texts: Bay Area where their opposition would be.United for Life organized the opposition to the bills in the California State Assembly to strike down all the abortion laws, and they "defeated it handsomely." Mary Ann Schwab and Alice Austurias, members of United for Life, organized the Catholic Office for Life in the Archdiocese of San Francisco and staffed it for many years. Some of the members of United for Life organized the Political Action organization in California as a separate organization because of the tax laws. The Birthright organization was started in San Francisco by Dr. <mask>'s second-oldest daughter, Carol Brown. A similar organization with the same name had been started in Toronto, Ontario. Brown and her helpers contacted the Toronto office, and they joined with the international organization. This helped the spread of Birthright offices on the West Coast.Of Roe v. Wade, <mask> has stated: "A purely fabricated case went to the Supreme Court and Justice Blackmun, without shame, wrote a majority opinion that is a masterpiece of false logic. The Court struck down all the laws protecting the child. In doing so they threw our legal system into a shambles. To this day, the effects are felt in the grossly unjust decisions made by the courts to protect the capacity to kill the child in the womb". <mask> finds noteworthy that the pro-life effort was the first effort by Catholic lay people in the United States without the help of the clergy; it was an entirely lay movement, the first, in <mask>'s experience, in the United States where the people acted without the leadership of their pastors. This was important because the Catholic organizers wanted non-Catholics to join in. Their conviction was that abortion is a human problem and not just a religious one.The early pro-life activists felt that they, as citizens, had to educate the voters in the United States. As a result, many Catholic priests felt that it was not their fight. All that

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 has changed by now, Fr. <mask> points out: Priests for Life  grew out of United for Life. Personal life
In 1947, <mask> married Barbara Ann Fate, the daughter of Michael and Blanche Fate. Michael Fate was half Italian and half Irish, and Blanche Fate was half Irish and half Swedish. Ms.Fate had earned a baccalaureate degree at Lone Mountain College in San Francisco. <mask> had six children. The <mask> Family would settle on 24th Avenue in San Francisco's Richmond District, attending St. Monica's parish and school. <mask>'s daughters attended Presentation High School, while his sons attended St. Ignatius, San Francisco's Jesuit high school. In the early 1960s, <mask> participated in one of the first cursillo retreats given in San Francisco, and he became a Third Order Carmelite. In 1964, he took his family on a pilgrimage to the Shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City. From the early 1960s to the middle 1970s, <mask> was involved with the St. Vincent de Paul Society and the pro-life movement.Mrs. <mask> died from complications related to kidney failure on February 11, 1976. Soon after, Dr. <mask> retired from his professorship at the University of San Francisco and was accepted by Archbishop Joseph Thomas McGucken as a seminarian of the Archdiocese of San Francisco. From 1977 to 1979, he was engaged in formation for the priesthood at St. Patrick's Seminary in Menlo Park, CA. He was ordained a priest of Jesus Christ on May 19, 1979 at St. Mary's Cathedral in San Francisco. The ordaining prelate was Archbishop John R. Quinn of San Francisco. <mask> served as a parochial vicar in various parishes of the Archdiocese of San Francisco until 1986, when, with the permission of Archbishop Quinn, he established the Holy Family Oratory of St. Philip Neri in the Archdiocese of San Francisco. The impetus for the foundation of the Oratory was an awareness of the attacks on the family in the West, which had taken deep root in the culture.Fr.

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 <mask> sought to combat these evils by engaging in a sustained and organized apostolic service to the family in the context of the Oratorian life. In addition, he saw the common life of the Oratory as a healthy form of community life for secular priests engaged in pastoral ministry. The Oratory had pastoral care of the students of San Francisco State University until 1991, when it transferred its operations to the parish of San Jose de la Mesa in Tijuana, Mexico. Fr. <mask> served there until 1996, when Archbishop William Levada called him home to the Archdiocese of San Francisco. Fr.<mask> was assigned to be chaplain of the Veterans Administration Hospital in San Francisco. He served in that capacity until his retirement in the early 2000s. <mask> then resided in San Francisco as senior priest in residence at St. Thomas the Apostle Church in the outer Richmond District. He also served as full-time chaplain to the Sisters of Perpetual Adoration at 771 Ashbury Street in San Francisco. He was also part-time chaplain at the San Francisco County Jail, the Richmond Jail, and the San Bruno Jail, and at the Novitiate of Blessed Teresa of Calcutta's Missionaries of Charity, at St. Paul's on Church Street in the Noe Valley neighborhood of the Mission District. <mask> died on July 17, 2015, at Nazareth House in San Rafael surrounded by many of his family members. He was 92 years of age and until recent months had remained quite active in his ministry since his ordination in 1979.See also

References

American anti-abortion activists
American Roman Catholic priests
American people of Italian descent
University of San Francisco alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of San Francisco faculty
Catholic clergy scientists
Saint Patrick's Seminary and University alumni
People from Gilroy, California
1922 births
2015 deaths
Activists from California
Scientists from California
People of Calabrian descent
American biologists
Catholics

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texts: <mask> ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most opera composers, <mask> wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works. Initially establishing his reputation as a composer of works in the romantic vein of Carl Maria von Weber and Giacomo Meyerbeer, <mask> revolutionised opera through his concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk ("total work of art"), by which he sought to synthesise the poetic, visual, musical and dramatic arts, with music subsidiary to drama. He described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852. <mask> realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung). His compositions, particularly those of his later period, are notable for their complex textures, rich harmonies and orchestration, and the elaborate use of leitmotifs—musical phrases associated with individual characters, places, ideas, or plot elements. His advances in musical language, such as extreme chromaticism and quickly shifting tonal centres, greatly influenced the development of classical music.His Tristan und Isolde is sometimes described as marking the start of modern music. <mask> had his own opera house built, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which embodied many novel design features. The Ring and Parsifal were premiered here and his most important stage works continue to be performed at the annual Bayreuth Festival, run by his descendants. His thoughts on the relative

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 contributions of music and drama in opera were to change again, and he reintroduced some traditional forms into his last few stage works, including Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (The Mastersingers of Nuremberg). Until his final years, <mask>'s life was characterised by political exile, turbulent love affairs, poverty and repeated flight from his creditors. His controversial writings on music, drama and politics have attracted extensive comment – particularly, since the late 20th century, where they express antisemitic sentiments. The effect of his ideas can be traced in many of the arts throughout the 20th century; his influence spread beyond composition into conducting, philosophy, literature, the visual arts and theatre.Biography

Early years

<mask> was born to an ethnic German family in Leipzig, who lived at No 3, the Brühl (The House of the Red and White Lions) in the Jewish quarter on 22 May 1813. He was baptized at St. Thomas Church. He was the ninth child of Carl Friedrich <mask>, who was a clerk in the Leipzig police service, and his wife, Johanna Rosine (née Paetz), the daughter of a baker. <mask>'s father Carl died of typhus six months after <mask>'s birth. Afterwards, his mother Johanna lived with Carl's friend, the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer. In August 1814 Johanna and Geyer probably married—although no documentation of this has been found in the Leipzig church registers. She and her family moved to Geyer's residence in Dresden.Until he was fourteen, <mask> was known as <mask> Geyer. He almost certainly thought that Geyer was his biological father. Geyer's love of the theatre came to be shared by his stepson,

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texts: and <mask> took part in his performances. In his autobiography Mein Leben <mask> recalled once playing the part of an angel. In late 1820, <mask> was enrolled at Pastor Wetzel's school at Possendorf, near Dresden, where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher. He struggled to play a proper scale at the keyboard and preferred playing theatre overtures by ear. Following Geyer's death in 1821, <mask> was sent to the Kreuzschule, the boarding school of the Dresdner Kreuzchor, at the expense of Geyer's brother.At the age of nine he was hugely impressed by the Gothic elements of Carl Maria von Weber's opera Der Freischütz, which he saw Weber conduct. At this period <mask> entertained ambitions as a playwright. His first creative effort, listed in the Wagner-Werk-Verzeichnis (the standard listing of <mask>'s works) as WWV 1, was a tragedy called Leubald. Begun when he was in school in 1826, the play was strongly influenced by Shakespeare and Goethe. <mask> was determined to set it to music and persuaded his family to allow him music lessons. By 1827, the family had returned to Leipzig. <mask>'s first lessons in harmony were taken during 1828–31 with Christian Gottlieb Müller.In January 1828 he first heard Beethoven's 7th Symphony and then, in March, the same composer's 9th Symphony (both at the Gewandhaus). Beethoven became a major inspiration, and <mask> wrote a piano transcription of the 9th Symphony. He was also greatly impressed by a performance of Mozart's Requiem. <mask>'s early piano sonatas and his first attempts at orchestral overtures date from this period. In 1829 he saw a performance by dramatic soprano

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 Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, and she became his ideal of the fusion of drama and music in opera. In Mein Leben, <mask> wrote, "When I look back across my entire life I find no event to place beside this in the impression it produced on me," and claimed that the "profoundly human and ecstatic performance of this incomparable artist" kindled in him an "almost demonic fire." In 1831, <mask> enrolled at the Leipzig University, where he became a member of the Saxon student fraternity.He took composition lessons with the Thomaskantor Theodor Weinlig. Weinlig was so impressed with <mask>'s musical ability that he refused any payment for his lessons. He arranged for his pupil's Piano Sonata in B-flat major (which was consequently dedicated to him) to be published as <mask>'s Op. 1. A year later, <mask> composed his Symphony in C major, a Beethovenesque work performed in Prague in 1832 and at the Leipzig Gewandhaus in 1833. He then began to work on an opera, Die Hochzeit (The Wedding), which he never completed. Early career and marriage (1833–1842)

In 1833, <mask>'s brother Albert managed to obtain for him a position as choirmaster at the theatre in Würzburg.In the same year, at the age of 20, <mask> composed his first complete opera, Die Feen (The Fairies). This work, which imitated the style of Weber, went unproduced until half a century later, when it was premiered in Munich shortly after the composer's death in 1883. Having returned to Leipzig in 1834, <mask> held a brief appointment as musical director at the opera house in Magdeburg during which he wrote Das Liebesverbot (The Ban on Love), based on Shakespeare's Measure for

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texts: Measure. This was staged at Magdeburg in 1836 but closed before the second performance; this, together with the financial collapse of the theatre company employing him, left the composer in bankruptcy. <mask> had fallen for one of the leading ladies at Magdeburg, the actress Christine Wilhelmine "Minna" Planer and after the disaster of Das Liebesverbot he followed her to Königsberg, where she helped him to get an engagement at the theatre. The two married in Tragheim Church on 24 November 1836. In May 1837, Minna left <mask> for another man, and this was but only the first débâcle of a tempestuous marriage.In June 1837, <mask> moved to Riga (then in the Russian Empire), where he became music director of the local opera; having in this capacity engaged Minna's sister Amalie (also a singer) for the theatre, he presently resumed relations with Minna during 1838. By 1839, the couple had amassed such large debts that they fled Riga on the run from creditors. Debts would plague <mask> for most of his life. Initially they took a stormy sea passage to London, from which <mask> drew the inspiration for his opera Der fliegende Holländer (The Flying Dutchman), with a plot based on a sketch by Heinrich Heine. The <mask>s settled in Paris in September 1839 and stayed there until 1842. <mask> made a scant living by writing articles and short novelettes such as A pilgrimage to Beethoven, which sketched his growing concept of "music drama", and An end in Paris, where he depicts his own miseries as a German musician in the French metropolis. He also provided arrangements of operas by other composers, largely on behalf of the Schlesinger publishing

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 house.During this stay he completed his third and fourth operas Rienzi and Der fliegende Holländer. Dresden (1842–1849)

<mask> had completed Rienzi in 1840. With the strong support of Giacomo Meyerbeer, it was accepted for performance by the Dresden Court Theatre (Hofoper) in the Kingdom of Saxony and in 1842, <mask> moved to Dresden. His relief at returning to Germany was recorded in his "Autobiographic Sketch" of 1842, where he wrote that, en route from Paris, "For the first time I saw the Rhine—with hot tears in my eyes, I, poor artist, swore eternal fidelity to my German fatherland." Rienzi was staged to considerable acclaim on 20 October. <mask> lived in Dresden for the next six years, eventually being appointed the Royal Saxon Court Conductor. During this period, he staged there Der fliegende Holländer (2 January 1843) and Tannhäuser (19 October 1845), the first two of his three middle-period operas.<mask> also mixed with artistic circles in Dresden, including the composer Ferdinand Hiller and the architect Gottfried Semper. <mask>'s involvement in left-wing politics abruptly ended his welcome in Dresden. <mask> was active among socialist German nationalists there, regularly receiving such guests as the conductor and radical editor August Röckel and the Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. He was also influenced by the ideas of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Ludwig Feuerbach. Widespread discontent came to a head in 1849, when the unsuccessful May Uprising in Dresden broke out, in which <mask> played a minor supporting role. Warrants were issued for the revolutionaries' arrest. <mask> had to flee, first visiting Paris and then


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 settling in Zürich where he at first took refuge with a friend, Alexander Müller.In exile: Switzerland (1849–1858)

<mask> was to spend the next twelve years in exile from Germany. He had completed Lohengrin, the last of his middle-period operas, before the Dresden uprising, and now wrote desperately to his friend Franz Liszt to have it staged in his absence. Liszt conducted the premiere in Weimar in August 1850. Nevertheless, <mask> was in grim personal straits, isolated from the German musical world and without any regular income. In 1850, Julie, the wife of his friend Karl Ritter, began to pay him a small pension which she maintained until 1859. With help from her friend Jessie Laussot, this was to have been augmented to an annual sum of 3,000 Thalers per year, but the plan was abandoned when <mask> began an affair with Mme. Laussot.<mask> even plotted an elopement with her in 1850, which her husband prevented. Meanwhile, <mask>'s wife Minna, who had disliked the operas he had written after Rienzi, was falling into a deepening depression. <mask> fell victim to ill-health, according to Ernest Newman "largely a matter of overwrought nerves", which made it difficult for him to continue writing. <mask>'s primary published output during his first years in Zürich was a set of essays. In "The Artwork of the Future" (1849), he described a vision of opera as Gesamtkunstwerk ("total work of art"), in which the various arts such as music, song, dance, poetry, visual arts and stagecraft were unified. "Judaism in Music" (1850) was the first of <mask>'s writings to feature antisemitic views. In this polemic <mask> argued, frequently using

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 traditional antisemitic abuse, that Jews had no connection to the German spirit, and were thus capable of producing only shallow and artificial music.According to him, they composed music to achieve popularity and, thereby, financial success, as opposed to creating genuine works of art. In "Opera and Drama" (1851), <mask> described the aesthetics of drama that he was using to create the Ring operas. Before leaving Dresden, <mask> had drafted a scenario that eventually became the four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. He initially wrote the libretto for a single opera, Siegfrieds Tod (Siegfried's Death), in 1848. After arriving in Zürich, he expanded the story with the opera Der junge Siegfried (Young Siegfried), which explored the hero's background. He completed the text of the cycle by writing the libretti for Die Walküre (The Valkyrie) and Das Rheingold (The Rhine Gold) and revising the other libretti to agree with his new concept, completing them in 1852. The concept of opera expressed in "Opera and Drama" and in other essays effectively renounced the operas he had previously written, up to and including Lohengrin.Partly in an attempt to explain his change of views, <mask> published in 1851 the autobiographical "A Communication to My Friends". This contained his first public announcement of what was to become the Ring cycle:
I shall never write an Opera more. As I have no wish to invent an arbitrary title for my works, I will call them Dramas ... I propose to produce my myth in three complete dramas, preceded by a lengthy Prelude (Vorspiel). ...

At a specially-appointed Festival, I propose, some future time, to produce

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texts: those three Dramas with their Prelude, in the course of three days and a fore-evening [emphasis in original]. <mask> began composing the music for Das Rheingold between November 1853 and September 1854, following it immediately with Die Walküre (written between June 1854 and March 1856). He began work on the third Ring opera, which he now called simply Siegfried, probably in September 1856, but by June 1857 he had completed only the first two acts.He decided to put the work aside to concentrate on a new idea: Tristan und Isolde, based on the Arthurian love story Tristan and Iseult. One source of inspiration for Tristan und Isolde was the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, notably his The World as Will and Representation, to which <mask> had been introduced in 1854 by his poet friend Georg Herwegh. <mask> later called this the most important event of his life. His personal circumstances certainly made him an easy convert to what he understood to be Schopenhauer's philosophy, a deeply pessimistic view of the human condition. He remained an adherent of Schopenhauer for the rest of his life. One of Schopenhauer's doctrines was that music held a supreme role in the arts as a direct expression of the world's essence, namely, blind, impulsive will. This doctrine contradicted <mask>'s view, expressed in "Opera and Drama", that the music in opera had to be subservient to the drama.<mask> scholars have argued that Schopenhauer's influence caused <mask> to assign a more commanding role to music in his later operas, including the latter half of the Ring cycle, which he had yet to compose. Aspects of Schopenhauerian doctrine found their way

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 into <mask>'s subsequent libretti. A second source of inspiration was <mask>'s infatuation with the poet-writer Mathilde Wesendonck, the wife of the silk merchant Otto Wesendonck. <mask> met the Wesendoncks, who were both great admirers of his music, in Zürich in 1852. From May 1853 onwards Wesendonck made several loans to <mask> to finance his household expenses in Zürich, and in 1857 placed a cottage on his estate at <mask>'s disposal, which became known as the Asyl ("asylum" or "place of rest"). During this period, <mask>'s growing passion for his patron's wife inspired him to put aside work on the Ring cycle (which was not resumed for the next twelve years) and begin work on Tristan. While planning the opera, <mask> composed the Wesendonck Lieder, five songs for voice and piano, setting poems by Mathilde.Two of these settings are explicitly subtitled by <mask> as "studies for Tristan und Isolde". Among the conducting engagements that <mask> undertook for revenue during this period, he gave several concerts in 1855 with the Philharmonic Society of London, including one before Queen Victoria. The Queen enjoyed his Tannhäuser overture and spoke with <mask> after the concert, writing of him in her diary that he was "short, very quiet, wears spectacles & has a very finely-developed forehead, a hooked nose & projecting chin." In exile: Venice and Paris (1858–1862)

<mask>'s uneasy affair with Mathilde collapsed in 1858, when Minna intercepted a letter to Mathilde from him. After the resulting confrontation with Minna, <mask> left Zürich alone, bound for Venice, where he rented an apartment in the Palazzo Giustinian, while Minna

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texts: returned to Germany. <mask>'s attitude to Minna had changed; the editor of his correspondence with her, John Burk, has said that she was to him "an invalid, to be treated with kindness and consideration, but, except at a distance, [was] a menace to his peace of mind." <mask> continued his correspondence with Mathilde and his friendship with her husband Otto, who maintained his financial support of the composer.In an 1859 letter to Mathilde, <mask> wrote, half-satirically, of Tristan: "Child! This Tristan is turning into something terrible. This final act!! !—I fear the opera will be banned ... only mediocre performances can save me! Perfectly good ones will be bound to drive people mad." In November 1859, <mask> once again moved to Paris to oversee production of a new revision of Tannhäuser, staged thanks to the efforts of Princess Pauline von Metternich, whose husband was the Austrian ambassador in Paris. The performances of the Paris Tannhäuser in 1861 were a notable fiasco.This was partly a consequence of the conservative tastes of the Jockey Club, which organised demonstrations in the theatre to protest at the presentation of the ballet feature in act 1 (instead of its traditional location in the second act); but the opportunity was also exploited by those who wanted to use the occasion as a veiled political protest against the pro-Austrian policies of Napoleon III. It was during this visit that <mask> met the French poet Charles Baudelaire, who wrote an appreciative brochure, "". The opera was withdrawn after the third performance and <mask> left Paris soon after. He had sought a reconciliation with Minna during this Paris


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 visit, and although she joined him there, the reunion was not successful and they again parted from each other when <mask> left. Return and resurgence (1862–1871)
The political ban that had been placed on <mask> in Germany after he had fled Dresden was fully lifted in 1862. The composer settled in Biebrich, on the Rhine near Wiesbaden in Hesse. Here Minna visited him for the last time: they parted irrevocably, though <mask> continued to give financial support to her while she lived in Dresden until her death in 1866.In Biebrich, <mask> at last began work on Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, his only mature comedy. <mask> wrote a first draft of the libretto in 1845, and he had resolved to develop it during a visit he had made to Venice with the Wesendoncks in 1860, where he was inspired by Titian's painting The Assumption of the Virgin. Throughout this period (1861–64) <mask> sought to have Tristan und Isolde produced in Vienna. Despite many rehearsals, the opera remained unperformed, and gained a reputation as being "impossible" to sing, which added to <mask>'s financial problems. <mask>'s fortunes took a dramatic upturn in 1864, when King Ludwig II succeeded to the throne of Bavaria at the age of 18. The young king, an ardent admirer of <mask>'s operas, had the composer brought to Munich. The King, who was homosexual, expressed in his correspondence a passionate personal adoration for the composer, and <mask> in his responses had no scruples about feigning reciprocal feelings.Ludwig settled <mask>'s considerable debts, and proposed to stage Tristan, Die Meistersinger, the Ring, and the other operas <mask> planned. <mask> also

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texts: began to dictate his autobiography, Mein Leben, at the King's request. <mask> noted that his rescue by Ludwig coincided with news of the death of his earlier mentor (but later supposed enemy) Giacomo Meyerbeer, and regretted that "this operatic master, who had done me so much harm, should not have lived to see this day." After grave difficulties in rehearsal, Tristan und Isolde premiered at the National Theatre Munich on 10 June 1865, the first <mask> opera premiere in almost 15 years. (The premiere had been scheduled for 15 May, but was delayed by bailiffs acting for <mask>'s creditors, and also because the Isolde, Malvina Schnorr von Carolsfeld, was hoarse and needed time to recover.) The conductor of this premiere was Hans von Bülow, whose wife, Cosima, had given birth in April that year to a daughter, named Isolde, a child not of Bülow but of <mask>. Cosima was 24 years younger than <mask> and was herself illegitimate, the daughter of the Countess Marie d'Agoult, who had left her husband for Franz Liszt.Liszt initially disapproved of his daughter's involvement with <mask>, though nevertheless, the two men were friends. The indiscreet affair scandalised Munich, and <mask> also fell into disfavour with many leading members of the court, who were suspicious of his influence on the King. In December 1865, Ludwig was finally forced to ask the composer to leave Munich. He apparently also toyed with the idea of abdicating to follow his hero into exile, but <mask> quickly dissuaded him. Ludwig installed <mask> at the Villa Tribschen, beside Switzerland's Lake Lucerne. Die Meistersinger was completed at Tribschen in 1867, and premiered


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 in Munich on 21 June the following year. At Ludwig's insistence, "special previews" of the first two works of the Ring, Das Rheingold and Die Walküre, were performed at Munich in 1869 and 1870, but <mask> retained his dream, first expressed in "A Communication to My Friends", to present the first complete cycle at a special festival with a new, dedicated, opera house.Minna had died of a heart attack on 25 January 1866 in Dresden. <mask> did not attend the funeral. Following Minna's death Cosima wrote to Hans von Bülow several times asking him to grant her a divorce, but Bülow refused to concede this. He consented only after she had two more children with <mask>; another daughter, named Eva, after the heroine of Meistersinger, and a son Siegfried, named for the hero of the Ring. The divorce was finally sanctioned, after delays in the legal process, by a Berlin court on 18 July 1870. <mask> and Cosima's wedding took place on 25 August 1870. On Christmas Day of that year, <mask> arranged a surprise performance (its premiere) of the Siegfried Idyll for Cosima's birthday.The marriage to Cosima lasted to the end of <mask>'s life. <mask>, settled into his new-found domesticity, turned his energies towards completing the Ring cycle. He had not abandoned polemics: he republished his 1850 pamphlet "Judaism in Music", originally issued under a pseudonym, under his own name in 1869. He extended the introduction, and wrote a lengthy additional final section. The publication led to several public protests at early performances of Die Meistersinger in Vienna and Mannheim. Bayreuth (1871–1876)
In 1871, <mask> decided to move to Bayreuth, which

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texts: was to be the location of his new opera house. The town council donated a large plot of land—the "Green Hill"—as a site for the theatre.The <mask>s moved to the town the following year, and the foundation stone for the Bayreuth Festspielhaus ("Festival Theatre") was laid. <mask> initially announced the first Bayreuth Festival, at which for the first time the Ring cycle would be presented complete, for 1873, but since Ludwig had declined to finance the project, the start of building was delayed and the proposed date for the festival was deferred. To raise funds for the construction, "Wagner societies" were formed in several cities, and <mask> began touring Germany conducting concerts. By the spring of 1873, only a third of the required funds had been raised; further pleas to Ludwig were initially ignored, but early in 1874, with the project on the verge of collapse, the King relented and provided a loan. The full building programme included the family home, "Wahnfried", into which <mask>, with Cosima and the children, moved from their temporary accommodation on 18 April 1874. The theatre was completed in 1875, and the festival scheduled for the following year. Commenting on the struggle to finish the building, <mask> remarked to Cosima: "Each stone is red with my blood and yours".For the design of the Festspielhaus, <mask> appropriated some of the ideas of his former colleague, Gottfried Semper, which he had previously solicited for a proposed new opera house at Munich. <mask> was responsible for several theatrical innovations at Bayreuth; these include darkening the auditorium during performances, and placing the orchestra in a


texts: pit out of view of the audience. The Festspielhaus finally opened on 13 August 1876 with Das Rheingold, at last taking its place as the first evening of the complete Ring cycle; the 1876 Bayreuth Festival therefore saw the premiere of the complete cycle, performed as a sequence as the composer had intended. The 1876 Festival consisted of three full Ring cycles (under the baton of Hans Richter). At the end, critical reactions ranged between that of the Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg, who thought the work "divinely composed", and that of the French newspaper Le Figaro, which called the music "the dream of a lunatic". The disillusioned included <mask>'s friend and disciple Friedrich Nietzsche, who, having published his eulogistic essay "<mask> Wagner in Bayreuth" before the festival as part of his Untimely Meditations, was bitterly disappointed by what he saw as <mask>'s pandering to increasingly exclusivist German nationalism; his breach with <mask> began at this time. The festival firmly established <mask> as an artist of European, and indeed world, importance: attendees included Kaiser Wilhelm I, the Emperor Pedro II of Brazil, Anton Bruckner, Camille Saint-Saëns and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky.<mask> was far from satisfied with the Festival; Cosima recorded that months later, his attitude towards the productions was "Never again, never again!" Moreover, the festival finished with a deficit of about 150,000 marks. The expenses of Bayreuth and of Wahnfried meant that <mask> still sought further sources of income by conducting or taking on commissions such as the Centennial March for America, for which he received $5000. Last years

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 (1876–1883)
Following the first Bayreuth Festival, <mask> began work on Parsifal, his final opera. The composition took four years, much of which <mask> spent in Italy for health reasons. From 1876 to 1878 <mask> also embarked on the last of his documented emotional liaisons, this time with Judith Gautier, whom he had met at the 1876 Festival. <mask> was also much troubled by problems of financing Parsifal, and by the prospect of the work being performed by other theatres than Bayreuth.He was once again assisted by the liberality of King Ludwig, but was still forced by his personal financial situation in 1877 to sell the rights of several of his unpublished works (including the Siegfried Idyll) to the publisher Schott. <mask> wrote several articles in his later years, often on political topics, and often reactionary in tone, repudiating some of his earlier, more liberal, views. These include "Religion and Art" (1880) and "Heroism and Christianity" (1881), which were printed in the journal Bayreuther Blätter, published by his supporter Hans von Wolzogen. <mask>'s sudden interest in Christianity at this period, which infuses Parsifal, was contemporary with his increasing alignment with German nationalism, and required on his part, and the part of his associates, "the rewriting of some recent Wagnerian history", so as to represent, for example, the Ring as a work reflecting Christian ideals. Many of these later articles, including "What is German?" (1878, but based on a draft written in the 1860s), repeated <mask>'s antisemitic preoccupations. <mask> completed Parsifal in January 1882, and a second Bayreuth Festival was held for the


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 new opera, which premiered on 26 May.<mask> was by this time extremely ill, having suffered a series of increasingly severe angina attacks. During the sixteenth and final performance of Parsifal on 29 August, he entered the pit unseen during act 3, took the baton from conductor Hermann Levi, and led the performance to its conclusion. After the festival, the <mask> family journeyed to Venice for the winter. <mask> died of a heart attack at the age of 69 on 13 February 1883 at Ca' Vendramin Calergi, a 16th-century palazzo on the Grand Canal. The legend that the attack was prompted by argument with Cosima over <mask>'s supposedly amorous interest in the singer Carrie Pringle, who had been a Flower-maiden in Parsifal at Bayreuth, is without credible evidence. After a funerary gondola bore <mask>'s remains over the Grand Canal, his body was taken to Germany where it was buried in the garden of the Villa Wahnfried in Bayreuth. Works

<mask>'s musical output is listed by the Wagner-Werk-Verzeichnis (WWV) as comprising 113 works, including fragments and projects.The first complete scholarly edition of his musical works in print was commenced in 1970 under the aegis of the Bavarian Academy of Fine Arts and the Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur of Mainz, and is presently under the editorship of Egon Voss. It will consist of 21 volumes (57 books) of music and 10 volumes (13 books) of relevant documents and texts. As at October 2017, three volumes remain to be published. The publisher is Schott Music. Operas

<mask>'s operatic works are his primary artistic legacy. Unlike most opera composers, who generally left the task of


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<mask>'s earliest attempts at opera were often uncompleted. Abandoned works include a pastoral opera based on Goethe's Die Laune des Verliebten (The Infatuated Lover's Caprice), written at the age of 17, Die Hochzeit (The Wedding), on which <mask> worked in 1832, and the singspiel Männerlist größer als Frauenlist (Men are More Cunning than Women, 1837–38). Die Feen (The Fairies, 1833) was not performed in the composer's lifetime and Das Liebesverbot (The Ban on Love, 1836) was withdrawn after its first performance. Rienzi (1842) was <mask>'s first opera to be successfully staged.The compositional style of these early works was conventional—the relatively more sophisticated Rienzi showing the clear influence of Grand Opera à la Spontini and Meyerbeer—and did not exhibit the innovations that would mark


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 <mask>'s place in musical history. Later in life, <mask> said that he did not consider these works to be part of his oeuvre; and they have been performed only rarely in the last hundred years, although the overture to Rienzi is an occasional concert-hall piece. Die Feen, Das Liebesverbot, and Rienzi were performed at both Leipzig and Bayreuth in 2013 to mark the composer's bicentenary. "Romantic operas" (1843–51)

<mask>'s middle stage output began with Der fliegende Holländer (The Flying Dutchman, 1843), followed by Tannhäuser (1845) and Lohengrin (1850). These three operas are sometimes referred to as <mask>'s "romantic operas". They reinforced the reputation, among the public in Germany and beyond, that <mask> had begun to establish with Rienzi. Although distancing himself from the style of these operas from 1849 onwards, he nevertheless reworked both Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser on several occasions.These three operas are considered to represent a significant developmental stage in <mask>'s musical and operatic maturity as regards thematic handling, portrayal of emotions and orchestration. They are the earliest works included in the Bayreuth canon, the mature operas that Cosima staged at the Bayreuth Festival after <mask>'s death in accordance with his wishes. All three (including the differing versions of Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser) continue to be regularly performed throughout the world, and have been frequently recorded. They were also the operas by which his fame spread during his lifetime. "Music dramas" (1851–82)

Starting the Ring

<mask>'s late dramas are considered his masterpieces. Der Ring


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 des Nibelungen, commonly referred to as the Ring or "Ring cycle", is a set of four operas based loosely on figures and elements of Germanic mythology—particularly from the later Norse mythology—notably the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Volsunga Saga, and the Middle High German Nibelungenlied. <mask> specifically developed the libretti for these operas according to his interpretation of Stabreim, highly alliterative rhyming verse-pairs used in old Germanic poetry.They were also influenced by <mask>'s concepts of ancient Greek drama, in which tetralogies were a component of Athenian festivals, and which he had amply discussed in his essay "Oper und Drama". The first two components of the Ring cycle were Das Rheingold (The Rhinegold), which was completed in 1854, and Die Walküre (The Valkyrie), which was finished in 1856. In Das Rheingold, with its "relentlessly talky 'realism' [and] the absence of lyrical 'numbers, <mask> came very close to the musical ideals of his 1849–51 essays. Die Walküre, which contains what is virtually a traditional aria (Siegmund's Winterstürme in the first act), and the quasi-choral appearance of the Valkyries themselves, shows more "operatic" traits, but has been assessed by Barry Millington as "the music drama that most satisfactorily embodies the theoretical principles of 'Oper und Drama'... A thoroughgoing synthesis of poetry and music is achieved without any notable sacrifice in musical expression." Tristan und Isolde and Die Meistersinger
While composing the opera Siegfried, the third part of the Ring cycle, <mask> interrupted work on it and between 1857 and 1864 wrote the tragic love story Tristan und

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 Isolde and his only mature comedy Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (The Mastersingers of Nuremberg), two works that are also part of the regular operatic canon. Tristan is often granted a special place in musical history; many see it as the beginning of the move away from conventional harmony and tonality and consider that it lays the groundwork for the direction of classical music in the 20th century. <mask> felt that his musico-dramatical theories were most perfectly realised in this work with its use of "the art of transition" between dramatic elements and the balance achieved between vocal and orchestral lines.Completed in 1859, the work was given its first performance in Munich, conducted by Bülow, in June 1865. Die Meistersinger was originally conceived by <mask> in 1845 as a sort of comic pendant to Tannhäuser. Like Tristan, it was premiered in Munich under the baton of Bülow, on 21 June 1868, and became an immediate success. Millington describes Meistersinger as "a rich, perceptive music drama widely admired for its warm humanity", but its strong German nationalist overtones have led some to cite it as an example of <mask>'s reactionary politics and antisemitism. Completing the Ring
When <mask> returned to writing the music for the last act of Siegfried and for Götterdämmerung (Twilight of the Gods), as the final part of the Ring, his style had changed once more to something more recognisable as "operatic" than the aural world of Rheingold and Walküre, though it was still thoroughly stamped with his own originality as a composer and suffused with leitmotifs. This was in part because the libretti of the four Ring operas had


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 been written in reverse order, so that the book for Götterdämmerung was conceived more "traditionally" than that of Rheingold; still, the self-imposed strictures of the Gesamtkunstwerk had become relaxed. The differences also result from <mask>'s development as a composer during the period in which he wrote Tristan, Meistersinger and the Paris version of Tannhäuser.From act 3 of Siegfried onwards, the Ring becomes more chromatic melodically, more complex harmonically and more developmental in its treatment of leitmotifs. <mask> took 26 years from writing the first draft of a libretto in 1848 until he completed Götterdämmerung in 1874. The Ring takes about 15 hours to perform and is the only undertaking of such size to be regularly presented on the world's stages. Parsifal
<mask>'s final opera, Parsifal (1882), which was his only work written especially for his Bayreuth Festspielhaus and which is described in the score as a "Bühnenweihfestspiel" ("festival play for the consecration of the stage"), has a storyline suggested by elements of the legend of the Holy Grail. It also carries elements of Buddhist renunciation suggested by <mask>'s readings of Schopenhauer. <mask> described it to Cosima as his "last card". It remains controversial because of its treatment of Christianity, its eroticism, and its expression, as perceived by some commentators, of German nationalism and antisemitism.Despite the composer's own description of the opera to King Ludwig as "this most Christian of works", Ulrike Kienzle has commented that "<mask>'s turn to Christian mythology, upon which the imagery and spiritual contents of Parsifal rest, is


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 idiosyncratic and contradicts Christian dogma in many ways." Musically the opera has been held to represent a continuing development of the composer's style, and Millington describes it as "a diaphanous score of unearthly beauty and refinement". Non-operatic music

Apart from his operas, <mask> composed relatively few pieces of music. These include a symphony in C major (written at the age of 19), the Faust Overture (the only completed part of an intended symphony on the subject), some concert overtures, and choral and piano pieces. His most commonly performed work that is not an extract from an opera is the Siegfried Idyll for chamber orchestra, which has several motifs in common with the Ring cycle. The Wesendonck Lieder are also often performed, either in the original piano version, or with orchestral accompaniment. More rarely performed are the American Centennial March (1876), and Das Liebesmahl der Apostel (The Love Feast of the Apostles), a piece for male choruses and orchestra composed in 1843 for the city of Dresden.After completing Parsifal, <mask> expressed his intention to turn to the writing of symphonies, and several sketches dating from the late 1870s and early 1880s have been identified as work towards this end. The overtures and certain orchestral passages from <mask>'s middle and late-stage operas are commonly played as concert pieces. For most of these, <mask> wrote or rewrote short passages to ensure musical coherence. The "Bridal Chorus" from Lohengrin is frequently played as the bride's processional wedding march in English-speaking countries. Prose writings

<mask> was an extremely prolific writer,

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texts: authoring many books, poems, and articles, as well as voluminous correspondence. His writings covered a wide range of topics, including autobiography, politics, philosophy, and detailed analyses of his own operas. <mask> planned for a collected edition of his publications as early as 1865; he believed that such an edition would help the world understand his intellectual development and artistic aims.The first such edition was published between 1871 and 1883, but was doctored to suppress or alter articles that were an embarrassment to him (e.g. those praising Meyerbeer), or by altering dates on some articles to reinforce <mask>'s own account of his progress. <mask>'s autobiography Mein Leben was originally published for close friends only in a very small edition (15–18 copies per volume) in four volumes between 1870 and 1880. The first public edition (with many passages suppressed by Cosima) appeared in 1911; the first attempt at a full edition (in German) appeared in 1963. There have been modern complete or partial editions of <mask>'s writings, including a centennial edition in German edited by Dieter Borchmeyer (which, however, omitted the essay "Das Judenthum in der Musik" and Mein Leben). The English translations of <mask>'s prose in eight volumes by W. Ashton Ellis (1892–99) are still in print and commonly used, despite their deficiencies. The first complete historical and critical edition of <mask>'s prose works was launched in 2013 at the Institute for Music Research at the University of Würzburg; this will result in at least eight volumes of text and several volumes of commentary, totalling over 5,000 pages.It was


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 originally anticipated that the project will be completed by 2030. A complete edition of <mask>'s correspondence, estimated to amount to between 10,000 and 12,000 items, is under way under the supervision of the University of Würzburg. As of January 2021, 25 volumes have appeared, covering the period to 1873. Influence and legacy

Influence on music

<mask>'s later musical style introduced new ideas in harmony, melodic process (leitmotif) and operatic structure. Notably from Tristan und Isolde onwards, he explored the limits of the traditional tonal system, which gave keys and chords their identity, pointing the way to atonality in the 20th century. Some music historians date the beginning of modern classical music to the first notes of Tristan, which include the so-called Tristan chord. <mask> inspired great devotion.For a long period, many composers were inclined to align themselves with or against <mask>'s music. Anton Bruckner and Hugo Wolf were greatly indebted to him, as were César Franck, Henri Duparc, Ernest Chausson, Jules Massenet, <mask>, Alexander von Zemlinsky, Hans Pfitzner and many others. Gustav Mahler was devoted to <mask> and his music; aged 15, he sought him out on his 1875 visit to Vienna, became a renowned <mask> conductor, and his compositions are seen by <mask> as extending <mask>'s "maximalization" of "the temporal and the sonorous" in music to the world of the symphony. The harmonic revolutions of Claude Debussy and Arnold Schoenberg (both of whose oeuvres contain examples of tonal and atonal modernism) have often been traced back to Tristan and Parsifal. The Italian form of operatic realism known as

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 verismo owed much to the Wagnerian concept of musical form. <mask> made a major contribution to the principles and practice of conducting. His essay "About Conducting" (1869) advanced Hector Berlioz's technique of conducting and claimed that conducting was a means by which a musical work could be re-interpreted, rather than simply a mechanism for achieving orchestral unison.He exemplified this approach in his own conducting, which was significantly more flexible than the disciplined approach of Felix Mendelssohn; in his view this also justified practices that would today be frowned upon, such as the rewriting of scores. Wilhelm Furtwängler felt that <mask> and Bülow, through their interpretative approach, inspired a whole new generation of conductors (including Furtwängler himself). Among those claiming inspiration from <mask>'s music are the German band Rammstein, and the electronic composer Klaus Schulze, whose 1975 album Timewind consists of two 30-minute tracks, Bayreuth Return and Wahnfried 1883. Joey DeMaio of the band Manowar has described <mask> as "The father of heavy metal". The Slovenian group Laibach created the 2009 suite VolksWagner, using material from <mask>'s operas. Phil Spector's Wall of Sound recording technique was, it has been claimed, heavily influenced by <mask>. Influence on literature, philosophy and the visual arts

<mask>'s influence on literature and philosophy is significant.Millington has commented:[<mask>'s] protean abundance meant that he could inspire the use of literary motif in many a novel employing interior monologue; ... the Symbolists saw him as a mystic hierophant; the Decadents found many


texts: a frisson in his work.Friedrich Nietzsche was a member of <mask>'s inner circle during the early 1870s, and his first published work, The Birth of Tragedy, proposed <mask>'s music as the Dionysian "rebirth" of European culture in opposition to Apollonian rationalist "decadence". Nietzsche broke with <mask> following the first Bayreuth Festival, believing that <mask>'s final phase represented a pandering to Christian pieties and a surrender to the new German Reich. Nietzsche expressed his displeasure with the later <mask> in "The Case of Wagner" and "Nietzsche contra <mask>". The poets Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine worshipped <mask>. Édouard Dujardin, whose influential novel Les Lauriers sont coupés is in the form of an interior monologue inspired by Wagnerian music, founded a journal dedicated to <mask>, La Revue Wagnérienne, to which J. K. Huysmans and Téodor de Wyzewa contributed. In a list of major cultural figures influenced by <mask>, Bryan Magee includes D. H. Lawrence, Aubrey Beardsley, Romain Rolland, Gérard de Nerval, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Rainer Maria Rilke and several others. In the 20th century, W. H. Auden once called <mask> "perhaps the greatest genius that ever lived", while Thomas Mann and Marcel Proust were heavily influenced by him and discussed <mask> in their novels.He is also discussed in some of the works of James Joyce, as well as W. E. B. Du Bois, who featured Lohengrin in The Souls of Black Folk. Wagnerian themes inhabit T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land, which contains lines from Tristan und Isolde and Götterdämmerung, and Verlaine's poem on Parsifal. Many of <mask>'s concepts,


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 including his speculation about dreams, predated their investigation by Sigmund Freud. <mask> had publicly analysed the Oedipus myth before Freud was born in terms of its psychological significance, insisting that incestuous desires are natural and normal, and perceptively exhibiting the relationship between sexuality and anxiety. Georg Groddeck considered the Ring as the first manual of psychoanalysis. Influence on cinema

<mask>'s concept of the use of leitmotifs and the integrated musical expression which they can enable has influenced many 20th and 21st century film scores.The critic Theodor Adorno has noted that the Wagnerian leitmotif "leads directly to cinema music where the sole function of the leitmotif is to announce heroes or situations so as to allow the audience to orient itself more easily". Film scores citing Wagnerian themes include Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now, which features a version of the Ride of the Valkyries, Trevor Jones's soundtrack to John Boorman's film Excalibur, and the 2011 films A Dangerous Method (dir. David Cronenberg) and Melancholia (dir. Lars von Trier). Hans-Jürgen Syberberg's 1977 film Hitler: A Film from Germanys visual style and set design are strongly inspired by Der Ring des Nibelungen, musical excerpts from which are frequently used in the film's soundtrack. Opponents and supporters

Not all reaction to <mask> was positive. For a time, German musical life divided into two factions, supporters of <mask> and supporters of Johannes Brahms; the latter, with the support of the powerful critic Eduard Hanslick (of whom Beckmesser in Meistersinger is in part a caricature) championed


texts: traditional forms and led the conservative front against Wagnerian innovations.They were supported by the conservative leanings of some German music schools, including the conservatories at Leipzig under Ignaz Moscheles and at Cologne under the direction of Ferdinand Hiller. Another <mask> detractor was the French composer Charles-Valentin Alkan, who wrote to Hiller after attending <mask>'s Paris concert on 25 January 1860 at which <mask> conducted the overtures to Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser, the preludes to Lohengrin and Tristan und Isolde, and six other extracts from Tannhäuser and Lohengrin: "I had imagined that I was going to meet music of an innovative kind but was astonished to find a pale imitation of Berlioz ... I do not like all the music of Berlioz while appreciating his marvellous understanding of certain instrumental effects ... but here he was imitated and caricatured ... <mask> is not a musician, he is a disease." Even those who, like Debussy, opposed <mask> ("this old poisoner") could not deny his influence. Indeed, Debussy was one of many composers, including Tchaikovsky, who felt the need to break with <mask> precisely because his influence was so unmistakable and overwhelming. "Golliwogg's Cakewalk" from Debussy's Children's Corner piano suite contains a deliberately tongue-in-cheek quotation from the opening bars of Tristan. Others who proved resistant to <mask>'s operas included Gioachino Rossini, who said "<mask> has wonderful moments, and dreadful quarters of an hour."In the 20th century <mask>'s music was parodied by Paul Hindemith and Hanns Eisler, among others. <mask>'s followers (known as

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 Wagnerians or Wagnerites) have formed many societies dedicated to <mask>'s life and work. Film and stage portrayals

<mask> has been the subject of many biographical films. The earliest was a silent film made by Carl Froelich in 1913 and featured in the title role the composer Giuseppe Becce, who also wrote the score for the film (as <mask>'s music, still in copyright, was not available). Other film portrayals of <mask> include: Alan Badel in Magic Fire (1955); Lyndon Brook in Song Without End (1960); Trevor Howard in Ludwig (1972); Paul Nicholas in Lisztomania (1975); and <mask> in Wagner (1983). Jonathan Harvey's opera Wagner Dream (2007) intertwines the events surrounding <mask>'s death with the story of <mask>'s uncompleted opera outline Die Sieger (The Victors). Bayreuth Festival

Since <mask>'s death, the Bayreuth Festival, which has become an annual event, has been successively directed by his widow, his son Siegfried, the latter's widow Winifred <mask>, their two sons Wieland and <mask>, and, presently, two of the composer's great-granddaughters, <mask>-Pasquier and Katharina <mask>.Since 1973, the festival has been overseen by the Richard-Wagner-Stiftung (Richard Wagner Foundation), the members of which include some of <mask>'s descendants. Controversies

<mask>'s operas, writings, politics, beliefs and unorthodox lifestyle made him a controversial figure during his lifetime. Following his death, debate about his ideas and their interpretation, particularly in Germany during the 20th century, has continued. Racism and antisemitism

<mask>'s hostile writings on Jews, including Jewishness in Music, correspond to some

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 existing trends of thought in Germany during the 19th century. Despite his very public views on this topic, throughout his life <mask> had Jewish friends, colleagues and supporters. There have been frequent suggestions that antisemitic stereotypes are represented in <mask>'s operas. The characters of Alberich and Mime in the Ring, Sixtus Beckmesser in Die Meistersinger, and Klingsor in Parsifal are sometimes claimed as Jewish representations, though they are not identified as such in the librettos of these operas.The topic is further complicated by allegations, which may have been credited by <mask>, that he himself was of Jewish ancestry, via his supposed father Geyer. However, there is no evidence that Geyer had Jewish ancestors. Some biographers have noted that <mask> in his final years developed interest in the racialist philosophy of Arthur de Gobineau, notably Gobineau's belief that Western society was doomed because of miscegenation between "superior" and "inferior" races. According to Robert Gutman, this theme is reflected in the opera Parsifal. Other biographers (such as Lucy Beckett) believe that this is not true, as the original drafts of the story date back to 1857 and <mask> had completed the libretto for Parsifal by 1877, but he displayed no significant interest in Gobineau until 1880. Other interpretations
<mask>'s ideas are amenable to socialist interpretations; many of his ideas on art were being formulated at the time of his revolutionary inclinations in the 1840s. Thus, for example, George Bernard Shaw wrote in The Perfect Wagnerite (1883):

[<mask>'s] picture of Niblunghome under the reign of Alberic is a


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 poetic vision of unregulated industrial capitalism as it was made known in Germany in the middle of the 19th century by Engels's book The Condition of the Working Class in England.Left-wing interpretations of <mask> also inform the writings of Theodor Adorno among other <mask> critics. Walter Benjamin gave <mask> as an example of "bourgeois false consciousness", alienating art from its social context. György Lukács contended that the ideas of the early <mask> represented the ideology of the "true socialists" (wahre Sozialisten), a movement referenced in Karl Marx's "Communist Manifesto" as belonging to the left-wing of German bourgeois radicalism and associated with Feuerbachianism and Karl Theodor Ferdinand Grün, while Anatoly Lunacharsky said about the later <mask>: "The circle is complete. The revolutionary has become a reactionary. The rebellious petty bourgeois now kisses the slipper of the Pope, the keeper of order." The writer Robert Donington has produced a detailed, if controversial, Jungian interpretation of the Ring cycle, described as "an approach to <mask> by way of his symbols", which, for example, sees the character of the goddess Fricka as part of her husband Wotan's "inner femininity". Millington notes that Jean-Jacques Nattiez has also applied psychoanalytical techniques in an evaluation of <mask>'s life and works.Nazi appropriation
Adolf Hitler was an admirer of <mask>'s music and saw in his operas an embodiment of his own vision of the German nation; in a 1922 speech he claimed that <mask>'s works glorified "the heroic Teutonic nature ... Greatness lies in the heroic." Hitler visited Bayreuth frequently from


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 1923 onwards and attended the productions at the theatre. There continues to be debate about the extent to which <mask>'s views might have influenced Nazi thinking. Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855–1927), who married <mask>'s daughter Eva in 1908 but never met <mask>, was the author of the racist book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, approved by the Nazi movement. Chamberlain met Hitler several times between 1923 and 1927 in Bayreuth, but cannot credibly be regarded as a conduit of <mask>'s own views. The Nazis used those parts of <mask>'s thought that were useful for propaganda and ignored or suppressed the rest. While Bayreuth presented a useful front for Nazi culture, and <mask>'s music was used at many Nazi events, the Nazi hierarchy as a whole did not share Hitler's enthusiasm for <mask>'s operas and resented attending these lengthy epics at Hitler's insistence.Some Nazi ideologists, most notably Alfred Rosenberg, rejected Parsifal as excessively Christian and pacifist. Guido Fackler has researched evidence that indicates that it is possible that <mask>'s music was used at the Dachau concentration camp in 1933–34 to "reeducate" political prisoners by exposure to "national music". There has been no evidence to support claims, sometimes made, that his music was played at Nazi death camps during the Second World War, and Pamela Potter has noted that <mask>'s music was explicitly off-limits in the camps. Because of the associations of <mask> with antisemitism and Nazism, the performance of his music in the State of Israel has been a source of controversy. Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Prose works by <mask>

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Other sources

  Reprinted as

Further reading

External links

Operas
 Richard Wagner Opera, Richard Wagner operas, <mask> interviews, CDs, DVDs, Wagner calendar, Bayreuth Festival
 Wagner Operas, site featuring photographs, video, MIDI files, scores, libretti, and commentary
 Wilhelm Richard Wagner site by Stanford University
 The Wagnerian, <mask> Wagner news, operas, reviews, articles. Writings
 The Wagner Library. English translations of <mask>'s prose works, including some of <mask>'s more notable essays.Scores

Other

 The National Archive of the Richard Wagner Foundation
 Richard Wagner Museum in the country manor Triebschen near Lucerne, Switzerland where <mask> and Cosima lived and worked from 1866 to 1872. (In German). "<mask>", BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Deathridge, Lucy Beckett and Michael Tanner (In Our Time, 20 June 2002)

1813 births
1883 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century conductors (music)
19th-century German composers
19th-century German male musicians
19th-century theatre
German autobiographers
German conductors (music)
German male conductors (music)
German opera composers
German male classical composers
German essayists
German music critics
German nationalism
German opera directors
German opera librettists
German Romantic composers
German theatre directors
Leipzig University alumni
Music in Bavaria
Musicians from Dresden
Musicians from Leipzig
Opera managers
People educated at the Kreuzschule
People educated at

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<mask> (born 1968) is a New Zealand sculptor and a professor at the University of Auckland's Elam School of Fine Arts. He is of Ngāriki Rotoawe and Ngāti Whakarongo descent and his mother is Pākehā. Parekowhai was awarded an Arts Foundation of New Zealand Laureate Award in 2001. He represented New Zealand at the 2011 Venice Biennale. Early life
Parekowhai was born in Porirua. Both his parents were schoolteachers. He spent his childhood in Auckland's North Shore suburbs, where he also attended school.After leaving high school, Parekowhai worked as a florist's assistant before commencing a bachelor's degree in fine arts at University of Auckland's Elam School of Fine Arts (1987–1990). He trained as a high-school art teacher before returning to Elam to complete a maser's degree in fine arts (1998–2000). Themes and style
Parekowhai makes a variety of work across a range of media that intersects sculpture and photography. Sally Blundell, writing in the New Zealand Listener, says:

Originality, authenticity, ownership. In Parekowhai’s work, such notions blur, slipping into a collective act of translation that interweaves the canon of "high art" with cultural tradition, the handmade object with mass-produced tourist tat, the imported with the proudly colloquial. Despite the range of Parekowhai's output, his practice is linked throughout, both stylistically—a characteristic 'gloss' of high production value—and thematically. Curator Justin Paton writes that Parekowhai's works "have a way of sneaking up on you, even when they're straight ahead."He continues:

Pick-up sticks swollen to the size of spears. A photograph of a stuffed rabbit who has you in his sights. A silky bouquet that


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 rustles with politics. Seemingly serene beneath their gleaming, factory-finished surfaces, <mask>'s sculptures and photographs are in fact supremely artful objects. 'Artful' not just because they're beautifully made...but also because they manage, with a combination of slyness, charm and audacity, to spring ambushes that leave you richer. Notable works

On First Looking into Chapman's Homer – an installation of two bronze bulls on grand pianos, two bronze olive saplings and the figure of a stoic security guard, his entry in 54th La Biennale di Venezia in 2011. Part of this installation, titled Chapman's Homer and consisting of a single bull atop a piano, was acquired by the Christchurch Art Gallery.A Peak in Darien – a bronze bull atop a grand piano. The piece sold at an auction in New Zealand for $2,051,900 in November 2021, becoming the most expensive artwork by any artist sold in a New Zealand auction. The World Turns – a life-sized bronze elephant tipped on its head and eye-to-eye with a kuril (water-rat), commissioned by the Queensland Gallery of Modern Art. He Kōrero Pūrākau mo Te Awanui o Te Motu: story of a New Zealand river — an original Steinway grand piano covered in glossy red carvings. The piano is played at each of the exhibitions that it features in, for example in the 2012 Te Papa exhibition with works from Colin McCahon and Jim Allen. The Lighthouse: Tū Whenua-a-Kura – Queens Wharf, Auckland

Exhibitions

Solo
 2016 "The Tongue of The Dog, outside Waikato Museum, Hamilton, New Zealand
 2015 The Promised Land Queensland Art Gallery and Gallery of Modern Art (QAGOMA), Brisbane, Australia. 2013 The Past in the Present, <mask>t at the Auckland Art Fair, Auckland

masks:
Michael Parekowhai
Michael Let


texts:
 2012 On First Looking into Chapman's Homer, Christchurch Art Gallery Te Puna o Waiwhetu, Christchurch.2011 54th Venice Biennale New Zealand Pavilion. Also at Musée du Quai Branly, Paris, France
 2011 The Far Side Michael Lett, Auckland
 2011 Te Ao Hurihuri Jonathan Smart Gallery, Christchurch
 2009 The Moment of Cubism <mask>lyn Oxley Gallery, Sydney, Australia
 2009 Yes We Are One Day Sculpture, Wellington, New Zealand
 2008 Jim McMurtry Maori Hall / <mask>t, Auckland, New Zealand
 2007 The Song of the Frog, <mask>, Auckland, New Zealand
 2007 My Sister, My Self <mask>t, Auckland, New Zealand
 1994 Kiss the Baby Goodbye Govett-Brewster, New Plymouth. 1994 A Capella, Greg Flint Gallery, Auckland

 Group
 1990 Choice! Artspace, Auckland
 1992 Headlands Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney
 1995–1996 Cultural Safety City Gallery Wellington and Frankfurter Kunstverein
 2014–2015 Black Rainbow, Te Papa, Wellington

Collections
Parekowhai's work is held in most New Zealand public gallery collections and a number of international museums. Awards / honours
 Artist Laureate, Arts Foundation of New Zealand, 2001. Premier of Queensland Sculpture Commission, Queensland, Australia, 2011. Nga Toa Whakaihuwaka, Māori of the Year for Arts, 2011.Barfoot & Thompson, 90th Anniversary Gift to Auckland City, Waterfront Commission, 2013. 'Top 50 Public Art Project' awarded by Americans for the Arts, Public Art Network, 2013 Year in Review, for Blue Stratus, Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, Arizona, USA, 2013. Fellow of the Royal Society Te Apārangi, 2017. See also
List of public art in Brisbane

 Notes

 References

Further reading
 Maud Page et al., <mask>hai : the promised land,

masks:
Michael Lettos
Michael Let
Michael Lett
Michael Let
Michael Parekow


texts:
 Brisbane: Queensland Art Gallery, 2015. Mary Barr (ed), On first looking into Chapman's Homer : New Zealand at the 54th Biennale di Venezia 2011, Auckland: <mask>t and Roslyn Oxley Gallery, 2011. <mask> and Ryan Moore (eds), <mask>owhai, Auckland: <mask>t, 2007. Margery King and Ngahiraka Mason, <mask>hai: Ten Guitars, Pittsburgh: Andy Warhol Museum, 2001.Robert Leonard, <mask>hai: Ten Guitars, Auckland: Artspace, 1999. Robert Leonard and Lara Strongman, <mask>hai: Kiss the baby goodbye, New Plymouth: Govett-Brewster Art Gallery, 1994. External links

 Staff profile, University of Auckland
 Artist biography, Artfacts.net
 <mask> page on the Bowerbank Ninow artist database
 Artist biography on Ocula website
 Radio New Zealand National interview, 12 March 2011
 CV on <mask> website
 Works in the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki collection
 Works in the Chartwell Collection
 Works in the Christchurch Art Gallery collection
 Works in the Dunedin Public Art Gallery collection
 Works in the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa collection
 Works in the Queensland Art Gallery collection
 Bernard Osman 'Cost of State House sculpture rocketed to $1.9 million' New Zealand Herald, 23 October 2014
 John McDonald 'Review: <mask>'s Promised Land delivers plenty' Sydney Morning Herald, 5 June 2015
 Charlie Gates, The bull comes home, The Press'', 11 January 2016. Interview with the artist. 1968 births
New Zealand contemporary artists
Elam Art School alumni
Living people
New Zealand Māori artists
20th-century New Zealand sculptors
21st-century New Zealand sculptors
21st-century male artists
People associated with the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
Ngāriki Kaiputahi
University of

masks:
Michael Let
Michael Lett
Michael Parek
Michael Let
Michael Parekow
Michael Parekow
Michael Parekow
Michael Parekowhai
Michael Lett
Michael Parekowhai


texts: <mask><mask> (born <mask>; ; December 12, 1893January 26, 1973) was a Romanian-born American actor of stage and screen during Hollywood's Golden Age. He appeared in 30 Broadway plays and more than 100 films during a 50-year career and is best remembered for his tough-guy roles as gangsters in such films as Little Caesar and Key Largo. During the 1930s and 1940s, he was an outspoken public critic of fascism and Nazism, which were growing in strength in Europe in the years which led up to World War II. His activism included contributing over $250,000 to more than 850 organizations which were involved in war relief, along with contributions to cultural, educational and religious groups. During the 1950s, he was called to testify in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee during the Red Scare, but he was cleared of any deliberate Communist involvement when he claimed that he was "duped" by several people whom he named (including screenwriter Dalton Trumbo, according to the official Congressional record, "Communist infiltration of the Hollywood motion-picture industry"). As a result of being investigated, he found himself on Hollywood’s graylist, people who were on the Hollywood blacklist maintained by the major studios, but could find work at minor film studios on what was called Poverty Row. <mask>'s roles included an insurance investigator in the film noir Double Indemnity, Dathan (the adversary of Moses) in The Ten Commandments, and his final performance in the science-fiction story <mask>.<mask> received an Academy Honorary Award for his work in the film industry, which was awarded two months after he died in

masks:
Edward G
. Robinson
Emanuel Goldenberg
Robinson
Soylent Green
Robinson


texts:
 1973. He is ranked number 24 in the American Film Institute's list of the 25 greatest male stars of Classic American cinema. Early years and education
<mask>'s original name was <mask>. He was born into a Yiddish-speaking Romanian Jewish family in Bucharest, the son of Sarah (née <mask>) and <mask>, a builder. After one of his brothers was attacked by an anti-semitic mob, the family decided to emigrate to the United States. <mask> arrived in New York City on February 21, 1904. "At Ellis Island I was born again," he wrote."Life for me began when I was 10 years old." He grew up on the Lower East Side, and had his Bar Mitzvah at First Roumanian-American Congregation. He attended Townsend Harris High School and then the City College of New York, planning to become a criminal attorney. An interest in acting and performing in front of people led to him winning an American Academy of Dramatic Arts scholarship, after which he changed his name to <mask><mask> (the G. standing for his original surname). He served in the United States Navy during World War I, but was never sent overseas. Career

Theatre
He began his acting career in the Yiddish Theatre District in 1913, he made his Broadway debut in 1915. He made his film debut in Arms and the Woman (1916).In 1923, he made his named debut as E.G<mask> in the silent film, The Bright Shawl. The Racket
He played a snarling gangster in the 1927 Broadway police/crime drama The Racket, which led to his being cast in similar film roles, beginning with The Hole in the Wall (1929) with Claudette Colbert for Paramount. One of many actors who saw their careers flourish in the new sound film

masks:
Robinson
Emanuel Goldenberg
Guttman
Morris Goldenberg
Robinson
Edward G
. Robinson
. Robinson


texts:
 era rather than falter, he made only three films prior to 1930, but left his stage career that year and made 14 films between 1930 and 1932. <mask> went to Universal for Night Ride (1930) and MGM for A Lady to Love (1930) directed by Victor Sjöström. At Universal he was in Outside the Law and East Is West (both 1930), then he did The Widow from Chicago (1931) at First National. Little Caesar
<mask> was established as a film actor.What made him a star was an acclaimed performance as the gangster Caesar Enrico "Rico" Bandello in Little Caesar (1931) at Warner Bros.

<mask> signed a long-term contract with Warners. They put him in another gangster film, Smart Money (1931), his only movie with James Cagney. He was reunited with Mervyn LeRoy, director of Little Caesar, in Five Star Final (1931), playing a journalist, and played a Tong gangster in The Hatchet Man (1932). <mask> made a third film with LeRoy, Two Seconds (1932) then did a melodrama directed by Howard Hawks, Tiger Shark (1932). Warners tried him in a biopic, Silver Dollar (1932), where <mask> played Horace Tabor, a comedy, The Little Giant (1933) and a romance, I Loved a Woman (1933). <mask> was then in Dark Hazard (1934), and The Man with Two Faces (1934). He went to Columbia for The Whole Town's Talking (1935), a comedy directed by John Ford.<mask> borrowed him for Barbary Coast (1935), again directed by Hawks. Back at Warners he did Bullets or Ballots (1936) then he went to Britain for Thunder in the City (1937). He made Kid Galahad (1937) with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart. MGM borrowed him for The Last Gangster (1937) then he did a comedy A Slight Case of

masks:
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Sam Goldwyn


texts:
 Murder (1938). Again with Bogart in a supporting role, he was in The Amazing Dr. Clitterhouse (1938) then he was borrowed by Columbia for I Am the Law (1938). World War II
At the time World War II broke out in Europe, he played an FBI agent in Confessions of a Nazi Spy (1939), the first American film which portrayed Nazism as a threat to the United States. He volunteered for military service in June 1942 but was disqualified due to his age which was 48, although he became an active and vocal critic of fascism and Nazism during that period.MGM borrowed him for Blackmail, (1939). Then to avoid being typecast he played the biomedical scientist and Nobel laureate Paul Ehrlich in Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet (1940) and played Paul Julius Reuter in A Dispatch from Reuter's (1940). Both films were biographies of prominent Jewish public figures. In between, he and Bogart starred in Brother Orchid (1940). <mask> was teamed up with <mask> in The Sea Wolf (1941) and <mask> in Manpower (1941). He went to MGM for Unholy Partners (1942) and made a comedy Larceny, Inc. (1942). Post-Warners
<mask> was one of several stars in Tales of Manhattan (1942) and Flesh and Fantasy (1943).He did war films: Destroyer (1943) at Columbia, and Tampico (1944) at Fox. At Paramount he was in Billy Wilder's Double Indemnity (1944) with Fred MacMurray and Barbara Stanwyck where his riveting soliloquy on insurance actuarial tables (written by Raymond Chandler) is considered a career showstopper,  and at Columbia he was in Mr. Winkle Goes to War (1944). He then performed with Joan Bennett and Dan Duryea in Fritz Lang's The Woman in the Window (1944) and

masks:
Robinson
John Garfield
George Raft
Robinson


texts:
 Scarlet Street (1945) where he played a criminal painter. At MGM he was in Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (1945), and then Orson Welles' The Stranger (1946), with Welles and Loretta Young. <mask> followed it with another thriller, The Red House (1947), and starred in an adaptation of All My Sons (1948). <mask> appeared for director John Huston as the gangster Johnny Rocco in Key Largo (1948), the last of five films which he made with Humphrey Bogart and the only one in which Bogart did not play a supporting role. He starred in Night Has a Thousand Eyes in 1948 and starred in House of Strangers in 1949.Greylisting
<mask> found it hard to get work after his greylisting. He starred in low budget films: Actors and Sin (1952), Vice Squad (1953) with brief appearances by second-billed Paulette <mask>, Big Leaguer (1953) with Vera-Ellen, The Glass Web (1953) with John Forsythe, Black Tuesday (1954) with <mask>, The Violent Men (1955) with <mask> and Barbara Stanwyck, the well-received Tight Spot (1955) with <mask> and Brian Keith, A Bullet for Joey (1955) with <mask>, Illegal (1955) with Nina Foch, and Hell on Frisco Bay (1956) with Alan Ladd. His career's rehabilitation received a boost in 1954, when the noted anti-communist film director Cecil B. DeMille cast him as the traitorous Dathan in The Ten Commandments. The film was released in 1956, as was his psychological thriller Nightmare. After a subsequent short absence from the screen, <mask>'s film career—augmented by an increasing number of television roles—restarted for good in 1958/59, when he was second-billed after Frank Sinatra in the 1959 release A Hole in the Head.

masks:
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Goddard
Peter Graves
Glenn Ford
Ginger Rogers
George Raft
Robinson


texts:
 Supporting actor
<mask> went to Europe for Seven Thieves (1960). He had support roles in My Geisha (1962), Two Weeks in Another Town (1962), Sammy Going South (1963), The Prize (1963), Robin and the 7 Hoods (1964), Good Neighbor Sam (1964), Cheyenne Autumn (1964), and The Outrage (1964).He was second-billed under Steve McQueen with his name above the title in The Cincinnati Kid (1965; McQueen had idolized <mask> while growing up and opted for him when Spencer Tracy insisted on top billing for the same role), and was top billed in The Blonde from Peking. He also appeared in Grand Slam (1967) starring Janet Leigh and Klaus Kinski. <mask> was originally cast in the role of Dr. Zaius in Planet Of The Apes (1968) and he even went so far as to film a screen test with Charlton Heston. However, <mask> dropped out of the project before its production began due to heart problems and concerns over the long hours which he would have needed to spend under the heavy ape makeup. He was replaced by Maurice Evans. His later appearances included The Biggest Bundle of Them All (1968) starring Robert Wagner and Raquel Welch, Never a Dull Moment (1968) with Dick Van Dyke, It's Your Move (1968), Mackenna's Gold (1969) starring <mask> and Omar Sharif, and the Night Gallery episode “The Messiah on Mott Street" (1971). The last scene which <mask> filmed was a euthanasia sequence, with his friend and co-star Charlton Heston, in the science fiction cult film Soylent Green (1973); he died only twelve days later.Heston, as president of the Screen Actors Guild, presented <mask> with its annual award in 1969, "in recognition of his pioneering work in

masks:
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Gregory Peck
Robinson
Robinson


texts:
 organizing the union, his service during World War II, and his 'outstanding achievement in fostering the finest ideals of the acting profession.'" <mask> was never nominated for an Academy Award, but in 1973 he was awarded an honorary Oscar in recognition that he had "achieved greatness as a player, a patron of the arts and a dedicated citizen ... in sum, a Renaissance man". He had been notified of the honor, but he died two months before the award ceremony took place, so the award was accepted by his widow, <mask>. Radio
From 1937 to 1942, <mask> starred as Steve Wilson, editor of the Illustrated Press, in the newspaper drama Big Town. He also portrayed hardboiled detective Sam Spade for a Lux Radio Theatre adaptation of The Maltese Falcon. During the 1940s he also performed on CBS Radio's "Cadena de las Américas" network broadcasts to South America in collaboration with Nelson Rockefeller's cultural diplomacy program at the U.S. State Department's Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. Personal life

<mask> was married twice, first to stage actress <mask>, born <mask> Cassell, in 1927; she was the former wife of Ralph L. Vestervelt and the daughter of Clement C. Cassell, an architect, sculptor and artist.The couple had one son, <mask><mask>, Jr. (a.k.a. <mask>, 1933–1974), as well as a daughter from <mask>'s first marriage. In 1956 the couple divorced. In 1958 he married Jane Bodenheimer, a dress designer professionally known as Jane Arden. Thereafter he also maintained a home in Palm Springs, California. In noticeable contrast to many of his onscreen characters, <mask> was a sensitive, soft-spoken and

masks:
Robinson
Jane Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Gladys Lloyd
Gladys Lloyd
Edward G
. Robinson
Manny Robinson
Gladys Robinson
Robinson


texts:
 cultured man who spoke seven languages. Remaining a liberal Democrat, he attended the 1960 Democratic Convention in Los Angeles, California.He was a passionate art collector, eventually building up a significant private collection. In 1956, however, he was forced to sell his collection to pay for his divorce settlement with <mask>; his finances had also suffered due to underemployment in the early 1950s. Death
<mask> died of bladder cancer at Cedars Sinai Hospital in Los Angeles on January 26, 1973. Services were held at Temple Israel in Los Angeles where Charlton Heston delivered the eulogy. Over 1,500 friends of <mask> attended with another 500 crowded outside. His body was then flown to New York where it was entombed in a crypt in the family mausoleum at Beth-El Cemetery in Brooklyn. Among his pallbearers were Jack L. Warner, Hal B. Wallis, Mervyn LeRoy, <mask>, Sam Jaffe, and Frank Sinatra.In October 2000, <mask>'s image was imprinted on a U.S. postage stamp, its sixth in its Legends of Hollywood series. Political activism
During the 1930s, <mask> was an outspoken public critic of fascism and Nazism, and he also donated more than $250,000 to 850 political and charitable organizations between 1939 and 1949. He was host to the Committee of 56 which gathered at his home on December 9, 1938, signing a "Declaration of Democratic Independence" which called for a boycott of all German-made products. Although he attempted to enlist in the military at the outbreak of World War II, he was unable to do so because of his age; instead, the Office of War Information appointed him as a Special Representative based in London. From

masks:
Gladys Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
George Burns
Robinson
Robinson


texts: there, taking advantage of his multilingual skills, he delivered radio addresses in over six languages to European countries which had fallen under Nazi domination. His talent as a radio speaker in the U.S. had previously been recognized by the American Legion, which had given him an award for his "outstanding contribution to Americanism through his stirring patriotic appeals". <mask> was also an active member of the Hollywood Democratic Committee, serving on its executive board in 1944, during which time he became an "enthusiastic" campaigner for Roosevelt's reelection that same year.During the 1940s <mask> also contributed to the cultural diplomacy initiatives of Roosevelt's Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs in support of Pan-Americanism through his broadcasts to South America on the CBS "Cadena da las Américas" radio network. In early July 1944, less than a month after the Invasion of Normandy by Allied forces, <mask> traveled to Normandy to entertain the troops, becoming the first movie star to go there for the USO. He personally donated $100,000 ($1,500,000 in 2015 dollars) to the USO. After returning to the U.S. he continued his active involvement in the war effort by going to shipyards and defense plants in order to inspire workers, in addition to appearing at rallies in order to help sell war bonds. After the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, while he was not a supporter of Communism, he appeared at Soviet war relief rallies in order to give moral aid to America's new ally, which he said could join "together in their hatred of Hitlerism". After the war ended, <mask> publicly spoke out in

masks: Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson


texts: support of democratic rights for all Americans, especially in demanding equality for Blacks in the workplace. He endorsed the Fair Employment Practices Commission's call to end workplace discrimination.Black leaders praised him as "one of the great friends of the Negro and a great advocator of Democracy". <mask> also campaigned for the civil rights of African-Americans, helping many people to overcome segregation and discrimination. During the years when <mask> spoke out against fascism and Nazism, he was not a supporter of Communism, but he did not criticize the Soviet Union which he saw as an ally against Hitler. However, notes the film historian Steven J. Ross, "activists who attacked Hitler without simultaneously attacking Stalin were vilified by conservative critics as either Communists, Communist dupes, or, at best, as naive liberal dupes." In addition, <mask> learned that 11 out of the more than 850 charities and groups which he had helped over the previous decade were listed as Communist front organizations by the FBI. As a result, he was called to testify in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1950 and 1952 and he was also threatened with blacklisting. As it appears in the full House Un-American Activities Committee transcript for April 30, 1952, <mask> "named names" of Communist sympathizers (Albert Maltz, Dalton Trumbo, John Howard Lawson, Frank Tuttle, and Sidney Buchman) and repudiated some of the organizations which he had belonged to in the 1930s and 1940s.He came to realize, "I was duped and used." His own name was cleared, but in the aftermath, his career noticeably suffered,


texts:
 because he was offered smaller roles and they were offered to him less frequently. In October 1952, he wrote an article which was titled "How the Reds made a Sucker Out of Me", and it was published in the American Legion Magazine. The chair of the committee, Francis E. Walter, told <mask> at the end of his testimonies, that the Committee "never had any evidence presented to indicate that you were anything more than a very choice sucker." In popular culture

<mask> has been the inspiration for a number of animated television characters, usually caricatures of his most distinctive 'snarling gangster' guise. An early version of the gangster character Rocky, featured in the Bugs Bunny cartoon Racketeer Rabbit, shared his likeness. This version of the character also appears briefly in Justice League, in the episode "Comfort and Joy", as an alien with <mask>'s face and non-human body, who hovers past the screen as a background character.Similar caricatures also appeared in The Coo-Coo Nut Grove, Thugs with Dirty Mugs and Hush My Mouse. Another character based on <mask>'s tough-guy image was The Frog (Chauncey "Flat Face" Frog) from the cartoon series Courageous Cat and Minute Mouse. The voice of B.B. Eyes in The Dick Tracy Show was based on <mask>, with Mel Blanc and Jerry Hausner sharing voicing duties. The Wacky Races animated series character 'Clyde' from the Ant Hill Mob was based on <mask>'s Little Caesar persona. Voice actor Hank Azaria has noted that the voice of Simpsons character police chief Clancy Wiggum is an impression of <mask>. This has been explicitly joked about in episodes of the show.In "The Day the Violence

masks: Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson


texts:
 Died" (1996), a character states that Chief Wiggum is clearly based on <mask>. In 2008's "Treehouse of Horror XIX", Wiggum and <mask>'s ghost each accuse the other of being rip-offs. Another caricature of <mask> appears in two episodes of Star Wars: The Clone Wars season two, in the person of Lt. Tan Divo. Arok the Hutt was inspired by <mask><mask>'s gangster portrayals in Star Wars: The Clone Wars

<mask> was played by Michael Stuhlbarg in the 2015 film Trumbo. His portrayal as a man who named supposed communists is controversial. Filmography
Excluding appearances as himself. Arms and the Woman (1916) as Factory Worker
 The Bright Shawl (1923) as Domingo Escobar
 The Hole in the Wall (1929) as The Fox
 The Kibitzer (1930, screenplay)
 Night Ride (1930) as <mask>
 A Lady to Love (1930) as Tony
 An Intimate Dinner in Celebration of Warner Brothers Silver Jubilee (1930, Short) as Himself
 Die Sehnsucht jeder Frau (1930) as Tony
 Outside the Law (1930) as Cobra Collins
 East Is West (1930) as Charlie Yong
 The Widow from Chicago (1930) as Dominic
 How I Play Golf by Bobby Jones No.'Barnie' Barnaby
 Big Leaguer (1953) as John B. 'Hans' Lobert
 The Glass Web (1953) as Henry Hayes
 Black Tuesday (1954) as Vincent Canelli
 For the Defense (1954 TV movie) as Matthew Considine
 The Violent Men (1955) as Lew Wilkison
 Tight Spot (1955) as Lloyd Hallett
 A Bullet for Joey (1955) as Inspector Raoul Leduc
 Illegal (1955) as Victor Scott
 Hell on Frisco Bay (1956) as Victor Amato
 Nightmare (1956) as Rene Bressard
 The Ten Commandments (1956) as Dathan
 The Heart of Show Business (1957, Short) as Narrator
 A Hole in the Head (1959)

masks:
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Edward G
. Robinson
Robinson
Tony Garotta


texts:
 (with Frank Sinatra) as Mario Manetta
 Seven Thieves (1960) as Theo Wilkins
 The Right Man (1960, TV Movie) as Theodore Roosevelt
 Pepe (1960) (with Cantinflas) as Himself
 My Geisha (1962) as Sam Lewis
 Two Weeks in Another Town (1962) (with Kirk Douglas) as Maurice Kruger
 Sammy Going South (1963) (a.k.a. A Boy Ten Feet Tall) as Cocky Wainwright
 The Prize (1963) as Dr. Max Stratman
 Robin and the 7 Hoods (1964) (with the Rat Pack) as Big Jim Stevens (uncredited)
 Good Neighbor Sam (1964) (with Jack Lemmon) as Simon Nurdlinger
 Cheyenne Autumn (1964) as Secretary of the Interior Carl Schurz
 The Outrage (1964) as Con Man
 Who Has Seen the Wind? (1965, TV Movie) as Captain
 The Cincinnati Kid (1965) (with Steve McQueen) as Lancey Howard
 All About People (1967, Short) as Narrator
 The Blonde from Peking (1967) as Douglas – chef


texts:
Nicholle "<mask>" <mask> (born August 25, 1983) is an American singer-songwriter and occasional actress from St. Paul, Minnesota. Aside from her solo career, <mask> was once a part of the Philadelphia-based music group Nouveau Riche. She first gained major recognition in 2008, when she was featured on Lupe Fiasco's single "Hip-Hop Saved My Life", from his second album The Cool. In 2011, she signed as a recording contract with indie record label, S-Curve Records. In 2011, she released the concept album, Pennies in a Jar. The lead single, "Steel and Feathers (Don't Ever)" was co-written by Bob Dylan. As an actress, she performed in the award-winning independent film, On the Outs.In 2018, she signed a recording contract with Rhymesayers Entertainment for the release of her new EP. Life and career

Early life and career beginnings
<mask> was born on August 25, 1983, in St. Paul, Minnesota, United States. She moved around with her mother spending time in both South Dakota and Minnesota. She ended up attending High School in both St. Paul, Minnesota, United States and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. During her years as a child actor in the Minneapolis theater scene, she spent two years under the musical tutelage of JD and Fred Steele. The Steele family are pillars of the Minneapolis gospel scene and were back up singers for Prince, and she credits them with her sense of harmony and vocal arrangement. She attended college early and graduated from Howard University with a degree in Sociology.While at Howard University, she was invited to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and would soon join the band Nouveau Riche as the lead singer. 2007–2009: Philadelphia and Lupe Fiasco
In Philadelphia, she began posting music online. As her fanbase grew from the acoustic music she posted on, producers Chris & Drop discovered her and reached out. They would in turn introduce her to Lupe Fiasco while he was working on his second album The Cool. She would write the hook and feature on Hip-Hop Saved My Life and guest feature on "Little Weapon". On the day The Cool was released. <mask> uploaded a

masks:
Nikki
Jean Leary
Jean
Nikki Jean
Nikki


texts:
 video of her opening the CD for the first time.The video exploded online and she was subsequently interviewed on CNN. From April 16, 2008 to August 6, 2008, <mask> was part of the Glow in the Dark Tour with Kanye West, Lupe Fiasco, Rihanna and N.E.R.D. 2009–2012: Pennies in a Jar
While on tour <mask> was introduced to producer Sam Hollander and the two came up with an idea for a concept album based around <mask>'s songwriting ability. She would travel the country writing with some of America's best songwriters. <mask> co-wrote each song with a writer in the Songwriting Hall of Fame. In the process <mask> wrote with over 30 hall of fame songwriters including Thom Bell, Luigi Creatore, Lamont Dozier, Burt Bacharach, Jeff Barry, Carole King, Bobby Braddock, Paul Williams, Jimmy Webb, Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil, Carly Simon and Bob Dylan. The Concept was shopped to a few labels and she eventually signed with Columbia Records.Although they liked the concept Columbia decided not to release the album. The album Pennies in a Jar, was released on July 12, 2011 on S-Curve Records/Universal Records. Lupe Fiasco returned the favor by appearing on the album's second single "Million Star Motel", alongside Black Thought. She was invited to open for Mayer Hawthorne, on his nationwide concert tour. Her single "My Love" reached number eight in Japan on Hot 100 Singles chart and she toured Japan and Australia in support of the project. On July 14, she performed "How To Unring A Bell" on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote her album. 2012–2014: Surgery and Champagne Water
While recording Pennies in a Jar, <mask> realized it was getting harder to sing every night on tour.When she returned to Philadelphia she was informed by her doctors she had nodules on her thyroid. While they were not cancerous they did affect her ability to maintain her vocal training. She decided to have a Thyroidectomy at Johns Hopkins University. Utilizing a brand new nerve sensor, the doctors were able to remove the thyroid and nodules without damaging her vocal chords and associated nerves. With brand new

masks:
Nikki Jean
Nikki Jean
Nikki Jean
Nikki Jean
Nikki
Nikki Jean