texts: among 48 men. The other woman in her class was her mother. While still a teenager, she became the literature secretary for the Cowdenbeath branch of the party, and was responsible for the production and sale of a number of weekly newspapers. While Docherty was still in her twenties, she organized a children's wing of the party in Cowdenbeath, known as the "Young Pioneers". During propaganda meetings of the children's wing, she taught songs, poetry, and plays, and in 1928 organised an agitation to obtain a holiday for all schoolchildren on 1 May, or Labour Day, which was successful in five different burghs, including Cowdenbeath. She also organized a campaign against corporal punishment, and for free food for children while they were at school. The use of the strap to punish children was eventually prohibited after the communists were elected to the Fife education authority and the town council in Lochgelly.Her affiliation with the party allowed her to travel to the Soviet Union in 1929 as a Scottish delegate to a gathering of young communists. In the same year she had tried to join the National Unemployed Workers' Movement, but was told that women were not allowed to be members. Docherty had a great love for the Soviet Union, despite what she saw as a political breakdown in that country. Vladimir Lenin was an idol of hers. During her time in Russia she spent three months in a sanatorium near the Black Sea, recovering from tuberculosis. She had had an operation on a tumor related to the disease before she left Fife, but was cured completely at the sanatorium. She also visited a motor vehicle factory, and found it impressive, because "it [wasn't] for their sel', it was for everybody because


type: original

texts:
 everything belonged to them".During her time in Moscow, she learned Russian, visited the Bolshoi, and took part in a parade on the 12th anniversary of the Russian Revolution. Of her time in the Soviet Union, she stated:

In 1937, she volunteered to fight in the Spanish Civil War with the International Brigade; however, she was turned down, because she did not have medical experience. She took to fundraising for the Republican forces in the war, participating in the "Aid Spain" campaign. She became the treasurer of a women's group which raised funds for the wives of men who had gone to fight in the civil war. Docherty remained a member of the Communist Party for 70 years, at times working with Alex Moffat and Abe Moffat. She campaigned for Jack Leckie when he was a candidate for the Dunfermline Burghs constituency. She worked for Willie Gallacher, the communist Member of Parliament for Fife, for several years, and in 1952 unsuccessfully ran for a city council seat.At various points, Docherty held the positions of treasurer, Women's Group leader, and secretary for the Fife branch of the Communist Party. She retired from active political life when she was 60 years old, but despite being crippled by arthritis, participated in fundraising efforts for the newspaper Morning Star. She lived in a modest house in Cowdenbeath, and spent her time working on her memoirs. She continued to give talks and participate in International Women's Day events nearly every year until her death on 2 February 2000. Employment
Docherty found work as a domestic servant at the age of 14, before moving on to working in a factory. She tried to find a job after returning from Russia, but her travel there meant that people were


texts:
 unwilling to employ her. Thus she sold firewood along with her father for a while.She eventually found work at the Leith Hospital as a cleaner, because that job did not require references. She then worked as a servant for five years, before leaving to attend to her mother, who was ill. Back in Fife, she worked as an assistant to a dentist. She stated later in life that when she attended rallies with the communist party, she had to lie to her employers about where she went. When the Second World War broke out in 1939, she began working in the Crombie munitions factory, before shifting to looking after children in Rosyth. The final job she held was at a cooperative bakery. She continued her work for the Communist Party while holding all of these positions. Notable works
In 1991, she published A Miner's Lass, an autobiographical book about the poverty and lack of opportunity among working-class women in her generation.The book describes her experiences as a young communist woman in Fife, including the impact of the Russian revolution in 1917, and does not describe the ideology of the party in great detail. It is dedicated to her father, demonstrating the importance of his influence on her identity, and is unusual in being one of the few autobiographies of a working-class woman. In 1996, she published Auld Bob', a Man in a Million, a tribute to activist Bob Selkirk, who had been her mentor. When she was 91 years old she was among the speakers at an event called "Red Fife," about the contribution of Fife to the communist movement. References

Notes

Sources

1908 births
2000 deaths
People from Cowdenbeath
Communist Party of Great Britain members
Scottish communists
Scottish


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<mask> (October 14, 1887– September 27, 1982) was a career United States diplomat whom The New York Times once called "the perfect diplomat". In his long career spanning both World Wars, he served as Chief of Mission in eight countries, as Assistant Secretary of State for Political Affairs, and married into Russian nobility. He was the United States Ambassador to Canada. <mask> was born in Brighton, England, while his parents were vacationing there. He was the grandson of <mask>. He grew up in Princeton, New Jersey, and graduated from St. Paul's School, and from Princeton University in 1909. In 1913, he graduated from Harvard Law School, before returning to Princeton to study diplomacy.His first posts were to Austria in 1912 and France from 1915–1916 before formally entering the Foreign Service. Russia
One of his first assignments in the Foreign Service was as Second Secretary in the United States embassy in Petrograd in the Russian Empire, beginning in 1916 (during World War I). After the collapse of Czarist Russia, the Bolsheviks seized control of the government and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central powers, which marked their exit from World War I. (These events precipitated the Russian Civil War which would lead to the formation of the Soviet Union in 1922.) Prior to the formal signing of the treaty, the United States partially evacuated their embassy, but <mask> remained as part of the limited staff. On July 25, the Russian authorities ordered the diplomats out of Petrograd and a new legation was set up in Vologda. The North Russia Campaign, an Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War, further destabilized the situation and resulted in the legation becoming essentially under siege.(The Russian army had already attacked the British consulate and killed its Attache.) At this point, the order of events for <mask> becomes somewhat unclear. According to news reports of the time, <mask> was arrested and brought back to Moscow, where he and other Americans (diplomats and otherwise) were allowed to flee the

masks:
Norman Armour
Career Armour
George Armour
Armour
Armour
Armour


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 country on August 26, by train to Sweden, arriving on September 5. Later, it was revealed that <mask> had during this period used a fake Norwegian passport and, disguised as a courier, sneaked back into Petrograd and arranged for Princess Myra Koudashev of Petrograd to escape the country. Contrary to the contemporary reports, his obituary in the New York Times also says that he did not travel in the refugee train from Moscow, but rather escaped himself to Finland, still disguised as a courier, where he caught up with them. On November 2, shortly after they arrived back in the United States, the two announced their engagement. They were married February 2, 1919 in Brussels, Belgium.Russian background of Mrs. <mask>
Née Myra Sergueievna Koudashev, Mrs. Amour was a daughter of a first marriage of Tatar Prince Serguey Vladimirovich Kudashev, to a Russian Countess of the Nieroth family, being born in Saint Petersburg, 7 April 1895. Over the following years, diplomat <mask> served in a number of embassies and consulates, including those in Belgium, The Netherlands, Uruguay, Italy, the United States Department of State (1922–1924), Japan (1925–1928), and France (1928–1932). France
In 1929, after the death of Myron T. Herrick on March 31, 1929, <mask> was made Chargé d'affaires and Head of the Embassy in Paris until the selection of a replacement. This was <mask>'s first time as Chief of Mission. He was also an extremely popular social figure in France and he and his wife were often written about in American newspapers, flaunting the Parisian high life. Haiti
In 1932, <mask> was assigned as Minister to Haiti in the Caribbean. His primary responsibility was to work toward returning the government of the country to native hands at the conclusion of the United States occupation of Haiti.The Occupation had been in effect since July 1915 when U.S. Marines landed at Port au Prince. He was selected for the position due to his fluency in French, but also as a sign to the Haitians that the United States would put a well-respected diplomat in their

masks: Armour Armour Armour Armour Armour Armour


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 country. On August 7, 1933, <mask> signed a treaty with Haitian Foreign Minister, Albert Blanchett in which the U.S. agreed "to return government functions to the Haitians by October 1944 and to withdraw the United States Marines stationed there by November 1944." The plan succeeded ahead of schedule, as the Marines left the country on August 14, 1934. Canada
After the death in office of Warren Delano Robbins, <mask> was made Minister to Canada. His appointment to Canada so soon after his success in Haiti was meant to underscore Canada's importance to the United States, according to the New York Times. During his time in Canada, the State Department banned marriages between diplomatic personnel and the citizens of foreign countries they served due to potential conflict of interest problems.Though there were at this time 122 diplomats who had taken foreign wives, <mask>'s high-profile relationship with his highborn Russian wife and the way in which they were engaged were commonly cited by the press on both sides of the issue. Chile and Argentina
In 1938, <mask> was appointed as Ambassador to Chile, was a post in which he served relatively uneventfully. The following year, he was appointed as Ambassador to Argentina,  as the Second World War was heating up. During this period, <mask> worked to negotiate better trade relations with these South American countries, and, once the United States entered the war, to apply pressure on them to not support the Axis powers. One of the provisions of the treaty that he helped negotiate essentially cut off the supply of tungsten, essential for steels in armored tanks and in electrical lamps, to Japan from Argentina. Imports from that country to Japan accounted for half of that country's supply. However, Argentina refused to budge off key issues and remained ostensibly neutral.In 1941, <mask> was made honorary director of the first Pan-American Games, which were to be held in 1942, but were called off due to the war. Near the end of the war, on January 26, 1944, Argentina finally caved to pressure


texts:
 from Britain and the United States and broke ties with the Axis powers. However, almost immediately after this, General Edelmiro Julián Farrell seized power in a coup from President General Pedro Pablo Ramírez. Both generals closely backed General Juan Domingo Perón, their successor from June 1946 to July 1974, who was President in three different periods: 1946–1952; 1952–1955 until a military coup ousted him; and from September 1973, after 18 years in exile, to 1 July 1974 when he died. As a result of this turmoil, the United States refused to recognize the legitimacy of the new government. <mask> was ordered to remain in Argentina, but not to officially establish relations of any kind with the new government until a list of conditions were met. The United States officially suspended relations with the country on March 3, 1944, believing that the coup was backed by pro-Axis groups.<mask> was officially recalled on June 27, 1944. After his recall, <mask> was made acting Chief of the Department of Latin American Affairs, now probably integrated under the Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs in the State Department, until his appointment the following year, on 15 December 1944, to Spain, presenting his credentials three and a half months later, on March 24, 1945. Spain and retirement
In Spain, <mask> continued to apply pressure on the government of Francisco Franco due in part to its support of the Axis powers during the Second World War. On his retirement on November 29, 1945 (formally, 1 December 1945), only 8 months afterwards, the United States further isolated Spain by refusing to send another ambassador until 1951. A resolution of the United Nations, document 32(I) 9 February 1946, commended General Franco's regimen, stating:

in Spanish:

During the period from December 1945 to March 1951, the U.S. embassy remained open with a succession of Chargé d'Affaires, namely Philip W. Bonsal from March 1946 to June 1947, Paul T. Culbertson from June 1947 to December 1952, and Stanton Griffis. The later Chargé d'Áffaires was

masks: Armour Armour Armour Armour


texts:
 appointed on February 1, 1951 again as an Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary presenting his credentials on March 1, 1951, just one month after his appointment, but he relinquished the charge on January 28, 1952, 11 months later. In 1947, <mask> came out of retirement to serve as Assistant Secretary of State of Political Affairs under George C. Marshall.On July 15, 1948, he retired for a second time. In 1950, <mask> was asked out of retirement again to serve as Ambassador to Venezuela. In 1954, he came out of retirement again to serve as Ambassador to Guatemala, a post he only served in for seven months. According to an interview in 1976, <mask> indicated that he was proudest of his work in 1954, protesting Joseph R. McCarthy's attacks on the members of the Foreign Service who were suspected of connivance with communism during the ongoing Cold War, in his February 9, 1950 Wheeling Speech on Lincoln Day to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling, West Virginia. With a Russian wife, no matter whether she was an exiled Tsarist times aristocrat descending from Tatar Princes settled at the Saint Petersburg corridors of power centuries before, there were grounds for deep suspicions, and as a Catholic member of the Democratic Party under Democrat Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman. <mask> died in 1982 and was buried in Princeton Cemetery. References

External links
<mask>our Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University

1887 births
1982 deaths
English emigrants to the United States
People from Brighton
Princeton University alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Ambassadors of the United States to Haiti
Ambassadors of the United States to Canada
Ambassadors of the United States to Chile
Ambassadors of the United States to Argentina
Ambassadors of the United States to Spain
Ambassadors of the United States to Venezuela
Ambassadors of the United States to Guatemala
United States Foreign Service personnel
St. Paul's School (New Hampshire) alumni
Burials at Princeton Cemetery
20th-century

masks:
Armour
Armour
Armour
Armour
Norman Arm


texts:
Lucas Nathan (born August 7, 1990), best known by the stage name <mask>, is an American musician, singer, songwriter and producer. They began releasing music in 2009, with their first projects being Zonotope™ and the noise music project Diane Kensington Devotional Band. They subsequently created the persona-based project <mask> Paper, and has been releasing music under the name since 2012. Early life
Nathan said that as a child, they were influenced to learn music by the fact that "all [their] friends were making music." They learned how to play "The Simpsons Theme" on the piano when they were five, played bongos for their school band, and were a drummer. Shortly after they learned how to play the Misfits song "London Dungeon" on bass guitar in eighth grade, they made psychedelic folk recordings in their bedroom with Sony Acid and performed in various bands at school. The first group they were in was a comedy rock band named The Corrupt Ice Cream Vendors.They got into several noise and psychedelic acts like Growing and Devendra Banhart in their teen years after being exposed to them via the magazine Arthur, and later got into free jazz and krautrock. Nathan originally wanted to perform in the "cool band[s]" that they saw at school and at their summer camps, but they were turned down by all of them due to their "nerdy" looks, which influenced  them to become a solo artist. Career

2009–2012: Zonotope™ and Diane Kensington Devotional Band
Nathan stated that as a "pretentious teenager", they "refused to listen to anything that wasn't 1966 to 1968." Therefore, it was "part of [their] personality" that they despised electronic music. By the time they were experimenting with  their friend's Roland HS-60 synthesizer, however, Nathan reports in an interview that they were fascinated by the sounds it produced. This inspired them to make electronic music as a way of taking the "challenge" of "find[ing] a way to like" the genre. Nathan began producing music in 2009, and  their first project was

masks:
Jerry Paper
Jerry


texts:
 Zonotope™, a four-album "propaganda series" promoting a Southern California-based "alternative spiritual community" named the Temple of Pure Information and Mainframe Devotion.they also had a noise project named Diane Kensington Devotional Band, which depicts Nathan as a female who starts the Wellness Group. It's for a fictional religion based on traveling into the inaccessible-to-most infinite "space between the 1 and the 0" through a method named "Trance Channels." 2012–2015: <mask>

The name of <mask> first appeared in the credits of the Zonotope™ album Excellent Realms (2010), where <mask> was given a "special thanks" for "building The Mainframe." The story of the project involves <mask> quitting from the spiritual community setting of Zonotope™ to find a "less orthodox alternative spirituality." Nathan described the music of <mask> as "slightly less abstract" than  their works for Zonotope™, and the project's titular character is caused by a "ritual" that transforms Nathan into <mask>. <mask> often wears a garland and a silk robe and acts like a "weirdo" who does "whatever the hell [they want]," such as become "romantically involved with a giant chameleon" and dance "like someone who just discovered movement five minutes ago," Koen van Bommel stated. Nathan explained that they wrote International Man of Misery (2013), "a cartoonish version of depression," as a way to poke fun on the "ridiculously melodramatic thoughts" they went through at the time.Fuzzy Logic (2013) is about how modern living is complicated by technology and politics. Feels Emotion, released on February 11, 2014, involved Nathan taking on, as Decoder magazine put it, more "ambitious" production techniques than their previous albums such as in sampling, an example being the cat sounds on "Holy Shit." The LP also has some tracks where Nathan focused on non-repetitive pop structures instead of the typical verse–chorus form, including "I Feel Emotions," "Unless It’s," "Other Please," and "Heartbreak Module #3." On

masks:
Jerry Paper
Jerry Paper
Paper
Paper
Jerry Paper
Jerry Paper
Paper


texts:
 August 24, 2014, Nathan released what they considered their "first successful concept album," the Jerry Paper LP Big Pop For Chameleon World, a soundtrack for  their Unity game Dr. Javer's Genneheigen's Chameleon World. The album explores simulacra, looking for "the dividing line" between a real object and a simulated version of it. In doing so, it uses synthesized replications of acoustic instruments, such as a square wave keyboard sound meant to be a harpsichord texture. According to The Fader, the use of these sounds gives the album a more "uncanny" vibe than Nathan's previous releases.2015–present
The same palette of instruments were later used on their next album Carousel (2015). For making Carousel, Nathan wrote the songs in the same manner as for their previous release; however, the analog keyboard Nathan usually used for creating their music had broken, meaning they had to rely on digital synthesizer sounds for Carousel. they said the album consisted of a bunch of "hilarious sounds." As they described making the LP's lead single, "I was just trying to come up with the funniest sounds to go together – like tubular bells, and standup bass, and harpsichord, and then it goes into disco funk." Toon Time Raw! was recorded with the band BadBadNotGood at their studio in Toronto. The band acted as Nathan's anonymous backing band, being billed as "Easy Feelings Unlimited".Toon Time Raw! involves anthropomorphic animals dealing with human issues. The record was performed with a record release party on June 19, 2016 at Brooklyn's art gallery place Secret Project Robot. It was Nathan's first headlining performance that they performed with a backing band, a contrast from their previous live performances where they sang with machines performing the backing tracks. As Madison Bloom of Audiofemme covered the event, "it was an evening of undeniably odd birds, but what a wonderful thing to see when so many modern bands are required to be ultra slick and fronted by supermodels," and the band's


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 setup had "great versatility via keyboards, guitar, pedal effects, and flute." On September 15, 2017, American rapper Kari Faux released "Gotta Know," a track from her extended play Primary. Nathan produced the track under the <mask> pseudonym and also received a "featuring" credit on the song.Faux noticed Nathan's work via the "suggested artists" feature on Spotify, and, as she explained, she "was stuck on [their] music for a good three months, that was all I was listening to, and I would catch myself rapping to [them]." This led her to contact Nathan via Twitter before the two came together personally in Los Angeles to collaborate. Like a Baby was released in 2018. "Your Cocoon" and "Grey Area" debuted on the website Bandcamp as promotional singles for the album, which features Weyes Blood and Charlotte Day Wilson as collaborators. According to the Stones Throw Records website, the album delves into existential topics pertaining to "the endless human cycle of desire and satisfaction". In the same year, Nathan also featured on Tyler, the Creator's debut extended play Music Inspired by Illumination & Dr. Seuss' The Grinch on the track "Hot Chocolate". On May 15, 2020 Nathan released a new album titled Abracadabra.The song "Quicksand" was teased first while "Puppeteer" and "Cholla" were released on their Bandacamp profile and Spotify. Two years later, Nathan announced the release of their new album Free Time with first single "Kno Me". The album centers around Nathan's coming out as non-binary and will be released on April 15, 2022 on Stones Throw Records. Musical style and philosophies

During their teen years living in Los Angeles, Nathan hung around several Scientology and Mormon centers. They were curious about fervent believers and it felt foreign and interesting to them as they was raised in an atheist household. It was during this time that they got into direct experience, the idea that language cannot clearly state what someone gains via sensory perception. This, as well as


texts:
 their love for the "ritual" of religion, would later become the basis of how they develop their music: "Musical sounds act as symbols, but they carry information that can bypass linguistic processing.That was my main focus. I wanted to investigate that freaky idea." They explained that "instead of trying to explain mystical experience," they "try to create a context and a vocabulary that maybe gets at [a philosophy] slightly more." Nathan is into the idea of fuzzy logic, or what goes on between the binary numbers of zero and one. Their Diane Kensington project and the title track of the Jerry Paper album Fuzzy Logic are based on the concept. As they opined, "Binaries are a very helpful way to deal with things. They’re a pretty good tool when it comes to categorizing the world and figuring things out.But it’s not actually how the world works." Another primary purpose for Nathan making music is to keep "put[ting] [them]self in uncomfortable situations." Nathan's reason for producing and performing music under alter egos like <mask> is that they help them figure out more about their actual self:

"What...is more human than a computer? That doesn’t happen outside of humans. Electronics are purely human tools", Nathan discussed in an interview with The Editorial Magazine. This translates into Nathan's musical style, which Bloom described as "genre-less" but compared to Daft Punk in that it combines the "coldness of technology with the foolproof warmth of human music." Nathan explains that musically,  their works play around with the limitations of pop music.This limitation aspect of their works was inspired by the piano-only works of Henry Cowell: "He has that piece, "The Banshee," where he’s scraping his finger nails on the piano strings. Fucking incredible. He used the piano in a different way." This is why, until Toon Time Raw!, they didn't use MIDI software because they would've otherwise "ha[d] a huge amount of choices." Themes
Nathan, in both their songs and the music videos for


texts:
 them, takes on comic views of real life because, in their words, the "world isn’t so serious." All of Nathan's music attempts to get a view of alternate universes, and "because I feel that music isn’t really the arena for truth, I often write lyrics focusing on the irrational," they said. In terms of live stage performances, Nathan dances in comic yet profound routines and delivers, in a deadpan tone, indifferent aphorisms that are also in the lyrics of their songs.As they said while performing live at  their release party for Toon Time Raw!, “It’s great to be alive. But having a body is sooo annoying. But you are a body, so…fuck it." A common major theme in Nathan's records is anxieties, how they "feel very immediate and true in the moment but in hindsight often register as products of absurd logic." The lyrics of  their works represent feelings of hopelessness and concern of where to go in life in the future, which are translated "into a subtly self-aware revision of easy listening," Decoder analyzed. As Bloom stated, "Though wearing the guise of empathetic AI and employing tools of the Muzak genre such as keyboard saxophone and elevator synths, they manages to make sincere, and more importantly good music that is relatable to humans and algorithms alike." Personal life
Born and raised in Los Angeles, Nathan moved to Manhattan where they attended The New School in 2008 to study sociomusicology and philosophy of religion.They lived in Brooklyn as of 2014, but relocated back to California in 2016. They are married. Nathan is non-binary and uses they/them pronouns. Discography

As <mask>

Studio albums

Collaborative albums

Mini-albums

Split albums

Remix albums

Singles

As featured artist

Music videos

As Zonotope™

Studio albums

Extended plays

Split albums

Reissue albums

As Diane Kensington Devotional Band

Studio albums

Extended plays

References

Songwriters from California
Musicians from Los Angeles
Record producers from California
Living people
1990 births
Non-binary


texts:
<mask> (born October 12, 1946) is a Filipino politician and former Mayor of Puerto Princesa City. He was first elected mayor of Puerto Princesa in May 1992, when the city was still capital and a component city of the island province of Palawan, in the Philippines. In 2007, Puerto Princesa was declared a highly urbanized city and became independent of the province. He was a candidate for Senator in 2013 elections but lost. <mask>'s leadership is directed towards establishing a harmony between the environment and development. The mayor was credited with establishing the City of Puerto Princesa as a model of eco-tourism for the country. Early life and career

<mask> was born in the municipality of Parañaque, then under Rizal Province on October 12, 1946, to <mask> and the former Gliceria Solon.He married Maria Elena Marcelo and the couple have two children, Eva Christie and Elroy John. <mask> completed his education from St. Andrew's School (Parañaque), San Sebastian College - Recoletos and from the University of the East in the City of Manila. When <mask> was elected as Mayor of Puerto Princesa City in 1992, he also served as an Assemblyman of the Southern Philippines Council for Peace and Development (SPCD), a body created during the term of President Corazon C. Aquino which was tasked to oversee the establishment of an autonomous region for Muslims in Mindanao and it included Palawan island. He also served simultaneously as mayor and as a Representative of the League of Cities of the Philippines for Region IV and member of National Executive Board of Boy Scout of the Philippines. Under his leadership, Puerto Princesa gained popularity as one of the more famous eco-tourism destinations in the Philippines and as a global model for environment protection. The recognition earned the city a place in the Hall of Fame. During

masks:
Edward Solon Hagedorn
Hagedorn
Edward Solon Hagedorn
Alexander Hagedorn
Hagedorn
Hagedorn


texts:
 his multiple terms, the city was awarded as the "cleanest and greenest" component city.Based on the Constitution of the Philippines, <mask> was forbidden from running for a third three-year term on January 30, 2001, but after an election recall led by Puerto Princesa's barangay leaders against the incumbent mayor who replaced Hagedorn, Victorino Dennis M. Socrates, the Supreme Court of the Philippines on November 12, 2002, issued a landmark decision enabling <mask> to run again as mayor of the city. In September 2005, <mask> was appointed by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo as the "anti-jueteng czar" to handle the government's  program against the proliferation of the illegal two-numbers gambling. He created a legalized and government form of jueteng called Small Town Lottery or STL. Leadership Initiatives

Oplan Linis Program (Clean and Green Campaign) - Launched on August 1, 1992, the program aims to sustain cleanliness, beautification, and sanitation in the city through active and continuing partnership among government agencies, non-government organizations, the private sectors, and citizens. The program has earned for Puerto Princesa the coveted label of being the cleanest and greenest city in the Philippines. Bantay Puerto Program (Puerto Princesa Watch) - Protect + Rehabilitate + Plan - These are the program's key management thrusts. Protect what is there, rehabilitate what has been destroyed, and plan for the intelligent utilization of the city's terrestrial and marine resources.This is the life cycle that the program envisions for the community to achieve sustainable development. Comprehensive Housing Program - Puerto Princesa's vast land area and its rich terrestrial and marine resources have become like magnets that attracted a lot of in-migration from all over the country. They came in droves and squatted

masks: Hagedorn Hagedorn Hagedorn


texts: in public and private lands whose owners either did not care or know. Majority of them, being fishermen, chose the coastal areas for being closest to their source of income. Agriculture Program - Puerto Princesa City is primarily an agricultural economy. It is almost self-sufficient in food, except for a few varieties of vegetables. Metro Manila's ten million population get their fish and other marine supplies from the city in particular and Palawan in general.To improve the farmer's quality of life, however, there exists the urgent need to introduce productivity enhancement programs. Education Program - The project intends to improve the standard of education within the service area of the city government by identifying and prioritizing the establishment of schools, and organizing a continuous training scheme for schoolteachers in the city. Health Program – the City Government has undertaken effective and efficient health services. Infrastructure Program – this refers to both horizontal and vertical constructions, implemented with the ultimate goal of boosting the economic development of the city, at the least possible cost. Livelihood Program – “Kaunlaran” (Development) or economic development is the last of the three K's (the first two being “Kalinisan” or cleanliness and “Kapayapaan” or peace and order). The last was the most difficult but was achieved, making Puerto Princesa City one of the safest destinations in the Philippines. Tourism Program - Puerto Princesa City was a former unknown but now has become a city that balances tourism with nature, i.e., a city in a forest.E-tricycle - On January 19, 2007, Puerto Princesa Mayor <mask><mask> unveiled the environment-friendly and economical electric-powered “Trikebayan” (which does not emit any noise or carbon monoxide) at the Kapihan sa Sulo forum, Sulo Hotel,

masks:
Edward S
. Hagedorn


texts:
 Quezon City. The Trikebayan costs only P 48 or $1.20 per day to operate, while a gasoline-powered tricycle operation would cost P 200. Rolly Concepcion, who conceptualized the Trikebayan, said that converting a tricycle engine to electric costs P 68,000. The 36-watt rechargeable battery under the passenger seat can run for 12 hours. Vision
 “To see Puerto Princesa as model city in sustainable development.”

With the following concepts:

A park-like city demonstrating balance and harmony between development and environment;
A center for eco-tours, healthful recreation, applied research on ecology, ecosystem, marine and terrestrial flora and fauna and environmental management;
A home for disciplined inhabitants who are responsible stewards of the city's ecological system and resources; their quality of life improved as they enjoy directly or indirectly the bounties of nature and the fruits of their labor; and;
Its major thoroughfares developed as boulevards, promenades and stretches of tree-lined and coastal highways interspersed with parks and resorts and provided with appropriate facilities for tourism, agriculture, commerce and environment-friendly industries. In popular culture
 <mask> was the subject of a biopic movie titled Hagedorn in which his character was played by actor Fernando Poe Jr. in 1995. See also
Philippines
History of the Philippines
Palawan
Puerto Princesa

External links
Official website
A Lifelong Journey of Dedication and Service
Visit Puerto Princesa
 Adventure writer Antonio Graceffo writes about Mayor Edward Hagedorn

References

1946 births
Filipino people of German descent
Living people
Mayors of places in Palawan
Lakas–CMD (1991) politicians
People from Parañaque
People from Puerto Princesa
Independent politicians in the Philippines
San Sebastian College – Recoletos alumni
University of the


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<mask> (; February 19, 1898 –  November 5, 1960) was a Latvian and Soviet poet, writer, translator and philosopher. He was chairman of the Latvian Roerich Cultural Relations Association from 1936 to 1940. Biography
<mask> was born on February 19, 1898, in the village of Melluzi, in a peasant family. He taught himself to read, and loved books all his life. He graduated from the local gymnasium, continued his studies at the University of Tartu (1916 – 1918) at the Department of Philology. Subsequently, he learned seven languages. In 1920, he entered the Department of Philosophy at the University of Latvia, where <mask> graduated in 1931 with a thesis "About the category of the beauty and the goodness" / " The Metaphysical Aspect of Beauty".From his student years (other sources – from 1918) he worked at the State Library of Riga: he headed the departments, consulted, reviewed, and conducted scientific research. During World War I, he worked in the library, wrote the book "The Brotherhood of the Grail", and accomplished the return of Nicholas Roerich's paintings to the Society. Under Stalin, he refused to join the Writers' Union, so that he would not have to curry favor with the "Master". Authorities banned six of his books (Germany banned one). On April 18, 1948 he was arrested as an "enemy of the people" due to a letter he sent to the Theosophical Society in Moscow; never accepted this condemnation. He was able to hide and preserve the manuscripts and documents of the Latvian Roerich Society in time. He served his term in the  strictest Komi regime camps (Inta, Abez), where he continued to write poetry, articles and other works with a chemical pencil on rags, stitching them into a pea coat.He returned from the camps at the end of 1954 as a complete invalid, occasionally earning money from translations of scientific texts and literary works. From 1957 to 1960 he met George de Roerich many

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Richard Rudzitis
Richard Rudzitis
Rudzitis


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 times. <mask> wrote a book about Nicholas Roerich entitled "Cosmic strings in the works of Nicholas Roerich". The manuscript was approved by George de Roerich. <mask> died in the midst of his work; his heart grieved the bitter news of the sudden death of George de Roerich. He was buried at the Forest Cemetery in Riga, Latvia. On the granite stone, in the shape of the flame, a flaming bowl of the Grail warrior is carved, and under it the words: "Hurry up to the morning".Family
His wife (from 1926), Ella Rudzite, (January 6, 1900 – c. 1993), actress, member of the Roerich society from March 15, 1931, led the group from April 28, 1935, also went through the camps. Their first daughter, Gunta (b. May 13, 1933), a library worker, philologist, art critic, accompanied her father to meetings with George de Roerich, the author of articles about Nicholas Roerich, from 1988 the chairman of the recreated Society, had prepared many works of her father for publication. The second daughter is Ilze (b. January 24, 1937), an artist in Barnaul, Russia. The third is Maria (b. April 1, 1939), a doctor. Literary works
The 1920–1930s were the heyday of <mask>' poetic work. He wrote poetry without much editing.He composed songs, and they were translated into foreign languages. <mask> wrote about 400 poems. From 1917, he began to regularly publish his poems, with oriental motifs immediately emerging. The first book of poems is called "Songs of Man" (1922). This was followed by a collection of poems "To the Beautiful Soul" (1933 and 1934) and the poetic anthologies he collected in it "In the Temple" (1925), "The Book of Mother" (1932) also included excerpts from the Teaching of Agni Yoga and statements of Western and Eastern writers). In 1918 he published the first translations of 12 verses by Rabindranath Tagore, in 1923 he published a brochure on his work "Solar Culture". On June 19, 1921 he sent a letter

masks: Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis


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 to Tagore and received a response.All in all, <mask>  published 15 articles on Tagore, translations of 133 of his poems, five dramas and several philosophical works. He translated the Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, Vivekananda, Saadi, Rumi and European poets. In 1927 he published translations of the poetry of Greece "Melodies of the Bees". He wrote articles about Greek culture, India, Mahatma Gandhi, and about the Indian scholar Jagadish Bose. Participation in the Latvian Roerich Society
At the end of the 1920s The Latvian Roerich Society invited <mask>, as a sensitive translator and connoisseur of oriental culture, to become the editor of the Agni Yoga book translations. When the Society was officially registered in 1930, he was already one of its active members. <mask> found what he had been looking for, for many years.From 1930, Fyodor D. Lukin was the chairman of the Latvian Roerich Society for 6 years. After Lukun's death in 1936, <mask> was unanimously elected chairman and led the Society until 1940. In the fall of 1940, the Roerich Society was disbanded, however <mask> continued his work, "The Brotherhood of the Holy Grail", during the war and after the war. In 1935, <mask>'s book "Nicholas Roerich – the Guide of Culture" ("Nicholas Roerich. Peace through Culture") was published. This book highlights the activities of Nicholas Roerich in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1957, the son of Nicholas Roerich transmitted to <mask> the wish of Helena Roerich to write a book about the work of Nicholas Roerich.In 1960, George de Roerich approved the manuscript of the book "Cosmic Strings in the Works of Nicholas Roerich", written by <mask>. About 50 books were published by the "Uguns" publishing house of the Latvian Roerich Society. <mask> was the head, editor, proofreader, and often translator of this publishing house. You can find many good words about <mask> in Helena Roerich's dairy. Under the

masks: Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis Rudzitis


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 leadership of <mask>, the Society published the works of the Roerichs, Living Ethics, H. P. Blavatsky's Secret Doctrine and the works of <mask> himself. "A scientist and a poet, such a combination is rare, but you have it, your work and your scientific nature is remarkable", – Helena Roerich wrote. "Thank you for the joy your new book gave to us", Nicholas Roerich wrote after receiving <mask>' work "The Awareness of Beauty Will Save the World" – truly, not only is it rich in thoughts and the way the message is delivered, but it is also the clearness of mind that makes this book attractive.It is so valuable that such clear ideological books are being published and I can only wish for it to spread among wider social groups. The book must go to school libraries. It must find a way to foreign countries, so that people elsewhere know what keeps the spiritual fire of Latvia. Thank you one more time for this celebration of the spirit". <mask> wrote about Nicholas Roerich: "What is especially very attractive to us in the personality of Roerich is that he is not just a thinker, a prophet or a dreamer, he has not told any idea that you could not realize and in whose realization he had not already laid the foundation. He has established the base of many beginnings, cultural institutions that are so monumental that they make people remember the great creators of the past". ("Nicholas Roerich – The Herald of Culture").Works

 Cilveka dziesmas (1922);
 Saules kultura (R. Tagor, 1923);
 Dailajai Dveselei (1933);
 Svetcelotaja piezimes. Riga: Jana Rapas apgads, 1929.;
 Atzineji un cinitaji (1935);
 Nikolajs Rerihs, kulturas celvedis (1935),  (1936),  (1937);
 Dailuma apzina pestis (1936),  (1936)

References

1898 births
1960 deaths
Roerichism
Latvian poets
Russian-language poets
Russian-language writers
Latvian male poets
Latvian male writers
20th-century translators
Translators of the Bhagavad


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<mask>, (July 29, 1923 – February 17, 1992) was a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress radio operator who was the second enlisted U.S. airman to receive the Medal of Honor. He also received the Air Medal and Purple Heart. Biography
<mask> enlisted as a private in the Army at Rochester, New York, on October 8, 1942. He took basic training at Atlantic City, New Jersey; the Radio Operator and Mechanics School at Scott Field, Illinois; and Flexible Gunnery School at Harlingen, Texas. By May 22, 1943, he had successfully completed his training and three days later was promoted to sergeant. He was promoted to staff sergeant in August at Pyote, Texas, while awaiting overseas movement. In October 1943, he deployed to Europe as a radio operator and aerial gunner on B-17s assigned to the 8th Air Force's 358th Bombardment Squadron (Heavy), 303rd Bombardment Group (Heavy) based at RAF Molesworth, England.At approximately 8:30 a.m. on December 20, 1943, Staff Sergeant <mask> took off on his fourth combat mission. His aircraft, on its 28th combat mission, was a B-17F named the "Jersey Bounce Jr.," S/N 42-29664. The plane and crew reached the target area of Bremen, Germany, just before noon. The bombers encountered concentrated, accurate and intense flak over Axis territory. In addition to the anti-aircraft fire, about 125 German fighters repeatedly attacked the formation. This was a costly mission for the 8th Air Force as a total of 27 bombers were lost including the Jersey Bounce Jr. after it ditched in the North Sea. Staff Sergeant <mask> was seriously wounded in action.<mask> was hit initially in

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Forrest Lee Vosler
Forrest Vosler
Vosler
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 the legs and thighs and then again in the face when 20-mm. cannon shells exploded in his aircraft, and his B-17 was forced out of formation. During the ditching, <mask> also saved the tail gunner's life. The badly wounded gunner (Sgt. George Buske) was removed from the still-floating ditched Fortress and put on one of the wings while the other crewmen prepared the life raft. Buske, unconscious, started to slide down the trailing edge of the wing into the water. <mask> grabbed him around his waist while using his other hand to hold an antenna wire to avoid falling into the cold water.<mask> accomplished this while coping with a badly wounded eye that resulted from an earlier exploding 20mm cannon shell that hit his gun position. Staff Sergeant <mask> was recommended for the Medal of Honor based on his heroism and was promoted to technical sergeant two weeks after this mission. He was confined to Air Force hospitals in England until his return to the United States in March 1944. President Roosevelt presented him the Medal of Honor at the White House on September 6, 1944. Technical Sergeant <mask> continued to receive treatment at various hospitals until October 17, 1944, when he was honorably discharged from the service at Valley Forge General Hospital in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania. He died on February 17, 1992, and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Medal of Honor citation

VOSLER, FORREST L. (Air Mission)

Rank and organization: Technical Sergeant, U.S. Army Air Forces.358th Bomber Squadron, 303d Bomber Group. Place and date. Over Bremen, Germany, December 20, 1943.

masks: Vosler Vosler Vosler Vosler Vosler


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 Entered service at: Rochester, New York. Born: July 29, 1923, Lyndonville, New York. G.O. No.: 73, September 6, 1944. Citation:
For conspicuous gallantry in action against the enemy above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a radio operator-air gunner on a heavy bombardment aircraft in a mission over Bremen, Germany, on 20 December 1943. After bombing the target, the aircraft in which T/Sgt. <mask> was serving was severely damaged by antiaircraft fire, forced out of formation, and immediately subjected to repeated vicious attacks by enemy fighters. Early in the engagement a 20-mm. cannon shell exploded in the radio compartment, painfully wounding T/Sgt. <mask> in the legs and thighs.At about the same time a direct hit on the tail of the ship seriously wounded the tail gunner and rendered the tail guns inoperative. Realizing the great need for firepower in protecting the vulnerable tail of the ship, T/Sgt. <mask>, with grim determination, kept up a steady stream of deadly fire. Shortly thereafter another 20-mm. enemy shell exploded, wounding T/Sgt. <mask> in the chest and about the face. Pieces of metal lodged in both eyes, impairing his vision to such an extent that he could only distinguish blurred shapes.Displaying remarkable tenacity and courage, he kept firing his guns and declined to take first-aid treatment. The radio equipment had been rendered inoperative during the battle, and when the pilot announced that he would have to ditch, although unable to see and working entirely by touch, T/Sgt. <mask> finally got the set operating and sent out distress signals


texts:
 despite several lapses into unconsciousness. When the ship ditched, T/Sgt. <mask> managed to get out on the wing by himself and hold the wounded tail gunner from slipping off until the other crewmembers could help them into the dinghy. T/Sgt. <mask>'s actions on this occasion were an inspiration to all serving with him.The extraordinary courage, coolness, and skill he displayed in the face of great odds, when handicapped by injuries that would have incapacitated the average crewmember, were outstanding. Taken from U.S. Air Force Biography

Military awards
Vosler's military decorations and awards include:

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II
Half a Wing, Three Engines and a Prayer

References

External links
USAF Museum Fact Sheet

1923 births
1992 deaths
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
People from Orleans County, New York
United States Army Air Forces Medal of Honor recipients
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Silver Star
Shot-down aviators
United States Army Air Forces soldiers
Recipients of the Air Medal
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor
People from Titusville,

masks: Vosler Vosler


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<mask>  is a veteran Australian netball coach. Between 1997 and 2007, <mask> served as head coach of Sydney Swifts in the Commonwealth Bank Trophy league. She guided Swifts to premierships in 2001, 2004, 2006 and 2007. Between 2008 and 2011, she served as head coach of New South Wales Swifts in the ANZ Championship. In 2008, she guided Swifts to the inaugural ANZ Championship title. Between 2014 and 2016, she guided Waikato Bay of Plenty Magic to the Finals Series every year in the ANZ Championship. Since 2017, <mask> has served as head coach of Giants Netball in Suncorp Super Netball, guiding them to two grand finals and two minor championships.In 2020, <mask> was made a Member of the Order of Australia. Early life and family
<mask> is originally from Sydney, growing up in Hornsby Shire. She started playing netball in Hornsby Heights when she was about eight years old. She is a single parent to four children – Katie, Kristie, Vicky and John – and is a resident of Wahroonga. Head coach

New South Wales
Between 1985 and 1999, <mask> served as head coach of various New South Wales teams that played in the Australian National Netball Championships at under-19, under-21  and open levels. Sydney Ku-ring-gai/Cenovis
At state league level, <mask> served as head coach of a team that represented the Ku-ring-gai area. She had previously coached several junior representative teams for the Ku-ring-gai Netball Association.Between 1994 and 1996, <mask> served as head coach of the Sydney Ku-ring-gai/Cenovis team in the Mobil Superleague. The team featured a young Liz Ellis and Catherine Cox. In 1994 and 1996 they were Mobil Superleague semi-finalists. Sydney Swifts
Between 1997 and 2007, <mask> served as head coach of Sydney Swifts in the Commonwealth Bank Trophy league. With teams featuring Liz Ellis, Catherine Cox and Megan Anderson, she guided Swifts to premierships in 2001, 2004, 2006 and 2007. In 2004, 2006 and 2007 she was name Netball Australia Coach of the Year. New South Wales Swifts
Between 2008 and 2011, <mask> served as head coach of New South Wales Swifts in the ANZ Championship.In 2008 she

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Julie Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald
Fitzgerald


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 guided Swifts to the premiership and was named Australian ANZ Championship Coach of the Year. On 18 May 2009, she took charge of her 200th combined Sydney Swifts/NSW Swifts match when Swifts played Queensland Firebirds in Round 7. In 2010 she guided Swifts to the minor premiership. 2011 was the last season that <mask> served as Swifts' head coach. Following a controversial  "internal review" conducted during the 2011 season by Netball New South Wales , she was replaced by Lisa Beehag. World 7
In August 2009, <mask> served as head coach of a World 7 team that defeated New Zealand 2–1 in an international test series. Lisa Alexander served as <mask>'s assistant during the series.As winners of the series, the World 7 team were awarded the Taini Jamison Trophy. Australian Institute of Sport
Between 2011 and 2013, <mask> served as head netball coach at the Australian Institute of Sport. In 2012 she guided an AIS team to fourth in the Australian Netball League. Waikato Bay of Plenty Magic
In July 2013, <mask> was appointed head coach of Waikato Bay of Plenty Magic. Between 2014 and 2016, she guided Magic to the Finals Series every year in the ANZ Championship. While Magic head coach, she was also named head coach of the 2014 ANZ Championship All Star Team. In both 2015 and 2016, <mask> guided Magic to the New Zealand Conference titles.On 27 June 2016, at a 2016 Round 13 match against Queensland Firebirds, <mask> coached her 100th ANZ Championship match. Giants Netball
In August 2016, <mask> was announced as head coach of Netball New South Wales's new franchise. Since 2017, <mask> has served as head coach of Giants Netball in Suncorp Super Netball. In 2017 she guided them to the grand final. In 2018 she guided Giants to the minor premiership. During the 2018 season <mask> also coached her 300th senior league match. In 2020, <mask> was made a Member of the Order of Australia.In 2021, <mask> guided Giants to  both a second minor premiership and a second grand final. During the season she coached her 350th senior league match. The grand final was her 360th in charge. Assistant

masks: Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald


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 coach

Australia
<mask> has worked with the Australia national netball team as both an assistant and development coach. In 2006 <mask> served as an assistant to Lisa Alexander with the Australia under-21 team. Between 2011 and 2013 she served as Alexander's assistant at various series and tournaments including the 2011 World Netball Series and  2012 Fast5 Netball World Series. In 2019 <mask> was appointed as head coach of Netball Australia's athlete development program.In 2021 she was re-appointed to the role. NSWIS
In July 2017, alongside Rob Wright, <mask> served as an assistant coach to Briony Akle as she coached the New South Wales Institute of Sport team that finished third in the Netball New Zealand Super Club tournament. The NSWIS team was a composite team featuring players from both New South Wales Swifts and Giants Netball. Basketball
As well as being a netball coach, <mask> has also been a local basketball administrator. Between 1996 and 2007 she worked as a general manager for the Hornsby Ku-ring-gai Basketball Association. During the mid‑1990s she helped establish Hornsby Spiders Basketball Club. Honours

Coach
Giants Netball
Suncorp Super Netball
Runners up: 2017, 2021
Minor Premiership: 2018, 2021
Waikato Bay of Plenty Magic
ANZ Championship – New Zealand Conference
Winners: 2015, 2016
New South Wales Swifts
ANZ Championship
Winners: 2008
Minor Premiership: 2010
World 7
Taini Jamison Trophy
Winners: 2009
Sydney Swifts
Commonwealth Bank Trophy
Winners: 2001, 2004, 2006, 2007
Runners up: 1998, 2003, 2005

Individual awards

References

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Australian netball coaches
Australian netball players
Netball players from Sydney
Sydney Swifts
Esso/Mobil Superleague coaches
Commonwealth Bank Trophy coaches
ANZ Championship coaches
Australian Netball League coaches
Suncorp Super Netball coaches
New South Wales Swifts coaches
Australian Institute of Sport netball coaches
Waikato Bay of Plenty Magic coaches
New South Wales Institute of Sport coaches
Australian expatriate netball people in New Zealand
Members of the Order of

masks: Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald


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<mask> (November 24, 1779 in Kingston, Jamaica – November 3, 1843 in Clermont, New York) was an American politician. Early life
He was the son of <mask> (1741–1787, son of <mask>) and Sara (Johnson<mask> (ca. 1749-1802). He was a grandnephew of <mask>, Governor of New Jersey; grandson of <mask>, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; first cousin once removed of <mask>, Speaker of the New York State Assembly; first cousin once removed and nephew by marriage of <mask>, Secretary of State; and second cousin of <mask>, a United States Representative from New York. <mask> was a 1796 graduate of Columbia College. Career
After his father-in-law's death, <mask><mask> became the master of Clermont Manor. He resided at Clermont Manor from 1802 until the time of his death.<mask> was a member of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York from 1827 to 1831. He served as a Lieutenant Colonel in the militia, was aide-de-camp to Governor Dewitt Clinton, and served as Judge of the Columbia County Court of Common Pleas. He was aide to Governor Daniel D. Tompkins, and private secretary to his father-in-law Robert R<mask> (1746–1813), then US Minister to France. New York State Senate
<mask><mask> was a member of the New York State Senate (Middle D.) from 1808 to 1812, and lost his seat to Martin Van Buren. He was a presidential elector in 1820, voting for James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins; and again a member of the State Senate (3rd D.) in 1823 and 1824. Lieutenant Governor of New York
He was proposed in 1830 for Governor of New York, but his candidacy was questioned by some opponents in the Democratic-Republican Party on the grounds that he had been born on the island of Jamaica. As a naturalized citizen of New York, <mask> was eligible to run, but his foreign birth was used to prevent his nomination.Instead Enos T. Throop, who had

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Edward Philip Livingston
Philip Philip Livingston
Philip Livingston
) Livingston
William Livingston
Philip Livingston
Walter Livingston
Edward Livingston
Henry Walter Livingston
Livingston
Edward P
. Livingston
Livingston
. Livingston
Edward P
. Livingston
Livingston


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 succeeded to the governorship when Martin Van Buren became United States Secretary of State, was nominated for a full term as governor, and <mask> was nominated for lieutenant governor. Throop and <mask> won, and <mask> served from 1831 to 1832. He was again a presidential elector in 1832. Return to NY Senate
He was again a member of the State Senate (3rd D.) in 1838 and 1839. He resigned his seat on October 9, 1839. Personal life
On November 20, 1799, he married Elizabeth Stevens <mask> (1780–1829), the eldest daughter of Chancellor Robert R<mask>. Their children included:

 <mask> (1808–1874), who married David Augustus Clarkson (1793–1874)
 <mask> (1813–1896), who married <mask> Ludlow (1810–1884)
 Clermont <mask> (1817–1895), who married Cornelia <mask> (1824–1851), daughter of <mask> (brother of Robert Le <mask>).<mask> <mask> (1820–1889), who married Susan Maria Clarkson de Peyster (1823–1910), sister of Frederic James de Peyster. Mary Livingson (1823–1898), who married Levinus Clarkson (1813–1861), a first cousin of David A. Clarkson, in 1849. After the death of his wife in 1829, and while he was Lt. Governor of New York, <mask> happened to look in the gallery of the Senate Chamber in Albany, where he saw Mary Crooke Broom (1804–1877) seated, and was struck by her beauty. She was "reckoned the most beautiful girl in all this region." They married in 1832. She was the eldest child and daughter of William Broom and Ann Crooke Barber.<mask> died in Clermont on November 3, 1843. He was buried at Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery in Poughkeepsie, New York. Upon his death, he left Clermont Manor to his son Clermont. After his death, his second wife remarried to Judge Charles Herman Ruggles. Descendants
Through his eldest daughter, Margaret, <mask> was the grandfather of Thomas Streatfeild Clarkson (1837–1894), namesake of Clarkson University. Through

masks:
Livingston
Livingston
Livingston
Livingston
. Livingston
Margaret Livingston
Elizabeth Livingston
Edward Hunter
Livingston
Livingston
Herman Livingston
Roy Livingston
Robert Edward
Livingston
Livingston
Livingston
Livingston


texts:
 his second daughter, Elizabeth, he was the grandfather of <mask> Ludlow (1843–1919), who was the mother of Anna (née Hall) Roosevelt (1863–1892) and grandmother of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962), <mask>'s great-great-granddaughter who married her distant cousin, Franklin D. Roosevelt. Through his eldest son, Clermont, he was the grandfather of John Henry <mask> (1848–1927), who married <mask> Hamersley (d. 1873) the sister of J. Hooker Hamersley and the daughter of John W. and <mask> (née Hooker) Hamersley and granddaughter of Hon.James Hooker, in 1871, with whom he had one child. After her death, he married Emily Evans, the daughter of William E. Evans and niece of Mrs. Gouverneur Ogden, in 1880. Also through his son Clermont, he was the grandfather of <mask> (d. 1876), who married Col. Frederic de Peyster (1843–1874), a son of Maj. Gen. John Watts de Peyster (1821–1907), in 1874, with whom he had two children. Through his youngest child, Robert, he was the grandfather of Catharine Goodhue <mask> (1856–1931), Robert Robert <mask> (1858–1899), who married Mary Tailer (1863–1944) <mask> Peyster <mask> (1861–1932), and Goodhue <mask> (1867–1951), who married Louisa Robb (1877–1960). References
Notes

Sources
 The history of Clermont Manor
 Letter by E. P. L. to David Hosack
 Short Bio
 History of Columbia County, New York by Captain Franklin Ellis (Everts & Ensign, Philadelphia PA, 1878)
A Genealogy of the Wives of the American Presidents and Their First Two Generations of Descent by Craig Hart (McFarland, 2004, ,  ; page 198)

1779 births
1843 deaths
<mask>
Lieutenant Governors of New York (state)
New York (state) state senators
Jamaican emigrants to the United States
People from Kingston, Jamaica
People from Columbia County, New York
1820 United States presidential electors
1832 United States presidential electors
Columbia College (New

masks:
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Livingston
Livingston
Catherine Livingston
Catherine Livingston
Mary Livingston
Livingston
Livingston
Edward De
Livingston
Livingston
Edward Philip


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<mask> (; 14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of Spain. He was also, as <mask>, King of Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia and Duke of Milan from 1598 until his death in 1621. A member of the House of Habsburg, <mask> was born in Madrid to King <mask> of Spain and his fourth wife and niece Anna, the daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II and Maria of Spain. <mask> later married his cousin Margaret of Austria, sister of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. Although also known in Spain as <mask> the Pious, <mask>'s political reputation abroad has been largely negative. Historians C. V. Wedgwood, R. Stradling and J. H. Elliott have described him, respectively, as an "undistinguished and insignificant man," a "miserable monarch," and a "pallid, anonymous creature, whose only virtue appeared to reside in a total absence of vice." In particular, <mask>'s reliance on his corrupt chief minister, the Duke of Lerma, drew much criticism at the time and afterwards.For many, the decline of Spain can be dated to the economic difficulties that set in during the early years of his reign. Nonetheless, as the ruler of the Spanish Empire at its height and as the king who achieved a temporary peace with the Dutch (1609–1621) and brought Spain into the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) through an (initially) extremely successful campaign, <mask>'s reign remains a critical period in Spanish history. Early life
After <mask>'s older brother Don Carlos died insane, their father <mask> II had concluded that one of the causes of Carlos' condition had been the influence of the warring factions at the Spanish court. He believed that

masks:
Philip III
Philip II
Philip III
Philip II
Philip III
Philip
Philip
Philip
Philip
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Philip


texts: Carlos' education and upbringing had been badly affected by this, resulting in his lunacy and disobedience, and accordingly he set out to pay much greater attention to arrangements for his later sons. <mask> appointed Juan de Zúñiga, then Prince Diego's governor, to continue this role for <mask>, and chose García de Loaysa as his tutor. They were joined by Cristóbal de Moura, a close supporter of <mask>. In combination, <mask> believed, they would provide a consistent, stable upbringing for Prince <mask>, and ensure he avoided the same fate as Carlos.<mask>'s education was to follow the model for royal princes laid down by Father Juan de Mariana, focusing on the imposition of restraints and encouragement to form the personality of the individual at an early age, aiming to deliver a king who was neither tyrannical nor excessively under the influence of his courtiers. Prince <mask> appears to have been generally liked by his contemporaries: 'dynamic, good-natured and earnest,' suitably pious, having a 'lively body and a peaceful disposition,' albeit with a relatively weak constitution. The comparison with the memory of the disobedient and ultimately insane Carlos was usually a positive one, although some commented that Prince <mask> appeared less intelligent and politically competent than his late brother. Indeed, although <mask> was educated in Latin, French, Portuguese and astronomy, and appears to have been a competent linguist, recent historians suspect that much of his tutors' focus on <mask>'s undeniably pleasant, pious and respectful disposition was to avoid reporting that, languages aside, he was not in

masks:
Philip II
Philip
Philip II
Philip
Philip
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Philip


texts:
 fact particularly intelligent or academically gifted. Nonetheless, <mask> does not appear to have been naive – his correspondence to his daughters shows a distinctive cautious streak in his advice on dealing with court intrigue. <mask> first met the Marquis of Denia – the future Duke of Lerma – then, a gentleman of the King's chamber, in his early teens. Lerma and <mask> became close friends, but Lerma was considered unsuitable by the King and <mask>'s tutors.Lerma was dispatched to Valencia as a Viceroy in 1595, with the aim of removing <mask> from his influence; but after Lerma pleaded poor health, he was allowed to return two years later. By now in poor health himself, King <mask> was becoming increasingly concerned over the prince's future, and he attempted to establish de Moura as a future, trusted advisor to his son, reinforcing de Loaysa's position by appointing him archbishop. The prince received a new, conservative Dominican confessor. The following year, <mask> died after a painful illness, leaving the Spanish Empire to his son (and grandnephew), King <mask>. Religion, <mask> and the role of women at court
<mask> married his cousin, Margaret of Austria, on 18 April 1599, a year after becoming king. Margaret, the sister of the future Emperor Ferdinand II, would be one of three women at <mask>'s court who would apply considerable influence over the king. Margaret was considered by contemporaries to be extremely pious – in some cases, excessively pious, and too influenced by the Church – 'astute and very skillful' in her political dealings, although 'melancholic' and unhappy over the influence of the

masks:
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Philip
Philip
Philip
Philip
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Philip II
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 Duke of Lerma over her husband at court.Margaret continued to fight an ongoing battle with Lerma for influence up until her death in 1611. <mask> had an 'affectionate, close relationship' with Margaret, and paid her additional attention after she bore him a son in 1605. Margaret, alongside <mask>'s grandmother/aunt, Empress Maria – the Austrian representative to the Spanish court – and Margaret of the Cross, Maria's daughter – formed a powerful, uncompromising Catholic and pro-Austrian voice within <mask>'s life. They were successful, for example, in convincing <mask> to provide financial support to Ferdinand from 1600 onwards. <mask> steadily acquired other religious advisors. Father Juan de Santa Maria – confessor to <mask>'s daughter, doña Maria, was felt by contemporaries to have an excessive influence over <mask> at the end of his life, and both he and Luis de Aliaga, <mask> in 1618. Similarly Mariana de San Jose, a favoured nun of Queen Margaret's, was also criticised for her later influence over the King's actions.Style of government

The Spanish crown at the time ruled through a system of royal councils. The most significant of these were the Councils of State and its subordinate Council for War, that were in turn supported by the seven professional councils for the different regions, and four specialised councils for the Inquisition, the Military Orders, Finance and the Crusade tax. These councils were then supplemented by small committees, or juntas, as necessary, such as the 'junta of the night' through which <mask> II exercised personal authority towards the end of his reign. As a matter of policy,

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texts: <mask> had tried to avoid appointing grandees to major positions of power within his government and relied heavily on the lesser nobles, the so-called 'service' nobility. <mask> had taken the traditional system of councils and applied a high degree of personal scrutiny to them, especially in matters of paperwork, which he declined to delegate – the result was a 'ponderous' process. To his contemporaries, the degree of personal oversight he exercised was excessive; his 'self-imposed role as the chief clerk to the Spanish empire' was not thought entirely appropriate. <mask> first started to become engaged in practical government at the age of 15, when he joined <mask>'s private committee.<mask>'s approach to government appears to have stemmed from three main drivers. Firstly, he was heavily influenced by the eirenic ideas being circulated in Italian circles in reaction to the new Humanist theories of governance, typified by Machiavelli. Writers such as Girolamo Frachetta, who became a particular favourite of <mask>, had propagated a conservative definition of 'reason of state' which centred on exercising a princely prudence and a strict obedience to the laws and customs of the country that one ruled. Secondly, <mask> may have shared Lerma's view that the governmental system of <mask> was fast proving impractical and unnecessarily excluded the great nobles of the kingdoms – it had been creaking badly in the last decades of his father's life. Lastly, <mask>'s own personality and his friendship with Lerma heavily shaped his approach to policy-making. The result was a radical shift in the role of the crown in

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 government from the model of <mask>. Duke of Lerma as valido

Within a few hours of <mask> ascending to the throne, Lerma had been made a royal counsellor by the new king and set about establishing himself as a fully fledged valido, or royal favourite.Lerma, in due course declared a duke, positioned himself as the gateway to the king. All the business of government, <mask> instructed, was to arrive in writing and be channeled through Lerma before reaching him. Whilst <mask> was not hugely active in government in other ways, once these memoranda, or consulta, had reached him he appears to have been assiduous in commenting on them. Debates in royal councils would now only begin upon the written instruction of the king – again, through Lerma. All members of royal councils were under orders to maintain complete transparency with Lerma as the king's personal representative; indeed, in 1612 the councils were ordered by <mask> to obey Lerma as if he were the king. The degree to which Lerma himself played an active role in government has been disputed. Contemporaries were inclined to see Lerma's hand in every action of government; others have since thought Lerma to have 'neither the temperament nor the energy' to impose himself greatly on the actions of government; still others consider Lerma to have carefully attended only those Councils of State that addressed matters of great importance to the king, creating a space for the wider professionalisation of government that had been lacking under <mask> II.This new system of government became increasingly unpopular very quickly. The novel idea of a valido exercising power

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 went against the long-standing popular conception that the king should exercise his powers personally, not through another. Before long, the apparatus of the Spanish government was packed with Lerma's relatives, Lerma's servants and Lerma's political friends, to the exclusion of others. Lerma responded by further limiting his public visibility in politics, avoiding signing and writing documents personally, and constantly stressing that he was, humbly, only working on behalf of his master, <mask>. Imperial proconsuls
De Lerma's role as royal favourite at court was further complicated by the rise of various 'proconsuls' under <mask>'s reign – significant Spanish representatives overseas, who came to exercise independent judgement and even independent policies in the absence of strong leadership from the centre. The challenges to government communication during the period encouraged aspects of this, but the phenomenon was much more marked under <mask> than under either the reign of his father or son. In the Netherlands, his father <mask> had bequeathed his remaining territories in the Low Countries to his daughter Isabella of Spain and her husband, Archduke Albert, under the condition that if she died without heirs, the province would return to the Spanish Crown.Given that Isabella was notoriously childless, it was clear that this was only intended to be a temporary measure, and that <mask> had envisaged an early revision to <mask> III. As a result, <mask>'s foreign policy in the Netherlands would be exercised through the strong-willed Archdukes, but in the knowledge that ultimately the Spanish Netherlands would

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texts: return to him as king. Meanwhile, the Italian-born Ambrosio Spinola was to perform a crucial role as a Spanish general in the Army of Flanders. Having demonstrated his military prowess at the siege of Ostend in 1603, Spinola rapidly started to propose and implement policies almost independently of the central councils in Madrid, somehow managing to achieve military victories even without central funding from Spain. De Lerma was uncertain of how to deal with Spinola; on the one hand, de Lerma desperately needed a successful military commander in the Netherlands – on the other, de Lerma was contemptuous of Spinola's relatively low origins and scared of his potential to destabilise de Lerma at court. In the years leading to the outbreak of war in 1618, Spinola was working to produce a plan to finally defeat the Dutch, involving an intervention in the Rhineland followed by fresh hostilities aiming to cut the Low Countries in two: portrayed at the time as the 'spider in the web' of Catholic politics in the region, Spinola was operating without significant consultation with <mask> in Madrid. In Italy, a parallel situation emerged.The Count of Fuentes, as governor of Lombardy, exploited the lack of guidance from Madrid to pursue his own highly interventionist policy across north Italy, including making independent offers to support the Papacy by invading the Venetian Republic in 1607. Fuentes remained in power and pursuing his own policies until his death. The Marquis of Villafranca, as governor of Milan, similarly exercised his own considerable judgement on foreign policy. The Duke of Osuna, who had married into the


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 Sandovel family as a close ally of Lerma, again showed significant independence as the Viceroy of Naples towards the end of <mask>'s reign. In conjunction with the Spanish ambassador to Venice, the influential Marquis of Bedmar, Osuna pursued a policy of raising an extensive army, intercepting Venetian shipping and imposing sufficiently high taxes that threats of a revolt began to emerge. To exacerbate matters, Osuna was found to have prevented the local Neapolitans from petitioning <mask> to complain. Osuna fell from power only when de Lerma had lost his royal favour, and Osuna's negative impact on <mask>'s plans for intervention in Germany had become intolerable.Fall of Lerma

From 1612 onwards, and certainly by 1617, the Lerma administration was crumbling. The monopoly of power in the hands of the Lerma's Sandoval family had generated numerous enemies; Lerma's personal enrichment in office had become a scandal; Lerma's extravagant spending and personal debts was beginning to alarm his own son, Cristóbal de Sandoval, Duke of Uceda; lastly, ten years of quiet diplomacy by Fathers Luis de Aliaga, <mask>'s confessor, and Juan de Santa Maria, <mask>'s daughter's confessor and a former client of Queen Margaret, had begun to apply personal and religious pressure on the king to alter his method of government. <mask>, however, and supported him in becoming a cardinal in March 1618 under Pope Paul V, a position which would offer Lerma some protection as his government collapsed. Lerma fell to an alliance of interests – Uceda, his son, led the attack, aiming to protect his future interests, allied with Don Baltasar de

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 Zúñiga, a well-connected noble with a background in diplomacy across Europe, whose nephew, Olivares was close to the heir to the throne, <mask> departed for his ducal seat, and for six weeks <mask> did nothing; then, in October, <mask> signed a decree renouncing the powers of his former valido, and announcing that he would rule in person. Uceda initially took over as the primary voice at court, but without his father's extensive powers, whilst De Zúñiga became <mask>'s minister for foreign and military affairs. <mask>, whilst unwilling to move further against Lerma, took politically symbolic action against Lerma's former secretary Rodrigo Calderón, a figure emblematic of the former administration.Calderón, suspected of having killed <mask>'s wife Queen Margaret by witchcraft in 1611, was ultimately tortured and then executed by <mask> for the more plausible murder of the soldier Francisco de Juaras. Domestic policy

<mask> inherited an empire considerably enlarged by his father. On the peninsula itself, <mask> had successfully acquired Portugal in 1580; across Europe, despite the ongoing Dutch revolt, Spanish possessions in Italy and along the Spanish Road appeared secure; globally, the combination of Castilian and Portuguese colonial territories gave a Spanish ruler unparalleled reach from the Americas to the Philippines and beyond through India to Africa. The challenge for such a ruler was that these territories were in legal reality separate bodies, different entities bound together through the 'supraterritorial' royal institutions of the Spanish crown, utilising Castilian nobility as a ruling caste. Even

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 within the peninsula itself, <mask> would rule through the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Valencia and Portugal, the autonomous provinces of Catalonia and Andalusia – all only loosely joined together through the institution of the Castile monarchy and the person of <mask>. Each part had different taxation, privileges and military arrangements; in practice, the level of taxation in many of the more peripheral provinces was less than in Castile, but the privileged position of the Castilian nobility at all senior levels of royal appointment was a contentious issue for the less favoured provinces. Expulsion of the Moriscos

One of <mask>'s first domestic changes was the issuing of a decree in 1609 for the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain, timed to coincide with the declaration of a truce in the war for the Netherlands.The Moriscos were the descendants of those Muslims that had converted to Christianity during the Reconquista of the previous centuries; despite their conversion, they retained a distinctive culture, including many Islamic practices. <mask> had made the elimination of the Morisco threat a key part of his domestic strategy in the south, attempting an assimilation campaign in the 1560s, which had resulted in the revolt that concluded in 1570. In the final years of his rule, <mask>'s father had reinvigorated efforts to convert and assimilate the Moriscos, but with almost 200,000 in the south of Spain alone, it was clear by the early years of the new century that this policy was failing. The idea of completely cleansing Spain of the Moriscos was proposed by Juan de Ribera, the Archbishop and Viceroy of

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texts: Valencia, whose views were influential with <mask>. <mask>'s eventual decree to expel a nationality that had lived in Spain for over 800 years and was assimilated within it was based less on doctrinal than financial considerations – confiscating the 'wealth' of the Moriscos - which caused jealousy and resentment by other Christians in Spain, especially in Valencia. Financially, the royal treasury stood to gain by seizing the assets of the removed peoples, whilst in due course those close to the crown would benefit from cheap land or gifts of estates. Estimates vary slightly, but between around 275,000 to over 300,000 Moriscos were forced out of Spain between 1609 and 1614.To accomplish this, the armada, or navy, and 30,000 soldiers were mobilized with the mission of transporting the families to Tunis or Morocco. <mask> intervened in the problematic decision of what to do with Morisco children – should they be allowed to take them to Islamic countries, where they would be brought up as Muslims – and if they were to remain in Spain, what should be done with them? <mask> paternalistically decreed that Morisco children under the age of seven could not be taken to Islamic countries, but that any children remaining in Valencia should be free from the threat of enslavement, and rejected some of Ribera's more extreme suggestions. Whilst popular at the time, and in keeping with earlier policies, this measure significantly damaged the economies of the Kingdom of Valencia, Aragon, and Murcia. The supply of cheap labour and the number of rent paying property owners in these areas decreased considerably, as did agricultural

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 outputs. The cultivation of sugarcane and rice had to be substituted for white mulberry, vineyards, and wheat. Economic decline and failed reform

<mask>'s reign was marked by significant economic problems across Spain.Famine struck during the 1590s through a sequence of bad harvests, whilst from 1599 to 1600 and for several years afterwards there was a terrible outbreak of bubonic plague across Spain, killing over 10% of the population. Mateo Alemán, one of the first modern novelists in Europe, captured the despondent mood of the period, describing 'the plague that came down from Castile and the famine that rose from Andalusia' to grip the country. Whilst the failing harvests affected the rural areas most, the plagues reduced the urban population most significantly, in turn reducing the demand for manufactured goods and undermining the economy further. The result was an economically weakened Spain with a rapidly falling population. Financially, <mask>'s situation did not appear much better. He had inherited huge debts from his father, <mask>, and an unhelpful tradition that the kingdom of Castile bore the brunt of royal taxation – Castile carried 65% of total imperial costs by 1616. <mask> received no money from the cortes, or parliaments, of Aragon, the Basque provinces or Portugal; Valencia only provided one contribution, in 1604.<mask> did not openly challenge this situation, but instead depended more and more heavily on the Castilian cortes; in turn, the cortes increasingly began to tie new grants of money to specific projects, subtly but steadily altering the relationship between the king and cortes. By

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texts: the financial crisis of 1607, the cortes had even insisted that it be recalled every three years, and that <mask> take an oath – on pain of excommunication – to promise that he had spent the royal funds in line with the promises made previously to the cortes. <mask> and Lerma's attempts to resolve this crisis largely failed, and were not helped by the increasing size of the royal household – an attempt to increase royal prestige and political authority  – <mask>'s own household costs rose enormously at a time of falling income. <mask>'s attempts to issue new currency – in particular the issues of the copper vélon coinage in 1603–04, 1617 and 1621 – simply created considerable instability. The costs of the Dutch campaign resulted in <mask>'s bankruptcy in 1607, and the crown's attempt to resolve this by converting the asiento tax system – high interest loans owed to tax farmers – into longer term juros bonds paying a much lower interest, produced a short-term benefit, but at the price of losing financial flexibility during future crises. By 1618, almost all <mask>'s incoming crown income was already assigned to its various creditors and he had almost no spending discretion left. Financially, the Spanish state had become dominated by Genoese bankers and lenders under <mask>, whose lines of credit had allowed the Spanish state to continue during its moments of financial crisis; under <mask> this process remained unchecked, building up considerable resentment against this foreign influence, some going so far as to term the bankers 'white moors'.Throughout <mask>'s reign, a body of analysis of Spain's condition

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 began to emerge through the work of the numerous arbitristas, or commentators, that dominated public discussions from around 1600 through to the 1630s. These different voices focused heavily on the political economy of Spain – the rural depopulation, the diverse and bureaucratic administrative methods, the social hierarchies and corruption, offering numerous, if often contradictory, solutions. Nonetheless, through most of <mask>'s reign there was no significant attempt at reform – <mask> continued to rule in line with local laws and customs. <mask> encouraged consolidation of noble estates, selling off large quantities of crown lands to favoured nobles and creditors. There were no attempts to create an equivalent to the French intendant position – the closest equivalent, the corregidor, lacked the strong links to the crown required to overcome local opposition. Only in <mask>'s final years did reform begin to gain momentum; a reform committee, or Junta de Reformación, was established in Lerma's final months in 1618. Under the incoming administration, including the reformist Baltasar de Zúñiga, this committee ground on, but would only deliver substantial, if ill-fated results, when rejuvenated under <mask>'s reign.Foreign policy

On his accession, <mask> inherited two major conflicts from his father. The first of these, the ongoing and long-running Dutch revolt, represented a serious challenge to Spanish power from the Protestant United Provinces in a crucial part of the Spanish Empire. The second, the Anglo–Spanish War was a newer, and less critical conflict with Protestant England, marked by a Spanish failure

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 to successfully bring its huge military resources to bear on the smaller English military. <mask>'s own foreign policy can be divided into three phases. For the first nine years of his reign, he pursued a highly aggressive set of policies, aiming to deliver a 'great victory'. His instructions to Lerma to wage a war of 'blood and iron' on his rebellious subjects in the Netherlands reflects this. After 1609, when it became evident that Spain was financially exhausted and <mask> sought a truce with the Dutch, there followed a period of retrenchment; in the background, tensions continued to grow, however, and by 1618 the policies of <mask>'s 'proconsuls' – men like Spinola, Fuentes, Villafranca, Osuna and Bedmar – were increasingly at odds with de Lerma's policy from Madrid.The final period, in which <mask> intervened in the Holy Roman Empire to secure the election of Ferdinand II as Emperor and in which preparations were made for renewed conflict with the Dutch, largely occurred after the fall of de Lerma and the rise of a new, more aggressive set of advisors in the Madrid court. War with the Dutch, England and the truce of 1609–21
<mask>'s initial aim was to achieve a decisive 'great victory' in the long running war against the rebellious Dutch provinces of the Spanish Netherlands, whilst placing renewed pressure on the English government of Queen Elizabeth I in an effort to terminate English support for their Dutch colleagues. The Spanish armada, or navy, rebuilt in the 1590s, remained effective against the English, but after the failure of the Spanish invasion of Ireland, leading to the defeat at the Battle of

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texts: Kinsale, <mask> reluctantly accepted that further attacks on England were unlikely to succeed. In the Netherlands, a new war strategy resulted in a re-establishment of Spanish power on the north side of the great rivers Meuse and Rhine, stepping up the military pressure on the rebel provinces. The strategy of a 'great victory,' however, began to descend into a financial war of attrition: the Southern Netherlands – still under Spanish control – and the Dutch Republic in the north – dominated by Calvinist Protestants – were both exhausted, and after the 1607 financial crisis, Spain too was unable to pursue the war. <mask> turned to peace negotiations instead; with the accession to the throne of James I of England it became possible to terminate both the war and English support to the Dutch, with the signature in 1604 of the Treaty of London. The Twelve Years' Truce with the Dutch followed in 1609, which enabled the Southern Netherlands to recover, but it was a de facto recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic, and many European powers established diplomatic relations with the Dutch.The truce did not stop the commercial and colonial expansion of the Dutch into the Caribbean and the East-Indies, although Spain had tried to impose the liquidation of the Dutch East India Company as a treaty condition. Minor concessions of the Dutch Republic were the scrapping of the plan to create a Dutch West India Company and to stop the harassment of the Portuguese in Asia. Both concessions were temporary as the Dutch soon recommenced preying upon Portuguese interests, which had already led to the Dutch-Portuguese War

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 in 1602 and would continue till 1654. At least with peace in Europe, the Twelve Year's truce gave <mask>'s regime an opportunity to begin to recover its financial position. With the death of Henry IV of France – a supporter of the war against Spain – a period of instability commenced in the Kingdom of France. In a sequence of aggressive policy moves, and largely without firm direction from <mask>, his regional proconsuls of the Duke of Osuna, viceroy of Naples and the Marquess of Villafranca, the Governor of Milan, directed the Spanish policy in Italy that encountered resistance from the Duchy of Savoy and the Republic of Venice. To secure the connection between Milan and the Netherlands a new route was opened through Valtellina, then part of the independent state of the Three Leagues (the present day canton of Graubünden, Switzerland), and in 1618 the plot of Venice occurred in which the authorities engaged in the persecution of pro-Spanish agents.Entry to the Thirty Years' War
In the final years of <mask>'s reign, Spain entered the initial part of the conflict that would become known as the Thirty Years' War (1618–48). The result was a decisive Spanish victory in the Holy Roman Empire that would lead to a recommencement of the war with the Dutch shortly after <mask>'s death. Europe was anticipating a fresh election for the position of Emperor upon the likely death of Matthias, who was heirless. Spain and Austria's common Habsburg ancestry influenced Spain's involvement in the convoluted politics of the Empire: on the one hand, <mask> had a vested interest in the success of his cousin Ferdinand of Bohemia, who


texts: intended to follow Matthias to the throne; on the other, <mask> had hopes of appointing one of his own family, such as Prince <mask>, to the Imperial throne and worried that a failed bid by Ferdinand might reduce collective Habsburg prestige. <mask> finally chose to intervene behind Ferdinand. Prince <mask> had been rejected as unacceptable to the German nobility. <mask> had also been increasingly influenced over the years by first Queen Margaret, and later the other, powerful Habsburg women at court, whilst the incoming set of advisors that replaced de Lerma, especially de Zúñiga, also saw Spain's future as part of a strong alliance with a Habsburg Holy Roman Empire.Finally, by the Oñate treaty of 29 July 1617, Ferdinand made a successful appeal to <mask>'s self-interest by promising Spain the Habsburg lands in Alsace in return for Spanish support for his election. Crisis broke out in Ferdinand's kingdom of Bohemia during 1618–19, with a confrontation between Catholic and Protestant factions. Ferdinand asked Spain for help to put down the rebellion; the Protestant rebels turned to Frederick V of the Palatinate as a new ruler and Emperor. The situation in the Empire was in many ways auspicious for Spanish strategy; in the Spanish Netherlands Ambrosio Spinola had been conspiring to find an opportunity to intervene with the Army of Flanders into the Electorate of the Palatinate. The Palatinate was a vital, Protestant set of territories along the Rhine guarding the most obvious route for reinforcements from other Spanish territories to arrive into the rebellious Dutch provinces (through Genoa). France, assumed

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 bound to support Frederick against Ferdinand, was in fact inclined to remain neutral. The Spanish troops headed by Spinola in the Palatinate and by Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly in Bohemia achieved a decisive victory against the Czechs in the Battle of White Mountain in 1620.With the Dutch now vulnerable to a strike through the Rhine valley, a renewed war against the Provinces, with the aim of forcing the Dutch to a more suitable permanent peace, appeared inevitable. <mask> died in 1621 shortly before the recommencement of war – his son, <mask>, retained his chief foreign policy advisor, de Zúñiga, and an initially highly successful campaign against the Dutch began the same year. Colonial policy

Chile
In the Americas <mask> inherited a difficult situation in Chile, where the Arauco War raged and the local Mapuche succeeded in razing seven Spanish cities (1598–1604). An estimate by  Alonso González de Nájera put the toll at 3000 Spanish settlers killed and 500 Spanish women taken into captivity by Mapuche. In retaliation the proscription against enslaving Indians captured in war was lifted by <mask> in 1608. This decree was abused when Spanish settlers in Chiloé Archipelago used it to justify slave raids against groups such as the Chono of northwestern Patagonia who had never been under Spanish rule and never rebelled. Jesuit missionary Luis de Valdivia believed the Mapuche could be voluntarily converted to Christianity only if there was peace.To diminish hostilities Valdivia proposed a Defensive War in a letter to <mask>. The king supported the idea, issuing a decree that established the Defensive War as an

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 official policy in 1612. By the time Defensive War was established war between Spanish and Mapuche had been going on for 70 years. These policies were not without criticism. Maestre de campo and corregidor of Concepción Santiago de Tesillo claimed the Defensive War gave the Mapuche a much needed respite to replenish their forces that should have been denied. The Real Audiencia of Santiago opined in the 1650s that slavery of Mapuches was one of the reasons for constant state of war between the Spanish and the Mapuche. Legacy

<mask> died in Madrid on 31 March 1621, and was succeeded by his son, <mask>, who rapidly completed the process of removing the last elements of the Sandoval family regime from court.The story told in the memoirs of the French ambassador Bassompierre, that he was killed by the heat of a brasero (a pan of hot charcoal), because the proper official to take it away was not at hand, is a humorous exaggeration of the formal etiquette of the court. <mask> has generally left a poor legacy with historians. Three major historians of the period have described an 'undistinguished and insignificant man', a 'miserable monarch', whose 'only virtue appeared to reside in a total absence of vice'. More generally, <mask> has largely retained the reputation of 'a weak, dim-witted monarch who preferred hunting and traveling to governing'. Unlike <mask>, whose reputation has improved significantly in the light of recent analysis, <mask>'s reign has been relatively unstudied, possibly because of the negative interpretation given to the role of <mask> and Lerma during the period. Traditionally, the decline of

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