier and Jansenism

There was a very strong suspicion in the colonies and in France that the Bishop of Quebec was in fact a follower of Jansenism. Named for Cornelius Jansen, a Dutch Catholic Bishop, Jansenism was characterized by a very strict and austere Christianity, a


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 rigorism in the practice of religion and a certain individualism. The Critic Dictionary of Theology explain the large meaning of Jansenism thus: "designated an intern movement of Catholicism that refutes the necessity of certain condemnations and limits their range, and tries to present Christianity in its original form and closer to its objectives"

Opposed to the centralization of power and the absolutism, this religious movement was seen as a plague by the court of King Louis XIV and in New France, where the government system was strongly based on absolutism. If Saint-Vallier presented Jansenist ideas, it was in certain aspects of his writing and in his austerity and deep orthodoxy, but he was certainly not a Jansenist. In the beginning of the 18th century the Bishop wrote 3 books; the Ritual, the Catechism and the ‘Statuts et ordonnances’. Because of his quarrels with the Jesuits, the Superior of the order decided to attack Saint-Vallier's authority by writing a long critic of those three books seeing them as a "lapse into Arianism, Pelagianism, Jansenism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism".Father Bouvart based his accusations on different passages of the works of the Bishop, for example this extract from the Catechism. "Le nombre des réprouvez sera-t-il bien plus grand que celui des bienheureux ? Oui, le chemin de la perdition est large, au lieu que le chemin qui conduit à la vie éternelle est étroit." (Will the number of the damned be much greater than the number of the blessed? Answer:


texts:
 Yes, the road to perdition is broad, whereas the road that leads to the everlasting life is narrow.) Bishop Saint-Vallier eventually appealed to the Sorbonne to have his works rehabilitated. The doctors of the Faculty of Theology declared the Ritual and the Catechism perfectly orthodox and censured the critic of Bouvart.Nevertheless, Saint-Vallier decided to re-edit in 1713 the Ritual so as to cast away all doubts about his pretended Jansenist ideas. This book remained in use in the parishes until the middle of the 19th century. Capture and detention

On his return to New France, Msgr <mask>-Vallier's vessel, along with other ships from the convoy sailing to the New France, was attacked by English naval forces and sent to England. There he was made a diplomatic prisoner and placed under house arrest, as France was at war with England in the War of Succession of Spain. With Saint-Vallier unable to rule from custody, the religious dimension of the diocese of Quebec fell into decay. The problem in the eyes of the Bishop and many of the priests was the lack of morality in the colony. They encountered much reluctance from the population, especially with the Natives, who were in disagreement with the clergy's fight against alcoholism, ‘indecency and immorality’ and their attempt to instill Christian practices into the tribes while ridding them of their own set of customs.The dispute over the sale of alcohol also created waves in the colonial population since the government and especially the


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 merchants sought to use spirits as a way to maintain good relations with the Amerindian tribes. The Bishop remained a prisoner in London for five years while Queen Anne ruled. During this time, the King of France and the war council were deliberately slowed negotiations for his release. Many people were happy to be rid of Saint-Vallier and his incessant disputes, while the Queen of England demanded in exchange for the Bishop of Quebec the return of the Baron <mask>éan, "a dangerous man for France’s interests". It wasn't until 1709 that the king decided to set the dean of Liège free and in turn the English returned Saint-Vallier. At that time, Saint-Vallier's diocese had deteriorated greatly especially after Bishop <mask>val's death in 1708. Despite his pleas, the king was reluctant to let him go back to New France, fearing new religious conflicts.Thus Saint-Vallier underwent a 'forced exile' for four years (1709-1713) before he could return. Late life, death and epilogue

After thirteen years of absence, Saint-Vallier finally returned to Quebec, having persuaded the king to give consent to his departure. He arrived in his Diocese tired and worn by the torments of the last 20 years of constant infighting. The disputes with the religious orders of New France, the government and the merchants gave way to a more peaceful period that lasted until his death, although he retained some of his old habits. He refused, for example, to ring the bell of the cathedral for the death of the governor

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 Rigaud <mask>reuil and "grudges subsisted between [him] and his seminary". Austere throughout his life, he became more and more humble in his way of living and turned toward contemplation and simple duties. As Timothy Pearson explained in Becoming holy in early Canada: "Charity, both the love one bore for God and the public acts of altruistic gift-giving […] became the prominent trope of holiness after 1650".Saint-Vallier, following the example of the ‘Saints’, showed his generosity by helping the poor and the Hôpital Général of Quebec. He also took very seriously his duties of bishop and developed parishes in the farthest corners of the diocese. Weak from sickness, he died on 26 December 1727 in the Hôpital Général, which he founded. His last words showed his charity, for he said: "Forget me, but do not forget my poor". The Abbot Gosselin who wrote about the Bishop Saint-Vallier in the late 19th century said of him: "especially by his great virtues and the holiness of his life, he is revealed in history with the halo of charity and disinterest: his memory shall be eternal"
(surtout par ses grandes vertus [...] et la sainteté de sa vie, [...] il nous apparaît dans l’histoire avec l’auréole de la charité et du désintéressement : sa mémoire sera immortelle)

See also
Michel Bertier
Michel Sarrazin

References

Bibliography

 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
 the  Catholic Encyclopedia - Jean-<mask> Saint-Vallier
Saint-Vallier, Jean-Baptiste <mask> <mask> Chevrières

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 de. Catéchisme du diocèse de Québec par Monseigneur l’illustrissime & reverendissime <mask> <mask> de Saint Valier, évêque de Québec. Paris, Urbain Coustelier, 1702.Saint-Vallier, Jean-Baptiste <mask> <mask> de Chevrières de. Estat present de l’Eglise et de la colonie francoise dans la Nouvelle France, par M. l’Evêque de Quebec. Paris, Robert Pepie, 1688. Saint-Vallier, Jean-Baptiste <mask> <mask> de Chevrières de. Rituel du diocèse de Québec, publié par l’ordre de Monseigneur de Saint-Valier, évêque de Québec. 1re édition. Paris, <mask>is, 1703.Saint-Vallier, Jean-Baptiste <mask> <mask> de Chevrières de. Rituel du diocèse de Québec, publié par l’ordre de Monseigneur l’évêque de Québec. 2e édition. Paris, <mask>is, 1703 [vers 1713]. Saint-Vallier, Jean-Baptiste <mask> <mask> de Chevrières de. Statuts, ordonnances et lettres pastorales de Monseigneur de Saint-Valier évêque de Québec pour le reglement de son diocese. Paris, <mask>is, 1703
Blouin, Annie.1999. Les exigences pastorales de Mgr de Saint-Vallier envers ses prêtres, 1685–1727. Mémoire (M.A. )—Université de Laval, 1999. Campeau, Lucien. "Bouvart, Martin" in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 2, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003.(accessed February 22, 2015) <http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/bouvart_martin_2E.html.>
Choquette, Robert. Canada's Religion: An Historical Introduction. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2004. Cliche, Marie-Aimée. 1988. Les pratiques de dévotion en Nouvelle-France: comportements populaires et

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 encadrement ecclésial dans le gouvernement de Québec. Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval.Fay, Terence. "A History of Canadian Catholics: Gallicanism, Romanism, and Canadianism : Volume 20 of History of religion". McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, 2002. Foley, Mary Anne, ""We Want No Prison Among Us": The Struggle for Ecclesiastical Recognition in Seventeenth-Century New France," Beyond the Walls: Women Religious in American Life 14 (Winter 1996); pp. 1-18. (Accessed February 5, 2015). <https://www.jstor.org/stable/25154538>
Gosselin, August."Mgr. <mask>-Vallier et son temps". Nos Racines/Our Roots. (Accessed February 6, 2015). <http://www.ourroots.ca/f/toc.aspx?id=1702>
Greer, Allan. 1985. Peasant, lord, and merchant: rural society in three Quebec parishes, 1740–1840.Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Grès-Gayer, Jacques M., « Jansénisme », dans Jean-Yves <mask> (dir. ), Dictionnaire critique de théologie, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 2002, p. 708-710. <mask>é, <mask>, «Les deux éditions du Rituel du diocèse de Québec de Mgr de Saint-Vallier, datées de 1703 : de l’édition janséniste à l’édition revue et corrigée par la Compagnie de Jésus», Revue de Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, No. 3 : pp. 74–85. Pearson, Timothy G. Becoming holy in early Canada.McGill-Queen's University Press, 2014. Pearson, Timothy G. Becoming holy in early Canada: performance and the making of holy persons in society and culture. Thesis (Ph. D.)--McGill University, 2008. Pritchard, James S.

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 2004. In search of empire: the French in the Americas, 1670–1730. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Rambaud, Alfred. "La Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, Jean-Baptiste De." Dictionary of Canadian Biography. (Accessed February 1, 2015).<http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/la_croix_de_chevrieres_de_saint_vallier_jean_baptiste_de_2E.>
Scalberg, Daniel Allen. 1990. Religious life in New France Under the Laval and Saint-Vallier bishoprics : 1659–1727. Thesis (Ph.D.)-- University of Oregon, 1990
Scott, M. Eileen. "Barbier, Marie, de l’Assomption" in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 2, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003. (accessed February 20, 2015) <http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/barbier_marie_2E.html.>
Tallon, Alain. 1997. La France et le Concile de Trente, 1518–1563. [Rome]: École française de Rome.Thomas, James H., "Quebec's BIshop as Pawn: Sait-Vallier's Imprisonment in England 1704-1709," CCHA Historical Studies 64 (1998), pp. 151–160. (Accessed February 1, 2015). <http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1998/THOMAS.pdf>
Valois, Jacques. "Denys, Joseph" in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 2, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003. (accessed February 20, 2015) <http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/denys_joseph_2E.html.>

Roman Catholic bishops of Quebec
17th-century Roman Catholic bishops in New France
18th-century Roman Catholic bishops in New France
1653 births
1727 deaths
Burials at the Cathedral-Basilica of Notre-Dame de Québec
Persons of National Historic


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<mask> (born in 1956) is a physician of Indian origin who is the current Vice President of Discovery Research at Genentech. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Kisii, Kenya in 1956. His parents were both physicians, working for the British colonial authorities. The family settled in Kericho, Kenya, where Dixit attended primary school. After the end of colonial rule in 1963, he transferred to the newly desegregated “European schools.”

<mask> was fascinated by science from an early age, and his parents encouraged him to pursue a career in medicine. He studied the sciences at university, and graduated from medical school in 1980 with an MD from the University of Nairobi. During medical school, Dixit was published by journals including Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology and The Lancet.Career

Academia
Following medical school, Dixit completed a residency in the Department of Pathology at the Washington University School of Medicine. He told Nature that he decided to pursue pathology because he has always been fascinated by death and wanted to “do something in science that would influence the lives of people.”

Encouraged to train in research as part of the residency program, Dixit found a position in the lab of biochemistry professor William Frazier and became involved in a project on thrombospondin, a protein in the extracellular matrix. The project’s success a few years later resulted in a number of publications. Congruent with his research, Dixit chose to specialize in hemostasis and thrombosis during his last year of clinical training. From 1986 to 1997, he was associated with the University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, where he rose through the ranks from assistant professor to associate and then full professor. During his early years as an assistant professor, Dixit’s research focused on thrombospondin. In 1991, he changed fields and began investigating cell death, the

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Vishva Dixit
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 subject in which he would make landmark discoveries and gain worldwide recognition.Genentech
In 1997, Dixit became the Director of Molecular Oncology at Genentech, a company known for focusing on high-quality research in an informal atmosphere and viewed as a cross between academia and industry. In 2005, he was appointed Vice President of Discovery Research and in 2007, took over leadership of the Department of Physiological Chemistry. He later became the Vice President of Discovery Research, while maintaining responsibility for the Department of Physiological Chemistry. He also oversees Genentech’s postdoctoral program. Notable research discoveries
As one of the world’s most cited scientists, some of Dixit’s publications have garnered more than 2,000 citations. He was the second most highly cited scientist in the world in 1996. His work on apoptosis is taught in biomedical textbooks.His lab’s discovery of MyD88 (25) as a central conduit for signals emanating from the interleukin-1 receptor is considered as one of the “Pillars in Immunology” by the Journal of Immunology. Dixit’s papers, including his work on apoptosis and inflammation, have been designated “hot papers” on multiple occasions by The Scientist. This designation signifies emerging work that has a disproportionate impact on a field. His research on apoptosis (programmed cell death) is now commonly found in introductory textbooks in both biology and medicine. Early research on thrompospondin
While at the University of Michigan, he received funding from the National Institutes of Health to support research into thrombospondin, as his laboratory had shown this protein had a role in promoting cancer metastases. Caspases and apoptosis
In 1991, an article in Scientific American inspired Dixit to study how tumor necrosis factors, which are responsible for the regulation of immune cells, trigger inflammation and cell death. Dixit switched


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 research tracks and began investigating cell death mechanisms.The research identified each component of the cell-death pathway and explained how they were all connected. In 1996, he published the first evidence that death receptors engaged a mammalian deathase, a molecular scissors (protease) that cleaves proteins. His team’s work on death receptor-induced apoptosis was notable, for prior to that time, cell surface receptors were thought to signal by functioning as ion channels or altering intracellular phosphorylation. Death receptors, however, signal by a different mechanism—activation of a death protease. Collaborating with Guy Salvesen’s group at the Burnham Institute, <mask>’s group proposed the model of proximity-induced autoactivation in 1998 to explain how the first proteolytic signal is generated by caspase precursors recruited to death receptors. RIP kinases, NF-κB signaling and necroptosis
At Genentech, Dixit formed a team with the goal of unraveling the complex interplay between cell death and inflammation at the molecular level. During his tenure, he has worked on the innate immune system, particularly its role in orchestrating an inflammatory response to fight pathogens and cancer.In 1999, his team discovered RIPK2 and RIPK3, which later were shown to be key mediators of NF-κB signaling and necroptosis, respectively. Incorrect regulation of NF-κB has been linked to cancer, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, and improper immune development. Dixit’s work contributed to the discovery of a core complex composed of three proteins that enabled antigen receptors to activate the canonical NF-κB pathway: CARD11, BCL10 and MALT1/paracaspase. Furthermore, he postulated a protease activity for MALT1, which plays a role in T cell activation and MALT lymphomas. His team described the family of metacaspase proteases in plants in a paper published in 2000. In a series of significant papers between 2016


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 and 2020, Dixit and his colleagues at Genentech also worked out the complex molecular mechanisms that regulate activity of caspase-8, OTULIN, RIPK1, RIPK3 and other proteins that modulate inflammation, apoptosis and necroptosis signaling by death receptors and TLRs. Inflammasomes and pyroptosis
By 2002, Dixit was among the first scientists to demonstrate that pro-inflammatory caspases are part of a molecular complex named inflammasomes that are integral to the proper functioning of the innate immune system.In particular, he defined regulatory components upstream of caspase-1 that proteolytically activate the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1beta and interleukin-18. In 2004 and 2006, Dixit provided unequivocal genetic evidence by identifying the NOD-like receptors NLRP3 and NLRC4 as proximal components of inflammasomes responsible for caspase-1 activation. The research showed that inflammasomes distinguish between inflammatory triggers, such as differentiating between types of bacteria, through the use of different sensors. More specifically, the intracellular protein NLRC4 was identified as a sensor for Salmonella that triggered assembly of an inflammasome complex. NLRP3 and the inflammasome adaptor ASC, on the other hand, were found to be required for activation of the inflammasome by diverse pathogenic agents, including microbial toxins, and Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus or Listeria monocytogenes. In 2009, his group followed up on these findings with the discovery of the first small molecule inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Derived analogs of this sulfonylurea class of compounds are currently in clinical development for inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases.Dixit’s team discovered the non-canonical inflammasome pathway and its critical role in mediating lethal systemic inflammation in response to Gram-negative pathogens, detailed in three papers in 2011, 2013,


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 and 2015. This illuminated a new pathway to sepsis, a syndrome responsible for millions of deaths worldwide. Hence, targeting this pathway for therapeutic benefit is a substantial effort in pharmaceutical companies. The 2011 paper showed that mice lacking the gene that encodes caspase-1 also carry a mutation in a neighboring caspase gene, caspase-11 (caspase-4 in humans), which is responsible for many of the effects previously attributed to caspase-1, including sensitivity to sepsis. The 2013 paper clarified the role of Toll-like receptor 4 and caspase-11 in inducing innate immune responses to Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), a cell wall component of Gram-negative bacteria. The research showed that recognition of intracellular LPS by innate immune cells leads to a form of necrotic, proinflammatory death, termed pyroptosis. They showed that these mechanisms did not depend on TLR4, but were rather mediated by caspase-11.This was significant, because for years it was assumed that TLR4 was solely responsible for cellular responses to LPS. In the 2015 paper, they used mice subjected to random mutation to find mediators of caspase-11-dependent non-canonical inflammasome signaling. This led to the discovery that caspase-mediated cleavage of the protein GSDMD creates a pore forming, plasma membrane disrupting amino-terminal fragment that induces pyroptosis. The advances contributed to firmly establishing the sequence of events leading from inflammasome activation to pyroptosis, DAMP release, and lethal septic shock. Using a similar research strategy, in 2021, they reported NINJ1 to be a mediator of plasma membrane rupture and DAMP release from pyroptotic cells. Ubiquitin signaling (A20, LUBAC, OTULIN)
In 1990, Dixit’s lab at the University of Michigan discovered tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-inducible genes in endothelial cells, including A20/TNFAIP3. In later years, A20/TNFAIP3 would also achieve prominence as a


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 modulator of inflammation.In 2004, <mask>’s group at Genentech discovered “ubiquitin editing” as a damping mechanism  that attaches ubiquitin tags to TNF-receptor associated proteins to switch off pro-inflammatory signaling. In 2018, in a similar vein, his group showed that the ubiquitin-cleaving enzyme, OTULIN, regulates cell death and inflammation by removing inhibitory linear ubiquitin chains from LUBAC, an enzyme that activates NF-kB. Awards and honors
Dixit is the recipient of the 2022 Vilcek Prize in Biomedical Science. Awarded by the Vilcek Foundation, the Vilcek Prize in Biomedical Science honors outstanding immigrant scientists for their research leadership in the United States. Dixit is an elected member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Medicine, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a Foreign Member of the European Molecular Biology Organization, The Royal Society (ForMemRS), and The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2016, Dixit received the Gutenberg Research Award in Munz, Germany. He also received the G.H.A.Clowes Memorial Award from the American Association for Cancer Research and the Dawson Prize in Genetics from Trinity College Dublin. In 2017, he was elected Fellow of the American Association for Cancer Research. That same year, he participated in the Harvey Lecture Series, held by the Harvey Society at The Rockefeller University in New York City. In 2018, Dixit received the Cell Death & Differentiation (CDD) Jurg Tschopp Prize at Clare College in Cambridge, United Kingdom. He has served on the boards of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and the Keystone Symposia on Cellular and Molecular Biology. He was also on the Life Sciences jury for the Infosys Prize in 2009 and 2020. References

Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Kenyan biologists
Living people
University of Michigan


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<mask> () (7 October 1936 – 4 August 1992) was a royalist, singer, actor, poet, TV and radio host, writer, humanitarian, and political opposition figure. He is best known for his variety TV show "Mikhak-e Noghrei" (The Silver Carnation) which introduced many artists such as Ebi, Leila Forouhar, Shohreh, Sattar and many more. He was the brother of the acclaimed Persian poets <mask> and <mask>. <mask> was forced into exile after the Islamic Revolution in 1979, and after relocating to Germany was the victim of an unsolved murder. The murder is widely believed to be the work of the Islamic Republic government of Iran, as part of the chain murders in 1988–98. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Tehran, to career military officer Colonel <mask> (originally from Tafresh) and his wife Touran Vaziri-Tabar. He was the fourth of seven children (Pooran, Amir (Masoud), Forough, <mask>, Gloria, Mehrdad, and Mehran).After graduating from high school he went to Germany and Austria for his post-secondary education. He received his doctorate in political science from Munich University. At a young age <mask> had a passion for poetry and for singing. He turned that passion to reality in 1962 when he started writing poems in German which were published in two German newspapers. In 1964 he published his collection of poems called "Fasleh Deegar" (Another Season). His book was critically acclaimed and was honored by many German poets. Five months after the release of "Fasleh Deegar", <mask> <mask> received the Poetry Award of Berlin.For a couple of years <mask> was a member of the Munich Academy of Poetry. In 1966 he found his way to the Television and Radio of Munich. On Radio he had a comedy and music program which played middle eastern music including music from Iran. On TV he created and produced a show called خيابان های آلپ (Alpine Roads). In 1967 he returned to Iran and performed on successful radio and TV shows. His

masks:
Fereydoun Farrokhzad
Forough Farrokhzad
Pooran Farrokhzad
Farrokhzad
Fereydoun Farrokhzad
Mohammad Bagher Farrokhzad
Fereydoun
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 most successful TV show was "Mikhakeh Noghrei" (Silver Carnation), and his radio show which aired every other Friday mornings called "Jom'eh Bazzar" (Friday Bazaar). The TV show was watched by millions of Iranians.On the show <mask> introduced and discovered a number of Iranian artists including Sattar, Shohreh, Shahram Solati, Ebi, Morteza, Rouhi Savoji, Hamid Shabkhiz, Leila Forouhar, Saeed Mohammadi, and various others. After the 1979 revolution, <mask> was imprisoned, then released. He escaped the country and settled in the country of his youth college years, Germany. Political views
According to Voice of America, <mask> was known by his fans as an "educated patriot" who frequently criticized the Islamic Republic and its leaders and who was present during many demonstrations against the clerical government. <mask> produced a weekly radio show for the "Voice of the Flag of Freedom Organization of Iran," the radio station of the Organization of Kaviyani Banner, an "organization of exiled supporters of the Iranian monarchy." <mask> also acted in a film, I Love Vienna, which was considered by some Iranian authorities as anti-Islamic. Personal life
Esfandiar Monfaredzadeh claimed that <mask> was homosexual.He said: "His main obstacle was the homosexuality that he was not ashamed of; he knew it and he wanted people to understand it." <mask> married and divorced twice. His first marriage took place in 1962, to a German-Polish woman named Ania Buchkowski, whom he met in Oxford. Like <mask>, she had a passion for poetry and theater; it was after meeting her that <mask> started writing poems. The result of this marriage was a son named Rostam. <mask> and Ania later separated and got divorced. In 1974 he married an Iranian woman named Taraneh.He spoke German. Death

On August 8, 1992 <mask>'s body was found in the kitchen of his apartment in Bonn, Germany after neighbours reported barking by his two dogs. <mask>

masks: Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzad


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 had been killed violently, having been stabbed repeatedly in the face and upper torso. Many urban legends surround <mask>'s death, including the widely repeated myth that he was beheaded. Prior to his murder, Farrokzhad had been involved in producing an opposition radio program and reportedly received death threats. In his show the Royal Albert Hall in London he criticized Khomeini and made fun of Khomeini's obsession with sex in his Ressaleh book, which followed death threats and concerns for him. According to the U.S. state-funded Voice of America (VOA), the murder was "widely believed to be the work of Iran's Islamic government".Legacy

<mask> remains a significant Iranian cultural icon whose popular music and television programs continue to be circulated through various media platforms. His murder—a political assassination of a celebrity activist entertainer—is a well known and oft-cited event amongst Iranians. See also

 List of unsolved murders
 Forugh <mask>i
 Simin Behbahani

References

External links

 Fereydoun Foundation on Official Farrokhzad Foundation Website
 <mask>'s biography on BBC

 Farrokhzad's documentaries
 Radio Farda investigation documentary. 1938 births
1990s murders in Germany
1992 crimes in Germany
1992 deaths
1992 murders in Europe
20th-century Iranian male actors
20th-century Iranian poets
20th-century Iranian male singers
Caltex Records artists
Deaths by stabbing in Germany
Exiles of the Iranian Revolution in Germany
Iranian democracy activists
Iranian dissidents
Iranian emigrants to Germany
Iranian male actors
Iranian male poets
Iranian people murdered abroad
Iranian pop singers
Iranian radio actors
Iranian radio and television presenters
Iranian secularists
LGBT rights activists from Iran
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
Male murder victims
Persian-language poets
People murdered in Germany
People from Tafresh
Taraneh Records artists
Unsolved murders in

masks: Farrokhzad Farrokhzad Farrokhzadsad Farrokhzad


texts: <mask>  (; 7 May (O.S. 26 April) 1710 – 7 October 1796) was a religiously trained Scottish philosopher. He was the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense and played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment. In 1783 he was a joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. A contemporary of David Hume, <mask> was also "Hume's earliest and fiercest critic". <mask> was born in the manse at Strachan, Aberdeenshire, on 26 April 1710 O.S., the son of <mask> (1676–1762) and his wife Margaret Gregory, first cousin to James Gregory. He was educated at Kincardine Parish School then the O'Neil Grammar School in Kincardine.He went to the University of Aberdeen in 1723 and graduated MA in 1726. He was licensed to preach by the Church of Scotland in 1731, when he came of age. He began his career as a minister of the Church of Scotland but ceased to be a minister when he was given a professorship at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1752. He obtained his doctorate and wrote An Inquiry Into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (published in 1764). He and his colleagues founded the 'Aberdeen Philosophical Society' which was popularly known as the 'Wise Club' (a literary-philosophical association). Shortly after the publication of his first book, he was given the prestigious Professorship of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow when he was called to replace Adam Smith. He resigned from this position in 1781, after which he prepared his university lectures for publication in two books: Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man (1785) and Essays on the Active

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 Powers of the Human Mind (1788).However, in 1787 he is still listed as "Professor of Moral Philosophy" at the university, but his classes were being taught by Archibald Arthur. In 1740 <mask> married his cousin Elizabeth, daughter of the London physician <mask>. His wife and "numerous" children predeceased him, except for a daughter who married Patrick Carmichael. <mask> died of palsy, in Glasgow. He was buried at Blackfriars Church in the grounds of Glasgow College and when the university moved to Gilmorehill in the west of Glasgow, his tombstone was inserted in the main building. Philosophical work

Overview
<mask> believed that common sense (in a special philosophical sense of sensus communis) is, or at least should be, at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry. He disagreed with Hume, who asserted that we can never know what an external world consists of as our knowledge is limited to the ideas in the mind, and George Berkeley, who asserted that the external world is merely ideas in the mind.By contrast, <mask> claimed that the foundations upon which our sensus communis are built justify our belief that there is an external world. In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than Hume. He advocated direct realism, or common sense realism, and argued strongly against the Theory of Ideas advocated by John Locke, René Descartes, and (in varying forms) nearly all Early Modern philosophers who came after them. He had a great admiration for Hume and had a mutual friend send Hume an early manuscript of <mask>'s Inquiry. Hume

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 responded that the work "is wrote in a lively entertaining manner," although he found "there seems to be some Defect in Method", and he criticized <mask>'s doctrine for implying the presence of innate ideas. (pp. 256–257)

<mask>'s theory of common sense
<mask>'s theory of knowledge had a strong influence on his theory of morals.He thought epistemology was an introductory part to practical ethics: When we are confirmed in our common beliefs by philosophy, all we have to do is to act according to them, because we know what is right. His moral philosophy is reminiscent of Roman stoicism in its emphasis on the agency of the subject and self-control. He often quotes Cicero, from whom he adopted the term "sensus communis". <mask>'s answer to Hume's sceptical and naturalist arguments was to enumerate a set of principles of common sense (sensus communis) which constitute the foundations of rational thought. Anyone who undertakes a philosophical argument, for example, must implicitly presuppose certain beliefs like, "I am talking to a real person," and "There is an external world whose laws do not change," among many other positive, substantive claims. For <mask>, the belief in the truth of these principles is not rational; rather, reason itself demands these principles as prerequisites, as does the innate "constitution" of the human mind. It is for this reason (and possibly a mocking attitude toward Hume and Berkeley) that <mask> sees belief in the principles of common sense as a litmus test for sanity.For example, in The Intellectual Powers of Man he states, "For, before men

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 can reason together, they must agree in first principles; and it is impossible to reason with a man who has no principles in common with you." One of the first principles he goes on to list is that "qualities must necessarily be in something that is figured, coloured, hard or soft, that moves or resists. It is not to these qualities, but to that which is the subject of them, that we give the name body. If any man should think fit to deny that these things are qualities, or that they require any subject, I leave him to enjoy his opinion as a man who denies first principles, and is not fit to be reasoned with." <mask> also made positive arguments based in phenomenological insight to put forth a novel mixture of direct realism and ordinary language philosophy. In a typical passage in The Intellectual Powers of Man he asserts that when he has a conception of a centaur, the thing he conceives is an animal, and no idea is an animal; therefore, the thing he conceives is not an idea, but a centaur. This point relies both on an account of the subjective experience of conceiving an object and also on an account of what we mean when we use words.Because <mask> saw his philosophy as publicly accessible knowledge, available both through introspection and through the proper understanding of how language is used, he saw it as the philosophy of common sense. Exploring sense and language
<mask> started out with a 'common sense' based on a direct experience of an external reality but then proceeded to explore in two directions—external to the senses, and internal to human language—to

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 account more effectively for the role of rationality. <mask> saw language as based on an innate capacity pre-dating human consciousness, and acting as an instrument for that consciousness. (In <mask>'s terms: it is an 'artificial' instrument based on a 'natural' capacity.) On this view, language becomes a means of examining the original form of human cognition. <mask> notes that current human language contains two distinct elements: first, the acoustic element, the sounds; and secondly the meanings—which seem to have nothing to do with the sounds as such. This state of the language, which he calls 'artificial', cannot be the primeval one, which he terms 'natural', wherein sound was not an abstract sign, but a concrete gesture or natural sign.<mask> looks to the way a child learns language, by imitating sounds, becoming aware of them long before it understands the meaning accorded to the various groups of sounds in the artificial state of contemporary adult speech. If, says <mask>, the child needed to understand immediately the conceptual content of the words it hears, it would never learn to speak at all. Here <mask> distinguishes between natural and artificial signs:

"It is by natural signs chiefly that we give force and energy to language; and the less language has of them, it is the less expressive and persuasive. ... Artificial signs signify, but they do not express; they speak to the intellect, as algebraic characters may do, but the passions and the affections and the will hear them not: these continue dormant and inactive, till we speak to them in the language

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 of nature, to which they are all attention and obedience." (p. 52)

His external exploration, regarding the senses, led <mask> to his critical distinction between 'sensation' and 'perception'. While we become aware of an object through the senses, the content of that perception is not identical with the sum total of the sensations caused in our consciousness.Thus, while we tend to focus on the object perceived, we pay no attention to the process leading from sensation to perception, which contains the knowledge of the thing as real. How, then, do we receive the conviction of the latter's existence? <mask>'s answer is, by entering into an immediate intuitive relationship with it, as a child does. In the case of the adult, the focus is on perceiving, but with the child, it is on receiving of the sensations in their living nature. For <mask>, the perception of the child is different from the adult, and he states that man must become like a child to get past the artificial perception of the adult, which leads to Hume's view that what we perceive is an illusion. Also, the artist provides a key to the true content of sense experience, as he engages the 'language of nature':

"It were easy to show, that the fine arts of the musician, the painter, the actor, and the orator, so far as they are expressive .. are nothing else but the language of nature, which we brought into the world with us, but have unlearned by disuse and so find the greatest difficulty in recovering it." (p. 53)

"That without a natural knowledge of the connection between these [natural] signs and the things


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 signified by them, the language could never have been invented and established among men; and, That the fine arts are all founded upon this connection, which we may call the natural language of mankind."(p. 59)

Thus, for <mask>, common sense was based on the innate capacity of man in an earlier epoch to directly participate in nature, and one we find to some extent in the child and artist, but one that from a philosophical and scientific perspective, we must re-awaken at a higher level in the human mind above nature. Why does <mask> believe that perception is the way to recognize? Well, to him "an experience is purely subjective and purely negative. It supports the validity of a proposition, only on the fact that I find that it is impossible for me not to hold it for true, to suppose it therefore not true" (<mask>, 753). To understand this better, it is important to know that <mask> divides his definition of perception into two categories: conception, and belief. "Conception is <mask>'s way of saying to visualize an object, so then we can affirm or deny qualities about that thing. <mask> believes that beliefs are our direct thoughts of an object, and what that object is" (Buras, The Functions of Sensations to <mask>).So, to <mask>, what we see, what we visualize, what we believe of an object, is that object's true reality. <mask> believes in direct objectivity, our senses guide us to what is right since we cannot trust our own thoughts. "The worlds of common sense and of philosophy are reciprocally the converse of each other" (<mask>, 841). <mask> believes that

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texts: Philosophy overcomplicates the question of what is real. So, what does Common Sense actually mean then? Well, "common sense is the senses being pulled all together to form one idea" (Cambridge Companion to <mask>, 164). Common sense (all the senses combined) is how we truly identify the reality of an object; since all that can be perceived about an object, are all pulled into one perception.How do people reach the point of accessing common sense? That's the trick, everyone is born with the ability to access common sense, that is why it is called common sense. "The principles of common sense are common to all of humanity," (Nichols, Ryan, Yaffe, and Gideon, <mask>). Common sense works as such: If all men observe an item and believe the same qualities about that item, then the knowledge of that item is universally true. It is common knowledge, which without explanation is held true by other people; so, what is universally seen is universally believed. "The real, then, is that which, sooner or later, information and reasoning would finally result in, and which is therefore independent of the vagaries of me and you. Thus, the very origin of the conception of reality shows that this conception essentially involves the notion of a community, without definite limits, and capable of a definite increase of knowledge," (<mask>, 155).The combination of the same ideas, of a thing, by multiple people, is what confirms the reality of an object. <mask> also believes that the philosophers of his time exaggerated what is truly real. Where most philosophers believe that what we see is

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Thomas Reid
Thomas Reid
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 not fully what that thing is, for example, Descartes, <mask> counters this argument simply by stating that "such a hypothesis is no more likely to be true than the common-sensical belief that the world is much the way we perceive it to be," (Nichols, Ryan, Yaffe, and Gideon, <mask>). Reality is what we make it out to be, nothing more. <mask> also claimed that this discovery of the link between the natural sign and the thing signified was the basis of natural philosophy and science, as proposed by Bacon in his radical method of discovery of the innate laws of nature:

The great Lord Verulam had a perfect comprehension of this, when he called it an interpretation of nature. No man ever more distinctly understood, or happily expressed the nature and foundation of the philosophic art. What is all we know of mechanics, astronomy, and optics, but connections established by nature and discovered by experience or observation, and consequences deduced from them?(..)    What we commonly call natural causes might, with more propriety, be called natural signs, and what we call effects, the things signified. The causes have no proper efficiency or causality, as far as we know; and all we can certainly affirm, is, that nature hath established a constant conjunction between them and the things called their effects; (..). (p. 59)

Influences
It has been claimed that <mask>'s reputation waned after attacks on the Scottish School of Common Sense by Immanuel Kant (although Kant, only 14 years <mask>'s junior, also bestowed much praise on Scottish philosophy—Kant attacked the work of

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texts: <mask>, but admitted he had never actually read his works) and by John Stuart Mill. But <mask>'s was the philosophy taught in the colleges of North America during the 19th century and was championed by Victor Cousin, a French philosopher. Justus Buchler has shown that <mask> was an important influence on the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, who shared <mask>'s concern to revalue common sense and whose work links <mask> to pragmatism. To Peirce, conceptions of truth and the real involve the notion of a community without definite limits (and thus potentially self-correcting as far as needed), and capable of a definite increase of knowledge. Common sense is socially evolved, open to verification much like scientific method, and constantly evolving, as evidence, perception, and practice warrant, albeit with a slowness that Peirce came only in later years to see, at which point he owned his "adhesion, under inevitable modification, to the opinion of...<mask>, in the matter of Common Sense".(Peirce called his version "critical common-sensism"). By contrast, on <mask>'s concept, the sensus communis is not a social evolutionary product but rather a precondition of the possibility that humans could reason with each other. The work of <mask> influenced the work of Noah Porter and James McCosh in the 19th century United States and is based upon the claim of universal principles of objective truth. Pragmatism is not the development of the work of the Scottish "Common Sense" School—it is the negation of it. There are clear links between the work of the Scottish Common

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 Sense School and the work of the Oxford Realist philosophers Harold Prichard and Sir William David Ross in the 20th century. <mask>'s reputation has revived in the wake of the advocacy of common sense as a philosophical method or criterion by G. E. Moore early in the 20th century, and more recently because of the attention given to <mask> by contemporary philosophers, in particular philosophers of religion in the school of Reformed epistemology such as William Alston, Alvin Plantinga, and Nicholas Wolterstorff, seeking to rebut charges that theistic belief is irrational where it has no doxastic foundations (that is, where that belief is not inferred from other adequately grounded beliefs). He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (1764, Glasgow & London), Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man (1785) and Essays on the Active Powers of Man (1788).In 1844, Schopenhauer praised <mask> for explaining that the perception of external objects does not result from the raw data that is received through the five senses:

Other philosophical positions
Though known mainly for his epistemology, <mask> is also noted for his views in the theory of action and the metaphysics of personal identity. <mask> held an incompatibilist or libertarian notion of freedom, holding that we are capable of free actions of which we are the cause, and for which we are morally appraisable. Regarding personal identity,  he rejected Locke's account that self-consciousness in the form of memory of one's experiences was the

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 basis of a person's being identical with their self over time. <mask> held that continuity of memory was neither necessary nor sufficient to make one numerically the same person at different times. <mask> also argued that the operation of our mind connecting sensations with belief in an external world is accounted for only by an intentional Creator. In his natural religion lectures, <mask> provides five arguments for the existence of God, focusing on two mainly, the cosmological and design. <mask> loves and frequently uses Samuel Clarke's cosmological argument, which says, in short that the universe either has always been, or began to exist, so there must be a cause (or first principle) for both (Cuneo and Woudenberg 242).As everything is either necessary or contingent, an Independent being is required for contingency (Cuneo and Woudenberg 242). <mask> spends even more time on his design argument, but is unclear exactly what he wanted his argument to be, as his lectures only went as far as his students needed. Though there is no perfect interpretation, <mask> states that "there are in fact the clearest marks of design and wisdom in the works of nature" (Cuneo and Woudenberg 291) If something carries marks of design (regularity or variety of structure), there must be an intelligent being behind it (<mask> EIP 66). This can't be known by experience, fitting with the casual excellence principle, but the cause can be seen in works of nature (Cuneo and Woudenberg 241). Works
 1764. An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (translated to modern

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 English). (Facsimile of the 1823 edition)
 1785.Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man. (Facsimile)
 1788. Essays on the Active Powers of the Human Mind. Facsimile)

Until recently the standard edition of the Inquiry and the Essays has been the sixth edition of William Hamilton (ed. ), Edinburgh: Maclachlan and Stewart, 1863. A new critical edition of these titles, plus correspondence and other important material, is being brought out by Edinburgh University Press as The Edinburgh Edition of <mask>. An accessible selection from Hamilton's 6th ed.is <mask>'s Inquiry and Essays, ed. Ronald Beanblossom and Keith Lehrer, Indianapolis, In: Hackett, 1983. References

Further reading
 Barker, Stephen and Tom Beauchamp, eds., <mask>: Critical Interpretations, University City Science Center, 1976. Terence Cuneo, René van Woudenberg (eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to <mask>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Daniels, Norman. <mask>'s Inquiry:The Geometry of Visibles and the Case for Realism.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Davis, William C., <mask>'s Ethics: Moral Epistemology on Legal Foundations. Continuum International, 2006. Ducheyne, Steffen. "<mask>'s Adaptation and Radicalization of Newton's Natural Philosophy". History of European Ideas 32 (2006) 173–189. Roger D. Gallie, <mask> and the Way of Ideas, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1989.Haldane, John. "<mask>, Scholasticism, and Current Philosophy of Mind" in M. Delgano and E. Matthews, eds., The Philosophy of <mask>. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1989. Lehrer, Keith. <mask>. London: Routledge, 1989. Rowe, William.<mask> on

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 Freedom and Morality. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991. Wolterstorff, N. <mask> and the Story of Epistemology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. External links

 The Papers of <mask> at the University of Aberdeen. The Edinburgh Edition of <mask> – critical edition of <mask>'s philosophical treatises and previously unpublished materials
 <mask>'s Inquiry into the Human Mind, Essays on the Active Powers..., and Essays on the Intellectual powers..., slightly modified for easier reading. <mask> at Google Books

 Common Sense Philosophy, BBC Radio 4 discussion with A.C. Grayling, Melissa Lane & Alexander Broadie (In Our Time, 21 June 2007)

1710 births
1796 deaths
Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Scottish philosophers
Calvinist and Reformed philosophers
British Christian theologians
18th-century Scottish writers
18th-century philosophers
Enlightenment philosophers
David Hume
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Academics of the University of Aberdeen
Academics of the University of Glasgow
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
People from Kincardine and Mearns
Scottish mathematicians
Scottish librarians
Critics of

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<mask><mask> is the Avalon Foundation Professor in the Humanities at Columbia University, where he has been teaching ethics, law, and political thought since 2009. He is considered a leading scholar in the field of Islamic legal studies, and has been described as one of the world's leading authorities on Islamic law. He has published over eighty books and articles on topics including law, legal theory, philosophy, political theory, and logic. In 2009, John Esposito and his review panel included <mask> in a list of the 500 most influential Muslims in the world for his research and publications on Islamic law although <mask> is Christian. <mask> gained prominence for his doctoral work challenging the notion of the so-called “the closing of the gate of ijtihad,” a narrative that was for long accepted in the field as paradigmatic. The narrative posited that Muslim jurists of the post formative period abandoned creative legal reasoning, this leading to a generalized stagnation of the law. <mask> further argued that this narrative was a product of colonial discourse that attempted to justify the colonization of Muslim lands and the destruction of indigenous Muslim legal institutions.Early life and career
<mask> <mask> was born to a Palestinian Christian family in Nazareth in 1955. He graduated from the University of Haifa, then he earned a masters degree and a Ph.D. from the University of Washington. <mask> joined

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Wael B
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 McGill University as an assistant professor of Islamic law in 1985, after receiving his Ph.D. from the University of Washington in 1983. He became a full professor in 1994, and was named a James McGill Professor in Islamic law in 2005. Research and publications

<mask>’s teaching and research deal with the problematic epistemic ruptures generated by the onset of modernity and the socio-politico-
historical forces subsumed by it; with the intellectual history of Orientalism and the repercussions of Orientalist paradigms in later
scholarship and in Islamic legal studies as a whole; and with the synchronic and diachronic development of Islamic traditions of logic, legal
theory, and substantive law and the interdependent systems within these traditions. <mask>’s writings have explored the structural dynamics of legal change in pre-modern law, and have examined the centrality of moral theory to understanding the history of Islamic law and modern political movements. For the past decade and a half, his work has increasingly focused on the critique of the modern project, including the paradigmatic structures of knowledge that drive it.His current research attempts to map the constitutional practices of Islamic governance between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, with a view, among other things, to constructing a heuristic for a critique of modern constitutional arrangements. <mask>'s major works include Restating

masks: Hallaq Hallaq Hallaq


texts: Orientalism: A Critique of Modern Knowledge (2018) and Reforming Modernity: Ethics and the New Human in the Philosophy of Abdurrahman Taha (2019), Authority, Continuity, and Change in Islamic Law (2001), The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law (2005), Shari`a: Theory, Practice, Transformations (2009), and An Introduction to Islamic Law (2009). Professor <mask>’s work is widely debated and translated, with several books and dissertations, and numerous articles, devoted to the study and analysis of his writings. His life and work have been featured in many symposia, talk shows, and documentaries by major media outlets. In 2015, his Impossible State (2013) won Columbia’s distinguished Book Award for the two years prior, and since it appeared in Arabic in 2014, it has commanded much attention in academic circles and mass media in the Muslim world. In 2007, he won the Islamic Republic of Iran’s best book prize for his Origins and Evolution, and in 2020, the Nautilus Book Award for Reforming Modernity. In 2021, he was awarded the TÜBA Prize, given by the Turkish Academy of Science in recognition of innovative and path-breaking scholarship in the Humanities and Social Sciences.Dozens of his major articles and all his books have now been rendered into Arabic and Turkish, and many are translated into several other languages including Indonesian, Japanese, Persian, Urdu, Hebrew, Italian, German, French, and most recently


texts: Albanian, Russian, and Bengali. In 2018, <mask> published Restating Orientalism: A Critique of Modern Knowledge published by Columbia University Press. Aziz Rana of Cornell Law School, author of The Two Faces of American Freedom, describes the text as "a brilliant interrogation of Said's famous concept, highlighting the extent which the issue of Orientalism is not simply one of problematic European authors, but instead goes to the heart of how the modern project itself constitutes subjects, knowledge, and power... It is essential reading and will be debated by scholars for years to come." Walter Mignolo, an Argentine semiotician (École des Hautes Études) and professor at Duke University, said of Restating Orientalism that: "It is becoming increasingly evident among decolonial thinkers that colonial management (with or without colonies, with or without settlers) is a question of controlling and managing knowledge, and that power differential is implicit in agents, institutions, and languages of epistemic governance. <mask> B<mask> brilliantly drives us, through a meticulous reading of Edward Said’s Orientalism, to the awareness that domination is grounded on epistemic sovereignty and that liberation is unthinkable without epistemic freedom." Professor of Near Eastern Studies at Cornell, David S. Powers, noted in 2010: "During the past decade, <mask> has turned from the medium of the scholarly article to that of

masks:
Hallaq
Wael
. Hallaq
Hallaq


texts:
 the scholarly monograph.Synthesizing his findings and placing them within a larger conceptual framework, he has written three important monographs published by Cambridge University Press: A History of Islamic Legal Theories (1997); Authority, Continuity, and Change in Islamic Law (2001), and The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law (2004), a stunning accomplishment for a man of his age. Suffice it to say that when <mask> B<mask> speaks, historians of Islamic law listen." Courses taught

Over the last three and a half decades, <mask> has taught a wide range of courses, both graduate and undergraduate, the latter in particular since he joined Columbia. The undergraduate course offerings include modules on key classical texts in translation; Central Questions in Islamic Law; Jihad, Liberalism and Violence; Sufism, Sharia and Politics; and History of Islamic law across the centuries. On the graduate level, he taught seminars – all conducted on the basis of primary Arabic sources – in Quranic exegesis; Hadith; Usul al-Fiqh; Fiqh; Adab al-Mufti; Adab al-Qadi; Logic (Mantiq); Political texts and mirrors for the prince; Sufism; and Nahda writings and modern moral philosophy. Current research

<mask>’s current research addresses questions around governance in Islamic history from the formative period down to the middle Ottoman centuries, with a specific focus on the Mamluk domain. Of the two volumes projected, one will

masks:
Wael
. Hallaq
Hallaq
Hallaq


texts:
 cover the legal history of Mamluk society and “state,” dealing with various aspects of how “law” operated under that empire.The second volume will examine the structures of what might be called the Islamic constitutional conception in the middle period. The idea is to examine the various parts or “branches” of governance and how these parts interacted with, or against, each other. This includes a study of the Islamic “political man,” a particular constitution of an archetypal subjectivity that was assumed to sustain the government apparatus. Yet, the discourse of this volume never abandons comparison and contrast with the evolution of political structures in Europe since the fifteenth century, bringing one to bear on the other. The final aim is not only to produce a narrative of Islamic constitutional history, but also a critical heuristic that sheds light on the crisis of modern constitutional arrangements. Publications

 Authored Volumes
Reforming Modernity: Ethics and the New Human in the Philosophy of Abdurrahman Taha (New York: Columbia University Press, 2019); Winner of the Silver Nautulus Award, 2020; Arabic translation (Beirut, 2019); Turkish translation (Istanbul, 2020). Al-Qur’an wal-Shari`a: Nahw Dusturiyya Islamiyya Jadida (Beirut: al-Shabaka al-`Arabiyya, 2019).Restating Orientalism: A Critique of Modern Knowledge (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018); Arabic translation (Beirut, 2018); Turkish


texts: translation (Istanbul, 2020); German Translation (Berlin, 2022). The Impossible State: Islam, Politics and Modernity’s Moral Predicament (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013); Winner of the Distinguished Book Award of Columbia University Press and the Office of the Provost; Arabic translation (Beirut, 2014; second printing in the same year); Indonesian translation (Yogyakarta, 2015); Urdu Translation (Lahore, 2018); Turkish Translation (Istanbul, 2019); Japanese and Chinese translations in progress. An Introduction to Islamic Law (Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009). Shari'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations (Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009). The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law (Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005). Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed? The Early Essays on the History of Islamic Legal Theories by <mask> B. <mask> / ed.and trans. Atsushi Okuda (Tokyo: Keio University Press, 2003; in Japanese, containing translations of a number of the below articles). Authority, Continuity, and Change in Islamic law (Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul al-Fiqh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Paperback edition, 1999; Reprinted, 2002; Translated into Indonesian (Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2000); Arabic translation (Beirut,

masks: Wael Hallaq


texts:
 2007); Japanese translation (Tokyo, 2010); Persian translation (Tehran, 2008); Russian translation (Moscow 2020). Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians translated with an introduction and notes by <mask> B<mask> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; a translation of Jahd al-qarīḥah fī tajrīd al-Naṣīḥah, an abridgment by al-Suyūṭī of Ibn Taymīyah's work Naṣīḥat ahl al-bayān fī al-radd ʻalá manṭiq al-Yūnān). Edited Anthologies
The formation of Islamic law (Aldershot, UK; Burlington, VT: Ashgate/Variorum, 2004). Islamic studies presented to Charles J. Adams / edited by <mask> B<mask> and Donald P. Little.(Leiden; New York: Brill, 1991). Tradition, Modernity, and Postmodernity in Arabic Literature : Essays in Honor of Professor Issa J. Boullata, coeditor Kamal Abdel-Malek  (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2000). Selected Articles
"God Cannot be Harmed’: On Huquq Allah/Huquq al-`Ibad Continuum,” Routledge Handbook of Islamic Law, ed. Khalid Abou El Fadl, et al (London: Routledge, 2019). "Usul al-Fiqh and Shafi`i’s Risala,” Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies, 19 (2019), 129-183. "Seventeen Theses on History,” in Jason Mohaghegh et al., eds., Manifestos of World Thought (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2018)."Quranic Magna Carta: On the Origins of the Rule of Law in Islam,” in R. Griffith-Jones and Mark Hill, eds., Magna Carta, Religion and the Rule of Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014): 157-76. "On

masks:
Wael
. Hallaq
Wael
. Hallaq


texts: Orientalism, Self-Consciousness and History,” Islamic Law and Society, 18, 3-4 (2011): 387-439. "Qur'anic Constitutionalism and Moral Governmentality: Further Notes on the Founding Principles of Islamic Society and Polity," Comparative Islamic Studies, 8, 1-2 (2012): 1-51. "Groundwork of the Moral Law: A New Look at the Qur'ān and the Genesis of Sharī'a," Islamic Law and Society, vol.16 (2009): 239-79. "Islamic Law: History and Transformation," The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 4, ed. R. Irwin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010): 142-83."What is Sharia?" Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law, 2005–2006, vol. 12 (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2007): 151-80. "Juristic Authority vs. State Power: The Legal Crises of Modern Islam," Journal of Law and Religion, 19, 2 (2003–04), 101-116. "Can the Shari'a be Restored?" in Yvonne Y. Haddad and Barbara F. Stowasser, eds., Islamic Law and the Challenges of Modernity (Walnut Creek: Altamira Press, 2004), 21-53. "'Muslim Rage' and Islamic Law," Hastings Law Journal, 54 (August, 2003), 1-17."The Quest for Origins or Doctrine? Islamic Legal Studies as Colonialist Discourse," UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law, 2, 1 (2002–03), 1-31. "A Prelude to Ottoman Reform: Ibn 'Abidîn on Custom and Legal Change," Histories of the Modern Middle East: New Directions, eds. I. Gershoni et al. (Boulder & London: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 37-61. "Takhrij and the


texts: Construction of Juristic Authority," Studies in Islamic Legal Theory, ed. Bernard G. Weiss (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 317-35."On Dating Mâlik's Muwatta'," UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law, 1, 1 (2001–02), 47-65. "From Geographical to Personal Schools? : A Reevaluation," Islamic Law and Society, 8,1 (2001), 1-26. "The Author-Jurist and Legal Change in Traditional Islamic Law," RIMO (Maastricht), 18 (2000), 31-75. "The Authenticity of Prophetic Hâdith: A Pseudo-Problem," Studia Islamica 89 (1999), 75-90. "Qadis Communicating: Legal Change and the Law of Documentary Evidence," al-Qantara, XX (1999), 437-66. "The Qadi's Diwan (Sijill) before the Ottomans," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 61, 3 (1998), 415-36."Introduction: Issues and Problems," (as Guest Editor) Islamic Law and Society, 3, 2 (1996), 127-36. "Ifta' and Ijtihad in Sunni Legal Theory: A Developmental Account," in Kh. Masud, Brink Messick, and David Powers, eds., Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftîs and their Fatwas (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), 33-43. "Model Shurut Works and the Dialectic of Doctrine and Practice," Islamic Law and Society, 2, 2 (1995), 109-34. "Murder in Cordoba: Ijtihad, Ifta' and the Evolution of Substantive Law in Medieval Islam" Acta Orientalia (Oslo), 55 (1994), 55-83. "From Fatwas to Furu': Growth and Change in Islamic Substantive Law" Islamic Law and Society, 1 (February 1994),


texts: 17-56. Co-author.Symposium on Religious Law: Roman Catholic, Islamic, and Jewish Treatment of Familial Issues, Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Journal, 1, 16 (1993), 41f, 53f, 79f. "Was al-Shafi'i the Master Architect of Islamic Jurisprudence?," International Journal of Middle East Studies, 4 (November 1993), 587-605. "Usul al-Fiqh: Beyond Tradition," Journal of Islamic Studies, 3, 2 (1992), 172-202. "Ibn Taymiyya on the Existence of God," Acta Orientalia (Copenhagen), 52 (1991), 49-69. (Translated into Turkish by Bilal Kuspinar, "Ibn Teymiyye'ye Göre Allah'in Varligi," Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 3 (April, 1993), 135-153). "The Primacy of the Qur'an in Shatibi's Legal Theory," in <mask> B. <mask> and D. Little, eds., Islamic Studies Presented to Charles J. Adams (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991), 65-86."On Inductive Corroboration, Probability and Certainty in Sunni Legal Thought," in Nicholas L. Heer, ed., Islamic Law and Jurisprudence: Studies in Honor of Farhat J. Ziadeh (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 3-31. "Logic, Formal Arguments and Formalization of Arguments in Sunni Jurisprudence," Arabica, 37, 3 (1990), 315-358. "The Use and Abuse of Evidence: The Question of Provincial and Roman Influences on Early Islamic Law," Journal of the American Oriental Society, 110, 1 (1990), 79-91. "Non-Analogical Arguments in Sunni Juridical Qiyas," Arabica, 36, 3 (1989), 286-306. "Notes on the


texts: Term Qarina in Islamic Legal Discourse," Journal of the American Oriental Society, 108, 3 (1988), 475-80. "A Tenth-Eleventh Century Treatise on Juridical Dialectic," Muslim World, 77, 2-3 (1987), 198-227. "The Development of Logical Structure in Islamic Legal Theory," Der Islam, 64, 1 (1987),42-67.Reprinted in Islamic Law and Legal Theory, ed. Ian Edge (The International Library of Essays in Law and Legal Theory, series editor Tom D. Campbell) (Hampshire: Dartmouth Publishing Co., 1993). "On the Origins of the Controversy about the Existence of Mujtahids and the Gate of Ijtihad," Studia Islamica, 63 (1986),129-41. Persian translation by A. Kazemi-Moussavi, "Rishaha-yi Bahth dar Bara-yi Vujud-i Mujtahid va Bab-i Ijtihad," Tahqiqat-i Islami, 5, 1-2 (1369/1990-1),123-34. Translated into Indonesian by Nurul Agustini in Hikmat, 7 (1992), 43-54. "On the Authoritativeness of Sunni Consensus," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, 18, 4 (1986),427-54. "The Logic of Legal Reasoning in Religious and Non-Religious Cultures: The Case of Islamic Law and Common Law," The Cleveland State Law Review, 34, 1 (1985-6), 79-96.Reprinted in Comparative Legal Cultures, ed. Csaba Varga (The International Library of Essays in Law and Legal Theory, series editor T. D. Campbell) (Hampshire: Dartmouth Publishing Co., 1992), 401-418. "Considerations on the Function and Character of Sunni Legal Theory," Journal of the American


texts:
 Oriental Society, 104, 4 (1984), 679-89. "Caliphs, Jurists and the Saljuqs in the Political Thought of Juwayni," Muslim World, 74, 1 (1984), 26-41. "Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?" International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16, 1 (1984), 3-41. Reprinted in Islamic Law and Legal Theory, ed.Ian Edge (The International Library of Essays in Law and Legal Theory, series editor Tom D. Campbell (Hampshire: Dartmouth Publishing Co., 1993); Translated into Hebrew in Al-Jama'a, the Chaim Herzog Center for Middle East Studies, 8 (2001),118-68, with an introduction by Nimrod Hurvitz. References

Living people
Scholars of Islam
1955 births
Columbia University faculty
University of Washington alumni
20th-century scholars
21st-century


texts:
<mask> (27 February 1717 – 22 August 1791) was a Prussian biblical scholar and teacher. He was member of a family that was committed to solid discipline in Hebrew and the cognate languages, which distinguished the University of Halle in the period of Pietism. He was a member of the Göttingen School of History. Life and work

<mask> was born on 27 February 1717 in Halle an der Saale. His Pietistic Lutheran family placed a great deal of importance in the study of oriental languages in fulfilling the Church's goal. He was trained for academic life under his father's eye. At Halle he was influenced, especially in philosophy, by Siegmund J. Baumgarten (1706–1757), the link between the old Pietism and J. S. Semler, while he cultivated his strong taste for history under Chancellor Ludwig.In 1739, he completed his doctoral dissertation, where he defended the antiquity and divine authority of the vowel points in Hebrew. His scholarship still moved along the old traditional lines, and he was also much exercised by certain religious scruples, with some seeing a conflict between his independent mind and that of submission to authority - encouraged by the Lutheranism in which he had been trained. He visited England and the Netherlands in 1741–1742. In Holland, he became acquainted with Albert Schultens, whose philological views would influence him. In 1745 he became an assistant professor (Privatdozent) of oriental languages at the Göttingen. In 1746 he became professor extraordinarius and in 1750 ordinarius. He remained in Göttingen until his death in 1791.From 1771-1785 he was editor of the Orientalische Und Exegetische Bibliothek. One of his works was a translation of four parts of Samuel Richardson's Clarissa; and translations of some of the then current English paraphrases on biblical books showed his sympathy with a school which attracted him by its freer air. His Oriental studies were reshaped by reading Schultens; for the Halle school, with all its

masks:
Johann David Michaelis
Michaelis


texts: learning, had no conception of the principles on which a fruitful connection between Biblical and Oriental learning could be established. His linguistic work was hampered by the lack of manuscript material, which is felt in his philological writings, e.g., in his valuable Supplementa to the Hebrew lexicons (1784–1792). He could not become such an Arabist as J. J. Reiske; and, though for many years the most famous teacher of Semitic languages in Europe, neither his grammatical nor his critical work has left a permanent mark, with the exception perhaps of his text-critical studies on the Peshitta. He had a particular interest for history, antiquities, and especially geography and natural science. He had in fact started his university course as a medicinae cultor, and in his autobiography he half regrets that he did not choose the medical profession.In geography he found a field hardly touched since Samuel Bochart, in whose footsteps he followed in the Spicilegium geographiae hebraeorum exterae post Bochartum (1769–1780). Michaelis inspired the famous Danish Arabia Expedition (1761–67), conducted by Carsten Niebuhr and Peter Forsskål. The cuneiform inscriptions Niebuhr brought back from the expedition were the basis for the earliest attempts made to decipher cuneiform. In spite of his doctrinal writings—which at the time made no little noise, so that his Compendium of Dogmatic (1760) was confiscated in Sweden, and the Knighthood of the Polar Star was afterwards given him in reparation—it was the natural side of the Bible that really attracted him. <mask> arguably contributed the most in introducing the method of studying Hebrew antiquity as an integral part of ancient Eastern life. The personal character of <mask> can be read between the lines of his autobiography with the aid of the other materials collected by J. M. Hassencamp (J. D. Michaelis Lebensbeschreibung, etc., 1793). The same volume contains a full list of his works.Besides those already

masks: Michaelis Michaelis


texts:
 mentioned it is sufficient to refer to his Introduction to the New Testament (the first edition, 1750, preceded the full development of his powers, and is a very different book from the later editions), his reprint of Robert Lowth's Praelectiones with important additions (1758–1762), his German translation of the Bible with notes (1773–1792), his Orientalische und exegetische Bibliothek (1775–1785) and Neue O. und E. Bib. (1786–1791), his Mosaisches Recht (1770–1771) (quite influenced by Montesquieu's L'esprit des lois of 1748) and his edition of Edmund Castell's Lexicon syriacum (1787–1788). His Litterarischer Briefwechsel (1794–1796) contains much that is interesting for the history of learning in his time. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1789. Family
 Michaelis great uncle <mask> <mask> (1668–1738) was the chief director of A.H. Francke's Collegium orientale theologicum, a practical school of Biblical and Oriental philology then quite unique, and the author of an annotated Hebrew Bible and various exegetical works of reputation, especially the Adnotationes uberiores in hagiographos (1720). In his chief publications J. H<mask> had as fellow-worker his sister's son Christian Benedikt <mask> (1680–1764), the father of <mask>, who was likewise influential as professor at the University of Halle, and a sound scholar, especially in Syriac. <mask>' daughter Caroline played an important role in early German Romanticism as the wife of critic August Wilhelm von Schlegel and later of philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.References

1717 births
1791 deaths
People from Halle (Saale)
People from the Duchy of Magdeburg
German orientalists
German Lutheran theologians
18th-century German Protestant theologians
German scholars
University of Göttingen faculty
German male non-fiction writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
18th-century German male writers
18th-century biblical scholars
Lutheran biblical scholars
18th-century Christian biblical

masks:
Johann Heinrich
Michaelis
. Michaelis
Michaelis
Johann David
Michaelis


texts:
<mask> (1922–2001) was a Welsh operatic tenor who regularly performed on BBC radio from the late 1940s onwards and who later featured among the soloists in the Independent Television series Gwlad y Gan which - as Land of Song - was networked to a wide audience throughout the country between 1958 and 1964. The musical show was made by TWW (Television Wales and the West) in Cardiff’s Pontcanna studios, and was designed to celebrate Wales within Wales and beyond. Land of Song

During its six-year run, Gwlad y Gan, or 'Land of Song', offered a Sunday evening entertainment based on Welsh music and song led by the baritone Ivor Emmanuel, who was already well known from his success in West End musicals on the London stage. Around Emmanuel were gathered a children’s chorus, an adult chorus and, from its ranks, a select group of male singers – <mask>, Bryn Williams, John Willams and Harry Price – who accompanied Emmanuel in a variety of set-pieces. <mask> also sang regular solos, and was often paired in duet with the young soprano Sian Hopkins. The popularity of the show - regularly playing to ten million viewers at its peak - led to the release of two Land of Song records (Delysé EDPs 209 and 210), made in London in 1960 by the record producer Isabella Wallich. They sold very well and proved the first "big hit" for Wallich's fledgling Delysé label, reaching number 13 in the popular music charts of 1961.Life and career

Born and educated in Aberystwyth in Ceredigion, where he trained as an engineer, <mask> spent the war years in London, working for the General Electric Company in Wembley making precision parts for armaments as part of the war effort. While there he began his public singing career, performing in oratorios and other concerts. Moving back

masks:
Denis Griffiths
Denis Griffiths
Griffiths
Denis Griffiths


texts:
 to Wales at the end of the war, he continued to pursue singing opportunities. Having taken singing lessons while in London, he now enrolled at the Cardiff College of Music (now the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama) and, towards the end of 1947, successfully auditioned for the original BBC Welsh Chorus, founded by the BBC's Director of Music in Wales, Idris Lewis. The new Chorus, conducted by Arwel Hughes, was established to complement the BBC Welsh Orchestra which was reformed after the war, in 1946, at the instigation of Sir Adrian Boult. Both were cornerstones of the BBC's renewed commitment in the post-war years to the encouragement and promotion of sung excellence through its broadcasts to Wales and the UK. Singing on the radio

<mask>'s membership of the new BBC Welsh Chorus led rapidly to other broadcast work which included solo appearances in programmes for the BBC Light Programme such as Footlight Favourites and Memories Live Longer than Dreams, and for the BBC Welsh Home Service in musical and cultural anthologies such as Welsh Magazine, Their Songs and Ours, Welsh Song Recital, Country Magazine, Rhythm Rendezvous, and Sing Lads Sing.As a native Welsh speaker he was also in demand at the BBC as a singer in a variety of Welsh language musical broadcasts such as Hob Y Deri Dando, Dechrau’r Dydd and Bore Da. His radio work during the 1950s included appearances as a soloist with popular singing groups of the time such as the Garth Players and he was, for a time, a member of the Lyrian Singers. He performed live broadcast recitals of light songs and favourite numbers from the shows, together with work by contemporary Welsh composers such as Mansel Thomas and Idris Lewis himself. His lyric style singled him out as a favoured soloist for


texts: specialised music programmes. In July 1953, for example, he sang in a tribute to a well-loved songwriter: Edward German – A Man and his Music was broadcast both on the BBC Welsh Home Service and on the General Overseas Service of the BBC. He also sang for the BBC Light Programme's Woman's Hour. From 1951 onwards, he appeared in a variety of Welsh language educational broadcasts, including First Stages in Welsh and Second Stages in Welsh, and from 1957 became the resident tenor in the long-running educational radio series Sain Cerdd a Chan (‘Sound Story and Song’).Typically this programme brought together an intimate group of musicians (a singer, a pianist and, for example, a percussionist and glockenspiel player) to demonstrate songs in Welsh as an aid for school children to learn the language and to learn something about tonic sol fa and music-making in general. By the mid-1950s, he was also appearing as a member of the BBC Welsh Singers (also known as the BBC Octet), a singing group retained by the BBC specifically to perform the music in its weekly religious broadcasts which included services and other meditative programmes such as Lighten Our Darkness. Consisting of two sopranos, two altos, two tenors and two basses, the typical character of the octet's work is reflected in an early notice seen in the BBC Annual Report: "The BBC Welsh Singers gave notable performances of a number of Bach cantatas sung in Welsh. Their quiet, nostalgic programmes of Welsh part-songs of the nineteenth century were especially popular." From 1964 <mask> was the official secretary of the octet, but in 1957 it was his membership of that group that led directly to his involvement in TV's Land of Song. Through founder octet member and Cardiff music teacher Clifford


texts:
 Bunford, the BBC singers provided the core of the adult chorus recruited by ITV's music director Norman Whitehead for TWW's new Welsh musical show. After Land of Song

When Land of Song ended in 1964, <mask> continued to sing for TWW.He was a regular tenor soloist on TV shows such as Y Caban Pren (‘The Wood Cabin’ or 'Log Cabin'), which was designed to continue the popular formula of well-loved musical numbers performed in a rustic setting. But by the late 1960s he had committed himself fully to his BBC radio singing work. Outside of the BBC, <mask> was a long-standing member of the Cardiff Bach Choir (founded in 1962 by Clifford Bunford) and over many years sang tenor solos in the choir's presentations of the great oratorio works by Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Stainer, Fauré and others in halls and churches throughout South Wales and in concerts given at Llandaff Cathedral in Cardiff. Aside from his singing, he remained a skilled professional engineer, a maker of precision instruments, and throughout his musical career worked full-time for the NHS, becoming Chief Medical Physics Technician at Velindre Hospital in Whitchurch, Cardiff, where he fashioned a number of ground-breaking technical solutions to aid hospital and medical procedures. He continued singing for Sain Cerdd a Chan on BBC Radio right up until his retirement in 1984. At his death, in February 2001, he was survived by his wife of more than fifty years, Joyce, and their two sons, Huw and Peter. References

External links
Cardiff Bach Choir website, with biog details of Clifford Bunford: http://cardiffbachoir.org.uk/index.html

1922 births
2001 deaths
Welsh tenors
Alumni of the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama
People from Aberystwyth
20th-century Welsh male opera

masks:
Griffiths
Denis Griffiths


texts: <mask> (born May 9, 1949) is an American musician, singer-songwriter, and composer. Commonly nicknamed the "Piano Man" after his first major hit and signature song of the same name as well as the similarly named 1973 album, he has led a commercially successful career as a solo artist since the 1970s, having released 12 studio albums from 1971 to 1993 as well as one studio album in 2001. He is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, as well as the seventh-best-selling recording artist and the fourth-best-selling solo artist in the United States, with over 160 million records sold worldwide. His 1985 compilation album, Greatest Hits Vol. 1 & 2, is one of the best-selling albums in the United States. Born in The Bronx, <mask> grew up on Long Island, and both places influenced his music. Growing up, he took piano lessons at his mother's insistence.After dropping out of high school to pursue a musical career, <mask> took part in two short-lived bands, The Hassles and Attila, before signing a record deal with Family Productions and kicking off a solo career in 1971 with his first release Cold Spring Harbor. In 1972, <mask> caught the attention of Columbia Records after a live radio performance of the song "Captain Jack" became popular in Philadelphia, prompting him to sign a new record deal with the company and release his second album, Piano Man, in 1973. After releasing the albums Streetlife Serenade and Turnstiles in 1974 and 1976 respectively, <mask> released his critical and commercial breakthrough album, The Stranger, in 1977. This album became Columbia's best-selling release, selling over 10 million copies

masks:
William Martin Joel
Joel
Joel
Joel
Joel


texts: and spawning several hit singles, including "Just the Way You Are", "Movin' Out (Anthony's Song)", "Only the Good Die Young", and "She's Always a Woman"; another song on this album, "Scenes from an Italian Restaurant", is <mask>'s favorite of his own songs and has become a staple of his live shows. <mask>'s next album, 52nd Street, was released in 1978 and became his first album to peak at No.1 on the Billboard 200 chart. <mask> released his seventh studio album, Glass Houses, in 1980 in an attempt to further establish himself as a rock artist; this release featured "It's Still Rock and Roll to Me" (<mask>'s first single to top the Billboard Hot 100 chart), "You May Be Right", "Don't Ask Me Why", and "Sometimes a Fantasy". His next album, The Nylon Curtain, was released in 1982, and stemmed from a desire from <mask> to create more lyrically and melodically ambitious music.An Innocent Man, released in 1983, served as an homage to genres of music which <mask> had grown up with in the 1950s, such as rhythm and blues and doo-wop; this release featured "Uptown Girl" and "The Longest Time", two of his best-known songs. After releasing the albums The Bridge and Storm Front in 1986 and 1989 respectively, <mask> released his twelfth studio album, River of Dreams, in 1993. He went on to release Fantasies and Delusions, a 2001 album featuring classical compositions composed by <mask> and performed by British-Korean pianist Richard Hyung-ki Joo. <mask> provided voiceover work in 1988 for the Disney animated film Oliver & Company, in which he played the character Dodger with his song, "Why Should I Worry? ", and contributed to the

masks: Joel Joel Joel Joel Joel Joel Joel Joel Joel