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<mask> (; 15 January 1898  October/November 1941) was a Red Army major general and a Hero of the Soviet Union. Born to a peasant family, he moved to Petrograd and became a metalworker at the Putilov Plant, where he became a Red Guard squad leader and fought in the storming of the Winter Palace. He joined the Red Army and fought in the Russian Civil War. During the interwar period <mask> became an armored corps officer and fought as a tank battalion commander during the Spanish Civil War. For his leadership, he received the title Hero of the Soviet Union on 21 June 1937. <mask> returned to the Soviet Union and became a tank corps commander, which he led in the Soviet invasion of Poland. He led a mechanized corps in the initial stages of Operation Barbarossa and became commander of the 50th Army in August 1941.He became commander of the Bryansk Front in October 1941 and was fatally wounded during the breakout from the Bryansk Pocket. Early life and Russian Civil War
<mask> was born to a peasant family on 15 January 1898 in Zalustezhye, part of the Saint Petersburg Governorate. From a young age, he worked as a stove fitter alongside his father. After graduating from the fourth grade, he moved to Petrograd and worked as a metalworker at the Putilov Plant in Petrograd and as a chauffeur. There he came into contact with the Bolsheviks. In March 1917, he became a squad leader of the 2nd Petrograd Red Guard Detachment. <mask> participated in the storming of the Winter Palace during the October Revolution.He joined the Red Army in 1918 and fought in the Russian Civil War. In 1920, he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Interwar years
Around 1920, <mask> was transferred to Central Asia and fought in the suppression of the

masks:
Mikhail Petrovich Petrov
Petrov
Petrov
Petrov
Petrov
Petrov


type: original

texts: Basmachi movement, a Muslim uprising against Russian and Soviet rule. He later fought against insurgents in the Caucasus before being sent to the Tambov Infantry School, from which he graduated in 1923. While at the school, he participated in the suppression of the Tambov Rebellion. He graduated from the Transcaucasian Political School in 1925. In 1932, he graduated from the armored commanders refresher courses.<mask> served as the commander of a training battalion in the 1st Mechanized Brigade, before fighting in the Spanish Civil War, serving as a battalion commander in Dmitry Pavlov's tank brigade from October 1936 to June 1937. He was awarded the Order of the Red Star on 2 January 1937. On 21 June he was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union and the Order of Lenin for his leadership. Returning to the Soviet Union, he held appointments as a battalion commander and then as a tank brigade commander. In 1937, he became commander of a tank division. In June of that year, he became commander of the 5th Mechanized Corps. <mask> also became a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union at its first convocation.In 1938, the corps was converted into the 15th Tank Corps. He participated in the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, during which he led the corps in the Battle of Grodno. During the invasion, the corps was resupplied with fuel by parachute. On 4 June 1940, he was promoted to major general. In July 1940 he became deputy commander of the 6th Mechanized Corps. In October he became inspector of armor for the Western Special Military District. In 1941, <mask> graduated from higher academic courses at the Military Academy of the General Staff.On 11 March 1941, he was appointed commander of the 17th Mechanized Corps,

masks: Petrov Petrov Petrov


texts:
 which was stationed near Slonim. The 17th Mechanized Corps was a cadre-strength formation equipped with only 36 tanks. World War II
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, <mask>'s corps fought in the Battle of Białystok–Minsk. The corps was initially stationed in the rear but was moved forward to Baranovichi to stop the German advance, after the initial German breakthrough. On 26 June it fought defensive battles around Baranovichi, Stowbtsy, and Minsk, but the XLVII Army Corps (Motorized) managed to penetrate the corps' defenses. Outnumbered, the 17th Mechanized Corps was unable to offer much resistance to the attack and its remnants retreated eastwards to the Berezina, where they linked up with other Soviet units. It suffered heavy losses in the fighting and on 5 July became part of the 21st Army after being ordered to move to Babruysk on the previous day.By 7 July the corps had no armored vehicles left and later in the month the corps was withdrawn to the Sukhinichi area with the 4th Army. It was then converted into the 147th Tank Brigade on 1 August. In early August 1941, <mask> was appointed commander of the 20th Rifle Corps in the Gomel area. On 16 August, he became commander of the new 50th Army of the Bryansk Front as a result of a Stavka directive on 14 August. The 50th Army defended the Bryansk and Kaluga approaches, and conducted unsuccessful counterattacks against a German bridgehead on the Desna River. The army's sector was relatively calm during September and around this time the 50th Army headquarters was visited by journalist Vasily Grossman. In early October, the army was surrounded during the Orel-Bryansk Defensive Operation, in an area known as the Bryansk Pocket.On 7 October, while trapped

masks: Petrov Petrov


texts:
 in the pocket with his troops, <mask> became commander of the Bryansk Front after front commander Andrey Yeryomenko was mistakenly reported killed. Death
There are differing accounts of <mask>'s death. According to Aleksander Maslov, he was seriously wounded attempting to break out of the pocket and died on 10 October 1941. John Erickson states that he was wounded during the breakout and was hidden by his soldiers in a woodcutter's hut near Karachev, where he died of gangrene on 13 October. In 1956, <mask>'s son, <mask>, investigated the circumstances of his death. Alexander concluded that his father had been shot through both hips during the breakout, taken to the village of Golynka and hidden in the house of the Novokreshchenovy family. By this time <mask> was suffering from gangrene and could not be moved.Novokreshchenov's wife reportedly threw an old coat over him when German troops searched the house, claiming he was her husband. Another group of Soviet soldiers moved him  to an isolated cabin. As the gangrene worsened, the soldiers and civilians decided to take him to Karachev for treatment. He rejected the idea and reportedly died ten days later. <mask> was buried near the Golynka village in the Karachevsky District. In 1956, he was reburied in the Bryansk cemetery. Notes and citations

Notes

Citations

References

1898 births
1941 deaths
People from Luzhsky District
People from Gdovsky Uyezd
Bolsheviks
First convocation members of the Soviet of the Union
Soviet major generals
Soviet military personnel of the Russian Civil War
Soviet people of the Spanish Civil War
People of the Soviet invasion of Poland
Soviet military personnel killed in World War II
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order

masks:
Petrov
Petrov
Petrov
Alexander Petrov
Petrov
Petrov


texts:
<mask>  (February 18, 1948 – June 16, 2019) was an American psychologist and educator who originated and developed eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), a form of psychotherapy for resolving the symptoms of traumatic and other disturbing life experiences. In 1987, she had an experience walking through a park that ignited the chance observation that moving her eyes from side to side appeared to reduce the disturbance of negative thoughts and memories. This experience led her to examine this phenomenon more systematically. Working with approximately 70 volunteers, she developed standardized procedures to maximize therapeutic outcomes, conducted additional research and published a randomized controlled study with trauma victims. After further research and elaboration of the methodology, she published a textbook in 1995 detailing the eight phases of this form of psychotherapy. EMDR was recommended as an effective treatment for trauma by some international practice guidelines. However, a recent study found the treatment was not effective for active military and post-military service personnel.As well, the treatment received a 'conditionally recommended' rating by the American Psychological Association in 2017 along with brief eclectic psychotherapy and narrative exposure therapy. This rating was behind 'strongly recommended' treatments such as CBT, CPT, PE, and CT. Early life
<mask> was born in Brooklyn, the daughter of Dan, who managed a garage and a fleet of taxis, and his wife, Shirley. The death of her younger sister Debra at the age of nine affected her deeply. Education
<mask> held a BA (1968) and MA (1974) in English Literature from Brooklyn

masks:
Francine Shapiro
Shapiro
Shapiro


texts:
 College, City University of New York. In 1974, while employed full-time as a high school English teacher, she enrolled in a PhD program in English Literature at New York University. In 1979, having completed all but her dissertation, she was diagnosed with cancer.<mask> travelled, then settled in San Diego and set up a nonprofit organization, Human Development Institute, along with Shirley Phares-Kime. Her post-recovery experiences shifted her attention from literature to the effects of stress on the immune system, based on the work of Norman Cousins and others. Over the next few years she participated in numerous workshops and programs exploring various stress reduction and self-care procedures. During that time, she enrolled in the Professional School of Psychological Studies, San Diego (which was not regionally accredited, but was approved by the state of California for psychologist licensure and is now defunct). Her observations regarding the beneficial effect of eye movements, and the development of procedures to utilize them in clinical practice, became the basis of her dissertation. She received her PhD in 1988, and her thesis was published in the Journal of Traumatic Studies in 1989,  followed by an invited article that was published in the Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. Affiliations, presentations, publications
<mask> went on to devote herself to the development and research of EMDR therapy.She was a senior research fellow emeritus at the Mental Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, executive director of the EMDR Institute, Watsonville, California, and founder and president emeritus of EMDR Humanitarian Assistance

masks: Shapiro Shapiro


texts:
 Programs, a non-profit organization that coordinates disaster response and pro bono trainings worldwide. The organization was a recipient of the 2011 International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies Sarah Haley Memorial Award for Clinical Excellence. <mask> was designated as one of the “Cadre of Experts” of the American Psychological Association & Canadian Psychological Association Joint Initiative on Ethnopolitical Warfare, and served as advisor to a wide variety of trauma treatment and outreach organizations and journals. She was an invited speaker at psychology conferences and universities worldwide, and wrote and co-authored more than 60 journal articles, chapters, and books about EMDR, including the primary text Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing:  Basic Principles, Protocols and Procedures. She was a licensed clinical psychologist and resided in Northern California. Awards
As the developer of EMDR, <mask> was the recipient of a variety of awards, including the International Sigmund Freud Award for Psychotherapy of the City of Vienna in conjunction with the World Council for Psychotherapy, the American Psychological Association Trauma Psychology Division Award for Outstanding Contributions to Practice in Trauma Psychology, and the Distinguished Scientific Achievement in Psychology Award presented by the California Psychological Association. Death
<mask> received a second cancer diagnosis in her later years.She died suddenly on June 16, 2019 at a medical center North of San Francisco not far from her home, after a long-term struggle with respiratory issues. The actual cause of death was unknown. Publications

Books
 <mask>, F (2001). Eye

masks: Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro


texts:
 Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures. Guildford Press. <mask>, F (Ed.) (2002).EMDR as an Integrative Psychotherapy Approach: Experts of Diverse Orientations Explore the Paradigm Prism. APA. <mask>, F. (2012). Getting Past Your Past: Take Control of Your Life with Self-Help Techniques from EMDR Therapy. New York: Rodale. <mask>, F & Forrest, M S (2004). EMDR: The Breakthrough Therapy for Overcoming Anxiety, Stress and Trauma.Basic books. <mask>, F., Kaslow, F., & Maxfield, L. (Eds.) (2007). Handbook of EMDR and Family Therapy Processes. Wiley. Solomon, M.F.,  Neborsky,  R.J.,  McCullough,  L.,  Alpert,  M.,  <mask>,  F., & Malan,  D. (2001).Short-Term Therapy for Long-Term Change. New York: Norton. Adler-Tapia, R., Settle, C., & <mask>, F. (2012). Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) psychotherapy with children who have experienced sexual abuse and trauma. In P. Goodyear-Brown & P. Goodyear-Brown (Ed) (Eds. ), Handbook of child sexual abuse: Identification, assessment, and treatment. <mask>, F. (2017) Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy, Third Edition: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures.The Guilford Press. References

Sources
 Brown, S., & <mask>, F. (2006). EMDR in the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. Clinical Case Studies, 5(5), 403–420. 1948 births
2019 deaths
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American women
American psychologists
American women psychologists
Brooklyn College alumni

Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish American writers
New York University alumni
People from East New York, Brooklyn
Scientists from New

masks: Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro Shapiro


texts:
<mask> (born October 14, 1946) is an American journalist, news executive, and educator. Early life
<mask> was born in Washington, DC and grew up in Silver Spring, Maryland. He attended Northwood High School where he edited The Red and Black school newspaper. At the University of Maryland he edited The Diamondback and graduated in 1969 with a BA in journalism. He joined SDX, now the Society of Professional Journalists, and was inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa, men's leadership society. Career

Gannett
<mask>'s first full-time professional position was at the Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, where he was Reporter, Assistant City Editor, and Night City Editor between 1969 and 1972. Knight-Ridder
In 1972 he moved to the Miami Herald where he was Assistant City Editor, their first National Foreign Editor, and Assistant Managing Editor for News before moving to the San Jose Mercury News in 1981.There he was Associate Editor, Managing Editor, Senior Vice President and Executive Editor. While Managing Editor, the newspaper won two Pulitzer Prizes. He also initiated a Vietnamese edition Viet Mercury and a Spanish edition Nuevo Mundo. He supported digital initiatives at a print journalism company and successfully championed diversity hiring. In 1999 he became vice president for News of Knight-Ridder, then the second largest newspaper chain in the United States. He left the position in 2005. University of Nevada - Reno
From 2008 to 2011, he was Dean and Professor at the Reynolds School in Journalism at the University of Nevada-Reno, holding the Fred W. Smith Chair in Journalism.As incoming Dean, he commissioned a large banner with the words of the First Amendment to hang in the school. He continued his professional goals by increasing diversity hiring and changing the curriculum to require

masks:
Jerome Merle Ceppos
Ceppos
Ceppos


texts:
 cross-platform training for all students. Louisiana State University
In July, 2011 he became Dean and William B. Dickinson Distinguished Professor at the Manship School of Mass Communication at Louisiana State University. He repeated his display of the First Amendment and moved the curriculum toward online media. He taught media ethics. He stepped down as Dean at the end of the 2017–2018 academic year. He continues to teach "Media Writing," "Media Management," and "Media Ethics and Social Responsibility."Other work
<mask> was Consultant with Leading Edge Associates, a management consulting firm in San Jose from 2006 to 2009. In 2007 he was Fellow in media ethics at the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. Controversies

Dark alliance
Gary Webb was a reporter for The Mercury News. Hired in 1987, his year-long investigation of cocaine dealing in Los Angeles was published in The Mercury News in three parts, from August 18–20, 1996 as "Dark Alliance." <mask> was Executive Editor of the newspaper. Plaudits for the story were followed by criticism from major media outlets such as the New York Times, Washington Post, and Los Angeles Tmes. After initially defending the story, <mask> commissioned an internal review.At the end of March 1997, <mask> told Webb that he was going to present the internal review findings in a column. After discussions with Webb, the column was published on May 11, 1997. <mask> took personal responsibility for the series and its flaws in his opening sentence, "Few things in life are harder than owning up to one's shortcomings, but I need to tell you about an important case in which I believe that we fell short of my standards for the Mercury News." In the column <mask> continued to defend parts of the article, writing that the series had

masks:
Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Ceppos
Ceppos
Ceppos
Ceppos


texts:
 "solidly documented" that the drug ring described in the series did have connections with the Contras and did sell large quantities of cocaine in inner-city Los Angeles. But, <mask> wrote, the series "did not meet our standards" in four areas. 1) It presented only one interpretation of conflicting evidence and in one case "did not include information that contradicted a central assertion of the series." 2) The series' estimates of the money involved was presented as fact instead of an estimate.3) The series oversimplified how the crack epidemic grew. 4) The series "created impressions that were open to misinterpretation" through "imprecise language and graphics." <mask> noted that Webb did not agree with these conclusions. He concluded: "How did these shortcomings occur? ... I believe that we fell short at every step of our process: in the writing, editing and production of our work. Several people here share that burden ...But ultimately, the responsibility was, and is, mine." [See "Dark Alliance" in CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking]

<mask>'s mea culpa won praise in the journalism profession. He was awarded, along with two others, the first  Ethics in Journalism award from the Society of Professional Journalists for "superior ethical conduct." Critics largely outside the profession suggested he had caved to outside pressure, including that of the government and its agencies. The 2014 film Kill the Messenger was based upon the controversy. Canadian-born American actor Oliver Platt played <mask>. Opinions about the movie paralleled those about the original story.Additionally, there was controversy as to whether <mask> had been contacted or not regarding the factual aspects of the movie. Webb was found dead in his Carmichael home on December 10, 2004, with two gunshot wounds

masks:
Ceppos
Ceppos
Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Ceppos


texts:
 to the head. His death was ruled a suicide by the Sacramento County coroner's office. Pre-publication review
In August 1998 a financial story by Chris Schmitt was shared in its entirety with NASDAQ  for fact-checking prior to publication. Changes were made prior to publication. This departure from standard journalism practice raised ethical questions regarding the relationship between journalists and the subjects they cover, who are not assumed to have control over the content of publication. Media

Publications
 <mask>, "Hope to be found in optimism of the young," The.Advocate.Com,  April 6, 2020.<mask>, John Maxwell, and Martin Johnson. "How journalists can win back Americans' trust," mercurynews.com, August 24, 2018. <mask>, John Maxwell, and Martin Johnson. "How journalists can win back Americans' trust," eastbaytimes.com, August 24, 2018. <mask>, "Chapter Four: How We Got Here and What It Means for New Orleans News Consumers,"  News Evolution or Revolution? : The Future of Print Journalism in the Digital Age by Andrea Miller and Amy Reynolds,  (Peter Lang Publishing Inc., 2014). <mask>, "Foreword," Moral Reasoning for Journalists, by Steve Knowlton and Bill Reader, 2nd revised edition, 2009.Arthur S. Hayes,  Jane B. Singer and <mask>, “Shifting Roles, Enduring Values: The Credible Journalist in a Digital Age,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 22:(4), 262-279, 2007. <mask>, "A plea from minority journalists: give us some feedback." American Journalism Review, vol. 16, no. 7, 1994, p. 16+. Gale Academic OneFile, Accessed 8 June 2020.Electronic media
 Ceppos: Post-Deanship. May 20, 2018. Words of Encouragement from Former Dean <mask>, March 28, 2020. Celebrating Dean <mask>. May 11, 2018. Manship Minute: <mask>, March 12, 2018. WRKF.June 20, 2017. <mask> Portrayed in New Film "Kill the

masks:
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos
Dean Ceppos


texts:
 Messenger, October 11, 2014. KLSU Bracket Challenge, March 19, 2014. <mask> on J-School. September 7, 2011. The 1964 Daisy Girl Advertisement. C-SPAN.April 6, October 24, 2011. The Daily Reveille: Interview with <mask>. August 24, 2011. Fairness in Journalism, American Society of Newspaper Editors. C-SPAN. April 6, 2001. Media Credibility, American Society of Newspaper Editors.C-SPAN. April 1, 1998. Memberships and honors
 Advisory Board, LSU Museum
 Member and Past President, Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications
 Fellow, Society of Professional Journalists, 2016
 Judge, Scripps-Howard Foundation Awards, 2016
 Judge, Katherine Schneider Journalism Award for Excellence in Reporting on Disability, 2013-2019
 Advisory Board, National Center on Disability in Journalism, 2013-2019
 Recipient, Carr Van Anda Award for Enduring Contributions to Journalism, Ohio University, 2006
 Judge, ASNE Awards, 2004, 2005
 Recipient, ASJMC Gerald M. Sass Distinguished Service Award, 2002
 President, Associated Press Managing Editors, 2000
 Recipient, Ethics in Journalism Award, Society of Professional Journalists, 1997
 Recipient, Anti-Defamation League Torch of Liberty Award, 1997
 Juror, Pulitzer Prize, 1997
 Former Member, Board of Visitors, Philip Merrill College of Journalism, University of Maryland

See also
 CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking
 Knight Ridder

References

External links
 Kill the Messenger official website
 Howard. Finberg, "Journalism professionals, academics debate the value of research," poynter.org, June 27, 2012. Manship School of Mass Communication
 Miami Herald
 Reynolds School of Journalism
 The Mercury News

1946 births
Living people
American newspaper editors
American newspaper reporters and correspondents
University System of

masks:
Jerry Ceppos
Jerry Ceppos


texts:
Admiral Sir <mask>  (25 August 1776 – 4 March 1853) was an officer in the British Royal Navy whose distinguished service in the French Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812 earned him rapid promotion and great acclaim both in and out of the Navy. He was also a great friend of Admiral Nelson and can be considered a full member of Nelson's "band of brothers". Naval career

Early years

Born in August 1776 and raised in London, <mask> was the fourth son of <mask>, 4th Earl of Essex and first child of his second wife, Harriet. His mother also had influence as the daughter of Colonel <mask>n, and Capel received preferential treatment due to his status from a very young age. Entered onto the books of  on 22 March 1782 as servant to Captain Waldegrave. He was just five years and 7 months old and this customary practice enabled him to rise rapidly through the ranks when he finally did go to sea. Capel first served on  on the Newfoundland station in April 1792, then on 1 March 1793, as a midshipman aboard , where he was highly praised for his seamanship and discipline.Following his captain, John Manley, he transferred to the 38-gun frigate  before serving under Lord Hugh Seymour in the 3rd rate vessels  (74 guns) and  (80 guns), where he saw action at the battle of Groix in 1795. After the battle, San Pareil and her crew returned to the channel and blockade duty. <mask> was promoted to acting lieutenant in the May 1796 and on 5 April 1797 he joined the newly built frigate  as a lieutenant under Captain, the Honourable Arthur Kaye Legge. Battle of the Nile
 In April 1798 he joined the flagship of Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, the newly refitted 74 gun , under Captain Edward Berry. On 8 May the Vanguard, as part of a small squadron, left Gibraltar to re-establish a presence in the Mediterranean and to search for the French fleet. On 20 May, they were struck by a

masks:
Thomas Bladen Capel
Thomas Capel
William Anne Capel
Thomas Blade
Capel


texts:
 sudden gale in which the Vanguard lost her entire foremast assembly and both her main and mizzen topmasts. Despite the arrival of reinforcements, including ten ships of the line, on 6 June; Nelson remained aboard the jury masted, Vanguard.Therefore, <mask> was serving as Nelson's signal lieutenant on 1 August 1798 when Nelson's fleet destroyed the French at the battle of the Nile. He impressed the admiral to such a degree, he was mentioned in dispatches as "a most excellent officer" and presented with the sword of the senior, surviving French admiral. First Commands

Capel was made acting commander of the 16-gun brig , and was given the honour of carrying the second set of dispatches to London despite the claims of a large number of superior officers. The first dispatches, carried by Berry in  were captured shortly after leaving, which meant that when Capel arrived in London after passage in the brig and overland travel, he was the first to bring news of the victory. His promotion to commander was confirmed when he was given command of the elderly fireship  on the home station, and was subsequently made post captain on 27 December 1798. Following this promotion, he was then transferred on 5 January from Alecto into the 22-gun post-ship , a sixth-rate frigate which sailed under his command for Jamaica on 23 April 1799. On 19 July 1800 he transferred to command of a 32-gun fifth-rate frigate  which was wrecked on the Triangle Rocks in the Gulf of Mexico on 9 June 1801.Renewed Hostilities

In the May 1802 shortly after the Peace of Amiens, Capel was appointed to the 38 gun, fifth rate frigate  which took him from Spithead to the Mediterranean where he joined  as her captain. When war with France was renewed in April 1803 Capel, still in HMS Phoebe was re-attached to Nelson and began the task of observing French naval movements. In April 1805 Phoebe spotted Vice-Admiral Villeneuve's


texts:
 squadron leaving Toulon and while Nelson pursued them to the West Indies and back, Capel was ordered to use a squadron of 5 frigates and 2 bomb vessels to block French passage to Sicily, Sardinia and Egypt. The Franco-Spanish fleet entered Cadiz on 20 August Phoebe joined the blockading fleet. In October 1805, Capel's squadron was based at Gibraltar acting as the eyes of the British fleet and when the Combined Fleet put to sea, Phoebe was one of the chain of ships who relayed signals to Nelson's fleet, 48 miles away. Trafalgar

On 21 October, Capel was summoned to  to receive his final orders for the upcoming battle. Phoebe and the three other frigates were to stay to windward and repeat signals to the ships in the rear; any escaping enemy ships were to be pursued and forced to strike their colours; and any dismasted British, or captured enemy ships were to be taken in tow.Capel was present throughout the ensuing battle of Trafalgar, relaying Nelson's signals to the rest of fleet, and remaining close to the action although not actually engaged with the enemy. In the storm which followed the battle, Phoebe was essential in saving the captured Swiftsure and the Spanish ship Bahama, bringing them all safely to Gibraltar. On 4 November, Admiral Collingwood wrote "The extraordinary exertion of Captain Capel saved the French Swiftsure; and his ship the Phoebe, together with the Dougal afterwards brought out the Bahama". When the disabled Fougueux drifted away, Capel made repeated efforts to retrieve her but she broke up when she was blown ashore the next day. Turkish Straits

After Trafalgar, Capel returned to England, where he sat on the court martial of Vice-Admiral Sir Robert Calder, before being appointed to the 4th rate 40 gun . Capel's ship carried the British ambassador, Sir Charles Arbuthnot, to Constantinople and then in 1807, on hearing of a plot to kidnap Sir Charles and


texts:
 some leading British Merchants, Capel foiled the attempt by inviting them to dine aboard the Endymion before setting sail. On 16 September 1807 Endymion captured the Santa Rosalinda.Capel's share of the prize money was 838 pounds, 17 shillings and 2½ pence. Capel returned to Constantinople later that year when he took part in further the forcing of the Dardanelles under Sir John Duckworth. On the way back to the Aegean, Endymion was hit by two 800 lb stone shot which killed three and injured ten of her crew. Capel was once again mentioned in dispatches for his part in the battle and received the ship of the line  as a command, which he took to the North American station at the outbreak of the War of 1812. 1812

Capel remained on the North American station for the duration of the war where he commanded a small squadron along the Eastern seaboard. During this conflict, Capel maintained a careful watch on the passage of American shipping, especially their frigate base at New London, which he effectively nullified. Along with other American vessels, in April 1813 Capel captured the American merchantman Caroline.The prize money distributed to Capel amounted to 82 pounds and 10¾ pence. On 27 June 1813, off Nova Scotia, Capel trapped the Young Teazer in a harbour, which was blown up rather than captured. In another capture, that of the American merchantman Montezuma on 14 October 1814 Capel received 777 pounds, 11 shillings and 3¾ pence. He returned home in 1814 and was awarded the CB in June 1815. Latter years

Capel commanded the Royal Yachts Royal George and Apollo between 15 December 1821 and 27 May 1827, earning greater promotion and favours from his new patrons. Despite the slower promotion rate in peacetime, he became a rear-admiral of the blue squadron on 27 May 1825 and rear-admiral of the red squadron on 22 July 1830 and was knighted soon afterwards and awarded the KCB in


texts:
 February 1832. In May 1834, Sir <mask>l served as commander in chief of the Far East squadron until July 1837 aboard the fourth-rate frigate .He was promoted to vice-admiral on 10 January 1837. In 1847, a full admiral, an aged Capel sat on the board that decided to issue the Naval General Service Medal for Naval service between 1793 and 1840, and which contained a Trafalgar clasp that Capel himself wore. He became Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth in 1848 and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in April 1852. <mask> <mask> died at his home in Rutland Gate, London on 4 March 1853. He was buried in Kensal Green cemetery in a family plot, later joined by his wife Dame Harriet Capel. Their gravestone can still be seen and is largely still legible. Family
In 1816 he married Harriet Catherine Smyth; they had no children, but Capel became a slaveowner as a result of this marriage.In her diary, Lady Adela Caroline Harriett <mask>, Admiral <mask> <mask>'s great niece, and refers to times spent with <mask> <mask> and his wife at Little Cassiobury. She lived at Cassiobury House and they lived in Little Cassiobury. Designed by Lady Elizabeth Wilbraham in the late 17th century it was built as the Cassiobury Estate's dower house, which still exists in Hempstead Road, Watford. References

Further reading

The Trafalgar Captains, Colin White and the 1805 Club, Chatham Publishing, London, 2005,
British Warships in the Age of Sail 1793–1817: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates. Rif Winfield. 2nd edition, Seaforth Publishing, 2008. .

|-

1776 births
1853 deaths
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Royal Navy admirals
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the War of 1812
Royal Navy captains at the Battle of Trafalgar
Younger sons of earls
Thomas
British

masks:
Thomas Cape
Thomas Bladen
Capel
Capel
Bladen
Capel
Bladen
Capel


texts:
<mask>  (23 February 1863 – 2 February 1953) was an English lawyer, physician and promoter of fruitarianism. He became a versatile author, a prolific writer of popular books on dietary and health topics. Early life

The son of <mask> of Ryton, Shropshire, a provision dealer, and his wife Margaret Bates, he was born on 28 February 1863 in Shrewsbury. His father, who died in 1903, was a church organist in nearby Condover from around the time of <mask>'s birth. <mask> was educated at Newport Grammar School. He then taught as an assistant master at Chipping Campden School. Matriculating in 1882 at the University of Oxford as a non-collegiate student, <mask> graduated B.A.in 1885, with second-class honours in civil law and theology. While there, he became a vegetarian and concluded meat-eating was unnecessary. He was called to the bar by Lincoln's Inn, and practised as a barrister on the Oxford court circuit. He then studied medicine at St. Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School and qualified in 1897. <mask> and vegetarianism
<mask> was President of the West London Food Reform Society, a vegetarian group based in Bayswater, founded in 1891. Edwin Arnold was vice-President and Mohandas Gandhi was Secretary. <mask> met Gandhi through Pranjivan Mehta, in 1890, and the two became friends, sharing rooms in Bayswater for some months in 1891.Further, <mask> was associated with the London Vegetarian Society (LVS) and editor for their publication, The Vegetarian. He was also the secretary of the Vegetarian Federal Union. He was a member of the Order of the Golden Age and the Humanitarian League. In 1895, <mask> searched for alternatives to leather for boots, experimenting with boots made from India rubber, gutta-percha, and asbestos. He found faults with all of those substances, but expressed optimism about a "vegetarian" boot. That year he

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 submitted a paper on vegetarian boots to the autumn congress of the Vegetarian Federal Union held in Birmingham. The entry "Vegetarianism" in the Encyclopædia Britannica (11th edition, 1911) was written by <mask>; but he did not identify as a vegetarian.He stated that "I object absolutely to vegetarianism, because the word smacks of onions and cabbage. It gives people the idea that you live on watercress and browse on odds and ends of garbage." Fruitarianism
<mask> advocated for fruitarianism, putting him at odds with the Vegetarian Society. He was a member of the Fruitarian Society, whose members lived on "the produce of harvest field, garden, forest and orchard, with milk, butter, cheese, eggs and honey". His own "fruitarianism" was close to ovo-lacto vegetarianism. He was not a vegan: he recommended a daily diet of dandelion leaves, eggs, grapes, honey, lettuce, milk, salad, and watercress. He opposed slaughterhouses and vivisection.A reviewer in 1909 noted that "as fruitarian dietary includes milk, butter, eggs, cheese, and honey, along with fruits, nuts, and vegetables, healthy existence is quite possible for Dr <mask> and his followers." A recipe of his "Margaret Plum Pudding" was included in Cecilia Maria de Candia's cookbook, The Kitchen Garden and the Cook (1913). In 1931, <mask> commented that "I am proud to say that the only point on which we of the Fruitarian Society disagree with Mr. Gandhi is that Mr. Gandhi will not eat eggs, because they contain Life." Hospital founder
While he was a medical student, <mask> was involved with the Oriolet Hospital, founded in 1895 in Loughton, Essex. It required vegetarianism of its patients. The hospital was endorsed by the Order of the Golden Age, and partly funded by Arnold Hills. Oldfield admitted patients there, initially employed with title Warden, supported by a medical

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 officer.Gertrude Hick, the nurse whom Oldfied later married, was trained in London and appointed sister in charge at the hospital in early 1895. By 1904 it had become the Oriolet Hygienic Home of Rest and Open Air Cottage Hospital, run by Florence Booth for the Salvation Army. In 1897 <mask> announced the foundation of the Hospital of St Francis in South London, on anti-vivisection principles. It had up to a dozen beds, in a converted town house on New Kent Road, and gave out-patient care. It closed around 1904, its funding being transferred to Battersea General Hospital. <mask> was senior physician to the Lady Margaret Fruitarian Hospital in Bromley, which he founded in 1903. <mask> also founded the fruitarian Margaret Manor hospital in Doddington, Kent.No alcohol, fish or meat was permitted at the Hospital; the food was cooked in coconut oil. Army surgeon
<mask> shared the pacifist views of the Order of the Golden Age. In 1898, he joined the Essex Regiment, 1st Volunteer Battalion as an Army Surgeon with rank of Lieutenant, serving to 1901. He later in 1913, with rank of Major, criticised the absence of standard training for Regimental Medical Officers of the Territorial Army. During World War I, he held a commission as Lieutenant-Colonel of the 3rd East Anglian Field Ambulance Corps, a Territorial in the Royal Army Medical Corps. His service came to an end in 1918, when he was thrown from a horse. He was awarded the Territorial Decoration.Legal reformer
In 1901, the University of Oxford awarded <mask> a doctorate in civil law for his thesis on capital punishment. The Penalty of Death, it combined criminological, legal and sociological arguments to call for abolition of the death penalty. He founded the  Society for the Abolition of Capital Punishment in the same year. He became chairman of the Romilly Society, a pressure


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 group for penal reform founded in 1897, in 1910. India
<mask> subscribed to Catherine Impey's periodical Anti-Caste. He made an investigative visit to India in 1901. His personal connections to India included contacts in Kathiawar.This was the home area of his friend Gandhi, born at Porbandar; and best man at his wedding in 1899 was Trimbakrai Jadavrai Desai, then a law student at Gray's Inn in London, from Limbdi State of the Kathiawar Agency. His experiences formed the material of a series of articles in The Leisure Hour. One of them related to Bhavnagar State in eastern Kathiawar, and a visit where he was accompanied by Prabhashankar Pattani. In April 1903 <mask> published in the Hibbert Journal an article "The Failure of Christian Missions in India". Later life
<mask> became a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine in 1920. He died in 1953 at the age of 89, in Doddington, Kent. Views

In 1891, <mask> attempted to convert Gandhi to Anglicanism, urging him to read the Bible.By the 20th century he had changed his own views. In 1904, he commented that "as a medical man, seeing much of pain and suffering and dying, my experience does not lead me to think that it is the profession of the Christian creed which is by any means the sole method of securing happiness of soul in this world, or which removes the fear of passing on to the next." <mask> concluded that a "wider conception of God" was needed. He is listed in A Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists as a theist with mystic ideas about the soul. He was a proponent of evolution conceived as based on cooperation rather than competition. Selected publications

Tuberculosis: Or Flesh Eating a Cause of Consumption (1897)
The Penalty of Death: Or, the Problem of Capital Punishment (1901)
Essays of the Golden Age (1902)
The Penny Guide to Fruitarian Diet and Cookery


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 (1902)
Myrrh and Amaranth (1905)
The Value of Fruit as Food (1906)

The Raisin Cure (1923)
Fasting for Health and Life (1924)
The Dry Diet Cure (1925)
Get Well and Keep Well (1926)
Eat and Get Well (1927)
Eat and Keep Young (1928)
Eat and Be Happy (1929)
Healing and the Conquest of Pain (1944)
The Mystery of Birth (1949)
My Friend Gandhi (Reminiscences of Gandhiji, 1951)
The Mystery of Death (1951)
A Popular Guide to Fruitarian Diet and Cookery (1952)

Quotes

Family
<mask> married Gertrude Hick on 29 September 1899 at Wakefield Cathedral; she was the daughter of Matthew Bussey Hick of Wakefield, and sister of the doctor Henry Hick. They had twin daughters in 1902; but their marriage was not successful and they separated.He had two daughters named Josie: Josie Margaret <mask>, with Irene Doreen <mask> one of the twins; and Josie Magdalen <mask>, born 1906 and identified in the 1911 census. The latter, a cradle fruitarian, was qualified medically from 1933. Dr. Josie M<mask> survived him. References

External links

Dr. <mask> (The Order of the Golden Age)
Lady Margaret Hospital (Lost Hospitals of London)
<mask> at the Imperial War Museum

1863 births
1953 deaths
19th-century English lawyers
19th-century English medical doctors
20th-century English lawyers
20th-century English medical doctors
Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Anti-vivisectionists
British anti–death penalty activists
English food writers
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons
Members of Lincoln's Inn
People associated with the Order of the Golden Age
People associated with the Vegetarian Society
People educated at Newport Free Grammar School
People from Doddington, Kent
People from Shrewsbury
Royal Army Medical Corps officers
Vegetarian cookbook

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<mask> (born July 28, 1977 as Masato Takeuchi) is a former sumo wrestler from Mito, Ibaraki, Japan. A former amateur champion, he turned professional in 1998. With the exception of two tournaments, he was ranked in the top division of professional sumo from 1999 until the end of his career in 2013, holding the second highest rank of ōzeki from 2000 to 2001. He won eight special prizes and was runner-up in four top division tournaments. He wrestled for Fujishima stable (formerly Musashigawa stable), where he worked as a coach until opening his own Futagoyama stable. Early career
<mask> competed in amateur sumo tournaments while at Meiji University, but left before graduation to join the professional ranks. He was accepted by Musashigawa stable in July 1998 and given makushita tsukedashi status, meaning he could begin at the bottom of the third highest makushita division.He quickly worked his way through the ranks, logging in four consecutive championships, two in makushita and two in jūryō to reach the top makuuchi division in March 1999 just eight months after entering professional sumo. His rise to the middle ranks of makuuchi was so quick that he did not yet have a topknot, a true rarity and one that did not go unnoticed by announcers. He won a fighting spirit prize in his first top division tournament, and was promoted to komusubi in January 2000. In that tournament he delivered an impressive 12–3 record, finishing as runner up to stablemate Musōyama. He followed that up with two 11–4 marks at sekiwake rank in March and May 2000. After that tournament he was promoted to sumo's second highest rank of ōzeki. He had made the rank only 12 tournaments after his professional debut, tying for the record with

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 Yutakayama (another amateur champion) and Haguroyama.Ōzeki
<mask>'s promotion was controversial. The Sumo Association's decision was not unanimous, with three of the ten directors present at the meeting voting against the promotion. Sakaigawa-oyakata (former yokozuna Sadanoyama), in particular, was reported to have felt it was too soon as <mask> had only been in makuuchi for just over a year, and had not yet won a top division title. In the end the doubters were proved correct as <mask> lasted just eight tournaments in the rank, never scoring more than 9 wins, before being demoted in the wake of two consecutive losing records. He was one of the shortest-lived ōzeki on record (not counting wrestlers who have quickly been promoted to yokozuna). Later career

<mask> sat out the two tournaments following his demotion with an injury, and so had to start all over again from the maegashira ranks. In January 2003 he looked to have earned his first ever kinboshi or gold star and to have defeated yokozuna Takanohana for the first time in eleven attempts with a rare counter-attacking nichonage throw but although the referee declared him the winner the judges ordered a rematch, which he lost.(The Sumo Association was inundated with calls of protest from the public as a result.) He produced the occasional strong tournament, finishing as runner-up in July 2004, and he held a san'yaku rank several times, but he was unable to go further and continued to move up and down the banzuke. It was not until mid-2006 that <mask> was able to make his first sustained challenge for promotion to ōzeki since his demotion five years previously. In May at sekiwake rank he produced a superb 14–1 record, only losing the championship on

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texts: the last day in a playoff to then-ōzeki Hakuhō. There was speculation that another strong performance in July 2006 would see him return to ōzeki, but he got off to a poor start, winning only three bouts in the first seven days, and though he recovered somewhat to post a 10–5 score, it was not considered good enough. He was only the second wrestler after Kotogahama in 1957 to post more than 33 wins in three tournaments in san'yaku and not get promoted to ōzeki. He could score only 9–6 and 8–7 in the next two basho and in January 2007 his run of five tournaments at sekiwake came to an end when he could only manage a 5–10 record.In March 2007 <mask>zuna Asashōryū on the second day. He had defeated yokozuna on four previous occasions – Akebono in January 2000, Akebono and Wakanohana in March 2000 and Asashoryu himself in September 2004, but each time had been ranked in sanyaku and was not eligible for a kinboshi. The victory was all the more surprising as prior to this bout <mask> had lost thirteen in a row to Asashōryū. However, on the 7th day he picked up a hamstring injury and had to withdraw from the tournament. He returned with a comfortable 9–6 mark in May, and remained in the upper maegashira ranks, defeating Asashōryū again in September 2008. In May 2009 he slipped to maegashira 11, his lowest ever top division ranking, but he responded with two consecutive winning records, the first time he had achieved this since 2006. In November 2009 he was runner-up alongside Tochinoshin on 12–3 and shared the Fighting Spirit award.He was suspended along with over a dozen other wrestlers from the July 2010 tournament after admitting involvement in illegal betting on baseball. As a result, he became the first

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 former ōzeki since Daiju in 1977 to be demoted to the jūryō division. This broke a run of 69 consecutive tournaments ranked in makuuchi. However, he had no problem in securing a return to the top division (the first ex-ōzeki ever to do so), scoring 12–3 at the rank of jūryō 2. In January 2012 he was ranked at komusubi, the first time in 29 tournaments that he had made the san'yaku ranks. However, he won only 33 out of a possible 90 bouts in that year (15 of those with the hatakikomi technique), and by January 2013 had fallen to the bottom makuuchi rank of maegashira 16. He won only three bouts in that tournament and was demoted to jūryō in March 2013, where he again only managed three wins and quickly announced his retirement on the last day of the tournament.Retirement from sumo

<mask> fought in the top division for 82 tournaments in total, which is second best among makushita tsukedashi entrants and the eleventh best overall in sumo history. The 68 tournaments he fought after dropping from the ōzeki rank is also a record. He was the last active wrestler who had begun his career at makushita 60 (the bottom of the division); makushita tsukedeshi entrants now start at makushita 15. Upon retirement he recalled his most memorable bout as being the first day of his comeback tournament in March 2002, having fallen from ōzeki and missed the previous two tournaments through injury. <mask> stayed in sumo as a coach at his stable under the elder name of Futagoyama Oyakata. His danpatsu-shiki, or official retirement ceremony, was held at the Ryōgoku Kokugikan on February 1, 2014 with around 8,000 in attendance and 270 guests taking part in the hair-cutting before his topknot was removed by his former stablemate

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 Musōyama, now Fujishima Oyakata. After the ceremony he said he wanted to help develop strong Japanese wrestlers.In addition to coaching duties Futagoyama is also a quasi-independent councilor (Hyojjin) in the Sumo Association's hierarchy. In 2015 he launched his own yakiniku restaurant, Miyabiyama, in Edogawa, Tokyo. In March 2018 he was given permission to branch out from Fujishima stable, and he opened up his own Futagoyama stable in Tokorozawa, Saitama on April 1. Fighting style

Miyabiyama specialised in pushing and thrusting techniques, with about a third of his wins being a simple push-out, or oshi-dashi. In later years he relied more heavily on pull downs or slap downs, hiki otoshi and hatakikomi. Like most oshi specialists, he was at a disadvantage if his opponents managed to grab hold of his mawashi or belt. At , he was the heaviest man in the top division from the retirement of his stablemate Musashimaru in November 2003, until the arrival of the (now retired)  Yamamotoyama in 2009.Family
<mask> was married in 2008 to a 24-year-old former office worker from Kurume, Fukuoka, and their wedding reception was held in June 2009 with 450 guests including his stablemaster Musashigawa Oyakata attending. In June 2013 his second eldest son died. In February 2014 his eldest son, then aged four, was <mask>'s final opponent in a bout at his retirement ceremony. Career record

See also
Glossary of sumo terms
List of sumo tournament top division runners-up
List of sumo tournament second division champions
List of past sumo wrestlers
List of sumo elders
List of ōzeki

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Japanese sumo wrestlers
Ōzeki
People from Mito, Ibaraki
Sumo people from Ibaraki


texts: <mask>  (; February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728) was a New England Puritan clergyman and a prolific writer. Educated at Harvard College, in 1685 he joined his father Increase as minister of the Congregationalist Old North Church of Boston, where he continued to preach for the rest of his life. A major intellectual and public figure in English-speaking colonial America, <mask>er helped lead the successful revolt of 1689 against Sir Edmund Andros, the governor imposed on New England by King James II. Mather's subsequent involvement in the Salem witch trials of 1692–1693, which he defended in the book Wonders of the Invisible World (1693), attracted intense controversy in his own day and has negatively affected his historical reputation. As a historian of colonial New England, Mather is noted for his Magnalia Christi Americana (1702). Personally and intellectually committed to the waning old social and religious orders in New England, <mask>er unsuccessfully sought the presidency of Harvard College, an office that had been held by his father Increase, another significant Puritan clergyman and intellectual. After 1702, <mask>er clashed with Joseph Dudley, the governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, whom Mather attempted unsuccessfully to drive out of power.Mather championed the new Yale College as an intellectual bulwark of Puritanism in New England. He corresponded extensively with European intellectuals and received an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from the University of Glasgow in 1710. A promoter of the new experimental science in America, <mask>er carried out original research on plant hybridization and on the use of

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 inoculation as a means of preventing smallpox contagion. He dispatched many reports on scientific matters to the Royal Society of London, which elected him as a fellow in 1713. Mather's promotion of inoculation against smallpox, which he had learned about from an African man named Onesimus whom Mather held as a slave, caused violent controversy in Boston during the outbreak of 1721. Scientist and US founding father Benjamin Franklin, who as a young Bostonian had opposed the old Puritan order represented by Mather and participated in the anti-inoculation campaign, later described Mather's book Bonifacius, or Essays to Do Good (1710) as a major influence on Franklin's own life. Early life and education

<mask> was born in 1663 in the city of Boston, the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, to the Rev.Increase <mask> and his wife Maria née <mask>. His grandfathers were <mask> and <mask>, both of them prominent Puritan ministers who had played major roles in the establishment and growth of the Massachusetts colony. <mask> was a graduate of the University of Oxford and <mask> a graduate of the University of Cambridge. Increase <mask> was a graduate of Harvard College and the University of Dublin, and served as the minister of Boston's original North Church (not to be confused with the Anglican Old North Church of Paul Revere fame). This was one of the two principal Congregationalist churches in the city, the other being the First Church established John Winthrop. <mask> was therefore born into one of the most influential and intellectually distinguished families in colonial New England and seemed destined to follow his father and

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texts: grandfathers into the Puritan clergy. <mask> entered Harvard College, in the neighboring town of Cambridge, in 1674.Aged only eleven and a half, he is the youngest student ever admitted to that institution. At around this time, <mask> began to be afflicted by stuttering, a speech disorder that he would struggle to overcome throughout the rest of his life. Bullied by the older students and fearing that his stutter would make him unsuitable as a preacher, <mask> withdrew temporarily from the College, continuing his education at home. He also took an interest in medicine and considered the possibility of pursuing a career as a physician rather than as a religious minister. <mask> eventually returned to Harvard and received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1678, followed by a Master of Arts degree in 1681. After completing his education, <mask> joined his father's church as assistant pastor. In 1685, <mask> was ordained and assumed full responsibilities as co-pastor of the church.Father and son continued to share responsibility for the care of the congregation until the death of Increase in 1723. <mask> would die less than five years after his father, and was therefore throughout most of his career in the shadow of the respected and formidable Increase. Increase <mask> eventually became president of Harvard and exercised considerable influence on the politics of the Massachusetts colony. Despite <mask>'s efforts, he never became quite as influential as his father. One of the most public displays of their strained relationship emerged during the Salem witch trials, which Increase <mask> reportedly did not support. <mask> did surpass his father's

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 output as a writer, producing nearly 400 works. <mask> married Abigail Phillips, daughter of Colonel John Phillips of Charlestown, on May 4, 1686, when <mask> was twenty-three and Abigail sixteen years old.Abigail, the couple's newborn twins, and a two-year-old daughter all succumbed to a measles epidemic in 1702. Revolt of 1689

On May 14, 1686, ten days after <mask>er's marriage to Abigail Phillips, Edward Randolph disembarked in Boston bearing letters patent from King James II of England that revoked the Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company and commissioned Randolph to reorganize the colonial government. James's intention was to curb Massachusetts's religious separatism by incorporating the colony it into a larger Dominion of New England, without an elected legislature and under a governor who would serve at the pleasure of the Crown. Later that year, the King appointed Sir Edmund Andros as governor of that new Dominion. This was a direct attack upon the Puritan religious and social orders that the Mathers represented, as well as upon the local autonomy of Massachusetts. The colonists were particularly outraged when Andros declared that all grants of land made in the name of the old Massachusetts Bay Company were invalid, forcing them to apply and pay for new royal patents on land that they already occupied or face eviction. In April 1687, Increase Mather sailed to London, where he remained for the next four years, pleading with the Court for what he regarded as the interests of the Massachusetts colony.The birth of a male heir to King James in June 1688, which could have cemented a Roman Catholic dynasty in the English throne,

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texts: triggered the so-called Glorious Revolution in which Parliament deposed James and gave the Crown jointly to his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband, the Dutch Prince William of Orange. News of the events in London greatly emboldened the opposition in Boston to Governor Andros, finally precipitating the 1689 Boston revolt. <mask>, then aged twenty-six, was one of the Puritan ministers who guided resistance in Boston to Andros's regime. Early in 1689, Randolph had a warrant issued for <mask>'s arrest on a charge of "scandalous libel", but the warrant was overruled by Wait Winthrop. According to some sources, <mask>er escaped a second attempted arrest on April 18, 1689, the same day that the people of Boston took up arms against Andros. The young Mather may have authored, in whole or in part, the "Declaration of the Gentlemen, Merchants, and Inhabitants of Boston and the Country Adjacent", which justified that uprising by a list of grievances that the declaration attributed to the deposed officials. The authorship of that document is uncertain: it was not signed by Mather or any other clergymen, and Puritans frowned upon the clergy being seen to play too direct and personal a hand in political affairs.That day, Mather probably read the Declaration to a crowd gathered in front of the Boston Town House. In July, Andros, Randolph, Joseph Dudley, and other officials who had been deposed and arrested in the Boston revolt were summoned to London to answer the complaints against them. The administration of Massachusetts was temporarily assumed by Simon Bradstreet, whose rule proved weak and contentious. In 1691, the government of King William

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 and Queen Mary issued a new Massachusetts Charter. This charter united the Massachusetts Bay Colony with Plymouth Colony into the new Province of Massachusetts Bay. Rather than restoring the old Puritan rule, the Charter of 1691 mandated religious toleration for all non-Catholics and established a government led by a Crown-appointed governor. The first governor under the new charter was Sir William Phips, who was a member of the Mathers' church in Boston.Salem witch trials of 1692, the Mather influence

Pre-trials
In 1689, Mather published Memorable Providences detailing the supposed afflictions of several children in the Goodwin family in Boston. Mather had a prominent role in the witchcraft case against Catholic washerwoman Goody Glover, which ultimately resulted in her conviction and execution. Besides praying for the children, which also included fasting and meditation, he would also observe and record their activities. The children were subject to hysterical fits, which he detailed in Memorable Providences. In his book, Mather argued that since there are witches and devils, there are "immortal souls." He also claimed that witches appear spectrally as themselves. He opposed any natural explanations for the fits; he believed that people who confessed to using witchcraft were sane; he warned against performing magic due to its connection with the devil.Robert Calef was a contemporary of Mather and critical of him, and he considered this book responsible for laying the groundwork for the Salem witch trials three years later:

Nineteenth-century historian Charles Wentworth Upham shared the view that the afflicted in Salem were imitating the


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 Goodwin children, but he put the blame on both <mask> and his father Increase Mather:

Cambridge Association of ministers

In 1690, <mask>er played a primary role in forming a new ministers club called the Cambridge Association. Their first order of business was to respond to a letter from the pastor of Salem Village (Samuel Parris). A second meeting was planned a week later in the college library and Parris was invited to travel down to Cambridge to meet with them, which he did. Throughout 1692, this association of powerful ministers were often queried for their opinion on Christian doctrine relative to witchcraft. The court of Oyer and Terminer
In 1692, <mask>er claimed to have been industrious and influential in the direction of things at Salem from the beginning (see Sept. 2 1692 letter to Stoughton below). But it remains unknown how much of a role he had in the formation or construction of the Court of Oyer and Terminer at the end of May or what the original intent for this court may have been. Sir William Phips, governor of the newly chartered Province of Massachusetts Bay, signed an order forming the new court and allowed his lieutenant governor, William Stoughton, to become the court's chief justice.According to George Bancroft, Mather had been influential in gaining the politically unpopular Stoughton his appointment as lieutenant governor under Phips through the intervention of Mather's own politically powerful father, Increase. "Intercession had been made by <mask>er for the advancement of Stoughton, a man of cold affections, proud, self-willed and covetous of distinction." Apparently Mather saw in Stoughton, a bachelor who had

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 never wed, an ally for church-related matters. Bancroft quotes <mask>'s reaction to Stoughton's appointment as follows:"The time for a favor is come", exulted <mask>er; "Yea, the set time is come." Just prior to the first session of the new court, Mather wrote a lengthy essay which was copied and distributed to the judges. One of Mather's recommendations, invasive bodily searches for witch-marks, took place for the first time only days later, on June 2, 1692. Mather claimed not to have personally attended any sessions of the court of Oyer and Terminer (although his father attended the trial of George Burroughs).His contemporaries Calef and Thomas Brattle do place him at the executions (see below). Mather began to publicize and celebrate the trials well before they were put to an end: "If in the midst of the many Dissatisfaction among us, the publication of these Trials may promote such a pious Thankfulness unto God, for Justice being so far executed among us, I shall Re-joyce that God is Glorified." Mather called himself a historian not an advocate but, according to one modern writer, his writing largely presumes the guilt of the accused and includes such comments as calling Martha Carrier "a rampant hag". Mather referred to George Burroughs as a "very puny man" whose "tergiversations, contradictions, and falsehoods" made his testimony not "worth considering". The use of so-called "spectral evidence"
The afflicted girls claimed that the semblance of a defendant, invisible to any but themselves, was tormenting them; it was greatly contested whether this should be considered evidence, but for the Court of Oyer and Terminer decided to allow

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 it, despite the defendant's denial and profession of strongly held Christian beliefs. In his May 31, 1692 essay to the judges (see photo above), Mather expressed his support of the prosecutions, but also included some words of caution; "do not lay more stress on pure spectral evidence than it will bear … It is very certain that the Devils have sometimes represented the shapes of persons not only innocent, but also very virtuous. Though I believe that the just God then ordinarily provides a way for the speedy vindication of the persons thus abused."Return of the Ministers

An opinion on the trials was sought from the ministers of the area in mid June. In an anonymous work written years later, <mask>er took credit for being the scribe: "drawn up at their desire, by <mask>er the younger, as I have been informed." The "Return of the Several Ministers" ambivalently discussed whether or not to allow spectral evidence. The original full version of the letter was reprinted in late 1692 in the final two pages of Increase <mask>'s Cases of Conscience. It is a curious document and remains a source of confusion and argument. Calef calls it "perfectly ambidexter, giving as great as greater encouragement to proceed in those dark methods, then cautions against them… indeed the Advice then given, looks most like a thing of his composing, as carrying both fire to increase and water to quench the conflagration." It seems likely that the "Several" ministers consulted did not agree, and thus <mask>er's careful construction and presentation of the advice, sent from Boston to Salem, could have been crucial to its interpretation (see photos).Thomas Hutchinson

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 summarized the Return, "The two first and the last sections of this advice took away the force of all the others, and the prosecutions went on with more vigor than before." Reprinting the Return five years later in his anonymously published Life of Phips (1697), <mask>er omitted the fateful "two first and the last" sections, though they were the ones he had already given most attention in his "Wonders of the Invisible World" rushed into publication in the summer and early autumn of 1692. Pushing forward the August 19 executions
On August 19, 1692, Mather attended the execution of George Burroughs (and four others who were executed after Mather spoke) and Robert Calef presents him as playing a direct and influential role:

On September 2, 1692, after eleven of the accused had been executed, <mask>er wrote a letter to Chief Justice William Stoughton congratulating him on "extinguishing of as wonderful a piece of devilism as has been seen in the world" and claiming that "one half of my endeavors to serve you have not been told or seen." Regarding spectral evidence, Upham concludes that "<mask>er never in any public writing 'denounced the admission' of it, never advised its absolute exclusion; but on the contrary recognized it as a ground of 'presumption' … [and once admitted] nothing could stand against it. Character, reason, common sense, were swept away." In a letter to an English clergyman in 1692, Boston intellectual Thomas Brattle, criticizing the trials, said of the judges' use of spectral evidence:

The later exclusion of spectral evidence from trials by Governor Phips, around the same time his own wife's (Lady Mary Phips) name

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 coincidentally started being bandied about in connection with witchcraft, began in January 1693. This immediately brought about a sharp decrease in convictions.Due to a reprieve by Phips, there were no further executions. Phips's actions were vigorously opposed by William Stoughton. Bancroft notes that Mather considered witches "among the poor, and vile, and ragged beggars upon Earth", and Bancroft asserts that Mather considered the people against the witch trials to be witch advocates. Post-trials
In the years after the trials, of the principal actors in the trial, whose lives are recorded after, neither he nor Stoughton admitted strong misgivings. For several years after the trials, <mask>er continued to defend them and seemed to hold out a hope for their return. Wonders of the Invisible World contained a few of Mather's sermons, the conditions of the colony and a description of witch trials in Europe. He somewhat clarified the contradictory advice he had given in Return of the Several Ministers, by defending the use of spectral evidence.Wonders of the Invisible World appeared around the same time as Increase <mask>'s Cases of Conscience. Mather did not sign his name or support his father's book initially:

The last major events in Mather's involvement with witchcraft were his interactions with Mercy Short in December 1692 and Margaret Rule in September 1693. The latter brought a five year campaign by Boston merchant Robert Calef against the influential and powerful <mask>. Calef's book More Wonders of the Invisible World was inspired by the fear that Mather would succeed in once again stirring up new witchcraft trials, and the need to

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 bear witness to the horrible experiences of 1692. He quotes the public apologies of the men on the jury and one of the judges. Increase <mask> was said to have publicly burned Calef's book in Harvard Yard around the time he was removed from the head of the college and replaced by Samuel Willard. Poole vs. Upham
Charles Wentworth Upham wrote Salem Witchcraft Volumes I and II With an Account of Salem Village and a History of Opinions on Witchcraft and Kindred Subjects, which runs to almost 1,000 pages.It came out in 1867 and cites numerous criticisms of Mather by Robert Calef. William Frederick Poole defended Mather from these criticisms. In 1869, Poole quoted from various school textbooks of the time demonstrating they were in agreement on <mask>er's role in the Witch Trial

If anyone imagines that we are stating the case too strongly, let him try an experiment with the first bright boy he meets by asking,...
'Who got up Salem Witchcraft?'... he will reply, '<mask>er'. Let him try another boy...
'Who was <mask>er?' and the answer will come, 'The man who was on horseback, and hung witches.' Poole was a librarian, and a lover of literature, including Mather's Magnalia "and other books and tracts, numbering nearly 400 [which] were never so prized by collectors as today."Poole announced his intention to redeem <mask>'s name, using as a springboard a harsh critique of Upham's book, via his own book Cotton Mather and Salem witchcraft. A quick search of the name Mather in Upham's book (referring to either father, son, or ancestors) shows that it occurs 96 times. Poole's critique runs less than 70 pages but the name "<mask>" occurs many more times

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texts: than the other book, which is more than ten times as long. Upham shows a balanced and complicated view of <mask>er, such as this first mention: "One of <mask>'s most characteristic productions is the tribute to his venerated master. It flows from a heart warm with gratitude." Upham's book refers to Robert Calef no fewer than 25 times with the majority of these regarding documents compiled by Calef in the mid-1690s and stating: "Although zealously devoted to the work of exposing the enormities connected with the witchcraft prosecutions, there is no ground to dispute the veracity of Calef as to matters of fact." He goes on to say that Calef's collection of writings "gave a shock to Mather's influence, from which it never recovered."Calef produced only the one book; he is self-effacing and apologetic for his limitations, and on the title page he is listed not as author but "collector". Poole, champion of literature, could not accept Calef whose "faculties, as indicated by his writings appear to us to have been of an inferior order;…", and his book "in our opinion, has a reputation much beyond its merits." Poole refers to Calef as Mather's "personal enemy" and opens a line, "Without discussing the character and motives of Calef…" but does not follow up on this suggestive comment to discuss any actual or purported motive or reason to impugn Calef. Upham responded to Poole (referring to Poole as "the Reviewer") in a book running five times as long and sharing the same title but with the clauses reversed: Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather. Many of Poole's arguments were addressed, but both authors emphasize the importance of <mask>'s difficult

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 and contradictory view on spectral evidence, as copied in the final pages, called "The Return of Several Ministers", of Increase <mask>'s "Cases of Conscience". The debate continues: Kittredge vs. Burr
Evidenced by the published opinion in the years that followed the Poole vs Upham debate, it would seem Upham was considered the clear winner (see Sibley, GH Moore, WC Ford, and GH Burr below.). In 1891, Harvard English professor Barrett Wendall wrote <mask>, The Puritan Priest.His book often expresses agreement with Upham but also announces an intention to show <mask>er in a more positive light. "[<mask>er] gave utterance to many hasty things not always consistent with fact or with each other…" And some pages later: "[Robert] Calef's temper was that of the rational Eighteenth century; the Mathers belonged rather to the Sixteenth, the age of passionate religious enthusiasm." In 1907, George Lyman Kittredge published an essay that would become foundational to a major change in the 20th-century view of witchcraft and Mather culpability therein. Kittredge is dismissive of Robert Calef, and sarcastic toward Upham, but shows a fondness for Poole and a similar soft touch toward <mask>er. Responding to Kittredge in 1911, George Lincoln Burr, a historian at Cornell, published an essay that begins in a professional and friendly fashion toward both Poole and Kittredge, but quickly becomes a passionate and direct criticism, stating that Kittredge in the "zeal of his apology… reached results so startlingly new, so contradictory of what my own lifelong study in this field has seemed to teach, so unconfirmed by further research… and withal so much more

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 generous to our ancestors than I can find it in my conscience to deem fair, that I should be less than honest did I not seize this earliest opportunity share with you the reasons for my doubts…". (In referring to "ancestors" Burr primarily means the Mathers, as is made clear in the substance of the essay.) The final paragraph of Burr's 1911 essay pushes these men's debate into the realm of a progressive creed

… I fear that they who begin by excusing their ancestors may end by excusing themselves.Perhaps as a continuation of his argument, in 1914, George Lincoln Burr published a large compilation "Narratives". This book arguably continues to be the single most cited reference on the subject. Unlike Poole and Upham, Burr avoids forwarding his previous debate with Kittredge directly into his book and mentions Kittredge only once, briefly in a footnote citing both of their essays from 1907 and 1911, but without further comment. But in addition to the viewpoint displayed by Burr's selections, he weighs in on the Poole vs Upham debate at various times, including siding with Upham in a note on Thomas Brattle's letter, "The strange suggestion of W. F. Poole that Brattle here means <mask>er himself, is adequately answered by Upham…" Burr's "Narratives" reprint a lengthy but abridged portion of Calef's book and introducing it he digs deep into the historical record for information on Calef and concludes "…that he had else any grievance against the Mathers or their colleagues there is no reason to think." Burr finds that a comparison between Calef's work and original documents in the historical record collections "testify to the care and


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 exactness…"

20th century revision: The Kittredge lineage at Harvard
1920–3 Kenneth B. Murdock wrote a doctoral dissertation on Increase Mather advised by Chester Noyes Greenough and Kittredge. Murdock's father was a banker hired in 1920 to run the Harvard Press and he published his son's dissertation as a handsome volume in 1925: Increase <mask>, The Foremost American Puritan (Harvard University Press). Kittredge was right hand man to the elder Murdock at the Press.This work focuses on Increase Mather and is more critical of the son, but the following year he published a selection of <mask>'s writings with an introduction that claims <mask>er was "not less but more humane than his contemporaries. Scholars have demonstrated that his advice to the witch judges was always that they should be more cautious in accepting evidence" against the accused. Murdock's statement seems to claim a majority view. But one wonders who Murdock would have meant by "scholars" at this time other than Poole, Kittredge, and TJ Holmes (below) and Murdock's obituary calls him a pioneer "in the reversal of a movement among historians of American culture to discredit the Puritan and colonial period…"

1924 Thomas J. Holmes was an Englishman with no college education, but he apprenticed in bookbinding and emigrated to the U.S. and became the librarian at the William G. Mather Library in Ohio where he likely met Murdock. In 1924, Holmes wrote an essay for the Bibliographical Society of America identifying himself as part of the Poole-Kittredge lineage and citing Kenneth B. Murdock's still unpublished dissertation. In 1932 Holmes published a bibliography of Increase

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texts: <mask> followed by <mask>, A Bibliography (1940). Holmes often cites Murdock and Kittredge and is highly knowledgeable about the construction of books.Holmes' work also includes <mask>'s October 20, 1692 letter (see above) to his uncle opposing an end to the trials. 1930 Samuel Eliot Morison published Builders of the Bay Colony. Morison chose not to include anyone with the surname <mask> or <mask> in his collection of twelve "builders" and in the bibliography writes "I have a higher opinion than most historians of <mask>er's Magnalia… Although Mather is inaccurate, pedantic, and not above suppresio veri, he does succeed in giving a living picture of the person he writes about." Whereas Kittredge and Murdock worked from the English department, Morison was from Harvard's history department. Morison's view seems to have evolved over the course of the 1930s, as can be seen in Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century (1936) published while Kittredge ran the Harvard press, and in a year that coincided with the tercentary of the college: "Since the appearance of Professor Kittredge's work, it is not necessary to argue that a man of learning…" of that era should be judged on his view of witchcraft. In The Intellectual Life of Colonial New England (1956), Morison writes that <mask>er found balance and level-thinking during the witchcraft trials. Like Poole, Morison suggests Calef had an agenda against Mather, without providing supporting evidence.1953 Perry Miller published The New England Mind: From Colony to Province (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press). Miller worked from the Harvard English Department and his expansive prose contains

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texts: few citations, but the "Bibliographical Notes" for Chapter XIII "The Judgement of the Witches" references the bibliographies of TJ Holmes (above) calling Holmes portrayal of <mask>er's composition of Wonders "an epoch in the study of Salem Witchcraft." However, following the discovery of the authentic holograph of the September 2, 1692 letter, in 1985, David Levin writes that the letter demonstrates that the timeline employed by TJ Holmes and Perry Miller, is off by "three weeks." Contrary to the evidence in the later arriving letter, Miller portrays Phips and Stoughton as pressuring <mask>er to write the book (p.201): "If ever there was a false book produced by a man whose heart was not in it, it is The Wonders….he was insecure, frightened, sick at heart…" The book "has ever since scarred his reputation," Perry Miller writes. Miller seems to imagine <mask>er as sensitive, tender, and a good vehicle for his jeremiad thesis: "His mind was bubbling with every sentence of the jeremiads, for he was heart and soul in the effort to reorganize them. 1969 Chadwick Hansen Witchcraft at Salem. Hansen states a purpose to "set the record straight" and reverse the "traditional interpretation of what happened at Salem…" and names Poole and Kittredge as like-minded influences.(Hansen reluctantly keys his footnotes to Burr's anthology for the reader's convenience, "in spite of [Burr's] anti-Puritan bias…") Hansen presents Mather as a positive influence on the Salem Trials and considers Mather's handling of the Goodwin children sane and temperate. Hansen posits that Mather was a moderating influence by opposing the death penalty for those who confessed—or


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 feigned confession—such as Tituba and Dorcas Good, and that most negative impressions of him stem from his "defense" of the ongoing trials in Wonders of the Invisible World. Writing an introduction to a facsimile of Robert Calef's book in 1972, Hansen compares Robert Calef to Joseph Goebbels, and also explains that, in Hansen's opinion, women "are more subject to hysteria than men." 1971 The Admirable Cotton Mather by James Playsted Wood. A young adult book. In the preface, Wood discusses the Harvard-based revision and writes that Kittredge and Murdock "added to a better understanding of a vital and courageous man…"

1985 David Hall writes, "With [Kittredge] one great phase of interpretation came to a dead end." Hall writes that whether the old interpretation favored by "antiquarians" had begun with the "malice of Robert Calef or deep hostility to Puritanism," either way "such notions are no longer… the concern of the historian."But David Hall notes "one minor exception. Debate continues on the attitude and role of <mask>er…"

Tercentenary of the trials and ongoing scholarship
Toward the later half of the twentieth century, a number of historians at universities far from New England seemed to find inspiration in the Kittredge lineage. In Selected Letters of <mask> Mather Ken Silverman writes, "Actually, Mather had very little to do with the trials." Twelve pages later Silverman publishes, for the first time, a letter to chief judge William Stoughton on September 2, 1692, in which <mask> writes "… I hope I can may say that one half of my endeavors to serve you have not been told or seen … I have labored to divert the thoughts of my readers

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 with something of a designed contrivance…"
Writing in the early 1980s, historian John Demos imputed to Mather a purportedly moderating influence on the trials. Coinciding with the tercentenary of the trials in 1992, there was a flurry of publications. Historian Larry Gregg highlights Mather's cloudy thinking and confusion between sympathy for the possessed, and the boundlessness of spectral evidence when Mather stated, "the devil have sometimes represented the shapes of persons not only innocent, but also the very virtuous." Historical and theological writings
<mask> was an extremely prolific writer, producing 388 different books and pamphlets during his lifetime.His most widely distributed work was Magnalia Christi Americana (which may be translated as "The Glorious Works of Christ in America"), subtitled "The ecclesiastical history of New England, from its first planting in the year 1620 unto the year of Our Lord 1698. In seven books." Despite the Latin title, the work is written in English. Mather began working on it towards the end of 1693 and it was finally published in London in 1702. The work incorporates information that Mather put together from a variety of sources, such as letters, diaries, sermons, Harvard College records, personal conversations, and the manuscript histories composed by William Hubbard and William Bradford. The Magnalia includes about fifty biographies of eminent New Englanders (ranging from John Eliot, the first Puritan missionary to the Native Americans, to Sir William Phips, the incumbent governor of Massachusetts at the time that Mather began writing), plus dozens of brief biographical sketches. According to


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 Kenneth Silverman, an expert on early American literature and <mask>er's biographer,

Silverman argues that, although Mather glorifies New England's Puritan past, in the Magnalia he also attempts to transcend the religious separatism of the old Puritan settlers, reflecting Mather's more ecumenical and cosmopolitan embrace of a Transatlantic Protestant Christianity that included, in addition to Mather's own Congregationalists, also Presbyterians, Baptists, and low church Anglicans.In 1693 Mather also began work on a grand intellectual project that he titled Biblia Americana, which sought to provide a commentary and interpretation of the Christian Bible in light of "all of the Learning in the World". Mather, who continued to work on it for many years, sought to incorporate into his reading of Scripture the new scientific knowledge and theories, including geography, heliocentrism, atomism, and Newtonianism. According to Silverman, the project "looks forward to Mather's becoming probably the most influential spokesman in New England for a rationalized, scientized Christianity." Mather could not find a publisher for the Biblia Americana, which remained in manuscript form during his lifetime. It is currently being edited in ten volumes, published by Mohr Siebeck under the direction of Reiner Smolinski and Jan Stievermann. As of 2019, six of the ten volumes have appeared in print. Conflict with Governor Dudley
In Massachusetts at the start of the 18th century, Joseph Dudley was a highly controversial figure, as he had participated actively in the government of Sir Edmund Andros in 1686–1689.Dudley was among those arrested in the revolt of 1689,


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 and was later called to London to answer the charges against him brought by a committee of the colonists. However, Dudley was able to pursue a successful political career in Britain. Upon the death in 1701 of acting governor William Stoughton, Dudley began enlisting support in London to procure appointment as the new governor of Massachusetts. Although the Mathers (to whom he was related by marriage), continued to resent Dudley's role in the Andros administration, they eventually came around to the view that Dudley would now be preferable as governor to the available alternatives, at a time when the English Parliament was threatening to repeal the Massachusetts Charter. With the Mathers' support, Dudley was appointed governor by the Crown and returned to Boston in 1702. Contrary to the promises that he had made to the Mathers, Governor Dudley proved a divisive and high-handed executive, reserving his patronage for a small circle composed of transatlantic merchants, Anglicans, and religious liberals such as Thomas Brattle, Benjamin Colman, and John Leverett. In the context of Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), <mask>er preached and published against Governor Dudley, whom Mather accused of corruption and misgovernment.Mather sought unsuccessfully to have Dudley replaced by Sir Charles Hobby. Outmaneuvered by Dudley, this political rivalry left Mather increasingly isolated at a time when Massachusetts society was steadily moving away from the Puritan tradition that Mather represented. Relationship with Harvard and Yale

Cotton Mather was a fellow of Harvard College from 1690 to 1702, and at various times sat on its Board of Overseers. His father


texts: Increase had succeeded John Rogers as president of Harvard in 1684, first as acting president (1684–1686), later with the title of "rector" (1686–1692, during much of which period he was away from Massachusetts, pleading the Puritans' case before the Royal Court in London), and finally with the full title of president (1692–1701). Increase was unwilling to move permanently to the Harvard campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, since his congregation in Boston was much larger than the Harvard student body, which at the time counted only a few dozen. Instructed by a committee of the Massachusetts General Assembly that the president of Harvard had to reside in Cambridge and preach to the students in person, Increase resigned in 1701 and was replaced by the Rev. Samuel Willard as acting president.<mask> sought the presidency of Harvard, but in 1708 the fellows instead appointed a layman, John Leverett, who had the support of Governor Dudley. The Mathers disapproved of the increasing independence and liberalism of the Harvard faculty, which they regarded as laxity. <mask> came to see the Collegiate School, which had moved in 1716 from Saybrook to New Haven, Connecticut, as a better vehicle for preserving the Puritan orthodoxy in New England. In 1718, <mask> convinced Boston-born British businessman Elihu Yale to make a charitable gift sufficient to ensure the school's survival. It was also <mask> who suggested that the school change its name to Yale College after it accepted that donation. <mask> sought the presidency of Harvard again after Leverett's death in 1724, but the fellows offered the position to the Rev. Joseph Sewall (son of Judge Samuel

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 Sewall, who had repented publicly for his role in the Salem witch trials).When Sewall turned it down, Mather once again hoped that he might get the appointment. Instead, the fellows offered it to one of its own number, the Rev. Benjamin Coleman, an old rival of Mather. When Coleman refused it, the presidency went finally to the Rev. Benjamin Wadsworth. Advocacy for smallpox inoculation
The practice of smallpox inoculation (as distinguished from to the later practice of vaccination) was developed possibly in 8th-century India or 10th-century China and by the 17th-century had reached Turkey. It was also practiced in western Africa, but we do not know when it started there.Inoculation or, rather, variolation, involved infecting a person via a cut in the skin with exudate from a patient with a relatively mild case of smallpox (variola), to bring about a manageable and recoverable infection that would provide later immunity. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Royal Society in England was discussing the practice of inoculation, and the smallpox epidemic in 1713 spurred further interest. It was not until 1721, however, that England recorded its first case of inoculation. Early New England
Smallpox was a serious threat in colonial America, most devastating to Native Americans, but also to Anglo-American settlers. New England suffered smallpox epidemics in 1677, 1689–90, and 1702. It was highly contagious, and mortality could reach as high as 30 percent. Boston had been plagued by smallpox outbreaks in 1690 and 1702.During this era, public authorities in Massachusetts dealt with the threat primarily by means of quarantine. Incoming ships were


texts: quarantined in Boston Harbor, and any smallpox patients in town were held under guard or in a "pesthouse". In 1716, Onesimus, one of Mather's slaves, explained to Mather how he had been inoculated as a child in Africa. Mather was fascinated by the idea. By July 1716, he had read an endorsement of inoculation by Dr Emanuel Timonius of Constantinople in the Philosophical Transactions. Mather then declared, in a letter to Dr John Woodward of Gresham College in London, that he planned to press Boston's doctors to adopt the practice of inoculation should smallpox reach the colony again. By 1721, a whole generation of young Bostonians was vulnerable and memories of the last epidemic's horrors had by and large disappeared.Smallpox returned on April 22 of that year, when HMS Seahorse arrived from the West Indies carrying smallpox on board. Despite attempts to protect the town through quarantine, nine known cases of smallpox appeared in Boston by May 27, and by mid-June, the disease was spreading at an alarming rate. As a new wave of smallpox hit the area and continued to spread, many residents fled to outlying rural settlements. The combination of exodus, quarantine, and outside traders' fears disrupted business in the capital of the Bay Colony for weeks. Guards were stationed at the House of Representatives to keep Bostonians from entering without special permission. The death toll reached 101 in September, and the Selectmen, powerless to stop it, "severely limited the length of time funeral bells could toll." As one response, legislators delegated a thousand pounds from the treasury to help the people who, under these conditions, could no longer


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 support their families.On June 6, 1721, Mather sent an abstract of reports on inoculation by Timonius and Jacobus Pylarinus to local physicians, urging them to consult about the matter. He received no response. Next, Mather pleaded his case to Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, who tried the procedure on his youngest son and two slaves—one grown and one a boy. All recovered in about a week. Boylston inoculated seven more people by mid-July. The epidemic peaked in October 1721, with 411 deaths; by February 26, 1722, Boston was again free from smallpox. The total number of cases since April 1721 came to 5,889, with 844 deaths—more than three-quarters of all the deaths in Boston during 1721.Meanwhile, Boylston had inoculated 287 people, with six resulting deaths. Inoculation debate
Boylston and Mather's inoculation crusade "raised a horrid Clamour" among the people of Boston. Both Boylston and Mather were "Object[s] of their Fury; their furious Obloquies and Invectives", which Mather acknowledges in his diary. Boston's Selectmen, consulting a doctor who claimed that the practice caused many deaths and only spread the infection, forbade Boylston from performing it again. The New-England Courant published writers who opposed the practice. The editorial stance was that the Boston populace feared that inoculation spread, rather than prevented, the disease; however, some historians, notably H. W. Brands, have argued that this position was a result of the contrarian positions of editor-in-chief James Franklin (a brother of Benjamin Franklin). Public discourse ranged in tone from organized arguments by John Williams from Boston, who posted that "several arguments


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 proving that inoculating the smallpox is not contained in the law of Physick, either natural or divine, and therefore unlawful", to those put forth in a pamphlet by Dr. William Douglass of Boston, entitled The Abuses and Scandals of Some Late Pamphlets in Favour of Inoculation of the Small Pox (1721), on the qualifications of inoculation's proponents.(Douglass was exceptional at the time for holding a medical degree from Europe.) At the extreme, in November 1721, someone hurled a lighted grenade into Mather's home. Medical opposition
Several opponents of smallpox inoculation, among them John Williams, stated that there were only two laws of physick (medicine): sympathy and antipathy. In his estimation, inoculation was neither a sympathy toward a wound or a disease, or an antipathy toward one, but the creation of one. For this reason, its practice violated the natural laws of medicine, transforming health care practitioners into those who harm rather than heal. As with most colonists, Williams' Puritan beliefs were enmeshed in every aspect of his life, and he used the Bible to state his case. He quoted Matthew 9:12, when Jesus said: "It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick."William Douglass proposed a more secular argument against inoculation, stressing the importance of reason over passion and urging the public to be pragmatic in their choices. In addition, he demanded that ministers leave the practice of medicine to physicians, and not meddle in areas where they lacked expertise. According to Douglass, smallpox inoculation was "a medical experiment of consequence," one not to be undertaken lightly. He believed that not all


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 learned individuals were qualified to doctor others, and while ministers took on several roles in the early years of the colony, including that of caring for the sick, they were now expected to stay out of state and civil affairs. Douglass felt that inoculation caused more deaths than it prevented. The only reason Mather had had success in it, he said, was because Mather had used it on children, who are naturally more resilient. Douglass vowed to always speak out against "the wickedness of spreading infection".Speak out he did: "The battle between these two prestigious adversaries [Douglass and Mather] lasted far longer than the epidemic itself, and the literature accompanying the controversy was both vast and venomous." Puritan resistance
Generally, Puritan pastors favored the inoculation experiments. Increase <mask>, <mask>'s father, was joined by prominent pastors Benjamin Colman and William Cooper in openly propagating the use of inoculations. "One of the classic assumptions of the Puritan mind was that the will of God was to be discerned in nature as well as in revelation." Nevertheless, Williams questioned whether the smallpox "is not one of the strange works of God; and whether inoculation of it be not a fighting with the most High." He also asked his readers if the smallpox epidemic may have been given to them by God as "punishment for sin," and warned that attempting to shield themselves from God's fury (via inoculation), would only serve to "provoke him more". Puritans found meaning in affliction, and they did not yet know why God was showing them disfavor through smallpox.Not to address their errant ways before attempting a cure

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