texts:
 Ismail-directed horror film Araamagu Dhonkamana (2003) which narrates the story of a woman spirit who rises from the sea and marries a toddy extractor, disguised as a human being. He also collaborated with Abdul Faththaah for his romantic disaster film, Hureemey Inthizaarugaa (2005) cast along with Ravee Farooq, Mariyam Zuhura, Waleedha Waleed, Ibrahim Jihad and Neena Saleem. The film, heavily relied on the effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on the Maldives, received favorable reviews from critics though it failed to perform financially. <mask> played the father of Reena, who has been traumatized by the events that lead to a big loss in her family. Apart from playing the calm and genuine father in Abdul Faththaah-directed critically acclaimed television series, Thiyey Mihithuge Vindhakee (2003), <mask> appeared in Fathimath Nahula's critically and commercially successful romantic drama television series, Kalaage Haqqugaa. <mask> next appeared as a sorcerer in Hukuru Vileyrey (2006), co-directed by Aishath Rishmy and Aminath Rasheedha which was based on a novel published by Ibrahim Waheed on Haveeru Daily in 2003. The film was a critical and commercial success while being considered as "one of the few acceptable horror film the Maldivian Film Industry has ever produced".It was later released as 15 episodes television series with inclusion of several clips that were edited off while released in theatre. In 2008, <mask> appeared in a small role in Fathimath Nahula's romantic drama film, Yoosuf which depicts the story of a deaf and mute man (played by Yoosuf Shafeeu) who has been mistreated by a wealthy family, mocking his disability. Featuring an ensemble cast including Yoosuf Shafeeu, Niuma Mohamed, Sheela Najeeb, Ahmed Nimal, Fauziyya Hassan, Ravee Farooq, Zeenath Abbas and Ahmed Lais Asim, the film received widespread critical acclaim and attained blockbuster status at box office. Filmography

Feature film

Television

Short film

Accolades

References

1940 births
People from Malé
21st-century Maldivian male

masks: Manik Manik Manik Manik


type: original

texts:
<mask> (born 11 May 1926 as Antoon Maria Albert van den Eynde – 15 March 2019) was a Belgian playwright and stage director; drama teacher from Belgium. Career
Brulin studied scenography at La Cambre (1943–1946) in Brussels. Its director, Herman Teirlinck, successor of architect Henry Van de Velde, became Brulin's mentor. From 1946 until 1948 Brulin studied theatre at the Studio of the National Theatre in Antwerp. He also attended a BBC training course and became the first TV director for Drama at the  Belgian Radio and Television Flemish Service in Brussels. <mask> was co-founder of the avant-garde literary magazines Tijd en Mens (Time and Men) (1948), with Hugo Claus and Louis-Paul Boon and Gard Sivik (1952), with the poets Hugues Pernath and Paul Snoek. He published three volumes of short stories De Neger op de Sofa, Gevecht tussen twee Mannen van Rubber and Popsinger (Nijgh & van Ditmar) He acted in the first Flemish long feature film after the war, Meeuwen sterven in de Haven with his then wife Dora van der Groen and Julien Schoenarts.In 1953 he founded in Antwerp the "Nederlands Kamertoneel" a professional Chamber Theatre and staged his first experimental plays. Brulin got attention as a playwright after he had won a Prize of the "Boekenweek" in Amsterdam when his play "Twee is te weinig, drie is te veel" was performed in the Stadschouwburg with Queen Juliana of the Netherlands in the audience. He received the Cultural Youth Passport Prize, the Hegenscheidt Prize of Sabam, the Belgian Copyright Association, the Hustinckx Prize, the Arkprijs van het Vrije Woord, the Belgian National Prize

masks:
Tone Brulin
Tone Brulin


texts: for Playwrights; the Medal of Honour of the City of Brussels and a Prize of the African Press in Belgium. An opera scenario based upon  was rewarded with the Italia Prize and staged at the "Rai", the Italian TV and Teatro Massimo in Sicily. During his studies in La Cambre he played the Prince of Aragan in The Merchant of Venice, a production of the "Royal Flemish Theatre". At the end of his acting career he was seen as "Captain Cat" in "Under Milk Wood". In a continuous search for self-development and training, Brulin traveled around the world.In New York as a Fulbright student first he followed lessons at Lee Strasberg's Actor's Studio. Ten years later he returned as an invited professor at the University of Ohio, Antioch College, Bennington College, The Institute of American Indian Arts, the Virginia Commonwealth University. In Europe he was a guest teacher at the University of Utrecht, the Theatre Academy in Arnhem, the Theatre School in Amsterdam, the Ritcs in Brussels, the Theatre Academy in Maastricht. He wrote and directed three plays for the Otrabanda Company in New York. The Kaakama Kaakoo in La Mama Experimental Theatre; Stump Removal and Barong Display. Eyes of Chalk (with Kevin Connor who worked with De Niro) and The Fire Eaters Enemy were shown in an off-Broadway theatre by the "Hamm and Clov Theatre Company". He was appointed as a theatre adviser by the Government of the Netherlands at the Cultural Centre Curaçao and directed also in Aruba, Bonaire, Saba, St. Martin and St. Eustatius Les Negres by Jean Genet and Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf and travelled widely in Venezuela,


texts: Colombia, Ecuador, Costa Rica and Nicaragua where he held theatre workshops.In Belgium, he returned to the KVS to stage several of his own plays. A tour with that company in Congo which included his play Nu het Dorp niet meer bestaat was the beginning of a contract in Africa. He staged several plays for the South African National Theatre Organisation in Pretoria and founded the "Chamber Theatre", following the Antwerp model. He directed Waiting for Godot in which he played the role of Vladimir. He acted The Dauphin in St. Joan of G.B. Shaw. For the opening of the new aula at the University of Pretoria, a young François Swart, acted the title role of "Germanicus", a cry for freedom.From the apartheid regime in South Africa <mask> travelled directly to the first independent African State under Kwame Nkrumah; Ghana; married there with the daughter of a local chief, talked and corresponded with the wife of WEB Dubois, Shirley Graham-Dubois; a woman with exceptional political influence. He returned to Europe with 'Les Chiens', an anti-apartheid play that appeared at the repertoire of the  National Theatre of Algeria, Théâtre de la Commune d'Aubervilliers in Paris, Théâtre du Parc in Brussels (directed by Ton Lutz), the Berlin and Ljubeljana television. At the opening night in Paris, among the many spectators were Jean Villar and Aime Cesaire. He wrote a play about Paul Splingaert, a Flemish boy who became a famous Chinese Mandarin. He directed Kapai-kapai by Arifin C. Noor in Sweden where it was seen in Dramaten, Stockholm's most distinguished theatre. His own plays Turandot and Det er inte Eugene


texts:
 were staged in South Africa, Belgium and Norway, Ochos de Giz in Portugal. With South African author Athol Fugard he founded the "New Africa Group" which performed in Brussels Palais des Beaux Arts at the International Avant-Garde Theatre Festivalwith A Kakamas Greek by David Herbert.In the 60s he was a director of television plays at the Flemish Television Service for more than 5O productions, including O'Neill, Oscar Wilde, Synge, Mrozek, Adamov. His play Naga Naga by the Sasaran Theatre of Penang was invited to the Cultural Centre of Jakarta (Indonesia) and as he wrote and directed Roch Anai Anai, a play conceived from "The Soul of the White Ant" by Eugene Marais at the Universiti Technologi Mara at Shah Alam in Malaysia. He directed plays by Michel de Ghelderode in American Universities and Look back in Anger for the Kansas Missouri Theatre. In 1967 he was a member of the Belgian delegation of the International Theater Institute of Unesco in Warsaw and instrumental in the "discovery" of Jerzy Grotowsky, later universally recognized as a renewer of the art of the theatre. In 1970 Brulin directed Saboo, the first production of Théâtre Laboratoire Vicinal with Frédéruc Flamand (Plan K, Charleroi Danse now in Marseille) which caught the attention of Maurice Béjart

In 1975 he founded The Theatre of the Third World, Tiedrie. Between 1975 and 1985 this company developed a multicultural repertory of African and Asian plays such as Kapai-kapai (12O performances), Ba Anansi, Charkawa Gilgamesh, The Prostitutes of Jakarta of Rendra and the Jero plays of Wole Soyenka. He worked intensively as a


texts:
 pioneer with African and Asian actors since Potopot was published in Théâtre de Belgique and in the early 1950s was staged with an actor of Sierra Leone.He published A Coons Carnival and Our Lady of the Crabs (about hunger in South America). He wrote and directed for DNA, the New Amsterdam under the leadership of Rufus Collins, once a member of the American Living Theatre (A Coon's Carnival, The Night of The Burning Apes, Mudhead). Some of his works have been translated and published in English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, Malay, Norwegian, Russian, Hungarian, Romanian, Serbo-Croat and seen at world festivals like the Festival of Caracas, the Festival of Lisbon, the Holland Festival, the Edingburough Fringe, the Nancy Festival, St. Andrews, Bochum, Hong Kong, Grahamstown and Erlangen Festivals. In 1992, Brulin decorated the "Metro Station Bizet" in Anderlecht, Brussels. He worked as an actor in the dance group of Wim Vandekeybus "Ultima Vez" touring in Europe and the East and in the Opera House, La Monnaie in Brussels in the production Aus einem Totenhaus (Dostoyevsky-Janáček). He translates poems of the Malaysian A. Samad Said. He is a Knight in the Order of Leopold II.External links

 deSingel profile
  Chapter: "Crosscultural time in <mask> <mask>'s People of the Void, an operatic adaptation of Wilson Harris' Jonestown"

1926 births
2019 deaths
Dutch male dramatists and playwrights
Ark Prize of the Free Word winners
Entertainers from Antwerp
20th-century Belgian dramatists and playwrights
Belgian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Dutch dramatists and

masks: Tone Brulin


texts:
<mask> (27 November 1833 in Nantes - 27 February 1924 in Montpellier) was a French military physician, considered to be a precursor of public health in France a convinced Pasteurian. Biography
Son of François-<mask>, a doctor in Nantes and Fanny Robertson-Martel, he married Berthe Marie Vidal on 15 September 1866, whom he divorced to marry Louise Marie Bidermann on 2 April 1882. After secondary school, he was a prize-winning intern at the Nantes hospitals in the 1853 competition, then a prosector at the Nantes Secondary School of Medicine in 1855. On 8 February 1858, he passed his medical thesis at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris and in December of the same year, he was appointed trainee doctor at the Imperial School of Military Medicine and Pharmacy. From 5 August 1860 to 16 June 1861, he took part in the Syrian Expeditionary Force. On his return, he was appointed to the Military Hospital in Strasbourg. In 1865, he passed the agrégation examination, which led him to the post of professor of epidemiology at the Val-de-Grâce Army Training Hospital.On 27 December 1866, he was appointed doctor major 2nd class and officiated at the hospitals of the Algiers division (19 February 1870), at the Médéa military hospital (5 March 1870). He took part in the Franco-Prussian War in the ambulance of the 17th corps headquarters as chief doctor on 2 November 1870. Promoted to the rank of Major 1st class doctor on 8 February 1871, he was transferred to the army of Versailles, to the 46th line regiment in April, to the hospital of Saint-Omer in July, to that of Valenciennes in October, before being sent to the divisional hospitals of Constantine in February 1872. He was

masks:
Émile Arthur Vallin
Auguste Vallin


texts:
 sent to the Bône hospital as acting chief doctor (August 1873), and again to Constantine (October 1873). In 1874, as full professor of military hygiene and forensic medicine at the École du Val-de-Grâce, he travelled to the major cities of Europe to study their health organisations and institutions, and everywhere he noted the inferiority in France in this field. He became a senior doctor of 1st class in the Val-de-Grâce on 12 December 1881, and then at the Gros-Caillou hospital from 1 December 1884. Director of the 3rd corps health service in Rouen in December 1885, he was appointed Medical Inspector at the health service of the military government in Lyon and at the 14th corps (16 June 1888).From 1888 to 1893, he was director of the new Lyon Military Medical School (28 December 1888). On 22 April 1893, he was appointed Director of the Paris military government's health service and he ended his career. Professional life
Public health medicine in France came up against local politics and the incomprehension of a rural population. Entrusted to military doctors (<mask>, Lacassagne, Laveran), it had solid frameworks but poor execution in the field, despite Pasteur's discoveries. In 1869, <mask> <mask> took part in the 5th edition of Michel Lévy's Traité d'Hygiène publique et privée (Treatise on Public and Private Hygiene) with a work on the Hygiene of the Military Profession (Hygiène de la profession militaire). He revised the translation of Griesinger's Infectionskrankheiten ("Infectious diseases") (1877). In 1879, he founded the Revue d'hygiène et de police sanitaire ("Hygiene and sanitary police review") and he then wrote numerous articles in this

masks: Vallin Émile Vallin


texts:
 journal, all devoted to the most important questions of public, professional or private hygiene, military hygiene, the etiology and prophylaxis of preventable diseases, the sanitation of urban environments, collective and private homes, food hygiene, etc.He also wrote the Traité des désinfectants et de la désinfection (Treatise on Disinfectants and Disinfection) published in 1882. At the Academy of Medicine, he was interested in alcoholisation, the dangers of mobile stoves, the pathogenesis of heat stroke, disinfection in contagious diseases, alcoholism through breast-feeding, typhoid fever in Paris, stinging caterpillars and the sickness in the basins of silkworm farms and the prophylaxis of tuberculosis. He is also the author of reports on the use of salicylic acid and its derivatives in foodstuffs (1886), on epidemic diseases requiring compulsory declaration (1893), on the sanitary services and the Lazaret of Frioul (1902), on the supply of drinking water to the garrisons (1903). He was elected member of the Hygiene Section of the Académie Nationale de Médecine on July 7, 1885, and was its annual Secretary from 1898 to 1902. In 1877, with Alexandre Lacassagne and Apollinaire Bouchardat, he was a founding member of the Société de Médecine publique et d'Hygiène professionnelle (Society of Public Medicine and Professional Hygiene). He was also a member of the Medical Society of Hospitals. As early as 1884, he recommended that:

He became Paul Brouardel's right-hand man on the Advisory Committee on Public Hygiene which depended on the authority of the Minister of the Interior and in 1889, Pasteur, Brouardel and Vallin, during the Exposition


texts:
 Universelle, invited the members of the departmental hygiene councils to take part in a congress devoted to prophylaxis.Publications
 De l'inflammation périombilicale dans la tuberculisation du péritoine, A. Parent imprimeur, 1869
 De la salubrité de la profession militaire, Baillière, Paris, 1869
 Recherches expérimentales sur l'insolation et les accidents produits par la chaleur, P. Asselin, 1870
 De la forme ambulatoire ou apyrétique grave de la fièvre typhoïde, P. Asselin, Paris, 1873
 De l'emploi du bromure de potassium comme adjuvant dans le traitement des fièvres intermittentes, A. Hennuyer, Paris, 1873
 Du mouvement de la population Européenne en Algérie, impr. de E. Martinet, 1876
 Traité des maladies infectieuses (Griesinger Wilhelm), J.-B. Baillière et fils, 1877
 Traité des désinfectants et de la désinfection, G. Masson, 1882
 Rapport sur l'enquête concernant la contagion de la phtisie, 1886
 L'emploi de l'acide salicylique et de ses dérivés dans les substances alimentaires, Masson, Paris, 1887

 Sur la prophylaxie du paludisme en Corse, avec Laveran Alphonse, 1901
 Conférences sur l'alcoolisme avec Petit Arthur-Léon, Société d'éditions scientifiques, 1901

Distinctions
  Commander of the Legion of Honour (26 December 1894). Officer of the Ordre des Palmes académiques (7 June 1876). Officer of the Order of the Medjidie (9 October 1886). Montyon Prize (1854)

Legacy
A street is named after him in Nantes facing the street Capitaine Yves Hervouët.References

1833 births
People from Nantes
French military doctors
Public health
1924 deaths
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Officiers of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques
Recipients of the Order


texts:
<mask> (born December 29, 1965) is an American actor and Broadway regular. <mask> is best known for originating the role of "The Old Man" (Mr. Parker) in the Broadway show A Christmas Story: The Musical. He portrayed Vlad Popov in the 2017 Broadway production of Anastasia. Career
<mask> originated the role of "The Old Man" (Mr. Parker) in A Christmas Story: The Musical on Broadway, running from November 19, 2012, to December 30, 2012, and repeated this starring role in Boston, Hartford and in December 2013 at Madison Square Garden. He appeared in the Broadway revival of Dames at Sea, starring as The Captain/Hennesey. The musical ran from October 22, 2015, to January 3, 2016. His other theatre credits include many Broadway musicals that have won the Tony Award including original productions of Curtains with David Hyde Pierce; Spamalot with Tim Curry, David Hyde Pierce, and Sara Ramirez, directed by Mike Nichols; Contact directed by Susan Stroman; and Titanic; and revivals of Damn Yankees and How to Succeed in Business with Matthew Broderick, with <mask> eventually playing the role of Finch opposite Sarah Jessica Parker.A sought-after cabaret performer, <mask> has also appeared in many concert performances including Downton Abbey at 54 Below (2013), Titanic reunion at Lincoln Center Avery Fisher Hall (2014), and Guys and Dolls (2011) and the Family Holiday Concert with the New York Pops at Carnegie Hall. The New York Times called his performance in Guys and Dolls a "stand-out." <mask> is a regular soloist with the New York Pops, and he has headlined three sold-out concerts at Carnegie Hall. He performed in the concert series "Broadway in the Boros" at the Queens' Socrates Sculpture Park on July 21, 2017. He has performed in television shows and many TV commercials. Most recently he was seen on Elementary, Madame Secretary and Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt. He played the recurring character D.A.<mask> on the

masks:
John Bolton
Bolton
Bolton
Bolton
Bolton
Bolton
John Summerhill


texts:
 soap opera All My Children in 2006. He also appeared in "Loose Lips", a 2014 episode of Blue Bloods, and "Vacancy", a 2006 episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent; and he played Bruce Caplan on the television series Gossip Girl. <mask> has also made guest star appearances as Carl Switzer on the HBO television series Boardwalk Empire, and as Jason Doyle on the television series The Good Wife. He also appeared in the third season of Submissions Only and the short Russian Broadway Shut Down. He is an adjunct professor at Pace University, teaching acting. Personal life
He was born in Rochester, New York and grew up in LeRoy, New York. <mask>
 As the World Turns (1996) (TV series): Malcolm Twist

Awards
 2017 Outer Critics Circle Award Best Featured Actor in a Musical (Anastasia) (nominee)
 2017 Rivera Award (formerly Astaire Award) Outstanding Male Dancer in a Broadway Show (Anastasia) (nominee)
 2016 Astaire Award nomination, Outstanding Ensemble In A Broadway Show Dames at Sea
 2016 Connecticut Critics Circle nomination - Best Featured Actor in a Musical Anastasia
 2014 IRNE Award (Independent Reviewers of New England) nomination for Best Visiting Performer in A Christmas Story: The Musical
 Named one of The Boston Globe Top Ten Performance of the year for A Christmas Story: The Musical
 58th Annual Drama Desk (2013) Nomination for Best Featured Actor in A Christmas Story: The Musical
 2012 Footlight Award for Best Actor from the Seattle Times for A Christmas Story: The Musical
 2008 City Spirit Award in Rochester, New York
 2004 BAT (Bay Area Theatre) nomination for The Opposite of Sex

References

External links

Photos of <mask> at Broadway World
Video interview about Curtains at theatre.com
Interview in Theater Mania
Article by Bolton on theater previews

1965 births
Living people
Male actors from Rochester, New York
American male stage actors
American male soap opera actors
American male television

masks:
Bolton
John Summerhill
John Bolton


texts:
<mask> (baptized June 6, 1599August 6, 1660) was a Spanish painter, the leading artist in the court of King Philip IV of Spain and Portugal, and of the Spanish Golden Age. He was an individualistic artist of the contemporary Baroque period (c.1600-1750). He began to paint in a precise tenebrist style, later developing a freer manner characterized by bold brushwork. In addition to numerous renditions of scenes of historical and cultural significance, he painted scores of portraits of the Spanish royal family and commoners, culminating in his masterpiece Las Meninas (1656). <mask>'s artwork became a model for 19th-century realist and impressionist painters. In the 20th century, artists such as Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, and Francis Bacon paid tribute to <mask> by re-interpreting some of his most iconic images. Early life

<mask> was born in Seville, Spain, the first child of Juan Rodriguez de Silva, a notary, and <mask>.He was baptized at the church of St. Peter in Seville on Sunday, June 6, 1599. The baptism most likely occurred a few days or weeks after his birth. His paternal grandparents, Diogo da Silva and Maria Rodrigues, were Portuguese and had moved to Seville decades earlier. When <mask> was offered knighthood in 1658, he claimed descent from the lesser nobility in order to qualify; in fact, however, his grandparents were tradespeople, and possibly Jewish conversos. Raised in modest circumstances, he showed an early gift for art, and was apprenticed to Francisco Pacheco, an artist and teacher in Seville. An early-18th-century biographer, Antonio Palomino, said <mask> studied for a short time

masks:
Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez
Velázquez
Velázquez
Velázquez
Jeónima Velázquez
Velázquez
Velázquez


texts: under Francisco de Herrera before beginning his apprenticeship under Pacheco, but this is undocumented. A contract signed on September 17, 1611, formalized a 6-year apprenticeship with Pacheco backdated to December 1610, and it has been suggested that Herrera may have substituted for a traveling Pacheco between December 1610 and September 1611.Though considered a dull and undistinguished painter, Pacheco sometimes expressed a simple, direct realism although his work remained essentially Mannerist. As a teacher, he was highly learned and encouraged his students' intellectual development. In Pacheco's school, <mask> studied the classics, was trained in proportion and perspective, and witnessed the trends in the literary and artistic circles of Seville. On April 23, 1618, <mask> married Juana Pacheco (June 1, 1602August 10, 1660), the daughter of his teacher. They had two daughters. The elder, Francisca de Silva <mask> y Pacheco (1619–1658), married painter Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo at the Church of Santiago in Madrid on August 21, 1633. The younger, Ignacia de Silva <mask> y Pacheco, born in 1621, died in infancy.<mask>'s earliest works are bodegones (kitchen scenes with prominent still-life). He was one of the first Spanish artists to paint such scenes, and his Old Woman Frying Eggs (1618) demonstrates the young artist's unusual skill in realistic depiction. The realism and dramatic lighting of this work may have been influenced by Caravaggio's work—which <mask> could have seen second-hand, in copies—and by the polychrome sculpture in Sevillian churches. Two of his bodegones, Kitchen Scene with

masks: Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez


texts:
 Christ in the House of Martha (1618) and Kitchen Scene with Christ at Emmaus (c. 1618), feature religious scenes in the background, painted in a way that creates ambiguity as to whether the religious scene is a painting on the wall, a representation of the thoughts of the kitchen maid in the foreground, or an actual incident seen through a window. The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception (1618–19) follows a formula used by Pacheco, but replaces the idealized facial type and smoothly finished surfaces of his teacher with the face of a local girl and varied brushwork. His other religious works include The Adoration of the Magi (1619) and Saint John the Evangelist on the Island of Patmos (1618–19), both of which begin to express his more pointed and careful realism. Also from this period are the portrait of Sor Jerónima de la Fuente (1620) – <mask>'s first full-length portrait – and the genre The Water Seller of Seville (1618–1622).The Water Seller of Seville has been termed "the peak of <mask>'s bodegones" and is admired for its virtuoso rendering of volumes and textures as well as for its enigmatic gravitas. To Madrid (early period)

<mask> had established his reputation in Seville by the early 1620s. He traveled to Madrid in April 1622, with letters of introduction to Don Juan de Fonseca, chaplain to the King. <mask> was not allowed to paint the new king, Philip IV, but portrayed the poet Luis de Góngora at the request of Pacheco. The portrait showed Góngora crowned with a laurel wreath, which <mask> later painted over. He returned to Seville in January 1623 and remained there until August. In December

masks: Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez


texts: 1622, Rodrigo de Villandrando, the king's favorite court painter, died.<mask> received a command to come to the court from Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, the powerful minister of Philip IV. He was offered 50 ducats (175 g of gold) to defray his expenses, and he was accompanied by his father-in-law. Fonseca lodged the young painter in his home and sat for a portrait, which, when completed, was conveyed to the royal palace. A portrait of the king was commissioned, and on August 30, 1623, Philip IV sat for <mask>. The portrait pleased the king, and Olivares commanded <mask> to move to Madrid, promising that no other painter would ever paint Philip's portrait and all other portraits of the king would be withdrawn from circulation. In the following year, 1624, he received 300 ducats from the king to pay the cost of moving his family to Madrid, which became his home for the remainder of his life. <mask> secured admission to the royal service with a salary of 20 ducats per month, lodgings and payment for the pictures he might paint.His portrait of Philip was exhibited on the steps of San Felipe and received with enthusiasm. It is now lost (as is the portrait of Fonseca). The Museo del Prado, however, has two of <mask>'s portraits of the king (nos. 1070 and 1071) in which the severity of the Seville period has disappeared and the tones are more delicate. The modeling is firm, recalling that of Antonio Mor, the Dutch portrait painter of Philip II, who exercised a considerable influence on the Spanish school. <mask> depicts Philip wearing the golilla, a stiff linen collar projecting at right angles


texts: from the neck. The golilla replaced the earlier court fashion of elaborate ruffed collars as part of Philip's dress reform laws during a period of economic crisis.The Prince of Wales (afterwards Charles I) arrived at the court of Spain in 1623. Records indicate that he sat for <mask>, but the picture is now lost. In 1627, Philip set a competition for the best painters of Spain with the subject to be the expulsion of the Moors. <mask> won. Recorded descriptions of his painting (destroyed in a fire at the palace in 1734) say it depicted Philip III pointing with his baton to a crowd of men and women being led away by soldiers, while the female personification of Spain sits in calm repose. <mask> was appointed gentleman usher as reward. Later he also received a daily allowance of 12 réis, the same amount allotted to the court barbers, and 90 ducats a year for dress.In September 1628, Peter Paul Rubens was positioned in Madrid as an emissary from the Infanta Isabella, and <mask> accompanied him to view the Titians at the Escorial. Rubens, who demonstrated his brilliance as painter and courtier during the seven months of the diplomatic mission, had a high opinion of <mask> but had no significant influence on his painting. He did, however, galvanize <mask>'s desire to see Italy and the works of the great Italian masters. In 1629, <mask> received 100 ducats for the picture of Bacchus (The Triumph of Bacchus), also called Los Borrachos (The Drunks), a painting of a group of men in contemporary dress paying homage to a half-naked ivy-crowned young man seated on a wine barrel. <mask>'s first mythological

masks: Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez


texts:
 painting, it has been interpreted variously as a depiction of a theatrical performance, as a parody, or as a symbolic representation of peasants asking the god of wine to give them relief from their sorrows. The style shows the naturalism of <mask>'s early works slightly touched by the influence of Titian and Rubens. Italian period
In 1629, <mask> was given permission to spend a year and a half in Italy.Though this first visit is recognized as a crucial chapter in the development of his style—and in the history of Spanish Royal Patronage, since Philip IV sponsored his trip—few details and specifics are known of what the painter saw, whom he met, how he was perceived and what innovations he hoped to introduce into his painting. He traveled to Venice, Ferrara, Cento, Loreto, Bologna, and Rome. In 1630, he visited Naples to paint the portrait of Maria Anna of Spain, and there he probably met Ribera. The major works from his first Italian period are Joseph's Bloody Coat brought to Jacob (1629–30) and Apollo in the Forge of Vulcan (1630), both of which reveal his ambition to rival the Italians as a history painter in the grand manner. The two compositions of several nearly life-sized figures have similar dimensions, and may have been conceived as pendants—the biblical scene depicting a deception, and the mythological scene depicting the revelation of a deception. As he had done in The Triumph of Bacchus, <mask> presented his characters as contemporary people whose gestures and facial expressions were those of everyday life. Following the example of Bolognese painters such as Guido Reni, <mask> painted

masks: Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez Velázquez


texts:
 Apollo in the Forge of Vulcan on canvas prepared with a light gray ground rather than the dark reddish ground of all his earlier works.The change resulted in a greater luminosity than he had previously achieved, and he made the use of light-gray grounds his regular practice. Return to Madrid (middle period)

<mask> returned to Madrid in January 1631. That year he completed the first of his many portraits of the young prince, beginning with Prince Balthasar Charles with a Dwarf (Boston, Museum of Fine Arts). ln portraits such as Equestrian portrait of prince Balthasar Charles (1635), <mask> depicts the prince looking dignified and lordly, or in the dress of a field marshal on his prancing steed. In one version, the scene is in the riding school of the palace, the king and queen looking on from a balcony, while Olivares attends as master of the horse to the prince. To decorate the king's new palace, the Palacio del Buen Retiro, <mask> painted equestrian portraits of the royal family. In Philip IV on Horseback (1634–35), the king is represented in profile in an image of imperturbable majesty, demonstrating expert horsemanship by executing an effortless levade.The large The Surrender of Breda (1634–35), also painted for the Palacio, is <mask>'s only extant painting depicting contemporary history. Its symbolic treatment of a Spanish military victory over the Dutch eschews the rhetoric of conquest and superiority that is typical in such scenes, in which a general on horseback looks down on his vanquished, kneeling opponent. Instead, <mask> shows the Spanish general standing before his Dutch counterpart as an


texts: equal, and extending to him a hand of consolation. The impassive, saturnine face of the influential minister Olivares is familiar to us from the many portraits painted by <mask>. Two are notable: one is full-length, stately and dignified, in which he wears the green cross of the order of Alcantara and holds a wand, the badge of his office as master of the horse; in the other, The Count-Duke of Olivares on Horseback (c. 1635), he is flatteringly represented as a field marshal during action. In these portraits, <mask> well repaid the debt of gratitude that he owed to the patron who had first brought him to the king's attention. The sculptor Juan Martínez Montañés modeled a statue on one of <mask>'s equestrian portraits of the king (painted in 1636; now lost) which was cast in bronze by the Florentine sculptor Pietro Tacca and now stands in the Plaza de Oriente in Madrid.<mask> was in close attendance to Philip, and accompanied him to Aragon in 1644, where the artist painted a portrait of the monarch in the costume as he reviewed his troops in Fraga. <mask>'s paintings of Aesop and Menippus (both c. 1636–1638) portray ancient writers in the guise of portraits of beggars. Mars Resting (c. 1638) is both a depiction of a mythological figure and a portrait of a weary-looking, middle-aged man posing as Mars. The model is painted with attention to his individuality, while his unkempt, oversized mustache is a faintly comic incongruity. The equivocal image has been interpreted in various ways: Javier Portús describes it as a "reflection on reality, representation, and the artistic vision", while Alfonso E. Pérez


texts:
 Sánchez says it "has also been seen as a melancholy meditation on the arms of Spain in decline". Had it not been for his royal appointment,  which enabled <mask> to escape the censorship of the Inquisition, he would not have been able to release his La Venus del espejo (c. 1644–1648, English: Venus at her Mirror) also known as The Rokeby Venus. It is the first known female nude painted by a Spanish artist, and the only surviving female nude by <mask>.Portraiture

Besides the many portraits of Philip by <mask>—thirty-four by one count—he painted portraits of other members of the royal family: Philip's first wife, Elisabeth of Bourbon, and her children, especially her eldest son, Don Baltasar Carlos, whom Velázquez first depicted at about two years of age. Cavaliers, soldiers, churchmen, and the poet Francisco de Quevedo (now at Apsley House), sat for <mask>. <mask> also painted several buffoons and dwarfs in Philip's court, whom he depicted sympathetically and with respect for their individuality, as in The Jester Don Diego de Acedo (1644), whose intelligent face and huge folio with ink-bottle and pen by his side show him to be a wise and well-educated man. Pablo de Valladolid (1635), a buffoon evidently acting a part, and The Buffoon of Coria (1639) belong to this middle period. As court painter, Velázquez had fewer commissions for religious works than any of his contemporaries. Christ Crucified (1632), painted for the Convent of San Plácido in Madrid, depicts Christ immediately after death. The Savior's head hangs on his breast and a mass of dark tangled hair conceals part of the face, visually


texts:
 reinforcing the idea of death.The figure is presented alone before a dark background. <mask>'s son-in-law Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo had succeeded him as usher in 1634, and Mazo himself had received a steady promotion in the royal household. Mazo received a pension of 500 ducats in 1640, increased to 700 in 1648, for portraits painted and to be painted, and was appointed inspector of works in the palace in 1647. Philip now entrusted <mask> with the mission of procuring paintings and sculpture for the royal collection. Rich in pictures, Spain was weak in statuary, and <mask> was commissioned once again to proceed to Italy to make purchases. Second visit to Italy

When he set out in 1649, he was accompanied by his assistant Juan de Pareja who at this point in time was a slave and who had been trained in painting by <mask>. <mask> sailed from Málaga, landed at Genoa, and proceeded from Milan to Venice, buying paintings of Titian, Tintoretto and Veronese as he went.At Modena he was received with much favor by the duke, and here he painted the portrait of the duke at the Modena gallery and two portraits that now adorn the Dresden gallery, for these paintings came from the Modena sale of 1746. Those works presage the advent of the painter's third and latest manner, a noble example of which is the great portrait of Pope Innocent X in the Doria Pamphilj Gallery in Rome, where <mask> now proceeded. There he was received with marked favor by the Pope, who presented him with a medal and golden chain. <mask> took a copy of the portrait—which Sir Joshua Reynolds thought was the finest picture in Rome—with him

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texts: to Spain. Several copies of it exist in different galleries, some of them possibly studies for the original or replicas painted for Philip. <mask>, in this work, had now reached the manera abreviada, a term coined by contemporary Spaniards for this bolder, sharper style. The portrait shows such ruthlessness in Innocent's expression that some in the Vatican feared that it would be seen unfavorably by the Pope; in fact Innocent was pleased with the work, and hung it in his official visitor's waiting room.In 1650 in Rome <mask> also painted a portrait of Juan de Pareja, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, USA. This portrait procured his election into the Accademia di San Luca. Purportedly <mask> created this portrait as a warm-up of his skills before his portrait of the Pope. It captures in great detail Pareja's countenance and his somewhat worn and patched clothing with an economic use of brushwork. In November 1650, Juan de Pareja was freed by <mask>. To this period also belong two small landscape paintings both titled View of the Garden of the Villa Medici. As landscapes apparently painted directly from nature, they were exceptional for their time, and reveal <mask>'s close study of light at different times of day.As part of his mission to procure decorations for the Room of Mirrors at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid, <mask> commissioned Matteo Bonuccelli to cast twelve bronze copies of the Medici lions. The copies are now in the Royal Palace of Madrid and the Museo del Prado. During his time in Rome, <mask> fathered a natural son, Antonio, whom he is not known ever to have seen. Return


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 to Spain and later career
From February 1650, Philip repeatedly sought <mask>'s return to Spain. Accordingly, after visiting Naples—where he saw his old friend Jose Ribera—and Venice, <mask> returned to Spain via Barcelona in 1651, taking with him many pictures and 300 pieces of statuary, which afterwards were arranged and catalogued for the king. Elisabeth of France had died in 1644, and the king had married Mariana of Austria, whom <mask> now painted in many attitudes. In 1652 he was specially chosen by the king to fill the high office of aposentador mayor, which imposed on him the duty of looking after the quarters occupied by the court—a responsible function which was no sinecure and one which interfered with the exercise of his art.Yet far from indicating any decline, his works of this period are amongst the highest examples of his style. Las Meninas

One of the infantas, Margaret Theresa, the eldest daughter of the new queen, appears to be the subject of Las Meninas (1656, English: The Maids of Honour), <mask>'s magnum opus. Created four years before his death, it serves as an outstanding example of European baroque art. Luca Giordano, a contemporary Italian painter, referred to it as the "theology of painting", and in the eighteenth century the Englishman Thomas Lawrence cited it as the "philosophy of art". However, it is unclear as to who or what is the true subject of the picture. Is it the royal daughter, or perhaps the painter himself? The king and queen are seen reflected in a mirror on the back wall, but the source of the reflection is a mystery: are the royal pair standing in the viewer's


texts: space, or does the mirror reflect the painting on which <mask> is working?Dale Brown says <mask> may have conceived the faded image of the king and queen on the back wall as a foreshadowing of the fall of the Spanish Empire that was to gain momentum following Philip's death. In the 1966 book Les Mots et Les Choses (The Order of Things), philosopher Michel Foucault devotes the opening chapter to a detailed analysis of Las Meninas. He describes the ways in which the painting problematizes issues of representation through its use of mirrors, screens, and the subsequent oscillations that occur between the image's interior, surface, and exterior. It is said the king painted the honorary Cross of Saint James of the Order of Santiago on the breast of the painter as it appears today on the canvas. However, <mask> did not receive this honor of knighthood until three years after execution of this painting. Even the King of Spain could not make his favorite a belted knight without the consent of the commission established to inquire into the purity of his lineage. The aim of these inquiries would be to prevent the appointment to positions of anyone found to have even a taint of heresy in their lineage—that is, a trace of Jewish or Moorish blood or contamination by trade or commerce in either side of the family for many generations.The records of this commission have been found among the archives of the Order of Santiago. <mask> was awarded the honor in 1659. His occupation as plebeian and tradesman was justified because, as painter to the king, he was evidently not involved in the practice of "selling" pictures.


texts:
 Final years

There were essentially only two patrons of art in Spain—the church and the art-loving king and court. Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, who toiled for a rich and powerful church, left little means to pay for his burial, while <mask> lived and died in the enjoyment of a good salary and pension. One of his final works was Las hilanderas (The Spinners), painted circa 1657, a depiction of Ovid's Fable of Arachne. The tapestry in the background is based on Titian's The Rape of Europa, or, more probably, the copy that Rubens painted in Madrid.It is full of light, air and movement, featuring vibrant colors and careful handling. Anton Raphael Mengs said this work seemed to have been painted not by the hand but by the pure force of will. It displays a concentration of all the art-knowledge <mask> had gathered during his long artistic career of more than forty years. The scheme is simple—a confluence of varied and blended red, bluish-green, gray and black. <mask>'s final portraits of the royal children are among his finest works and in the Infanta Margarita Teresa in a Blue Dress the painter's personal style reached its high-point: shimmering spots of color on wide painting surfaces produce an almost impressionistic effect – the viewer must stand at a suitable distance to get the impression of complete, three-dimensional spatiality. His only surviving portrait of the delicate and sickly Prince Felipe Prospero is remarkable for its combination of the sweet features of the child prince and his dog with a subtle sense of gloom. The hope that was placed at that time in the sole heir to the Spanish crown is

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 reflected in the depiction: fresh red and white stand in contrast to late autumnal, morbid colors.A small dog with wide eyes looks at the viewer as if questioningly, and the largely pale background hints at a gloomy fate: the little prince was barely four years old when he died. As in all of the artist's late paintings, the handling of the colors is extraordinarily fluid and vibrant. In 1660 a peace treaty between France and Spain was consummated by the marriage of Maria Theresa with Louis XIV, and the ceremony took place on the Island of Pheasants, a small swampy island in the Bidassoa. <mask> was charged with the decoration of the Spanish pavilion and with the entire scenic display. He attracted much attention from the nobility of his bearing and the splendor of his costume. On June 26 he returned to Madrid, and on July 31 he was stricken with fever. Feeling his end approaching, he signed his will, appointing as his sole executors his wife and his firm friend named Fuensalida, keeper of the royal records.He died on August 6, 1660. He was buried in the Fuensalida vault of the church of San Juan Bautista, and within eight days his wife Juana was buried beside him. This church was destroyed by the French around 1809, so his place of interment is now unknown. There was much difficulty in adjusting the tangled accounts outstanding between Velázquez and the treasury, and it was not until 1666, after the death of King Philip, that they were finally settled. Style and technique
It is canonical to divide <mask>'s career by his two visits to Italy. He rarely signed his pictures, and the royal archives give the

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 dates of only his most important works. Internal evidence and history pertaining to his portraits supply the rest to a certain extent.Although acquainted with all the Italian schools and a friend of the foremost painters of his day, <mask> was strong enough to withstand external influences and work out for himself the development of his own nature and his own principles of art. He rejected the pomp that characterized the portraiture of other European courts, and instead brought an even greater reserve to the understated formula for Habsburg portraiture established by Titian, Antonio Mor, and Alonso Sánchez Coello. He is known for using a rather limited palette, but he mixed the available paints with great skill to achieve varying hues. His pigments were not significantly different from those of his contemporaries and he mainly employed azurite, smalt, vermilion, red lake, lead-tin-yellow and ochres. His early works were painted on canvases prepared with a red-brown ground. He adopted the use of light-gray grounds during his first trip to Italy, and continued using them for the rest of his life. The change resulted in paintings with greater luminosity and a generally cool, silvery range of color.Few drawings are securely attributed to <mask>. Although preparatory drawings for some of his paintings exist, his method was to paint directly from life, and x-rays of his paintings reveal that he frequently made changes in his composition as a painting progressed. Legacy
<mask> was not prolific; he is estimated to have produced between only 110 and 120 known canvases. He produced no etchings or engravings, and


texts: only a few drawings are attributed to him. <mask> is the most influential figure in the history of Spanish portraiture. Although he had few immediate followers, Spanish court painters such as his son-in-law Juan Bautista Martinez del Mazo and Juan Carreño de Miranda took inspiration from his work. Mazo closely mimicked his style and many paintings and copies by Mazo were formerly attributed to <mask>.<mask>'s reputation languished in the eighteenth century, when Spanish court portraiture was dominated by artists of foreign birth and training. Towards the end of the century, his importance was increasingly recognized by intellectuals close to the Spanish court—an essay published In 1781 by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos said of <mask> that "when he died, the glory of Painting in Spain died with him." In 1778, Goya made a set of etchings after paintings by <mask>, as part of a project by the Count of Floridablanca to produce prints of paintings in the Royal Collection. Goya's free copies reveal a searching engagement with the older master's work, which remained a model for Goya for the rest of his career. <mask>'s work was little known outside of Spain until the nineteenth century. His paintings mostly escaped being stolen by the French marshals during the Peninsular War. In 1828, Sir David Wilkie wrote from Madrid that he felt himself in the presence of a new power in art as he looked at the works of <mask>, and at the same time found a wonderful affinity between this artist and the British school of portrait painters, especially Henry Raeburn.He was struck by the modern impression pervading <mask>'s work


texts:
 in both landscape and portraiture. <mask> is often cited as a key influence on the art of Édouard Manet, who is often considered the bridge between realism and impressionism. Calling <mask> the "painter of painters", Manet admired the immediacy and vivid brushwork of <mask>'s work, and built upon <mask>'s motifs in his own art. In the late nineteenth century, artists such as James McNeill Whistler and John Singer Sargent were strongly influenced by <mask>. Modern recreations of classics
The respect with which twentieth-century painters regard <mask>'s work attests to its continuing importance. Pablo Picasso paid homage to <mask> in 1957 when he recreated Las Meninas in 44 variations, in his characteristic style. Although Picasso was concerned that his reinterpretations of <mask>'s painting would be seen merely as copies rather than unique representations, the enormous works—including the largest he had produced since  Guernica  in 1937—obtained a position of importance in the canon of Spanish art.Salvador Dalí, as with Picasso in anticipation of the tercentennial of <mask>'s death, created in 1958 a work entitled  Velázquez Painting the Infanta Margarita With the Lights and Shadows of His Own Glory. The color scheme shows Dalí's serious tribute to Velázquez; the work also functioned, as in Picasso's case, as a vehicle for the presentation of newer theories in art and thought—nuclear mysticism, in Dalí's case. The Anglo-Irish painter Francis Bacon found <mask>'s portrait of Pope Innocent X to be "one of the greatest portraits ever". He created several expressionist variations of this piece in the 1950s;

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 however, Bacon's paintings presented a more gruesome image of Innocent. One such famous variation, entitled Figure with Meat (1954), shows the pope between two halves of a bisected cow. Recent rediscoveries of Velázquez originals
In 2009, the Portrait of a Man in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which had long been associated with the followers of <mask>' style of painting, was cleaned and restored. It was found to be by <mask> himself, and the features of the man match those of a figure in the painting "the Surrender of Breda".The newly cleaned canvas may therefore be a study for that painting. Although the attribution to <mask> is regarded as certain, the identity of the sitter is still open to question. Some art historians regard this new study to be a self-portrait by <mask>. In 2010 it was reported that a damaged painting long relegated to a basement of the Yale University Art Gallery might be an early work by <mask>. Thought to have been given to Yale in 1925, the painting has previously been attributed to the 17th-century Spanish school. Some scholars are prepared to attribute the painting to <mask>, though the Prado Museum in Madrid is reserving judgment. The work, which depicts the Virgin Mary being taught to read, will be restored by conservators at Yale.In October 2011 it was confirmed by art historian Dr. Peter Cherry of Trinity College Dublin through x-ray analysis that a portrait found in the UK in the former collection of the 19th-century painter Matthew Shepperson is a previously unknown work by <mask>. The portrait is of an unidentified man in his fifties or sixties,


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 who could possibly be Juan Mateos, the Master of the Hunt for Velázquez's patron, King Philip IV of Spain. The painting measures 47 x 39 cm and was sold at auction on December 7, 2011, for £3,000,000. Descendants
<mask>, through his daughter Francisca de Silva <mask> y Pacheco (1619–1658), is an ancestor of the Marquesses of Monteleone, including Enriquetta (Henrietta) Casado de Monteleone (1725–1761) who in 1746 married Heinrich VI, Count Reuss zu Köstritz (1707–1783). Through them are descended a number of European royalty, among them King Felipe VI of Spain through his mother Sophia of Greece and Denmark, King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, King Albert II of Belgium, Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein, and Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Popular culture
<mask> has been portrayed by Julián Villagrán in a Spanish fantasy television series El ministerio del tiempo. <mask> in a recurring character in the series.See also
 List of works by <mask>

Notes

References

Sources
 Asturias, Miguel Angel, and P. M. Bardi (1969). L'opera completa di Velázquez. Milano: Rizzoli. .
 Carr, Dawson W., Xavier Bray, and <mask> (2006). Velázquez. London: National Gallery. .
 Harris, Enriqueta (1982). Velazquez. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. .
 McKim-Smith, G., Andersen-Bergdoll, G., Newman, R. (1988).Examining Velazquez. Yale University Press. .
 Ortega y Gasset, José (1953). Velazquez. New York: Random House. .
 Portús, Javier (2004). The Spanish Portrait from El Greco to Picasso [exposition, Museo nacional del Prado, 20 october 2004-6 february 2005]. London: Scala.

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Diego Velázquez
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 .

Further reading

Brown, Johnathan (1986) Velázquez: Painter and Courtier Yale University Press, New Haven,  ;
Brown, Jonathan (1978) Images and Ideas in Seventeenth-Century Spanish Painting Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, ;
Brown, Johnathan (2008) Collected writings on <mask>, CEEH & Yale University Press, New Haven, . Davies, David and Enriqueta Harris (1996) Velázquez in Seville National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, ;

Elizabeth McGrath and Jean Michel Massing The Slave in European Art  The Warburg Institute 2012.Erenkrantz, Justin R. "The Variations on Past Masters". The Mask and the Mirror. Accessed on April 10, 2005. Goldberg, Edward L. "Velázquez in Italy: Painters, Spies and Low Spaniards". The Art Bulletin, Vol. 74, No. 3 (Sep., 1992), pp.453–456. Moser, Wolf (2011) <mask> Silva Velázquez: Das Werk und der Maler 2 Vols. Edition Saint-Georges, Lyon,
Pacheco, Francisco and Antonio Palomino (2018) "Lives of Velázquez", Getty Publications
Passuth, László : Más perenne que el bronce – <mask> y la corte de Felipe IV (Título original: A harmadik udvarmester) / Noguer y Caralt Editores, 2000
Prater, Andreas (2007) Venus ante el espejo, CEEH, . Salort-Pons, Salvador, "Velázquez en Italia", Fundación de Apoyo a la História del Arte Hispanico, Madrid 2002,
"Velázquez, <mask>" (1995). Enciclopedia Hispánica. Barcelona: Encyclopædia Britannica Publishers. .
Wolf, Norbert (1998) <mask>, 1599–1660: the face of Spain Taschen, Köln, . External links

<mask> works at the Web Gallery of Art
Velázquez at Artcyclopedia.com
202 paintings by <mask> at DiegoVelazquez.org
<mask> at

masks:
Velázquez
Diego de
Velázquez
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Diego Velázquez
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Diego Velázquez
Diego Velázquez


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 WikiPaintings.org
<mask>'s Online Exhibition at Owlstand.com
<mask>, Collection of resources and illustrated pigment analyses.ColourLex. Spanish Baroque painters
1599 births
1660 deaths

Baroque painters
Spanish Roman Catholics
Painters from Seville
Spanish portrait painters
Knights of Santiago
People from Seville
Spanish Baroque
Spanish untitled nobility
Spanish people of Portuguese descent
17th-century Spanish painters
Spanish male

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Diego Velazquez
Diego Velázquez


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<mask> (born 1949 in New York) is an American theater and opera director. He is the twin brother of <mask>, also an opera director. Both brothers belong to a generation of modernist directors that includes Robert Wilson and Peter Sellars. and are known for staging revisionist productions of opera. Early life
<mask> and his identical twin David came from a show business family. Their father was the playwright <mask>, and their mother was the Broadway dancer Barbara Gaye. As such, the brothers were drawn to musical theater from an early age.As eight-year-olds, they listened to recordings of Gilbert & Sullivan operetta, and as teenagers in the mid-'60s, they frequently bought standing room tickets at the Metropolitan Opera. By age 13, both had decided they wanted to be directors of opera. <mask> studied theater at the University of Pennsylvania and began his stage career as an actor, appearing in Joseph Papp’s New York Shakespeare Festival production of Two Gentlemen of Verona in the early ‘70s. But he was soon apprenticed to opera director Jean-Pierre Ponnelle, working as his assistant in Houston, Paris and Salzburg. In 1974, Alden staged his first opera productions in New York (Francis Poulenc's Les mamelles de Tirésias) and Omaha (La Traviata and The Barber of Seville). More assignments followed during the 1970s at Santa Fe Opera, Opera Theatre of St. Louis and Dallas Opera as well as a continuing relationship with Opera Omaha. Directing career
In 1982, Michael Milenski of Long Beach Opera engaged Alden to mount a conventional staging of La Boheme.However, the following year saw a surreal production of Benjamin Britten's Death in Venice that was a critical and artistic breakthrough for both <mask> and Long Beach Opera. Los Angeles Times music critic Martin Bernheimer wrote that "<mask> tells the story with shadows and hints... Guided by the music, he uses people as scenery and ideas as costumes. To illustrate the central philosophical conflicts between

masks:
Christopher Alden
David Alden
Alden
Jerome Alden
Christopher
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Alden


texts: Apollo and Dionysus, the director introduces daring images unimagined by the composer and librettist." <mask> continued a long and fruitful collaboration with Long Beach Opera that yielded some unconventional settings of Claudio Monteverdi's Coronation of Poppea, Orfeo and The Return of Ulysses; Britten’s The Rape of Lucretia; Jacques Offenbach's La Vie parisienne and Bluebeard and the world premiere of Stewart Wallace and Michael Korie's Hopper’s Wife. In the early '90s, he began a similarly long relationship with the San Francisco Opera, staging the American premieres of Aribert Reimann's Ghost Sonata and Hans Werner Henze's Das Verratene Meer as well as new productions of Les Contes d'Hoffmann, Coronation of Poppea, Virgil Thomson's The Mother of Us All and Wallace & Korie's Harvey Milk. He made his debut with New York City Opera as early as 1979 with a staging of Gioachino Rossini's Le comte Ory and went on to create productions for NYCO and Glimmerglass Opera that included Handel's Imeneo, The Rape of Lucretia, The Mother of Us All, Bluebeard, The Italian Girl in Algiers, John Philip Sousa's The Glass Blowers, Mozart's Don Giovanni.He is currently working on a new production of Leonard Bernstein's A Quiet Place scheduled to make its New York premiere in October 2010. <mask> has worked with several major and regional American opera companies, including Lyric Opera of Chicago, Houston Grand Opera, Seattle Opera, Boston Lyric Opera, Pittsburgh Opera, Dallas Opera and Los Angeles Opera. He created the world premiere production of Anthony Davis' Tania at Philadelphia's American Music Theater Festival in 1992. He mounted Jonathan Dove's reduced versions of Das Rheingold and Die Walküre for the Eos Orchestra of New York in 2002-2004. For the Spoleto Festival USA, he produced the American premiere of Gluck's L’Ile de Merlin in 2007. His work in Europe has encompassed assignments at Welsh National Opera, Scottish Opera (where he directed the world premiere

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 of David Horne's Friend of the People), English National Opera (staging The Makropulos Case with Charles Mackerras in 2006). He and British director David Pountney co-directed Eight Little Greats, an acclaimed series of eight short operas for Opera North in 2005.<mask> has also worked at the Opéra Comique in Paris (where he presented a triple bill of Georges Bizet's Djamileh, Le docteur Miracle and Don Procopio), Cologne Opera, Opera Zuid in The Netherlands as well as in Bilbao, Antwerp, Mannheim, Karlsruhe and Geneva. Modernist Vision
As an opera director, <mask> is known for his use of contemporary imagery and, on occasion, a minimalist visual style, though never as spare as his contemporary Robert Wilson. He likened his own 1984 production of Coronation of Poppea to "a new wave rock video" and has frequently expressed his desire to connect the inner world of opera theater to the modern sensibility of a younger audience. He has an eye for bold theatrical gestures that are often dramatically effective but sometimes considered crass. His use of overt sexuality, brutal violence and over-the-top, satirical humor has soured his relationship with conservative patrons (most notably, a critically derided Rigoletto production for Chicago Lyric that the company declared un-"revivable"). Though some opera audiences may be put off by his art, it is never Alden’s aim to shock for the sake of shock value. Rather, his approach to stagecraft — with its anachronistic cultural symbols, blood-and-guts characterizations and eye-catching visuals — is driven by a desire to reveal how powerfully opera stories can resonate with modern experience.<mask> has said that "however fascinating the era in which an opera was composed may be, I have a primary responsibility to the world we live in now." References

External links
 Official <mask> website
 Columbia Artists Management Inc agency page on <mask>

1949 births
Living people
American opera directors
Artists from New York

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Alden
Christopher Alden
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Christopher Alden


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<mask>  (25 August 1724 – 10 July 1806) was an English painter, best known for his paintings of horses. Self-trained, <mask> learnt his skills independently from other great artists of the eighteenth century such as Reynolds or Gainsborough. <mask>' output includes history paintings, but his greatest skill was in painting animals, perhaps influenced by his love and study of anatomy. His series of paintings on the theme of a lion attacking a horse are early and significant examples of the Romantic movement that emerged in the late 18th century. His painting, Whistlejacket, hangs in the National Gallery, London. Biography

<mask> was born in Liverpool, the son of a currier, or leather-dresser, <mask>, and his wife Mary. Information on his life until the age of 35 or so is sparse, relying almost entirely on notes made by Ozias Humphry, a fellow artist and friend; Humphry's informal memoir, which was not intended for publication, was based on a series of private conversations he had with <mask> around 1794, when <mask> was 70 years old, and Humphry 52.<mask> worked at his father's trade until the age of 15 or 16, at which point he told his father that he wished to become a painter. While initially resistant, <mask>'s father (who died not long after in 1741), eventually acquiesced in his son's choice of a career path, on the condition that he could find an appropriate mentor. <mask> subsequently approached the Lancashire painter and engraver Hamlet Winstanley, and was briefly engaged by him in a sort of apprenticeship relationship, probably not more than several weeks in duration. Having initially demonstrated his abilities and agreed to do some copying work, <mask> had access to and opportunity to study the collection at Knowsley Hall near Liverpool, the estate where Winstanley was then residing; however, he soon left when he came into conflict with

masks:
George Stubbs
Stubbs
Stubbs
Stubbs
John Stubbs
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Stubbs
Stubbs


texts: the older artist over exactly which pictures he could work on copying. Thereafter as an artist he was self-taught. He had had a passion for anatomy from his childhood, and in or around 1744, he moved to York, in the North of England, to pursue his ambition to study the subject under experts. In York, from 1745 to 1753, he worked as a portrait painter, and studied human anatomy under the surgeon Charles Atkinson, at York County Hospital, One of his earliest surviving works is a set of illustrations for a textbook on midwifery by John Burton, Essay towards a Complete New System of Midwifery, published in 1751.In 1754 <mask> visited Italy. Forty years later he told Ozias Humphry that his motive for going to Italy was, "to convince himself that nature was and is always superior to art whether Greek or Roman, and having renewed this conviction he immediately resolved upon returning home". In 1756 he rented a farmhouse in the village of Horkstow, Lincolnshire, and spent 18 months dissecting horses, assisted by his common-law wife, Mary Spencer. He moved to London in about 1759 and in 1766 published The anatomy of the Horse. The original drawings are now in the collection of the Royal Academy. Even before his book was published, <mask>'s drawings were seen by leading aristocratic patrons, who recognised that his work was more accurate than that of earlier horse painters such as James Seymour, Peter Tillemans and John Wootton. In 1759 the 3rd Duke of Richmond commissioned three large pictures from him, and his career was soon secure.By 1763 he had produced works for several more dukes and other lords and was able to buy a house in Marylebone, a fashionable part of London, where he lived for the rest of his life. A famous work, Whistlejacket, a painting of the thoroughbred race horse rising on his hind legs, commissioned by the 2nd Marquess of

masks: Stubbs Stubbs


texts: Rockingham, is now in the National Gallery in London. This and two other paintings carried out for Rockingham break with convention in having plain backgrounds. Throughout the 1760s he produced a wide range of individual and group portraits of horses, sometimes accompanied by hounds. He often painted horses with their grooms, whom he always painted as individuals. Meanwhile, he also continued to accept commissions for portraits of people, including some group portraits. From 1761 to 1776 he exhibited at the Society of Artists of Great Britain, but in 1775 he switched his allegiance to the recently founded but already more prestigious Royal Academy of Arts.<mask> also painted more exotic animals including lions, tigers, giraffes, monkeys, and rhinoceroses, which he was able to observe in private menageries. His painting of a kangaroo was the first glimpse of this animal for many 18th-century Britons. He became preoccupied with the theme of a wild horse threatened by a lion and produced several variations on this theme. These and other works became well known at the time through engravings of <mask>'s work, which appeared in increasing numbers in the 1770s and 1780s. <mask> also painted historical pictures, but these are much less well regarded. From the late 1760s he produced some work on enamel. In the 1770s Josiah Wedgwood developed a new and larger type of enamel panel at <mask>'s request.<mask> hoped to achieve commercial success with his paintings in enamel, but the venture left him in debt. Also in the 1770s he painted single portraits of dogs for the first time, while also receiving an increasing number of commissions to paint hunts with their packs of hounds. He remained active into his old age. In the 1780s he produced a pastoral series called Haymakers and Reapers, and in the early 1790s he enjoyed the patronage of the Prince of Wales,

masks: Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs


texts:
 whom he painted on horseback in 1791. His last project, begun in 1795, was A comparative anatomical exposition of the structure of the human body with that of a tiger and a common fowl, fifteen engravings from which appeared between 1804 and 1806. The project was left unfinished upon <mask>'s death at the age of 81 on 10 July 1806, in London. He was buried in the graveyard of Marylebone Church, now a public garden.<mask>'s son <mask> <mask> was an engraver and printmaker. A lion attacking a horse

<mask> began an informal series of works on the subject of a lion attacking a horse around 1762 or 1763, and he continued to explore and reinterpret the theme in at least 17 images over a period of about 30 years. These paintings are among his most celebrated and influential works. One art historian wrote "The appearance of the monumental picture now in the Mellon Collection [A Lion Attacking a Horse, ca. 1762-63] must be treated as one of the outstanding events in English eighteenth-century art for within the context of painting at that date its singularity as well as its inherent originality is most striking. Not since the publication of Hogarth's Harlot's Progress thirty years before had there occurred such an innovation." The iconic paintings are in fact among the earliest manifestations of Romanticism in painting, predating the work of more familiar masters of the movement such as William Blake, Eugène Delacroix, Francisco Goya, William Turner, and Théodore Géricault, who was known to be an admirer of both horses, and the work of <mask>.Jean Clay, professor of art history at the University of Paris, perceptively observed that not only does the energy and terror of the animals foreshadow the spirit of romanticism but, as <mask>'s series progressed, the horror seemed to diffuse and expand throughout the whole of the landscape: "an image that would

masks:
Stubbs
Stubbs
George Townly
Stubbs
Stubbs
George Stubbs
Stubbs


texts: fertilize the Romantic imagination and come to full flower a half-century later." The series are mostly oil paintings on canvas, but also include examples of enamel on copper, original engravings, and even a relief model in Wedgwood clay. The white horse was painted from one of the Kings Horses in the Mews, secured for the artist by an architect friend, Mr. Payne. <mask> was able to study a lion in life that was in the menagerie of Lord Shellburne at Hounslow Heath. The earliest work is a life-size painting of A Lion Attacking a Horse (ca. 1762-63), which was commissioned by the 2nd Marquess of Rockingham and now in the Yale Center for British Art. Art historian Basil Taylor postulated the theme was treated in three distinct episodes: Episode A, a lion prowling at some distance from a terrified horse; Episode B, a lion close to a terrified horse; Episode C a lion on the horse's back biting its flank.Interestingly, <mask> first painted "Episode C", and it was not until later that he was inspired to go back and paint the moments leading up to the climatic event. An anecdote regarding the origin of the subject matter emerged soon after the artist death, originally published in The Sporting Magazine in 1808, and reiterate often for well over a century and a half. Art historian H. W. Janson repeated it "On a visit to North Africa, he had seen a horse killed by a lion; this experience haunted his imagination, and from it he developed a new type of animal picture full of Romantic feeling for the grandeur and violence of nature." However, research published in 1965 produced a rather persuasive argument that <mask> in fact never traveled to Africa, and the actual inspiration for the painting was an antique sculpture he had seen in a well documented 1754 stay in Rome. The sculpture, Lion Seizing a Horse, in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome, is a

masks: Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs


texts:
 restored Roman copy of a Hellenistic original. It has been a celebrated work since the Renaissance, admired by Michelangelo, included in guidebooks of <mask>'s day, and copied any number of times by various artist in marble, bronze, and prints, including an 18th century marble copy in the collection of <mask>'s patron Henry Blundell, who also acquired one of the paintings by <mask>. Legacy

<mask> remained a secondary figure in British art until the mid-twentieth century.The art historian Basil Taylor and art collector Paul Mellon both championed Stubbs's work. Stubbs's Pumpkin with a Stable-lad was the first painting that Mellon bought in 1936. Basil Taylor was commissioned in 1955 by Pelican Press to write the book Animal Painting in England – From Barlow to Landseer, which included a large segment on Stubbs. In 1959 Mellon and Taylor first met and bonded over their appreciation of Stubbs. This led Mellon to create the Paul Mellon Foundation for British Art (The predecessor of the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art) with Taylor as the director. Mellon eventually amassed the largest collection of Stubbs paintings in the world which would become a part of his larger collection of British art that would become the Yale Center for British Art. In 1971, Taylor published the seminal catalogue, Stubbs.The record price for a <mask> painting was set by the sale at auction of Gimcrack on Newmarket Heath, with a Trainer, a Stable-Lad, and a Jockey (1765) at Christie's in London in July 2011 for £22.4 million. It was sold by the British Woolavington Collection of sporting art; the buyer was unidentified. The British Royal Collection holds 16 paintings by <mask>. Two paintings by <mask> were bought by the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London after a public appeal to raise the £1.5 million required. The two paintings, The Kongouro from

masks: Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs Stubbs


texts:
 New Holland and Portrait of a Large Dog were both painted in 1772. Depicting a kangaroo and a dingo respectively, they are the first depictions of Australian animals in Western art. His work was shown in a retrospective exhibition at the Whitechapel Gallery in London, 27 February – 7 April 1957.The Tate Britain, in conjunction with the Yale Center for British Art, organized the largest exhibition ever devoted to Stubbs (up to that time) in 1984, which traveled to New Haven in 1985. Memoirs of Thomas Dodd, William Upcott, and <mask>, R.A. (Liverpool: D. Marples, 1879). Egerton, Judy. <mask>, 1724–1806 (Tate Gallery Publications, 1984). Egerton, Judy. <mask>, Painter. Catalogue Raisonné (New Haven and London: Published for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art by Yale University Press, 2007)
Rump, Gerhard C. Pferde und Jagdbilder in der englischen Kunst.Studien zu <mask> und dem Genre der "Sporting Art" von 1650–1830 (Olms: Hildesheim, New York, 1983)
Gilbey, Walter. Animal Painters of England from the Year 1650, Volume 2 (Vinton, 1900) p. 192 ff. Morrison, Venetia. Art of <mask> (Headline Book Pub., 1989). Myrone, Martin. <mask> (British Artists series) (Tate Publishing, 2002). Taylor, Basil.<mask>'' (London: Phaidon Prees, 1971)

External links

<mask> online (Artcyclopedia)
<mask> – a celebration (Walker Art Gallery)
<mask> (Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art)
<mask>'s biography (Mezzo Mundo Fine Art)
Paintings by <mask> (Tate Gallery)
 Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
 Selected images from Anatomy of the Horse From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library
Judy Egerton archive

1724 births
1806 deaths
18th-century English painters
English male painters
19th-century English painters
Equine artists
Artists from Liverpool
English enamellers
18th-century enamellers
19th-century enamellers
Associates of

masks:
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs
George Stubbs


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Charles H<mask> (June 1, 1929 – March 7, 2018) was an American football player who played for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1948 to 1950 and in the National Football League for the Pittsburgh Steelers in 1951 and the Dallas Texans in 1952. University of Michigan

Ortmann was raised in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He turned down offers from the University of Wisconsin and nearby Marquette University, as well as coach Bear Bryant at the University of Kentucky, to attend the University of Michigan and play football for Fritz Crisler. Ortmann recalled: "My high school coach would say, '<mask>, if you pick Michigan, you're picking the best. After you graduate, people will know you and remember you.' I made the right decision." He was a versatile player, starting at  safety on defense and halfback on offense, as well as punting, placekicking, and returning punts and kickoffs.He was a starter as a sophomore for the undefeated 1948 Michigan Wolverines football team that won the National Championship. As a senior in 1950, he was responsible for 90% of Michigan's total offense. He was inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame on December 31, 2009. The Snow Bowl
Ortmann is most known for his role in the famed 1950 Snow Bowl game against Ohio State, in which he punted 24 times in a blizzard for 723 yards – still a Michigan record. The weather conditions were so inclement that Michigan punted on first down for its first two plays from scrimmage, after concluding that the best strategy was to keep the slick ball on the other side of the field and in the hands of Ohio State. The

masks:
. Ortmann
Chuck


texts:
 strategy worked, as the game's only touchdown was scored after Ortman punted the ball out of bounds at the Ohio State six-yard line, Ohio State was forced to punt from deep in its own territory, and Tony Momsen recovered a blocked punt in the endzone. Ortmann recalled: "You and I would not have gone outside to get the newspaper on a day like that.But here we were, trying to play football." Michigan did not get a first down and had only 27 yards of total offense, while Ortman was 0 for 8 passing and gained only 9 yards in 10 rushing attempts. The fierce weather conditions stifled both offenses, and the Wolverines won 9–3 on a safety and Momsen's touchdown after the blocked punt. Interviewed about the Snow Bowl in 2006, Ortmann, then retired and living in Savannah, Georgia, recalled: "Twice during the game, playing as the safety, I couldn't see [Heisman Trophy winner] Vic Janowicz and his backfield, the snow was falling so heavily. Tony Momsen was our regular punter and as we were ready to go out, he said, 'Charlie, I don't feel like punting today, you punt.' I hadn't punted in three months. But the hero of that game was not <mask>n, it was Carl Kreager, our center.I just put my hands down and the ball was always there. I still remind him every time we talk, 'Carl, you never got enough credit for that game.' It was so boring. I have a film of the game, and I haven't watched it since, if that tells you something." Other highlights

Other highlights of Ortmann's playing career at Michigan include:
 Passing for 146 yards (15 for 19) in a 14–6 win over California, including


texts:
 six passes for 80 yards in the fourth quarter to lead Michigan's comeback from a 6–0 deficit, at the 1951 Rose Bowl game;
 Rushing for 115 yards and passing for another 92 (207 total yards) in a 14–7 win over Minnesota in the 1949 Little Brown Jug game;
 Passing for a career-high 186 yards passing in the 1950 Little Brown Jug game; and
 Returning a kickoff 82 yards against Purdue in 1949. In his three years as a starter at Michigan, Ortmann had 2,078 yards passing (127 of 314) and 676 yards rushing (273 carries and six touchdowns). He was named an All-Big Ten halfback in 1950 and was also third-team All-American.Professional football
Ortmann was selected by the Pittsburgh Steelers as the 20th pick in the 1951 NFL Draft and played in all 12 of the Steelers' games in 1951. He was the Steelers' leading passer in 1951, throwing 56 completions for 671 yards, three touchdowns and 13 interceptions. He also had 327 yards rushing, 62 yards receiving, and 62 yards on an interception return. Ortmann was also the Steelers' backup punter, kicking seven times for a 43.1 yard average, including a 72-yard punt. Ortmann was waived by the Steelers after the 1951 season and signed by the Dallas Texans in 1952. However, he injured his ankle and finished his playing career after playing only three games for the Texans, including two starts at quarterback. Later years, family and honors
After his football career ended, Ortmann accepted a job with a Chicago nonferrous metals company owned by former Michigan All-American Ernie Vick.Ortmann retired in 1991 and moved to Savannah, Georgia. He was


texts:
 married to his high school sweetheart from Milwaukee, <mask>; they had four children. They settled in Glen Ellyn, where <mask> established a youth football program. Together with Tom Hoffman, <mask> coached both the Churchill Blue Raiders and Glen Ellyn Rams. During the Rams' first year, Larry Krupp served as student manager of the team. In 2004, Ortmann was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor. Asked about the honor, Ortmann modestly said: "When fans start talking about putting an all-time Michigan team together, I think they're wrong to pick someone from the old era.I led the Big Ten one year with 750 yards running and passing. A guy like John Navarre has as many yards and passes in a game as I did in a season. Guys I played with were as good as they come, but nothing like the players today. Dominic Tomasi was a lineman at 5-8 and 180 pounds. They have cheerleaders that big today." Ortmann died on March 7, 2018, in Gig Harbor, Washington, at the age of 88. References

1929 births
2018 deaths
American football halfbacks
Dallas Texans (NFL) players
Michigan Wolverines football players
Pittsburgh Steelers players
Players of American football from

masks:
Betty Ortmann
Chuck
Chuck


texts:
<mask>,  (; 12 January 1916 – 31 October 2006), commonly known as P. W. and  (The Big Crocodile), was a South African politician. He served as the last prime minister of South Africa from 1978 to 1984 and the first executive state president of South Africa from 1984 to 1989. First elected to Parliament in 1948, <mask> was an outspoken opponent of black majority rule and international communism. However, his administration did make concessions towards political reform, whereas internal unrest saw widespread human rights abuses at the hands of the government. <mask> resigned as leader of the ruling National Party (NP) in February 1989 after suffering a stroke and six months later was also coerced to leave the presidency. In F. W. de Klerk's 1992 apartheid referendum, Botha campaigned for a No vote and denounced De Klerk's administration as irresponsible for opening the door to black majority rule. In early 1998, when Botha refused to testify at the Mandela government's Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), he was supported by the far-right Conservative Party, which had earlier contested his rule as the official opposition.For his refusal, he was fined and given a suspended jail sentence. The sentence was overturned on appeal. Early life and education
<mask> <mask> was born on a farm in the Paul Roux district of the Orange Free State Province (now Free State Province), the son of Afrikaner parents. His father, <mask> <mask> Sr., fought as a commando against the British in the Second Boer War. His mother, Hendrina <mask> (née <mask>), was interned in a British concentration camp during the war. Botha initially attended the Paul Roux School and matriculated from Voortrekker Secondary School in Bethlehem, South Africa. In 1934, he entered the Grey University College (now the University of the Free State) in Bloemfontein to study law, but left early at the age of twenty in order to pursue a career in politics.He began working for the National Party as a political organiser in the neighbouring Cape Province.

masks:
Pieter Willem Botha
Botha
Botha
Pieter Willem
Botha
Pieter Willem
Botha
Christina Botha
de Wet


texts:
 In the run-up to World War II, <mask> joined the Ossewabrandwag, a right-wing Afrikaner nationalist group which was sympathetic to the German Nazi Party; but months after the German attack on the USSR, <mask> condemned the Ossewabrandwag and changed his ideological allegiance to Christian nationalism. In 1943, <mask> married Anna Elizabeth Rossouw (Elize). The couple had two sons and three daughters. Parliamentary career
At age 30, <mask> was elected head of the National Party Youth in 1946, and two years later was elected to the House of Assembly as representative of George in the southern Cape Province in the general election which saw the beginning of the National Party's 46-year tenure in power. His opponent in the 1948 election was <mask> from the United Party. In 1958 <mask> was appointed Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs by Hendrik Verwoerd, and in 1961 was appointed to the new Department of Coloured Affairs and became Minister of Community Development.In 1966, <mask> was appointed Minister of Defence by Verwoerd and served under the government of John Vorster, upon Verwoerd's murder later that year. Under his 14 years in charge of the ministry, the South African Defence Force (SADF) reached a zenith, at times consuming 20% of the national budget, compared to 1.3% in 1968, and was involved in the South African Border War. When Vorster resigned following allegations of his involvement in the Muldergate Scandal in 1978, <mask> was elected as his successor by the National Party caucus, besting the electorate's favourite, 45-year-old Foreign Minister <mask> <mask>. In the final internal ballot, he beat Connie Mulder, the scandal's namesake, in a 78–72 vote. Botha was keen to promote constitutional reform, and hoped to implement a form of federal system in South Africa that would allow for greater "self-rule" for black homelands (or Bantustans), while still retaining the supremacy of a white central government, and foremost expand the rights of Coloureds (South Africans of mixed ancestry) and Asians

masks:
Botha
Botha
Botha
Botha
JP Marais
Botha
Botha
Botha
Pik
Botha


texts: in order to widen support for the government. Upon enacting the reforms, he remarked in the House of Assembly; "We must adapt or die." Upon becoming Prime Minister, <mask> retained the defence portfolio until October 1980, when he appointed SADF Chief General Magnus Malan, his successor.From his ascension to the cabinet, Botha pursued an ambitious military policy designed to increase South Africa's military capability. He sought to improve relations with the West – especially the United States – but with mixed results. He argued that the preservation of the apartheid government, though unpopular, was crucial to stemming the tide of African Communism, which had made in-roads into neighbouring Angola and Mozambique after these two former Portuguese colonies obtained independence. As Prime Minister and later State President, <mask>'s greatest parliamentary opponents were Harry Schwarz and Helen Suzman of the Progressive Federal Party until 1987, when his former cabinet colleague Andries Treurnicht's new Conservative Party became the official opposition on a strictly anti-concessionist agenda. In 1977, as Minister of Defence, Botha began a secret nuclear weapons program, which culminated in the manufacture of six nuclear bombs, destroyed only in the early 1990s. He remained steadfast in South Africa's administration of neighbouring territory South-West Africa, particularly while there was a presence of Cuban troops in Angola to the north. Botha was responsible for introducing the notorious Koevoet police counter-insurgency unit.He was also instrumental in building the SADF's strength, adding momentum to establishing units such as 32 Battalion. South African intervention, with support of the rebel UNITA movement (led by Dr. Jonas Savimbi, a personal friend), in the Angolan Civil War continued until the late 1980s, terminating with the Tripartite Accord. To maintain the nation's military strength, a very strict draft was implemented to enforce compulsory military service for white South African men. State

masks: Botha Botha


texts:
 President

In 1983, Botha proposed a new constitution, which was then put to a vote of the white population. Though it did not implement a federal system as established in 1961, it implemented what was ostensibly a power-sharing agreement with Coloureds and Indians. The new constitution created two new houses of parliament alongside the existing, white-only House of Assembly—the House of Representatives for Coloureds and the House of Delegates for Indians. The three chambers of the new Tricameral Parliament had sole jurisdiction over matters relating to their respective communities.Legislation affecting "general affairs," such as foreign policy and race relations, had to pass all three chambers after consideration by joint standing committees. The plan included no chamber or system of representation for the black majority. Each Black ethno-linguistic group was allocated a 'homeland' which would initially be a semi-autonomous area. However, blacks were legally considered citizens of the Bantustans, not of South Africa, and were expected to exercise their political rights there. Bantustans were expected to gradually move towards a greater state of independence with sovereign nation status being the final goal. During <mask>'s tenure, Ciskei, Bophutatswana and Venda all achieved nominal nationhood. These new countries, set up within the borders of South Africa, never gained international recognition, and economically all remained heavily dependent on South Africa.Over half of the Bantustans, most notably KwaZulu led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi, rejected independence due to their leaders' commitment to opposing Apartheid from within. The new constitution also changed the executive branch from the parliamentary system that had been in place in one form or another since 1910, to a presidential system. The prime minister's post was abolished, and its functions were merged with those of the state president, which became an executive post with sweeping powers. He was elected by an electoral college whose members were


texts:
 elected by the three chambers of the Parliament. The state president and cabinet had sole jurisdiction over "general affairs." Disputes between the three chambers regarding "general affairs" were resolved by the President's Council, composed of members from the three chambers and members directly appointed by the state president. In practice, the composition of the President's Council and the electoral college made it impossible for the Coloured and Indian chambers to outvote the white chamber on any substantive matter, even if they voted as a bloc.Thus, the real power remained in white hands—and in practice, in the hands of Botha's National Party, which commanded a large majority in the white chamber. Though the new constitution was criticised by the black majority for failing to grant them any formal role in government, many international commentators praised it as a "first step" in what was assumed to be a series of reforms. On 14 September 1984, <mask> was elected as the first state president under the newly approved constitution. Implementing the presidential system was seen as a key step in consolidating Botha's personal power. In previous years, he had succeeded in getting a number of strict laws that limited freedom of speech through parliament, and thus suppressed criticism of government decisions. In many western countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom (where the Anti-Apartheid Movement was based) and the Commonwealth, there was much debate over the imposition of economic sanctions in order to weaken Botha and undermine the white regime. By the late 1980s – as foreign investment in South Africa declined – disinvestment began to have a serious effect on the nation's economy.Apartheid government

<mask> undertook some superficial changes to apartheid practices. He legalised interracial marriage and so-called miscegenation, both completely banned since the late 1940s. The constitutional prohibition on multiracial political parties was lifted. He also relaxed the Group Areas Act,


texts: which barred non-whites from living in certain areas. In 1988, a new law created "Open Group Areas" or racially mixed neighbourhoods but these neighbourhoods had to receive a Government permit, had to have the support of the local whites immediately concerned, and had to be an upper-class neighbourhood in a major city in order to be awarded a permit. In 1983, the aforementioned constitutional reforms granted limited political rights to "Coloureds" and "Indians". <mask> also became the first South African government leader to authorise contacts with Nelson Mandela, the imprisoned leader of the African National Congress (ANC).Even these meager reforms went too far for a group of NP hardliners, led by former Education Minister Andries Treurnicht. In 1982, the group broke away to form the Conservative Party. However, they did not even begin to meet the demands of the opposition. In the face of rising discontent and violence, Botha refused to cede political power to blacks and imposed greater security measures against anti-apartheid activists. Botha also refused to negotiate with the ANC. In 1985, <mask> delivered the Rubicon speech, a policy address in which he refused to give in to demands by the black population, including the release of Mandela. Botha's defiance of international opinion further isolated South Africa, leading to economic sanctions and a rapid decline in the value of the rand.The following year, when the United States introduced the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, Botha declared a nationwide state of emergency. He is famously quoted during this time as saying, "This uprising will bring out the beast in us". As economic and diplomatic actions against South Africa increased, civil unrest spread amongst the black population, supported by the ANC and neighbouring black-majority governments. On 16 May 1986, Botha publicly warned neighbouring states against engaging in "unsolicited interference" in South Africa's affairs. Four days later, Botha ordered air strikes against selected targets in


texts:
 Lusaka, Harare, and Gaborone, including the offices of exiled ANC activists. Botha charged that these raids were just a "first installment" and showed that "South Africa has the capacity and the will to break the [ANC]." In spite of the concessions made by Botha, the apartheid years under his leadership were by far the most brutal.Thousands were detained without trial during <mask>'s presidency, while others were tortured and killed. The TRC found Botha responsible for gross violations of human rights. He was also found to have directly authorised "unlawful activity which included killing." Botha declined to apologise for apartheid. In a 2006 interview to mark his 90th birthday, he suggested that he had no regrets about the way he had run the country. Botha denied that he had ever considered black South Africans to be in any way inferior to whites, but conceded that "some" whites did hold that view. He also claimed that the racial segregation laws of apartheid "started in Lord Milner’s time" and the National Party merely inherited them; however, <mask> conceded that the Afrikaner population had been "happy to perpetuate [apartheid]", as many of them "were, and some of them still are... 'racists at heart'".Resignation
State President <mask>'s loss of influence can be directly attributed to decisions taken at the Ronald Reagan/Mikhail Gorbachev summit of the leaders of the US and the Soviet Union in Moscow (29 May – 1 June 1988) that paved the way to resolving the problem of Namibia which, according to foreign minister <mask> <mask>, was destabilising the region and "seriously complicating" the major issue which South Africa itself would shortly have to face. Soviet military aid would cease and Cuban troops be withdrawn from Angola as soon as South Africa complied with UN Security Council Resolution 435 by relinquishing control of Namibia and allowing UN-supervised elections there. The Tripartite Agreement, which gave effect to the Reagan/Gorbachev summit decisions, was signed at UN headquarters in New York

masks: Botha Botha Botha Pik Botha


texts:
 on 22 December 1988 by representatives of Angola, Cuba and South Africa. On 18 January 1989, <mask> (then aged 73) suffered a mild stroke which prevented him from attending a meeting with Namibian political leaders on 20 January 1989. <mask>'s place was taken by acting president J. Christiaan Heunis. On 2 February 1989, <mask> resigned as leader of the National Party (NP), anticipating his nominee – finance minister Barend <mask> – would succeed him. Instead, the NP's parliamentary caucus selected as leader education minister F. W. de Klerk, who moved quickly to consolidate his position within the party.In March 1989, the NP elected De Klerk as state president but Botha refused to resign, saying in a television address that the constitution entitled him to remain in office until March 1990 and that he was even considering running for another five-year term. Following a series of acrimonious meetings in Cape Town, and five days after UNSCR 435 was implemented in Namibia on 1 April 1989, <mask> and De Klerk reached a compromise: <mask> would retire after the parliamentary elections in September, allowing de Klerk to take over as state president. However, <mask> abruptly resigned from the state presidency on 14 August 1989, complaining that he had not been consulted by De Klerk over his scheduled visit to see President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia:
"The ANC is enjoying the protection of president Kaunda and is planning insurgency activities against South Africa from Lusaka", Botha declared on nationwide television. He said he had asked the cabinet what reason he should give the public for abruptly leaving office. "They replied I could use my health as an excuse. To this, I replied that I am not prepared to leave on a lie. It is evident to me that after all these years of my best efforts for the National Party and for the government of this country, as well as the security of our country, I am being ignored by ministers serving in my cabinet."De Klerk was sworn in as acting state president on 14 August 1989 and

masks:
Botha
Botha
Botha
du Plessis
Botha
Botha
Botha