texts:
 Achaean War of 146 BC. When Metellus returned to Rome in 146 BC, he received the agnomen Macedonicus for his victory and was granted a triumph. <mask> was brought in chains and paraded in the triumph, and later executed — the last king to reign over Macedon. Assessment and legacy
Ancient sources are extremely hostile, not only to the origins and claims, but also of the character of <mask> — Diodorus calls him "shot through with cruelty, greed and every base quality"; Dio and Livy call him "a man of the lowest kind". They also describe him as cruel and tyrannical; accusations of tyranny probably reflect his harsh persecutions of pro-Roman and pro-republican elements in Macedon. At the same time, it is possible that he was indeed tyrannical, especially after his victory over Thalna, and perpetrated acts of terrorism and repression against his subjects.His main legacy was that in the aftermath of his revolt, the Romans understood the strength of anti-Roman feeling that had arisen in Macedon, and realized that the old administration could not be sustained — a thorough reorganization was necessary. Another reason why reorganization was necessary was that <mask>' persecutions had killed many pro-Roman republicans and thoroughly disrupted the old administrative structure; it would be difficult to re-establish it. Therefore, the Senate made Macedon a Roman province, with Metellus as its first governor. References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Primary sources

Velleius Paterculus, Roman history, Book I
Florus, Epitome, Book 1;
Livy, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, Periochae 46-50 and 51-55
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, Book 32
Polybius, The Histories, Book 37
Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 21

Secondary sources

Attribution

2nd-century BC Macedonian monarchs
Ancient Anatolian Greeks
2nd-century BC Greek people
2nd-century BC Macedonians
Pretenders of Macedonia (ancient


type: original

texts:
<mask> (born February 7, 1988) is a former American football safety. He won Washington state titles in track in both the 100-meter dash and 200-meter dash as a high school sophomore, before leaving track and field to dedicate himself to football. He played college football at USC, and was a three-time All-American. He was drafted by the San Francisco 49ers in the second round of the 2010 NFL Draft and also played in the NFL for the Cincinnati Bengals and Oakland Raiders, playing in 66 regular season NFL games. Early life
<mask> was born in Irving, Texas, the son of <mask>, a former NFL defensive lineman, and <mask> (née Black), a Nordstrom executive. He is African-American and Jewish and was raised in his mother's Jewish religion. Growing up he attended Sunday school from a young age, and then Hebrew school twice a week.He had a football-themed bar mitzvah in February 2001. Speaking of his bar mitzvah, he said: "I don't think at the time I really understood what it meant. Now, looking back on it, I feel like I have come a long way in regards to maturity and becoming an adult. I think it helped me do that". Growing up, he "celebrated Chanukah, Passover, and Yom Kippur always". His father played defensive tackle for the University of Washington in the late 1970s, and was later drafted in the ninth round of the 1980 NFL Draft by the then-St. Louis Cardinals and later played as a defensive lineman for the Minnesota Vikings from 1987 to 1988. His mother worked as an executive vice president at Nordstrom, and his father, Stafford, worked as a Microsoft executive.From a young age,

masks:
Taylor Mays
Mays
Stafford Mays
Laurie Mays


texts:
 Mays always had a deep desire to play football; his father recalls Mays, at age 14, doing homework with his football helmet on. Mays also spent a lot of time as a kid watching old football tapes from when his father played. While his parents initially didn't allow him to play football, he played soccer and was noted as being very physical and much bigger than the other kids which led to his parents eventually letting him try out for the football team in the 7th grade. High school career
Mays attended O'Dea High School, a Catholic boys high school located in Seattle, Washington's First Hill neighborhood in the 98104 zip code. Before playing football, Mays joined the track & field team to work on his speed. As a sophomore at O'Dea in 2004, Mays won both the 100-meter dash (10.54 s) and 200-meter dash (21.64 s) titles in the 3A State championships in the spring of 2004 before leaving track behind after his junior year to dedicate his last year in high school to prepare for football at the next level. As a junior in 2004, he posted 124 tackles, 5 interceptions and 75 deflections, catching 25 passes for  with 23 touchdowns and returning 12 punts for  with 10 touchdowns while earning Student Sports Junior All-American honors as a defensive back, wide receiver and quarterback.His final year at O'Dea, he collected 166 tackles, 5 interceptions and 5 pass deflections as a safety while catching 36 passes for  and 15 touchdowns. As a senior in 2005, he was named All-State First-team and All-Metro League Mountain Division Offensive MVP and Defensive Co-MVP. He also returned 12 punts


texts:
 for  and 3 touchdowns. Mays played for the West Team in the 2006 U.S. Army All-American Bowl game alongside future USC teammates Mitch Mustain and Stafon Johnson. He posted three tackles in the game. On May 21, 2005, <mask> participated in the 2005 Palo Alto Nike, Inc. Training Camp. Listed at 6'3", 218-pounds, Mays ran a 4.59 in the 40-yard dash, recorded 21 reps of 185-pounds on bench press and posted a 31" vertical jump.By age 17, Mays was 6' 3", 228-pounds. Recruiting
Rivals.com listed Mays as the No. 1 overall prospect in the state of Washington in 2006. While considering offers from USC, Washington and Miami, Mays elected to commit to the University of Southern California after being recruited by defensive back coaches Rocky Seto and Greg Burns. Mays was expected to attend Washington in the footsteps of his father, but didn't want to fall under his father's shadow and decided to build his own legacy while citing Pete Carroll's enthusiasm and coaching style as a major factor in his decision, officially committing on August 14, 2005. College career
Mays received an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Southern California, where he played for head coach Pete Carroll's USC Trojans football team from 2006 to 2009. 2006 season
Mays got the start at free safety his freshman year after Josh Pinkard went down with a season-ending injury in their first game against Arkansas.His first college career interception came in week 5 against Washington State. Throughout the year he was a solid safety recording 62 tackles in only 12 starts and an ended the year leading his


texts:
 team in interceptions with 3. In 2006, Mays became the third player in Trojan history to be named the Pac-10's Co-Freshman of The Year while also earning Second-team All-American, 1st-team Freshman All-American and Defensive Freshman of the Year honors from Sporting News magazine. Mays surprised a lot of people throughout the nation when it was stated by Pete Carroll that the 6' 3", 230-pound freshman was the fastest player on a top-tier team built with some of the speediest players in the nation. Teammate running back Joe McKnight stated: "He's faster than me. I wish I had it, whatever he has." According to Carroll, Mays was clocked at an astonishing 4.25 in the  dash, .01 seconds slower than the record set at the 2008 NFL Combine by Tennessee Titans running back Chris Johnson.<mask> also said that he models his game after former USC safety and Pro Football Hall of Fame safety Ronnie Lott and the late Washington Redskins safety <mask>: "He's been my favorite player. I look up to (former USC safety) Ronnie Lott, too. That's what's special being in this program, living up to the safeties here." Mays switched from No. 29 to No. 2 after his freshman season for former Florida State player Deion Sanders and former Michigan player Charles Woodson who both wore the number while playing defensive back in college. 2007 season

After Josh Pinkard was re-positioned to cornerback, <mask> returned as the team's starting safety alongside All-Pac-10 strong safety Kevin Ellison, whom he credits as his mentor.His most impressive game of the season came during week 10 against California,

masks:
Mays
Sean Taylor
Mays


texts:
 where he posted 10 tackles and deflected 3 passes which helped hold one of the best offenses in the nation 14 points below its average in the 24–17 win. He also had a career-high 12 tackles in week 8 against the Oregon. Mays finished third on the team with 65 total tackles, 6 pass deflections, 1 forced fumble, and 1 interception in 13 games in 2007. He earned Third-team All-American honors from the Associated Press, First-team All-American honors from Sporting News, and All-Pac-10 honorable mention. After the 2007 season, Mays was listed by ESPN The Magazine in an article titled "Workout Warriors", honoring college football's most physically talented players. According to the article, in the USC spring practices in 2008, Mays posted unbelievable numbers:  Measured at 6' 3", 226-pounds with 6% body fat, Mays ran an electronically timed 4.32 40-yard dash, threw up 225-pounds 23 times during the bench press, and recorded a 41" vertical jump and an 11' 4" standing broad jump. When he arrived at USC, Mays weighed 215-pounds, posted a 35" vertical and 10' standing broad jump.<mask> was listed at the No. 2 spot behind Texas defensive end Brian Orakpo. 2008 season

Before the start of the 2008 season, Mays was honored with a 2008 Preseason All-American selection and was on the early watch list for both the Bronko Nagurski Trophy, awarded to the best defensive player in the nation, and the Lott Trophy. Mays stated in a Los Angeles Times interview on November 10 that he would decide whether or not to forfeit his senior year at USC to enter the 2009 NFL Draft after the 2008 post


texts: season, saying that a big factor in his decision would come from his father and head coach Pete Carroll. Mays entered 2008 as one of the top safety prospects in the nation. The USC defense turned in the second-best defense in the nation, and some argued one of the best college has ever seen. Through the air, the USC defense held opposing offenses to only 6 touchdowns while collecting 19 interceptions as the best pass defense in the nation, with Mays being a key factor in their success.Though he didn't register an interception throughout his junior season, Mays had a team-leading 8 pass deflections with four of them coming in a week 9 matchup against California which averaged almost 40 points per game to that point. Mays had a spectacular performance in the game, delivering several big hits which jarred balls loose from the receivers' hands. What would have been Mays' first interception of the season was called back on a penalty by Kaluka Maiava. Through regular season play, Mays collected 53 total tackles and 8 pass deflections. The Trojans would go on to face Penn State in the 2009 Rose Bowl, where the defense shut down one of the most explosive offenses in the country in the 38–24 win. A memorable play in the game by Mays was a devastating helmet-to-helmet hit on wide receiver Jordan Norwood which momentarily knocked Norwood out of the game and incidentally his teammate Kevin Thomas as well. Mays ended his junior season as a finalist for the Jim Thorpe Award after being beaten out by Ohio State cornerback Malcolm Jenkins.He finished 3rd in the running, coming in behind


texts:
 Jenkins and Tennessee safety Eric Berry. He earned First-Team All-American honors from several sources such as Sporting News, Walter Camp Football, and the Associated Press as well as Second-Team All-American honors by Rivals.com and All-Pac-10 First-Team honors. On January 13, two days before the deadline for college players to declare for the Draft, <mask> announced that he would return to USC for his last year. Mays was regarded as unanimous first-round pick in the 2009 NFL Draft but opted to return to continue to develop and to complete his education at Southern California, citing the importance of graduating to himself and his parents as well as giving his last shot at leading USC to the BCS National Championship. 2009 season
In a Lindy's Football article, Mays stated that he wanted to play a different role in the defensive secondary that would call him to be more involved in the action. "I want to be closer to the action. People who know football know what my role on the defense is, but I'd like to be more involved this season", Mays said.The usual duties of a free safety in Pete Carroll's defense calls for him to be a center fielder preventing plays being made deep downfield, keeping him from doing much else in the box. Carroll said he agreed to tweak <mask>' duties for the 2009 season, <mask>' last at USC. In his last season with the Trojans, one ending with the roughest record (8–4) of his 4-year tenure at USC, he tallied a career-high 96 total tackles for the season while adding another interception to his career total. In October, he was named a midseason

masks: Mays Mays Mays


texts:
 All-American by The Sporting News. The withdrawal of several key players from last year's Trojans team was heavily felt on the defensive side of the ball, with Mays and the secondary surrendering 211.5 passing yards per game, 126 more yards than the defense surrendered in 2008. The lack of playmaking and leadership-by-performance from Mays has led experts to quote his stock for the upcoming NFL draft as one that is heavily slipping, though his pre-draft workouts are expected to impress NFL managers the league over. <mask> was named First-team All-Pac 10 for the second year in a row and was named First-team All-America for the third consecutive season.Professional career
Prior to his first season, Mays was considered one of the top talents for the 2010 NFL Draft and frequently drew comparisons to Adrian Wilson for his size and <mask> for his hitting ability, . Mays participated in the 2010 Senior Bowl, but played sparingly, making his interception of Cincinnati quarterback Tony Pike in the second quarter being his only highlight. According to Sports Illustrated's Tony Pauline, Mays "looked stiff and mechanical with his defensive back fundamentals and really showed limited skills in pass coverage drills", and was therefore projected to outside linebacker by some teams. However, during an interview with Steve Wyche of NFL Network, Mays said that the NFL teams he was interviewed by during the 2010 NFL Combine processes never mentioned him switching positions, but that he would be willing do so if need be. As a top safety prospect he received an invitation to the NFL Scouting

masks:
Mays
Sean Taylor


texts:
 Combine and ran the 40-yard dash in 4.43 seconds, the fastest time among safeties. Although it could have been considerably faster, as he clocked an unofficial time of 4.24 seconds. He attended the combine and completed the majority of drills, but opted to skip the three-cone drill and short shuttle.On March 31, 2010, <mask> participated at USC's pro day, but only ran positional drills for team representatives and scouts in attendance. At the conclusion of the pre-draft process, <mask> was projected to be a second round pick by the majority of NFL draft experts and scouts. He fell from his top ten and first round grade the previous year, due to concerns over his coverage ability and lack of perceived drive to work on his weaknesses. He was ranked the second best free safety prospect available by NFLDraftScout.com. San Francisco 49ers
The San Francisco 49ers selected <mask> in the second round (49th overall) of the 2010 NFL Draft. <mask> was the fifth safety drafted in 2010, behind Eric Berry, Earl Thomas, Nate Allen, and T. J. Ward.In an interview with the Sacramento Bee′s Matt Barrows following the draft, Mays suggested that Seattle Seahawks head coach Pete Carroll led him to believe that the Seahawks would select him with the 14th overall pick, which they instead used to pick another safety, Texas' Earl Thomas. "I understand it's a business. But with it being a business, he needs to be honest. And that's all I was asking for", Mays said. In a post-draft interview, San Francisco 49ers executive Trent Baalke insisted that, despite the addition of Mays, then-current veteran

masks: Mays Mays Mays Mays


texts:
 strong safety Michael Lewis would be the starter for the 2010 season. On July 30, 2010, <mask> signed a four-year contract with the 49ers. After spending the entirety of the first three games on special teams, coach Mike Singletary benched then-starting strong safety Lewis in favor of Reggie Smith and Mays who split time at the spot in the team's Week 4 match-up against the Atlanta Falcons.While garnering a team-high 11 tackles in the game, <mask>' most outstanding play of the game was a special teams touchdown made off of a deflected punt. After the game, <mask> was named the indefinite starter at strong safety alongside free safety. Cincinnati Bengals

On August 22, 2011, <mask> was traded to the Cincinnati Bengals for a seventh round pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. His trade after being drafted in the second round a year prior was questioned and was due to Mike Singletary's firing by Trent Baalke. <mask> was selected solely on Singletary's choice and the majority of the 49er's organization decided a safety wasn't a need at that time. In 2012, he played in all 16 games, starting 3 of them. In the 2013 season, he played 203 snaps.After the 2013 season, the Bengals re-signed Mays to a one-year $755,000 deal, with a $40,000 signing bonus. On March 11, 2014, the Bengals re-signed Mays. He played in all 16 games for the Bengals in 2014. Through the 2014 season, he started 10 of the 16 games he played, with 98 tackles on defense (71 solo) and 6 pass-breakups. He had 21 tackles on special teams with the Bengals. He primarily played on special teams, and was also used at both safety

masks: Mays Mays Mays Mays Mays


texts:
 positions as well as at linebacker. Minnesota Vikings
Mays signed with the Minnesota Vikings on March 24, 2015.He was released on June 16. Detroit Lions
The Detroit Lions signed <mask> on June 22, 2015. The team released him on August 21. Oakland Raiders
On August 25, 2015, <mask> signed with the Oakland Raiders. He was released on September 5 for final roster cuts. On September 14, 2015, <mask> re-signed with the Raiders due to starting safeties, Nate Allen and Charles Woodson both sustaining injuries in the first regular season game. Second stint with Cincinnati Bengals
On March 17, 2016, the Cincinnati Bengals signed <mask> as a free agent to a one-year, $840,000 contract.Three days prior, the NFL suspended Mays for the first four games of the 2016 NFL season for violating the league's substance abuse policy. On July 23, Mays was released by the Bengals after learning that he would be dealt an additional suspension for violating the NFL's substance abuse policy again. Saskatchewan Roughriders
On October 9, 2017, <mask> was added to the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the West Division of the Canadian Football League (CFL), and he played one game for them the following month. Mays was released in April 2018. Career statistics

Honors

On June 26, 2011, he was inducted into the Southern California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. In 2018, Mays was inducted into The O’Dea High School Athletic Wall of Honor. Personal life
The Mays family lives in the Magnolia neighborhood of Seattle.See also
 List of select Jewish football players

References

External links

 Minnesota vikings bio


texts:
 USC Trojans bio

1988 births
Living people
All-American college football players
American football safeties
African-American Jews
Track and field athletes from Seattle
USC Trojans football players
Jewish American sportspeople
San Francisco 49ers players
Cincinnati Bengals players
Minnesota Vikings players
Detroit Lions players
Oakland Raiders players
Players of American football from Seattle
21st-century American


texts: <mask> (<mask>; ; Italian and Neapolitan: ; ; 20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788) was King of Spain (1759–1788). He also was Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as <mask> (1731–1735); King of Naples, as <mask>, and King of Sicily, as <mask> (1734–1759). He was the fifth son of Philip V of Spain, and the eldest son of Philip's second wife, Elisabeth Farnese. A proponent of enlightened absolutism and regalism, he succeeded to the Spanish throne on 10 August 1759, upon the death of his childless half-brother Ferdinand VI. In 1731, the 15-year-old <mask> became the Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as <mask> I, following the death of his childless grand-uncle Antonio Farnese. In 1738 he married Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony, daughter of Augustus III of Poland, who was an educated, cultured woman. The couple had 13 children, eight of whom reached adulthood, including <mask>, heir to the Spanish throne.<mask> and Maria Amalia resided in Naples for 19 years. He gained valuable experience in his 25-year rule in Italy, so that he was well prepared as monarch of the Spanish Empire. His policies in Italy prefigured ones he would put in place in his 30-year rule of Spain. As King of Spain, <mask> made far-reaching reforms to increase the flow of funds to the crown and defend against foreign incursions on the empire. He facilitated trade and commerce, modernized agriculture and land tenure, and promoted science and university research. He implemented regalist policies to increase the power of the state regarding the church. During his reign, he expelled the Jesuits from the Spanish Empire.He strengthened the Spanish army and navy. Although he did not achieve complete control

masks:
Charles III
Charles Sebastian
Charles I
Charles VII
Charles V
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles III


texts:
 over Spain's finances, and was sometimes obliged to borrow to meet expenses, most of his reforms proved successful in providing increased revenue to the crown and expanding state power, leaving a lasting legacy. In the Spanish Empire his regime enacted a series of sweeping reforms with the aim of bringing the overseas territories under firmer control by the central government, reversing the trend toward local autonomy, and gaining more control over the Church. Reforms including the establishment of two new viceroyalties, realignment of administration into intendancies, creating a standing military, establishing new monopolies, revitalizing silver mining, excluding American-born Spaniards (criollos) from high civil and ecclesiastical offices, and eliminating many privileges (fueros) of clergy. Historian Stanley Payne writes that <mask> "was probably the most successful European ruler of his generation. He had provided firm, consistent, intelligent leadership. He had chosen capable ministers....[his] personal life had won the respect of the people."John Lynch's assessment is that in Bourbon Spain "Spaniards had to wait half a century before their government was rescued by <mask>." Spanish imperial legacy

In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht concluded the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) and reduced the political and military power of Spain, which the House of Bourbon had ruled since 1700. Under the terms of the treaty, the Spanish Empire retained its American territories and the Philippines, but ceded to Hapsburg Austria, the Southern Netherlands, the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, the Duchy of Milan, and the State of Presidi. The House of Savoy

masks:
Charles III
Charles III


texts:
 gained the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Great Britain gained the island of Menorca and the fortress at Gibraltar. In 1700, <mask>'s father, originally a French Bourbon prince, Philip of Anjou, became King of Spain as Philip V. For the remainder of his reign (1700–46), he continually attempted to regain the ceded territories in Europe. In 1714, after the death of the king's first wife, the Princess Maria Luisa Gabriella of Savoy, the Piacenza Cardinal Giulio Alberoni successfully arranged the swift marriage between Philip and the ambitious Elisabeth Farnese, niece and stepdaughter of Francesco Farnese, Duke of Parma. Elisabeth and Philip married on 24 December 1714; she quickly proved a domineering consort and influenced King Philip to make Cardinal Giulio Alberoni the prime minister of Spain in 1715.On 20 January 1716, Elisabeth gave birth to the Infante <mask> of Spain at the Royal Alcázar of Madrid. He was fourth in line to the Spanish throne, after three elder half-brothers: the Infante Luis, Prince of Asturias (who ruled briefly as Louis I of Spain before dying in 1724); the Infante Felipe (who died in 1719); and Ferdinand (the future Ferdinand VI). Because the Duke Francesco of Parma and his heir were childless, Elisabeth sought the duchies of Parma and Piacenza for <mask>, since he was unlikely to be king of Spain. She also sought for him the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, because Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1671–1737) was also childless. He was a distant cousin of hers, related via her great-grandmother Margherita de' Medici, giving <mask> a claim to the title through that lineage. Biography

Early years

The birth of

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles


texts:
 <mask> encouraged Prime Minister Alberoni to start laying out grand plans for Europe. In 1717 he ordered the Spanish invasion of Sardinia.In 1718, Alberoni also ordered the invasion of Sicily, which was also ruled by the House of Savoy. In the same year <mask>'s first sister, Infanta Mariana Victoria was born on 31 March. In reaction to the Quadruple Alliance of 1718, the Duke of Savoy then joined the Alliance and went to war with Spain. This war led to the dismissal of Alberoni by Philip in 1719. The Treaty of The Hague of 1720 included the recognition of <mask> as heir to the Italian Duchies of Parma and Piacenza. <mask>'s half-brother, Infante Philip Peter, died on 29 December 1719, putting <mask> third in line to the throne after Louis and Ferdinand. He would retain his position behind these two until they died and he succeeded to the Spanish throne.His second full brother, Infante Philip of Spain, was born on 15 March 1720. Beginning in 1721, King Philip had been negotiating with the Duke of Orléans, the French regent, to arrange three Franco-Spanish marriages that could potentially ease tense relations. The young Louis XV of France would marry the three-year-old Infanta Mariana Victoria and thus she would become Queen of France; <mask>'s half brother Louis would marry the fourth surviving daughter of the regent, Louise Elisabeth. <mask> himself would be engaged to Philippine Elisabeth who was the fifth surviving daughter of the Duke of Orléans. In 1726 <mask> met Philippine Élisabeth for the first time; Elisabeth Farnese later wrote to the regent and his wife regarding their meeting:

And to the duchesse d'Orléans she writes:

Out of these

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles


texts: proposed marriages, only Louis and Louise Élisabeth would wed. Elisabeth Farnese looked for other potential brides for her eldest son. For this, she looked to Austria, its principal opponent for influence on the Italian peninsula. She proposed to <mask>, Holy Roman Emperor, that the Infante <mask> marry the eight-year-old Archduchess Maria Theresa and that her second surviving son, the Infante Philip, marry the seven-year-old Archduchess Maria Anna.The alliance of Spain and Austria was signed on 30 April 1725 and included Spanish support for the Pragmatic Sanction, a document drafted by Emperor <mask> in 1713 to assure support for Maria Theresa in the succession to the throne of the Habsburgs. The emperor also relinquished all claims to the Spanish throne and promised to support Spain in its attempts to regain Gibraltar. The ensuing Anglo-Spanish War stopped the ambitions of Elisabeth Farnese, and the marriage plans were abandoned with the signing of the Treaty of Seville on 9 November 1729. Provisions of the treaty did allow the Infante <mask> the right to occupy Parma, Piacenza, and Tuscany by force if necessary. After the Treaty of Seville, Philip V disregarded its provisions and formed an alliance with France and Great Britain. Antonio Farnese, the Duke of Parma, died on 26 February 1731 without naming an heir; this was because the widow of Antonio, Enrichetta d'Este was thought to have been pregnant at the time of his death. The Duchess was examined by many doctors without any confirmation of pregnancy.As a result, the Second Treaty of Vienna on 22 July 1731 officially recognized the young Infante <mask> as Duke of Parma and Piacenza. The duchy

masks:
Charles VI
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts:
 was occupied by Count Carlo Stampa, who served as the lieutenant of Parma for the young <mask>. <mask> was from then on known as HRH <mask> of Spain (or Borbón), Duke of Parma and Piacenza, Infante of Spain. Since he was still a minor, his maternal grandmother, Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg, was named regent. Rule in Italy

Arrival in Italy

After a solemn ceremony in Seville, <mask> was given the épée d'or ("sword of gold") by his father; the sword had been given to Philip V of Spain by his grandfather Louis XIV of France before his departure to Spain in 1700. <mask> left Spain on 20 October 1731 and traveled overland to Antibes; he then sailed to Tuscany, arriving at Livorno on 27 December 1731. His cousin Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was named his co-tutor and despite <mask> being the second in line to inherit Tuscany, the Grand Duke still gave him a warm welcome.En route to Florence from Pisa, <mask> was taken ill with smallpox. <mask> made a grand entrance to the Medici capital of Florence on 9 March 1732 with a retinue of 250 people. He stayed with his host at the ducal residence, the Palazzo Pitti. Gian Gastone staged a fête in honor of the Patron Saint of Florence, St. John the Baptist, on 24 June. At this fête Gian Gastone named <mask> his heir, giving him the title of Hereditary Prince of Tuscany, and <mask> paid homage to the Florentine senate, as was the tradition for heirs to the Tuscan throne. When Emperor <mask> heard about the ceremony, he was enraged that Gian Gastone had not informed him, since he was overlord of Tuscany and the nomination should have been his prerogative. Despite the celebrations, Elisabeth Farnese

masks:
Charles
Charles
Don Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles VI


texts:
 urged her son to go on to Parma, which he did in October 1732, where he was warmly greeted.On the front of the ducal palace in Parma was written Parma Resurget (Parma shall rise again). At the same time the play La Venuta di Ascanio in Italia was created by Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni. It was later performed at the Farnese Theatre in the city. Conquest of Naples and Sicily

In 1733, the death of Augustus II, King of Poland, sparked a succession crisis in Poland. France supported one pretender, and Austria and Russia another. France and Savoy formed an alliance to acquire territory from Austria. Spain, which had allied with France in late 1733 (the Bourbon Compact), also entered the conflict.<mask>'s mother, as regent, saw the opportunity to regain the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, which Spain had lost in the Treaty of Utrecht. On 20 January 1734, <mask>, now 18, reached his majority, and was "free to govern and to manage in a manner independent its states". He was also named commander of all Spanish troops in Italy, a position he shared with the Duke of Montemar. On 27 February, King Philip declared his intention to capture the Kingdom of Naples, claiming he would free it of "excessive violence by the Austrian Viceroy of Naples, oppression, and tyranny". <mask>, now "<mask> I of Parma", was to be in charge. <mask> inspected the Spanish troops at Perugia, and marched toward Naples on 5 March. The army passed through the Papal States then ruled by Clement XII.The Austrians, already fighting the French and Savoyard armies to retain Lombardy, had only limited resources for the defense of Naples and were divided on how best to oppose the Spanish. The Emperor

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles


texts:
 wanted to keep Naples, but most of the Neapolitan nobility was against him, and some conspired against his viceroy. They hoped that Philip would give the kingdom to <mask>, who would be more likely to live and rule there, rather than having a viceroy and serve a foreign power. On 9 March the Spanish took Procida and Ischia, two islands in the Bay of Naples. A week later they defeated the Austrians at sea. On 31 March, his army closed in on the Austrians in Naples. The Spanish flanked the defensive position of the Austrians under general Traun and forced them to withdraw to Capua.This allowed <mask> and his troops to advance onto the city of Naples itself. The Austrian viceroy, Giulio Borromeo Visconti, and the commander of his army, Giovanni Carafa, left some garrisons holding the city's fortresses and withdrew to Apulia. There they awaited reinforcements sufficient to defeat the Spanish. The Spanish entered Naples and laid siege to the Austrian-held fortresses. During that interval, <mask> received the compliments of the local nobility, and the city keys and the privilege book from a delegation of the city's elected officials. Chronicles of the time reported that Naples was captured "with humanity" and that the combat was only due to a general climate of courtesy between the two armies, often under the eyes of the Neapolitans that approached with curiosity

The Spanish took the Carmine Castle on 10 April; Castel Sant'Elmo fell on 27 April; the Castel dell' Ovo on 4 May, and finally the New Castle on 6 May. This all occurred even though <mask> had no military experience, seldom wore uniforms, and could only with difficulty be persuaded to witness a


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 review.Arrival in Naples and Sicily, recognition as king 1734-35
<mask> had his triumphant entrance to Naples on 10 May 1734, through the old city gate at Capuana surrounded by the city councilors along with a group of people who threw money to the locals. The procession went on through the streets and ended up at the Cathedral of Naples, where <mask> received a blessing from the local archbishop, Cardinal Pignatelli. <mask> took up residence at the Royal Palace, which had been built by his ancestor, <mask> of Spain. Two chroniclers of the era, the Florentine Bartolomeo Intrieri, and the Venetian Cesare Vignola made conflicting reports on the view of the situation by Neapolitans. Intrieri writes that the arrival was a historic event and that the crowd cried out that "His Royal Highness is beautiful, that his face is as the one of San Gennaro on the statue that the representative". Vignola wrote in contrast that "there were only some acclamations", and that the crowd applauded with "a lot of languors" and only "to incite those that threw the money to throw it in more abundance". <mask>'s father, King Philip V of Spain, wrote the following letter to <mask>.The letter began with the words "To the King of Naples, My Son, and My Brother". <mask> was unique in the fact that he was the first ruler of Naples to actually live there, after two centuries of viceroys. However, Austrian resistance had not yet been completely eliminated. The emperor had sent reinforcements to Naples directed by the Prince of Belmonte, which arrived at Bitonto. Spanish troops led by the Count of Montemar attacked the Austrians on 25 May 1734 at Bitonto, and achieved a decisive

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 victory. Belmonte was captured after he fled to Bari, while other Austrian troops were able to escape to the sea. To celebrate the victory, Naples was illuminated for three nights, and on 30 May, the Duke of Montemar, <mask>'s army commander, was named the Duke of Bitonto.Today there is an obelisk in the city of Bitonto commemorating the battle. After the fall of Reggio Calabria on 20 June, <mask> also conquered the towns of L'Aquila (27 June) and Pescara (28 July). The last two Austrian fortresses were Gaeta and Capua. The Siege of Gaeta, which <mask> observed, ended on 6 August. Three weeks later, the Duke of Montemar left the mainland for Sicily where they arrived in Palermo on 2 September 1734, beginning a conquest of the island's Austrian-held fortresses that ended in early 1735. Capua, the only remaining Austrian stronghold in Naples, was held by von Traun until 24 November 1734. In the kingdom, independence from the Austrians was popular.In 1735, pursuant to the treaty ending the war, <mask> formally ceded Parma to Holy Roman Emperor <mask> in exchange for his recognition as King of Naples and Sicily. Conflict with the Holy See

During the early years of <mask>'s reign, the Neapolitan court was engaged in a dispute with the Holy See over jurisdiction, clerical appointments, and revenues. The Kingdom of Naples was an ancient fief of the Papal States. For this reason, Pope Clement XII considered himself the only one entitled to invest the king of Naples, and so he did not recognize <mask> of Bourbon as a legitimate sovereign. Through the apostolic nuncio, the Pope let <mask> know he did not consider valid the nomination received by him from

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texts: <mask>'s father, Philip V, King of Spain. In response, a committee headed by the Tuscan lawyer Bernardo Tanucci in Naples concluded that papal investiture was not necessary because the crowning of a king could not be considered a sacrament. The situation worsened when, in 1735, just a few days before the coronation of <mask>, the Pope chose to accept the traditional offering of Hackney horse from the Holy Roman Emperor rather than from <mask>.The Hackney was a white mare and a sum of money which the King of Naples offered the Pope as feudal homage every 29 June, at the feast of Saints Peter and Paul. The reason for this choice was that <mask> had not yet been recognized as ruler of the Kingdom of Naples by a peace treaty, and so the Emperor was considered still de jure King of Naples. Receiving the Hackney from the Holy Roman Empire was common while receiving it from a Bourbon was unusual. The Pope, therefore, considered the first option a less dramatic gesture, and in doing so provoked the wrath of the religious Spanish infante. Meanwhile, <mask> had landed in Sicily. Although the Bourbon conquest of the island was not complete, he was crowned King of the Two Sicilies ("utriusque Siciliae rex") on 3 July in the ancient Cathedral of Palermo, after having traveled overland to Palmi, and by sea from Palmi to Palermo. The coronation bypassed the authority of the Pope thanks to the apostolic legation of Sicily, a medieval privilege which ensured the island a special legal autonomy from the Church.Thus, the papal legate did not attend the ceremony as <mask> would have wanted. In March 1735 a new discord developed between Rome and Naples. In Rome, it was

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles


texts: discovered that the Bourbons had confined Roman citizens in the basement of Palazzo Farnese, which was the personal property of King <mask>; people were brought there to impress them into the newborn Neapolitan army. Thousands of inhabitants in the town of Trastevere stormed the palace to liberate them. The riot then degenerated into pillage. Next, the crowd directed itself toward the embassy of Spain in Piazza di Spagna. During the clashes that followed, several Bourbon soldiers were killed, including an officer.The disturbances spread to the town of Velletri, where the population attacked Spanish troops on the road to Naples. The episode was perceived as a serious affront to the Bourbon court. Consequently, the Spanish and Neapolitan ambassadors left Rome, the seat of the papacy, while apostolic nuncios were dismissed from Madrid and Naples. The regiments of Bourbon troops invaded the Papal States. The threat was such that some of the gates of Rome were barred and the civil guard was doubled. Velletri was occupied and forced to pay 8000 crowns for the occupation. Ostia was sacked, while Palestrina avoided the same fate by the payment of a ransom of 16,000 crowns.The commission of cardinals to whom the case was assigned decided to send a delegation of prisoners of Trastevere and Velletri to Naples as reparations. The papal subjects were punished with just a few days in jail and then, after seeking royal pardon, were granted it. The Neapolitan king subsequently managed to iron out his differences with the Pope, after long negotiations, through the mediation of its ambassador in Rome, Cardinal Acquaviva, the archbishop Giuseppe Spinelli and the


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 chaplain Celestino Galiani. The agreement was achieved on 12 May 1738. After the death of Pope Clement in 1740, he was replaced by Pope Benedict XIV, who the following year allowed the creation of a concordat with the Kingdom of Naples. This allowed the taxation of certain property of the clergy, the reduction of the number of the ecclesiastical, and the limitation of their immunity and autonomy of justice via the creation of a mixed tribunal. Choice of name
<mask> was the seventh king of that name to rule Naples, but he never styled himself <mask> VII.He was known simply as <mask> of Bourbon (Italian: Carlo di Borbone). This was intended to emphasize that he was the first king of Naples to live there, and to mark the discontinuity between him and previous rulers named <mask>, specifically his predecessor, the Habsburg <mask>. In Sicily, he was known as <mask> of Sicily and of Jerusalem, using the ordinal III rather than V.  The Sicilian people had not recognized <mask> of Naples (<mask>'Anjou) as their sovereign (they rebelled against him), nor Emperor <mask>, whom they also disliked. Peace with Austria

A preliminary peace with Austria was concluded on 3 October 1735. However, the peace was not finalized until three years later with the Treaty of Vienna (1738), ending the War of the Polish Succession. Naples and Sicily were ceded by Austria to <mask>, who gave up Parma and Tuscany in return. (<mask> had inherited Tuscany in 1737 on the death of Gian Gastone.)Tuscany went to Emperor <mask>'s son-in-law Francis Stephen, as compensation for ceding the Duchy of Lorraine to the deposed Polish King Stanislaus I. The treaty included the transfer to Naples

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 of all the inherited goods of the House of Farnese. He took with him the collection of artwork, the archives and the ducal library, the cannons of the fort, and even the marble stairway of the ducal palace. War of the Austrian Succession

The peace between <mask> and Austria was signed in Vienna in 1740. That year, Emperor <mask> died leaving his Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary (along with many other lands) to his daughter Maria Theresa; he had hoped the many signatories to the Pragmatic Sanction would not interfere with this succession. However, this was not the case, and the War of the Austrian Succession broke out. France was allied with Spain and Prussia, all of whom were against Maria Theresa.Maria Theresa was supported by Great Britain, ruled by George II, and the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was then ruled by <mask> <mask> of Sardinia. <mask> had wanted to stay neutral during the conflict, but his father wanted him to join in and gather troops to aid the French. <mask> arranged for 10,000 Spanish soldiers to be sent to Italy under the command of the Duke of Castropignano, but they were obliged to retreat when a Royal Navy squadron under Commodore William Martin threatened to bombard Naples if they did not stay out of the conflict. The decision to remain neutral was again revived and was poorly received by the French and his father in Spain. <mask>'s parents encouraged him to take arms as his brother Infante Felipe had done. After publishing a proclamation on 25 March 1744 reassuring its subjects, <mask> took the command of an army against the Austrian armies of the prince of Lobkowitz, who were at that point marching for the Neapolitan border. In

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Charles Emmanuel
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 order to oppose the small but powerful pro-Austrian party in Naples, a new council was formed under the direction of Tanucci that resulted in the arrest of more than 800 people.In April Maria Theresa addressed the Neapolitans with a proclamation in which she promised pardons and other benefits for those who rose against the "usurpers", meaning the Bourbons. The participation of Naples and Sicily in the conflict resulted, on 11 August in the decisive Battle of Velletri, where Neapolitan troops directed by <mask> and the Duke of Castropignano, and Spanish troops under the Count of Pledges, defeated the Austrians of Lobkowitz, who retreated with heavy losses. The courage shown by <mask> caused the King of Sardinia, his enemy, to write that "he revealed a worthy consistency of his blood and that he behaved gloriously". The victory at Velletri assured <mask> the right to give the title Duke of Parma to his younger brother Infante Felipe. This was recognized in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle signed in 1748; it was not until the next year that Infante Felipe would officially be the Duke of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. Impact of rule in Naples and Sicily

<mask> left a lasting legacy on his kingdom, introducing reforms during his reign. In Naples, <mask> began internal reforms that he later continued in peninsular Spain and the ultramarine Spanish Empire.His chief minister in Naples, Bernardo Tanucci, had a considerable influence over him. Tanucci had found a solution to <mask>'s acceding to the throne, but then implemented a major regalist policy toward the Church, substantially limiting the privileges of the clergy, whose vast possessions enjoyed tax


texts: exemption and their own jurisdiction. His realm was financially a backward, underdeveloped stagnant agrarian economy, with 80% of the land being owned or controlled by the church and therefore tax-exempt. Landlords often registered their properties with the church to benefit from tax exemptions. Their rural tenants were under their landlords' control rather than royal jurisdiction. Taxes were collected by tax farming through low paid employees who supplemented their income by the exploitation of their position. "Smuggling and corruption were institutionalized at all levels."<mask> encouraged the development of skilled craftsmen in Naples and Sicily, after centuries of foreign domination. <mask> is recognized for having recreated the "Neapolitan nation", building an independent and sovereign kingdom. He also instituted reforms that were more administrative, more social and more religious than the kingdom had seen for a long time. In 1746 the Inquisition was introduced in domains bought by the Cardinal Spinelli, though this was not popular and required intervention by <mask>. <mask> was the most popular king the Neapolitans had had for many years. He was very supportive of the people's needs, regardless of class, and has been hailed as an Enlightenment king. Among the initiatives aimed at bringing the kingdom out of difficult economic conditions, <mask> created the "commerce council" that negotiated with the Ottomans, Swedes, French, and Dutch.He also founded an insurance company and took measures to protect the forests, and tried to start the extraction and exploitation of the natural resources. On 3 February 1740, King <mask> issued a proclamation


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 containing 37 paragraphs, in which Jews were formally invited to return to Sicily, from where they had been brutally expelled in 1492. This move had a little practical effect: though a few Jews did come to Sicily, though there was no legal impediment to their living there, they felt their lives insecure, and they soon went back to Turkey. Despite the King's goodwill, the Jewish community of Sicily which had flourished in the Middle East was not re-established. Still, this was a significant symbolic gesture, the King clearly repudiating a past policy of religious intolerance. Moreover, the expulsion of the Jews from Sicily had been an application of the Spanish Alhambra Decree - which would be repudiated in Spain itself only much later. The Kingdom of Naples remained neutral during the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).The British Prime Minister, William Pitt wanted to create an Italian league where Naples and Sardinia would fight together against Austria, but <mask> refused to participate. This choice was sharply criticized by the Neapolitan Ambassador in Turin, Domenico Caraccioli, who wrote:

"The position of Italian matters is not more beautiful; but it is worsened by the fact that the King of Naples and the King of Sardinia, adding troops to larger forces of the others, could oppose itself to the plans of their neighbors; to defend itself against the dangers of the peace of the enemies themselves they were in a way united, but they are separated by their different systems of government." With the Republic of Genoa in relations are stretched: Pasquale Paoli, general of Corsican pro-independence rebels, was an officer of the Neapolitan army and the


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 Genoese one suspected that he received the assistance of the kingdom of Naples. He constructed a collection of palaces in and around Naples. <mask>nso where the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso was located in Spain. Caserta was also much influenced by his wife, the very cultured Maria Amalia of Saxony. The site of the palace was also far away from the large volcano of Mount Vesuvius, which was a constant threat to the capital, as was the sea. <mask> himself laid the foundation stone of the palace amid many festivities on his 36th birthday, 20 January 1752. Other buildings he had built in his kingdom were the Palace of Portici (Reggia di Portici), the Teatro di San Carlo—constructed in just 270 days—and the Palace of Capodimonte (Reggia di Capodimonte); he also had the Royal Palace of Naples renovated. He and his wife had the Capodimonte porcelain Factory constructed in the city. He also founded the Ercolanesi Academy and the Naples National Archaeological Museum, which still operates today.During his rule the Roman cities of Herculaneum (1738), Stabiae and Pompeii (1748) were re-discovered. The king encouraged their excavation and continued to be informed about findings even after moving to Spain. Camillo Paderni who was in charge of excavated items at the King's Palace in Portici was also the first to attempt in reading obtained scrolls from the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum. After <mask> departed for Spain, Minister Tanucci presided over the Council of Regency that ruled until Ferdinand reached 16, the age of majority. King of Spain, 1759–1788
<mask> was not expected to ascend to the throne of Spain, since his father had sons from his

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 first wife who was more likely to rule. As the first son of his father's second wife, <mask> benefited from his mother's ambition that he has a kingdom to rule, an experience that served him well when he ascended to the throne of Spain and ruled the Spanish Empire. Accession to the Spanish throne

At the end of 1758, <mask>'s half brother Ferdinand VI was displaying the same symptoms of depression that their father used to suffer from.Ferdinand lost his devoted wife, Barbara of Portugal, in August 1758, and fell into deep mourning for her. He named <mask> his heir presumptive on 10 December 1758 before leaving Madrid to stay at Villaviciosa de Odón, where he died on 10 August 1759. At that point, <mask> was proclaimed King of Spain under the name of <mask> of Spain. He gained the title, respecting the third Treaty of Vienna that stated he would not be able to join the Neapolitan and Sicilian territories to the Spanish throne. Continued connection to Italy
<mask> was later given the title of Lord of the Two Sicilies. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, that <mask> had not ratified, foresaw the eventuality of his accession to Spain; thus Naples and Sicily went to his brother Philip, Duke of Parma, while the possessions of the latter were divided between Maria Theresa (Parma and Guastalla) and the King of Sardinia (Plaisance). Determined to maintain the hold of his descendants on the court of Naples, <mask> undertook lengthy diplomatic negotiations with Maria Theresa, and in 1758 the two signed the Fourth Treaty of Versailles, by which Austria formally renounced the Italian Duchies.<mask> <mask> of Sardinia, however, continued to pressure on the possible gain

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 of Plaisance and even threatened to occupy it. In order to defend the Duchy of Parma from <mask>'s threats, <mask> deployed troops on the borders of the Papal States. Thanks to the mediation of Louis XV, <mask> renounced his claims to Plaisance in exchange for financial compensation. <mask> thus assured the succession of one of his sons and, at the same time, reduced <mask>'s ambitions. According to Domenico Caracciolo, this was "a fatal blow to the hopes and designs of the king of Sardinia". The eldest son of <mask>, Infante Philip, Duke of Calabria, had learning difficulties and was thus taken out of the line of succession to any throne; he died in Portici, where he had been born, in 1747. The title of Prince of Asturias was given to <mask>, the second-born.The right of succession to Naples and Sicily was reserved for his third son, Ferdinand; he would stay in Italy while his father was in Spain. <mask> formally abdicated the crowns of Naples and Sicily on 6 October 1759 in favor of Ferdinand. <mask> left his son's education and care to a regency council composed of eight members, which would govern the kingdom until the young king was 16 years old. <mask> and his wife arrived in Barcelona on 7 October 1759. Ruler of Spain

His twenty years in the Italian Peninsula had been very fruitful, and he came to the throne of Spain with significant experience. Internal politics, as well as diplomatic relationships with other countries, underwent complete reform. <mask> represented a new type of ruler, who followed Enlightened absolutism.This was a form of absolute monarchy or despotism in which rulers embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially

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texts: its emphasis upon rationality, and applied them to their territories. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education. <mask> shared these ideals with other monarchs, including Maria Theresa of Austria, her son Joseph, and Catherine the Great of Russia. The principles of the Enlightenment were applied to his rule in Naples, and he intended to do the same in Spain though on a much larger scale. <mask> went about his reform along with the help of the Marquis of Esquilache, Count of Aranda, Count of Campomanes, Count of Floridablanca, Ricardo Wall and the Genoan aristocrat Jerónimo Grimaldi. Under <mask>'s reign, Spain began to be recognized as a nation state rather than a collection of kingdoms and territories with a common sovereign.This was a long process that his Bourbon predecessors had initiated. Philip V had abolished the special privileges (fueros) of the Kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia, subordinating them to the Crown of Castile and ruled by the Council of Castile. In the Nueva Planta decrees, Philip V also disbanded the Generalitat de Catalunya, abolished its Constitutions, banned the Catalan language from any official use and mandated the use of Castilian Spanish in legal affairs. He incorporated these formerly privileged entities into the Cortes of Castile, in effect, the Cortes of Spain. When <mask> became king of Spain, he further solidified the standing of the nation as a single political entity. He created the national anthem and a flag, a capital city worthy of the name, and the construction of a network of coherent roads

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 converging on Madrid. On 3 September 1770 <mask> declared that the Marcha Real was to be used in official ceremonies.It was <mask> who chose the colors of the present flag of Spain: two red stripes above and below a central yellow stripe double in width and the arms of Castile and León. The flag of the military navy was introduced by the king on 28 May 1785. Until then, Spanish vessels sported the white flag of the Bourbons with the arms of the sovereign. <mask> replaced it due to his concern that it looked too similar to the flags of other nations. Military conflicts

Bourbon Spain, like their Habsburg predecessors, were drawn into European conflicts, not necessarily to Spain's benefit. The traditional friendship with Bourbon France brought about the idea that the power of Great Britain would decrease and that of Spain and France would do the opposite; this alliance was marked by a Family Compact signed on 15 August 1761 (called the "Treaty of Paris"). <mask> had become deeply concerned that British success in the Seven Years War would upset the balance of power, and they would soon seek to declare war against the Spanish Empire as well.The French government ceded its largest territory in North America, New France to Britain as a result of the conflict. In early 1762, Spain entered the war. The major Spanish objectives to invade Portugal and capture Jamaica were both failures. Britain and Portugal not only repulsed the Spanish attack on Portugal, but captured the cities of Havana, Cuba, a strategic port for all of Spanish America, and Manila, in the Philippines, Spain's stronghold for its Asian trade and colony of strategic islands. <mask> wanted to

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texts: keep fighting the following year, but he was persuaded by the French leadership to stop. In the 1763 Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for the return of Havana and Manila. This was partly compensated by the acquisition of a portion of Louisiana given to Spain by France as compensation for Spain's war losses.Britain's easy victories in capturing Spanish ports prompted Spain to create a standing army and local militias in key parts of Spanish America and fortify vulnerable forts. In the Falklands Crisis of 1770 the Spanish came close to war with Great Britain after expelling the British garrison of the Falkland Islands. However, Spain was forced to back down when the British Royal Navy was mobilized and France declined to support Spain. Continuing territorial disputes with Portugal led to the First Treaty of San Ildefonso, on 1 October 1777, in which Spain got Colonia del Sacramento, in present-day Uruguay, and the Misiones Orientales, in present-day Brazil, but not the western regions of Brazil, and also the Treaty of El Pardo, on 11 March 1778, in which Spain again conceded that Portuguese Brazil had expanded far west of the longitude specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas, and in return Portugal ceded present-day Equatorial Guinea to Spain. Concerns about the intrusions of British and Russian merchants into Spain's colonies in California prompted the extension of Franciscan missions to Alta California, as well as presidios. The rivalry with Britain also led him to support the American revolutionaries in their war of independence (1776-1783), despite his misgivings about the example it would set for Spain's overseas


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 territories. During the war, Spain recovered Menorca and West Florida in several military campaigns, but failed in their attempt to capture Gibraltar.Spanish military operations in West Florida and on the Mississippi River helped the Thirteen Colonies secure their southern and western frontiers during the war. The capture of Nassau in the Bahamas enabled Spain to also recover East Florida during peace negotiations. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 confirmed the recovery of the Floridas and Menorca and restricted the actions of British commercial interests in Central America. Domestic political policies

<mask>che and Duke of Grimaldi, who supported reforms by the Count of Campomanes. The Count of Floridablanca was an important minister late in <mask>'s reign, who was carried over as minister after <mask>'s death. Also important was the Count of Aranda, who dominated the Council of Castile (1766-1773).His internal government was, on the whole, beneficial to the country. He began by compelling the people of Madrid to give up emptying their slops out of the windows, and when they objected he said they were like children who cried when their faces were washed. At the time of his accession to Spain, <mask> named secretary to the Finances and Treasurer the Marquis of Esquillache and both realized many reforms. The Spanish Army and Navy were reorganized despite the losses from the Seven Years War. <mask> also eliminated the tax on flour and generally liberalized most commerce. Despite this action, it provoked the overlord to charge high prices because of the "monopolizers" speculating on the bad harvests of the previous years. On 23 March 1766, his attempt to

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texts: force the madrileños to adopt French dress for public security reasons was the excuse for a riot (Motín de Esquilache), during which he did not display much personal courage.For a long time after, he remained at Aranjuez, leaving the government in the hands of his minister the Count of Aranda. Not all his reforms were of this formal kind. The Count of Campomanes tried to show <mask> that the true leaders of the revolt against Esquilache were the Jesuits. The wealth and power of the Jesuits were very large; and by the royal decree of 27 February 1767, known as the Pragmatic Penalty of 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain, and all their possessions were confiscated. His quarrel with the Jesuits, and the memory of those with the Pope while he was King of Naples, turned him towards a general policy of restriction of what he saw as the overgrown power of the Church. The number of reputedly idle clergy, and more particularly of the monastic orders, was reduced, and the Spanish Inquisition, though not abolished, was rendered torpid. In the meantime, much-antiquated legislation that tended to restrict trade and industry was abolished, and roads, canals, and drainage works were established.Many of his paternal ventures led to little more than the wasting of monies, or the creation of hotbeds of jobbery; on the whole, however, the country prospered. The result was largely due to the king who, even when ill-advised, did at least work steadily at his task of government. <mask> also sought to reform Spanish colonial policy, in order to make Spain's colonies more competitive with the plantations of the French Antilles (particularly the French colony of

masks: Charles Charles


texts: Saint-Domingue) and Portuguese Brazil. This resulted in the creation of the "Códigos Negros Españoles", or Spanish Black Codes. The Black Codes, which were partly based on the French Code Noir and 13th-century Castilian Siete Partidas, aimed to establish greater legal control over slaves in the Spanish colonies, in order to expand agricultural production. The first code was written for the city of Santo Domingo in 1768, while the second code was written for the recently acquired Spanish territory of Louisiana in 1769. The third code, which was named the "Código Negro Carolino" after <mask> himself, divided the freed black and slave populations of Santo Domingo into strictly stratified socio-economic classes.In Spain, he continued with his work trying to improve the services and facilities of his people. He created the Luxury Porcelain factory under the name of Real Fábrica del Buen Retiro in 1760; Crystal followed at the Real Fábrica de Cristales de La Granja and then there was the Real Fábrica de Platería Martínez in 1778. During his reign, the areas of Asturias and Catalonia industrialized quickly and produced much revenue for the Spanish economy. He then turned to the foreign economy looking towards his colonies in the Americas. In particular, he looked at the finances of the Philippines and encouraged commerce with the United States, starting in 1778. He also carried out a number of public works; he had the Imperial Canal of Aragon constructed, as well a number of routes that led to the capital of Madrid, which is located in the center of Spain. Other cities were improved during his reign; Seville for example saw the introduction of many new


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 structures such as hospitals and the Archivo General de Indias.In Madrid, he was nicknamed "el Mejor Alcalde de Madrid" (the Best Mayor of Madrid). <mask> was responsible for granting the title "Royal University" to the University of Santo Tomás in Manila, which is the oldest in Asia. In the capital, he also had the famous Puerta de Alcalá constructed along with the statue of Alcachofa fountain, and moved and redesigned the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid. He had the present National Art Museum of Queen Sofia (named in honor of the present Queen of Spain, born Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark) built, as well as the renowned Museo del Prado. At Aranjuez he added wings to the palace. He created the Spanish Lottery and introduced Christmas cribs following Neapolitan models. During his reign, the movement to found "Economic Societies" (an early form of Chamber of Commerce) was born.The Royal Palace of Madrid had undergone many alterations under his rule. It was in his reign that the huge Comedor de gala (Gala Dining room) was built during the years of 1765–1770; the room took the place of the old apartments of Queen Maria Amalia. He died in the palace on 14 December 1788. Ruler of the Spanish Empire

The Spanish Empire has been called "improbable," since Iberian Spain had been poor and did not have natural endowments, but its empire was huge and far-flung, starting in the late fifteenth century. Most of the European portions of the empire, which had come under the control of the Spanish monarchy when the first Habsburg monarch <mask> of Spain became king in 1516. Those territories were separated from it, leaving huge possessions in Spanish America and

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 the Philippines, which <mask> ruled. Centralizing rule and raising revenue
The policies that centralized the Spanish state on the Iberian peninsula were extended to its overseas territories, especially after the end of the Seven Years' War, when Havana and Manila were captured (1762–63) by the British.<mask>'s predecessors on the throne had begun reforming the relationship between the Iberian metropole Spanish American and Philippine possessions, to create a centralized and unified empire. The Seven Years' War had demonstrated to <mask> that Spain's military was insufficient for a war with Britain. Military defense of the empire was a top priority, an expensive but necessary undertaking. With the 1763 peace treaty ending the Seven Years' War, Spain regained its ports of Havana, Cuba, and Manila, in the Philippines. Esquilache needed to find revenue to support the establishment of a standing military and fortification of ports. To raise funds, the sales tax alcabala was increased from 2% to 5%. To increase trade, Havana and other Caribbean ports were allowed to trade with other ports within the Spanish empire, not full trade, but comercio libre was freer trade.With the expansion, Spain hoped to undermine Britain's secret trade with Spanish America, and gain more revenue for the Spanish crown. <mask> sent José de Gálvez as inspector general (visitor) to New Spain in 1765 to find ways to extract further revenue from its richest overseas possession and to observe conditions. The position gave sweeping powers to its holder, sometimes greater than that of the viceroy. Following his return to Spain in 1771, Gálvez became Minister of the Indies and proceeded

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 with sweeping administrative changes, replacing the old system of governance with administrative districts (intendancies) and strengthening centralized crown control. Expulsion of the Jesuits, 1767

<mask>'s Italian minister Esquilache was hated in Spain, seen as a foreigner, and responsible for policies that many Spaniards opposed. Bread riots in 1766, known as the Esquilache Riots, pinned the blame on the minister, but behind the uprising, the Society of Jesus was seen as the real culprit. After exiling Esquilache, <mask> expelled the Jesuits from Spain and its empire in 1767.In Spanish America, the impact was significant, since the Jesuits were a wealthy and powerful religious order, owning lucrative haciendas that produced revenue funding its missions on the frontier and its educational institutions. For American-born Spaniards, at a stroke, the most wealthy and prestigious religious order that educated their sons and accepted a chosen few into their ranks were consigned to Italian exile. Jesuit properties, included thriving haciendas, were confiscated, the colleges educating their sons closed, and frontier missions were turned over to other religious orders. Politically, culturally, and economically the expulsion was a blow into the fabric of the empire. Personal life

<mask> received the strict and structured education of a Spanish Infante; he was very pious and was often in awe of his domineering mother, who according to many contemporaries, he resembled greatly. The Alvise Giovanni Mocenigo, Doge of Venice and Ambassador of Venice to Naples declared that "...he received an education removed from all studies and all applications in order to be

masks: Charles Charles Charles


texts: able to govern himself" (...tenne sempre un'educazione lontanissima da ogni studio e da ogni applicazione per diventare da sé stesso capace di governo). He was educated in printmaking (remaining an enthusiastic etcher), painting, and a wide range of physical activities, including a future favourite of his, hunting.Sir Horatio Mann, a British diplomat in Florence noted that he was greatly impressed at the fondness <mask> had for the sport. His physical appearance was dominated by the Bourbon nose that he had inherited from his father's side of the family. He was described as "a brown boy, who has a lean face with a bulging nose", and was known for his happy and exuberant character. <mask>'s mother Elisabeth Farnese sought potential brides for her son, when he was formally recognized as King of Naples and Sicily. It was impossible to get an Archduchess of Austria as a bride, so she looked to Poland, choosing Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony, a daughter of the newly elected Polish king <mask> and his (ironically) Austrian wife Maria Josepha of Austria. Maria Josepha was a niece of Emperor <mask>; the marriage was seen as the only alternative to an Austrian marriage. Maria Amalia was only 13 when she was informed of her proposed marriage.The marriage date was confirmed on 31 October 1737. Maria Amalia was married by proxy at Dresden in May 1738, with her brother Frederick Christian of Saxony representing <mask>. This marriage was looked upon favorably by the Holy See and effectively ended its diplomatic disagreement with <mask>. The couple met for the first time on 19 June 1738 at Portella, a village on the frontier of the kingdom near Fondi. At court,

masks:
Charles
Charles
Augustus III
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts:
 festivities lasted till 3 July. As part of the celebration, <mask> created the Order of Saint Januarius—the most prestigious order of chivalry in the kingdom. He later had the Order of Charles III created in Spain on 19 September 1771.The first crisis that <mask> had to deal with as king of Spain was the death of his beloved wife Maria Amalia. She died unexpectedly at the Palace of Buen Retiro on the eastern outskirts of Madrid, aged 35, on 27 September 1760. She was buried at the El Escorial in the royal crypt. The example of his actions and works was not without effect on other Spanish nobles. In his domestic life, King <mask> was regular, and was a considerate master, though he had a somewhat caustic tongue and took a rather cynical view of humanity. He was passionately fond of hunting. During his later years he had some trouble with his eldest son and daughter-in-law.He was buried at the Pantheon of the Kings located at the Royal Monastery of El Escorial. Legacy
The rule of <mask> has been considered the "apogee of empire" and not sustained after his death. <mask> ascended the throne of Spain with considerable experience in governance, and enacted significant reforms to revivify Spain's economy and strengthen its empire. Although there were European conflicts to contend with, he died in 1788, months before the eruption of the French Revolution in July 1789. <mask> did not equip his son and heir, <mask> with skills or experience in governance. <mask> continued a number of policies of his more distinguished father, but was forced to abdicate by his son Ferdinand VII of Spain and then imprisoned by Napoleon Bonaparte who invaded Spain in 1808. The

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles III
Charles III
Charles III
Charles IV
Charles IV


texts:
 arms used by <mask> while King of Spain were used until 1931 when his great-great-great grandson Alphonso <mask> lost the crown, and the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed (there was also a brief interruption from 1873 to 1875).Felipe VI of Spain, Spain's current monarch, is a direct male-line descendant of <mask>  and a descendant by four of his great-great-grandparents. Felipe VI is also a descendant of Maria Theresa of Austria. Charles III University of Madrid, established in 1989 and one of the world's top 300 Universities, is named after him. Family

Issue

Ancestry

Heraldry

Further reading

 Chávez, Thomas E. <mask> and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002. Henderson, Nicholas. "<mask> of Spain: An Enlightened Despot," History Today, Nov 1968, Vol. 18 Issue 10, p673-682 and Issue 11, pp 760–768
 Herr, Richard."Flow and Ebb, 1700-1833" in Spain: A History, ed. Raymond Carr. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2000. Herr, Richard. The Eighteenth Century Revolution in Spain. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1958. Lößlein, Horst.2019. Royal Power in the Late Carolingian Age: <mask> the Simple and His Predecessors. Cologne: MAP. Stein, Stanley J. and Barbara H. Stein. Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of <mask> III, 1759–1789. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 2003. Thomas, Robin L. Architecture and Statecraft: <mask> of Bourbon's Naples, 1734-1759 (Penn State University Press; 2013) 223 pages

References

External links

 Historiaantiqua.Carlos III; (Spanish) (2008)

1716 births
1788 deaths
18th-century Spanish monarchs
18th-century Kings of

masks:
Charles
XIII
Charles the
Spain
Charles III
Charles III
Charles
Charles


texts:
 Sicily
18th-century monarchs of Naples
18th-century Navarrese monarchs
Nobility from Madrid
Grand Princes of Tuscany
Crown of Aragon
Dukes of Parma
Spanish infantes
House of Farnese
Monarchs who abdicated
House of Bourbon (Spain)
Grand Masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece
People associated with the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales
Spanish military personnel of the War of the Polish Succession
Italian military personnel of the War of the Polish Succession
Spanish military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Italian military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Italian people of Spanish descent
Spanish people of Italian descent
Burials in the Pantheon of Kings at El Escorial
Spanish people of the Seven Years' War
Spanish people of the American Revolution

Spanish generals
Generals of former Italian states

Knights of Santiago
Knights of the Golden Fleece of


texts:
<mask> is an American professional wrestler who competes in North American independent promotions including Mikey Whipwreck's New York Wrestling Connection as well as WWE developmental territories Ohio Valley Wrestling, Derby City Wrestling and Ohio Championship Wrestling. He has also appeared in World Wrestling Entertainment as an on-camera personality in early 2007, most notably as one of The Undertaker's druids at WrestleMania 23 as well appearing on Monday Night Raw as one of Vince McMahon's personal security guards. Career

Early life and career
As a child growing up in Farmingville, New York, Raige was a fan of Hulk Hogan during the "rock 'n wrestling connection"-era often watching WWF Superstars of Wrestling and WWF Wrestling Challenge as well as attending events at Nassau Coliseum during the 1980s. He graduated from the State University of New York at Oswego with a degree in communications studies and philosophy in 1994 and began teaching English and journalism in Smithtown High School. During this time, after watching MTV's Tough Enough series, Raige became interested in a career in professional wrestling and began training at the now-defunct Critical Mass Pro Wrestling in Hicksville, Long Island on January 7, 2003. Training with Team Taz graduate John Curse, Mike Mayhem and Mikey Whipwreck among others, he began wrestling in the New York area with NWA Cyberspace and the New York Wrestling Connection during the next two years. In November 2004, he wrestled on the first MXW Pro Wrestling show.After appearing on the cover of Newsday on an article for the Hicksville wrestling school, he left his teaching job and began wrestling full-time. He later started


texts:
 teaming with Dickie Rodz as Rodz N' Rage and eventually defeated Wayne & Tyler Payne for the NYWC Tag Team Championship on January 29, 2005. New York Wrestling Connection
After being seen by World Wrestling Entertainment road agents at an NYWC event, he was invited to a WWE tryout match in February 2005 and was later offered to join Ohio Valley Wrestling as part of the WWE developmental program. Moving to Louisville, Kentucky, he would split his time between New York and OVW, he and Dickie Rodz retained the NYWC Tag Team titles despite losing to Brett Matthews & Brian Myers and, at an NWA Cyberspace that same night, defeated Supreme Lee Great and Thrillology on March 26, 2005. One of over 30 wrestlers attending an OVW/WWE tryout camp headed by Jim Cornette, Danny Davis, Tom Prichard and Rip Rogers between April 15–17, he and Dickie Rodz defeated Grim Reefer and James Newblood on April 29 although he and Rodz would be defeated in a tag team tournament losing to Matt Striker & Joey Braggiol in the semi-finals the following night. That same day, he would drive from New York to New Jersey to defeat Prince Nana at the NWA Cyberspace Retribution '99 supercard. Facing Brett Matthews & Brian Myers in several matches during the next several weeks, although retaining the tag team titles via disqualification on May 21, he and Rodz would finally lose the titles to Brett Matthews & Brian Myers on June 4, 2005.Several weeks later, after a tag team match between against Danny & Billy Angus ended in a no contest, Raige would have to be escorted from the building by security on June 25. The following month, Raige made his first appearance on WWE television as a security guard


texts:
 during a brawl between Edge and Matt Hardy at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford, New Jersey on July 11. With Dickie Rodz and Crusher Doogan, Raige lost to Plazma & Team 3-D in a 6-man tag team match on September 23, he would wrestle twice in one night defeating Stockade and in the main event with Dickie Rodz lost to Matt Hyson and Mike Mondo on October 8. On October 29, after defeating The Solution by countout in a handicap match, Dickie Rodz turned on Raige attacking him with a steel chair resulting in a severe head would requiring 12 stitches. Feuding with Dickie Rodz and The Solution throughout late 2005, Raige was at one point suspended from the promotion by NYWC Commissioner Mikey Whipwreck  and later defeated Dan Dynasty in a particularly violent match on December 17, 2005. Following the match, Raige powerbombed Dynasty on a bed of barbed-wire. Ohio Valley Wrestling
Making his debut on Ohio Valley Wrestling, he teamed with J-Mann and The Ogre in a 6-man tag team match losing to Chet the Jet and The Riggs Brothers on January 21 and, the following night, teamed with Vick Devine to defeat Pat Buck and Ogre.Several days later at an NYWC event, Raige teamed with Damian Dragon, MEGA, Joey Braggiol and Mikey Whipwreck in a 10-man "Psycho Circus" elimination match defeating Mike Spinelli, Tony Burma, Havok, Papadon, John Shane and Dickie Rodz with Crusher Doogan on January 28. After a three-hour tryout match with WWE road agents Tommy Dreamer and Dean Malenko at the Nassau Coliseum, Raige officially signed a developmental contract with the WWE on February 24. Defeated Rodz for the NYWC Heavyweight Championship the following day, he continued his feud


texts: with Rodz defeating him in a rematch on March 18 with Mikey Whipwreck as special guest referee although he would eventually choose to relinquish the title on May 24 due to his commitments in Ohio Valley Wrestling after signing with the WWE. Losing a tag team match with Discord to Roadkill & Kasey James on April 9, he returned to NYWS to teamed with Plazma, Javi-Air and Brett Matthews & Brian Myers in an 8-man tag team match defeating Dickie Rodz, Crusher Doogan, J.T. Tackleberry, Tony Burma and Mike Spinelli on April 22. Over the next few months he would split his time between New York and OVW losing to The Riggs Brothers in a tag team match with Fred Williams on April 26 as well as to Boris Alexiev on May 17 before suffering a torn adductor magnus in his upper thigh. He continued wrestling despite the injury and, while taking two weeks off, he returned to competition before his leg was fully healed and completely tore the muscle keeping him sidelined for three months.Returning to action on August 19, he lost to Jacob Duncan in a handicap with Anthony Vein. After losing to Paul Birchill in a dark match on November 8, he returned to New York although failing to regain the NYWC Heavyweight title from Dickie Rodz on November 28. Easily defeating Damian Adams on December 1 to become the number one contender to the OCW Heavyweight Championship, he later defeated Vinny Viagra & Damian Adams in a handicap match on January 7 before losing to Charles Evans and Justin LaRoche in a tag team match with The Real McCoy at an OVW television taping on January 24. Teaming with Maverick, Plazma, Tony Burma, Mike Spinelli and Jerry Lynn, Raige lost to Dickie Rodz, Dan Dynasty, Jamie


texts:
 Van Lemer, MEGA and The Angus Brothers in the annual 10-man "Psycho Circus" elimination match on January 27 and to "The Big Deal" Daniel Rodimer at an OVW television taping several days later. The following month, he defeated Vinny Viagra for the OCW Heavyweight Championship in Ashland, Kentucky on February 3, 2007. On March 19, Raige again appeared on Monday Night Raw appearing with Vince McMahon in several backstage segments as one of McMahon's personal security guards. After losing to Chet the Jett and Steve Lewington in a dark match with Scott Cardinal on March 21, he again appeared at WrestleMania 23 as one of The Undertaker's druids and as part of Melina's entourage on Monday Night Raw the following night.After a second appearance with The Undertaker at SmackDown on April 6, he would successfully defend the OCW Heavyweight Championship against Tank Toland the following night. He would also defeat Jacob Duncan in a dark match at an OVW television taping on May 23 and teaming with Von Lilas at a Derby City Wrestling event defeated Lennox Lightfoot and Dre Blitz on June 27. Championships and accomplishments
New York Wrestling Connection
NYWC Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NYWC Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Dickie Rodz

Ohio Championship Wrestling
OCW Heavyweight Championship (2 time)  defeated Vinnie Viagra and JD Michaels. Media
Watch Me...Because You Can't Stop Me. Perf. <mask>ge. DVD.MasonRaige.com, 2006. References

External links
Profile at Online World of Wrestling
Other Superstars - Mason Raige
CageMatch.de - Mason Raige

Living people
American male professional wrestlers
1972 births
People from Farmingville, New York
Sportspeople from


texts:
<mask> (; ; April 30, 1901 – July 8, 1985) was an American economist and statistician who received the 1971 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development." <mask> made a decisive contribution to the transformation of economics into an empirical science and to the formation of quantitative economic history. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in the Russian Empire, today Belarus in the town of Pinsk to Lithuanian-Jewish parents, in the year 1901. He completed his schooling, first at the Rivne, then, Kharkiv Realschule of present-day Ukraine. In 1918, <mask> entered the Kharkiv Institute of Commerce where he studied economic sciences, statistics, history and mathematics under the guidance of professors P. Fomin (political economy), A. Antsiferov (statistics), V. Levitsky (economic history and economic thought), S. Bernstein (probability theory), V. Davats (mathematics), and others. Basic academic courses at the Institute helped him to acquire "exceptional" erudition in economics, as well as in history, demography, statistics and natural sciences. According to the institute's curriculum, development of the national economies had to be analyzed in the wider context of changes in connected spheres and with involvement of proper methods and empirical data.There he began to study economics and became exposed to Joseph Schumpeter's theory of innovation and the business cycle. At the turn of 1920–1921 years, the normal course in the institute was interrupted by the events of the Civil War and reorganizations undertaken by the Soviet authorities in the sphere of the higher education. There is no precise information whether <mask> continued his studies at the institute, but it is known that he joined the Department of Labor of UZHBURO (South Bureau) of the Central Council of Trade Unions. There he published his first scientific paper, "Monetary wages and salaries of factory workers in Kharkov in 1920"; he explored the dynamics of different types of wages by industries in

masks:
Simon Smith Kuznets
Kuznets
Simon Smith Kuznets
Kuznets
Kuznets


texts:
 Kharkov and income differentiation, depending on the wage system. Emigration to the United States
In 1922, the <mask> family emigrated to the United States. <mask> then studied at Columbia University under the guidance of Wesley Clair Mitchell. He graduated with a B.S.in 1923, M.A. in 1924, and Ph.D. in 1926. As his magister thesis, he defended the essay "Economic system of Dr. Schumpeter, presented and analyzed", written in Kharkiv. From 1925 to 1926, <mask> spent time studying economic patterns in prices as the Research Fellow at the Social Science Research Council. It was this work that led to his book "Secular Movements in Production and Prices", defended as a doctoral thesis and published in 1930. In 1927, he became a member of the research staff of the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), where he worked until 1961. From 1931 until 1936, <mask> was a part-time professor at the University of Pennsylvania.In 1937 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. He was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu social science honor society chapter at the University of Pennsylvania and actively served as a chapter officer in the 1940s; becoming a full-time professor 1936 until 1954. In 1954, <mask> moved to Johns Hopkins University, where he was Professor of Political Economy until 1960. From 1961 until his retirement in 1970, <mask> taught at Harvard. Apart from that, <mask> collaborated with a number of research organizations and government agencies. In 1931–1934, at Mitchell's behest, <mask> took charge of the NBER's work on U.S. national income accounts, given the first official estimation of the US national income. In 1936, <mask> took the lead in establishing the Conference on Research Income and Wealth, which brought together government officials and academic economists, engaged in the development of the U.S. national income and product accounts, and in 1947 helped to establish its international counterpart, the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth.During the Second World War, between 1942 and 1944, <mask> became the associate director of the Bureau of Planning and Statistics, War

masks: Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets


texts:
 Production Board. He took part in works aimed to assess the capacity to expand military production. Researchers used national income accounting together with a rough form of linear programming to measure the potential for increased production and the sources from which it would come and to identify the materials that were binding constraints on expansion. After the War, he worked as an advisor for the governments of China, Japan, India, Korea, Taiwan, and Israel in the establishment of their national systems of economic information. <mask> cooperated with the Growth Center of Yale University, the Social Science Research Council (SSRC). He guided extensive research holding a number of positions in research institutions, such  as the Chairman of the Falk Project for Economic Research in Israel, 1953–1963; member of the Board of Trustees and honorary chairman, Maurice Falk Institute for Economic Research in Israel, from 1963; and Chairman, Social Science Research Council Committee on the Economy of China, 1961–1970. <mask> was elected as the President of the American Economic Association (1954), President of the American Statistical Association (1949), an honorable member of the Association of Economic History, the Royal Statistical Society of England and a member of the Econometric Society, the International Statistical Institute, the American Philosophical Society, the Royal Swedish Academy, a corresponding member of the British Academy.He was awarded the Medal of Francis Walker (1977). <mask> died on July 8, 1985, at the age of 84. In 2013 The Kharkiv National University of Economics where he studied in 1918–1921 was named after him (<mask>nets Kharkiv National University of Economics). Impact on economics
His name is associated with the formation of modern economic science as an empirical discipline, the development of statistical methods of research and the emergence of quantitative economic history. <mask> is credited with revolutionising econometrics, and this work is credited with fueling the so-called Keynesian revolution. <mask>' views and scientific methodology were highly influenced  by methodological settings received

masks:
Kuznets
Kuznets
Simon Kuznets
Simon Kuz
Kuznets
Kuznets


texts:
 by him in Kharkiv and fully shared by Mitchell for the statistical, inductive construction of hypotheses in economics and its empirical testing. <mask> treated a priori and speculative conceptions with deep skepticism.At the same time, Kuznets tended to analyze economy in connection with the wider context of historical situation, demographic, and social processes, a method that was peculiar to the Kharkiv academics at the beginning of the 20th century. <mask> was influenced by the work of such leading theorists as Joseph A. Schumpeter (who probed the relationship between technological change and business cycles), A. C. Pigou (who identified circumstances under which markets failed to maximize economic welfare), and Vilfredo Pareto (who propounded a law governing the distribution of income among households). <mask> was closely familiar with  the economics of Russia and Ukraine of the early 20th century. In the 1920s, he reviewed and translated the papers of Kondratiev, Slutsky, Pervushin, Weinstein. who were then little known in the West. Historical series of economic dynamics and Kuznets cycles, or "long swings"
The first major research project in which <mask> was involved was the study of long series of economic dynamics in the USA undertaken in the mid-1920s. The collected data covered the period from 1865 to 1925, and for some indices achieved 1770.Applying for the analysis of time series approximating Gompertz and logistic curves, <mask> found that the characteristics of the curves with reasonable accuracy described the majority of economic processes. Fitting trend curves to data and analysis of the time series, comparison of theoretical and empirical levels, allowed him to identify medium-term extended cycles of economic activity, which lasted 15–25 years and had an intermediate position between the Kondratyev "long waves" and short business cycles. Aspiring to determine the nature of these cycles, <mask> analyzed the dynamics of population, the construction industry performance, capital, national income data and other variables. These movements became known among economists and economic historians as "Kuznets cycles", and

masks: Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets


texts:
 alternatively as "long swings" in the economy's growth rate (following the work of Moses Abramovitz [1912–1999]). Kuznet cycles are special case of Kondratiev wave. National income accounts
In 1931, at Mitchell's behest, <mask> took charge of the NBER's work on U.S. national income accounts. In 1934, an assessment of the national income of the United States for the period 1929–1932 was given; further, it was extended to 1919–1938, and then, until 1869.Although <mask> was not the first economist to try this, his work was so comprehensive and meticulous that it set the standard in the field. <mask> had success to solve numerous problems ranging from lack of sources of information and bias assessments, to the development of the theoretical concept of national income. <mask> achieved a high precision in calculations. His works allowed us to analyze the structure of the national income, and expose to detailed study a number of specific problems of the national economy. Improved methods for calculating the national income and related indicators have become classics and formed the basis of the modern system of national accounts. Having  analyzed the distribution of income among different social groups, <mask> put forward the hypothesis that in countries, which were on the early stages of economic development, income inequality increased first, but as far as national economy was growing, it tended to decrease. This assumption formed the basis of so-called "Kuznets curve" empirical conception.<mask> helped the U.S. Department of Commerce to standardize the measurement of GNP. He disapproved, however, of its use as a general indication of welfare, writing that "the welfare of a nation can scarcely be inferred from a measure of national income." Exploring the formation of the national income, <mask> studied proportions between output and income, consumption and savings, etc. After analyzing the long-term data sets of economic conditions for 20 countries, <mask> revealed long-term trends in capital / output ratios, shares of net capital formation, net investment, and so on. Collected and systematized data allowed exposing to empirical

masks: Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets


texts:
 testing a number of existing hypotheses. In particular, this concerned premises of the Keynes theory – Keynes' 1936 absolute income hypothesis. The hypothesis gave birth to what would become the first formal consumption function.However, <mask> shook the economic world by finding that Keynes' predictions, while seemingly accurate in short-run cross-sections, broke down under more rigorous examination. In his 1942 tome Uses of National Income in Peace and War, published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, <mask> became the first economist to show that the Absolute Income Hypothesis gives inaccurate predictions in the long run (by using time-series data). Keynes had predicted that as aggregate income increases, so will marginal savings. <mask> used new data to show that, over a longer span of time (1870s – 1940s) the savings ratio remained constant, despite large changes in income. This paved the way for Milton Friedman's permanent income hypothesis, and several more modern alternatives such as the life-cycle hypothesis and the relative income hypothesis. Economic growth
By the end of the Second World War <mask> moved into a new research area, related to the tie between changes in income and growth. He proposed a research program that involved extensive empirical studies on the four key elements of economic growth.The elements were demographic growth, growth of knowledge, in-country adaptation to growth factors, and external economic relations between the countries. The general theory of economic growth should explain the development of advanced industrial countries, and the reasons that prevent the development of backward countries, include both market and planned economies, large and small, developed and developing countries, consider the impact on growth of foreign economic relations. He collected and analyzed statistical indicators of economic performance of 14 countries in Europe, the U.S. and Japan for 60 years. Analysis of the materials led to the advancement of a number of hypotheses relating to various aspects of the mechanism of economic growth, concerning the level and variability of growth, structure of the GNP

masks: Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets Kuznets