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<mask> (January 22, 1925 – September 1, 2019) was an American science fiction author best known for her short fiction of the 1950s which examined the impact of technological advances on individuals and society. Profile
Damon Knight wrote, "As a science fiction writer she has few peers; her work is not only technically brilliant but has a rare human warmth and richness." Brian Aldiss noted  that she could "do the hard stuff magnificently," while Theodore Sturgeon observed  that she "generally starts from a base of hard science, or rationalizes psi phenomena with beautifully finished logic." According to The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, she "was in the vanguard of those sf writers trying to apply to the soft sciences the machinery of the hard sciences". Her stories have been included in anthologies and a few have had radio and television adaptations. Three collections of her stories have been published. It was while she worked as a laboratory technician in 1947 that she began writing science fiction.Strongly influenced by Ludwig von Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory, her fiction has often demonstrated foresight about scientific advances. She died on September 1, 2019 at the age of 94. Awards
<mask> received a Nebula Award in 1971 for her novella "The Missing Man" (Analog, March, 1971) and she was a Professional Guest of Honor at the first WisCon in 1977. She was honored in 2003 by the Science Fiction Writers of America as an SFWA Author Emeritus. In 2011, she received the Cordwainer Smith Rediscovery Award. Collections
The Diploids and Other Flights of Fancy (Avon, 1962), her first short story collection, includes "The Diploids" (a.k.a. "Six Fingers"), "Feedback", "Pictures Don't Lie", "Incommunicado", "The Snow Ball Effect", "Defense Mechanism" and  "And Be Merry" (a.k.a."The Pyramid in the Desert"). Her second collection, The Trouble with You

masks:
Katherine Anne MacLean
MacLean


type: original

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 Earth People (Donning/Starblaze, 1980) contains "The Trouble with You Earth People", "The Gambling Hell and the Sinful Girl", "Syndrome Johnny", "Trouble with Treaties" (with Tom Condit), "The Origin of the Species", "Collision Orbit", "The Fittest", "These Truths", "Contagion", "Brain Wipe" and her Nebula Award-winning "The Missing Man". Short stories and novelettes
 "Defense Mechanism" (1949). This tale of hidden telepathic abilities was <mask>'s first story to see print when it was published in Astounding Science Fiction (October, 1949). "And Be Merry" (1950). Originally in Astounding Science Fiction (February, 1950), this story was first anthologized in Groff Conklin's Omnibus of Science Fiction (Crown, 1952) and has also been published under the title "The Pyramid in the Desert." In January 2006, <mask> reflected on the science behind the story:
"And Be Merry" (Eat Drink and Be Merry for Tomorrow We Die) A lab biologist, female, takes advantage of her husband going off on an archeology trip, to use the privacy to experiment on herself for rejuvenation by a severe and dangerous method.Succeeding, she contemplates immortality, finding that safety from accidental death has become so valuable to her that she becomes a coward, cowering from all possible risk, seeing shelter in a hospital, and is only rescued from mindless panic by her husband finding her, realizing the source of her terror and rescuing her from immortality by claiming she has a slow growing tumor in an unreachable part of the body. Finding she has no chance of evading eventual death, she immediately loses her obsession with safety, becomes interested in biochemistry again, and invents a new theory. (New at the time.) Mutation from background radiation does not just strike the sperm and egg making chromosome changes in the embryo and mutated progeny, it also strikes the chromosomes in

masks:
Katherine MacLean
MacLean


texts: each cell of any living creature, damages and mutates them also, and produces cancer. This cannot be prevented. She called it "somatic mutation" and used the new concept of body deterioration by slow radiation damage (age) to underpin her rediscovered recklessness, and be happy. Even now most biotechs have not fully accepted the implication that every cell in the body can generate an entire copy of the person.But perhaps a copy will be changed and mutated for the worse by exposure to ambient radiation and other mutagens. Perhaps a cell needs to generate a placenta around it to develop into an entire body. Something like that is holding up the biochemists from successfully making copies of individuals from body or blood cells. Not for long! I wrote three more stories with novel genetic ideas before 1953. Some have not been followed up by scientists yet. "Incommunicado" (1950).In this novelette about communication and computers, written by <mask> in 1947, she demonstrated an ability to foresee the future evolution of personal computers. Passages in this story anticipate such latter-day digital configurations as Google Book Search, Google Video Search, PDA devices, podcasting and portable music players. At a space station operated by a computer, the station's workers begin to unconsciously develop a musical rapport with their computer in a feedback loop. When published in the June 1950 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, cover artist Miller contributed one of the more striking Astounding covers of the 1950s, blending an emotional musical performance with cyber technology. The story was reprinted a decade later in Groff Conklin's anthology, Six Great Short Science Fiction Novels (Dell, 1960), followed by <mask>'s collection, The Diploids (Avon, 1962). In January, 2006, <mask> recalled this incident, trying to gate-crash a convention of electronic

masks: MacLean MacLean MacLean


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 engineers a few years after Incommunicado was published in 1950:
In the 1930s and 1940s, scientists and boys planning to be scientists read Astounding (Analog) with close attention to the hottest most promising ideas and took them up as soon as they could get funded lab space. They did not openly express their gratitude to science fiction, because the funding depended on keeping claim to have originated the ideas they had put so much work into testing and verifying....

"I hastily looked around for a door to a lecture hall where I could sneak some listening time and get a line on current research, and be out of sight before the desk was reoccupied by the guardian of the gate....

Too late, a man built like a fullback in a business suit was bearing down on me."I see you don't have your badge. May I have your name? I'll look it up in the registry...."

"<mask>, I came in because I am interested in--"

He interrupted. "<mask>! Are you that <mask>?" He gripped my hand and hung on. Who was that <mask>?Was I being mistaken for someone else? "Are you the <mask> who wrote 'Incommunicado'?" Speechless with relief, I nodded. I would not be arrested or thrown out if they would accept me as a science fiction writer. He kept his grip on my hand and turned around and bellowed to his group of chatting friends, "Guess who I've got here. The little woman who wrote 'Incommunicado'!" ...I had not been aware that my playing with communication ideas would attract the attention of prestigious Bell Telephone researchers.I had left radio and wavelength theory to my Dad as one of his hobbies and learned early that I could get a nasty shock from playing with his wiring. I could not account for their enthusiasm. I went back to the typewriter and lost myself in the story again. The point is, that scientists not only read Astounding-Analog, they were fans of the writers and

masks:
Katherine MacLean
Katherine MacLean
Katherine MacLean
Katherine Maclean
Katherine MacLean


texts: understood all the Ideas, even the obscure Ideas that were merely hinted at. "Feedback" (1951). A sociological setback occurs when conformity becomes a closed circle, prompting even more conformity; a teacher who speaks in favor of individuality is regarded as subversive. Originally in Astounding Science Fiction (July, 1951)."Syndrome Johnny" (1951). Published before it was even certain that DNA carried genetic information, this story is about a series of engineered retroviral plagues, initially propagated by blood transfusion, that are genetically re-engineering the human race. First published in Galaxy Science Fiction (July, 1951). "Pictures Don't Lie'" (1951). Radio contact with extraterrestrial ship arriving on Earth. Originally in Galaxy Science Fiction (August, 1951), it was adapted to radio, television and comic books. The adaptation on the UK series Out of This World was telecast August 11, 1962.The EC Comics version of this story was "Chewed Out! ", illustrated by Joe Orlando for Weird Science 12 (March–April 1952). In expanding the basic premise and adding comedic elements, scripter Al Feldstein established the setting as Blytheville, Arkansas. On several occasions <mask> noted that she ranked EC's interpretation as superior to her own story. "The Man Who Staked the Stars" (1952, as Charles Dye). A business mobster under investigation is slowly turned against himself by an internal doppelgänger. Originally in Planet Stories (July, 1952).This story is available online free in Project Gutenberg. "The Snowball Effect" (1952). A sociology professor, challenged to prove his theories of the dynamic growth of organizations, rewrites the rules of a smalltown sewing circle to have "more growth drive than the Roman Empire." He is far more successful than he ever anticipated. Originally in Galaxy Science Fiction (September, 1952), and adapted for the


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 X Minus One radio series in 1956. "Games" (1953). A boy becomes the characters in his make-believe games.Originally in Galaxy Science Fiction (March, 1953). Available online
 "The Diploids" (1953). In this novella, a young lawyer suspects he may be an alien because of certain physical and biochemical abnormalities but discovers that he is a commercial human embryonic cell line, sold for research and illegally grown to maturity. Originally in Thrilling Wonder Stories (April, 1953). Also titled "Six Fingers." "Cosmic Checkmate" (1958). This collaboration by <mask> and Charles V. De Vet, published in Astounding Science Fiction (March, 1958), was nominated for a 1959 Hugo.It was expanded as Second Game in 1962 and again in 1981. Two gamers play a multi-level game to determine whether Earth's civilization wins. "Unhuman Sacrifice" (1958). Published in Astounding Science Fiction (March, 1958), reprinted in Damon Knight's anthology A Century of Science Fiction (1962). The attempts of a missionary to spread the word on an alien planet are frustrated by the aliens' life cycle. "The Kidnapping of Baroness 5" (1995) Originally published in Analog; republished in the anthologies Women of Other Worlds (edited by Helen Merrick & Tess Williams) and A Woman's Liberation (edited by Connie Willis and Sheila Williams). In a post-apocalyptic world, a geneticist struggles to help preserve and lengthen the lives of the genetically damaged descendants of the survivors of a genetic experiment to extend the human lifespan  that went horribly wrong.Instead, with each generation, lifespan gets shorter, and as less and less knowledge is passed down to each succeeding generation, society has regressed to a feudal state. She fits into society by casting herself as a sort of "good witch" cum healer, passing off her medical expertise and her efforts to correct the damage to the


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 human aging process as magic. "Contagion" (1950). Originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction (October 1950), reprinted in Women of Wonder (1975). Novels
 The Man in the Bird Cage (1971)
 Missing Man (1975). In a balkanized New York City, an engineer working for the city's disaster planning section has his inside knowledge exploited to cause disasters. The novel is a fix-up of <mask>'s three Rescue Squad stories, including the 1971 Nebula Award-winning novella of the same name.Dark Wing (1979) with husband Carl West. In a world where medical knowledge has been outlawed, a young man discovers a medical kit, remnant of times past, which he uses to help those around him and to fight his way towards a better understanding of science and medicine. Memoir
 For Martin Greenberg's Fantastic Lives: Autobiographical Essays by Notable Science Fiction Writers (Southern Illinois University Press, 1981) she wrote "The Expanding Mind," a memoir of her youth and the impact of science fiction on the mind of a young girl. For Eric Leif Davin's Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965, <mask> supplied a detailed description of her negotiations with John W. Campbell in regard to the publication of her earliest stories. References

Listen to
X Minus One: "The Snowball Effect" (August 14, 1956)
X Minus One: "Pictures Don't Lie" (October 24, 1956)
Episode 4 of the podcast Buxom Blondes with Ray Guns (Hannah Wolfe, February 17, 2018) features two 1954 stories by <mask>. External links

1925 births
2019 deaths
People from Glen Ridge, New Jersey
Writers from New Jersey
20th-century American novelists
American science fiction writers
American women short story writers
American women novelists
Nebula Award winners
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American short story

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MacLean
MacLean
Katherine MacLean


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<mask>'Eyck, van Eyck or d' Eyck ( 1420 – after 1470), was an Early Netherlandish artist who worked in France and probably in Burgundy as a painter and manuscript illuminator. He was active between about 1440 to about 1469. Although no surviving works can be certainly documented as his, he was praised by contemporary authors as a leading artist of the day, and a number of important works are generally accepted as his. In particular, Barthélemy has been accepted by most experts as the artists formerly known as the Master of the Aix Annunciation for paintings, and the Master of René of Anjou for illuminated manuscripts. He is thought by many to be the Master of the Shadows responsible for parts of the calendar of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Biography
It is likely that he was related to Jan van Eyck but this cannot be documented. His stepfather was a cloth-merchant who followed René of Anjou to Naples and the South of France.His mother died in 1460, and was described as "Ydria Exters d'Allemagne" – that is "of Germany", which might well have included all the Netherlands as far as the Provençals were concerned. Jan van Eyck's brother, Lambert, seems also to have worked in Provence after Jan's death. Some authorities have proposed, on stylistic grounds as well as the likely family relationship, that Barthélemy trained in the workshop of Jan van Eyck, and worked in the 1430s on the Milan-Turin Hours, a famous and important illuminated manuscript, where a number of different painting "hands" have been identified. Much of this only survives in black-and-white photographs after the  destruction of its Turin portion in a fire in 1904. A painter called only "<mask>" is documented as working in Dijon for Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy in 1440; this may well be him. René of Anjou, who was to become Barthélemy's major patron, had been held prisoner there by Philip. By 1444 <mask> d'Eyck was in Aix-en-Provence in

masks:
Barthélemy d
Barthélemy
Barthélemy


texts: the South of France presumably working with the leading French painter Enguerrand Quarton as they witnessed a legal document together.The Aix Annunciation, dating from 1443–1445, is now generally accepted as being by Barthélemy. It is a triptych, now dispersed between Aix-en-Provence, Brussels, Amsterdam and Rotterdam (one of the side-panels having been cut into two pieces). It was commissioned by a cloth-merchant who knew Barthélemy's stepfather , and combines influences from the Early Netherlandish art of Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck with those of Claus Sluter who worked at Dijon, and Colantonio from Naples (although some see this last influence as flowing in the other direction). Many of the iconographic details follow those from Annunciations by Jan van Eyck and his circle, such as the Washington Annunciation. Together with a fine portrait dated 1456 (Lichtenstein Collection, Vienna), and a fragment with a small crucified Christ in the Louvre, this is the only surviving panel painting associated with him; most of his later works are illuminated manuscripts commissioned by René of Anjou. René of Anjou was a prince of the Valois family who had a complicated range of titles and claims, including that of King of Naples, from which kingdom he was ejected by the House of Aragon by 1442. There is evidence that Barthélemy either went to Naples, or that his works were known there, as his influence has been detected in the work of the Neapolitan artists Colantonio and Antonello da Messina.René preferred to live in his territories in the South of France, or in the Loire Valley, and was a poet and amateur artist of some talent. For a long time he was thought personally responsible for the manuscript illuminations now generally attributed to Barthélemy. From about 1447 Barthélemy appears in surviving accounts as "peintre et varlet de chambre" – the same positions as Jan van Eyck held with Philip the Bold (and the


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 Limbourg brothers had held with the Duke of Berry). A "varlet de chambre" was a court appointment of considerable status as a personal attendant to René. He travelled with René to Guyenne and on several occasions to Angers. Between 1447 and 1449 his workroom was next to René's private apartments, suggesting a considerable and unusual degree of closeness to his patron. His last appearance in the accounts is in 1469, when he was paid his own salary, plus that of three servants or assistants, and three horses.There is some evidence he lived until 1476. Manuscripts

Surviving illuminated works attributed to Barthélemy include a Book of Hours (M.358) in the Morgan Library in New York, on which Quarton also worked, and five miniatures added to The London Hours of René of Anjou in the British Library which relate very personally and intensely to René's unhappy situation whilst imprisoned in Dijon. Harthan suggests the designs for these may have been sketched by René himself for Barthélemy to execute: "the faithful interpreter of the King's exalted ideas, an inseparable, discreet companion and the effective partner, perhaps, in joint artistic enterprises" . The two best-known manuscripts are the Livre du cueur d'amour esprit and the Théséide, both in Vienna (Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Codex 2597, 2617), dating from 1460–70, with sixteen and seven miniatures respectively. The Livre du cueur d'amour esprit was a courtly allegorical romance written (almost certainly) by René. This has spaces reserved for a further twenty-nine miniatures, and these are all completed in another manuscript by a much less brilliant artist, probably working from Barthélemy's drawings. This chivalric allegorical romance comes near the end of that tradition, and only allows Barthélemy's realism and human sympathy to be engaged in places.His exceptional skill at lighting effects is fully deployed; four of the sixteen miniatures are night


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 scenes, and others show dawn or dusk with great brilliance. The larger and more populated scenes of the French translation of Boccaccio's Il Teseida delle nozze d'Emilia, in theory about Theseus, in practice another romance, include magnificent scenes of urban life. A slightly earlier work, again illustrating a text by René, is the King René's Tournament Book (BnF Ms Fr 2695) which is unusual in being in watercolour, rather than tempera and on paper rather than vellum. He is also believed by many art historians to be the Master of the Shadows who added to the illustration of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry in the mid 15th century, long after the Limbourg brothers had produced the most famous miniatures (they and the Duke died in 1416, leaving the manuscript unfinished and unbound). By then the book may have belonged to René. The calendar scene for September, probably only partly by this master, shows the chateau at Saumur, which René owned, and where he spent much of the 1460s. He also painted the main calendar scenes for March (perhaps only in part), October and December.His spatial awareness was greater than that of the Limbourgs, and he included shadows, which are a very marked feature of the miniatures of Barthélemy. His faces, especially those of peasants, are more sharply individualised, although his figures are less elegant. Only these calendar scenes, and possibly the faces in the double-page Procession of St Gregory (Walther & Wolf, op cit), show his style; many other miniatures were added a generation later by Jean Colombe. References

Sources

External links

Livre du Coeur d'Amour Espris – synopsis and all miniatures
Probable portrait in the Liechtenstein collection
Louvre Christ
Centre for the Study of Fifteenth-Century Painting in the Southern Netherlands and the Principality of Liège List of works

Early Netherlandish painters
Manuscript illuminators
1420s births
15th-century people
Year of


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<mask> (original Roßegger) (31 July 1843 – 26 June 1918) was an Austrian writer and poet from Krieglach in the province of Styria. He was a son of a mountain farmer and grew up in the woodlands and mountains of Alpl. Rosegger (or Rossegger) went on to become a most prolific poet and author as well as an insightful teacher and visionary. In his later years, he was honoured by officials from various Austrian universities and the city of Graz (the capital of Styria). He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature three times. He was nearly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913 and is (at least among the people of Styria) something like a national treasure to this day. Early life

<mask> was born as the first of seven children of a peasant couple in the village of Alpl, in the mountains above Krieglach, Styria.The family lived in a simple 18th-century Alpine farmhouse, called Kluppeneggerhof. Living conditions were modest, the central room was used for eating, sleeping and working. Food was prepared over a hearth in the scullery. The farmhouse is now part of the Universalmuseum Joanneum, but even today the building ensemble can only be reached by foot. Since this little village, consisting only of a handful of farms, had neither a church nor a school, <mask> and the other children would have had to walk down the mountain to the larger village, St. Kathrein, in order to attend either. The way there takes two hours and as a result, <mask> had very limited education, largely provided by a wandering teacher who taught him and other children from the region for a year and a half. His

masks:
Peter Rosegger
Rosegger
Rosegger
Peter


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 physical constitution was not sufficient for him to become a farmer like his father, as he was often sick and rather frail in general.So, he became understudy of a traveling tailor at the age of seventeen. Success as a writer
His interest in literature prevailed, although he earned little money. He spent what he could afford on books and soon began to write himself. Eventually, he was discovered by the publisher of the Graz-based newspaper, Tagespost, published by Dr. Svoboda. He realized <mask>'s talent as an author and enabled him to attend the Akademie für Handel und Industrie (Academy for Trade and Industries) in Graz. There, <mask> Reininghaus became his mentor. Von Reininghaus was a wealthy and influential industrialist, and <mask> had a personal friendship with him for the rest of his life.However, he had a hard time studying, as he was not used to attending school regularly, and had little, and fragmentary, knowledge in many disciplines. He left the academy in 1869 at the age of twenty-six. Soon after that, he was offered a chance to publish his literary works, namely by Gustav Heckenast, who had worked with Adalbert Stifter before. <mask> accepted, and his first book, Geschichten aus der Steiermark ("Tales from Styria"), was released in 1871. From then on, all of his works were published by Heckenast. [Presumably only until Heckenast's death: see next sentence?] <mask> changed to a new publisher twice after Heckenast's death, eventually ending up with Ludwig Staackmann, who made him a most generous offer.He had always been very faithful towards his publishers, and

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Rosegger
Peter von
Rosegger
Peter Rosegger
Rosegger


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 the relationship between them was one of friendship and familiarity. <mask> started to publish Heimgarten in 1876, a monthly journal with articles and stories for the people of the country, whose main representative and interpreter he was. Character and private life
In 1873, <mask> married Anna Pichler. They had two children, but the marriage was short - Anna died giving birth in 1875. This affected <mask> to a great degree, as is obvious from various letters he wrote to friends in that time. In 1879, <mask> married again: Anna Knaur, with whom he had three more children and a very harmonious house life. She also cared for him during his many times of sickness.He developed many brilliant and extraordinary ideas from the context of his time, and kept contact with unconventional personalities. Rudolf Falb, the creator of the popular "lunisolar flood theory," was not only his school teacher but remained a lifelong friend. Although feeling strongly connected to his rural homelands, he was a liberal thinker with conservative roots. Fascinated by machines and technology, and being a faithful Christian, he showed a sharp eye for the potentials and advantages, as well as for the dangers and downsides of both the church and the economic development of the late 19th century. As an author he aimed to entertain, to teach and also to help. He called for donations publicly at various occasions or used his influence in academic circles, thus contributing to the founding of one school (in Alpl, his home village), the building of two churches (one in Mürzzuschlag and one in St. Kathrein,

masks: Rosegger Rosegger Peter Rosegger


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 rebuilt after it burned down) and other benevolent actions. Honors

In 1903, at his 60th birthday, he was honoured by receiving the "Ehrendoktorwürde" (Doctor honoris causa) of the University of Heidelberg.The University of Vienna and the University of Graz also awarded him with similar decorations, and the German emperor Wilhelm II, as well as the Austrian emperor Franz Josef I of Austria gave <mask> medals of honour (namely, the "Kronenorden 2. Klasse" and the "Ehrenabzeichen für Kunst und Wissenschaft"). He became citizen of honour in Graz and Vienna, and Franz Josef's successor Karl presented the ex-farmer-boy-now-national-poet with the Franz-Joseph-medal, a high-ranking accolade for an author. Late life and death
<mask>, who had been ill frequently and seriously, travelled back to his home in Krieglach in May 1918 in order to die where "the beautiful legend of the forest-farmer boy" had once begun, in the woodlands of the Styrian Alps. His birth house, the former "Forest School" (Waldschule) he helped to found in Alpl in 1902 and his house in Krieglach, where he lived until his death in 1918, are museums today. The region where he came from (the mountains of the Fischbacher Alps south of Krieglach and Mürzzuschlag) are now unofficially named "Waldheimat" ("Home in the Forest") after the name he gave it himself. The tourism industry in the region still profits from <mask>'s enduring popularity among readers.Selected works
 Zither und Hackbrett (poems in Styrian dialect, 1870)
 Volksleben in Steiermark ("People's Life in Styria"), 1875
 Die Schriften des

masks: Rosegger Rosegger Rosegger


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 Waldschulmeisters ("Manuscripts of a Forest-school Master"), 1875
 Waldheimat ("Home in the Forest"), 1877
 Der Gottsucher ("the God-seeker"), 1883
 Heidepeters Gabriel, 1886
 Jakob der Letzte ("Jakob the Last One"), 1888
 Als ich noch jung war ("When I Was Young"), 1895
 Das ewige Licht ("the Eternal Light"), 1896
 Erdsegen ("Earth's Blessing"), 1900
 Als ich noch der Waldbauernbub war ("When I Was a Forest-farmer Boy"), 1902

Further reading
 Eindringen des Kapitalismus in ein Bauerndorf, Martin der Mann, 1889 ("Introduction of Capitalism into a Village of Farmers", "Martin the Man")
 Hoch vom Dachstein, 1891
 Weltgift, 1903
 INRI (Christ book), 1905
 Collected Works, 1913–16
 Letters to F. v. Hausegger, 1924
 Letters to A. Silberstein, 1929

Film and television adaptations
 I.N.R.I. (dir. Robert Wiene, 1923)
  (dir. Alfred Stöger, 1949)
  (dir. Robert A. Stemmle, 1955)
  (dir. Ferdinand Dörfler, 1956)
 Als ich noch der Waldbauernbub war... (1963, TV film)
 Aus meiner Waldheimat (1963, TV film)
 Als ich beim Käthele im Wald war (1963, TV film)
 Am Tage des Gerichts (1965, TV film)
  (dir. Axel Corti, 1976, TV film)
 Waldheimat (1983–1984, TV series, 26 episodes)
 Die Försterbuben (dir.<mask>, 1984, TV film)
 Erdsegen (dir. Karin Brandauer, 1986, TV film)

References

External links
 <mask> Rosegger site
 Peter Rosegger Museum & Birthplace

1843 births
1918 deaths
20th-century Austrian people
19th-century Austrian poets
20th-century Austrian poets
Austrian male poets
Austrian Roman Catholics
People from Mürzzuschlag District
19th-century male

masks:
Peter Patzak
Peter


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<mask> or <mask> (Georgian: სერგო ქავთარაძე, Sergo Kavtaradze; Russian: Сергей Иванович Кавтарадзе, <mask>; 15 August 1885 – 17 October 1971) was a Soviet politician and diplomat who briefly served as head of government in the Georgian SSR and as Deputy Prosecutor General of the Soviet Union. A Georgian Bolshevik activist, he was persecuted for his Trotskyist activities, but was pardoned and reinstated by his personal friend Joseph Stalin. Arrested during the Great Purge, <mask> became famous for being among the few victims to be brought out of jail and readmitted in the Soviet Communist Party hierarchy. He was Deputy to the Foreign Commissar Vyacheslav Molotov for the greater part of World War II, and, in 1944, was sent to Iran, where his controversial stance helped topple the Mohammad Sa'ed cabinet. <mask> was also involved in provoking rebellion in the Iranian Azerbaijan and other Iranian-ruled areas. His last major office was that of Ambassador to Romania, where he maintained close contacts with the Romanian Communist Party faction formed around Ana Pauker and played a part in facilitating electoral fraud during the general election of 1946. Biography

Early activities
<mask> was born into a noble family in Zovreti, in the Georgian area of Imereti, at the time part of the Russian Empire.He joined the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party in 1903 and engaged in agitation during the period leading up to the October Revolution. Active throughout the Caucasus and in Saint Petersburg, he was a member of the Social Democratic Committee for Imereti and Mingrelia (1904–1906). <mask> first met his fellow Georgian Joseph Stalin early in his youth, and became his collaborator. During this time, he reputedly helped the young Stalin hide from detectives. Kavtaradze's political activities contrasted with his romantic life: he eventually married Sofia Vachnadze, a Georgian princess whose godmother was Empress Consort

masks:
Sergey
Sergo Kavtaradze
Sergey Ivanovich Kataradze
Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze


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 Maria Feodorovna (mother of Emperor Nicolas II). In 1912, he split with the mainstream Social Democrats as one of the Old Bolsheviks, and subsequently stood on the group's far left. He then worked for the Bolshevik paper Pravda (1912–1914), and, in 1915, graduated from the Saint Petersburg University Faculty of Law.After the February Revolution of 1917, he was present on the Social Democratic (Bolshevik) Regional Committee in the Caucasus, while editing the group's local journal, Kavkazsky Rabochy. Later in the year, he was a delegate to the 6th Party Congress, and, in 1918, was Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Soviet in Vladikavkaz. As the Civil War took hold of the Caucasus, <mask> remained a representative of the Bolsheviks, active against the Menshevik government in the Democratic Republic of Georgia, and was arrested several times. Although he frequently disagreed with Stalin, the two remained close. Following the Red Army invasion of Georgia, <mask> was head of the revolutionary committees in Batumi and Adjaria (March–September and July–September 1921, or up until May 1921). He later filled the same post in the Georgian SSR (at the time part of the Transcaucasian SFSR), where he was also People's Commissar for Justice. Between February 1922 and 1923, he was head of government (Chairman of the Sovnarkom) of the Georgian SSR.He was counselor of the Soviet Embassy in Turkey (1923–1924), and later served as Deputy Prosecutor General of the Soviet Union (1924–1928). Left Opposition and first arrest
Around that time, <mask> joined Leon Trotsky and the Left Opposition in their conflict with Stalin and other Party leaders, and ceased his involvement with the group only as it collapsed. This caused him to be expelled from the Party as early as 1927. Eventually, in late 1927, he was sent on internal exile to Orenburg Oblast (or, according to others, to Kazan). He attempted to visit Moscow on vacation in

masks: Kavtaradze Kavtaradze Kavtaradze


texts:
 December 1928, but was arrested on charges of spreading "Anti-Soviet propaganda". In 1929, Stalin ordered the State Political Directorate and Lavrentiy Beria to round up the leadership of the Georgian Communist Party, including Polikarp Budu Mdivani and others who had voiced strong criticism of the centralism imposed with the creation of the Soviet Union (see Georgian Affair). Other Georgian comrades of Stalin were also arrested, including Kote Tsintsadze.However, in a speech condemning Mdivani's associates as a "terrorist group", Beria left out <mask>'s name, which was seen as a sign that Stalin was going to be more lenient with him. He was nonetheless sentenced to three years in prison, which he served in Tobolsk. <mask> was eventually released on Stalin's orders, and was allowed to return to and settle in Moscow, where he worked as a journalist without reentering the Party. According to historian Roy Medvedev, <mask>'s liberation came after he sent a letter to the uncontested leader, which included a pledge that "he was not working against the Party." Medvedev places Kavtaradze's release after the 1934 murder of Party boss <mask>, while other sources indicate that he emerged from prison in 1931. Central Committee member Lazar Kaganovich was tasked with looking after him. One of <mask>'s journalistic pieces, published soon after his return to Moscow, was a recollection of his early activities, which was reportedly well liked by Stalin.Second arrest and death sentence
<mask> consequently worked for a publishing house, reviewing works of fiction. In late 1936, as the Great Purge was reaching its peak, he and his wife Sofia were suddenly arrested on orders from NKVD chief Nikolai Yezhov, accused of "counter-revolutionary activities" and of having conspired with Mdivani to have Stalin assassinated, and sentenced to death. They were both subject to torture in the Lubyanka Prison. Although Mdivani was shot

masks:
Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze
Sergey Kavtaradze
Sergey Kirov
Sergey Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze


texts:
 immediately, the couple remained waiting on Death Row for a significant period. Upon being presented with a list of planned executions, Stalin marked a dash in crayon next to <mask>'s name—according to various sources, this discreet sign saved <mask>'s life. <mask> was later moved to a prison in Tbilisi, but brought back to Moscow in February 1939. The couple were suddenly released in late 1939, and were first allowed to see each other in Beria's Moscow apartment.British historian Simon Sebag Montefiore argues that this was a delayed consequence of a letter Stalin received in 1936: in it, the couple's eleven-year-old daughter, Maya, begged for her parents to be allowed to live. The Kavtaradzes (including Maya, who was allowed to leave Tbilisi and transported to Moscow) moved into a hotel, and then allowed to settle in a communal apartment. In what was an unprecedented gesture, Stalin and Beria paid them a visit in their new home. World War II
<mask> was assigned to the State Publishing House in 1940, and reinstated in the Party later that year. He became an assistant to Foreign Commissar Vyacheslav Molotov in 1941, being placed in charge of the Near East Department. In 1943, after the Nazi German invasion of the Soviet Union, he was Deputy Foreign Commissar. He took part in the inter-Allied summits—the Yalta Conference and the Potsdam Conference.The family were often guests at the Kremlin, where they attended dinners in the company of Stalin and other prominent politicians. During September 1944, <mask> was in Iran, where, three years after the Anglo-Soviet invasion, he was to push for a Soviet share in the local oil industry. He approached Prime Minister Mohammad Sa'ed, asking him to allow Soviet prospectors in northern Iran. Sa'ed, who was by then involved in a conflict with the far left Tudeh and nationalist forces over having allowed British and American businesses the possibility of opening oil field in the

masks:
Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze
Sergey Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze
Sergey Kavtaradze


texts: country, did not reply favorably to the envoy's request. <mask> then resorted to threats, which he notably voiced during a meeting with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In parallel, the Soviet Red Army troops in Iran made the transit of Iranian forces difficult, and were present during a large-scale Tudeh demonstration in front of the Majlis building. It was largely as a result of these maneuvers that Sa'ed ultimately resigned on 9 November 1944, being replaced by Morteza Gholi Bayat.In December, despite Tudeh opposition, Mohammed Mosaddeq successfully advanced legislation preventing any government official from granting Iranian fields to any foreign investor without explicit approval from the Majlis. Kavtaradze protested the change, claiming that it was aimed against the Soviet Union, but the Bayet cabinet refused to renegotiate and he returned to Moscow without having registered any gain. In June 1945, Molotov, Kavtaradze and Azerbaijan SSR leader Mir Jafar Baghirov were instructed by the Soviet Central Committee to secretly prepare a separatist insurrection in the Iranian Azerbaijan. This resulted in Ja'far Pishevari's Azerbaijan People's Government, while agitation among the Kurdish people gave way to Qazi Muhammad's Republic of Mahabad (both regimes were crushed within months by Iranian interventions). During early autumn, together with the Armenian SSR's Foreign Commissariat, Kavtradze analyzed the border issues between Turkey and the Caucasian Soviet Republics (see Tao-Klarjeti, Wilsonian Armenia). In a report to Molotov, he estimated that the Turkish state owed 20,500 km² in territory to the Armenian SSR and 5,500 km² to the Georgian SSR. With his backing, the Armenian leadership unsuccessfully proposed that the Ardahan Province and the area around Oltu be demanded from Turkey and granted to the Armenian SSR.The two regions had been part of the Democratic Republic of Armenia following the 1920 Treaty of


texts:
 Sèvres, but were also claimed by Georgia. In contrast, the Georgian leaders proposed that Ardahan and Oltu become part of their republic. Activities in Romania and final years
During the war's final stage, <mask> was sent to the Romanian Kingdom, whose alliance with the Axis Powers was ended by the coup of August 1944 (see Romania during World War II). His office as Ambassador, like the Soviet military presence, was instrumental in providing guidance and assistance for the Romanian Communist Party (PCR). He took over his post in 1945, and kept it until 1952. At the time, he was especially close to the PCR's so-called "Muscovite faction", and to its leader, Ana Pauker. This came at a time when Pauker won the trust of Soviet leaders such as Molotov, Kaganovich and Kliment Voroshilov—in contrast, her main rival, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, sought support from Georgy Malenkov and Beria.At a lower level, Pauker's relations with <mask> were replicated by the close relationship between Gheorghiu-Dej and Mark Borisovich Mitin, the Cominform activist and Stalinist theorist. During September 1945, as Soviet specialists on Romanian issues, <mask> and his fellow diplomat, former prosecutor Andrey Vyshinsky, were present in Moscow at a meeting between a Romanian delegation and Stalin. The Romanian side, overseen by Ploughmen's Front leader and Premier Petru Groza, also comprised Foreign Minister and Vice-Premier Gheorghe Tătărescu, Romanian Social Democrat leader Ştefan Voitec, and Mihail Ghelmegeanu. The discussions were centered on Romania's agreement to seal a final armistice with the Soviet Union. The Minister of Justice and prominent PCR member, Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu, was conspicuously absent from the talks, in what was seen as an early sign of his downfall. In autumn 1946, <mask>, who regularly instructed Pauker, played a part in the electoral fraud that brought the PCR-created Bloc of Democratic Parties to power under

masks: Kavtaradze Kavtaradze Kavtaradze Kavtaradze


texts:
 Groza's leadership (see 1946 Romanian general election). In January 1947, as Romania prepared to sign the Paris Peace Treaty, he played a part in negotiating, with Premier Groza, Foreign Minister Tătărescu, and PCR activist Emil Bodnăraş, the Soviet takeover of islands on the Danube's Chilia branch.While Groza asked for Romania to receive the Hertsa region and a small area north of Siret in exchange, Tătărescu opposed any change in the status quo, and Bodnăraş asked for promises of compensation to be made. <mask> relayed his government's position that no guarantees were to be made, and the islands were ceded to the Soviet Union as part of the Paris Treaty system. Since the Soviet-dominated Allied Commission ended its mandate (October 1947) and until his recall, <mask> replaced Red Army general Ivan Susaykov as the most important representative of his country in relations with the Groza government, and, later, with Communist Romania. He retired in 1954, one year after Stalin's death, and in 1961, was a delegate to the 22nd Party Congress. He died ten years later in Tbilisi, where his descendants were still residing in 2003. Legacy
Stalin's forgiveness for Kavtaradze has drawn interest from historians, as did the fact Stalin's attitudes toward his friend remained ambiguous after he was released from prison. In his Let History Judge, Roy Medvedev cites an episode occurring circa 1939, reported to him by Kavtaradze himself: during dinner at the Kremlin, Kavtaradze was addressed by Stalin the words "And yet you wanted to kill me".Medvedev notes: "Some historians may see this comment as proof of Stalin's paranoia. But Stalin knew well that Kavtaradze never tried to kill him. However, he could not admit this openly, for then he would have had to reconsider the execution of Budu Mdivani and many other Communists involved in the case. It was much simpler to 'forgive' Kavtaradze alone." In his view, the case was similar to

masks: Kavtaradze Kavtaradze


texts: that of Alyosha Svanidze (the brother of Stalin's first wife Ekaterina Svanidze), who was shot after refusing to confess similar crimes. He concluded: "All these actions reveal a misanthropic tyrant, not a mentally ill person who did not know what he was doing." Reportedly, <mask> himself believed that the conversation showed Stalin to be "sick".Simon Sebag Montefiore, who places this event right after the Kavtaradzes' liberation, cites the line as: "Nevertheless, you all wanted to kill me? ", and gives <mask>'s reply to it as "Do you really think so?" He also records an exchange between Stalin and <mask>: Stalin, looking at her hair (which had turned white in prison), commented "We have tortured you too much." In this context, Stalin charged <mask> with editing a Russian-language translation of Shota Rustaveli's The Knight in the Panther's Skin, which he was to complete together with the academic Shalva Nutsibidze. Nutsibidze was himself a former inmate, and he had begun work on the translation in his cell—Stalin had personally reviewed his work and found it impressive, ordering Nutsibidze to be released. Reportedly, the Soviet dictator even corrected part of the manuscript and his personal translation of a section probably made it into the final edition. Following his release, Stalin kept Kavtaradze in his circle of intimates, and nicknamed him Tozho—in reference to his slant eyes, which, Stalin believed, made him look like the Japanese prime minister Hideki Tōjō.He also confided in him: at some point after the Great Purge, Stalin allegedly told his friend that "we had to shoot" Nikolai Yezhov. On one occasion in 1945, speaking in Georgian, Stalin told the Mingrelian Lavrentiy Beria he considered him a "traitor" in front of <mask>. According to Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej's political ally, Alexandru Bârlădeanu, <mask> was also on good terms with his faction, and, while in Romania, furnished them details on his youth

masks:
Sergey Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze
Sofia Kavtaradze
Sergey Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze
Kavtaradze


texts:
 and relations with Stalin and his earlier fall from grace. Bârlădeanu remembered Kavtaradze telling him that he was present at the 17th Party Congress of 1934, where he claimed to have cast his vote in favor of <mask> and against Stalin's choices for the Central Committee. The ballot was secret, but Stalin later ordered the voting majority to be purged, which would have left <mask> among the very few survivors of that vote. Notes

References
 Ronald W. Ferrier, The History of the British Petroleum Company, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982. Georges Mamoulia, "Les crises de la Turquie et Iranienne 1945-1947.L'apport des archives caucasiennes" (resumé), in Cahiers du Monde Russe, 45/1-2
 Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge, Spokesman Books, Nottingham, 1976. Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2003. Martin Sicker, The Middle East in the Twentieth Century, Praeger/Greenwood, Westport, 2001. 1885 births
1971 deaths
Burials at Didube Pantheon
20th-century politicians from Georgia (country)
20th-century translators
Ambassadors of the Soviet Union to Iran
Ambassadors of the Soviet Union to Romania
Diplomats from Tbilisi
Communist Party of Georgia (Soviet Union) politicians
Revolutionaries from Georgia (country)
Lawyers from Tbilisi
Nobility of Georgia (country)
Old Bolsheviks
People from Imereti
People from Kutais Governorate
People of World War II from Georgia (country)
Prisoners from Georgia (country) sentenced to death
Prisoners sentenced to death by the Soviet Union
Publishers (people) from Georgia (country)
Politicians from Tbilisi
Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Soviet prisoners sentenced to death
Soviet people of World War II
Soviet rehabilitations
Soviet translators
Torture victims from Georgia (country)
Translators from Georgia (country)
Trotskyists
20th-century lawyers
Heads of government of the

masks:
Sergey Kirov
Kavtaradze


texts:
<mask> (July 23, 1964 – May 21, 2016) was an American musician best known as the former drummer for thrash metal band Megadeth from 1989 to 1998. He recorded drums on four of Megadeth's albums: Rust in Peace (1990), Countdown to Extinction (1992), Youthanasia (1994), and Cryptic Writings (1997). Early life
Menza was born in Munich as his father, jazz musician <mask>, was stationed with the U.S. Army in Germany at the time. Menza began playing drums at the age of two, at which age he performed at his first public concert when during the intermission someone sat him down on Jack DeJohnette's drums and he proceeded to play. His influences stem from being nurtured around the tutelage of such notables as Buddy Rich, Steve Gadd, <mask>i, Jeff Porcaro, and Louie Bellson. Beginning his professional musical career at the age of 18, drumming in the band Rhoads featuring singer Kelle Rhoads, brother of the late Randy Rhoads, Menza released his first record with Rhoads, titled Into the Future, in Europe in 1986. Following Rhoads, Menza was part of a succession of Los Angeles metal bands, including The Green (with Rhoads bandmates John Goodwin on guitar and Darwin Ballard on bass), Von Skeletor (another collaboration with Goodwin and Michael Guillory on guitars, Cam Daigneault on drums, and Menza handling lead vocals on the band's demo and self-released album, Injection of Death), and Cold Fire (also featuring Warrior guitarist Joe Floyd) before joining Megadeth.Musical career
Moving on to session playing including styles ranging from R&B to gospel, funk and heavy metal, recording

masks:
Nicholas Menza
Don Menza
Nick Cerol


texts: with the likes of John Fogerty, Menza caught the attention of then Megadeth drummer Chuck Behler and became his tech. When Megadeth needed a drummer in 1989, Menza was asked by Dave Mustaine to join the band. Mustaine noted that <mask> previously filled in on drums when Behler was unable to. Menza first played live with Megadeth on May 12, 1988 in Bradford, England. This prior experience and personal relationship led to the invitation to join Megadeth for the 1990 recording Rust in Peace. For the next ten years, Menza became associated with Megadeth's "classic" period and also his Greg Voelker Rack System. This included a double-bass drum kit with the tom-toms mounted on a lower chrome rack and all cymbal crashes mounted on a higher rack, which was supported by two chrome bars behind the drummer.This was later adopted by Megadeth on 2004's Blackmail the Universe tour, which featured a similar rack system. During his stint in Megadeth, <mask> also played drums on his bandmate Marty Friedman's three solo albums, Scenes (1992), Introduction (1994) and True Obsessions (1996). By the summer of 1998, while the band was still touring in support of Cryptic Writings, <mask> was having knee problems and sought medical advice. He was informed he had a tumor, which was later found to be benign, and had it removed. Rather than cancel any dates, Megadeth hired Jimmy DeGrasso as a temporary replacement. When the time came to record a follow-up album, <mask> was not asked back and DeGrasso became the band's official drummer. <mask> has said in several interviews that, while in the

masks: Menza Menza Menza Menza Menza


texts: hospital recovering from knee surgery, he received a phone call from Mustaine that simply said "Your services are not needed anymore".After his departure, he began work on Menza: Life After Deth with guitarist Anthony Gallo, bassist Jason Levin, and guitarist Ty Longley. The album was initially intended to have a 2002 release date and tour to follow; however, on the tour in 2003 with the reformed Great White, Longley was among the 100 people killed in The Station nightclub fire in Rhode Island and a year later Jason Levin died of heart failure, <mask> and Gallo were devastated and the Life After Deth tour was never announced. Guest guitarist Christian Nesmith, son of The Monkees' Michael Nesmith, did some leads and Menza hired producer Max Norman (Ozzy Osbourne, Megadeth). Following the reissue of the entire Megadeth catalog, Menza was invited to reunite with Megadeth in 2004. Days after a reunion was announced, Menza was fired after rehearsals and replaced with Shawn Drover. Mustaine said that this was because Menza "just wasn't prepared" for a full-scale U.S. tour, physically. In April 2006, Menza joined the Los Angeles-based metal band Orphaned to Hatred.The group describe their sound as "a continuation of the heavy style of '90s Pantera". He left the band in late 2010. <mask> nearly suffered the loss of an arm in 2007, after having an accident with a power saw. He required reconstructive surgery and metal plates in his arm and a lengthy rehabilitation, but later recovered. <mask> later auctioned off the blood-stained saw blade and an original copy of an X-ray from

masks: Menza Menza Menza


texts:
 the incident. In March 2011, <mask> appeared in a music video for Mindstreem's "We Up Next", a song originally written by SIN 34 guitarist Anthony Gallo featuring Tony Lanza and Daniel Wayne, Jr. on vocals. The actual recording is <mask> (drums), Gallo (guitars), Gregg Babuccio (bass), and Tony Lanza and Daniel Wayne, Jr. (vocals).Also in March 2011, <mask>'s band Deltanaut posted a video for the song "Sacrifice" in conjunction with the release of their Roy Z produced digital-only 5-song EP. The line-up consisted of <mask>, his old Rhoads and The Green bandmate, bassist Darwin Ballard, guitarists Christopher Grady and Colin Reid, and lead vocalist Brian Williams. <mask>'s father, <mask> who famously played tenor sax on The Pink Panther Theme with the Henry Mancini Orchestra, plays saxophone on the song "The King"; other guests include Roy Z on guitar and Ed Roth on keyboards. In 2015, <mask> contributed drum tracks to the song "Are We Alone?" on the album Warless Society (The Global Invasion) by Ci2i, with John Goodwin and Darwin Ballard on guitar and bass, respectively. In 2015, he also began working with Los Angeles band Sweet Eve on their follow up album "The Immortal Machine" as producer and drummer. Death
On May 21, 2016, Menza was performing with his band, OHM, at The Baked Potato jazz club in Studio City, California.Only three songs into the set, <mask> collapsed onstage. He was rushed to a hospital where he was pronounced dead on arrival. An autopsy later showed the cause of death to be atherosclerotic, hypertensive-induced congestive heart failure. <mask> was

masks:
Menza
Menza
Menza
Menza
Menza
Don Menza
Menza
Menza
Menza


texts:
<mask> (, , ; ca. 1475 – 28 May 1549) was a Ruthenian noble from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia, founder of the Supraśl Orthodox Monastery. He inherited vast possessions from his father <mask>, which made him 11th wealthiest person in the Grand Duchy according to the military census of 1528. Via his mother Jawnuta (Agnieszka) of the Belsky family, he was second cousin to Kings of Poland John I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. Chodkiewicz quickly gained influence under Alexander Jagiellon, becoming royal marshal. However, after Alexander's's death in 1506 his career stagnated. He supported Queen Bona Sforza, gaining her favor and becoming starost of Brest in 1528.The peak of his career came in 1544 when young Sigismund II Augustus, still influenced by his mother, appointed Chodkiewicz as voivode of Nowogródek and his son Hieronim as castellan of Trakai. Political career
As a young boy Chodkiewicz was taken hostage with his family by the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate in October 1482. His father and sister died in captivity, while he, his mother and sister Agrafena were ransomed in 1484 and returned to Lithuania. Chodkiewicz appeared in political arena in 1495 when he won a court case against caretakers of a royal estate. At the time he already was a member of the Royal court. Chodkiewicz was a favorite of Grand Duke Alexander Jagiellon, who granted him his first public position as governor of Punia in 1501. On October 30, 1501, Chodkiewicz was among 27 nobles agreeing to abide by the Union of Mielnik.The next year he was appointed as royal Master of the

masks:
Aleksander Chodkiewicz
Ivan Chodkiewicz


texts: Horse (koniuszy). It was an honorary title, but signified royal favor. In 1506, Chodkiewicz became royal marshal (marszałek hospodarski), a position which guaranteed close contacts with the King and granted a seat in the Lithuanian Council of Lords. However, after death of Alexander Jagiellon, Chodkiewicz's career stagnated. Chodkiewicz was accused of participating in the 1508 uprising organized by Michael Glinski. However, there was not enough proof and he was released from prison in 1511. He returned to the previous position of court marshal and was sent on several diplomatic missions to Poland.Due to the Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars the state budget was emptied and the Grand Duke mortgaged his properties to raise funds. This way Chodkiewicz acquired Ostrovo west of Lida (1520) and Vilkija (1522). In 1525 he obtained a privilege to establish Zabłudów. Around the same time he began consolidating his holdings near Choroszcz—the resulting complex was ranked 3rd in size after the holdings of the Radziwiłł and Goštautai families. Chodkiewicz supported Queen Bona Sforza in her efforts to consolidated royal estates. Perhaps due to her favor in 1528 Chodkiewicz became starost of Brest, a position that was similar to voivodes (Brest Litovsk Voivodeship was established in 1566). In 1530, Chodkiewicz became governor of Knyszyn, favorite hunting location of Grand Duke Sigismund.For unknown reasons, perhaps due to poor health, he was skipped for several promotions to voivode. In 1530s he was tasked with delineating the border between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. In 1544, Sigismund


texts:
 I the Old transferred much of political power within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to his son Sigismund II Augustus, who was significantly influenced by his mother Queen Sforca. Sigismund Augustus almost immediately made new appointments: <mask> became voivode of Nowogródek while his son Hieronim became castellan of Trakai. Both of these positions entitled to a seat in the Council of Lords. The following year Hieronim was further promoted to Elder of Samogitia; thus Hieronim politically surpassed his father. These appointments marked a considerable social jump for the <mask> family.The Chodkiewiczs sided with Queen Sforza against their political rival Barbara Radziwiłł, involved in the love affair with Sigismund Augustus. By the time <mask> <mask> died in 1549, his sons, especially Hieronim, were well established in politics and the family was second in power after the Radziwiłłs. Supraśl Monastery

Already in 1498, Chodkiewicz founded what became the Supraśl Orthodox Monastery in lands inherited from his father. The monastery combines features of fortified churches, Western Gothic and Eastern Byzantine architectures. Polish historian Józef Maroszek argued that this unique blend of the early 16th century was related to attempts to establish a church union between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Lithuanian historian Genutė Kirkienė further claimed that Chodkiewicz was a follower of Joseph Bolgarynovich, Metropolitan of Kiev in 1498–1501, who supported the church union as agreed in the Council of Florence—Orthodoxs would retain their rites and churches, but would be subordinates of the

masks: Chodkiewicz Chodkiewicz Aleksander Chodkiewicz


texts:
 Pope in Rome. After Bolgarynovich's death the union was abandoned at the metropolitan level, but Kirkienė found hints that Supraśl continued the idea locally.The monastery soon was granted the status of lavra—it became an autonomous body with great rights reserved for its founder (ktetor) and various restrictions placed on the Metropolitan. The Supraśl Monastery became cultural and spiritual center as well as mausoleum of the Chodkiewicz family. Alexander's mother was the first person buried in its catacombs; he is buried there as well. Titles and positions
<mask> <mask> had the following titles and positions:
Governor of Punia (1501–1511)
Royal marshal (1506–1549)
Starost of Ostrovo (1520–1547), Vilkija (1522–1549), Brest (1528–1547), Knyszyn (1530–1547)
Voivode of Nowogródek (1544–1547)

Family
In 1513, Chodkiewicz married Princess Wasylisa Jarosławiczówna Hołowczyńska. They had three male descendants, who started three branches of the Chodkewicz clan. The children spend time at the court of Albert, Duke of Prussia and were exposed to Protestantism. His son Hieronim converted to Lutheranism while daughter Zofia married a Lutheran.Chodkiewicz had five children:
 Hieronim <mask> (ca. 1515–1561) founder of the Shkloŭ (or Bykhaw) line
 Hrehory <mask> (ca. 1517–1572) founder of the Supraśl line
 Yurii <mask> (after 1520–1569) founder of the Vyalikaya Byerastavitsa line
 Alexandra, married Grigory Burnevski
 Zofia, married Stanislovas Mikolaitis Kęsgaila

References
Notes

Bibliography

1470s births
1549 deaths
People from Navahrudak
People from Nowogródek Voivodeship (1507–1795)
<mask>

masks: Aleksander Chodkiewicz Chodkiewicz Chodkiewicz Chodkiewicz Aleksander


texts:
<mask>  (; 13 September 1887 – 26 September 1976) was a Croatian-Swiss scientist and joint winner of the 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes" "including the first chemical synthesis of male sex hormones." He worked most of his life in Switzerland, and received eight doctor honoris causa in science, medicine, and law; seven prizes and medals; and twenty-four honorary memberships in chemical, biochemical, and other scientific societies. Early life
<mask> was born in Vukovar, Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, Austro-Hungarian Empire (today in Croatia). His family of craftsmen and farmers was mostly of Croat origin, with a Czech great grandparent, <mask>, and a great grandmother and a great grandfather from Austria. He lost his father, Stjepan, at the age of four, and his mother, Amalija Sever, took him and his younger brother Stjepan, to live in Osijek. <mask> attended the classics-program secondary school in Osijek. He changed his original idea of becoming a priest and switched to studying technical disciplines.Chemistry was his choice, probably because he hoped to get a position at the newly opened sugar refinery built in Osijek. Owing to the excessive hardship of everyday and political life, he left and chose the High Technical School in Karlsruhe in Germany. He was a good student in areas he liked and that he thought would be necessary and beneficial in future, which was organic chemistry. That is why his physical chemistry professor, Fritz Haber (Nobel laureate in 1918), opposed his summa cum laude degree. However, in the course of his studies, Ružička set up excellent cooperation with Hermann Staudinger (a Nobel laureate in 1953). Studying within Staudinger's department, he obtained his doctoral degree in 1910, then moving to Zurich as Staudinger's assistant. Career in research
Ružička's first works originated in the field of chemistry of

masks:
Leopold Ružička
Ružička
Ružička
Ružička


texts: natural compounds.He remained in this field of research all his life. He investigated the ingredients of the Dalmatian insect powder Pyrethrum (from the herb Tanacetum cinerariifolium), a highly esteemed insecticide found in pyrethrins, which were the focus of his work with Staudinger. Ruzicka later said of this time: "Toward the end of five and a half years of mainly synthetic work on the pyrethrins I had come to the firm conclusion that we were barking up the wrong tree." In this way, he came into contact with the chemistry of Terpineol, a fragrant oil of vegetable origin, interesting to the perfume industry. He and Staudinger split company when he started cooperation with the Chuit & Naef Company (later known as Firmenich) in Geneva. In 1916–1917, he received the support of the oldest perfume manufacturer in the world Haarman & Reimer, of Holzminden, Germany. He became a Swiss citizen in 1917, and published his Habilitation in 1918.Fornasir and he isolated linalool in 1919. With expertise in the terpene field, he became senior lecturer in 1918, and in 1923, honorary professor at the ETH (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule) as well the University in Zurich. Here, with a group of his doctoral students, he proved the structure of the compounds muscone and civetone, macrocyclic ketone scents derived from the musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) and the civet cat (Viverra civetta). These were the first natural products shown to have rings with more than six atoms, and at the time that Ružička inferred that civetone as having a 17-member ring. Synthetic techniques at the time were only known for rings of up to eight members. Muscone had been isolated in 1904 but was not identified as 3-methylcyclopentadecanone until Ružička suspected a macrocycle, having characterised civetone. He also developed a method for synthesising macrocycles, now known as the Ruzicka large ring synthesis, which he demonstrated by preparing civetone in


texts: 1927.In 1921, the Geneva perfume manufacturers Chuit & Naef asked him to collaborate. Working here, Ružička achieved financial independence, but not as big as he had planned, so he left Zurich to start working for the Basel-based CIBA. In 1927, he took over the organic chemistry chair at Utrecht University in Netherlands. In Netherlands he remained for three years, and then returned to Switzerland, which was superior in its chemical industry. A synergistic upheaval in both the administration and chemistry departments coincided to make his good fortune. Ruzicka was first to synthesize musk at an industrial scale. Firmenech named this product Exaltone.Other Swiss manufacturers and DuPont were in competition with them. In 1934, Ruzicka synthesized the male hormone androsterone and also proved "its constitutional and configurational relation to the sterols." This was followed in 1935 by the partial synthesis of the much more active male hormone testosterone. Both discoveries led to the pre-eminence of the Swiss industry in the steroid hormone field. At Zurich, at ETH he became professor of organic chemistry and started the most brilliant period of his professional career. He widened the area of his research, adding to it the chemistry of higher terpenes and steroids. After the successful synthesis in 1935 of sex hormones (androsterone and testosterone), his laboratory became the world center of organic chemistry.He was awarded in 1936 an honorary degree from Harvard University. In 1939 he won the Nobel prize for chemistry with Adolf Butenandt. Over the period 1934-1939 he had published 70 papers in the field of medicinally important steroid sex hormones, and filed several dozen patents besides. In 1940, following the award, he was invited by the Croatian Chemical Association, where he delivered a lecture to an over packed hall of dignitaries. The topic of the lecture was From the Dalmatian Insect Powder to Sex Hormones. In


texts:
 1940 he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, in 1942 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society, and in 1944 he became an international member of the US National Academy of Sciences. During the World War II, some of his excellent collaborators were lost, but Ružička restructured his laboratory with new, younger and promising people; among them was young scientist and future Nobel Laureate Vladimir Prelog.With new people and ideas new research areas were opened. In 1946, Ruzicka and Lardon "established that the fragrance of ambergris is based on the triterpene (named) ambrein". Following 1950, <mask> returned to chemistry, which had entered a new era of research. Now he turned to the field of biochemistry, the problems of evolution and genesis of life, particularly to the biogenesis of terpenes. In 1953, he published his hypothesis, the Biogenetic Isoprene Rule (that the carbon skeleton of terpenes is composed variously of regularly or irregularly linked isoprene units), which was the peak of his scientific career. In 1952, Oskar Jeger and he supervised a team which isolated lanosterol and established the link between terpenes and steroids. <mask> retired in 1957, turning over the running of the laboratory to Prelog.Later life, legacy, honours and awards
Ruzicka was the recipient of eight honorary doctorates and the 1938 Marcel Benoist Prize. He was listed as author on 583 scientific papers. In 1965, he became an honorary member of the Polish Chemical Society, and he was an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. After the war he acquired a taste for Dutch masterpieces, which he later lodged in the Kunsthaus Zürich as the Ruzicka collection. He militated against nuclear weapons. In 1970, Ruzicka delivered to the Nobel Laureate Conferences in Lindau a lecture entitled "Nobel Prizes and the chemistry of life". In later years, he served as consultant

masks: Ružička Ružička


texts:
 to Sandoz A. G. of Basel.<mask> dedicated significant efforts to the problems of education. He insisted on a better organization of academic education and scientific work in the new Yugoslavia, and established the Swiss-Yugoslav Society. <mask> became an honorary academician at the then Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb. In 1974 he was awarded the Order of the Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath. At ETH Zurich, the Ružička Award was established in 1957 on the occasion of his retirement, for young chemists working in Switzerland. In his native Vukovar, a museum was opened in his honour in 1977. Ruzicka's archives are kept at ETH Zurich.Personal life
Ružička married twice: to Anna Hausmann in 1912, and 1951 to Gertrud Acklin. From 1929, he lived at Freudenbergstrasse 101 until the last years of his life. He died in Mammern, Switzerland, a village on Lake Constance at the age of 89. References

External links

 Speich, Daniel. "<mask> und das Verhältnis von Wissenschaft und Wirtschaft in der Chemie" . ETH Zürich. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
  including the Nobel Lecture on December 12, 1945 Multimembered Rings, Higher Terpene Compounds and Male Sex Hormones

1887 births
1976 deaths
20th-century Croatian people
Croatian biochemists
Organic chemists
Croatian scientists
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
Austro-Hungarian Nobel laureates
Hungarian Nobel laureates
Croatian Nobel laureates
Austro-Hungarian scientists
People associated with the University of Zurich
ETH Zurich faculty
Utrecht University faculty
Faraday Lecturers
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Croatian Austro-Hungarians
Croatian people of Czech descent
Croatian people of German descent
Croatian emigrants to Switzerland
Naturalised citizens of Switzerland
People from Vukovar
Swiss Nobel

masks:
Ružička
Ružička
Leopold Ruzicka


texts:
<mask> (July 26, 1955 – March 1, 1993) was an American serial killer who gained infamy for a series of murders in the early 1980s. He is believed to have killed at least twelve men and boys and wounded numerous others. Early life
<mask> was born in Buffalo, New York on July 26, 1955, as the only son born to Therese (née Hurley) and <mask>. His mother was a registered nurse, and his father was a maintenance worker with the city's Sanitation Department. <mask> had two older sisters and one younger sister. Nicholas was an outdoorsman and hunter who taught <mask> how to shoot and handle weapons at a young age; according to friends, <mask> had a passion for the outdoors which exceeded all of his other interests. He enrolled in the automotive mechanics program at Burgard Vocational High School in 1971.He was remembered as a quiet student who did well in his shop courses before dropping out in early 1974, and was said to be "very intelligent, though he wasn't book-smart." He then worked a series of odd jobs before securing employment as a maintenance man at Canisius College, where he shared a midnight shift with a co-worker. He was fired in March 1979 for sleeping on the job and returned to live with his parents. <mask>, who suffered from paranoid schizophrenia, reached out for assistance after noticing his mental health slipping in 1978. He tried to admit himself to the Buffalo Psychiatric Center in September 1980. The Psychiatric Center staff told him he was not a danger to himself or others and so could not be admitted. This was a common practice at a time when such centers were being downsized.Instead, the center officials recommended counseling therapy. Fourteen days

masks:
Joseph Gerard Christopher
Joseph Gerard Christopher
Nicholas Christopher
Joseph
Joseph
Joseph
Christopher


texts:
 after he left the center, the killings began. Murders

<mask>'s murder spree began on September 22, 1980, when he killed three black men and one boy in the space of 36 hours with a .22 caliber sawed-off Ruger 10/22 semi-automatic rifle concealed in a brown paper bag. These murders led to the media epithet of the .22-Caliber Killer. A 14-year-old boy, Glenn Dunn was the first victim, shot outside a supermarket in Buffalo on September 22. Harold Green, 32, was shot the next day while dining at a fast food restaurant in Cheektowaga. That same evening, 30 year old Emmanuel Thomas was shot while crossing the street to his home, only 7 blocks away from Glenn Dunn's murder.On September 24, <mask> was shot to death in Niagara Falls. He committed two more murders on October 8 and October 9, both times bludgeoning his victims to death and then cutting their hearts out. The bloodied, beaten, and mutilated body of 71 year old Parler Edwards was found in the trunk of his taxi cab parked in Amherst on October 8. Forty-year-old Ernest Jones was found in similar condition beside the Niagara River in Tonawanda on October 9. Jones' blood-spattered taxi was found 3 miles away in Buffalo. Collin Cole, 37, was attacked in a Buffalo hospital on October 10. A white man matching the description of the .22 Caliber Killer tried to strangle him to death.Cole said the man snarled, "I hate n*****s" at him before trying to kill him. He was saved by the arrival of a nurse, and though severe damage had been done to his throat, he did survive the attack. These initial murders went unsolved at first, and <mask> enlisted in the United States Army in November, being stationed at Fort Benning. He soon

masks:
Christopher
Joseph McCoy
Christopher


texts: received Christmas furlough and arrived in Manhattan on December 20, where, on December 22, he committed four more murders and two more attacks; this time stabbing his victims to death, thus earning the moniker of the Midtown Slasher. Twenty-five year old John Adams was stabbed at around 11:30 a.m., but survived. 32 year old Ivan Frazier was attacked next about  two hours later. He managed to deflect the blade with his hand, suffering only minor injuries.Luis Rodriguez, 19, was the first murder of the day; at around 3:30 p.m., he was stabbed to death. At 6:50 p.m., 30 year old Antone Davis was stabbed to death. Around 4 hours later, 20 year old Richard Renner was stabbed and killed. Finally, Carl Ramsey was stabbed with a knife while on the subway at around 11 p.m., and died from his injuries before midnight. He then returned to Buffalo and fatally stabbed another black man, 31-year-old Roger Adams, on December 29 and 26-year-old Wendell Barnes in Rochester on December 30. He committed another three attacks on New Years Eve and New Years Day (Albert Menefee, Larry Little, and Calvin Crippen) in Buffalo, but all three victims survived), before returning to Fort Benning in January. When back at Fort Benning, <mask> attacked a black soldier with a paring knife in what was described as an unprovoked attack on January 18.The soldier survived the attack and <mask> was placed in the fort's stockade, where he attempted suicide by cutting himself with a razor. In a subsequent psychiatric session, he told a psychiatrist that he "had to" kill blacks. This admission caused <mask>'s home to be searched by the police. There the police found evidence linking <mask> to three

masks: Christopher Christopher Christopher Christopher


texts:
 murders, which led to his indictment in April 1981 and his transfer back to Buffalo for his trial on May 8. Victims

Trial, imprisonment and death

He pleaded not guilty to the three murders and refused counsel by lawyers hired by his mother, opting instead to represent himself. He was subsequently found guilty and sentenced to 60 years in prison, but this ruling was overturned as the trial judge had barred the defense from presenting expert psychiatric testimony about <mask>'s ability to stand trial. He was later found competent to stand trial, and appeared in court again in 1985 under various charges which led to him being sentenced to life imprisonment.While imprisoned at the Attica Correctional Facility, <mask> claimed that he committed 13 killings. He died in prison due to a rare form of male breast cancer on March 1, 1993, at the age of 37. Media coverage
The Discovery Channel cable network television show The FBI Files first aired its <mask> investigation, on May 9, 2000, titled the ".22 Caliber Killer". See also
 List of serial killers in the United States
 List of serial killers by number of victims

References

External links
 State of New York v. <mask>. <mask> (07/05/85)

1955 births
1993 deaths
1980 murders in the United States
20th-century American criminals
American people convicted of murder
American people who died in prison custody
American serial killers
Deaths from male breast cancer
People from Buffalo, New York
Male serial killers
Serial killers who died in prison custody
People with schizophrenia
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
American male criminals
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Violence against men in North

masks:
Christopher
Christopher
Joseph Christopher
Joseph G
Christopher


texts:
<mask> (, ; 1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960) was the sovereign of Afghanistan from 1919 until his abdication in 1929, first as Emir and after 1926 as King. After the August 1919 end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War, Afghanistan was able to relinquish its protected state status to proclaim independence and pursue an independent foreign policy free from the influence of the United Kingdom. His rule was marked by dramatic political and social change, attempting to modernize Afghanistan on Western designs, which he did not fully succeed in, due to an uprising by Habibullah Kalakani and his followers. On 14 January 1929, <mask> abdicated and fled to neighbouring British India as the Afghan Civil War began to escalate. From British India, he went to Europe, where after 30 years in exile, he died in Italy, in 1960 (yet apparently and reportedly according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, <mask>  died in Zürich in Switzerland). His body was brought to Afghanistan and buried in Jalalabad. Early years

<mask> was born on 1 June 1892, in Paghman near Kabul, Afghanistan.He was the third son of the Emir Habibullah <mask>. <mask> was installed as the governor of Kabul and was in control of the army and the treasury, and gained the allegiance of most of the tribal leaders. In February 1919, Emir Habibullah <mask> went on a hunting trip to Afghanistan's Laghman Province. Among those in his retinue were Nasrullah <mask>, Habibullah's first son Inayatullah, and Habibullah's commander-in-chief Nadir <mask>. On the evening of February 20, 1919, Habibullah was assassinated while in his tent by Shuja ud-Dawla, one of the pages who slept in his tent, on orders from his younger son, <mask>, leaving Nasrullah the

masks:
Ghazi Amanullah Khan
Amanullah
Amanullah
Amanullah Khan
Khan
Amanullah
Khan
Khan
Khan
Amanullah


texts: heir successor to the Afghan throne. Nasrullah at first refused to take the throne and declared his allegiance to Inayatullah, Habibullah's first born. Inayatullah refused and said that his father had made Nasrullah the heir rightfully and wanted him to become Emir.All the local tribes people also gave their allegiance to Nasrullah, who was a pious and religious man. The remainder of Habibullah's party journeyed south-east to Jalalabad, and on February 21, 1919, reached that city, whereupon Nasrullah was declared Emir, supported by Habibullah's first son Inayatullah. Upon receiving the news, <mask> <mask>, third son of Habibullah by Habibullah's first wife, had remained in Kabul as the king's representative. Using this opportunity, he immediately seized control of the treasury at Kabul and staged a coup against his uncle. He took control of Kabul and the central government, declaring war against Nasrullah. Nasrullah did not want any blood shed in order for him to be king. He told Amanullah that he can have the kingdom, and he will take exile in Saudi Arabia.<mask> <mask> swore upon the Quran that no harm would come to Nasrullah if he returned to Kabul and then he can do as he pleased. Fearing that Nasrullah's supporters would rise against <mask>, he went against his word and imprisoned Nasrullah and his supporters. On February 28, 1919, <mask> proclaimed himself Emir, and on March 3, 1919, Nasrullah was arrested by <mask>'s forces. On April 13, 1919, Amanullah held a Durbar (a royal court under the supervision of <mask>) in Kabul which inquired into the death of Habibullah. It found a colonel in the Afghanistan military guilty of the crime, and had him executed. On manufactured

masks: Amanullah Khan Amanullah Khan Amanullah Amanullah Amanullah Amanullah


texts:
 evidence, it found Nasrullah complicit in the assassination. He imprisoned Nasrullah to life imprisonment and had him assassinated approximately one year later while in the royal jail.Russia had recently undergone its Communist revolution, leading to strained relations between the country and the United Kingdom. <mask> <mask> recognized the opportunity to use the situation to gain Afghanistan's independence over its foreign affairs. He led a surprise attack against the British in India on 3 May 1919, beginning the Third Anglo-Afghan war. After initial successes, the war quickly became a stalemate as the United Kingdom was still dealing with the costs of World War I. An armistice was reached towards end of 1919, and Afghanistan was completely free of British diplomatic influence. Reforms

Amanullah enjoyed early popularity within Afghanistan and he used his influence to modernize the country. Amanullah created new cosmopolitan schools for both boys and girls in the region and overturned centuries-old traditions such as strict dress codes for women.He increased trade with Europe and Asia. He also advanced a modernist constitution that incorporated equal rights and individual freedoms with the guidance of his father-in-law and Foreign Minister Mahmud Tarzi. His wife, Queen Soraya Tarzi played a huge role in regard to his policy towards women. This rapid modernisation created a backlash and a reactionary uprising known as the Khost rebellion which was suppressed in 1925. He also met with many followers of the Baháʼí Faith in India and Europe, from where he brought back books that are still to be found in the Kabul Library. This association later served as one of the accusations when he

masks: Amanullah Khan


texts:
 was overthrown. At the time, Afghanistan's foreign policy was primarily concerned with the rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, the so-called Great Game.Each attempted to gain the favor of Afghanistan and foil attempts by the other power to gain influence in the region. This effect was inconsistent, but generally favourable for Afghanistan; Amanullah established a limited Afghan Air Force consisting of donated Soviet planes. Visit to Europe
<mask> travelled to Europe in late 1927. The Afghan King and Queen set out from Karachi and en route they met with King Fawad of Egypt in Cairo. They undertook a whirlwind European visit: Italy, arrival on 8 January 1928, where they met with King Victor-Emanuel III of Italy along with his Prime Minister, Benito Mussolini and Pope Pius XI in the Vatican City; France, arrival in Nice on 22 January 1928, in Paris on 25 January, meeting with President Doumergue; Belgium, arrival on Brussels on 8 February, meeting with King Albert I and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium. The next stop was Germany. The germanophile king arrived via Germany in Berlin on 22 February to meet President Paul von Hindenburg the same day.Next he travelled to Great Britain as guests of King George V and Queen Mary. The steam ship SS Maid of Orleans arrived in Dover on 13 March. The royal couple left England on 5 April to Poland. On their way, they had a longer stopover in Berlin where the Amir underwent an emergency tonsillectomy. The royal train with the Amir back on board arrived in the Polish border town of Zbąszyń on April, 28. The next day it pulled into Warsaw to be met by Polish ministers, the speaker of the Sejm and the country's president Ignacy Mościcki.


texts:
 At his request <mask> was granted a possible audience with the First Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski.The Afghan party departed from Warsaw travelling east across the country to the border with the Soviet Union on 2 May 1928. Civil War

During <mask>'s visit to Europe, opposition to his rule increased to the point that an uprising in Jalalabad culminated in a march to the capital, and much of the army deserted rather than resist. In January 1929, <mask> abdicated and went into temporary exile in then British India. His brother Inayatullah <mask> became the next king of Afghanistan for a few days until Habibullah Kalakani, a leader of the "Saqqawists" opposition movement, took over. While in India, Kalakani battled anti-Saqqawist tribes. Around 22 March, <mask> returned to Afghanistan assembling forces in Kandahar to reach Kabul and dispose of Kalakani. However his forces failed to advance and on 23 May 1929 he fled to India again, this time never to return to his country.Exile

Kalakani's nine months rule was soon replaced by Nadir <mask> on 13 October 1929. <mask> <mask> attempted to return to Afghanistan, but he had little support from the people. From British India, the ex-king traveled to Europe and settled in Italy, buying a villa in Rome's Prati neighborhood. Meanwhile, Nadir <mask> made sure his return to Afghanistan was impossible by engaging in propaganda. Most of his reforms had been reversed, but the later King, Mohammad Zahir Shah, made a more gradual program of reform. Nevertheless, he still had a group of staunch supporters in Afghanistan. These Amanullah loyalists unsuccessfully attempted several times in the 1930s and 1940s to bring him back to power.In 1941, some

masks: Amanullah Amanullah Amanullah Khan Amanullah Khan Amanullah Khan Khan


texts:
 press in the west reported that <mask> was now working as an agent for Nazi Germany in Berlin. It is believed he was involved in plans to regain his throne with Axis help, despite Afghanistan's neutrality. However following the Axis loss in Stalingrad in 1943, the plans were abandoned. Death

After fleeing to India, King <mask> <mask> sought asylum in Italy because he was given the Order of the Annunciation by King Victor Emmanuel III on his world tour. He eventually died in the year 1960, according to some reports either in Italy or, according to some other reported sources, Zürich, Switzerland. His body was brought to Afghanistan and buried in the eastern city of Jalalabad. He left behind his widowed wife and four sons and five daughters, including Princess India of Afghanistan.Marriage
He married Soraya Tarzi (1899–1968) and they had 6 daughters and 4 sons:
Princess Ameenah Shah (14 May 1916 – 29 October 1992). During her exile, in 1954 she married a naturalized Turkish citizen of Bosnian origin named Mustafa Hasanovic Ar. He was the son of the deputy of the Bosnian Young Moslems. Princess Abedah Bibi
Princess Meliha (1920–2011). She became a medical doctor in Istanbul University, she married Turkish engineer A. Tahir Söker, a close relative of Celâl Bayar. Crown Prince Rahmatullah of Afghanistan (June 7 1921–September 11 2009). Married to Adelia Graziani, a niece of Marshal of Italy Rodolfo Graziani.Prince Saifullah, died young from bronchial pneumonia. Prince Hymayatullah, died very young from bronchial pneumonia. Princess Adeela (1925–2000). Married Armando Angelini (b. August 10 1924), the son of an Italian cavalry officer and they have four daughters:
Elisabetta (b. 31 May

masks: Amanullah Amanullah Khan


texts:
 1948)
Cristina (b. 3 Oct 1949)
Simin (b. 8 Oct 1954)
Cinzia (b.11 Jan 1957)
Prince Ehsanullah (1926–2017). Married Leyla Tarzi, daughter of Col. Tavvab Tarzi, son of Mahmud Tarzi. He has 2 sons, both born in Istanbul:
Ahmed Aman Ullah (b. 1961)
Rahmad Ullah, (b. 1965)
 Princess India (b. 1929). In 1951 she married Kazem Malek, an Iranian landowner, and settled in Mashhad, Iran.They had two daughters: Soraya, born in 1954 in Rome, Italy, and Hamdam, born in Mashad, Iran in 1956. After eight years of marriage Princess India divorced her husband and returned to Rome to live with her two daughters. In 1966 she married an Afghan businessman named Abdul Rauf Haider. They had a son named Eskandar who was born in Rome in 1967. In 1968, Princess India returned to Afghanistan after the death of her mother Queen Soraya. She attended funeral ceremonies in Jalalabad and was very much impressed by her homeland and decided from that time on she would work for the benefit of Afghanistan. Soraya (b.1954), first daughter of Princess India
Haman (b. 1956), second daughter of Princess India and her husband Kazem Malek, Hamdam later married a navy commander named Paolo Fusarini. The couple had two children. They currently reside in Rome, Italy. Matteo
Flavia
Eskandar (b. 1967), son of Princess India and Abdul Rauf Haider
Princess Nagia, the youngest daughter of <mask> and Soraya. She married İlter Doğan, a Turkish Businessman whom she met on her visit to Istanbul and they have two children.Ömer, son of Princess Nagia and İlter Doğan
Hümeyra, daughter of Princess Nagia and İlter Doğan

See also

History of Afghanistan
Reforms of Amānullāh Khān and civil war
Lycées Esteqlal and Malalaï in Kabul
Amir


texts:
 Amanullah Khan Award

References

Bibliography

External links

 Amanulla <mask>: Betrayal of Nadir <mask>llah Khan City next to Jalalabad

1892 births
1960 deaths
20th-century Afghan monarchs
Afghan Sunni Muslims
Kings of Afghanistan
20th-century Afghan politicians
Emirs of Afghanistan
Barakzai dynasty
Amanullah <mask>
Afghan secularists
Pashtun people
People from Kabul Province
People of the Third Anglo-Afghan War
Afghan exiles
Monarchs who abdicated
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Knights of the Holy See
Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Afghan Civil War

masks: Khan Khanzianu Khan


texts:
<mask> (1671–1740) was an English churchman and classical scholar, bishop of St Asaph from 1727 and bishop of Chichester from 1731. Life
Born on 1 November 1671, he was son of <mask> of Leigh, Essex. His mother, his father's second wife, was Sarah, daughter of Thomas Naylor. He was educated at Eton College, and admitted in 1688 to King's College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1692, M.A. in 1696, and D.D.in 1708. At Cambridge he was tutor of Robert Walpole and the Marquis of Blandford, son of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, who died in his college on 20 February 1703. In 1704 <mask> was appointed chaplain-general to the army in Flanders. He described the campaign of 1704 in a series of letters to his cousin, George Naylor of Herstmonceux Castle, and in a journal preserved by William Coxe. In 1710 he again joined the camp at Douai. <mask> received a royal chaplaincy under Queen Anne, and he was elected fellow of Eton in October 1712. He was rector of Barnes, Surrey, 1717 to 1727, and held a prebend in St Paul's Cathedral from 1707 till his death.In 1715 he was appointed dean of Worcester, and in 1722 Henry Pelham, younger brother of his sister-in-law, Lady Grace Naylor, being two of the children of Thomas Pelham, 1st Baron Pelham, made him usher to the exchequer. In October 1726 he exchanged Worcester for the deanery of St Paul's, which he held till his death, and on 19 December 1727 was consecrated bishop of St Asaph. He had been dismissed from his chaplaincy about 1718, in consequence of his share in the Bangorian controversy, when he joined the assailants of Bishop Benjamin Hoadly. On the accession of George II, he was in favour with Queen Caroline. She intended him for the see of Bath and

masks:
Francis Hare
Richard Hare
Hare
Hare


texts:
 Wells, but the ministry was against giving the best preferments to newly consecrated bishops. <mask>'s fame as a preacher at this time is shown by a complimentary allusion in the Dunciad. In 1731 <mask> was translated from the see of St Asaph to that of Chichester.In 1736 Sir Robert Walpole, godfather of his son Robert, proposed him as successor to Archbishop William Wake, then rapidly failing. But <mask> had recently opposed the government in some measures for the relief of dissenters; and John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey, who had encountered him on that occasion, lobbied successfully against the appointment, pointing out truly that the sharp-tongued and isolated <mask> was unpopular. On 26 April 1740 <mask> died at the Vache, and was buried in a mausoleum which he had built for his family adjoining the nearby church of Chalfont St Giles. Works

<mask> was a prolific author. Feud with Bentley

He had been an old friend of Richard Bentley, to whom he addressed in 1713 The clergyman's thanks to Phileleutherus (Bentley's pseudonym in the controversy with Anthony Collins). They were estranged in part by <mask>'s support of John Colbatch. In 1724 <mask> published an edition of Terence based upon that of Faërnius (Gabriel Faerne), and with notes founded partly on previous communications from Bentley, who had intended to publish an edition himself.The vexed Bentley published his own edition with notes, bitterly attacking <mask>, and soon after issued an edition of Phaedrus, in order to anticipate a proposed edition by <mask>. <mask> retaliated in an Epistola Critica in 1727, addressed to Henry Bland, head-master of Eton, claiming many errors in his rival's edition. <mask>'s Latin scholarship was praised by Samuel

masks: Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare


texts:
 Parr and by James Henry Monk. Psalms
In 1736 <mask> published an edition of the Psalms in Hebrew. Dr. Richard Grey, in the preface to his Hebrew Grammar declared that it restored the text in several places to its original beauty. But <mask>'s theory of Hebrew versification was confuted by Robert Lowth in 1766, and feebly defended by Thomas Edwards. Controversies

<mask> was involved in various controversies.He defended Marlborough and the War of the Spanish Succession in pamphlets, publishing
 in 1711 The Allies and the Late Ministry defended against France in 4 parts, a rejoinder to Jonathan Swift's Conduct of the Allies;
 Management of the War 1711;
 Conduct of the Duke of Marlborough during the present War 1712;
 and other tracts in defence of the negotiations of 1719 and the Barrier treaty. A thanksgiving sermon on the taking of Bouchain (preached by <mask> 9 September 1711) was ridiculed by Swift in A Learned Comment. A sermon on King Charles's martyrdom (preached 1731) produced six pamphlets in its defence. A tract published in 1714, entitled Difficulties and Discouragements which attend the Study of the Scriptures in the way of Private Judgement was censured by convocation. It was taken to be ironical; but it is not very clear whether or not he meant to defend Samuel Clarke and William Whiston. It was often reprinted. <mask> contributed to the Bangorian controversy Church Authority Vindicated in 1719 (a sermon which went through five editions), and was answered by Hoadly.<mask> retorted in Scripture vindicated from the misrepresentations of the Bishop of Bangor 1721, and an ironical 'new defence' of the bishop's sermon. These are all collected in his works in four volumes (1746 and 1755), where

masks: Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare Hare


texts:
 the complimentary letter of 1713 to Bentley is omitted as inconsistent with the later attack on his Phaedrus. Patronage

Among other learned men, <mask> was the patron of Jeremiah Markland, who dedicated his edition of Statius to him. He also made efforts to advance the career of William Warburton. Family

In the autumn of 1709 he married his first cousin, Bethaia Naylor, who became the heiress of Herstmonceux on the death of her brother's only daughter, Grace. While visiting his paternal estates near Faversham, <mask> became acquainted with Joseph Alston of Edwardstone, Suffolk, whose eldest daughter, Mary Margaret, became his second wife in April 1728, and brought him a large fortune in the estates of Newhouse, Suffolk, the ancient manor of Hos-Tendis, near Skulthorpe in Norfolk, and The Vache, an estate near Chalfont St Giles in Buckinghamshire. At the Vache they always resided during the latter years of his life, and there the seven children of his second marriage were born.The estates of Hurstmonceaux came to his first son <mask>, by Bethaia, who took the name of <mask>. <mask> brought up his son strictly, obliging him to speak Greek in the family. <mask> gave the bishop trouble by a wild life, and then by engaging himself to his stepmother's sister, Carlotta Alston. The bishop prevented this marriage in his lifetime, but it took place after his death. Another son, Robert, was father of <mask>-Naylor. Notes

References

1671 births
1740 deaths
Bishops of Chichester
Bishops of St Asaph
Deans of St Paul's
Deans of Worcester
English classical scholars
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
18th-century Church of England bishops
Chalfont St Giles
18th-century Welsh Anglican

masks:
Hare
Hare
Francis
Hare Naylor
Hare
Francis
Francis Hare