texts:
 1829 until 1837, <mask> was a practicing attorney in Groton and Easton, Massachusetts.He became an abolitionist by 1833 when he joined the newly-formed American Anti-Slavery Society. He left his law practice to focus his efforts towards abolition of slavery. In 1837, he moved to Utica, New York when he became a general agent of the New York Anti-Slavery Society. Among fellow abolitionists, he was known as "<mask>". He was the editor of the anti-slavery newspapers the American Citizen and the Albany Patriot, where he was also the Washington D.C. correspondent. He joined a group headed by Gerrit Smith that formed the Liberty Party in 1840. They were radical political abolitionists.He was a Liberty Party candidate for lieutenant governor of New York in 1846 and for governor of New York in 1850. Underground Railroad and arrest
In 1846, he went to Washingtion, D.C. and filled the position left by Charles Turner Torrey when he died in prison that year; <mask> became an agent for the Underground Railroad. The Vigilance Committee provided funding for purchasing enslaved blacks and for the rescue of fugitive slaves. With Daniel Bell, a free black man, he organized and financed the attempted escape of 77 slaves from Washington, D.C. in the Pearl incident in 1848 and numerous other rescues of slaves. For instance, in November 1848 he negotiate the payment to free the Mary and Elizabeth Edmonson, who were fugitives during the Pearl incident. <mask> and other abolitionists yearned for more meaningful roles in the fight against slavery. In December 1848, <mask> made a call for direct action: "to storm the castle of tyranny and rescue from its cruel grasp its bruised and peeled victims".In 1849 or 1850, Chapin helped Anna Maria Weems's sister Mary Jane

masks:
Chaplin
General Chaplin
Chaplin
Chaplin
Chaplin


type: original

texts: (Stella) Weems and the Young family (Mary Jane's aunt, uncle and cousins) successfully escape slavery. In August 1850, <mask> aided in the escape of two of slaves, Allen and Garland H. White who were owned by then congressmen Alexander Hamilton Stephens and Robert Toombs of Georgia, respectively. They left Washington D.C. and were held at the home of General Walter Jones for "some time". A $500 reward was set for both slaves and John H. Goddard, the pro-slavery captain of the night guard and police magistrate, was hired to search for them. Based upon a tip, Goddard and his posse waited for the escapees who had been picked up by a carriage and taken to the Maryland-Pennsylvania border. The carriage was ambushed on the Washington-Brookeville Pike (now Georgia Avenue at what is now Jesup Blair Park) in Silver Spring, Maryland. <mask> was hit with a club and shots were fired into the carriage, wounding Allen and Garland.Allen was captured and Garland escaped but surrendered after a few days. <mask> was held in jail starting on April 8, 1850, with six weeks in District of Columbia and then transferred to the jail in Rockville, Maryland for another 13 weeks. Monies to pay for his bail and defense were acquired through donations to the Chaplin Fund Committee. <mask> was bailed out for $19,000 and for a total of $25,000 to ensure that he was not lynched while leaving the state. The bail and defense payments were paid by prominent abolitionist Gerrit Smith and others. The money was forfeited as <mask> skipped bail and returned to New York. Some people were left penniless after making the donations.<mask> performed anti-slavery lectures to attain money to recoup donations to his bail fund. The events were recorded in a pamphlet entitled The Case

masks: Chaplin Chaplin Chaplin Chaplin Chaplin Chaplin


texts:
 of <mask><mask>; being an Appeal to all Respecters of Law and Justice against the cruel and oppressive treatment to which, under color of legal proceedings, he has been subjected, in the District of Columbia and the State of Maryland. <mask>'s minister, Rev. John Todd, defended him in the October 30, 1850 issue of The New York Evangelist. Todd said that <mask> had "one of the noblest, most self-sacrificing, unselfish hearts that ever beat in human bosom." A historical marker at the Howard County Courthouse in Ellicott City, Maryland states that it

Anticipating the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, the Cazenovia convention was held on August 21 and 22 in 1850 in Cazenovia, New York. It was organized by Charles Bennett Ray and Gerrit Smith of the New York State Vigilance Association and attended by Frederick Douglass and Mary and Elizabeth Edmonson, who were fugitives during the Pearl incident and subsequently ran away.There were between 30 and 50 fugitive slaves that attended the convention. <mask> was held in a jail, so his fiancé, Theodosia Gilbert, attended in his stead. James C. Jackson, Joseph C. Hathaway, and <mask> split from other abolitionists and joined the Free Democratic party. Post-arrest years

In 1851, <mask><mask> joined his wife and James C. Jackson in operating the Glen Haven Water Cure spa, where <mask> and Theodosia Gilbert were married on August 12, 1851. Theodosia died on April 11, 1855 after the birth of her second child. He died at his home on April 28, 1871 in Cortland County, New York. Harriet, Theodosia, and <mask> were buried at the Cortland Rural Cemetery.Notes

References

Further reading

External links

1796 births
1871 deaths
People from Groton, Massachusetts
American abolitionists
New York (state)

masks:
William L
. Chaplin
Chaplin
Chaplin
Chaplin
Chaplin
William L
. Chaplin
Chaplin
William


texts:
<mask> (; ) was born in 1961 in Abéché, Chad. He is a film director from Chad. He left Chad during the civil wars of the 1980s. Haroun is the first Chadian full-length film director. He both writes and directs his films. Though he has lived in France since 1982, most of his films have been set in and made in Chad. Biography
Mahamat-Saleh Haroun studied film at the Conservatoire Libre du Cinéma in Paris.He later went to study journalism at Bordeaux I.U.T (Technical Institute), and then worked for several years as a journalist in France. He directed his first short film Tan Koul in 1991, but he became famous after his second film Maral Tanié (25 minutes), directed in 1994. This film tells the story of seventeen-year-old Halimé, whose family forces her to marry a man in his fifties. Halimé refuses to consummate the marriage. In 1999, Mahamat-Saleh Haroun released his first feature film Bye Bye Africa, which he wrote, directed, and starred in. The film, a docu-drama, tells the story of a film director from Chad who returns to his home country. It received a jury mention at the Venice Film Festival.Bye Bye Africa is the first feature film from Chad. In 2001, he directed a short film Letter from New York City, which won the Prize for the best video at the 11th African Film Festival in Milan. In 2002, he wrote and directed his second feature film, Abouna  which won the best cinematography award at FESPACO in 2003. Set in the capital of Chad, N'Djamena, Abouna is the story of two young brothers (Amine and Tahir) who wake up one morning and realise that their father has left the family. The boys decide to search for their father in the city. While watching a movie in the cinema, they think they


texts: recognize their father as one of the actors. They try to steal the film to examine it but they are caught by the police.Unsure of how to deal with them and becoming mentally exhausted herself, their mother sends them away to a Koranic school. Here they hatch a plan to escape and find their father - that is until Tahir meets a mute girl at the school. The filmmaker then shot a documentary, Kalala, the intimate portrait of Hissein Djibrine (nicknamed Kalala), a close friend of Haroun who died in 2003 of AIDS. Hissein Djibrine produced the filmmaker's first two feature films, and Haroun was deeply touched by his death and wanted to honor his memory. In 2006, Mahamat-Saleh Haroun directed Dry Season (Daratt), the story of young Akim, who at the age of 16, left his village in Chad for the capital, N’Djamena, to avenge his father. He quickly finds the murderer, a former war criminal and gets hired as an apprentice in his bakery. But with this man Akim experiences feelings that he never had before.This film won the bronze standard of Yennenga, as well as the best cinematography award at FESPACO in 2007. In 2008, he directed Sex, Okra and Salted Butter (Sexe, gombo et beurre sale).This comedy follows the lives of a family of Chadian immigrants in Bordeaux, France. Hortense cheats on her much older husband, her husband also strays, and their son goes to great lengths to conceal his sexuality from his parents. Meanwhile, the two younger sons are looking for guidance outside the family. In 2010, he directed his fourth feature film A Screaming Man which won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival. This film tells the story of Adam and his son Abdel who are separated by the civil war in Chad. The


texts: father's job is in jeopardy because the new management of the hotel wants to give his job to his son.The presence of rebels in N’Djamena pushes Adam to lose any way to contact his son. Haroun received the Robert-Bresson Prize for this film at the Mostra de Venise. In 2011, he was a member of the jury for the main competition chaired by Robert De Niro at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival. In 2012, he was selected as a president of the 28th International Love Film Festival at Mons. In 2013, his film Grigris was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. Set in Chad, the film tells the story of Grisgris, a young man who is disabled, dreams of becoming a dancer and gets involved in smuggling. With Grisgris, Mahamat-Saleh Haroun endeavors to show the youth of a country in full reconstruction.In 2016, Haroun was again at Cannes to present his documentary Hissein Habré, a Chadian Tragedy, about the Chadian dictator from 1982 to 1990, Hissein Habré. The film consists of interviews (mostly conducted by Clément Abaifouta of the Association of the Victims of the Hissein Habré Regime) of victims of Habré about their arrests and tortures by the secret police. In 2017 Haroun made his second feature film set in France, A Season in France. This film is about Abbas, a French teacher in the Central African Republic who fled with his family during the civil war. The memory of his wife who was killed during their journey still haunts him. When he returns to France, he falls in love with Carole, a woman who helps him and his two sons. Unable to obtain refugee status, Abbas and his brother are given a notice of deportation and a hard choice to make.In Haroun's 2020 film Lingui, he returns to Chad,


texts:
 focusing on the problems faced by thirty year old Amina and her daughter Maria who is half her age. When Amina, a practicing Muslim, realizes that her daughter is pregnant and that she wants to have an abortion, the mother and daughter are confronted by the fact that abortion is both illegal and “immoral” in Chad. Political career
Mahamat-Saleh <mask> was Minister of Tourism, Culture and Crafts of Chad from February 5, 2017, to February 8, 2018. Novel
Haroun's first novel, “Djibril ou les Ombres portées”, was published in 2017 by Gallimard. Filmography

Shorts
 Maral Tanie (1994)
 Goi-Goi (1995)
B 400 (1997)
Letter from New York City (2001)

Feature films
 Bye Bye Africa (1999)
 Abouna (2002)
 Daratt (2006)
 Sex, Okra and Salted Butter (2008)
 A Screaming Man (2010)
 GriGris (2013)
 A Season in France (2017)
 Lingui, The Sacred Bonds (2021)

Documentaries
 Bord' Africa (1995)
Sotigui Kouyate, a modern griot (1997)
Kalala (2005)
 Hissane Habré: A Chadian Tragedy (2016)

Distinctions
Awards

 1999: Best first film award at the Venice Film Festival for Bye Bye Africa
 2006: Special Jury Prize at the Venice Film Festival for Daratt. 2007: Yennenga bronze stallion and Best Photo Award at FESPACO 2007 for Daratt. 2010: Jury Prize at the Cannes Festival 2010 for A Screaming Man.2010: Robert-Bresson Prize at the Venice Film Festival (awarded by the Catholic Church) for A Screaming Man. References

External links

 BBC world service article
 World Socialist Web Site
 Alexandra Topping, Mahamat Saleh Haroun brings Chad to the world, and vice versa, through film, 25 February 2013, The Guardian

1961 births
Chadian film directors
Living people
People from Ouaddaï Region
Chadian expatriates in


texts:
<mask> (born November 1, 1956) is an American bassist best known for his contribution to the 1970s-80s jazz-fusion genre and his work with Al Di Meola, Billy Cobham, and Gil Evans. Landers is a session musician and was a member of Tom Scott's band on The Pat Sajak Show. Born in Taunton, Massachusetts, <mask> has worked with Tracy Chapman, Tori Amos, Crimson Jazz Trio, Lee Ritenour, Dave Grusin, and Loreena McKennitt. He is also known for his contribution to bass guitar design with the Pedulla Buzz bass and Peavey Dyna Bass as well as his Signature Series, the Peavey TL-5 and TL-6. Career

Musical beginnings
Landers was influenced to pursue music by his parents. His father played guitar, electric bass, and lap steel guitar professionally. His mother sang with church choirs and played piano.Landers took up the drums first, then guitar at 8 years old and by the time he was 11 had formed his first band in Brockton, Massachusetts called The Jordan Empire. The band members would each earn about $5 for playing songs by the Beatles, Rolling Stones, Steppenwolf, Jimi Hendrix at private functions, then eventually at larger venues. At age 14 he shifted to bass in order to play with his high school big band and soon found himself busy playing with a number of bands in the Brockton area, most notably a southern Massachusetts rock group called Pledge. Landers studied at the Berklee College of Music. During his second semester he was invited to tour with Al Kooper, drummer Vinnie Colaiuta, and trumpeter Stanton Davis. When he returned to Boston, he played with Tiger Okoshi, Mike Stern, Mick Goodrick, Mike Metheny and Dean Brown. Professional music career
Landers moved to New York City in 1978 and lived there until 1984.He worked with Gil Evans, Al Di Meola, Billy Cobham, Michael Brecker, Barry Finnerty, Horace Arnold, Sam Morrison, Tiger Okoshi, Mike Stern, Nicholas Pike, and Michael Shrieve. He was a founding member of the jazz-fusion group Vital Information with David Wilczewski and

masks:
Timothy Gerard Landers
Landers


texts:
 Journey drummer Steve Smith. Landers shifted gears in 1984 and moved to Los Angeles. He worked with Joe Chiccarelli, Richie Wise, Paul Brown, and David Kershenbaum and recorded with Tori Amos, Tracy Chapman, Stan Ridgeway, Al Stewart, Vince Neil, Andy Kim, Graham Nash, Loreena McKennitt, Beyoncé, The Pointer Sisters, Stevie Nicks, and Jethro Tull. He continued to contribute to jazz recordings on the west coast for Lee Ritenour, Dave Grusin, Tom Scott, Frank Gambale, Eric Marienthal, and Gannin Arnold. He and former King Crimson drummer Ian Wallace and pianist Jody Nardone formed the Crimson Jazz Trio in 2005 and they recorded two albums before Wallace's death. Landers spent a number of years as musical director for pianist John Tesh and produced Tesh's recordings, including two big-band jazz albums, and was nominated for both a Grammy and GMA Dove Award.Landers has written for national commercials for Nike, MacDonald's, Sprint, and Coca-Cola. Nominations
 In 2000, he was nominated with John Tesh for a GMA Dove Award as producer for "Best Instrumental Album" for Tesh's One World. In 2003, he was nominated with John Tesh for a Grammy Award as producer for "Best Pop Instrumental Album" for Tesh's The Power of Love. In 2015, he was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for television music production for Intelligence for Your Life. Basses
Landers uses the Pedulla "Nuance" model, a 5 string bolt-on electric bass custom built for <mask> by M.V. Pedulla Guitars, and a Pedulla 4 string fretless "Buzz" bass that he helped Mike Pedulla with in the initial design along with Mark Egan. He also uses his own signature model basses designed by Landers and produced by Peavey Electronics from 1988-1996..
 .

1956 births
Living people
American rock bass guitarists
American jazz bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Jazz fusion musicians
Berklee College of Music alumni
20th-century American bass guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
Vital Information


texts:
<mask> (born December 31, 1941) is the longest serving Arkansas State Treasurer in Arkansas history, grew up in Paragould, Arkansas. She attended school at Delaplaine School in Delaplaine, Arkansas. At a very early age she became interested in politics, and aspired to be successful. She graduated from Vilonia High School, and attended Arkansas State College in Jonesboro, Arkansas, and after graduating went on to hold a number of jobs, and was a party activist for over a decade. She has described herself as lifelong, diehard, yellow dog Democrat. Early political career
<mask> was born in Delight, Arkansas. She was elected Treasurer of Greene County, Arkansas, in 1970, and went on to serve four two-year terms, until in 1979, when newly elected Governor Bill Clinton, appointed her Auditor of State.Aside from that, she was very active in Democratic politics at the same time. She served as Vice Chairman of the Arkansas Democratic State Committee from 1976 to 1978 and went on to serve as a member of the Democratic National Committee during the same time period, 1976–1978. In 1978, she helped run then Arkansas Attorney General Bill Clinton's ultimately successful run for governor, serving as his 1st Congressional District Coordinator. Other Democratic activism
<mask> is noted as one of the major women in Arkansas politics, and one of the better known, and high-powered Arkansas Democratic activists. Positions she has held include:

Vice Chairman of Democratic State Committee, 1976–78, November 1991 – September 1993
Member of Democratic National Committee, 1976–78, and November 1991 – September 1993
Past President of the Arkansas Democratic Women's Club
Delegate to the Democratic National Convention, 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000
Member of the Credentials Committee, Democratic National Convention 1976

Tenure as state treasurer
<mask> <mask> served as Auditor of State for one year. In 1980 she ran for state treasurer when Nancy Hall, the first woman ever elected as

masks:
Jimmie Lou Fisher
Fisher
Fisher
Jimmie Lou
Fisher


texts:
 a statewide constitutional officer in Arkansas, retired after serving 18 years. <mask> easily won the primary due to her powerful connections within the Arkansas Democratic Party.She then went on to win the General Election just as easily, and in doing so, became only the third woman ever to be elected to statewide office in Arkansas (behind Hall and Senator Hattie Caraway). She then went on to win three two-year terms as state treasurer, and four four-year terms, serving a total of 22 years as state treasurer, making her the longest serving state treasurer in the history of Arkansas, and placing her among its longest serving statewide officials. In 1987 she served as Vice President for the Southern Region of the National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers. Later, in 1990, she served as President of the National Association of State Treasurers. <mask> was a very active state treasurer. In 1995 she was a delegate to the White House Conference on Aging, and was later appointed to the Rural Telephone Commission by President Bill Clinton. While Treasurer, <mask> served as a member of the board of Arkansas Development Finance Authority, the Arkansas Public Employees Retirement System Board, the Arkansas Teacher Retirement System Board, and was a member and Secretary of the Arkansas State Board of Finance.2002 gubernatorial race

In 2002 the Arkansas Democratic Party asked <mask> to be its candidate against Mike Huckabee, because they felt that she was the strongest candidate possible. They didn't want to allow the highly popular Huckabee to blow past the opposition to another term as he had done 1998, when he easily defeated the Democratic candidate in what was an embarrassingly large defeat for the Democratic Party. Determined not to let that happen again, the Democratic Party came to <mask>. <mask> was not able to run for another term for state treasurer because of the 1994 term-limits law that voters had passed. Because of this,

masks: Fisher Fisher Fisher Fisher Fisher Fisher


texts:
 <mask> reluctantly agreed to take on Huckabee. Despite her reluctance to enter the race originally, <mask> ran an incredibly strong and active campaign. She raised over $1 million, and campaigned hard across the state.She hit Huckabee hard on Education with her REACH proposal. This came at a time where Huckabee was very vulnerable on that issue due to public frustration about poor education funding for rural schools. Other highlights of her campaign included: ethics accountability, prescription drug relief for seniors, Economic Growth and raising the minimum wage, crime, (during a time when Huckabee was being slammed due to questionable pardons, including one that left two woman dead in Missouri), and fiscal responsibility. Polling showed the race slowly narrowing, but <mask> was unable to cut into Huckabee's lead enough to win. Huckabee was also helped by the positive political wave for Republicans that swept through nation that year, though it did little to save incumbent U.S. Senator Tim Hutchinson, from his loss,  by a 54 percent to 46 percent margin, to then Attorney General Mark Pryor. In the end <mask> performed very well, far better than the Democrats' 1998 candidate.<mask> managed to hold the personally popular Mike Huckabee to a margin of victory of 53 percent to 47 percent, giving him a real race, which was just what the Democratic Party had hoped for when it pushed her into the race. 2006 Democratic Attorney General primary
In 2006 <mask> signed on as Campaign Chairwoman for State Representative Dustin McDaniel of Jonesboro, who recently won an incredibly close race against North Little Rock City Attorney Paul Suskie for the Democratic nomination for Attorney General. This was thought by many political experts to be the biggest boost to McDaniel's campaign, even bigger than the endorsements of dozens of former presidents of the Arkansas State Bar Association, signifying <mask>'s prominence among Democrats in the state. 2006 hospitalization

masks: Fisher Fisher Fisher Fisher Fisher Fisher Fisher


texts:
<mask> was checked into St. Vincent Infirmary Medical Center in Little Rock on the morning of April 12, 2006. She apparently suffered a "mini-stroke" similar to one U.S. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid had a few months before. She first noticed something odd while preparing breakfast that morning. She immediately called her sister, who drove her to a family doctor.He went on to send her straight the emergency room. Later it was determined that it was not progressing, and that she was stable. Those around her have said that she is positive as always, and appears to be doing just fine. Doctors kept her in the hospital for almost a month and a half to keep her under observation, and perform tests. She was later released after she cleared all the tests, and they noted no further symptoms or complications. Awards
Throughout her long career, <mask> has won many distinguished awards and honors, including:

Arkansas Democratic Party "Gressie Carnes Award" 1979
Worthen Bank Professional Women's Advisory Board "Arkansas Professional Women of Distinction Award" 1989
George C. Douthit "Freedom of Information Award" 1989
National Association of State Treasurers "Jesse Unruh Award" 1991
National Association of Democratic Women "Outstanding Elected Democratic Women Holding Public Office Award" 1992
Arkansas Federation of Democratic Women "Nancy J. Hall Award" 1995
Arkansas Easter Seal
"Arkansan of the Year" 1997
"Top 100 Women in Arkansas" 1997, 1998, 1999
UALR "Women of Arkansas – Agent of Change Award", 2000
Association of Government Accountants  "Financial Manager of the Year" 2000

Election history
2002 General Election

References

External links
http://www.jimmieloufisher.com/

|-

|-

1941 births
Arkansas Democrats
Arkansas State University alumni
Living people
People from Greene County, Arkansas
People from Paragould, Arkansas
State treasurers of Arkansas
Women in Arkansas politics
Candidates in the 2002 United States elections
21st-century American

masks: Fisher Fisher


texts:
<mask> () or <mask> (, 18 April 1854, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire – 12 September 1922 Kharkiv [Kharkov], Ukrainian SSR, USSR), sometimes spelled Sumcov, was an ethnographer, folklorist, art historian, literary scholar, educator and museum expert, who flourished in the Russian Empire, Ukrainian People's Republic, and Soviet Ukraine. <mask> was a champion and defender of the culture and language of Ukraine in both academic and popular realms, and contributed to a systematic history of Ukrainian literature. He delivered the first Ukrainian-language university lecture during a decades-long imperial ban, and established the H.S. Skovoroda Museum of Sloboda Ukraine (in 2015, renamed M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum after its founder). Life and career
<mask> was born into a noble family, descendants of Cossacks. His father, <mask>, worked in the Imperial Ministry of Finance in St. Petersburg, and after his retirement in 1856, moved to Kharkiv, where he died the same year. <mask>'s mother, Anna Ivanovna, brought him up on her own.She had thorough knowledge of traditions and customs of Sloboda Ukraine as well as folk medicine. It was Anna Ivanovna, who inspired and supported his interest in folklore and traditions. He studied at the 2nd Kharkiv Boys Gymnasium (high school), which he graduated with silver medal. The native Russian-speaker learned French and German in the gymnasium, and taught himself Ukrainian. Afterwards, he graduated History and Philology Faculty at Kharkiv University (1871–1875). In 1876 he undertook several courses at Heidelberg University, Germany. In 1878 Sumtsov returned to Kharkiv as a lecturer of Russian

masks:
Mykola Fedorovych Sumtsov
Nikolai Fyodorovich Sumtsov
Sumtsov
Mykola Sumtsov
Fedor Ivanovich Sumtsov
Sumtsov


texts:
 Literature.Supported by his mentor, Alexander Potebnja, he dedicated his introductory lecture to Ukrainian duma (Cossack epic song). In 1880, he defended his Master thesis On the Wedding Rites, Mainly Russian. In 1885 <mask> was awarded a PhD degree for his thesis Khleb v Obriadakh i Pesniakh (Bread in Rituals and Songs) and in 1888 he was appointed professor. In 1902, the 12th Archaeological Congress was held from August 15 to 27 in Kharkiv, organised by the Kharkiv Historical and Philological Society, chaired by <mask> <mask>. At the congress he organised an ethnographic exhibition consisting of impressive 26 sections and 1,490 artefacts. That exhibition became the foundation of Kharkiv University Ethnographic Museum, with <mask> as first curator from 1905 to 1918. One of the most notable of <mask> <mask>'s activities in support of the Ukrainian national movement was his public lecture in Ukrainian on 28 September 1907, when the ban on using Ukrainian in Ukraine had not yet been lifted.In 1916, the Russian Geographical Society awarded <mask> <mask> a gold medal. In 1917, <mask> <mask>, along with other members of Special Committee of Kharkiv University Board, signed an appeal to the government asking to allow free use of Ukrainian in all Kharkiv institutions. One of the last projects undertaken by <mask> <mask> in 1920 to 1922 was overseeing gathering information on the local kobzars and their songs for the Gregory Skovoroda Museum of Sloboda Ukraine (now — M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum). Publications

<mask> <mask> wrote extensively. The bibliography of his known works contains 1,544 entries. His writings mainly concern two

masks: Sumtsov Mykola Sumtsov Sumtsov Mykola Sumtsov Mykola Sumtsov Mykola Sumtsov Mykola Sumtsov Mykola Sumtsov


texts:
 areas of science: ethnography and literature. In addition to the local periodicals, his works were also published in Bulgarian, Polish, Bohemian, German and French academic publications.Ethnographic works

 1881 – O brachnykh obriadakh, preimushchestvenno russkikh [On the Wedding Rites, Mainly Russian]
 1885 – Khleb v Obriadakh i Pesniakh [Bread in rituals and songs]
 1886 – articles on Koliadky [carols] in Kievskaia Starina
 1889–1890 – articles on cultural experiences in Kievskaia Starina
 1891 – articles on Pysanky in Kievskaia Starina
 1898 – Razyskaniia v oblasti anekdoticheskoi literatury [Research in the field of anecdotal literature]
 1902 – Ocherki Narodnogo Byta [Sketches of folk life]
 1918 – Slobozhane: Istorychno-Etnohrafichna Rozvidka [The Sloboda Ukrainians: a historico-ethnographic study]

Literary works

<mask>'s numerous literary publications include a range of articles dedicated to writings of renowned poets and writers, including Ivan Franko, Borys Hrinchenko, Ivan Manzhura, Oleksandr Oles, Vladimir Odoyevsky (See: Prince Odoyevsky. Moscow, 1884), Nikolay Nekrasov, Nikolay Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Vasily Zhukovsky and Alexander Pushkin (See: Etudes about A. S. Pushkin. Moscow 1897). <mask> is also known as the author of a detailed research on the history of Cossack baroque thinkers, theologians and poets like Ivan Vyshensky, Lazar Baranovych, Ioanikii Galiatovsky, and Innokentii Gizel (See: On the history of literature in Southern Russia of the 17th century, in original: K istorii iuzhnorusskoi literatury semnadtsatogo stoletiia. Kharkiv, 1885). The works Sumtsov's also include literary publications on Ukrainian thinkers like

masks: Sumtsov Sumtsov


texts:
 Ivan Kotliarevsky, Taras Shevchenko, Panteleimon Kulish, Mykhailo Starytsky and Alexander Potebnja. Membership

 1880–1896 – Kharkiv Historical and Philological Society, secretary
 1897–1919 – Kharkiv Historical and Philological Society, president
 1905 – Russian Academy of Sciences, corresponding member
 1908 – Shevchenko Scientific Society, full member
 1919 – All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, full member

Selected works
 An Essay on the History of the Witchcraft in Europe.Kharkiv University, 1878. (in Rus.) On the Wedding Rites, Mainly Russian. Kharkiv University, 1881. (in Rus.) Prince V. F. Odoyevsky. Moscow, 1884.(in Rus.) Khleb v obriadakh i pesniakh (Bread in [Folk] Rituals and Songs), 1885. (in Rus.) Research on Koliadki and Shchedrivki. Kiev, 1886. (in Rus.) Raven in the Folk Literature.Moscow, 1890. (in Rus.) Contemporary Malorussian Ethnography. Kiev, 1893–1897. (in Rus.) On the Influence of Malorussian Scholastic Literature of the Seventeenth Century at the Great-Russian Old Believers Literature of the Eighteenth Century, and on the Reflection of Masonry // Kievskaya starina. 1895, vol.51, No 12, Dep. 1, pp. 367–379. (in Rus.) On the Bibliography of Old Malorussian Religious Tales. Kharkiv University, 1896. (in Rus.)Razyskaniia v oblasti anekdoticheskoi literatury (Research in the Field of Anecdotal Literature), 1898. (in Rus.) Ocherki narodnogo byta (Sketches of Folk Life: From the 1901 Ethnographical Excursion to the Okhtyrka District of the Kharkiv Governorate), Kharkiv University, 1902. (in Rus.) References

1854 births
1922 deaths
People from Saint Petersburg
Russian academicians
Russian writers
Ukrainian


texts:
John Sewell "<mask>" <mask> (September 24, 1825 – December 12, 1895), popularly known as the "Comedian of the Frontier", was an Irish-American actor and impresario who travelled extensively throughout the American West and later in life became one of the first State Senators of Idaho. Early life
<mask> was born John Sewell Folds Jr. in Dublin, Ireland on September 24, 1825. His father ran a print shop and Folds learned how to set type at a young age. A fire at his father's printing plant forced the family into bankruptcy and they immigrated to the United States. Landing in Boston on September 19, 1845, Folds sought to make his living in America as an actor. He made his way to New York City and worked for Horace Greeley as a reporter and typesetter for the New York Tribune. Because of Greeley's dislike of the theater, Folds adopted the <mask> stage name, taking the surname from that of a judge and policeman that he knew in Ireland.Acting
<mask> was known to appear on stage at least once in his native Ireland, but made his New York acting debut on December 8, 1845 at the Chatham Theater in a play called The Irish Attorney as a character named Pierce O'Hara. In 1847 he left New York City to become a full-time actor, comedian and magician. Two years later in 1849 he married fellow actor Jeannette Allen in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, both performed in J.H. Howell's Theatre company in Erie, Pennsylvania. By 1850 <mask> was performing with his own troupe known as "Langrishe and Company" throughout New York, Ohio and southeastern Canada. <mask> and Company travelled westward in 1851, crossing Lake Michigan to play in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Performances followed in Chicago, Illinois and Kansas City, Missouri; his troupe continued to draw favorable reviews in the Midwest as late as 1859

masks: Jack Langrishe Langrishe Langrishe Langrishe Langrishe Langrishe


texts:
 until the troupe began running out of money due to salaries and extensive wardrobes.Arriving in Central City, Colorado in 1860, Langrishe and Company performed to sold-out shows in mining towns as opposed to established cities. After close to a decade of performing in Colorado, the Langrishes made their way to Helena, Montana in 1870 where they built the Langrishe Opera House. The post-Civil War years showed a marked change in theatrical tastes of the West. Dramas were forsaken for minstrel shows and burlesque. <mask> began to lose his fortune and modified his shows to suit the tastes of his audience. The company took to the road after the Langrishe Opera House burned down in 1874. Deadwood
Langrishe arrived with his wife Jeannette and their Company in Deadwood, South Dakota on July 15, 1876 and their first performance was held at The Bella Union.Langrishe along with treasurer and troupe manager Jonas Hellawell, leased the McDaniels Theatre July 22, 1876 from Cheyenne, Wyoming theatre manager James McDaniels, who constructed the first theatre in Deadwood. The Langrishe Theatre's first production was "Trodden Down" on July 29, 1876. The Langrishe Theatre provided facilities for the <mask> murder trial, the man accused in the death of Wild Bill Hickok, the first marriage to be performed in Deadwood August 26, 1876, George Morgan to L. McKelvey by Judge Kuykendall, and as a meeting place for the fraternal order, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows. General George Crook and his officers would attend a performance at the Langrishe Theatre September 23, 1876 while visiting Deadwood. Langrishe was an integral player in shaping Deadwood's early history as he participated in civic endeavors such as Fourth of July event planning and fund raising for health charities. The Langrishe

masks:
Langrishe
Jack McCall


texts:
 Company's benefit performance October 14, 1876 donated receipts totaling over $73 to Deadwood's hospital kitty. Calamity Jane would appear at the Langrishe Theatre in 1876 along with noted attractions such as Jenny Lind Burlesque.Legitimate Deadwood actors and actresses, Fanny B. Price, Augusta Chambers, Belle Gilbert, Jim Gilbert, Frank Perkins, Jimmy J.M. Martin, W. J. Gross, Viola Porter, J.P. Clark and Emma Whittle performed nightly to packed houses while other forms of Deadwood entertainment and amusement drew equally large variety audiences at the Gem and Bella Union Theatres where Negro Minstrels, Clog Dancers, Acrobats, Child Contortionists, Double Trapeze, Brass Bands and Serio-comic Song and Character Sketch Artists Charles Vincent and Georgie Morrell Vincent were at the top of the bill. Langrishe leased and remodeled the Tremont House in Deadwood May 1879 and built new opera houses in the nearby mining towns of Central City and Lead, two and ten miles up Deadwood Gulch. On Langrishe Theatre opening night May 9, 1878, choice seats sold for $25 and theatre goers were tempted to sample strawberries and ice cream after the performance. The Langrishe Theatre building would be rented to Impresario Johnny Rogers and The Metropolitan Company where legitimate theatre continued to be a successful choice of entertainment for an evolving Deadwood audience.The Old Langrishe Theatre building would continue to serve as a theatre and as a church for Congregationalist services until its final demise in the Big Deadwood Fire of September 26, 1879. Return to Colorado
Many Deadwood miners and businessmen relocated to Leadville, Colorado in January 1879 to follow the promise of the new rush and the next big strike. Jack Langrishe and Company would once again take the stage with fellow


texts:
 Deadwood manager Billy Nuttall's Bella Union Theatre Company who opened the new Leadville Grand Central Theatre. Al Swearengen and the Gem Theater troupe visited Leadville February 1879, but chose to return to Deadwood. The Langrishe Troupe continued to perform to audiences in Deadwood, Central, Lead and to the soldiers at Ft. Meade through the summer of 1879. The Jack Langrishe Company's final performance to a Deadwood audience would be "Our American Cousin" August 15, 1879 performed by troupe artists The Gilberts. Jack and Jeannette Langrishe opened November 23, 1879 at the Tabor Opera House operated by Colorado Silver Baron Horace Austin Warner Tabor and Baby Doe Tabor, Leadville, Colorado.Popular Langrishe actor Jimmy Martin would join with fellow Gem and Bella Union Theatre artists Flora Belle and Fannie Garretson to open at Leadville's McDaniels Theatre May 1880. Idaho
Langrishe retired from the stage in 1885 and moved to Idaho where he served as a Justice of the Peace and occasional playwright in Coeur d'Alene. In 1890 he was elected to the State Senate as a republican in the first State Legislature of Idaho and served on committees which chose the state's flag, state seal and two senators for the US Senate. In 1892 he returned to his roots as a newsman publishing The Wardner News in Wardner, Idaho. After a brief illness he died in Wardner, Idaho on December 12, 1895. His grave is located in Kellogg, Idaho. In popular culture
Langrishe was portrayed by Brian Cox in the third season of the HBO television series Deadwood.Bibliography

Footnotes

1895 deaths
Comedians from Dublin (city)
People of the American Old West
American male stage actors
American theatre managers and producers
Idaho state senators
1825 births
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American


texts:
<mask><mask> (1829-1930) was an American journalist of the 19th Century. Personal life

<mask>, who was born in Daviess County, Kentucky, was the son of <mask>, a tailor, and Abrilla or Adaline Pittman, 13 years his junior. He studied at Cumberland University, Tennessee, and he became a lawyer. He moved to St. Louis, Missouri, in 1842, when he was 21. In the 1880 census, Grissom was living in Carondelet Township, adjoining Kirkwood, Missouri, with his wife, Frances R<mask>. The 1910 census stated he was widowed. In 1930 he was feted with a party to mark his 100th birthday in a Kirkwood retirement home, where he lived for 18 years.He died at the age of 101 on May 17, 1930,  and was buried in Kirkwood Cemetery. Professional life

Editing

Grissom's initial journalistic job, in 1842 or shortly after, was with the St. Louis Evening News, where he first covered a lecture series at the library. He was soon made editor, a position he held for ten years. An interviewer wrote of him in 1927: "As a boy[,] he had felt the urge to write[,] and the career of a journalist attracted him strongly. . . . Grissom had the somewhat detached, impersonal attitude toward events often found in newspaper men." In September 1861, the first year of the American Civil War,  he and Charles G. Ramsey, proprietor of the Evening News, were arrested and the newspaper was ordered repressed . The two were released and the suppression was lifted when "satisfactory guarantees" were made to the commanding general of Union forces that the newspaper "should not hereafter contain articles of a character calculated to impede

masks:
Daniel M
. Grissom
Grissom
Alfred Grissom
. Grissom


texts:
 the operations of the Government or impair the efficiency of the operations of the army of the West." He continued as editor when the St. Louis Union bought the News and the name of the combined newspapers was changed to Evening Dispatch.Some "five or six years later" he moved to the Missouri Republican, where he became assistant editor to William Hyde. In 1863, while editor of the Union, <mask> was nominated to be state printer of Missouri but was not chosen. The Chicago Tribune at that time referred to him as a "conservative" and to his successful opponent, a Dr. Curry, editor of the State Times, as a "radical." St. Louis city directories listed <mask> as an editor working for the Dispatch in 1865  and the Republican in 1878 and 1880. Historian Walter B. Stevens said of him in 1911:

He was at home in every field of editorial comment. What he wrote was easy to read. The style was virile and straightforward.There was no striving after effect in words. By 1888, <mask> had retired; he was lauded that year in a speech by former Republican editor William Hyde, who said that Grissom, then living in Kirkwood, had done more "all-round work than any other man who ever wielded the pen in St. Louis." Reporting

Lincoln-Douglas
<mask> covered one of the debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, in Alton, Illinois, in 1858. In 1928, he recalled:

Douglas, styled the "Little Giant,' was a small man scarcely 5 feet 4 inches, with broad shoulders and a stalwart neck. His head was massive and majestic-looking and his voice could deepen into a roar. He was well groomed and

masks: Grissom Grissom Grissom Grissom


texts:
 prosperous-looking and strode the stage as one at ease.At all times he seemed sure of himself. Lincoln's clothes hung loosely on his 6-foot-4-inch frame. His small,  twinkling gray eyes shone from beneath shaggy brows. . . . Sometimes he seemed all legs and feet and again all hands and neck. He had no stage manners, no studied art. His speech was full of short, homely words. . . . His very loneliness, modest bearing, air of mingled sadness and sincerity excited sympathy and won the hearts of the quiet, plain people. Gasconade Bridge
As a journalist with the St. Louis Evening News, Grissom was seated in the last car of the Pacific Railroad train involved in the Gasconade Bridge train disaster of 1855, in which more than thirty people were killed when a bridge collapsed under it.He recalled seventy-two years later:

Suddenly there was an awful crash, a sickening lurch—another—another. We were moving forward jerkily, sickeningly. Horrid sounds came from ahead. We realized in a flash what must have happened—the bridge was gone—we were being pulled into the river by the weight of the cars ahead, which had already crashed over the bank! Then—our car was going, too. The violent motion threw us to the floor. . . . When a relief train from St. Louis came to our aid[,] it was a very different kind of crowd .. . Hardly a word was spoken as we leaned our heads upon our hands, some uttering groans and low cries of despair caused by their own sufferings or the realization of the loss of friend or relative in the disaster. Other

Grissom was captain of Company G of the Ninth Regiment of the Enrolled


texts:
 Missouri Militia, which took action against Shelby in September–October 1863, fought at Booneville, Merrill’s Crossing and Dug Ford (near Jonesborough ) and Marshall in October, and was mustered out in November. At a large public meeting in Courthouse Square on June 17, 1865, Grissom was appointed, along with James O. Broadhead and Fred M. Kretschmar, to a committee to protest against the forcible removal of three judges from their chambers by armed men upon the order of Governor Thomas Clement Fletcher. In 1892, Grissom produced a "handsome pamphlet of eighty-four pages" for the Merchants Exchange of St. Louis
in which he laid out a proposal to Congress for separating the Mississippi River from all the other inland waterways of the United States when making appropriations for improvements. Legacy

Grissom's Landing on the Ohio River, ten miles below Owensboro, Kentucky, was named for him or his family. See also

 William Hyde (1836-1898), Grissom's managing editor on the Missouri Republican
Radicalism and Reconstruction in Missouri
 St. Louis in the American Civil War

References

1829 births
1930 deaths
19th-century American journalists
People from Daviess County, Kentucky
Cumberland University


texts:
<mask> "<mask>" <mask> (born January 12, 1975) is an American actor, performer, singer, songwriter, musician, and mentor. Early life and career
Born of Cherokee and Sac-Fox Native American descent in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, <mask> is the only child of Bill and <mask> and is a 5th generation American roots soul singer. He has been singing since age 2, and by age 15 signed his first recording contract with Disney's Hollywood Records. <mask> has performed his music on stages all over the world, as well as appeared on MTV, VH1, E! channel's The E! True Hollywood Story, A&E's Biography, and starred on serial television shows such as Fox's The X-Files and HBO's Big Love, among others. As co-founder of the Buzzfly Records record label with producer Mike Vizcarra, <mask> has had the freedom to write and perform with some of the most celebrated musicians in the industry.<mask> began his career as a student of the circus arts, working in childhood as a professional clown and later becoming a trained juggler and fire-spinner. In the mid-1980s, he made his acting debut in a guest appearance on the Oklahoma City-area version of Romper Room. Shortly after, <mask> won a small role as a mischievous little boy who called himself "Ben Dover" in the independent slasher film Offerings. In 1988, <mask> and his parents answered the casting call for a Disney-produced TV movie, one that was to serve as a reunion of the original 1950s Mouseketeers from the Mickey Mouse Club. The project, titled Why? Because We Like You, was looking to cast a crop of new child Mouseketeers to join the elder ones in the film's plot. <mask> was chosen as one of the child Mouseketeers,

masks:
Chasen Cord
Chase
Hampton
Hampton
Kenyan Hampton
Hampton
Hampton
Hampton
Hampton
Hampton
Hampton


texts: but the project would soon go through many changes.Rather than producing the project as a TV movie, Disney decided instead to turn it into an actual revival of the original Mickey Mouse Club series for The Disney Channel, featuring an all-new child cast of Mouseketeers. With that, <mask> and several other children selected for the TV movie were retained to star on the forthcoming The All-New Mickey Mouse Club. He appeared on the show initially for four seasons between 1989 and 1992, before returning to the show as a co-host (with former castmate Tiffini Hale) for its final season in 1994–1995. However, <mask> remained contracted to The Walt Disney Company and to The All-New Mickey Mouse Club during the seasons he did not appear on the show. Near the end of the second season in 1990, the producers of MMC sought to assemble a teen pop group in light of the current popularity of New Kids on the Block. Wanting to extricate such a group from the MMC cast, the producers chose <mask>, along with cast members Damon Pampolina, Albert Fields, Deedee Magno and Tiffini Hale, to compose the new pop act. A viewer voting contest would soon name the group The Party.<mask> went on to  release four albums with The Party on Disney's Hollywood Records, charting five hit singles on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The remake of the Dokken track "In My Dreams" was the highest-charting single, reaching #34, and is perhaps the best known hit from The Party. <mask> has acted in several serial television shows and feature films and has been the vocalist of the rock band Buzzfly, as well as a solo artist. He has been employed as a performing artist, mentor, and performance

masks: Hampton Hampton Hampton Hampton Hampton


texts: coach, mentoring and grooming talent at a leading Performing Arts school in the Los Angeles, California, area; he held residency as the music director for two of the school's locations. <mask> has shared the stage with some of the biggest talents and names in the entertainment industry. His music has been produced by Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, and Teddy Riley. Over the years, he's appeared with film stars including Ryan Gosling, Keri Russell, and Jessica Biel, and music artists including Justin Timberlake, Christina Aguilera, Britney Spears, Taylor Dayne, Color Me Badd, and most recently (2010) Davey Johnstone and Nigel Olsson of the Elton John Band, and guitar icon Slash of Guns N' Roses and Velvet Revolver.On May 16, 2007, <mask> independently released his first solo effort album, the eight-song Something to Believe EP, on his own Buzzfly Records label. On August 20, 2010, <mask> independently released his second solo effort album, the four-song Drugstore Girls EP, on his own Buzzfly Records label. The cover model appearing on the EP is American model, actress, and former adult film star Kendra Jade Rossi. <mask> enlisted Orlando, Florida-based Serenade Entertainment Group to secure a series of live shows and on-air in-studio radio appearances to promote & support the EP. Beginning in October 2010, <mask> set upon a tour of the southeastern U.S., opening with an intimate club performance in downtown Orlando, where he offered an "up close & personal" extended set performing solo acoustic and as a trio, being joined by musicians Matt Adkins & Jay DiBella who later signed on as performing tour support. Beginning 2011, <mask> served as co-creator and

masks: Hampton Hampton Hampton Hampton Hampton Hampton


texts: producer of the live concert performances of children's recording artist Riff Rockit, the alias & character of singer/songwriter Evan Michael. <mask> additionally served as a writer and voiceover artist on the 2013 direct-to-DVD release Riff Rockit: The Power of Music, in which he voiced the character of Ben Jammin.To provide additional voices for the project, <mask> hired a few of his former The All-New Mickey Mouse Club co-stars, including Damon Pampolina, Deedee Magno Hall, Marc Worden, and Rhona Bennett. In 2014, <mask> teamed with Boston-area rap artists Reks and Dutch ReBelle for the recording of the hip-hop single "I Can't Breathe", which featured <mask> on vocals, Reks and ReBelle on rap verses, and production by American Antagon1st. "I Can't Breathe" addressed the then-recent cases of racial profiling by police, namely the infamous incidents that occurred in Ferguson, MO, and Staten Island, NY; it is the latter event that inspired the song's title, as victim Eric Garner was recorded to have spoken the phrase "I can't breathe" as he was apprehended by police. Accompanying the song's somewhat graphic music video, <mask> states on his website, "In light of the recent police violence and the need for our press to feed the fire. This was made to start conversation, promote understanding & healing, and awaken the blind. This is three artists views on the feelings felt after so many have needlessly fallen." Released March 20, 2015, the well-received single reached #7 on iTunes hip-hop/rap charts within a week of its debut.On April 12, 2019, <mask> released a cover of the P.M. Dawn song, "I'd Die Without You," performed with vocal


texts:
 collaboration from former bandmate Deedee Magno Hall. On May 28, 2021, <mask> released the digital-single, "Nobody". Personal life
On July 28, 2012, <mask> married Lisa Cinelli, a former girlfriend from his teenage years with whom he had recently reunited. The two originally met in 1989 on the set of The All-New Mickey Mouse Club when Cinelli was a visiting audience member. Their initial courtship lasted into <mask>'s tenure as a member of The Party. The couple divide their time between <mask>'s home in Los Angeles and Cinelli's residence just outside Boston, Massachusetts.They have two children, daughter Everly Love (born on October 20, 2016) and son Hayes Deacon (born March 12, 2018). Filmography

Discography

With The Party
 The Party (1990)
 In the Meantime, In Between Time (1991)
 Free (1992)
 The Party's Over...Thanks for Coming (1993)
 Greatest Hits (1997)

With Buzzfly
 "Wicked Ocean" (feat. Tony Lucca & Mike Vizcarra) – Digital Single (February 1, 2012)
 "Believe" (feat. Nathan Worden & Mike Vizcarra) – Digital Single (March 1, 2012)

Solo
 Something To Believe EP (May 16, 2007)
 Drugstore Girls EP (August 20, 2010)
 "I Can't Breathe" (feat. Reks, Dutch Rebelle & American Antagon1st) – Digital Single (March 20, 2015)
 "I'd Die Without You" (feat. Deedee Magno Hall) (P.M. Dawn cover) – Digital Single (April 12, 2019)
 "Nobody" – Digital Single (May 28, 2021)

References

External links

American male child actors
American male film actors
American male singers
American male television actors
Mouseketeers
Male actors from Oklahoma City
1975 births
Living people
Native American male actors
Musicians from Oklahoma City
21st-century

masks: Hampton Hampton Hampton Hampton


texts: <mask> ( ,  ;  ; 17 May 19003 June 1989), also known as <mask>, was an Iranian political and religious leader who served as the 1st Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 until his death in 1989. He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which saw the overthrow of the last Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the end of the Persian monarchy. Following the revolution, <mask> became the country's first supreme leader, a position created in the constitution of the Islamic Republic as the highest-ranking political and religious authority of the nation, which he held until his death. Most of his period in power was taken up by the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988. He was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on 4 June 1989. <mask> was born in Khomeyn, in what is now Iran's Markazi Province. His father was murdered in 1903 when Khomeini was two years old.He began studying the Quran and  Arabic from a young age and was assisted in his religious studies by his relatives, including his mother's cousin and older brother. <mask> was a marja ("source of emulation") in Twelver Shia Islam, a Mujtahid or faqih (an expert in Sharia) and author of more than 40 books, but he is primarily known for his political activities. He spent more than 15 years in exile for his opposition to the last shah. In his writings and preachings he expanded the theory of welayat-el faqih, the "Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist (clerical authority)", to include theocratic political rule by Islamic jurists. This principle (though not known to the wider public before the revolution), was appended to the new Iranian

masks:
Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini
Ayatollah Khomeini
Khomeini
Khomeini
Khomeini


texts: constitution after being put to a referendum. According to The New York Times, Khomeini called democracy the equivalent of prostitution. Whether <mask>'s ideas are compatible with democracy and whether he intended the Islamic Republic to be democratic is disputed.He was Time magazine's Man of the Year in 1979 for his international influence, and <mask> has been described as the "virtual face of Shia Islam in Western popular culture". In 1982, he survived one military coup attempt. <mask> was known for his support of the hostage takers during the Iran hostage crisis, his fatwa calling for the murder of British Indian novelist Salman Rushdie, and for referring to the United States as the "Great Satan" and Soviet Union as the "Lesser Satan." <mask> has been criticized for these acts and for human rights violations of Iranians (including his ordering of execution of thousands of political prisoners, war criminals and prisoners of the Iran–Iraq War). He has also been lauded as a "charismatic leader of immense popularity", a "champion of Islamic revival" by Shia scholars, who attempted to establish good relations between Sunnis and Shias, and a major innovator in political theory and religious-oriented populist political strategy. <mask> held the title of Grand Ayatollah and is officially known as <mask> inside Iran and by his supporters internationally. He is generally referred to as Ayatollah <mask> by others.In Iran, his gold-domed tomb in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahrāʾ cemetery has become a shrine for his adherents, and he is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians regularly punished for insulting him. A cult of

masks:
Khomeini
Khomeini
Khomeini
Khomeini
Khomeini
Imam Khomeini
Khomeini


texts:
 personality developed around Khomeini after the Iranian Revolution. Early years

Background

<mask> Khomeini came from a lineage of small land owners, clerics, and merchants. His ancestors migrated towards the end of the 18th century from their original home in Nishapur, Khorasan Province, in northeastern part of Iran, for a short stay, to the Kingdom of Awadh, a region in the modern state of Uttar Pradesh, India, whose rulers were Twelver Shia Muslims of Persian origin. During their rule they extensively invited, and received, a steady stream of Persian scholars, poets, jurists, architects, and painters. The family eventually settled in the small town of Kintoor, near Lucknow, the capital of Awadh. Ayatollah <mask>'s paternal grandfather, Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi, was born in Kintoor.He left Lucknow in 1830, on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Ali in Najaf, Ottoman Iraq (now Iraq) and never returned. According to Moin, this migration was to escape from the spread of British power in India. In 1834 Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi visited Persia, and in 1839 he settled in Khomein. Although he stayed and settled in Iran, he continued to be known as Hindi, indicating his stay in India, and <mask> <mask> even used Hindi as a pen name in some of his ghazals. <mask>'s grandfather, Mirza Ahmad Mojtahed-e Khonsari was the cleric issuing a fatwa to forbid usage of Tobacco during the Tobacco Protest. Childhood
According to his birth certificate, <mask> Musavi <mask>, whose first name means "spirit of Allah", was born on 17 May 1900 in Khomeyn, Markazi Province although his brother  Mortaza (later known as Ayatollah Pasandideh) gives his

masks: Ruhollah Khomeini Ruhollah Khomeini Khomeini Ruhollah Khomeini


texts:
 birth date of 24 September 1902, the birth anniversary of the Prophet Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah. He was raised by his mother, Hajieh Agha Khanum, and his aunt, Sahebeth, following the murder of his father, Mustapha Musavi, over two years after his birth in 1903.<mask> began to study the Qur'an and elementary Persian at the age of six. The following year, he began to attend a local school, where he learned religion, noheh khani (lamentation recital), and other traditional subjects. Throughout his childhood, he continued his religious education with the assistance of his relatives, including his mother's cousin, Ja'far, and his elder brother, Morteza Pasandideh. Education and lecturing

After World War I arrangements were made for him to study at the Islamic seminary in Isfahan, but he was attracted instead to the seminary in Arak. He was placed under the leadership of Ayatollah Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi. In 1920, Khomeini moved to Arak and commenced his studies. The following year, Ayatollah Haeri Yazdi transferred to the Islamic seminary in the holy city of Qom, southwest of Tehran, and invited his students to follow.Khomeini accepted the invitation, moved, and took up residence at the Dar al-Shafa school in Qom. <mask>'s studies included Islamic law (sharia) and jurisprudence (fiqh), but by that time, Khomeini had also acquired an interest in poetry and philosophy (irfan). So, upon arriving in Qom, Khomeini sought the guidance of Mirza Ali Akbar Yazdi, a scholar of philosophy and mysticism. Yazdi died in 1924, but <mask> continued to pursue his interest in philosophy with two other teachers, Javad Aqa Maleki Tabrizi

masks: Ruhollah Khomeini Khomeini


texts: and Rafi'i Qazvini. However, perhaps Khomeini's biggest influences were another teacher, Mirza Muhammad 'Ali Shahabadi, and a variety of historic Sufi mystics, including Mulla Sadra and Ibn Arabi. Khomeini studied Greek philosophy and was influenced by both the philosophy of Aristotle, whom he regarded as the founder of logic, and Plato, whose views "in the field of divinity" he regarded as "grave and solid". Among Islamic philosophers, <mask> was mainly influenced by Avicenna and Mulla Sadra.Apart from philosophy, <mask> was interested in literature and poetry. His poetry collection was released after his death. Beginning in his adolescent years, Khomeini composed mystic, political and social poetry. His poetry works were published in three collections: The Confidant, The Decanter of Love and Turning Point, and Divan. His knowledge of poetry is further attested by the modern poet Nader Naderpour (1929–2000), who "had spent many hours exchanging poems with Khomeini in the early 1960s". Naderpour remembered: "For four hours we recited poetry. Every single line I recited from any poet, he recited the next."<mask> <mask> was a lecturer at Najaf and Qom seminaries for decades before he was known on the political scene. He soon became a leading scholar of Shia Islam. He taught political philosophy, Islamic history and ethics. Several of his students – for example, Morteza Motahhari – later became leading Islamic philosophers and also marja'. As a scholar and teacher, Khomeini produced numerous writings on Islamic philosophy, law, and ethics. He showed an exceptional interest in subjects like philosophy and mysticism that

masks: Khomeini Khomeini Ruhollah Khomeini


texts:
 not only were usually absent from the curriculum of seminaries but were often an object of hostility and suspicion. Inaugurating his teaching career at the age of 27 by giving private lessons on irfan and Mulla Sadra to a private circle, around the same time, in 1928, he also released his first publication, Sharh Du'a al-Sahar (Commentary on the Du'a al-Baha), "a detailed commentary, in Arabic, on the prayer recited before dawn during Ramadan by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq", followed, some years later, by Sirr al-Salat (Secret of the Prayer), where "the symbolic dimensions and inner meaning of every part of the prayer, from the ablution that precedes it to the salam that concludes it, are expounded in a rich, complex, and eloquent language that owes much to the concepts and terminology of Ibn 'Arabi.As Sayyid Fihri, the editor and translator of Sirr al-Salat, has remarked, the work is addressed only to the foremost among the spiritual elite (akhass-i khavass) and establishes its author as one of their number." The second book has been translated by Sayyid Amjad Hussain Shah Naqavi and released by BRILL in 2015, under the title "The Mystery of Prayer: The Ascension of the Wayfarers and the Prayer of the Gnostics ". Political aspects
His seminary teaching often focused on the importance of religion to practical social and political issues of the day, and he worked against secularism in the 1940s. His first political book, Kashf al-Asrar (Uncovering of Secrets) published in 1942, was a point-by-point refutation of Asrar-e hezar sale (Secrets of a Thousand Years), a tract written by a disciple of Iran's leading anti-clerical


texts:
 historian, Ahmad Kasravi, as well as a condemnation of innovations such as international time zones, and the banning of hijab by Reza Shah. In addition, he went from Qom to Tehran to listen to Ayatullah Hasan Mudarris, the leader of the opposition majority in Iran's parliament during the 1920s. <mask> became a marja''' in 1963, following the death of Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Husayn Borujerdi. <mask> also valued the ideals of Islamists such as Sheikh Fazlollah Noori and Abol-Ghasem Kashani.Khomeini saw Fazlollah Nuri as a "heroic figure", and his own objections to constitutionalism and a secular government derived from Nuri's objections to the 1907 constitution. Early political activity

Background

Most Iranians had a deep respect for the Shi'a clergy or Ulama, and tended to be religious, traditional, and alienated from the process of Westernization pursued by the Shah. In the late 19th century the clergy had shown themselves to be a powerful political force in Iran initiating the Tobacco Protest against a concession to a foreign (British) interest. At the age of 61, <mask> found the arena of leadership open following the deaths of Ayatollah Sayyed Husayn Borujerdi (1961), the leading, although quiescent, Shi'ah religious leader; and Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani (1962), an activist cleric. The clerical class had been on the defensive ever since the 1920s when the secular, anti-clerical modernizer Reza Shah Pahlavi rose to power. Reza's son Mohammad Reza Shah, instituted a "White Revolution", which was a further challenge to the Ulama. Opposition to the White Revolution
In January 1963, the Shah announced the "White

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texts: Revolution", a six-point programme of reform calling for land reform, nationalization of the forests, the sale of state-owned enterprises to private interests, electoral changes to enfranchise women and allow non-Muslims to hold office, profit-sharing in industry, and a literacy campaign in the nation's schools.Some of these initiatives were regarded as dangerous, especially by the powerful and privileged Shi'a ulama (religious scholars), and as Westernizing trends by traditionalists. <mask> viewed them as "an attack on Islam". Ayatollah <mask> summoned a meeting of the other senior marjas of Qom and persuaded them to decree a boycott of the referendum on the White Revolution. On 22 January 1963, <mask> issued a strongly worded declaration denouncing both the Shah and his reform plan. Two days later, the Shah took an armored column to Qom, and delivered a speech harshly attacking the ulama as a class. <mask> continued his denunciation of the Shah's programmes, issuing a manifesto that bore the signatures of eight other senior Shia religious scholars. <mask>'s manifesto argued that the Shah had violated the constitution in various ways, he condemned the spread of moral corruption in the country, and accused the Shah of submission to the United States and Israel.He also decreed that the Nowruz celebrations for the Iranian year 1342 (which fell on 21 March 1963) be canceled as a sign of protest against government policies. On the afternoon of 'Ashura (3 June 1963), <mask> delivered a speech at the Feyziyeh madrasah drawing parallels between the Sunni Muslim caliph Yazid, who is perceived as a 'tyrant' by Shias, and the

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 Shah, denouncing the Shah as a "wretched, miserable man," and warning him that if he did not change his ways the day would come when the people would offer up thanks for his departure from the country. On 5 June 1963 (15 of Khordad) at 3:00 am, two days after this public denunciation of the Shah, Khomeini was detained in Qom and transferred to Tehran. Following this action, there were three days of major riots throughout Iran and the deaths of some 400 people. That event is now referred to as the Movement of 15 Khordad. Khomeini remained under house arrest until August. Opposition to capitulation

On 26 October 1964, <mask> denounced both the Shah and the United States.This time it was in response to the "capitulations" or diplomatic immunity granted by the Shah to American military personnel in Iran.Shirley, Know Thine Enemy (1997), p. 207. What Khomeini labeled a capitulation law, was in fact a "status-of-forces agreement", stipulating that U.S. servicemen facing criminal charges stemming from a deployment in Iran, were to be tried before a U.S. court martial, not an Iranian court. <mask> was arrested in November 1964 and held for half a year. Upon his release, <mask> was brought before Prime Minister Hasan Ali Mansur, who tried to convince him to apologize for his harsh rhetoric and going forward, cease his opposition to the Shah and his government. When Khomeini refused, Mansur slapped him in the face in a fit of rage. Two months later, Mansur was assassinated on his way to parliament. Four members of the Fadayan-e Islam, a Shia militia sympathetic to Khomeini, were later executed for the murder.Life in


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 exile

Khomeini spent more than 14 years in exile, mostly in the holy Iraqi city of Najaf. Initially, he was sent to Turkey on 4 November 1964 where he stayed in Bursa in the home of Colonel Ali Cetiner of the Turkish Military Intelligence. In October 1965, after less than a year, he was allowed to move to Najaf, Iraq, where he stayed until 1978, when he was expelled by then-Vice President Saddam Hussein. By this time discontent with the Shah was becoming intense and Khomeini visited Neauphle-le-Château, a suburb of Paris, France, on a tourist visa on 6 October 1978.According to Alexandre de Marenches, chief of External Documentation and Counter-Espionage Service (now known as the DGSE), the Shah did not ask France to expel Khomeini for fear that the cleric should move to Syria or Libya. (source: Christine Ockrent et Alexandre de Marenches, Dans le secret des princes, Stock, 1986, , p. 254) [Donate book to Archive.org]

By the late 1960s, Khomeini was a marja-e taqlid (model for imitation) for "hundreds of thousands" of Shia, one of six or so models in the Shia world. While in the 1940s Khomeini accepted the idea of a limited monarchy under the Iranian Constitution of 1906–07 – as evidenced by his book Kashf al-Asrar – by the 1970s he had rejected the idea. In early 1970, Khomeini gave a series of lectures in Najaf on Islamic government, later published as a book titled variously Islamic Government or Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih).This was his best known and most influential work, and laid out his ideas on governance (at that time):
 That the laws of society should be


texts: made up only of the laws of God (Sharia), which cover "all human affairs" and "provide instruction and establish norms" for every "topic" in "human life." Since Shariah, or Islamic law, is the proper law, those holding government posts should have knowledge of Sharia. Since Islamic jurists or faqih have studied and are the most knowledgeable in Sharia, the country's ruler should be a faqih who "surpasses all others in knowledge" of Islamic law and justice, (known as a marja'), as well as having intelligence and administrative ability. Rule by monarchs and/or assemblies of "those claiming to be representatives of the majority of the people" (i.e. elected parliaments and legislatures) has been proclaimed "wrong" by Islam. This system of clerical rule is necessary to prevent injustice, corruption, oppression by the powerful over the poor and weak, innovation and deviation of Islam and Sharia law; and also to destroy anti-Islamic influence and conspiracies by non-Muslim foreign powers. A modified form of this wilayat al-faqih system was adopted after Khomeini and his followers took power, and Khomeini was the Islamic Republic's first "Guardian" or "Supreme Leader".In the meantime, however, <mask> was careful not to publicize his ideas for clerical rule outside of his Islamic network of opposition to the Shah which he worked to build and strengthen over the next decade. In Iran, a number of actions of the Shah including his repression of opponents began to build opposition to his regime. Cassette copies of his lectures fiercely denouncing the Shah as (for example) "the Jewish agent, the American serpent whose head must be


texts: smashed with a stone", became common items in the markets of Iran, helping to demythologize the power and dignity of the Shah and his reign. Aware of the importance of broadening his base, <mask> reached out to Islamic reformist and secular enemies of the Shah, despite his long-term ideological incompatibility with them. After the 1977 death of Ali Shariati (an Islamic reformist and political revolutionary author/academic/philosopher who greatly assisted the Islamic revival among young educated Iranians), <mask> became the most influential leader of the opposition to the Shah. Adding to his mystique was the circulation among Iranians in the 1970s of an old Shia saying attributed to the Imam Musa al-Kadhem. Prior to his death in 799, al-Kadhem was said to have prophesied that "A man will come out from Qom and he will summon people to the right path".In late 1978, a rumour swept the country that <mask>'s face could be seen in the full moon. Millions of people were said to have seen it and the event was celebrated in thousands of mosques. He was perceived by many Iranians as the spiritual as well as political leader of the revolt. Additionally, the episode with Khomeini's face in the moon showed that in late 1978 he was increasingly regarded as a messianic figure in Iran. As protests grew, so did his profile and importance. Although several thousand kilometers away from Iran in Paris, Khomeini set the course of the revolution, urging Iranians not to compromise and ordering work stoppages against the regime. During the last few months of his exile, <mask> received a constant stream of reporters, supporters, and notables,

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 eager to hear the spiritual leader of the revolution.While in exile, Khomeini developed what historian Ervand Abrahamian described as a "populist clerical version of Shii Islam". Khomeini modified previous Shii interpretations of Islam in a number of ways that included aggressive approaches to espousing the general interests of the mostazafin, forcefully arguing that the clergy's sacred duty was to take over the state so that it could implement shari'a, and exhorting followers to protest. Despite their ideological differences, Khomeini also allied with the People's Mujahedin of Iran during the early 1970s and started funding their armed operations against the Shah. <mask>'s contact with the US

According to the BBC, Khomeini's contact with the US "is part of a trove of newly declassified US government documents—diplomatic cables, policy memos, meeting records". The documents suggest that the Carter administration helped Khomeini return to Iran by preventing the Iranian army from launching a military coup, and that Khomeini told an American in France to convey a message to Washington that "There should be no fear about oil. It is not true that we wouldn't sell to the US." According to a 1980 CIA study, "in November 1963 Ayatollah Khomeini sent a message to the United States Government through [Tehran University professor] Haj Mirza Khalil Kamarei", where he expressed "that he was not opposed to American interests in Iran", "on the contrary, he thought the American presence was necessary as a counterbalance to Soviet and possibly British influence".Supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei denied the report, and described


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 the documents as "fabricated". Other Iranian politicians including Ebrahim Yazdi (Khomeini's spokesman and adviser at the time of the revolution) have questioned the BBC's documents. The Guardian wrote that it "did not have access to the newly declassified documents and was not able to independently verify them," however it did confirm <mask>'s contact with the Kennedy administration and support for US interest in Iran particularly oil through a CIA analysis report titled "Islam in Iran". According to the BBC, "these document show that in his long quest for power, he [Khomeini] was tactically flexible; he played the moderate even pro-American card to take control but once change had come he put in place an anti-America legacy that would last for decades." Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Return to Iran

<mask> was not allowed to return to Iran during the Shah's reign (as he had been in exile). On 16 January 1979, the Shah left the country for medical treatment (ostensibly "on vacation"), never to return. Two weeks later, on Thursday, 1 February 1979, Khomeini returned in triumph to Iran, welcomed by a joyous crowd estimated (by the BBC) to be of up to five million people.On his chartered Air France flight back to Tehran, he was accompanied by 120 journalists, including three women. One of the journalists, Peter Jennings, asked: "Ayatollah, would you be so kind as to tell us how you feel about being back in Iran?" Khomeini answered via his aide Sadegh Ghotbzadeh: "Hichi" (Nothing). This statement—much discussed at the time and since—was considered by some reflective of his mystical beliefs and

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 non-attachment to ego. Others considered it a warning to Iranians who hoped he would be a "mainstream nationalist leader" that they were in for disappointment. To others, it was a reflection of an unfeeling leader incapable or unconcerned with understanding the thoughts, beliefs, or the needs of the Iranian populace. Khomeini adamantly opposed the provisional government of Shapour Bakhtiar, promising "I shall kick their teeth in.I appoint the government." On 11 February (Bahman 22), Khomeini appointed his own competing interim prime minister, Mehdi Bazargan, demanding, "since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed." It was "God's government," he warned, disobedience against him or Bazargan was considered a "revolt against God." As Khomeini's movement gained momentum, soldiers began to defect to his side and Khomeini declared ill fortune on troops who did not surrender. On 11 February, as revolt spread and armories were taken over, the military declared neutrality and the Bakhtiar regime collapsed. On 30 and 31 March 1979, a referendum to replace the monarchy with an Islamic Republic passed with 98% voting in favour of the replacement, with the question: "should the monarchy be abolished in favour of an Islamic Government?" Islamic constitution

While in Paris, Khomeini had "promised a democratic political system" for Iran, but once in power, he advocated for the creation of theocracy based on the Velayat-e faqih.This led to the purge or replacement of many secular politicians in Iran, with Khomeini and his close associates taking the following steps: Establishing Islamic Revolutionary courts; replacing the previous


texts: military and police force; placing Iran's top theologians and Islamic intellectuals in charge of writing a theocratic constitutions, with a central role for Velayat-e faqih; creating the Islamic Republic Party (IRP) through <mask>'s Motjaheds with the aim of establishing a theocratic government and tearing down any secular opposition ("as Khomeini's competitors in the religious hierarchy"); replacing all secular laws with Islamic laws; neutralising or punishing top theologians that had conflicting ideas with Khomeini including Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari, Hassan Tabatabaei Qomi, and Hossein Ali Montazeri. Opposition groups claimed that Khomeini's provisional constitution for the Islamic Republic did not first include the post of supreme Islamic clerical ruler. The Islamic government was defined by Khomeini in his book Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih (Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist) which was published while Khomeini was in exile in 1970, smuggled into Iran, and distributed to <mask>'s supporters. This book included Khomeini's notion of wilayat al-faqih (Governance of the Jurist) as well as the reasoning and in his view, the necessity of it in running an Islamic state. <mask> and his supporters worked to suppress some former allies and rewrote the proposed constitution. Some newspapers were closed, and those protesting the closings were attacked. Opposition groups such as the National Democratic Front and Muslim People's Republican Party were attacked and finally banned.Through popular support, Khomeini supporters gained an overwhelming majority of the seats in the Assembly of Experts which revised the


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 proposed constitution. The newly proposed constitution included an Islamic jurist Supreme Leader of the country, and a Council of Guardians to veto un-Islamic legislation and screen candidates for office, disqualifying those found un-Islamic. In November 1979, the new constitution of the Islamic Republic was adopted by national referendum. <mask> himself became instituted as the Supreme Leader (Guardian Jurist), and officially became known as the "Leader of the Revolution." On 4 February 1980, Abolhassan Banisadr was elected as the first president of Iran. Critics complain that Khomeini had gone back on his word to advise, rather than rule the country. Hostage crisis

On 22 October 1979, the United States admitted the exiled and ailing Shah into the country for cancer treatment.In Iran, there was an immediate outcry, with both Khomeini and leftist groups demanding the Shah's return to Iran for trial and execution. On 4 November, a group of Iranian college students calling themselves the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line, took control of the American Embassy in Tehran, holding 52 embassy staff hostage for 444 days – an event known as the Iran hostage crisis. In the United States, the hostage-taking was seen as a flagrant violation of international law and aroused intense anger and anti-Iranian sentiments.Bowden, Mark, Guests of the Ayatollah, Atlantic Monthly Press, (2006)

In Iran, the takeover was immensely popular and earned the support of Khomeini under the slogan "America can't do a damn thing against us." The seizure of the embassy of a country he called the "Great Satan" helped to advance the cause of


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 theocratic government and outflank politicians and groups who emphasized stability and normalized relations with other countries. <mask> is reported to have told his president: "This action has many benefits ... this has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people's vote without difficulty, and carry out presidential and parliamentary elections."The new constitution was successfully passed by referendum a month after the hostage crisis began. The crisis had the effect of splitting of the opposition into two groups – radicals supporting the hostage taking, and the moderates opposing it.Example of anti-theocratic support for the hostage crisis in Nafisi, Azar, Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books, Random House, 2003, p.105–106, 112 On 23 February 1980, Khomeini proclaimed Iran's Majlis would decide the fate of the American embassy hostages, and demanded that the United States hand over the Shah for trial in Iran for crimes against the nation. Although the Shah died a few months later, during the summer, the crisis continued. In Iran, supporters of Khomeini named the embassy a "Den of Espionage", publicizing details regarding armaments, espionage equipment and many volumes of official and classified documents which they found there. Relationship with Islamic and non-aligned countries

Khomeini believed in Muslim unity and solidarity and the export of his revolution throughout the world. He believed Shia and (the significantly more numerous) Sunni Muslims should be "united and stand firmly against Western and arrogant powers." "Establishing the Islamic


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 state world-wide belong to the great goals of the revolution."He declared the birth week of Muhammad (the week between 12th to 17th of Rabi' al-awwal) as the Unity week. Then he declared the last Friday of Ramadan as International Day of Quds in 1981. Iran–Iraq War

Shortly after assuming power, <mask> began calling for Islamic revolutions across the Muslim world, including Iran's Arab neighbor Iraq, the one large state besides Iran with a Shia majority population. At the same time Saddam Hussein, Iraq's secular Arab nationalist Ba'athist leader, was eager to take advantage of Iran's weakened military and (what he assumed was) revolutionary chaos, and in particular to occupy Iran's adjacent oil-rich province of Khuzestan, and to undermine Iranian Islamic revolutionary attempts to incite the Shi'a majority of his country. In September 1980, Iraq launched a full-scale invasion of Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War (September 1980 – August 1988). A combination of fierce resistance by Iranians and military incompetence by Iraqi forces soon stalled the Iraqi advance and, despite Saddam's internationally condemned use of poison gas, Iran had by early 1982 regained almost all of the territory lost to the invasion. The invasion rallied Iranians behind the new regime, enhancing <mask>'s stature and allowing him to consolidate and stabilize his leadership.After this reversal, <mask> refused an Iraqi offer of a truce, instead demanding reparations and the toppling of Saddam Hussein from power. In 1982, there was an attempted military coup against <mask>. The Iran–Iraq War ended in 1988, with 320,000–720,000 Iranian soldiers and


texts: militia killed. Although Iran's population and economy were three times the size of Iraq's, the latter was aided by neighboring Persian Gulf Arab states, as well as the Soviet Bloc and Western countries. The Persian Gulf Arabs and the West wanted to be sure the Islamic revolution did not spread across the Persian Gulf, while the Soviet Union was concerned about the potential threat posed to its rule in central Asia to the north. However, Iran had large amounts of ammunition provided by the United States of America during the Shah's era and the United States illegally smuggled arms to Iran during the 1980s despite <mask>'s anti-Western policy (see Iran–Contra affair). During war Iranians used human wave attacks (people walking to certain death including child soldiers) on Iraq, with his promise that they would automatically go to paradise—al Janna— if they died in battle, and his pursuit of victory in the Iran–Iraq War that ultimately proved futile.By March 1984, two million of Iran's most educated citizens had left the country This included an estimated one and a half million that had fled Iran, victims of political executions, and the hundreds of thousands of "martyrs" from Khomeini's bloody "human wave " attacks on Iraq. In July 1988, Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. Despite the high cost of the war – 450,000 to 950,000 Iranian casualties and US$300 billion – <mask> insisted that extending the war into Iraq in an attempt to overthrow Saddam had not been a mistake. In a "Letter to Clergy" he wrote: "... we do not repent, nor are we sorry for even a


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 single moment for our performance during the war. Have we forgotten that we fought to fulfill our religious duty and that the result is a marginal issue?" Fatwa against chemical weapons
In an interview with Gareth Porter, Mohsen Rafighdoost, the eight-year war time minister of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, disclosed how <mask> had opposed his proposal for beginning work on both nuclear and chemical weapons by a fatwa which had never been made public in details of when and how it was issued. Rushdie fatwa

In early 1989, <mask> issued a fatwā calling for the assassination of Salman Rushdie, an India-born British author.Rushdie's book, The Satanic Verses, published in 1988, was alleged to commit blasphemy against Islam and <mask>'s juristic ruling (fatwā) prescribed Rushdie's assassination by any Muslim. The fatwā required not only Rushdie's execution, but also the execution of "all those involved in the publication" of the book. <mask>'s fatwā was condemned across the Western world by governments on the grounds that it violated the universal human rights of free speech and freedom of religion. The fatwā has also been attacked for violating the rules of fiqh by not allowing the accused an opportunity to defend himself, and because "even the most rigorous and extreme of the classical jurist only require a Muslim to kill anyone who insults the Prophet in his hearing and in his presence." Though Rushdie publicly regretted "the distress that publication has occasioned to sincere followers of Islam", the fatwa was not revoked. Rushdie himself was not killed but Hitoshi Igarashi, the Japanese translator of the book


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 The Satanic Verses, was murdered and two other translators of the book survived murder attempts. Life under Khomeini

In a speech on 1 February 1979 delivered to a huge crowd after returning to Iran from exile, <mask> made a variety of promises to Iranians for his coming Islamic regime: a popularly elected government that would represent the people of Iran and with which the clergy would not interfere.He promised that "no one should remain homeless in this country," and that Iranians would have free telephone, heating, electricity, bus services and free oil at their doorstep. Under <mask>'s rule, Sharia (Islamic law) was introduced, with the Islamic dress code enforced for both men and women by Islamic Revolutionary Guards and other Islamic groups. Women were required to cover their hair, and men were forbidden to wear shorts. Alcoholic drinks, most Western movies, and the practice of men and women swimming or sunbathing together were banned. The Iranian educational curriculum was Islamized at all levels with the Islamic Cultural Revolution; the "Committee for Islamization of Universities" carried this out thoroughly. The broadcasting of any music other than martial or religious on Iranian radio and television was banned by Khomeini in July 1979. The ban lasted 10 years (approximately the rest of his life).According to Janet Afari, "the newly established regime of Ayatollah Khomeini moved quickly to repress feminists, ethnic and religious minorities, liberals, and leftists – all in the name of Islam." Women and child rights
Khomeini took on extensive and proactive support of the female populace during the ouster of


texts: Shah and his subsequent homecoming, advocating for mainstreaming of women into all spheres of life and even hypothesizing about a woman head of state. However, once he returned, his stances on women's rights exhibited drastic changes. Khomeini revoked Iran's 1967 divorce law, considering any divorce granted under this law to be invalid. Nevertheless, Khomeini supported women's right to divorce as allowed by Islamic law. Khomeini reaffirmed the traditional position of rape in Islamic law in which rape by a spouse was not equivalent to rape or zina, declaring "a woman must surrender to her husband for any pleasure". A mere three weeks after assuming power, under the pretext of reversing the Shah's affinity for westernization and backed by a vocal conservative section of Iranian society, he revoked the divorce law.Under Khomeini the minimum age of marriage was lowered to 15 for boys and 13 for girls; nevertheless, the average age of women at marriage continued to increase. Laws were passed that encouraged polygamy, made it impossible for women to divorce men, and treated adultery as the highest form of criminal offense. Women were compelled to wear veils and the image of Western women was carefully reconstructed as a symbol of impiety. Morality and modesty were perceived as fundamental womanly traits that needed state protection, and concepts of individual gender rights were relegated to women's social rights as ordained in Islam. Fatima was widely presented as the ideal emulatable woman. At the same time, amidst the religious orthodoxy, there was an active effort to rehabilitate women into employment. Female


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 participation in healthcare, education and the workforce increased drastically during his regime.Reception among women of his regime has been mixed. Whilst a section were dismayed at the increasing Islamisation and concurrent degradation of women's rights, others did notice more opportunities and mainstreaming of relatively religiously conservative women. Homosexuality
Shortly after his accession as supreme leader in February 1979, Khomeini imposed capital punishment on homosexuals. Between February and March, sixteen Iranians were executed due to offenses related to sexual violations. Khomeini also created the "Revolutionary Tribunals". According to historian Ervand Abrahamian, Khomeini encouraged the clerical courts to continue implementing their version of the Shari'a. As part of the campaign to "cleanse" the society, these courts executed over 100 drug addicts, prostitutes, homosexuals, rapists, and adulterers on the charge of "sowing corruption on earth."According to author Arno Schmitt, "Khomeini asserted that 'homosexuals' had to be exterminated because they were parasites and corruptors of the nation by spreading the 'stain of wickedness.'" Transsexuality was designated by Khomeini as a sickness that was able to be cured through surgery. In 1979, he had declared that the execution of homosexuals (as well as prostitutes and adulterers) was reasonable in a moral civilization in the same sense as cutting off decayed skin. Emigration and economy
Khomeini is said to have stressed "the spiritual over the material". (Brumberg, Reinventing <mask> (2001), p. 125) Six months after his first speech he expressed


texts: exasperation with complaints about the sharp drop in Iran's standard of living, saying that: "I cannot believe that the purpose of all these sacrifices was to have less expensive melons." On another occasion emphasizing the importance of martyrdom over material prosperity, he said: "Could anyone wish his child to be martyred to obtain a good house? This is not the issue.The issue is another world." He also reportedly answered a question about his economic policies by declaring that 'economics is for donkeys'.The original quote which is part of a speech made in 1979 can be found here: I cannot imagine and no wise person can presume the claim that we spared our bloods so watermelon becomes cheaper. No wise person would sacrifice his young offspring for [say] affordable housing. People [on the contrary] want everything for their young offspring. Human being wants economy for his own self; it would therefore be unwise for him to spare his life in order to improve economy [...] Those who keep bringing up economy and find economy the infrastructure of everything -not knowing what human[ity] means- think of human being as an animal who is defined by means of food and clothes[...] Those who find economy the infrastructure of everything, find human beings animals. Animal too sacrifices everything for its economy and economy is its sole infrastructure. A donkey too considers economy as its only infrastructure.These people did not realize what human being [truly] is. This disinterest in economic policy is said to be "one factor explaining the inchoate performance of the Iranian economy since the revolution." Other factors


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 include the long war with Iraq, the cost of which led to government debt and inflation, eroding personal incomes, and unprecedented unemployment, ideological disagreement over the economy, and "international pressure and isolation" such as US sanctions following the hostage crisis. Due to the Iran–Iraq War, poverty is said to have risen by nearly 45% during the first 6 years of Khomeini's rule. Emigration from Iran also developed, reportedly for the first time in the country's history. Since the revolution and war with Iraq, an estimated "two to four million entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople (and their capital)" have emigrated to other countries. Suppression of opposition
In a talk at the Fayzieah School in Qom on 30 August 1979, Khomeini warned pro-imperialist opponents: "Those who are trying to bring corruption and destruction to our country in the name of democracy will be oppressed.They are worse than Bani-Ghorizeh Jews, and they must be hanged. We will oppress them by God's order and God's call to prayer." However, in 1983, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) helped him by providing a list of Soviet KGB agents and collaborators operating in Iran to Khomeini, who then executed up to 200 suspects and closed down the Communist Tudeh Party of Iran. Available online here. The Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his family left Iran and escaped harm, but hundreds of former members of the overthrown monarchy and military met their ends in firing squads, with exiled critics complaining of "secrecy, vagueness of the charges, the absence of defense lawyers or juries", or the opportunity of


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 the accused "to defend themselves." In later years these were followed in larger numbers by the erstwhile revolutionary allies of Khomeini's movement—Marxists and socialists, mostly university students—who opposed the theocratic regime. Following the 1981 Hafte Tir bombing, Khomeini declared the Mojahedin and anyone violently opposed to the government, "enemies of God" and pursued a mass campaign against members of the Mojahedin, Fadaiyan, and Tudeh parties as well as their families, close friends, and even anyone who was accused of counterrevolutionary behavior.In the 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners, following the People's Mujahedin of Iran unsuccessful operation Forough-e Javidan against the Islamic Republic, Khomeini issued an order to judicial officials to judge every Iranian political prisoner (mostly but not all Mujahedin) and kill those judged to be apostates from Islam (mortad) or "waging war on God" (moharebeh). Almost all of those interrogated were killed, around 30,000 of them. Because of the large number, prisoners were loaded into forklift trucks in groups of six and hanged from cranes in half-hour intervals. Minority religions

Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians are officially recognized and protected by the government. Shortly after <mask>'s return from exile in 1979, he issued a fatwa ordering that Jews and other minorities (except those of the Baháʼí Faith) be treated well. In power, Khomeini distinguished between Zionism as a secular political party that employs Jewish symbols and ideals and Judaism as the religion of Moses. Senior government posts were reserved for Muslims.Schools set