texts:
 <mask> and Laura took CKonTour on the road again, this time performing 22 dates across the United States, including headlining the Rocky Mountain Irish Festival in Colorado, and an online StageIt show which was streamed live around the world.CKonLine
When off tour from Celtic Thunder, Colm doesn't forget about his other passion, teaching. He has helped out around Ireland teaching at several Performing Arts and Secondary schools offering advice and tuition in both music performance as well as the academic side to the subject. Making use of his previous teaching experience, Colm launched his newest project, CKonLine, in July 2015. An idea that was months in the making, CKonLine is an online teaching forum where people from around the world can study a range of subjects with Colm as their teacher. The inaugural summer term of CKonLine offered individual or group classes learning Music Theory, at beginner, intermediate and advanced levels, dependent on his students existing knowledge. This unique project gives people an opportunity to learn a subject from a passionate, experienced and driven teacher. "This unique, exciting prospect bears no limits to what can be achieved.We can take people with no experience in Music theory and have them reading music and, more importantly, understanding music in just a matter of weeks." Irish History will be introduced in the upcoming Autumn term commencing September, with more subjects to be added to the syllabus in future terms, including Irish Mythology and Irish Language. Discography

Teaching career

Filmography

References

External links

 CKonLine Website
 Colm Keegan Official Facebook
 Celtic Thunder

Musicians from Dublin (city)
Irish male singer-songwriters
Living people
1989 births
Alumni of University College Dublin
21st-century


type: original

texts:
<mask> (, , ; summer of 11474 March 1172) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1162 and 1172. He was crowned king in early June 1162, shortly after the death of his father, Géza II. However, his two uncles, Ladislaus and <mask>, who had joined the court of the Byzantine Empire, challenged his right to the crown. Only six weeks after his coronation, the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos launched an expedition against Hungary, forcing the Hungarian lords to accept Ladislaus' rule. <mask> sought refuge in Austria, but returned and seized Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia). Ladislaus, who died on 14 January 1163, was succeeded by <mask>'s younger uncle and namesake, <mask>, without resistance, but his rule was unpopular. The young <mask> defeated his uncle on 19 June 1163 and expelled him from Hungary.<mask> attempted to regain his throne with Emperor Manuel I's support, but the latter made peace with <mask>. He agreed to send his younger brother, Béla, to Constantinople and to allow the Byzantines to seize Béla's duchy, which included Croatia, Dalmatia and Sirmium. In an attempt to recapture these territories, <mask> waged wars against the Byzantine Empire between 1164 and 1167, but could not defeat the Byzantines. Historians attribute the creation of the "Székesfehérvár laws", the first example of extensive privileges granted to a town in the Kingdom of Hungary, to him. He concluded a concordat with the Holy See in 1169, renouncing the control of the appointment of the prelates. He died childless. Childhood (1147–1162)
<mask> was the

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texts:
 eldest child of Géza II of Hungary and his wife Euphrosyne of Kiev.He was born in the summer of 1147 when the French crusaders were marching through Hungary towards the Holy Land. King Louis VII of France sponsored his baptism. One Lady Margaret, who wrote her last will in 1152, mentioned that "King Géza reigned together with his son, Duke <mask>" in that year, indicating that the King had officially nominated the child <mask> as his heir. However, his position as his father's successor remained insecure, especially after his two uncles, <mask> and Ladislaus, left Hungary in the late 1150s. They would settle in the court of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos in Constantinople. Géza II granted Dalmatia, Croatia, and Sirmium to his younger son Béla as an appanage shortly before his death. Reign

Struggle for the throne (1162–1164)

Géza II died on 31 May 1162.Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom, crowned the 15-year-old <mask> king without delay. On hearing of Géza II's death, Emperor Manuel hastened towards Hungary, because he "put a high value on the overlordship" of the country, according to the Byzantine historian John Kinnamos. Another Byzantine historian, Niketas Choniates, wrote that the Emperor decided to support the young King's uncle and namesake, <mask>, to acquire the throne in the hope that "he might receive the undisputed and guaranteed possession" of Sirmium and Zimony (now Zemun in Serbia) from his protégé. When supporting the claim of the late King's brother to the crown, the Emperor referred to "the law of the Hungarians" which

masks: Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen


texts: prescribed that the crown should pass "always to the survivors of brothers", according to Kinnamos. Emperor Manuel dispatched an army to Hungary which advanced as far as Haram (now Ram, Serbia) where his envoys opened negotiations with the Hungarian barons. Bribed by the Byzantines and fearful of an invasion by the Emperor, the magnates agreed to accept Ladislaus, who was the older of the young King's two uncles, as a "compromise candidate". The young <mask>'s army was routed at Kapuvár.He fled from Hungary and sought refuge in Austria six weeks after his coronation. Archbishop Lucas was one of the few who remained loyal to the young monarch, refusing to crown his uncle. After Mikó, Archbishop of Kalocsa, performed Ladislaus's coronation, Archbishop Lucas even excommunicated the usurper, stating that he had unlawfully seized the crown from his nephew. <mask> returned from Austria and captured Pressburg. He could not take advantage of his uncle's death on 14 January 1163, because Ladislaus II was succeeded by his younger brother, <mask> IV. However, <mask>'s unveiled support for the interests of the Byzantine Empire caused discontent among the Hungarian barons. The young <mask> mustered an army of the barons who had deserted his uncle and supplemented it with German mercenaries.<mask> defeated his uncle at Székesfehérvár on 19 June 1163. The elder <mask> was captured, but <mask> released him upon the advice of Archbishop Lucas. The archbishop, along with the Dowager Queen Euphrosyne, remained the young monarch's principal advisors throughout

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 his reign. The dethroned <mask> first fled to the Holy Roman Empire, but left shortly afterwards for the Byzantine Empire, where Emperor Manuel again promised him support. Wars with the Byzantine Empire (1164–1167)
Emperor Manuel sent an army to Hungary to help <mask> to regain the throne from his nephew. The young <mask> sought assistance from Vladislaus, King of Bohemia, against his uncle and the Byzantines, but the Bohemian barons refused to fight. Thereafter <mask> sent envoys to Emperor Manuel, but "they promised nothing genuine", according to Kinnamos.The Emperor continued his campaign, but in short "realized that it was then impossible for" his protégé "to rule the Hungarians' land", and opened negotiations with <mask>. According to their peace treaty, Emperor Manuel recognized the rule of the young <mask>, and the latter agreed to send his brother, Béla, to Constantinople. <mask> also promised that he would allow the Byzantines to take control of Béla's duchy. Abandoned by Emperor Manuel, <mask> approached Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Around the same time, a group of Hungarian barons and prelates sent a letter to Emperor Frederick, stating that they were willing to accept his suzerainty. <mask> also dispatched his envoys to Frederick, who decided not to intervene, but ordered his vassalsthe King of Bohemia, the Duke of Austria, and the Margrave of Styriato keep an eye on the political situation in Hungary. King Vladislaus' son, Sviatopluk, even married <mask>'s sister, Odola.The betrothal of <mask> to an unnamed daughter of

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texts: Yaroslav Osmomysl, Prince of Halych, was also arranged around this time. Next year <mask> broke his treaty with Emperor Manuel I and "usurped Béla's heritage", according to Kinnamos. A charter of 1164 of Peter, Archbishop of Spalato (now Split, Croatia) was dated in reference to the rule of <mask> and his ban, Ampud, suggesting that at least a part of Béla's duchyCentral Dalmatiawas under <mask>'s rule in that year. On the other hand, <mask>'s dethroned uncle invaded Sirmium where masses of the residents celebrated his return. Accompanied by the forces of King Vladislaus of Bohemia, and auxiliary troops from Austria and Halych, <mask> launched a campaign against him. Emperor Manuel I, who was about to march against Armenian Cilicia, returned to the Danube and stormed into Hungary, advancing as far as Bács (now Bač, Serbia). He contacted King Vladislaus and persuaded him to negotiate a peace treaty with <mask>.Abandoned by his most important ally, <mask> was obliged to renounce Sirmium in favor of the Byzantine Empire, but only after the Emperor promised that he would never support his uncle. Even so, Emperor Manuel allowed the dethroned king to stay in Sirmium. In short, <mask> invaded Dalmatia, although he had pledged to Vitale II Michiel, Doge of Venice, that he would withdraw from the Dalmatian towns. Upon <mask>'s arrival the citizens of Zadar expelled the Venetian governor and accepted his suzerainty. He again stormed into Sirmium and laid siege to his uncle in Zimony in spring 1165. Emperor Manuel decided to make a counterattack, but a

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texts: rebellion by his cousin Andronikos Komnenos prevented him from marching to the Danube. Nevertheless, Manuel I sent envoys to the monarchs who had earlier supported <mask>, persuading them to remain neutral in the conflict.<mask>'s uncle died of poisoning during the siege of Zimony, on 11 April. The fortress soon fell to <mask> III. The Byzantine counter-offensive started at the end of June. An army under the command of Emperor Manuel I laid siege to Zimony and recaptured it; another Byzantine force invaded and occupied Bosnia and Dalmatia. The Venetian fleet intervened on the Byzantines' side in Dalmatia, forcing Zadar to again accept the rule of the Doge. <mask> could only conclude a new peace treaty with Emperor Manuel after he renounced Sirmium and Dalmatia. A Hungarian army under the command of Ispán Denis stormed into Sirmium once more in spring 1166.The Hungarians routed a Byzantine army, and occupied the whole province with the exception of Zimony. Emperor Manuel sent three armies against Hungary. The first army, which was under the command of protostrator Alexios Axuch and <mask>'s brother, Béla, was stationed by the Danube to distract attention from the movements of the two other units, which plundered Transylvania under the command of Leon Batatzes and John Doukas. The Byzantine campaign caused great devastation in the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary, forcing <mask> to seek reconciliation. Upon his request, Henry Jasomirgott, Duke of Austria, whose wife was Emperor Manuel's niece, mediated an armistice. At the end of

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 the year, <mask> married the Duke's daughter Agnes. Around the same time, a Hungarian army invaded Dalmatia and captured Nikephoros Chalouphes, the Byzantine governor of the province.<mask> confirmed estates in Biograd na Moru and the privileges of Šibenik in 1166 and 1167, respectively, proving that the two towns accepted his suzerainty after the campaign. Emperor Manuel dispatched an army to Sirmium and sent his fleet to Zimony after Easter 1167. The Hungarians assembled their troops, and recruited no small number of allied forces as mercenaries, especially Germans, according to Choniates. The contemporaneous Rahewin writes that <mask> III "made war on the emperor of the Greeks" because he had received and assisted his brother, Béla. According to Rahewin and Henry of Mügeln, <mask> received support from his father-in-law, Duke Henry Jasomirgott. However, the Byzantine army led by Andronikos Kontostephanos annihilated the Hungarians, who were under the command of Ispán Denis, in a decisive battle which was fought near Zimony on 8 July. Kinnamos wrote that "the war on the Hungarians" concluded on the battlefield.According to Henry of Mügeln, <mask> signed a peace treaty renouncing the duchy that their father had bequeathed upon his brother, Béla. He also came to terms with Doge Vitale Michiel, giving his niece, Mary, to the Doge's son, Nicholas, on 17 December 1167, according to the early 13th-century History of the Doges of Venice. Later years (1167–1172)
There is evidence that suggests that <mask> seized Church revenues to finance his war

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texts:
 with the Byzantine Empire. The correspondence of Thomas Becket and John of Salisbury reveals that the principles of the Gregorian Reform were not fully introduced in Hungary "on account of the unbridled acts of tyranny by the seculars against the apostolic institutions" in the late 1160s. <mask> transferred Prodanus, Bishop of Zagreb from his diocese without consulting the Holy See. Pope <mask> sent his legate Cardinal Manfred to Hungary in 1169, who discussed the debated issues with the king, the queen mother, and the prelates. The negotiations ended with an agreement that prohibited the monarch from arbitrarily deposing or relocating the prelates or confiscating their property.The Pope supported <mask> against Archbishop Lucas of Esztergom when the Archbishop attempted to hinder the consecration of the King's protégé, Andrew, Bishop-elect of Győr, because of his allegedly non-canonical election. The Knights Templar settled in Hungary during <mask>'s reign. According to historians Ferenc Makk and Pál Engel, <mask> III granted special privileges to the Walloon settlers of Székesfehérvár, including their exemption of customs duties throughout the kingdom. In the 13th century, the same privileges, the so-called "Székesfehérvár laws", were granted to additional towns, contributing to their development. <mask> died on 4 March 1172. Arnold of Lübeck, who was in Hungary at that time, wrote that a rumor spreading in the country attributed the 25-year-old monarch's unexpected death to poisoning. <mask> was buried in Esztergom.Family

<mask>'s

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 betrothal to the daughter of Yaroslav Osmomysl of Halych was broken in 1166. He married Agnes of Austria at the end of the year. From this marriage a son, Béla, was born in 1167, but the child died in the same year. Agnes survived her husband and was pregnant at the time of his death. Her father, who was staying in Hungary when <mask> died, took Agnes back to Austria. Agnes gave birth to a second son, but his fate is unknown. She later married Herman, Duke of Carinthia.Notes

Sources

Primary sources

Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus by John Kinnamos (Translated by Charles M. Brand) (1976). Columbia University Press. .
O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs (Translated by Harry J. Magoulias) (1984). Wayne State University Press. . The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa by Otto of Freising and his Continuator, Rahewin (Translated and annotated with an introduction by Charles Christopher Mierow with the collaboration of Richard Emery) (2004). Columbia University Press. . Secondary sources

12th-century Hungarian people
Kings of Hungary
Kings of Croatia
House of Árpád
Hungarian people of Ukrainian descent
Hungarian people of Russian descent
Hungarian exiles
1147 births
1172


texts:
<mask> (also , Ljuba Galantchikoff) (1889–1959) was the third woman of the Russian Empire to receive a pilot's license. She was probably born in what is now Estonia. She was the first female test pilot, testing airplanes for Anthony Fokker, the French aircraft firm Morane-Saulnier, and the Russian airplane manufacturer Fedor Tereshchenko. During World War I, she flew missions for the Red Cross and during the civil war, may have flown observation missions for the Red Army. In 1923, she moved to the United States and made several attempts to be the first woman to make a transatlantic fight, though none ever came to fruition. After 1930, she quit flying and worked in various positions, including as a taxi driver. Name and birthplace variants
There is some confusion about <mask>'s place of birth and the spelling of her name.While her parents appear to have been ethnic Russians, there are suggestions she was born in Viljandi, now in Estonia, but at the time of her birth in the Russian Empire. Writing on the Early Birds of Aviation website in 2006, the Estonian author and aeronautical historian Toivo Kitvel of Tallinn has said, that he has a copy of the Viljandi Greek-Orthodox birth register with a record of her birth and baptism. Although she may have been brought up in St. Petersburg, Russian articles stating she was born in St. Petersburg, are probably mistaken. As a result of the difficulty of transliterating Russian names into English and of <mask>'s own variations in the use of her name, there are a number of variants. These include Ljuba Galantchikova (from Russian), Lioubov Golantchikova (French), Ljuba Galantschikoff (German),

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 and  Ljuba Golantšikova (Estonian). An example of her own signature in northern European cursive longhand (see photo in box) is probably L. Galantchikoff. The 'T' has sometimes been interpreted as an 'S', giving L. Galanschikoff.Even in recent times, transliterations of her name are numerous. After her move to the United States, she used Luba Phillips for the American press, but may have used Luba Philipoff or Philippoff officially. When American press reported her maiden name, it was either as Luba Galanchikoff or as Luba Galanschikoff. Early life
<mask> Alexandrovna <mask> was born in 1889 in Viljandi, then in Russian Empire, to Olga and Aleksander Golantschikoff as the sixth child. The family was Russian Orthodox, and thus carried a Russian name. Her family was of modest means. Her father worked as a postal official in Viljandi, but died before Golanchikova reached her first year of age.The church books say, that the widowed Olga remarried on 26 August 1890 to Karl Grünwald, who was born in the Pskov Governorate, and maintained a workshop on Tartu Street 21. Through her mother's remarriage, <mask> now had a stepfather. In 1910, <mask> went to study in Saint Petersburg. Her stepfather encouraged her to study accounting. Though she enrolled in accounting courses, she found the work uninspiring and became a child actress, working in vaudeville as a singer and dancer. She was discovered by one Arnold Oskarovtich (Arnold the son of Oskar, thought to be an Estonian), the impresario of "Folie Bergere", who invited her to perform in Villa Rode, a restaurant next to the Kolomyazhskiy hippodrome. There, she took the stage name of "Molly

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 Moret" ().Interest in flying
On 27 April 1910, on the grounds of the hippodrome, and also right next to Villa Rode, the first Russian air show took place, and lasted eighteen days. In addition to lesser-known Russian airmen, the show was visited by then the most popular airmen of the day: Charles Edmonds, Hubert Latham, Leon Morane, and also the first airwoman — baroness Raymonde de la Roche. Golantchikova aka "Molly More" attended with her friends as a spectator. The airshow was very successful. Towards the end of Summer, a second airshow took place. It was called the All-Russia Aeronautics Festival, and it opened on then the new Commandant's airfield (Комендантский аэродром). The air tricks that were performed by Lebedev, Utotchkin, and Mikhail Efimov, military pilots Gorshkov, Rudnev, and others took the city by storm.After attending that festival, "Molly" began reading everything she could find about flying, and met up with the many pilots who were all young and the same age as her. In Fall 1910, <mask> finally got acquainted with , a former electrician from Odessa, who took her on a flight as a passenger, and from then on, she decided she would learn to fly. For that, she began to collect money through the winter to attend school the next Spring. Education and flight school
When <mask> took up flying in 1911, she went to school and to flight lessons during the day and worked nights, graduating from high school at the same time as she received her pilot's license. She joined the Shchetinin Flying School at Gatchina airfield, passed her examination, and on 9 October 1911, became the third Russian woman with a pilot's license.

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texts:
 Air shows
After earning her license, Golanchikova tried to find work as a pilot or in delivery, but was unable to do so, as potential employers suggested piloting was not women's business. She realised, that if she wanted to fly, the only avenue open to her was as a performer in airshows.By then, the stage name "Molly More" was shed. In April 1912, <mask> was invited by the local air club to an exhibition in Riga, where she was involved in a serious crash landing, but she escaped with minor injuries and returned to St. Petersburg. A St. Petersburg gazette recounted, that a foolish spectator had thrown a thick wooden stick at the airplane, which had caused the accident. In late Summer 1912, the "Second Military Air Contest" was held in St. Petersburg, and though injured, <mask> tried out several new aircraft, performing aerobatic maneuvers with skill. She had the ability to precisely pinpoint each airplane's deficiencies, and engineers began taking notes. That also included Anthony Fokker, whom she met at the show: he asked 'Fräulein Galantchikova' her opinion about his new plane, and she told him she liked the way his planes "handled". Subsequently, Fokker invited <mask> to Berlin to participate in an international airshow to be held in Fall 1912.For the next several months, she flew in barnstorming events throughout rural Russia and Poland. At the international airshow held on 22 November 1912, <mask> took to the air setting a new world altitude record for women of 2,200 meters, crushing the previous record of 825 meters held by German pilot Melli Beese. Career
In early 1913, <mask> was offered a job by Fokker to work as his chief

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texts: pilot, flying to European cities to promote his aircraft. Fokker was reported to be in love with <mask>, considering her to be the perfect woman. When she started flying his planes, he thought that having a pretty woman involved would be "great publicity". Though she was homesick, she was determined to stay in Germany, because she would not be able to find professional work as a pilot in Russia. But, in July 1913, the French aircraft firm Morane-Saulnier produced a two-seater plane and hired Léon Letort to test it.He flew the leg from Paris to Berlin, and then offered <mask> the opportunity to fly with him on the return trip as navigator. After she obtained Fokker's agreement to make the flight with Letort, they took off for Paris. Bad weather conditions plagued the flight and after much difficulty, four days later they crashed in a field near the town of Bray-sur-Seine, about 100 km southeast of Paris. The plane was not damaged and the following day the duo was feted with a large reception. When she returned to her room at Hôtel du Brabant, <mask>'s room was full of floral bouquets, one of which had the business card of , a wealthy Ukrainian sugar producer. Tereshchenko owned an aircraft construction business and wanted to hire someone to test his designs. When her contract with Fokker expired, four months later, <mask> returned to Russia to work for Tereshchenko.On 1 December 1913, she signed a contract to become the first female test pilot, agreeing to test "Farman-22" aircraft manufactured in the Chervonskaya airplane workshop, in Chervone. When her contract was up at the end of a year, <mask> returned to Moscow and married


texts: Boris Philipoff, who was known as the "Bread King of Russia". During World War I, <mask> carried Red Cross supplies and in 1917, she flew as an observer for the Imperial Air Force, serving with the 26th Corps Reconnaissance Squadron. During the Russian Revolution, <mask> switched sides and flew for the Red Air Fleet, as well as training their pilots. She may have flown several missions for the revolutionary forces during the civil war. In October 1923, "Boris and Lubow Philipoff" (per the manifest) emigrated to the United States aboard the White Star Line's S.S. Baltic. After arriving in the U.S. she became known as Luba Phillips in the United States and Ljuba or Luba Galanchikoff abroad.In June, 1927, Phillips tried for an altitude record flying with W. L. Stultz at the controls. Though there were observers from the press and the altimeter rose to eleven thousand feet, the flight was unofficial, as no representatives of the National Aeronautic Association were in attendance. Phillips planned to make a transatlantic flight from New York to Rome on 10 July 1927 but the plan did not materialize. Three days after the failed attempt, she was still hoping to become the first woman to cross the Atlantic. Phillips signed a one-year contract for picture rights with the theatrical producer Oliver Morosco for the attempt. Though she made several plans, New York to France, New York to London, New York to Leningrad she did not complete any of the trips and appears to have stopped flying by 1930, when she was working in a beauty parlor at the Hotel Ansonia in New York City. Her husband died in Manhattan in 1936 and in the 1940s Phillips drove a


texts:
 taxi in New York City.Phillips died on 28 March 1959, in New York City. Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links
 Первые Женщины-Авиатриссы в Царской России
 Женщины и авиация в царской России
 Первые русские женщины-пилоты
 Биографические сведения

1889 births
1959 deaths
People from Viljandi
Women aviators
Aviation record holders
Soviet aviation record holders
Soviet women aviation record


texts:
<mask> FRAI FBA (7 November 1910 – 6 January 1989) was a British social anthropologist and academic. He served as Provost of King's College, Cambridge from 1966 to 1979. He was also President of the Royal Anthropological Institute from 1971 to 1975. Early years

Personal life
<mask> was born in Sidmouth, Devon, the youngest of three children and the son of <mask> and Mildred Brierley. His father owned and was manager of a sugar plantation in northern Argentina. In 1940 <mask> married Celia Joyce who was then a painter and later published poetry and two novels. They had a daughter in 1941 and a son in 1946.Education and career
<mask> was educated at Marlborough College and Clare College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a BA with honours in Engineering in 1932. After leaving Cambridge University, <mask> took a four-year contract in 1933 with Butterfield and Swire in China, serving in Hong Kong, Shanghai, Chungking (now Chongqing), Tsingtao (now Qingdao), and Peking (now Beijing). He found out after his contract expired that he did not like the business atmosphere and never again was going to sit on an office stool. He intended to return to England by way of Russia on the Trans-Siberian Railway, but increasing political turmoil in Russia convinced him otherwise. While in Peking, <mask> had a chance encounter with Kilton Stewart, a psychiatrist, former-Mormon missionary, and published author who invited him on a trip to the island of Botel Tobago off the coast of Formosa. And so, on his way home <mask> spent several months among the Yami of Botel Tobago, an island off the coast of Formosa. Here he took ethnographic notes and specifically focused his efforts on local boat design.This work resulted in a 1937 article in the anthropology journal Man. He returned to England and studied social anthropology at the London School of Economics with Raymond Firth who introduced him to Bronisław Malinowski. He was an active member of

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Sir Edmund Ronald Leach
Leach
William Edmund Leach
Leach
Leach
Leach
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texts: Malinowski's "famous seminar". In 1938, <mask> went to Iraq (Kurdistan) to study the Kurds, which resulted in Social and Economic Organization of the Rowanduz Kurds. However, he abandoned this trip because of the Munich Crisis. He wrote: "I’ve got an enormous amount of ability at almost anything, yet so far I’ve made absolutely no use of it… I seem to be a highly organized piece of mental apparatus for which nobody else has any use" (D.N.B. 258).In 1939 he was going to study the Kachin Hills of Burma, but World War II intervened. <mask> then joined the Burma Army, from the fall of 1939 to summer 1945, where he achieved the rank of Major. During his time in Burma, <mask> acquired superior knowledge of Northern Burma and its many hill tribes. In particular, he grew very familiar with the Kachin people, even serving as commander of the Kachin irregular forces. This resulted in the publication of the "Jinghpaw Kinship Terminology: An Experiment in Ethnographic Algebra" in 1945. After he left the Army in 1946, he returned to the London School of Economics to complete his dissertation under the supervision of Raymond Firth. In spring of 1947 he received a PhD in anthropology.His 732-page dissertation was based on his time in Burma and titled Cultural change, with special reference to the hill tribes of Burma and Assam. Later that same year, at the request of Sir Charles Arden Clark, the then Governor of Sarawak (then under British Colonial rule) and a referral by Raymond Firth, the British Colonial Social Science Research Council invited <mask> to conduct a major survey of the local peoples. The resulting 1948 report, Social Science Research in Sarawak (later published in 1950), was used as a guide for many well-known subsequent anthropological studies of region. In addition to the report, <mask> produced five additional publications from this field work. Upon returning from his fieldwork in Borneo, <mask> became a lecturer at

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 LSE. In 1951, <mask> won the Curl Essay Prize for his essay The Structural Implications of Matrilateral Cross-Cousin Marriage, which drew on his extensive data on the Kachin to make important theoretical points as it related to kinship theory. In 1953, he became a lecturer at Cambridge University, and promoted to Reader in 1957.Along with his wife, Celia, <mask> spent a year from 1960 to 1961 at the Center for Advanced Study of Behavioral Studies in Palo Alto, California. Here he met Roman Jakobson, the Russian linguist, popularizer of Saussurean structural linguistics, and a major influence on the theoretical thinking of Levi-Strauss, leading to his structural anthropology. In 1972 he received a personal Chair. He was elected provost of King's College, Cambridge in 1966 and retired in 1979; President of the Royal Anthropological Institute (1971–1975); a Fellow of the British Academy (from 1972) and was knighted in 1975. Academic contributions

<mask> spanned the gap between British structural-functionalism (exemplified by Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski), and French structuralism (exemplified by Levi-Strauss). Despite being a central interpreter of Levi-Strauss' work, producing several introductory works on Levi-Strauss' theoretical perspective, <mask> considered himself "at heart, still a 'functionalist'". His book Lévi-Strauss was translated into six languages and ran three editions.His turn of phrase produced memorable quotes, such as this on Lévi-Strauss:"The outstanding characteristic of [Lévi-Strauss's] writing, whether in French or English, is that it is difficult to understand; his sociological theories combine baffling complexity with overwhelming erudition. Some readers even suspect that they are being treated to a confidence trick". <mask>'s work on Lévi-Strauss is often relied on by other authors. For example, in Richard Wrangham's (2009) book Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, he relies on <mask> in


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 describing Lévi-Strauss's analysis of cooking in relation to human culture. <mask>'s first book was Political Systems of Highland Burma (1954); it challenged the theories of social structure and cultural change. Throughout, <mask> was "fiercely critical of generalisations from one society to a narrative about 'politics' in so-called 'primitive societies'". His second book was Pul Eliya, a Village in Ceylon (1961), where he directed his attention to theories of kinship as ideal systems.<mask>'s interest in kinship was first exemplified by his 1951 article (which won the Curl Essay Prize), and it was here that he first cites Levi-Strauss, disagreeing with several aspects of the latter's kinship theory outlined in Elementary Structures of Kinship. <mask> applied his analysis of kinship to his disagreement with Lévi-Strauss in Pul Eliya, introducing Levi-Strauss's work into British social anthropology in doing so. Bibliography
 Social And Economic Organization of the Rowanduz Kurds (Berg Publishers, 1940)
 Political Systems of Highland Burma: A Study of Kachin Social Structure (Harvard University Press, 1954)
 ed. Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Cambridge University Press, 1960; revised edition 1971)
 Rethinking Anthropology (Robert Cunningham and Sons Ltd., 1961)
 Pul Eliya: A Village in Ceylon: A Study of Land Tenure and Kinship (Cambridge University Press, 1961)
 Dialectic in Practical Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1968)
 ed. Structural Study of Myth and Totemism (Routledge, 1968)
 A Runaway World? (London: BBC, 1968)
 Genesis as Myth and Other Essays (Jonathan Cape, 1969)
 Lévi-Strauss (Fontana Books, 1970; new edition 1985)
 Claude Lévi-Strauss (Viking Press, 1970; revised edition in 1974; 2nd revised edition 1996)
 Culture and Communication: The Logic by which Symbols Are Connected. An Introduction to the Use of Structuralist Analysis in Social Anthropology (Cambridge University

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 Press, 1976)
 Custom, Law and Terrorist Violence (Edinburgh University Press, 1977)
 ed.The Kula: New Perspectives on Massim Exchange with Jerry W<mask> (Cambridge University Press, 1983)
 Social Anthropology (Oxford University Press, 1982)
 Structuralist Interpretations of Biblical Myth (Cambridge University Press, 1983)
 The Essential <mask> (Anthropology & Society & Culture & Human Nature) ed. by Stephen Hugh-Jones and James Laidlaw (Yale University Press, 2001, 2 vols.) ed. Elites in South Asia with S. N. Mukherjee (Cambridge University Press, 2009)

Literature
Tambiah, Stanley J., <mask>: An Anthropological Life (2002). Cambridge University Press. "<mask>, <mask>" Contemporary Authors Vol. 127, Gale Research Inc. 1989."<mask>, <mask> Ronald" Dictionary of National Biography 1986–1990. Oxford University Press 1996. "<mask>, <mask>" International Dictionary of Anthropologists. Garland Publishing 1991. <mask>, <mask>. Glimpses of the Unmentionable in the History of British Social Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 13.1984. References

External links
Biography at Minnesota State University website
 Interview of <mask> by Frank Kermode in 1982 (film)
 Chapter 1 of Tambiah, Stanley (2002) "<mask>ch: An Anthropological Life" Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Accessed 5 May 2010
 King's College, Cambridge Repository: Papers of <mask> <mask> Accessed 5 May 2010
 The Reith Lectures - <mask>: A Runaway World: 1967

Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Provosts of King's College, Cambridge
British anthropologists
Social anthropologists
Symbolic anthropologists
Cultural anthropologists
Anthropologists of religion
Fellows of the British Academy
People from Sidmouth
1910 births
1989 deaths
Burmese military personnel of World War II
Knights Bachelor
Presidents of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Fellows of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
20th-century

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<mask><mask> is an American surgeon and physician. He is Director of the Digestive Disease Center at Cleveland Clinic Florida, where he has worked since 1988. He has received numerous regional, national, and international research awards. Through his multiple academic appointments, <mask> personally trains 15-20 surgeons each year, and he educates thousands more around the world through conferences and lectures. However he also maintains a clinical practice and continuing research. In 2020 he was elected Vice-Chair of the Board of Regents of the American College of Surgeons. He also serves as Symposium Director of the Annual International Colorectal Disease Symposium, held each year in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.Education
Dr<mask> received his bachelor's degree from Columbia University in 1978. He earned his MD in 1982 from Weill Cornell Medicine. He completed a general surgery residency in 1987 at Roosevelt Hospital (now Mount Sinai West). In 1988 he completed a fellowship in colon and rectal surgery at the University of Minnesota Medical School in Minneapolis, MN. Career

In 1993, Dr. <mask> was named Chairman of the Department of Colorectal Surgery at Cleveland Clinic Florida. While at Cleveland Clinic he also served as Chairman of the Division of Research and Education from 1996 to 2007, as well as Chief of Staff from 1997 to 2007. He served as Chief Academic Officer from 2007 to 2012.In 2012 He was appointed the Director of the Digestive Diseases Center. Dr. Wexner holds academic appointments as Affiliate Professor at Florida Atlantic University; Clinical Professor at Florida International University; Affiliate Professor of Surgery at the University of

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 South Florida, Tampa, Florida; Professor of Surgery at the Ohio State University; Clinical Professor of Surgery at the Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University; Affiliate Professor of Surgery at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine; Professor of Surgery, University of Siena, Siena, Italy; Visiting Professor, Faculty of Medicine, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel; and Visiting Professor at the University of Belgrade in Serbia. Dr. <mask> is one of the founders of the National Accreditation Program for Rectal Cancer (NAPRC). The accreditation program was formed in 2017 with the American College of Surgeon's Commission on Cancer to implement nationwide educational and medical standards for the best treatment of rectal cancer. Innovation  and research

In an interview with Local 10, Dr. <mask> shared that he has been seeing a higher frequency of colorectal cancer in younger patients, due to genetic drift as well as environmental and dietary factors. This is often misdiagnosed until the disease has become advanced, and so Dr. <mask> recommends beginning regular colonoscopy screenings earlier than guidelines currently advise. J-Pouch Procedures
Much of Dr. <mask>'s work has been focused on improving surgical techniques for the avoidance of permanent stomas in patients with colorectal cancer, ulcerative colitis, and fecal incontinence.He introduced a popular modification to the technique for creating an ileo-anal pouch , or j-pouch for ulcerative colitis, in which double stapling is used in place of sutures to improve results. He also popularized the colonic j-pouch for

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 patients with rectal cancer. The J-pouch, an alternative to a permanent ileostomy or colostomy, allows patients who have had their colons removed to continue to have regular bowel movements without an ostomy bag. This is now the standard of care for patients with rectal carcinoma across the country and world. Incontinence and Constipation Scores
The Wexner Incontinence Score is the most common score used to determine the severity of incontinence before and after surgery for anal incontinence. The Wexner Incontinence Score is based on the research of Wexner and his associate J. Marcio N. Jorge, MD. The scoring system takes into account the frequency of incontinence, alterations a patient makes to cope with incontinence, and lifestyle modifications.Dr. <mask>'s research has also developed the Wexner Constipation Score, occasionally known as the Cleveland Clinic Constipation Score. [7] The score measures the severity of constipation by taking into consideration a number of factors, which his research found to correlate with objective physiologic findings. Information on these factors is collected from each patient's subjective reports, and they are given a score. This score allows for appropriate and consistent diagnosis and treatment. The factors include the frequency and completeness of bowel movements, the difficulty of evacuation, the type of assistance used (if any), the patient's level of pain, and duration of constipation. In 1996, Dr. <mask> and colleagues released a method of scoring perianal disease activity for patients with Crohn's Disease. The goal of the scoring system is to utilize  a patient's medical history and the results of physical examination

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 to predict the likelihood of success of surgical intervention.Prior to the development of this method, doctors lacked reliable indices of disease activity or prognostic implications from surgery. Patents

Honors and Awards

In 1999, Dr. <mask>  was awarded an FRCS from the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 2000 he was awarded an FRCS ad eundum from the Royal College of Surgeons in England. In 2008 he was elected to the Royal College of Surgeons of England by a unanimous vote of its council. This is the highest distinction conferred by the council. In 2015, Dr. <mask> was awarded honorary membership in the European Surgical Association and the European Society of Coloproctology. In 2013, Dr. <mask> was awarded an honorary foreign membership in the Argentina Society of Coloproctology.In 2012, Dr<mask> was awarded the degree of PhD honoris causa by the University of Belgrade. In 2003, The American Jewish Committee presented Dr. <mask> with the prestigious Maimonides Award. In 2013, he was awarded Professor Emeritus of I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University. In 2016, Dr<mask> was recognized by Cleveland Clinic Florida as a Master Clinician. In 2017, Dr. <mask> was awarded an honorary membership into the Society of General Surgery of Peru, honorary fellowship in the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, and Honorary Clinical Senior Lecturer at the University College London. On June 5, 2019, Dr. <mask> was award an Honorary Fellowship by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, Scotland.Professional Memberships and Positions

As of October 2020, Dr. <mask> is Vice-Chair of the Board of Regents of the American College

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 of Surgeons. Through this position he also serves as Vice-Chair of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, the Vice-Chair of the Finance Committee of the ACS, and the Regental Liaison to the ACS Board of Governors. From 2011 to 2012, Dr. <mask> served as president of the American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons, for which he gave a Presidential Address in 2012. Prior to that, from 2010 to 2011 he served as president of the American Board of Colon and Rectal Surgery. He also served as president of the Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) from 2006 to 2007. In 2007 he delivered the SAGES Presidential Address entitled "Trials and tribulations in the history of surgical innovation." Additionally, Dr. <mask> is currently on the Board of Regents of the American College of Surgeons.Within this organization he is on the executive committee for the Commission on Cancer, and he is the chair of the National Accreditation Program for Rectal Cancer. Dr. <mask> has served as the president of other professional organizations, including the American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons Research Foundation, the Florida Gastroenterologic Society, and South Florida Chapter of the American College of Surgeons. Publications

Dr. <mask> is the co-editor-in-chief of Surgery. He has served on the editorial team for over 25 textbooks and has published 250 textbook chapters. He is a reviewer for 31 journals and is on 33 editorial boards. Dr. <mask> has authored numerous articles over his career. In 2019, the Journal of Coloproctology published an analysis of the top 100 cited papers in benign anorectal disease which listed Dr. <mask> as the

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 2nd most cited author.His paper with Dr. Marcio Jorge,  was ranked as the most cited paper on benign anorectal disease. On October 19, 2021, Elsevier published a list of the top cited scientists from 22 different fields based on the Scopus database. In the field of Surgery, Dr<mask> was ranked as the 34th most cited author of all time. In the field of Colorectal Surgery, Dr. Wexner is the 3rd most cited author of all time and the most cited living author. In his capacity as Regent for the American College of Surgeons, Dr. <mask> has also conducted a series of interviews with other surgeons from around the world called A Surgeon's Voice. The interviews focus on these surgeons' experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic and their unique perspectives as medical professionals. He has produced over 100 videos which have received over 300,000 views, as of May 2020.This series includes an interview with Johnson & Johnson CEO, Alex Gorsky, on the process of developing their COVID-19 vaccine. Dr. Wexner also published studies which resulted in the eponymous Wexner Incontinence Score and the Wexner Constipation Score, as well as the Pilarsky Wexner Perianal Crohn's Score:

Selected Books

 S.R. Steele, J.A. Maykel, S.D<mask> (Eds. ), (2020). Clinical Decision Making in Colorectal Surgery, 2nd ed.Springer Nature Switzerland. <mask>. Beck (Author), <mask><mask> (Author), Janice F. Rafferty (Author) (2019). Gordon and Nivatvongs' Principles and Practice of Surgery for the Colon, Rectum, and Anus, 4th ed. Thieme. <mask>. Beck, Scott R. Steele, <mask><mask> (2019). Fundamentals of Anorectal Surgery, 3rd ed. Springer Nature Switzerland.<mask><mask> (Author), James W. Fleshman

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 (Author) (2019). Colon and Rectal Surgery: Abdominal Operations (Master Techniques in Surgery), 2nd ed. Wolters Kluwer. <mask><mask> (Author), James W. Fleshman (Author) (2019). Colon and Rectal Surgery: Anorectal Operations (Master Techniques in Surgery), 2nd ed. Wolters Kluwer. <mask>. Beck, <mask><mask>, et al.(2014). The ASCRS Manual of Colon and Rectal Surgery, 2nd ed. Springer New York. Andrew P. Zbar, Robert D. Madoff, <mask><mask> (2013). Reconstructive Surgery of the Rectum, Anus and Perineum. Springer. <mask><mask>,  Andrew P. Zbar, Mario Pescatori (2010).Complex Anorectal Disorders: Investigation and Management. Springer. Andrew P. Zbar, <mask><mask> (2010). Coloproctology (Springer Specialist Surgery Series). Springer. N. Stollman, <mask><mask> (2007). Disease of the Colon, 1st ed.Informa Healthcare. <mask><mask>, Graeme S<mask> (2006). Constipation: Etiology, Evaluation and Management. Springer. G<mask>, G. Ghoneim G, <mask><mask> (2006). Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, 1st ed. Springer.<mask><mask> et al. (2006). Diverticular Disease: Emerging Evidence in  Common Conditions, 1st ed. Springer. <mask><mask>, Andrew P. Zbar, Mario Pescatori (2005). Complex Anorectal Disorders. Investigation and Management, 1st ed.Springer. <mask><mask> (Section Ed. ), B. MacFadyen (Section Ed.) (2004). Laparoscopic Surgery of the Abdomen. Springer-Verlag. P. Boulos, <mask><mask> (2000).Current Challenges in Colorectal Surgery, 1st ed. W. B. Saunders. <mask><mask>, (1999). Protocols in General Surgery: Laparoscopic Colorectal Surgery. Selected Articles

As noted above, Dr. <mask> has published a myriad of articles in scientific journals and books, including 213 manuscripts

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 and 26 editorials or commentaries in the last twenty years. Most recently, he co-authored the following noteworthy articles on COVID, on the contributions of women to the field of colorectal surgery, and on racial disparities in colorectal surgery outcomes:

Personal life

Dr. <mask>'s father was Judge <mask>, who presided in New York for over twenty years and lived part time in West Boca. Dr. <mask>'s partner, Dr. Mariana Berho, is Chief of Staff at Cleveland Clinic Weston.References

External links
List of publications on PubMed

Living people
American surgeons
Cleveland Clinic people
Weill Cornell Medical College alumni
University of Minnesota Medical School alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
Fellows of the American College of

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<mask> (5 May 1885 – 19 July 1924) was the founder of a child emigration scheme from Britain to its colonies and the Fairbridge Schools. His life work was the founding of the "Society for the Furtherance of Child Emigration to the Colonies", which was afterwards incorporated as the "Child Emigration Society" and ultimately the "Fairbridge Society". Early life
<mask> was born in Grahamstown, South Africa, and educated at St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown, until the age of 11, when the family moved to Rhodesia. His father was a surveyor in Umtali (the present day Mutare, Zimbabwe) He had no further schooling until he prepared to enter Oxford University in 1908 at the age of 23. At the age of 13 he became a clerk in the Standard Bank of South Africa at Umtali, and two years later, tried to enlist for the Boer War, failing because of malaria, which he had contracted in Mashonaland. <mask> then took up market gardening and early in 1903 visited his grandmother in England for about 12 months. The visit deeply affected him, as he observed the contrast of malnourished and impoverished children living in the London slums with the under-populated open spaces of Rhodesia.On his return to Africa, <mask> worked for two and a half years for a Mr. Freeman who was recruiting locals to work in gold mines near Johannesburg. During this time <mask> started developing the idea of a scheme to bring poor children from London to South Africa where they could be trained as farmers. <mask> applied to the Rhodes trustees for a scholarship, feeling that once in England he would find ways of developing his scheme. He was informed by the Rhodes trustees that if he passed the Oxford entrance examination his application would be favourably considered, and in 1906, he

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 went to England to be privately coached. After his fourth attempt, he succeeded in passing the required examination. In October 1908, <mask> entered Exeter College, Oxford, with a Rhodes Scholarship. While at Oxford, <mask> was awarded a University blue in boxing.In 1909, he published an anthology of poetry entitled Veld Verse and Other Lines. He began to write on child emigration until he was advised by a friend that speaking would be more effective. <mask> was rebuffed by the British South Africa Company, which informed him that they considered Rhodesia too young a country in which to start child emigration. The Premier of Newfoundland, however, provided support for the concept. On 19 October 1909, <mask> addressed a meeting of 49 fellow undergraduates at the Colonial Club at Oxford, and at the end of the meeting a motion was carried that those present should form themselves into a society for the furtherance of child emigration to the colonies. They formed the "Society for the Furtherance of Child Emigration to the Colonies", which later became the Fairbridge Society. The next two years were spent trying to interest people in the project and raising funds.He obtained a diploma in forestry in 1911. While studying at Oxford, <mask> began writing a book on his educational theories. <mask>'s plan was to provide children training in agriculture (for boys) and domestic service (for girls) before putting them out to service. Western Australia
In March 1912, the Fairbridges sailed for Western Australia aboard the Afric, arriving at Albany on 15 April 1912 with capital of £2000. After several months of searching for suitable properties around Albany, Denmark and the Warren River near Manjimup, a property of  was located and purchased near

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 Pinjarra about  south of Perth, with the Western Australian government agreeing to pay £6 for each child towards the cost of the passage money. After several months of frantic clearing of the run-down property, as well as building basic accommodation (mainly tents) for the expected arrivals, the first party of 13 boys, aged between 7 and 13, arrived on board the Australind at Fremantle in January 1913. In July, they were followed by a second party of 22 boys.They endured hardship over the first few years but fell into financial difficulties during World War I until the government provided a grant that tided the school over the war period. At the 1917 state election in Western Australia, <mask> stood for the Country Party in the seat of Murray-Wellington. He was defeated by the sitting member, William George of the Nationalist Party. In August 1919, <mask> went to England on the Ormonde and managed to raise a sum of £27,000 for the development of the school. The British Government's Overseas Settlement Committee provided £20,000 on condition that the Western Australian Government continued its grant of 6 shillings per week per child. A larger property of  of uncleared land was purchased north of Pinjarra and new buildings, including cottages to house the children, a dining hall, a house for his own family, and farm buildings, were erected. Assistance from the Australian Government was also provided.Legacy
The school continued under a principal. At the time of his death, 200 children were at the school, and enrolment gradually reached a peak of 400. After his death six other schools were established by the Child Emigration Society, including the Prince of Wales Fairbridge Farm School at Cowichan Station, near Duncan on Vancouver Island,

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texts: Canada, in 1935, as well as schools in Australia at Bacchus Marsh, Victoria, Molong, New South Wales (1937), and Drapers Hall, in the Adelaide Hills, South Australia (1962–1981). Towards the end of the Second World War, many Dutch children from Indonesia and Singapore moved to the Pinjarra school, after having been interned in Japanese prisoner-of-war camps. By the 1970s, however, only the original school at Pinjarra survived, a result of reduced demand through improved economic and social conditions in Britain and changed laws that had reduced the flow of unaccompanied children. During World War II, a ship carrying child emigrants from England to Canada had been torpedoed with large loss of life, and this in part had caused the British Government to start bringing the practice to an end. The society then moved to provide Fairbridge Scholarships for British students to attend universities throughout the Commonwealth.With the establishment of the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (UCRN) in 1957, the Kingsley Fairbridge Trust set up a bursary fund to provide finance for suitably qualified students to attend the college. In 1958 three British students were awarded bursaries, and thereafter the number was increased to four per year. This continued until 1965 when Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) declared independence and the scheme terminated. In 1981, the Pinjarra school closed. 1,195 children had come to Pinjarra and were housed and educated under the scheme between 1913 and 1981. The "Kingsley Fairbridge Child Development Unit" was established in Adelaide at the Women's and Children's Hospital in 1981. As well as his autobiography (published posthumously in 1927) and his anthology of poetry, <mask> wrote an unpublished novel called The


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 Afrikander."Redress WA" was a scheme established in 2008 to financially compensate children abused in State care, and applications for ex-gratia payments under the scheme closed in 2010. Payments of more than $1.1 million were made to 205 child migrants who went to Fairbridge Farm School between 1930 and 1981. The suburb of Fairbridge Park in Mutare is named after him. Personal life

Fairbridge's great-grandfather was a member of the Children's Friend Society in 1833. This organisation oversaw a scheme to bring children to South Africa. In December 1911, <mask> married a former nurse, Ruby Ethel Whitmore, who had been encouraging and helping him for some time. <mask> knew and greatly admired Cecil Rhodes, and named his eldest son Rhodes.<mask> (1914–2006) was an eminent geologist and climate scientist. <mask> suffered considerably from malaria, sciatica and lumbago and in the last few years of his life endured pain and general ill-health. He died at the age of 39 on 19 July 1924 in Perth, while recuperating from a minor operation related to a lymphatic tumour. He was buried at Pinjarra and survived by his wife Ruby (d. 1966) and their two sons and two daughters. See also
 Margaret Humphreys

Notes and references

External links
A history of Fairbridge Farm and Kingsley Fairbridge
Website of the Child Migrants Trust
"Key milestones of the Child Migrants Trust", House of Commons

1885 births
1924 deaths
People from Makhanda, Eastern Cape
South African people of British descent
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
History of Western Australia
Education in Western Australia
Alumni of St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown
Deaths from cancer in Western Australia
South African Rhodes Scholars
National Party of Australia politicians
South African

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Marie-Pierra Kakoma (; born 27 May 1996), known professionally as <mask> and the Yakuza, is a Congolese-Belgian singer, rapper, songwriter, model, and artist. She rose to prominence after the release of her debut single "Dilemme" in September 2019, which was followed by "Tout est gore" in December 2019 and "Solo" in March 2020. Her debut album, Gore, produced by El Guincho, was released on 16 October 2020. Early life
Lous was born Marie-Pierra Kakoma in Lubumbashi, Zaire (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) on May 27, 1996. Her parents were prominent doctors in the Democratic Republic of the Congo at the time of her birth. Her Congolese father was a gynecologist, and her Rwandan mother was a pediatrician. Kakoma's mother was imprisoned in the Congo for two months during the Second Congo War in 1998 due to her ethnicity.After her father secured her mother's release, she fled to Belgium with one of Kakoma's sisters. Kakoma and the rest of her siblings joined their mother in Belgium two years later in 2000, while their father remained in the Congo. The family relocated to Rwanda in 2005 before permanently returning to Brussels in 2011. Kakoma's interest in music began at a young age while she was surrounded by music due to her father's interest in the European classical works of Mozart, Chopin, Vivaldi, and Beethoven. She began writing her own music at the age of seven. Upon her family's relocation to Belgium at the age of 15, she began writing letters to Columbia Records in the hopes of being signed to the label. At the age of eighteen, Kakoma was disinherited by her parents for wanting to be a singer, rather than a doctor, and at the age of nineteen, she was kicked out of her home.In the period of homelessness that


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 followed, she lived on the streets for several months before settling in a music studio, where she would sleep and record music, while commuting back and forth between a variety of service jobs. Over three years, Kakoma recorded 52 songs, comprising seven EPs. In 2016, she appeared in the music video for "BruxellesVie" by Belgian artist Damso. Career
Kakoma adopted the moniker Lous and the Yakuza from an anagram for soul, the source of her musical passion, and Yakuza, Japan's organized crime syndicate, the name of which she uses to describe her "crew" of collaborators whom she relies on create her music. Lous was first discovered by her manager, <mask>, after he found her releases on the internet. Beginning in 2017, she realized her passion to create an album, enlisted many of her close friends to form a supporting band, and began performing at bars and nightclubs in the Brussels underground culture. In late 2017, Lous was invited to perform an acoustic set for La ChillZone, after which she was signed to Columbia Records through Sony Music in France, at the age of 22.On June 15, 2018, "Le Ridicule Ne Tue Pas" was released, a collaboration between Lous and the Yakuza and the French electronic group BSSMNT. After a six-month search for a producer that fit her aspirations, Kakoma took notice of Spanish producer El Guincho, following his work on Rosalía's single "Malamente". Lous released her debut single "Dilemme" on September 19, 2019, which was produced by El Guincho and Ponko. The song propelled Kakoma into prominence after it received viral acclaim, accumulating more than 20 million streams on Spotify, 8.9 million views on YouTube, and topping Spotify Italia's Viral 50 chart. The song's music video, directed by Wendy Morgan,


texts: captures the various identities that Lous holds in a variety of environments, meant to represent her life transition from Congo to Belgium. A remix featuring Italian rapper Tha Supreme and Italian singer Mara Sattei was released on April 1, 2020. At the 2019 Red Bull Elektropedia Awards, Lous and the Yakuza won the silver medal in the "Fresh on the Scene" category.Lous's second single, "Tout est gore", also produced by El Guincho, was released on December 6, 2019. The song gained popularity after actress Issa Rae shared a clip from the video on social media. On March 20, 2020, Lous released her third single, "Solo", with an accompanying music video directed by Wendy Morgan and Kevin Bago. An associated documentary short film, titled "Solo (Genesis)" was released on April 14, 2020. All three singles were included on her debut album, Gore, which was produced by El Guincho. Originally scheduled to be released on June 5, 2020, the album was later delayed until fall of 2020. On February 27, 2020, Kakoma modeled for French luxury fashion house Chloé during Paris Fashion Week, where she participated in the runway presentation of their fall/winter 2020/21 collection.In March 2020, Lous and the Yakuza was included in Spotify's RADAR initiative, which aims to broaden artists' worldwide reach through marketed social channels and curated playlists. On February 26, 2021, she released her single "Je ne sais pas", featuring Italian rapper Sfera Ebbasta. On March 4, she performed at the Sanremo Music Festival 2021 in a duet with Gaia, with the song Mi sono innamorato di te by Luigi Tenco. On August 8, she joined Woodkid to perform at the handover ceremony from the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games to Paris 2024. Kakoma's music has been described as a


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 "silky" combination of trap, R&B, and pop. Public image
Kakoma is noted for her public image, namely the graphic symbol painted on her forehead, which has been described as the letter 'Y' with a dot in the middle and has drawn comparisons to Prince's Love Symbol #2. Kakoma herself designed the symbol, titled les mains levées vers le ciel (hands lifted toward the sky), as a symbol meant to represent two arms connecting the earth to the sky.Her religious faith and belief in God served as her primary motivation for the creation of the symbol. Lous has also gained recognition for her fashion and style, which draws inspiration from such artists as FKA Twigs and Erykah Badu. Personal life
As a child, Kakoma had a passion for manga and found interest in themes related to the Middle Ages and antiquity, particularly the bravery and heroism of knights, such as those described in the writings of Cicero. During her youth, she was a sprinter and also played American football for seven years due to her interest in Eyeshield 21. Kakoma has explored creative writing as a form of expression since childhood, when her interest in being a novelist inspired her to frequently write novels of over 300 pages in length. In addition to music and fashion, Lous is an avid painter, designer, and artist, frequently designing clothing and creating manga and graphic novel illustrations. Discography

Studio albums

Singles

As lead artist

As featured artist

Other charted songs

Notes

References

Living people
1996 births
Democratic Republic of the Congo emigrants to Belgium
21st-century Belgian women singers
Belgian models
People from Lubumbashi
French-language singers of Belgium
Belgian people of Rwandan descent
Belgian people of Democratic Republic of the


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<mask> (; born 28 April 1963 in Verviers, Wallonia, Belgium) is a biochemist (educated at University of Liège) and a researcher who specializes in breast cancer biology, metastasis and therapy. He works at Institut Jules Bordet (Brussels, Belgium). He lives in Baelen

Earlier work
Breast cancer cells (BCC) frequently metastasize to the skeleton, where they lead to tumor-induced osteolysis and subsequent morbidity. <mask> has investigated the interrelationships between BCC and bone cells (osteoblasts, the bone-building cells, and osteoclasts, the bone-degrading cells). With colleagues, he discovered that BCC produce soluble factors increasing osteoclast activity, notably interleukin-11, the production of which is reduced by the cyclooxygenase inhibitor aspirin. BCC also reduce the proliferation of osteoblasts and their production of collagen, the main protein component of bone. <mask> also examined the response BCC to the anti-osteolytic agent calcitonin

In close collaboration with Prof.Guy Leclercq (Laboratoire Jean-Claude Heuson de Cancérologie Mammaire, Institut Jules Bordet, Belgium), <mask> has studied various aspects of estrogen receptor biology, ligand-binding and transcriptional activity, and life-cycle. Recent work
The amount of data on breast cancer available for the scientific and medical

masks:
Marc Guy Albert Marie Lacroix
Marc Lacroix
Marc Lacroix
Marc Lacroix


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 community is growing rapidly. According to PubMed, a search engine offering access to the MEDLINE database of citations and abstracts of biomedical research articles, 7918 papers containing the expression «breast cancer» were published in 2006. Their number was 3592 in 1996, 1455 in 1986 and only 626 in 1976. In general, the older information is overlaid by more recent data and forgotten to some extent. In 2004, <mask> and colleagues collected and assembled data from hundreds of articles related to the biology, pathology and genetics of in situ, invasive and metastatic breast cancers. These papers were covering a time period of about 25 years.Lacroix et al. concluded that despite undergoing increasing genetic alteration, most individual breast cancers rather surprisingly maintain their phenotype when they evolve from in situ to the metastatic state. This conclusion was in opposition to a progression model widely accepted at that time, which was suggesting that carcinoma in situ could evolve into invasive carcinoma and subsequently produce metastases through an accumulation of molecular abnormalities possibly allowing extensive phenotype changes and subsequent gain of aggressiveness. Bibliography: articles in scientific and medical journals (excerpt)

Bibliography: collaborative books - invited


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 chapters
 Leclercq G, <mask> M, Seo HS, Larsimont D. "Mechanisms regulating oestrogen receptor alpha expression in breast cancer. ", in "Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Steroid Hormone Receptors" 65–75 (2002). Editors: Marija Krstic-Demonacos & Constantinos Demonacos, Research Signpost Publishers, Trivandrum, India, , https://web.archive.org/web/20070217105555/http://www.ressign.com/

 Sotiriou  C, Desmedt C, Durbecq V, Dal Lago L, <mask> M, Cardoso F, Piccart M. "Genomic and molecular classification of breast cancer. ", in "Molecular Oncology of Breast Cancer"  81–95 (2004).Editors: Jeffrey S. Ross and Gabriel N. Hortobagy, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 40 Tall Pine Drive, Sudbury, MA 01776 USA, , http://www.jbpub.com/catalog/0763748102/table_of_contents.htm

Bibliography: books
 Lacroix M. Tumor suppressor genes in breast cancer (2008). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=6866,
 Lacroix M. Molecular therapy of breast cancer: classicism meets modernity (2009). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 	11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=10042,
 Lacroix M. MicroRNAs in breast cancer (2010). Nova Science

masks: Lacroix Lacroix


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 Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=12776,
 Lacroix M. A concise history of breast cancer (2011, 2013). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?cPath=23_132_105&products_id=18309,  (2011), https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=40565&osCsid=eab93c77d43f686ab6e8108d41306b3c (2013)
 Lacroix M. Coding for disease: genes and cancer (2013). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=41346,
 Lacroix M. Targeted therapies in cancer (2014). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=50896,
 Lacroix M. Targeted therapies in cancer: an update


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Ninian is a Christian saint, first mentioned in the 8th century as being an early missionary among the Pictish peoples of what is now Scotland. For this reason he is known as the Apostle to the Southern Picts, and there are numerous dedications to him in those parts of Scotland with a Pictish heritage, throughout the Scottish Lowlands, and in parts of Northern England with a Northumbrian heritage. He is also known as Ringan in Scotland, and as Trynnian in Northern England. Ninian's major shrine was at Whithorn in Galloway, where he is associated with the Candida Casa (Latin for 'White House'). Nothing is known about his teachings, and there is no unchallenged authority for information about his life. The nature of Ninian's identity is uncertain, and historians have identified the name "Ninian" with other historical figures. A popular hypothesis proposed by Thomas Owen Clancy, a researcher and professor of Celtic studies, posits that Ninian can be identified with three other historical figures: Saint Finnian of Moville, Saint Finnian of Clonard, and Saint Finbarr of Cork.Linguistic variations across the territories associated with each saint have provided evidence that the Ninian preserved in literary tradition originated from this individual. This article discusses the particulars and origins of what has come to be known as the "traditional" stories of Saint Ninian. Background
The Southern Picts, for whom Ninian is held to be the apostle, are the Picts south of the mountains known as the Mounth, which cross Scotland north of the Firths of Clyde and Forth. That they had once been Christian is known from a 5th-century mention of them by Saint Patrick in his Letter to Coroticus, where he refers to them as 'apostate Picts'. Patrick could not have been referring to the Northern Picts


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 who were converted by Saint Columba in the 6th century because they were not yet Christian, and thus could not be called 'apostate'. Northumbria had established a bishopric among the Southern Picts at Abercorn in 681, under Bishop Trumwine. This effort was abandoned shortly after the Picts defeated the Northumbrians at the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685.Christianity had flourished in Galloway in the 6th century. By the time of Bede's account in 731, the Northumbrians had enjoyed an unbroken relationship with Galloway for a century or longer, beginning with the Northumbrian predecessor state of Bernicia. The full nature of the relationship is uncertain. Also at this time, Northumbria was establishing bishoprics in its sphere of influence, to be subordinate to the Northumbrian Archbishop of York. One such bishopric was established at Whithorn in 731, and Bede's account serves to support the legitimacy of the new Northumbrian bishopric. The Bernician name hwit ærn is Old English for the Latin candida casa, or 'white house' in modern English, and it has survived as the modern name of Whithorn. There is as yet no unchallenged connection of the historical record to the person who was Bede's Ninian.However, the unlikelihood that the reputable historian Bede invented Ninian without some basis in the historical record, combined with an increased knowledge of Ireland's early saints and Whithorn's early Christian connections, has led to serious scholarly efforts to find Bede's basis. James Henthorn Todd, in his 1855 publication of the Leabhar Imuinn (The Book of Hymns of the Ancient Church of Ireland), suggested that it was Finnian of Moville, and that view has gained traction among modern scholars. Traditional story
The earliest mention of Ninian of Whithorn is in a short passage of The


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 Ecclesiastical History of the English People by the Northumbrian monk Bede in c. 731. The 9th-century poem Miracula Nyniae Episcopi records some of the miracles attributed to him. A Life of Saint Ninian (Vita Sancti Niniani) was written around 1160 by Ailred of Rievaulx, and in 1639 James Ussher discusses <mask> in his Brittanicarum Ecclesiarum Antiquitates. These are the sources of information about <mask> of Whithorn, and all provide seemingly innocuous personal details about his life. However, there is no unchallenged historical evidence to support any of their stories, and all sources had political and religious agendas that were served by their accounts of Saint Ninian (discussed below).Tradition holds that <mask> was a Briton who had studied in Rome, that he established an episcopal see at the Candida Casa in Whithorn, that he named the see for Saint Martin of Tours, that he converted the southern Picts to Christianity, and that he is buried at Whithorn. Variations of the story add that he had actually met Saint Martin, that his father was a Christian king, and that he was buried in a stone sarcophagus near the altar of his church. Further variations assert that he left for Ireland, and died there in 432. Dates for his birth are derived from the traditional mention of Saint Martin, who died in 397. Bede (c. 731)

Bede says that <mask> (whose name he only renders in the ablative case Nynia) was a Briton who had been instructed in Rome; that he made his church of stone, which was unusual among the Britons; that his episcopal see was named after Saint Martin of Tours; that he preached to and converted the southern Picts; that his base was in a place called " Ad Candidam Casam", which was in the province of the Bernicians; and that he was buried there, along with many other

masks: Ninian Ninian Ninian Ninian


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 saints. Aelred (c. 1160)
Leaving aside the stories regarding miracles, in the Vita Sancti Niniani Aelred includes the following incidental information regarding Saint <mask>: that his father was a Christian king; that he was consecrated a bishop in Rome and that he met Saint Martin in Tours; that Saint Martin sent masons with him on his homeward journey, at his request; that these masons built a church of stone, situated on the shore, and that on learning of Saint Martin's death, Ninian dedicated the church to him; that a certain rich and powerful "King Tuduvallus" was converted by him; that he died after having converted the Picts and returned home, being buried in a stone sarcophagus near the altar of his church; and that he had once travelled with his brother, named "Plebia". Aelred said that in addition to finding information about Ninian in Bede, he took much additional information for his Life of S. Ninian from a source written in a "barbarous language"; there is no further information about this text.Aelred wrote his Life of S. Ninian sometime after spending ten years at the Scottish court and thus had close connections both to the Scottish royal family and to Fergus of Galloway (who would resurrect the Bishopric of Galloway), all of whom would have been pleased to have a manuscript with such a glowing description of a Galwegian and Scottish saint. His work is what Thomas Heffernan refers to as a "sacred biography," probably intended for a politically ambitious audience. Ussher (1639)

Ussher wrote that <mask> left Candida Casa for Cluayn-coner in Ireland, and eventually died in Ireland; that his mother was a Spanish princess; that his father wished to regain him after having assented to his training for an ecclesiastical state; that a bell comes from heaven to call

masks: Ninian Ninian


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 together his disciples; that a wooden church was raised by him, with beams delivered by stags; and that a harper with no experience at architecture was the builder of the church. He adds that a smith and his son, named respectively "Terna" and "Wyn", witnessed a miracle by Ninian and that the saint was granted lands to be called "Wytterna". In addition, Skene attributes the "traditional" date of Ninian's death (16 September 432) ultimately to Ussher's Life of Ninian, noting that the date is "without authority." Ussher's contribution is often disparaged, as he both invented fictitious histories and misquoted legitimate manuscripts to suit his own purposes. Still, he had access to legitimate manuscripts, and he has contributed to some versions of the traditional stories.Other sources
Others who wrote of Saint Ninian used the accounts of Bede, Aelred, or Ussher, or used derivatives of them in combination with information from various manuscripts. This includes John Capgrave (1393–1464), John of Tinmouth (fl. c. 1366), John Colgan (d. c. 1657), and many others, up to the present day. The anonymously written 8th century hagiographic Miracula Nynie Episcopi (Miracles of Bishop Ninian) is discounted as a non-historical account, and copies are not widely extant. Dedications to St Ninian

Dedications to Saint Ninian are expressions of respect for the good works that are attributed to him, and the authenticity of the stories about him are not relevant to that point. Almost all of the dedications have their origins in the medieval era, after Aelred wrote his account. The dedications are found throughout the lands of the ancient Picts of Scotland, throughout Scotland south of the Firths of Clyde and Forth, in Orkney and Shetland, and in parts of northern England.Ss Ninian and Triduana's


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 Church, Edinburgh is a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Ninian. Dedications on the Isle of Man date from the time of medieval Scottish dominance, and are not natively inspired. There are dedications to St. Ninian in East Donegal and Belfast; and a spot formerly on the shore of Belfast Lough was traditionally known as St. Ninian's point, where the missionary reputedly landed after a voyage from Scotland. These connections reflect a strong Ulster-Scots heritage in both areas of Ulster. There are also dedications elsewhere in the world where there is a Scottish heritage, such as Nova Scotia. St. Ninian's Cathedral is located in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. There is a noticeable lack of dedications in the Scottish Highlands and Isles, save for Kilninian and the Holy Spring of St Ninian of the Orthodox Mull Monastery on the Isle of Mull.In Scotland the date 16 September is celebrated as St. Ninian's Feast Day. In the modern era, Ss Ninian and Triduana's Church, Edinburgh is a Roman Catholic church constructed in 1932 that is dedicated to St. Ninian. St Martin and St Ninian is a Catholic church in Whithorn, Wigtownshire constructed in 1959–60 in the Diocese of Galloway. The architect was Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel, (1887–1959). Ninian is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 16 September. Gallery

See also

 Isle of Whithorn
 St Ninian's Isle
 St Ninian's Well
 Vita Sancti Niniani ("Life of Saint Ninian")

References

Bibliography

 — many references to, and comments upon, sources of information

Further reading

External links

360 births
432 deaths
Bishops of Galloway (Pre-Reformation)
People from Cumberland
Northern Brythonic saints
Pictish people
Romano-British saints
5th-century Christian saints
5th-century Scottish bishops
Christian missionaries in


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<mask>  (17 August 1911 – 30 March 2010) was a German SS functionary during the Nazi era and a convicted Holocaust perpetrator. He commanded Sonderkommando 1a of  Einsatzgruppe A, as well as the Sicherheitspolizei and SD in Estonia. <mask> perpetrated mass murder of the Jews in the Baltic states. He was also responsible for the arrest of Jews in Italy, and their deportation to Auschwitz concentration camp. <mask> was the second-highest official of the Einsatzgruppe A to be tried and convicted. Background and early career
<mask> was born in Charlottenburg, Berlin as a son of a director of IG Farben. <mask> studied law at the Universities of München, Köln, Freiburg and Tübingen.At the age of 20 he joined the Nazi Party and the SA. From 1932 - 1933 <mask> was a Nazi student activist and student leader in Tübingen. On 8 March 1933 <mask> and fellow student Erich Ehrlinger raised the Nazi flag in front of the main building at the University of Tübingen. (Like <mask>, Ehrlinger would take charge of an Einsatzkommando in 1941, and  in so doing, commit thousands of murders.) By 1935 he had obtained his doctorate degree. As a functionary of the Nazi student League he eventually became a university inspector. In 1936 he became an enlisted member of the SS and under the command of Gustav Adolf Scheel for the SD in Württemberg.He began a career with the SD and by 1938 he had risen to the rank of SS Sturmbannführer (major). <mask> worked as an assistant judge in the Interior Administration of Württemberg and became a government councillor in 1937. Activities during the Second World War

Following the German invasion and occupation of Poland in September 1939, Heinrich Himmler embarked on a program, known as Heim ins Reich (approximate translation: Return to the Nation) which involved driving out the native population in areas of Poland and replacing them with ethnic Germans

masks:
Martin Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Martin Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger


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 (Volksdeutsche) from various countries, such as the Baltic states and Soviet-occupied eastern Poland. On 13 October 1939 Heinrich Himmler appointed <mask> the boss of the Northeast Central Immigration Office (Einwandererzentralstelle Nord-Ost) and tasked with the  "racial valuation" (rassische Bewertung) of the various Volksdeutsche immigrants. In June 1941 <mask> was appointed chief of Sonderkommando 1a of Einsatzgruppe A. During the first two weeks of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, which began on June 22, 1941, <mask> traveled with Franz Walter Stahlecker, the commander of Einsatzgruppe A. <mask> was involved since March 1941 in the distribution of a business plan for the RSHA and a director of the curriculum organization of the schools (Lehrplangestaltung der Schulen). Knowledge of the Führer Order
The Nazi organization most responsible for carrying out The Holocaust in the Baltic states was the Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst), generally referred to by its initials SD.The SD, which organized the Einsatzgruppen, conducted itself in accordance with the understanding that a fundamental order, sometimes called a Führer Order (Führerbefehl) existed to kill the Jews. <mask> received his knowledge of the Führer order from Bruno Streckenbach, an official with Department IV of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA). According to <mask>'s testimony as an accused in the Einsatzgruppen trial after the war, Streckenbach gave a speech (at the Gestapo headquarters in Berlin on Prince Albertstrasse) about the Führer order, which <mask> attended. Streckenbach also gave <mask> explicit instructions in a personal conversation:

Transfer to Estonia

<mask> entered Riga with Einsatzkommando 1a and 2. These organizations then engaged in
destruction of synagogues, the liquidation of 400 Jews, and the setting up of groups for the purpose of fomenting pogroms. After the war,

masks: Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger


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 when on trial for war crimes, <mask>'s effort to evade  responsibility was rejected by the tribunal:  "Although it has been demonstrated that not only he was in Riga at the time they occurred, but he actually had a conversation about them with the Einsatzgruppe Chief Stahlecker before he left Riga." In early July 1941, <mask> was sent to Estonia on the orders of Stahlecker.According to <mask>'s later testimony, Stahlecker made it clear that <mask> was being sent to Estonia to carry out the Führer order in that country. A variety of shooting actions of Jews, Gypsies, Communists and the mentally-ill began once <mask> and his kommando entered Estonia. A report dated 15 October 1941 on executions in Ostland during <mask>'s tenure included one item under Estonia of 474 Jews and 684 Communists. Others were arrested and sent to concentration camps. Report No. 17, dated 9 July 1941 carried the item —

On 10 September 1941, <mask> promulgated a general order for the internment of Jews which resulted in the internment of 450 Jews in a concentration camp at Pskov, Russia. The Jews were later executed.Sandburger was highly recommended for promotion in the SS:

On 3 December 1941 he became commander of the Security Police and SD for Estonia. Actions in Italy
<mask> returned to Germany in September 1943. In the fall of 1943, <mask> was appointed the Gestapo chief for the Italian city of Verona. In this capacity he was involved in arresting the Jews of Northern Italy and organizing their transportation to Auschwitz concentration camp. Espionage activity
In January 1944 <mask> became head of the Department A in the Reich Security Main Office Amt. VI (Ausland-SD, the foreign intelligence service); in this position he reported directly to Walter Schellenberg. He kept the domestic and foreign accounts and financial records of the organization.As the first assistant to Schellenberg, <mask>

masks: Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger Sandberger


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 acted as his liaison man with Heinrich Himmler. With all the access he had had to highly secret information, after the war, under British interrogation, <mask> tried to delay or avoid prosecution by disclosing what he knew. Until internal reports of the Einsatzgruppen were discovered, <mask> was able to convince the British interpreters that his account of his activities in Tallinn as the Kommandeur der Sicherheitspolizei (or KdS) had involved "'no evidence of any particular criminal actions on his part.'" Trial
In the Einsatzgruppen trial, <mask> was charged with crimes against humanity, war crimes, and membership in a criminal organization, that is, the SS. At his trial, <mask> denied responsibility for the killings described in the 15 October report and sought to blame the German field police and Estonian home guard. This was rejected by the tribunal, which found that the Estonian home guard was under <mask>'s jurisdiction and control for specific operations, as shown by the same report. Similarly, <mask> claimed he had arrested the Jews sent to Pskov to protect them, hoping that during the internment the Führer order might be revoked or meliorated and he was not in general responsible for their execution at the Pskov detention camp.<mask> said he was responsible for "only a fraction" of the killings. <mask> estimated this "fraction" at 300 to 350 persons. <mask> claimed the execution of the Jews at Pskov happened in his absence and without his knowledge. The tribunal found that <mask>'s own testimony convicted him:

<mask> testified that he had protested against the inhumanity of the Führer order, but his account was not accepted by the Nuremberg Military Tribunal which was conducting the trial: "Despite the defendant's protestations from the witness stand, it is evident from the documentary evidence and his own testimony, that he went along willingly with the


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 execution of the Fuehrer Order." Death sentence and reprieve
<mask> was found guilty on all counts. In September 1947,
Judge Michael Musmanno pronounced the tribunal's sentence:

Despite political pressures, General Lucius D. Clay confirmed <mask>'s death sentence in 1949. In 1951, <mask>'s sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by the "Peck Panel" clemency board acting under the authority of John J. McCloy, the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany.McCloy had received political pressure to grant the reprieve from William Langer, U.S. Senator from North Dakota. Many of Langer's constituents were of German descent, and Langer felt that trial of anyone other than the highest Nazis was contrary to American legal tradition and helped Communism. <mask>'s father, a retired production director of IG Farben, used his connections with West German president Theodor Heuss. Heuss in turn contacted the US Ambassador at that time James B. Conant with the request for pardon. Numerous pleas for leniency from influential individuals including Minister of Justice Wolfgang Haußmann and Landesbischof (bishop) <mask> were made. The renowned lawyer and vice-president of the West German parliament Carlo Schmid worried about <mask>'s conditions in Landsberg prison and spoke out in favor of a commutation.Over time these and other well-connected people lobbied for <mask>'s early release. By late 1957, there were only four war criminals held in prison in West Germany. One of them was <mask>, who, on January 9, 1958, was himself released from Landsberg prison. Subsequently, through the mediation of Bernhard Müller, he received a position as legal counsel in the Lechler Group. Until 1972, <mask> was repeatedly called as a witness in Nazi war crimes trials, such as in 1958 in the trial against the "Einsatzkommando Tilsit", the so-called Einsatzgruppen trial, in Ulm. A prosecution by the public

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Sandberger
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Martin Haug
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 prosecutor's offices in Munich (1962) and Stuttgart (1971/72) for his responsibility for the "shooting of numerous persons, including communists, Jews and parachutists in the years 1941 – 1943" (investigation of the public prosecutor's office at the Regional Court of Stuttgart in June 1971, p. 1 – the group of gypsies is not mentioned here) was discontinued. The reason was that <mask> had already been convicted in 1948 in the trial before the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg.This excludes prosecution by German judicial authorities in accordance with the 1955 Treaty on the Regulation of Questions of War and Occupation, the so-called Transition Treaty(see Bundesarchiv B 162/5199 p. 26). <mask> died on 30 March 2010, at the age of 98. Notes

References

Historiographical
  Birn, Ruth Bettina: Die Sicherheitspolizei in Estland 1941-1944. Eine Studie zur Kollaboration im Osten. Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2006, . Breitman, Richard, and Goda, Norman, U.S. intelligence and the Nazis, Cambridge University Press 2005
 Conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity
 Ezergailis, Andrew, The Holocaust in Latvia 1941-1944—The Missing Center, Historical Institute of Latvia (in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) Riga 1996
  Frei, Norbert: "Vergangenheitspolitik. Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und die NS-Vergangenheit", München 1996,
 Kahn, David, Hitler's spies
  Klee, Ernst: „<mask>berger" Eintrag in ders.: Das Personenlexikon zum Dritten Reich. Wer war was vor und nach 1945. Aktualisierte Ausgabe. Fischer-Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main 2005, , S. 43
  Ruck, Michael: Korpsgeist und Staatsbewußtsein. Beamte im deutschen Südwesten 1928 bis 1972. Oldenbourg, München 1996,
 Smelser, Ronald M., and Davies, Edward J., The Myth of the Eastern Front, Cambridge University Press 2007

masks:
Sandberger
Sandberger
Martin Sand


texts:
  Wildt, Michael Wildt: Generation der Unbedingten – Das Führungskorps des Reichssicherheitshauptamtes. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2003, .War crimes trials and evidence
 Stahlecker, Franz W., "Comprehensive Report of Einsatzgruppe A Operations up to 15 October 1941", Exhibit L-180, translated in part and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality, Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Volume VII, pages 978–995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")
 Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Nuernberg, October 1946 - April 1949, Volume IV, ("Green Series) (the "Einsatzgruppen case") also available at Mazel library (well indexed HTML version)

External links

 "The Quiet Death of a Nazi." ABC News. 4-15-2010. Biography and image of Sandberger
  Jost Nolte von, "Das Lächeln der SS: Der Fall des Lektors Hans Rößner und andere Fälle: Wie Täter mit gutem Benehmen nach 1945 durchs Netz schlüpften", June 2002 (English:  "The Smiling SS: The cases of lecturer Hans Rossner and others: How Perpetrators Slipped through the Net on good behavior")
  Vorlesung von Prof. Michael Wildt über die Tübinger Exekutoren der Endlösung (Sandberger u.a.) Videoaufzeichnung

1911 births
2010 deaths
Einsatzgruppen personnel
German prisoners sentenced to death
Holocaust perpetrators in Italy
Holocaust perpetrators in Lithuania
Nazi Party officials
Nazis convicted of war crimes
People convicted by the United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals
Prisoners sentenced to death by the United States military
SS-Standartenführer
Holocaust perpetrators in Estonia
Holocaust perpetrators in Latvia
Holocaust perpetrators in Russia
People from Charlottenburg
German people convicted of crimes against humanity
Reich Security Main Office personnel
Lawyers in the Nazi Party
Jurists from Berlin
German people


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<mask> (also Jacob Amman, Amann; 12 February 1644 – between 1712 and 1730) was an Anabaptist leader and namesake of the Amish religious movement. Personal life
<mask> was born on 12 February 1644 in Erlenbach im Simmental, Canton of Bern, Switzerland, to Michael and Anna (née Rupp) <mask>. Erlenbach church records note the baptism of a <mask> on 12 February 1644, who was probably the <mask> from whom the Amish received their name. His grandfather has been identified as <mask>. All three Ammanns were tailors. <mask> was third in a family of six children. He probably received limited formal education.On 37 official documents signed by <mask>, only his initials appear, with most of them having a nearby note that <mask> was not able to write, so he only "made his mark". However, on three documents, his signed name does appear, although twice it was probably written for him by someone else; once, with the same style of writing as his initials, appear the poorly formed letters "J. AMME", which is assumed to be his own writing. Because he asked for letters to be read in one meeting, it is assumed he was not able to read, or possibly only poorly. He did better financially than the average person of his time. <mask> was married to Verena Stüdler, but very little is known of her beyond her name. They had at least one daughter and one son, Baltz. <mask>’s father and one of his sisters also joined the Anabaptist movement.His brother Ulli, 18 years his junior, was also an Anabaptist and is known for his moderating tone in the attempts at reconciliation between the Amish and Reist sides. Conversion to Anabaptism
On 12 March 1671 he is noted as the sponsor for a baptism in the state church. In June 1680, government correspondence from Oberhofen asked counsel from authorities in Bern on how to deal with a <mask> who had "become infected with the Anabaptist sect". This is the first known reference to Ammann as an Anabaptist. This indicates a conversion to Anabaptism sometime between

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Jakob Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Ammann
Jacob Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Ulrich Ammann
Jakob
Jakob
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Jakob
Jakob Ammann