texts:
 née Hoppe (1798–1823):
George Thomas Congreve (1821 – 14 March 1898) medical man who grew quite wealthy; never left England. Wrote books New Era in Medical Science on consumption (tuberculosis), and The Nursery Gem on early childhood. With Elizabeth Ann Congreve née Jacob (she died 1852 at sea; he died 18 December 1852):
Matilda Jane Congreve (27 August 1827 – 22 October 1886) married Rev. Ephraim <mask> (1825–1863) on 16 February 1860; their children were:
Henry "<mask>" Congreve <mask> (10 December 1860 – 9 January 1899), subject of this article
William James "Will<mask> (17 June 1862 – 22 September 1904), some biographical details above
Henry John "<mask>" Congreve (31 March 1829 – 10 July 1918) arrived South Australia on the Trafalgar 17 January 1849, married Jane Marshall Kirkwood on 14 December 1865, lived at "Stretton", Walkerville Road (now Stephen Terrace, Walkerville), which became a second home to his siblings. Emily Congreve (1830 – 28 September 1896) arrived 1852; wrote (as "Little Jacob") Colonial Pen Scratchings
William Congreve (1832 – 20 July 1907) arrived South Australia 17 January 1849 with brother Henry; taught in SA and Victoria, retired to Bridgewater, died at "Stretton", Walkerville Road, St. Peters.Frederick Jacob Congreve (1837 – 16 September 1906) arrived with father 1852
James Congreve (1839 – 10 July 1934) lived in Sydney, died in Brisbane. References

1860 births
1899 deaths
Australian newspaper proprietors
Australian newspaper editors
Australian journalists
Burials at West Terrace Cemetery
People from Nuriootpa, South Australia
19th-century Australian

masks:
Evans
Harry
Evans
" Evans
Harry


type: original

texts:
<mask> (born December 3, 1983) is a former American football wide receiver in the National Football League for the Buffalo Bills, Atlanta Falcons and Dallas Cowboys. He also was a member of the Georgia Force and Cleveland Gladiators in the Arena Football League. He never played college football. Early years
<mask> attended Shaw High School. He was a three-year starter at wide receiver in a Wing T offense, that focused on running the football. As a junior in 2000, he contributed to the team winning the state championship, while being named the 2000 Columbus Ledger-Enquirer's Offensive Player of the Year. As a senior, he posted 25 receptions for 444 yards and 7 touchdowns.He had one interception in limited duty at cornerback. He missed three games during the season because of surgery to correct compartmental syndrome in his leg. In track, he was part of the Georgia Class 4A state champion 4 × 400 metres relay team and placed second in the 400 metres as a senior. College career
Bergeron initially accepted a football scholarship from Auburn University. Before he enrolled at the school, the coaches asked him to switch to defensive back because of a surplus at the wide receiver position, so he asked to be released from his scholarship. He then transferred to Middle Tennessee State University, but while he was sitting out as a redshirt freshman, his fiancée gave birth to their son and Bergeron decided to move to Columbus to be with his family. He later requested to transfer to Troy University, which was closer to his home, but Middle Tennessee wouldn't release him from his commitment.He then opted to sign a professional football contract with the af2’s Columbus Wardogs and never played a down of college

masks:
Troy Joseph Bergeron
Bergeron


texts:
 football. Professional career

Columbus Wardogs (af2)
In 2004, Bergeron made the Columbus Wardogs roster and became the youngest player in [[af2 history at 21. He recorded 77 receptions for 1,220 yards and 26 touchdowns despite missing the team’s first four games. He was only the third Wardog player to reach 1,000 yards receiving. He set a franchise single-game record with 212 receiving yards against the Macon Knights. Three weeks later, he had another record-breaking performance and set three single-game team records with 14 receptions for 216 yards and six touchdowns against the Louisville Fire. He was twice named the af2’s Offensive Player of the Week.Georgia Force (first stint)
In 2005, <mask> signed with the Georgia Force of the Arena Football League. As a rookie, he was slated to be a backup, until starter and offensive specialist Scottie Montgomery was injured in the second quarter of the season opener against the New Orleans VooDoo. <mask> stepped in, tallying a team-high 6 receptions for 116 yards, a game-high 3 receiving touchdowns and 74 yards on three kickoff returns. He was named Offensive Player of the Game for his first AFL contest and was given the starter position. He played in all 16 games, collecting 105 receptions for 1,372 yards, 31 touchdowns and 57 kickoff returns for 1,058 yards. He had a career-long 51-yard kickoff return and a career-long 37-yard missed field goal return against the Grand Rapids Rampage. He was named the 2005 AFL Rookie of the Year and was selected to the 2005 AFL All-Rookie Team.Along with rookie teammate Derek Lee, the duo ended the season as the top receiving touchdown tandem in the AFL with 64 combined touchdowns (<mask> 31 and Lee 33). Atlanta Falcons

masks: Bergeron Bergeron Bergeron


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 (first stint)
In 2006, he was signed by the Atlanta Falcons as an undrafted rookie free agent. He attended training camp and was released following the final pre-season game. Buffalo Bills
On December 12, 2006, he was signed to the Buffalo Bills practice squad. He was released on February 14, 2007. Georgia Force (second stint)
In February 2007, <mask> re-joined the Georgia Force. He appeared in all 16 games and recorded career highs in receptions (132), receiving yards (1,736), touchdowns (41), rushing attempts (10) and rushing yards (81), while earning Second team All-Arena honors.He and teammate Wide receiver Chris Jackson became the first receiving tandem in AFL history to record at least 130 catches, 1,700 receiving yards and 40 touchdowns each. He led the team in receptions (13) and receiving yards (194), he also recorded four touchdowns on the road against the Austin Wranglers. He also had six kickoff returns for 103 yards and one rush for 10 yards. His 194 receiving yards and 307 total yards set new single-game franchise-highs. He also added two tackles and one fumble recovery on special teams. In 2008, Bergeron recorded 91 receptions for 1,247 yards, 24 touchdowns, 7 carries for 62 yards and 7 tackles. He also added five kickoff returns for 71 yards.The Arena Football League folded after the season. Columbus Lions (AIF)
In March 2009, <mask> signed with the Columbus Lions of the American Indoor Football Association. He led the team in receiving yards, touchdowns and catches. He contributed to the franchise winning the SIFL championship in 2010. Atlanta Falcons (second stint)
On April 28, 2009, he was signed by the Atlanta Falcons, only to be released on April 29 after failing his physical with

masks: Bergeron Bergeron


texts:
 a hamstring injury. He was re-signed by the team on May 10. He was waived during final cuts on September 4, and re-signed to the practice squad the next day.He was then promoted to the active roster on November 14. <mask> was released November 16 and re-signed to the practice squad on November 18. Ten days later, he was promoted to the 53-man roster again. On December 2, he returned to the practice squad. Due to the release of running back Verron Haynes, <mask> was promoted to the active roster on December 5. <mask> was waived again by the Falcons on December 7 and added to back to the practice squad on December 9. The Falcons promoted <mask> to the active roster again on December 15 when wide receiver Brian Finneran was placed on injured reserve.He spent a total of 6 games on the active roster. He was released on September 4, 2010. Cleveland Gladiators (AFL)
On October 3, 2010, he signed with the Cleveland Gladiators of the Arena Football League. Dallas Cowboys
On December 15, 2010, he was signed to the Dallas Cowboys' practice squad. In March 2011, because of the NFL labor dispute and lockout decision, he signed with the Cleveland Gladiators of the Arena Football League. He returned to the Cowboys after the collective bargaining agreement was signed. He was released on July 28, 2011.Personal life
In 2016, he was hired as a physical education teacher and a football assistant coach at Saint Francis Day School, Inc.

References

1983 births
Living people
Players of American football from New Orleans
American football wide receivers
Middle Tennessee Blue Raiders football players
Columbus Wardogs players
Georgia Force players
Atlanta Falcons players
Buffalo Bills players
Dallas Cowboys players
Columbus

masks: Bergeron Bergeron Bergeron Bergeron


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<mask> (ca. 1889–1969) was a reporter who was the only American woman to serve with the Serbian Chetnik under Draža Mihailović in World War II. She was captured by the Gestapo and spent a year as a prisoner of war, later writing a book about her experiences. She also wrote a book about one of her brothers, General <mask>, who is regarded as the founder of the U.S. Air Force. Family and education
<mask> was born 30 April 1889 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the daughter of Harriet Danforth (Becker) <mask> and <mask>, who a few years later would become a U.S. congressman and senator. Her grandfather was the wealthy banker and railroad tycoon <mask>. She had two sisters and two brothers: William (known as Billy), who became a general, and John, a World War I aviator who died flying over France in 1917.She was educated at Milwaukee-Downer College and then at Vassar College. <mask> was married three times but always preferred to use her birth name. Her first husband was William Van Ryneveld Van Breda, and with him she had two children: John Lendrum Van Breda (b. 1914) and <mask> Breda. John joined the Royal Air Force during World War II and was killed in action in Egypt in May 1941. This marriage was ended by William Van Breda's death. <mask>'s second husband was Stanley Knowles, a British public school teacher who was stationed in Albania as a diplomat during World War II.They separated in the early 1930s, and in 1943 <mask> went to Reno, Nevada, to get a divorce. In May 1944, <mask> married Benjamin H. Jackson of Idaho, who worked in the mining industry. Although <mask> inherited

masks:
Ruth Mitchell
Billy Mitchell
Ruth Mitchell
Mitchell
John Lendrum Mitchell
Alexander Mitchell
Mitchell
Ruth Van
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell


texts:
 enough money not to have to work, she had an adventurous temperament. An article about her in 1955 described her as one of the "pioneer women airplane pilots," though it is uncertain when or where she learned this skill. World War II
After the death of her first husband, <mask> took up photography and writing. In 1938, she was sent to the Balkans by the Illustrated London News as a reporter to cover the marriage of King Zog of Albania. She ended up staying in Europe for four years and was based out of Belgrade, Yugoslavia, when it was bombed and then invaded by Axis powers in April 1941.<mask> first became involved with the Chetniks as a reporter and only later joined as a member. It was subsequently reported that <mask> joined the Comitadji, the Yugoslavian Chetnik guerrilla band led by General Draža Mihailović. Another source states that she initially joined the Chetniks through Mihailović's rival Kosta Pećanac and later shifted her allegiance to Mihailović. Women were rare among the Chetniks, and <mask> later said that she was accepted only because she could "ride just about anything on four legs" and was ready "to die like a man." Fluent in German, she worked for the Chetniks as a spy and a courier for about a year. After the German army invaded Yugoslavia in 1941, <mask> was arrested in the port of Dubrovnik by the Gestapo while mapping German gun emplacement locations for Mihailović. In her book The Serbs Choose War published in 1943, she prophetically described crimes later a subject of the film The Monuments Men, the looting of national cultural treasures in occupied

masks: Mitchell Mitchell Mitchell Mitchell Mitchell


texts:
 European nations by the Nazis:

Every art gallery and every private home is being picked clean.Everything beautiful, everything valuable to local history as well as to humanity as a whole, is being lugged away to Germany. Will these things ever be recovered? How can it be done? The United States's neutrality at the time of her arrest prevented her immediate execution. She was held in a dozen German prisons and camps for 13 or 14 months, in the course of which she was tried and sentenced to death. Of this ordeal, she later wrote:
All the women in those prisons expected to die, and I think all the rest of them did. We were starved, tortured and beaten....It taught me the heights of courage to which the human soul can reach.She escaped execution by being released in 1942 as part of a prisoner of war exchange, through pressure exerted by the Swiss government. The following year, <mask> published The Serbs Choose War, an account of her year with Mihailović and the Chetniks and her subsequent life as a German prisoner of war. Here is part of her description of the Nazi bombing of Belgrade on April 6, 1941:
I ran to a smashed window. There in the street among piles of stones men and women lay still in strange, contorted attitudes. I had a surge of uncontrollable wild fury.... There were two unexploded incendiary bombs embedded in the pavement just outside my windows. Postwar activities
In 1946 <mask> returned to Milwaukee from overseas.After the war she was actively involved in continuing controversies over the wartime role of the Chetniks. In 1946, she spoke out against the

masks: Mitchell Mitchell


texts:
 trial of General Mihailović that was then being held in Belgrade. In part this was personal: one of the Mihailović's codefendants, former Belgrade mayor Dragomir Jovanović, had charged her with being seen with the Gestapo. Her response to this was that she had been seen with the Gestapo when she was arrested and court-martialed for her Chetnik activities But she also voiced strong support for Mihailović, calling him "the greatest patriot of the war" and charging that Marshal Tito was claiming credit for his victories and that Tito held power "by using the notorious Croat Ustashe, an organization of murderers trained by Mussolini." After the war, <mask> worked on behalf of orphaned Serbian children, fundraising for the charity Serbian War Orphans of World War II. In 1953 she published My Brother Bill, a book about the general that ranged from his early years to his notorious court-martial. By 1955 she was living in London, reportedly in a flat where Lord Byron once lived.That same year, she  toured the United States promoting the Warner Brothers film The Court-Martial of <mask>. Later life and death
In her later years, <mask> lived in Portugal, where she died in Belas in 1969 following a heart attack. References

1888 births
1969 deaths
American guerrillas of World War II
American reporters and correspondents
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American women civilians in World War II
Writers from Milwaukee
Vassar College alumni
Chetnik personnel of World War II
Women soldiers
American women non-fiction writers
20th-century American women writers
Milwaukee-Downer

masks:
Mitchell
Billy Mitchell
Mitchell


texts:
<mask> FRS FRMS (23 June 1823 – 3 July 1890) was an English physician, zoologist and comparative anatomist. From a humble beginning he became Hunterian Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in the College of Surgeons of England. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1865, awarded the Royal Medal in 1866. From 1871–73 he was President of the Royal Microscopical Society, and in 1885 he received the Baly Medal of the Royal College of Physicians. Life
<mask> was born in the village of Dogsthorpe, near Peterborough in the County of Northamptonshire. His father, <mask>, was a working farmer, living in a thatched house, built in 1635. Thomas was a Wesleyan of the old school: a Methodist-Churchman, God-fearing and courteous, farming his own land.He married the daughter of another farmer, <mask>, whose name was also given to their son <mask>. <mask> was the second son, and six other children in the family died in their infancy. He went to a village dame school early in life, then to parish schools in Werrington and Paston. Schooling was interspersed with farm-work. After telling his father that farm-work was not for him, <mask> entered the Peterborough Grammar School for nine months, and then started on the road to medical education. He  was articled to a surgeon at Market Overton in 1842, using his spare time to teach himself about the plants of the neighbourhood. His knowledge of botany became remarkably extensive and accurate.In 1842 he became apprenticed to a country surgeon. During this time he continued educating himself in natural history by reading, looking and doing. The doing consisted of collecting and dissecting birds and mammals, and working up a portfolio of exquisitely beautiful and accurate drawings. <mask> married Elizabeth Jeffery whilst still a student: she was the

masks:
William Kitchen Parker
Parker
Thomas Parker
Sarah Kitchen
William
William Parker
Parker
Parker


texts:
 daughter of the clerk to the Vauxhall Bridge Company. Her mother was the sister of Joseph Prendergast DD (1791–1875), the Headmaster of Colfe's School (1831–1857), and the benefactor of Prendergast School, both in the borough of Lewisham. <mask> and Elizabeth had seven children, three daughters and four sons. The first son, Thomas Jeffery <mask>, became Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Otago, New Zealand; the second, <mask> <mask>, became Professor of Biology in the University College, Cardiff; the third was a draughtsman and lithographer; the fourth was a surgeon.In his work on the vertebrate skull <mask> became close to Thomas Henry Huxley, and named one of his sons after him. His first son was sent to study under Huxley, and became in 1872 one of Huxley's demonstrators. <mask> was elected FRS in 1865, and a few years afterwards the Royal Society gave him an annual grant to aid his work, and a generous Wesleyan friend more than once presented £100 towards the cost of publishing some of his plates. Later in life a State pension was awarded. The honours and appointments <mask> gained later in life were due mainly for his work on the vertebrate skeleton and its significance in establishing a "true theory of the vertebrate skull" (Edward Sabine). His Royal Society obituary notice described him as "An unworldly seeker after truth, loved by all who knew him". He is buried in a Wandsworth cemetery under a cross of red granite.Medical training
<mask> studied at King's College London from 1844–46, and became a student-demonstrator there to Mr (later Sir) <mask>, the surgeon, histologist and anatomist. He attended Charing Cross Hospital in 1846–47. He never took notes during lectures, but drew sketches, and claimed he remembered the facts as well as anyone who

masks:
William
Parker
William Newton
Parker
Parker
Parker
Parker
Parker
William Bowman


texts:
 took notes. He produced sheet after sheet of artistic drawing, all worthy of publication and large numbers of skeletons of birds and mammals. He attended Richard Owen's lectures at the College of Surgeons, and "received with enthusiasm the doctrine of the archetype which he was afterwards to do so much to overturn". <mask> avoided taking exams, and remained for many years with the minimum qualification for running a general medical practice, which in those days was an LSA (Licenciate of the Society of Apothecaries), a qualification of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. From 1849, <mask> ran a general practice in London for many years, at various locations.The income supported his family, but his interest was in zoology, at which he was entirely self-taught. Today he is remembered only as a zoologist, one of a quite a sizeable groupincluding Thomas Henry Huxley, Richard Owen and Joseph Dalton Hookerwho were qualified in medicine but whose life work was in natural history or one of the newly named biological sciences. Career in zoology

Forams
Introduced to the microscope during his medical studies, <mask> continued to study the microscopic structure of tissues. It was on a visit to Bognor collecting sand that he encountered Polyzoa and Foraminifera, which he sorted, mounted and studied. <mask> became one of the greatest authorities on the Foraminifera, a group containing microscopic single-celled amoeboid protists with calcareous tests (shells). Had he not met Rupert Jones and <mask> he might have remained an unpublished amateur. It was Jones, mainly, who taught him how to present his considerable knowledge, and together they wrote 34 papers on the forams.Morphology of birds
At the same time, <mask> worked on his dissections, preparations and skeletons of vertebrates, especially

masks:
Parker
Parker
Parker
Parker
Crawford Williamson
Parker


texts:
 birds. He developed, for example, about 300 preparations of bird wings and many complete skeletons. This work resulted in 24 papers on birds, including one on Archaeopteryx. There is a general article on birds in Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. Owen's concept of vertebrate anatomy
Richard Owen was one of <mask>'s teachers, yet <mask> came to overthrow the master's ideas. Owen's view on anatomy did not derive from evolution, but from German philosophical notions of idealism. These ideas, associated in biology with Goethe and Kant, and developed in anatomy by Oken and Cuvier, were used by Owen in his theoretical expositions.Vertebrate anatomy, in this scheme, was to be seen as variations on an archetype. From an idea of Goethe's in 1790, Oken developed a theory that the bones of the skull were four modified vertebrae. Oken's exaggeration "The entire man is only a vertebra" was memorable. Oken's ideas were revived and expanded by Owen, and presented to the British Association meeting in 1846. The weak point in Owen's theory was its basis solely on the more derived and specialised skulls, and even so it took no notice of their embryological development. For example, Owen made no reference to the work of Rathke, who had shown in 1839 that there was no sign of the four vertebrae in the early embryo of snakes. The assault on Owen's system
Huxley was the first man to attack Owen's ideas on the vertebrate skeleton, in his Croonian Lecture to the Royal Society in 1858.He showed from a study of the early stages of lower fish, and also the stickleback and the frog, that the segmentation of the skull in higher vertebrata is a secondary process, and is independent of vertebration. The basis of the work was embryology, but the early history of the skull was known in only a few species. <mask>'s

masks: Parker Parker Parker


texts:
 distinction was to carry out a careful study of the process in a much wider variety of vertebrates; his ironic comment on the "anatomical suffering caused to fish from their being dragged into harmony with that mischievous piece of work, the vertebrate archetype" shows, from such a gentle man, a surprising vigour in debate. "It is high time for us to have ceased from transcendentalism: of what use is it?" he asked. <mask> on the vertebrate skull
From 1865 to 1888 <mask> published 36 studies on the vertebrate skull, including a monograph . The entire series comprises nearly 1800 pages of letterpress and about 270 plates.The work was summarised in Francis Balfour's Comparative Embryology of 1881, and settled the fate of Owen's transcendental archetype theory of the vertebrate skull once and for all. The vertebrate shoulder-girdle
Another major vertebrate project was a monograph on the comparative anatomy of the vertebrate shoulder-girdle (pectoral girdle). One of the chief results of this work was, by demonstrating the true homologies of the various bones of the shoulder-girdle in fishes, to overthrow Owen's theory of the nature of limbs. <mask> showed (contrary to Owen) that the true shoulder-girdle is from the first totally independent of the skull. In teleost and ganoid fish, the skull and shoulder-girdle are brought into connexion by derivatives of the skin-skeleton, not by bones of the shoulder-girdle. Discoveries like this alerted <mask> to the failure of the great system of transcendental anatomy which Owen had done so much to establish. Royal College of Surgeons
In 1873, Professor Flower was invalided, and <mask> was asked to step in the breach.He took his MRCS diploma by viva voce, and was appointed Professor. Afterwards, they shared the Hunterian chair jointly. Difficulty in

masks: Parker Parker Parker Parker Parker


texts:
 writing
There are many indications that <mask> found writing difficult, and avoided it, and when forced to write the result was often scarcely comprehensible. Whatever the reason, he needed, and got, help and advice. Huxley gave him detailed advice more than once, which <mask> either ignored or could not put into action. "He wrote without system, putting down everything as it occurred to him, and continually going off on side issues. He never revised: it was always the first draft of his MS. that went to the printer, and none but minor alterations were made in proof; and such methods of assisting the reader as abstracts, careful descriptions of figures, etc., always seemed to him superfluous.""But from the purely literary standpoint the case is altered: scattered up and down his writings are passages of great beauty, of true and sincere eloquence, and of quaint whimsical humour." Although <mask> could scarcely write a simple descriptive sentence to save his life, he certainly had a huge grasp of the imagery and poetics of the English language. This is part of one sequence quoted by his son:
"If the Megatherium, or his somewhat more modest-sized relation, the Mylodon (another extinct sloth), did find their supply of food in the way palaeontologists suggest, their mode of dining must have been a sight worth seeing...
"Let us, however, try to imagine a Megatherium waking up after lazily dozing a month or two during the dry season, and then, hungry and wet, in the heavy downpour of the beginning rainy season, setting to work to break his fast. As far as can be judged by the tools he had to work with—paws a yard, and claws a foot, in length—the first thing to be done was to throw a few hundredweights of earth from the roots of some large tree. "Now he changes his tactics; he has good


texts:
 collar-bones, and well-shaped arms for embracing; so, bear-like, he hugs the tree upon which his desires are set, and, busily digging still, not now with his fore, but with his hind, paws, his great weight resting upon his haunches and his tail, he, with many groans, sways the big tree to and fro; at last with a great crash it falls..."

That is certainly not the prose of the usual science author. At least two of <mask>'s books were written with help: his Morphology of the skull was written from his dictation and notes by G.T. Bettany, and his 1884 lectures On mammalian descent were written with the help of a friend, Arabella Buckley, who had been Charles Lyell's secretary.<mask>'s avoidance of exams also points towards an avoidance of writing, especially since his early career would have been much improved by taking a higher qualification. As far as we know, it was not a lack of money which prevented him taking exams (as it was with Huxley). His father, though not wealthy, was able to give his children a start in life. Dyslexia is a possible explanation, but it is hard to reconcile with passages such as the above. Perhaps an upbringing in a farmhouse with little reading material apart from the Bible, and little opportunity to practice writing in his early years led to his unusual characteristics as a scientific writer. References

External links
On Mammalian Descent; the Hunterian Lectures for 1884: being nine lectures ... By <mask> <mask>

1823 births
1890 deaths
People from Peterborough
Fellows of the Zoological Society of London
19th-century English medical doctors
English zoologists
British ornithologists
Alumni of King's College London
Fellows of King's College London
Royal Medal winners
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society
Alumni of Charing

masks:
Parker
Parker
William Kitchen
Parker


texts:
<mask> (The romanization preferred by the author according to LTI Korea.) (Hangul 조현; born 1969) is a South Korean novelist. He follows the example of some artists known to adopt alien alter-egos (notably the British musician David Bowie, who invented the bisexual rockstar Ziggy Stardust persona) and describes himself as a "special correspondent in Earth for the planet of Klaatu." Klaatu is also the name of a fictional alien in the 1951 film The Day the Earth Stood Still directed by Robert Wise, based on the short story "Farewell to the Master" by Harry Bates. A Canadian rock band performed under the same name in the 1970s. As his unusual self-label suggests, <mask> writes science fiction that combines Eastern history and culture with those of the West. Life
<mask> was born in Damyang County, South Korea in 1969.He made his literary debut in 2008 when his short story “The Elegant Philosophy of the Paper Napkin” (종이냅킨에 대한 우아한 철학) won the Dong-A Daily New Writer's Contest. Jo mainly wrote poetry during his university years, but after landing a full-time job, he became content with reading literature as opposed to writing it. Near the end of his twenties, he decided to submit a poem to a new writer's contest but did not win. He tried again a decade later as a way to wrap up his thirties, sending in a poem

masks:
Joh Hyun
Joh Hyun
Joh Hyun


texts: along with a shorty story he happened to have ready at the time. To his surprise, the short story won the contest. He famously donated half of his prize money to a little girl in Mozambique so he could put into action the central message of his winning story: "All forms of life are interconnected, cannot exist independently, and must share with one another." An avid reader, Jo dreamed of becoming a librarian as a child.When he started university, he haunted the school library and frequented used bookstores because he could not afford to buy new books. Jo was more interested in poetry and cinema than in novels during his university years. Wishing to learn more about screenwriting and film, he joined the Korea Media Rating Board after graduating. In 2003, he began working as a staff member of the Performing Arts department at the Kookmin University College of Art. In his first year, he was awarded the Best Reader Award by the Dean of Libraries of Kookmin University Sungkok Library. Jo considers his dreams to be a major source of creative inspiration. In fact, most of the works in his first short story collection Nuguegena amugeotdo anin hambeogeoui yeoksa (누구에게나 아무것도 아닌 햄버거의 역사 The History of the Hamburger that Was Nothing to Anyone), including his award-winning debut “The Elegant Philosophy of the Paper


texts:
 Napkin” (종이냅킨에 대한 우아한 철학), were written based on what he saw in his dreams.Jo elaborates on his dreams in another short story, “Eunhasureul geonneo – klaatuhangseongtongshin 1” (은하수를 건너-클라투행성통신1 Crossing the Galaxy: Correspondence to Planet Klaatu 1). The protagonist's lucid dreams can be seen as alternate versions of Jo's own dream world. “The Elegant Philosophy of the Paper Napkin” has been translated into English and appeared in the literary journal AZALEA published by the Korean Institute of Harvard University. Writing
Literary critic Jeong Gwa-ri and novelist Song Sokze, who judged the 2008 Dong-A Daily New Writer's Contest, wrote the following commentary on selecting <mask> <mask>'s “The Elegant Philosophy of the Paper Napkin” as the winning work:

“‘The Elegant Philosophy of the Paper Napkin’ follows the story of cyborgs conducting an anthropological study of humans after their extinction. The work stood out for its highly imaginative premise involving ‘The Waste Land’ poet T. S. Eliot and napkins that satirize the emotional poverty of people today. Also notable was its clever narrative structure of starting and ending the story with shocking reveals in the form of letters. Blending prescient reflections on reality into a fictional world, while meeting the classic criteria for a ‘well-wrought

masks: Joh Hyun


texts:
 urn,’ the work was a worthy winner.”

The commentary offers a basic guideline to understanding <mask> <mask>’s work: against the backdrop of fictional universes influenced by a number of science fiction masterpieces, Jo writes stories about reality.In a perceptive commentary on the author, literary critic Kang Yu-jeong writes: “Novels are fiction. Even a fact, as soon as it enters the framework of fiction, becomes a component of fiction. A story that shamelessly presents ‘facts’ as real information is phony and obscene. Bad storytellers often use real information to emphasize the authenticity of their work. Bad liars think they are fooling others, but are really just fooling themselves. Better liars know how to fool others without fooling themselves. The best liars, that is the true liars, believe in their own lies.To make a lie true, the key is to properly construct the lie and have faith in it. Funnily enough, a properly constructed lie is often more poignant than a poorly told truth. People readily sympathize with true lies and are moved by their alluring charm. A well-made story, a great novel—they are all poignant lies. In the world of fiction and storytelling, whether something is factual or not is not the point. The point is whether it can inspire awe in your heart. I have no doubt in my mind that


texts:
 <mask> <mask> is a superb liar.”

Works
1.『누구에게나 아무것도 아닌 햄버거의 역사』, 민음사, 2011년. { The History of the Hamburger that Was Nothing to Anyone. Minumsa, 2011. } 2. 「제인도우, 마이보스」, 『2017 현대문학상 수상소설집』, 현대문학, 2017년. { “Jane Doe, My Boss.” In 2017 Hyundae Literary Award Anthology. <mask> Munhak, 2017. }Works in translation
 The Elegant Philosophy of the Paper Napkin (English)

Awards
1. 2017: Hyundae Literary Award

2. 2008: Dong-A Daily New Writer's Contest

Further reading
 김태환, ｢식물성 맥도날드, 아이러니와 역설의 세계｣, 『문학과사회』, 2008년 여름호. { Kim, Tae-hwan. “Vegetarian McDonald’s: The World of Irony and Paradox.” Literature and Society, 2008 Summer Issue. } 서희원, ｢누구에게는 모든 것인 우연 또는 시적 상상력의 소설｣, 『문학동네』, 2011년 겨울호. { Seo, Hui-won.“A Novel of Chance or Poetic Imagination that Was Everything to Someone.” Munhakdongne, 2011 Winter Issue. } 서희원, ｢외계인 비밀 보고서 공개 “지구인은…”｣, 『프레시안』, 2011년 9월 23일. { Seo, Hui-won. “Secret Alien Report Disclosed: Earthlings are...” Pressian, September 23, 2011. } 이수형 · 조현, ｢조현 작가 인터뷰｣,『웹진 문지』, 2011년 12월 18일. { Lee, Su-hyeong, and Hyeon Jo. “Interview with Writer <mask> <mask>.” Webzine Moonji, December 18, 2011. }｢조현 소설가｣, 『사이버문학광장 문장』, 2011년 9월 26일. { “Novelist <mask> <mask>.” Munjang, September 26, 2011. } References

South Korean science fiction writers
21st-century South Korean writers
1969 births
Living

masks: Joh Hyun Hyundae Joh Hyun Joh Hyun


texts:
<mask> (劉隱) (874 – April 4, 911), formally Prince Xiang of Nanhai (南海襄王), later further posthumously honored Emperor Xiang (襄皇帝) with the temple name of Liezong (烈宗) by his younger brother <mask>, was a warlord late in the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty and Tang's succeeding dynasty Later Liang of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, who ruled Qinghai Circuit (清海, headquartered in modern Guangzhou, Guangdong) as its military governor (Jiedushi). It was on the basis of his rule that <mask> was later able to establish the state of Southern Han. Background
<mask> was born in 874, during the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang. His father, whose name was variously referred to as <mask> or <mask>, was a low-level officer at Guang Prefecture (廣州), the capital of Qinghai (then known as Lingnan East Circuit (嶺南東道)). His mother Lady Wei was a niece to Lingnan East's then-military governor Wei Zhou (韋宙). <mask> eventually came to control Feng Prefecture (封州, in modern Zhaoqing, Guangdong) as its prefect. <mask> was his oldest son, and he had two younger ones, <mask> (劉台), also born of Lady Wei, and <mask>, born of his concubine Lady Duan.(Lady Wei had killed Lady Duan out of a jealous rage after finding out about Lady Duan, whom <mask> had kept in a house away from their mansion. When <mask> subsequently buried Lady Duan, at her burial location was a stone tablet that bore the characters of <mask>, Tai, and Yan, and he used those characters to name his three sons.) As prefect of Feng Prefecture
In 894, <mask> died, and <mask> was observing a period of mourning when

masks:
Liu Yin
Liu Yan
Liu Yan
Liu Yin
Liu Qian
Liu Zhiqian
Liu Qian
Liu Yin
Liu Tai
Liu Yan
Liu Qian
Liu Qian
Yin
Liu Qian
Liu Yin


texts:
 it was said that a group of about 100 soldiers and civilians were planning a disturbance. <mask> slaughtered them. Thereafter, then-military governor of Lingnan East, <mask>i (劉崇龜), made him a Lingnan East officer and gave him one of the titles that <mask> held, the defender of Heshui Base (賀水鎮, in modern Nanning, Guangxi). Shortly after, <mask>i commissioned him the prefect of Feng Prefecture. In 896, a new military governor of the circuit (which had been renamed Qinghai by that point), Li Zhirou the Prince of Xue, commissioned by then-reigning Emperor Zhaozong (Emperor Xizong's brother and successor), was reporting to Qinghai.Instead of preparing to welcome him, however, the Qinghai officers Lu Ju (盧琚) and Tan Hongqi (譚弘玘) instead prepared to resist him and took up defensive positions, with Tan defending Duan Prefecture (端州, in modern Zhaoqing). Tan tried to enter an alliance with <mask> to defend against Li, and promised to give his daughter to <mask> in marriage. <mask> pretended to agree, but instead, under the guise that he was going to go to Duan Prefecture to marry Tan's daughter, ambushed Tan and killed him. He then attacked Guang Prefecture and killed Lu, and then welcomed Li to Guang Prefecture to take command. Li commissioned <mask> as the commander of the Qinghai army (行軍司馬, Xingjun Sima). As Qinghai officer
In 898, Zeng Gun (曾袞) the prefect of Shao Prefecture (邵州, in modern Shaoguan, Guangdong) attacked Guang Prefecture, and was joined by the Guang Prefecture officer Wang Gui (王瓌, who commanded a fleet). <mask> defeated them, and when the Shao

masks:
Liu Yin
Liu Chonggu
Liu Qian
Liu Chonggu
Liu Yin
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu Yin


texts: Prefecture officer <mask> (劉潼) subsequently attacked Zhen (湞州) and Han (浛州) (both in modern Qingyuan, Guangdong), <mask> defeated and killed him.In 900, Emperor Zhaozong commissioned the chancellor Xu Yanruo to replace Li Zhirou as military governor of Qinghai, but before Xu could get to Qinghai, Li died. When Xu arrived at Qinghai, he made <mask> his deputy military governor and entrusted the affairs of the circuit to <mask>. When Xu himself died in 901, he left a will recommending <mask> as the acting military governor. Emperor Zhaozong subsequently commissioned Cui Yuan, but when Cui reached Jiangling, he heard that Qinghai was overrun by bandits and also feared that <mask> would not yield authority to him, and therefore requested recall to the imperial government; Emperor Zhaozong agreed and did so, but did not name <mask> military governor at that time. In 902, Lu Guangchou the prefect of Qian Prefecture (虔州, in modern Ganzhou, Jiangxi) attacked Qinghai Circuit and captured Shao Prefecture and put Chao Prefecture (潮州, in modern Chaozhou, Guangdong) under siege, <mask> defeated him and tried to recapture Shao. <mask> advised him not to, pointing out that Lu's army was still strong, but <mask> did not listen to him and attacked Shao anyway. At that time, the water level on the river was high, and <mask> was not able to get food supplies to the army on time.A counterattack by Lu and his officer Tan Quanbo defeated him and forced his withdrawal, allowing Lu to retain Shao. In 904, by which time the powerful warlord Zhu Quanzhong the military governor of

masks:
Liu Tong
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu Yan
Liu Yin
Liu Yin


texts:
 Xuanwu Circuit (宣武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan) was in effective control of the imperial government, having assassinated Emperor Zhaozong and replaced him with his son Emperor Ai, <mask> bribed Zhu and requested to be commissioned military governor. Zhu agreed, and <mask> was subsequently given the military governorship. As military governor
In 905, Emperor Ai bestowed the honorary chancellor designation of Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (同中書門下平章事) on <mask>. In 907, Zhu Quanzhong forced Emperor Ai to yield the throne to him, ending Tang and starting a new Later Liang as its Emperor Taizu. He gave <mask> the greater honorary chancellor title of Shizhong (侍中) and created him the Prince of Dapeng. In 908, <mask> the Prince of Chu to the north of Qinghai, sent his officer Lü Shizhou (呂師周) to attack Qinghai, capturing six prefectures (Zhao (昭州, in modern Guilin, Guangxi), He (賀州, in modern Hezhou, Guangxi), Wu (梧州, in modern Wuzhou, Guangxi), Meng (蒙州, in modern Wuzhou), Gong (龔州, in modern Guigang, Guangxi), and Fu (富州, in modern Hezhou)) from Qinghai.Also in 908, Later Liang's Emperor Taizu sent the officials Zhao Guangyi (趙光裔) and <mask>heng (李殷衡) as emissaries to <mask> to commission him as the military governor of both Qinghai and Jinghai (靜海, headquartered in modern Hanoi, Vietnam) Circuits. <mask> accepted the commissions but then detained Zhao and Li and did not permit them to return to the Later Liang court. In 909, Emperor Taizu created <mask> the Prince of Nanping. In or sometime before 910, <mask> had sent <mask> to attack Ningyuan

masks:
Liu Yin
Liu
Liu Yin
Liu Yin
Ma Yin
Li Yin
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu Yin
Liu Yan


texts:
 Circuit (寧遠, headquartered in modern Yulin, Guangxi), which consisted of its capital Rong Prefecture (容州) and Gao Prefecture (高州, in modern Maoming, Guangdong) and which was then governed by Pang Juzhao (龐巨昭), but <mask> was defeated by Pang. Still, believing that he could not prevail over <mask>, Pang surrendered Ningyuan to Chu in 910. Ma stationed his general Yao Yanzhang at Rong Prefecture. Later in the year, Emperor Taizu created <mask> the Prince of Nanhai.In 911, <mask> fell ill. He submitted a recommendation that <mask> succeed him, and then died. Subsequently, <mask> took over the circuit. Personal information
 Father
 <mask> or <mask>, posthumously honored Emperor Shengwu with the temple name of Daizu
 Mother
 Lady Wei, posthumously honored Empress Wu
 Wife?/Concubine? Lady Yan, mother of Princess Qingyuan
 Children
 Princess Zengcheng, wife of Changhe's emperor Zheng Min (鄭旻)
 <mask> (劉華), the Princess Qingyuan, wife of Min's prince (later emperor) Wang Yanjun
 At least one son

References

Citations

Bibliography
 History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 135. New History of the Five Dynasties, vol.65. Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267, 268. Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms (十國春秋), vol. 58. Later Liang (Five Dynasties) jiedushi of Qinghai Circuit
10th-century rulers in Asia
Later Liang (Five Dynasties) jiedushi of Jinghai Circuit
Tang dynasty generals from Guangdong
874 births
911 deaths
Tang dynasty politicians from Guangdong
Tang dynasty jiedushi of Lingnan Circuit
Later Liang (Five Dynasties) people born

masks:
Liu Yan
Liu Yin
Liu Yin
Liu Yin
Liu Yan
Liu Yan
Liu Zhiqian
Liu Qian
Liu Hua


texts:
<mask> (4 June 19257 October 2018) was a Portuguese professor of microbiology who played an important role in research on HIV, through the identification of the HIV-2 virus in association with the Pasteur Institute of Paris. She was also the coordinator of the Portuguese programme to fight AIDS, overseeing the "Say no to a second-hand syringe" project, which resulted in the collection and exchange by pharmacies of 43 million used syringes between 1993 and 2008. Early life
<mask> was born in Lisbon, Portugal, on 4 June 1925. Her grandfather was the owner of the first pharmacy on the island of Bolama in Portuguese Guinea and her father was a civil servant there. Her uncles were also pharmacists. <mask> moved to Bolama when she was only three months old. Back in Portugal at the age of 10, she attended the Colégio Moderno in Lisbon.Education
After obtaining a bachelor's degree, <mask> had to postpone further academic training. The pharmacy faculty at the University of Lisbon had been closed since 1932, and the only institution able to offer a Pharmacy degree was in Porto. Her father, however, would not let her go alone to Porto to study. In 1968, the pharmacy faculty reopened in Lisbon, enabling her to continue her chosen studies, graduating in pharmaceutical studies in 1970. She then became an assistant professor at the University of Lisbon, responsible for practical instruction in microbiology, bacteriology, and virology. She was soon invited to spend a three-month internship with the Pasteur Institute, leaving her husband, also a pharmacist, and two daughters behind in Lisbon to go to Paris. On completing the internship, where she had been made aware of techniques for identifying the AIDS virus, she started a doctorate on the topic of hospital infections, receiving a PhD from Paris-Sud University in 1977.Career
In the 1970s, <mask> began collaborating with

masks:
Maria Odette Santos Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira


texts: the Pasteur Institute to carry out an epidemiological study of hospital infections caused by the Pseudomonas Aeruginosa bacillus observed in Lisbon hospitals. Her studies led to the identification of Portuguese lysotypes that had not previously been categorised. After the Carnation Revolution (25 April 1974), in which the authoritarian Estado Novo government was overthrown, she had several different roles in the reorganization of the University of Lisbon, as a member of the Board of Directors and of the Pedagogical Council. In the 1980s, <mask> worked continuously with the Pasteur Institute, where she developed detection techniques for the HIV-1 lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV), one of the etiological agents of HIV, and made the first diagnoses of cases of AIDS in Portugal, including that of the famous Portuguese singer António Variações. In September 1985, she flew to Paris from Lisbon with test tubes of blood in her coat. She held them close to her body to keep the blood at body temperature, necessary to maintain the stability of the samples, and also to be able to pass through security without inspection. The blood came from a patient from Guinea-Bissau who had been admitted to the Egas Moniz Hospital in Lisbon.It was known that people in Guinea-Bissau had AIDS but researchers could not find antibodies to HIV-1 in their blood. The research <mask> carried out at the Pasteur Institute in the following two weeks, together with Nobel Prize winners Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier, culminated in the identification of a new type of AIDS virus, HIV-2, and paved the way for comparative studies between HIV-1 and HIV-2. From this time all of <mask>'s scientific activity was focused on the study of the HIV/AIDS infection, in particular on the less-virulent HIV-2. Her discovery of HIV-2, its epidemiology and diagnosis, made in collaboration with the

masks: Ferreira Ferreira Ferreira


texts: Pasteur Institute and with José Luis Champalimaud from the Egas Moniz Hospital, came to revolutionize the world of serological diagnosis and helped the Retrovirus and Associated Infections Unit (CPM-URIA) at the University of Lisbon to expand and concentrate important lines of research in the area of retroviruses. Following this discovery, <mask> and Champalimaud were invited to become consultants to the World Health Organization's AIDS Programme. <mask> became Professor of Microbiology at the University of Lisbon in 1986 and played a major role in the creation of the university's microbiology laboratory. In 1992 she was appointed coordinator of the Portuguese National Programme to fight AIDS, a position she held until 2000.Under her, the "Say no to a second-hand syringe" project was introduced. Resulting from a partnership between the Ministry of Health and the National Association of Pharmacies, this project was developed simultaneously throughout Portugal at approximately 2,500 pharmacies. By collecting 43 million used syringes between 1993 and 2008 the programme successfully reduced the risk of intravenous transmission of HIV and other communicable diseases (Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) to drug addicts. Other projects with significant impact were the establishment of anonymous and free screening centres, and the creation of a centre in Lisbon to provide counselling, analysis, consultation and protection for sex workers. The work of the National Programme is estimated to have saved several thousand lives. Ferreira visited drug addicts and prostitutes, alerting them to the need to exchange syringes and use condoms. She protested against the "stupidity of fear" and did not hesitate to hug and kiss HIV-positive people, even when she was personally ostracized by people who believed that the AIDS virus was spread like influenza.She promoted several

masks: Ferreira Ferreira


texts:
 home-support services coordinated by the Solidarity Project of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa, and the construction of a residence to support AIDS patients through provision of palliative care (Residência Madre Teresa de Calcutá). Awards
In 1975, the French government made <mask> a Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Palmes Academiques for her role in strengthening scientific cooperation between Portugal and France, and in 1987 she was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur for her work on HIV. In Portugal, in 1988, she was made a Commander of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword (). In 2016, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCTES) awarded her the Medal of Merit for her "valuable and exceptional contribution to the development of science or scientific culture in Portugal". The Order of Pharmacists (Ordem dos Farmacêuticos) recognized her achievements by awarding her its Medal of Honour and, in 2012, its gold medal. In 2010, the Order of Pharmacists created a scientific research award, which was designated as the "Scientific Research Prize Professor <mask> <mask>". An award that particularly pleased her was the use of her name for a conference room at the Pharmacy Faculty.<mask> died on 7 October 2018. She donated her professional estate to the Lisbon Pharmacy Museum. An exhibition of her work was under preparation with her participation at the time of her death and was held from 21 February 2019 at the museum. References

Portuguese microbiologists
HIV/AIDS researchers
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
University of Lisbon alumni
University of Lisbon faculty
1925 births
2018 deaths
Women microbiologists
20th-century women scientists
Portuguese women scientists
21st-century women scientists
Women medical researchers
20th-century biologists
21st-century biologists
20th-century Portuguese scientists
21st-century Portuguese

masks:
Ferreira
Maria Odette
Santos Ferreira
Ferreira


texts:
<mask> (April 15, 1935 – July 7, 1995) (; pinyin: Tān Jìpíng) was an American businessman and civic leader in Chicago. He was also the uncle of American actress <mask>. Early life and education
Mr. <mask> was the youngest of eight children. His mother, Lillian Goo, married <mask>. Chan after her sister, Mary Goo, <mask>. Chan's first wife, died from influenza. Mary Goo had two children: Florence and Grace. Lillian had six children:  Priscilla, Helene, Eunice, Mary, <mask> (Chung) and <mask>. Mr. <mask> attended Haines School in Chinatown.He then won a high-school scholarship to Francis W. Parker School in Chicago. Mr. <mask> won the Parker scholarship over his best friend, Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr., who went on to become the first African-American astronaut. Mr. <mask> graduated from Parker in 1952. Both of his sons, Darryl (Class of 1988) and Curtis (Class of 1990), as well as Trace Lawrence (Class of 1977), Mr. Lawrence's son, also attended Francis W. Parker School. In an article Mr. <mask> wrote for the Parker Weekly in 1988, he stated that his experience at Parker shaped and influenced his life in two ways. First, Parker's atmosphere of encouragement helped him build self-confidence. Second, Parker's diversity taught him to develop "mutual respect and caring for those of a different race, ethnicity and religion."In fact, he noted that he had not known a Jew until he attended Parker. Mr. <mask> then attended Northwestern University where he entered a special six-year dual degree program to obtain a bachelor's degree concurrently with a Juris Doctor from Northwestern University School of Law, receiving his B.A. in Economics in 1956 and his J.D. in 1958. Businesses

 Chinese Trading Company

masks:
Ping Tom
Lauren Tom
Tom
Tom Y
Tom Y
Tom
Ping
Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom


texts:
 (est. 1911):  food import company
 Vice president, 1966–72; President, 1972–95
 Chinese Noodle Company (est. 1911): maker of egg noodles and won ton and egg roll skins
 Vice president, 1958–66; President, 1972–95
 Lekel Chop Suey Pail Company: maker of take out food pails
 President, 1980–95
 Mah Chena Corporation: frozen food and appetizers
 President, 1980–95
 Griesbaum Meat Company: tripe processing company
 President, 1980–95

Chinese Trading Company and Chinese Noodle Company were founded by <mask>. Chan.The other companies were acquired by the <mask> family later. After his older brother, Chung, died of a heart attack in 1980, Mr. <mask> became president of all of the above companies. His sisters, Helene, Eunice, and Mary also worked for the family business, as did his nephews, Jan Wong (Eunice's son) and <mask> (Chung's son). Civic activities
 Trustee, WTTW-TV Channel 11
 Trustee, Adler Planetarium
 Trustee, The Lincoln Academy of Illinois
 Trustee, Jane Addams' Hull House
 Director, Madison Bank
 Member, Chicago Board of Roosevelt University
 Member, Board of Advisors, Mercy Hospital and Medical Center
 Member, Illinois Development Finance Authority
 Member, South Side Planning Board
 Member, Economic Club of Chicago
 Member, design committee for Harold Washington Library
 Member, Metropolitan Pier and Exposition Authority
 Member, U.S. Federal Judicial Nominations Committee
 Director, Asian American Institute
 Founding president (1983), Chinatown Chamber of Commerce
 Chairman, Chinatown Parking Corporation
 Past president and director, Chinese American Civic Council
 Member, Advisory Board of the Chinese American Service League

Mr. <mask> was a leader not only in the Chinese

masks:
Tom Y
Tom
Tom
Chip Tom
Tom


texts:
 community, but in the broader Asian American community as well. His beaming smile and calm demeanor endeared him to people of all backgrounds. Friends say that he had a natural ability to resolve differences among people. He was one of the thirteen original founders of the Asian American Coalition of Chicago, an organization that annually brings together diverse Asian communities, including Chinese, Indian, Pakistani, Japanese, Korean, Indonesian, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cambodian, among others.Furthermore, some say that because he was a second generation native English speaker, he had an easier time working with mainstream (non-Asian) organizations and even politicians. Mr. <mask> was an advisor to U.S. Senators (Paul Simon, Carol Moseley-Braun), Illinois governors (James R. Thompson, Jim Edgar), and Chicago mayors (the late Harold Washington and Richard M. Daley). Outside of family and the family businesses, Mr. <mask>'s greatest achievement was his work on Chinatown Square, a $100 million plus residential and commercial expansion of Chinatown on  of land purchased from the Santa Fe Railroad. As president of the Chinese American Development Corporation, founded in 1984, he unfortunately did not have the chance to see the bustling development that it has become. It was his desire to expand Chinatown so that there would be more room for his fellow Chinese to live and work. He was recently recognized as one of Chicago magazine's top 40 Chicago pioneers for his efforts.Personal life

<mask> married Valerie Ching (born September 15, 1934) of Honolulu, Hawaii on October 11, 1958. They met in Chicago while Mr. <mask> was attending law school at Northwestern University and Valerie attended the Gregg

masks:
Tom
Tom
Ping Tom
Tom


texts:
 Court Reporting School, which was then associated with Northwestern. They had two children:
 <mask> (born March 13, 1970)
 <mask> (born August 13, 1972)

Death and honors

Following his sudden death in 1995 due to pancreatic cancer, Mr. <mask>'s wish that a park be built for Chinatown residents came true on October 2, 1999, when the Chicago Park District dedicated the  Ping Tom Memorial Park next to the Chinatown Square in his name. In 2005, a bust of Mr. <mask> was installed in the park to commemorate the 10th anniversary of his death. The Asian American Coalition of Chicago has since named its highest award, the Pan Asian American award,   in his honor. References

External links
Ping Tom Memorial Park Advisory Board Page
Ping Tom Memorial Park
Chinatown Chamber of Commerce
Asian American Coalition of Chicago
The Raymond and Jean Lee Chinese-American Museum of Chicago
Haines School
Francis W. Parker School

1935 births
1995 deaths
American businesspeople in shipping
American chief executives
American food industry business executives
American manufacturing businesspeople
American newspaper publishers (people)
American people of Chinese descent
Philanthropists from Illinois
Businesspeople from Chicago
Northwestern University alumni
Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law

masks:
Darryl Tom
Curtis Tom
Tom
Tom


texts: <mask> (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called <mask> of Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–85) and Forcalquier (1246–48, 1256–85) in the Holy Roman Empire, Count of Anjou and Maine (1246–85) in France; he was also King of Sicily (1266–85) and Prince of Achaea (1278–85). In 1272, he was proclaimed King of Albania; and in 1277 he purchased a claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The youngest son of <mask> of France and Blanche of Castile, <mask> was destined for a Church career until the early 1240s. He acquired Provence and Forcalquier through his marriage to their heiress, Beatrice. His attempts to restore central authority brought him into conflict with his mother-in-law, Beatrice of Savoy, and the nobility. <mask> received Anjou and Maine from his brother, <mask> of France, in appanage.He accompanied Louis during the Seventh Crusade to Egypt. Shortly after he returned to Provence in 1250, <mask>arseilles, Arles and Avignonto acknowledge his suzerainty. <mask> supported Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut, against her eldest son, John, in exchange for Hainaut in 1253. Two years later <mask> persuaded him to renounce the county, but compensated him by instructing Margaret to pay him 160,000 marks. <mask> forced the rebellious Provençal nobles and towns into submission and expanded his suzerainty over a dozen towns and lordships in the Kingdom of Arles. In 1263, after years of negotiations, he accepted the offer of the Holy See to seize the

masks:
Charles I
Charles
Louis VIII
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
CharlesM
Charles
Louis IX
Charles


texts:
 Kingdom of Sicily from the Hohenstaufens. This kingdom included, in addition to the island of Sicily, southern Italy to well north of Naples and was known as the Regno.Pope Urban IV declared a crusade against the incumbent Manfred of Sicily and assisted <mask> in raising funds for the military campaign. <mask> was crowned king in Rome on 5 January 1266. He annihilated Manfred's army and occupied the Regno almost without resistance. His victory over Manfred's young nephew, Conradin, at the Battle of Tagliacozzo in 1268 strengthened his rule. In 1270 he took part in the Eighth Crusade organized by <mask>, and forced the Hafsid Caliph of Tunis to pay a yearly tribute to him. <mask>'s victories secured his undisputed leadership among the Papacy's Italian partisans (known as Guelphs), but his influence on papal elections and his strong military presence in Italy disturbed the popes. They tried to channel his ambitions towards other territories and assisted him in acquiring claims to Achaea, Jerusalem and Arles through treaties.In 1281 Pope Martin IV authorised <mask> to launch a crusade against the Byzantine Empire. <mask>'s ships were gathering at Messina, ready to begin the campaign when the Sicilian Vespers rebellion broke out on 30March 1282 which put an end to <mask>'s rule on the island of Sicily. He was able to defend the mainland territories (or the Kingdom of Naples) with the support of France and the Holy See. <mask> died while making preparations for an invasion of Sicily. Early life

Childhood

<mask> was the youngest child of King <mask> of

masks:
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis VIII


texts:
 France and Blanche of Castile. The date of his birth has not survived, but he was probably a posthumous son, born in early 1227. <mask> was his only surviving son to be "born in the purple" (after his father's coronation), a fact he often emphasised in his youth, as the contemporaneous chronicler Matthew Paris noted in his .He was the first Capetian to be named for Charlemagne. <mask> died in November 1226 and his eldest son, <mask>, succeeded him. The late King willed that his youngest sons were to be prepared for a career in the Roman Catholic Church. The details of <mask>'s tuition are unknown, but he received a good education. He understood the principal Catholic doctrines and could identify errors in Latin texts. His passion for poetry, medical sciences and law is well documented. <mask> said that their mother had a strong impact on her children's education.In reality, Blanche was fully engaged in state administration, and could likely spare little time for her youngest children. <mask> lived at the court of a brother, <mask>, Count of Artois, from 1237. About four years later he was put into the care of his youngest brother, Alphonse, Count of Poitiers. His participation in his brothers' military campaign against Hugh X of Lusignan, Count of La Marche, in 1242 showed that he was no longer destined for a Church career. Provence and Anjou

Raymond Berengar V of Provence died in August 1245, bequeathing Provence and Forcalquier to his youngest daughter, Beatrice, allegedly because he had given generous dowries to her three sisters. The dowries were

masks:
Charles
Louis VIII
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Robert I


texts: actually not fully discharged, causing two of her sisters, Margaret (<mask>'s wife) and Eleanor (the wife of <mask> of England), to believe that they had been unlawfully disinherited. Their mother, Beatrice of Savoy, claimed that Raymond Berengar had willed the usufruct of Provence to her.The Hohenstaufen Emperor <mask> (whom Pope <mask> IV had recently excommunicated for his alleged "crimes against the Church"), Count <mask> of Toulouse and other neighbouring rulers proposed themselves or their sons as husbands for the young Countess. Her mother put her under the protection of the Holy See. <mask> and Margaret suggested that Beatrice should be given in marriage to <mask>. To secure the support of France against Frederick II, Pope <mask> IV accepted their proposal. <mask> hurried to Aix-en-Provence at the head of an army to prevent other suitors from invading Provence, and married Beatrice on 31January 1246. Provence was a part of the Kingdom of Arles and so of the Holy Roman Empire, but <mask> never swore fealty to the emperor. He ordered a survey of the counts' rights and revenues, outraging both his subjects and his mother-in-law, who regarded this action as an attack against her rights.Being a younger child, destined for a church career, <mask> had not received an appanage (a hereditary county or duchy) from his father. <mask> had willed that his fourth son, John, should receive Anjou and Maine upon reaching the age of majority, but John died in 1232. <mask> knighted <mask> at Melun in May 1246 and three months later bestowed Anjou and Maine on

masks:
Louis IX
Henry III
Frederick II
Innocent
Raymond VII
Louis IX
Charles
Innocent
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis VIII
Louis IX
Charles


texts:
 him. <mask> rarely visited his two counties and appointed baillies (or regents) to administer them. While <mask> was absent from Provence, Marseilles, Arles and Avignonthree wealthy cities, directly subject to the emperorformed a league and appointed a Provençal nobleman, Barral of Baux, as the commander of their combined armies. <mask>'s mother-in-law put the disobedient Provençals under her protection. <mask> could not deal with the rebels as he was about to join his brother's crusade.To pacify his mother-in-law he acknowledged her right to rule Forcalquier and granted a third of his revenues from Provence to her. Seventh Crusade

In December 1244 <mask>, Alphonse and <mask>o took the cross. Preparations for the crusade lasted for years, with the crusaders embarking at Aigues-Mortes on 25August 1248. After spending several months in Cyprus they invaded Egypt on 5June 1249. They captured Damietta and decided to attack Cairo in November. During their advance Louis's biographer Jean de Joinville noted <mask>'s personal courage which saved dozens of crusaders' lives.Robert of Artois died fighting against the Egyptians at Al Mansurah. His three brothers survived, but they had to abandon the campaign. While withdrawing from Egypt, they fell into captivity on 6April 1250. The Egyptians released Louis, <mask> and Alphonse in exchange of 800,000 bezants and the surrender of Damietta on 6May. During their voyage to Acre, <mask> outraged Louis by gambling while the king was mourning Robert's death. Louis remained in the Holy Land, but <mask> returned to France

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis IXRobert
Charlesals
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts:
 in October 1250. Wider ambitions

Conflicts and consolidation

<mask>'s officers continued the survey of the counts' rights and revenues in Provence, provoking a new rebellion during his absence.On his return he applied both diplomacy and military force to deal with them. The Archbishop of Arles and the Bishop of Digne ceded their secular rights in the two towns to <mask> in 1250. He received military assistance from his brother, Alphonse. Arles was the first town to surrender to them in April 1251. In May they forced Avignon to acknowledge their joint rule. A month later Barral of Baux also capitulated. Marseilles was the only town to resist for several months, but it also sought peace in July 1252.Its burghers acknowledged <mask> as their lord, but retained their self-governing bodies. <mask>'s officials continued to ascertain his rights, visiting each town and holding public enquiries to obtain information about all claims. The count's salt monopoly (or ) was introduced in the whole county. Income from the salt trade made up about 50% of state revenues by the late 1250s. <mask> abolished local tolls and promoted shipbuilding and grain trade. He ordered the issue of new coins, called , to enable the use of the local currency in smaller transactions. Emperor Frederick II, who was also the ruler of Sicily, died in 1250.The Kingdom of Sicily, also known as the Regno, included the island of Sicily and southern Italy nearly as far as Rome. Pope <mask> IV claimed that the Regno had reverted to the Holy See. The Pope first offered it to Richard of

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Innocent


texts: Cornwall, but Richard did not want to fight against Frederick's son, <mask> of Germany. Then the Pope proposed to enfeoff <mask> with the kingdom. <mask> sought instructions from <mask>, who forbade him to accept the offer, because he regarded Conrad as the lawful ruler. After <mask> informed the Holy See on 30October 1253 that he would not accept the Regno, the Pope offered it to Edmund of Lancaster. Queen Blanche, who had administered France during Louis' crusade, died on 1December 1252.Louis made Alphonse and <mask> co-regents, so that he could remain in the Holy Land. Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut had come into conflict with her son by her first marriage, John of Avesnes. After her sons by her second marriage were captured in July 1253, she needed foreign assistance to secure their release. Ignoring <mask>'s 1246 ruling that Hainaut should pass to John, she promised the county to <mask>. He accepted the offer and invaded Hainaut, forcing most local noblemen to swear fealty to him. After his return to France, <mask> insisted that his ruling was to be respected. In November 1255 he ordered <mask> to restore Hainaut to Margaret, but her sons were obliged to swear fealty to <mask>.Louis also ruled that she was to pay 160,000 marks to <mask> over the following 13 years. <mask> returned to Provence, which had again become restive. His mother-in-law continued to support the rebellious Boniface of Castellane and his allies, but <mask> persuaded her to return Forcalquier to <mask> and relinquish her claims for a lump sum payment from <mask>

masks:
Conrad IV
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles


texts: and a pension from Louis in November 1256. A coup by <mask>'s supporters in Marseilles resulted in the surrender of all political powers there to his officials. <mask> continued to expand his power along the borders of Provence in the next four years. He received territories in the Lower Alps from the Dauphin of Vienne. <mask> of Baux, Count of Orange, ceded the title of regent of the Kingdom of Arles to him.The burghers of Cuneoa town strategically located on the routes from Provence to Lombardysought <mask>'s protection against Asti in July 1259. Alba, Cherasco, Savigliano and other nearby towns acknowledged his rule. The rulers of Mondovì, Ceva, Biandrate and Saluzzo did homage to him. Emperor <mask>'s illegitimate son, Manfred, had been crowned king of Sicily in 1258. After the English barons had announced that they opposed a war against Manfred, Pope <mask> annulled the 1253 grant of Sicily to Edmund of Lancaster. Alexander's successor, Pope Urban <mask>, was determined to put an end to the Emperor's rule in Italy. He sent his notary, Albert of Parma, to Paris to  negotiate with <mask> for <mask> to be placed on the Sicilian throne.<mask> met with the Pope's envoy in early 1262. Taking advantage of <mask>'s absence, Boniface of Castellane stirred up a new revolt in Provence. The burghers of Marseilles expelled <mask>'s officials, but Barral of Baux stopped the spread of the rebellion before <mask>'s return. <mask> renounced Ventimiglia in favour of the Republic of Genoa to secure her neutrality. He defeated the rebels and forced Castellane into

masks:
Charles
Charles
Raymond I
Charles
Frederick II
Alexander IV
IV
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts:
 exile. The mediation of <mask> of Aragon brought about a settlement with Marseilles: its fortifications were dismantled and the townspeople surrendered their arms, but the town retained its autonomy. Conquest of the Regno

Louis IX decided to support <mask>'s military campaign in Italy in May 1263.Pope Urban IV promised to proclaim a crusade against Manfred, while <mask> pledged that he would not accept any offices in the Italian towns. Manfred staged a coup in Rome, but the Guelphs elected <mask> senator (or the head of the civil government of Rome). He accepted the office, at which a group of cardinals requested that the Pope revoke the agreement with him, but the Pope, being otherwise defenceless against Manfred, could not break with <mask>. In the spring of 1264 Cardinals Simon of Brie and Guy Foulquois were sent to France to reach a compromise and start raising support for the crusade. <mask> sent troops to Rome to protect the Pope against Manfred's allies. At Foulquois' request, <mask>'s sister-in-law Margaret (who had not abandoned her claims to her dowry) pledged that she would not take actions against <mask> during his absence. Foulquois also persuaded the French and Provençal prelates to offer financial support for the crusade.Pope Urban died before the final agreement was concluded. <mask> made arrangements for his campaign against Sicily during the interregnum; he concluded agreements to secure his army's route across Lombardy and had the leaders of the Provençal rebels executed. Foulquois was elected pope in February 1265; he soon

masks:
James I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts: confirmed <mask>'s senatorship and urged him to come to Rome. <mask> agreed that he would hold the Kingdom of Sicily as the popes' vassal for an annual tribute of 8,000 ounces of gold. He also promised that he would never seek the imperial title. He embarked at Marseilles on 10May and landed at Ostia ten days later. He was installed as senator on 21June and four cardinals invested him with the Regno a week later.To finance further military actions he borrowed money from Italian bankers with the Pope's assistance, who had authorised him to pledge Church property. Five cardinals crowned him king of Sicily on 5January 1266. The crusaders from France and Provencereportedly 6,000 fully equipped mounted warriors, 600 mounted bowmen and 20,000 foot soldiersarrived in Rome ten days later. <mask> decided to invade southern Italy without delay, because he was unable to finance a lengthy campaign. He left Rome on 20January 1266. He marched towards Naples, but changed his strategy after learning of a muster of Manfred's forces near Capua. He led his troops across the Apennines towards Benevento.Manfred also hurried to the town and reached it before <mask>. Worried that further delays might endanger his subjects' loyalty, Manfred attacked <mask>'s army, then in disarray from the crossing of the hills, on 26February 1266. In the ensuing battle, Manfred's army was defeated and he was killed. Resistance throughout the Regno collapsed and towns surrendered even before <mask>'s troops reached them. The Saracens of Luceraa Muslim colony established during Frederick II's

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles


texts:
 reignpaid homage to him. His commander, Philip of Montfort, took control of the island of Sicily. Manfred's widow, Helena of Epirus, and their children were captured.<mask> laid claim to her dowrythe island of Corfu and the region of Durazzo (now Durrës in Albania)by right of conquest. His troops seized Corfu before the end of the year. Conradin

<mask> was lenient with Manfred's supporters, but they did not believe that this conciliatory policy could last. They knew that he had promised to return estates to the Guelph lords expelled from the Regno. Neither could <mask> gain the commoners' loyalty, partly because he continued enforcing the  despite the popes declaring it an illegal charge. He introduced a ban on the use of foreign currency in large transactions and made a profit of the compulsory exchange of foreign coinage for locally minted currency. He also traded in grain, spices and sugar, through a joint venture with Pisan merchants.Pope Clement censured <mask> for his methods of state administration, describing him as an arrogant and obstinate monarch. The consolidation of <mask>'s power in northern Italy also alarmed Clement. To appease the Pope, <mask> resigned his senatorship in May 1267. His successors, Conrad Monaldeschi and Luca Savelli, demanded the re-payment of the money that <mask> and the Pope had borrowed from the Romans. Victories by the Ghibellines, the imperial family's supporters, forced the Pope to ask <mask> to send his troops to Tuscany. <mask>'s troops ousted the Ghibellines from Florence in April 1267. After being elected

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles


texts: the Podestà (ruler) of Florence and Lucca for seven years, <mask> hurried to Tuscany.<mask>'s expansionism along the Papal States's borders alarmed Pope Clement and he decided to change the direction of <mask>'s ambitions. The Pope summoned him to Viterbo, forcing him to promise that he would abandon all claims to Tuscany in three years. He persuaded <mask> to conclude agreements with William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, and the titular Latin Emperor <mask> in late May. According to the first treaty, Villehardouin acknowledged <mask>'s suzerainty and made <mask>'s younger son, Philip, his heir, also stipulating that <mask> would inherit Achaea if Philip died childless. Baldwin confirmed the first agreement and renounced his claims to suzerainty over his vassals in favour of <mask>. <mask> pledged that he would assist Baldwin in recapturing Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor, <mask> Palaiologos, in exchange for one third of the conquered lands. <mask> returned to Tuscany and laid siege to the fortress of Poggibonsi, but it did not fall until the end of November.Manfred's staunchest supporters had meanwhile fled to Bavaria to attempt to persuade <mask>'s 15-year-old son Conradin to assert his hereditary right to the Kingdom of Sicily. After Conradin accepted their proposal, Manfred's former vicar in Sicily, Conrad Capece, returned to the island and stirred up a revolt. At Capece's request <mask> al-Mustansir, the Hafsid caliph of Tunis, allowed Manfred's former ally, Frederick of Castile, to invade Sicily from North Africa. Frederick's

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Baldwin II
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Michael VIII
Charles
Conrad IV
Muhammad I


texts: brother, Henrywho had been elected senator of Romealso offered support to Conradin. Henry had been <mask>'s friend, but <mask> had failed to repay a loan to him. Conradin left Bavaria in September 1267. His supporters' revolt was spreading from Sicily to Calabria; the Saracens of Lucera also rose up.Pope Clement urged <mask> to return to the Regno, but he continued his campaign in Tuscany until March 1268, when he met with the Pope. In April, the Pope made <mask> imperial vicar of Tuscany "during the vacancy of the empire", a move of dubious legality. <mask> marched to southern Italy and laid siege to Lucera, but he then had to hurry north to prevent Conradin's invasion of Abruzzo in late August. At the Battle of Tagliacozzo, on 23August 1268, it appeared that Conradin had won the day, but a sudden charge by <mask>'s reserve routed Conradin's army. The burghers of Potenza, Aversa and other towns in Basilicata and Apulia massacred their fellows who had agitated on Conradin's behalf, but the Sicilians and the Saracens of Lucera did not surrender. <mask> marched to Rome where he was again elected senator in September. He appointed new officials to administer justice and collect state revenues.New coins bearing his name were struck. During the following decade, Rome was ruled by <mask>'s vicars, each appointed for one year. Conradin was captured at Torre Astura. Most of his retainers were summarily executed, but Conradin and his friend, <mask>, Margrave of Baden, were brought to trial for robbery and treason in Naples. They were sentenced to death and

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Frederick I


texts:
 beheaded on 29October. Conrad of Antioch was Conradin's only partisan to be released, but only after his wife threatened to execute the Guelph lords she held captive in her castle. The Ghibelline noblemen of the Regno fled to the court of <mask> of Aragon, who had married Manfred's daughter, Constance.Mediterranean empire

Italy

<mask>'s wife, Beatrice of Provence, had died in July 1267. The widowed <mask> married Margaret of Nevers in November 1268. She was co-heiress to her father, Odo, the eldest son of <mask>, Duke of Burgundy. Pope Clement died on 29November 1268. The papal vacancy lasted for three years, which strengthened <mask>'s authority in Italy, but it also deprived him of the ecclesiastic support that only a pope could provide. <mask> returned to Lucera to personally direct its siege in April 1269. The Saracens and the Ghibellines who had escaped to the town resisted until starvation forced them to surrender in August 1269.<mask> sent Philip and Guy of Montfort to Sicily to force the rebels there into submission, but they could only capture Augusta. <mask> made William l'Estandart the commander of the army in Sicily in August 1269. L'Estandart captured Agrigento, forcing Frederick of Castile and Frederick Lancia to seek refuge in Tunis. After L'Estandart's subsequent victory at Sciacca, only Capece resisted, but he also had to surrender in early 1270. <mask>'s troops forced Siena and Pisathe last towns to resist him in Tuscanyto sue for peace in August 1270. He granted privileges to the Tuscan merchants and bankers which strengthened

masks:
Peter III
Charles
Charles
Hugh IV
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts:
 their position in the Regno. His influence was declining in Lombardy, because the Lombard towns no longer feared an invasion from Germany after Conradin's death.In May 1269 <mask> sent Walter of La Roche to represent him in the province, but this failed to strengthen his authority. In October <mask>'s officials convoked an assembly at Cremona, and invited the Lombard towns to attend. The Lombard towns accepted the invitation, but some townsMilan, Bologna, Alessandria and Tortonaonly confirmed their alliance with <mask>, without acknowledging his rule. Eighth Crusade

<mask> never abandoned the idea of the liberation of Jerusalem, but he decided to begin his new crusade with a military campaign against Tunis. According to his confessor, <mask> of Beaulieu, Louis was convinced that al-Mustansir of Tunis was ready to convert to Christianity. The 13th-century historian Saba Malaspina stated that <mask> persuaded Louis to attack Tunis, because he wanted to secure the payment of the tribute that the rulers of Tunis had paid to the former Sicilian monarchs. The French crusaders embarked at Aigues-Mortes on 2July 1270; <mask> departed from Naples six days later.He spent more than a month in Sicily, waiting for his fleet. By the time he landed at Tunis on 25August, dysentery and typhoid fever had decimated the French army. Louis died the day <mask> arrived. The crusaders twice defeated Al-Mustansir's army, forcing him to sue for peace. According to the peace treaty, signed on 1November, Al-Mustansir agreed to fully compensate Louis' son and successor, <mask>

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Geoffrey
Charles
Charles
Charles
Philip III


texts:
 of France, and <mask> for the expenses of the military campaign and to release his Christian prisoners. He also promised to pay a yearly tribute to <mask> and to expel <mask>'s opponents from Tunis. The gold from Tunis, along with silver from the newly opened mine at Longobucco, enabled <mask> to mint new coins, known as , in the Regno.<mask> and Philip departed Tunis on 10November. A storm dispersed their fleet at Trapani and most of <mask>'s galleys were lost or damaged. Genoese ships returning from the crusade were also sunk or forced to land in Sicily. <mask> seized the damaged ships and their cargo, ignoring all protests from the Ghibelline authorities of Genoa. Before leaving Sicily he granted temporary tax concessions to the Sicilians, because he realised that the conquest of the island had caused much destruction. Attempts to expand

<mask> accompanied <mask> as far as Viterbo in March 1271. Here they failed to convince the cardinals to elect a new pope.<mask>'s brother, Alphonse of Poitiers, fell ill. <mask> sent his best doctors to cure him, but Alphonse died. He claimed the major part of Alphonse's inheritance, including the Marquisate of Provence and the County of Poitiers, because he was Alphonse's nearest kin. After <mask> objected, he took the case to the Parlement of Paris. In 1284 the court ruled that appanages escheated to the French crown if their rulers died without descendants. An earthquake destroyed the walls of Durazzo in the late 1260s or early 1270s. <mask>'s troops took possession of the town with the assistance of the

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Philip III
Charles
Charles
Philip III
Charles


texts: leaders of the nearby Albanian communities. <mask> concluded an agreement with the Albanian chiefs, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties in February 1272.He adopted the title of King of Albania and appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his vicar-general. He also sent his fleet to Achaea to defend the principality against Byzantine attacks. <mask> hurried to Rome to attend the enthronement of Pope Gregory X on 27March 1272. The new pope was determined to put an end to the conflicts between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. While in Rome <mask> met with the Guelph leaders who had been exiled from Genoa. After they offered him the office of captain of the people, <mask> promised military assistance to them. In November 1272 <mask> commanded his officials to take prisoner all Genoese within his territories, except for the Guelphs, and to seize their property.His fleet occupied Ajaccio in Corsica. Pope Gregory condemned his aggressive policy, but proposed that the Genoese should elect Guelph officials. Ignoring the Pope's proposal, the Genoese made alliance with Alfonso X of Castile, <mask> of Montferrat and the Ghibelline towns of Lombardy in October 1273. The conflict with Genoa prevented <mask> from invading the Byzantine Empire, but he continued to forge alliances in the Balkan Peninsula. The Bulgarian ruler, Konstantin Tih, was the first to conclude a treaty with him in 1272 or 1273. <mask> Doukas of Thessaly and Stefan Uroš <mask>, King of Serbia, joined the coalition in 1273. However, Pope Gregory forbade <mask> to attack, because he hoped to

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
William VII
Charles
John I
I
Charles


texts: unify the Orthodox and Catholic churches with the assistance of Emperor <mask>.The renowned theologian Thomas Aquinas died unexpectedly near Naples on 7March 1274, before departing to attend the Second Council of Lyon. According to a popular legend, immortalised by Dante Alighieri, <mask> had him poisoned, because he feared that Aquinas would make complaint against him. The historian Steven Runciman emphasises that "there is no evidence for supposing that the great doctor's death was not natural". Southern Italian churchmen at the council accused <mask> of tyrannical acts. Their report reinforced the Pope's attempt to reach a compromise with Rudolf of Habsburg, who had been elected king of Germany by the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. In June, the Pope acknowledged Rudolf as the lawful ruler of both Germany and Italy. <mask>'s sisters-in-law, Margaret and Eleanor, approached Rudolf, claiming that they had been unlawfully disinherited in favour of <mask>'s late wife.<mask>'s personal envoy announced at the Council of Lyon on 6July that he had accepted the Catholic creed and papal primacy. About three weeks later, Pope Gregory again prohibited <mask> from launching military actions against the Byzantine Empire. The Pope also tried to mediate a truce between <mask> and Michael, but the latter chose to attack several smaller states in the Balkans, including <mask>'s vassals. The Byzantine fleet took control of the maritime routes between Albania and southern Italy in the late 1270s. Gregory only allowed <mask> to send reinforcements to Achaea.

masks:
Michael VIII
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Michael VIII
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts:
 The organisation of a new crusade to the Holy Land remained the Pope's principal object. He persuaded <mask> to start negotiations with Maria of Antioch about purchasing her claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.The High Court of Jerusalem had already rejected her in favour of <mask> of Cyprus, but the Pope had a low opinion of Hugh. The war with Genoa and the Lombard towns increasingly occupied <mask>'s attention. He appointed his nephew <mask> of Artois as his deputy in Piedmont in October 1274, but Artois could not prevent Vercelli and Alessandria from joining the Ghibelline League. The following summer, a Genoese fleet plundered Trapani and the island of Gozo. Convinced that only <mask> could achieve a compromise between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Pope urged the Lombard towns to send envoys to him. He also urged <mask> to renounce Tuscany. In the autumn of 1275 the Ghibellines offered to make peace with <mask>, but he did not accept their terms.Early the next year the Ghibellines defeated his troops at Col de Tende, forcing them to withdraw to Provence. Papal elections

Pope Gregory X died on 10January 1276. After the hostility he experienced during Gregory's pontificate, <mask> was determined to secure the election of a pope willing to support his plans. Gregory's successor, Pope <mask>, had always been <mask>'s partisan and he rapidly confirmed <mask> as senator of Rome and imperial vicar of Tuscany. He also mediated a peace treaty between <mask> and Genoa, which was signed in Rome on 22June 1276. <mask> restored the privileges of the Genoese

masks:
Charles
Hugh III
Charles
Robert II
Rudolf I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Innocent V
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts: merchants and renounced his conquests, and the Genoese acknowledged his rule in Ventimiglia. Pope <mask> died on 30June 1276.After the cardinals assembled in the Lateran Palace, <mask>'s troops surrounded it, enabling only his allies to communicate with other cardinals and with outsiders. On 11July the cardinals elected <mask>'s old friend, Ottobuono de' Fieschi, pope, but he died on 18August. The cardinals met again, this time at Viterbo. Although <mask> was staying in the nearby Vetralla, he could not directly influence the election, because his vehement opponent, Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, dominated the papal conclave. Pope John XXI, who was elected on 20September, excommunicated <mask>'s opponents in Piedmont and prohibited Rudolf from coming to Lombardy, but did not forbid the Lombardian Guelph leaders swearing fealty to Rudolf. The Pope also confirmed the treaty concluded by <mask> and Maria of Antioch on 18March which transferred her claims to Jerusalem to <mask> for 1,000 bezants and a pension of 4,000 . <mask> appointed Roger of San Severino to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem as his bailiff.San Severino landed at Acre on 7June 1277. <mask>'s bailiff, Balian of Arsuf, surrendered the town without resistance. Although initially only the Knights Hospitaller and the Venetians acknowledged <mask> as the lawful ruler, the barons of the realm also paid homage to San Severino in January 1278, after he had threatened to confiscate their estates. The Mamluks of Egypt had already confined the kingdom to a coastal strip covering  and <mask>

masks:
Innocent
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Hugh III
Charles
Charles


texts: had ordered San Severino to avoid conflicts with Egypt. Pope John died on 20May 1277. <mask> was ill and could not prevent the election of Giovanni Gaetano Orsini as Pope Nicholas III on 25November. The Pope soon declared that no foreign prince could rule in Rome and reminded <mask> that he had been elected senator for ten years.<mask> swore fealty to the new pope on 24May 1278 after lengthy negotiations. He had to pledge that he would renounce both the senatorship of Rome and the vicariate of Tuscany in four months. On the other hand, <mask> confirmed the excommunication of <mask>'s enemies in Piedmont and started negotiations with Rudolf to prevent him from making an alliance against <mask> with Margaret of Provence and her nephew, <mask> of England. The negotiations with Rudolf lay behind Nicholas' refusal to renew <mask>'s vicariate in Tuscany, to which Rudolf had appointed his own vicar. <mask> announced his resignation from the senatorship and the vicariate on 30August 1278. He was succeeded by the Pope's brother, Matteo Orsini, in Rome, and by the Pope's nephew, Cardinal Latino Malabranca, in Tuscany. To ensure that <mask> fully abandoned his ambitions in central Italy the Pope started negotiations with Rudolf about the restoration of the Kingdom of Arles for <mask>'s grandson, <mask>el.Margaret of Provence sharply opposed the plan, but <mask> of France did not stand by his mother. After lengthy negotiations, in the summer of 1279 Rudolf recognised <mask> as the lawful ruler of Provence without demanding his oath of fealty. An agreement about

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Nicholas III
Charles
Charles
Edward I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles Mart
Philip III
Charles


texts:
 <mask>'s rule in Arles and his marriage to Rudolf's daughter, Clemence, was signed in May 1280. The plan disturbed the rulers of the lands along the Upper Rhone, especially Duke Robert II and Count Otto IV of Burgundy. <mask> had meanwhile inherited the Principality of Achaea from <mask> of Villehardouin, who had died on 1May 1278. He appointed the unpopular  of Sicily, Galeran of Ivry, as his baillif in Achaea. Galeran could not pay his troops who started to pillage the peasants' homes.<mask> de la Roche, Duke of Athens, had to lend money to him to finance their salaries. Nicephoros <mask> of Epirus acknowledged <mask>'s suzerainty on 14March 1279 to secure his assistance against the Byzantines. Nicephoros also ceded three townsButrinto, Sopotos and Panormosto Charles. Pope Nicholas died on 22August 1280. <mask> sent agents to Viterbo to promote the election of one of his supporters, taking advantage of the rift between the late Pope's relatives and other Italian cardinals. When a riot broke out in Viterbo, after the cardinals had not reached a decision for months, <mask>'s troops took control of the town. On 22February 1281 his staunchest supporter, Simon of Brie, was elected pope.Pope Martin IV dismissed his predecessor's relatives and made <mask> the senator of Rome again. <mask> da Montefeltro rose up against the Pope, but <mask>'s troops under Jean d'Eppe stopped the spread of the rebellion at Forlì. <mask> also sent an army to Piedmont, but <mask>, Marquess of Saluzzo, annihilated it at Borgo San Dalmazzo in May. End of the Church union

Pope

masks:
Charles Martel
Charles
William II
John I
I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Guido I
Charles
Charles
Thomas I


texts:
 Martin excommunicated Emperor Michael VIII on 10April 1281 because the Emperor had not imposed the Church union in his empire. The Pope soon authorised <mask> to invade the empire. <mask>'s vicar in Albania, Hugh of Sully, had already laid siege to the Byzantine fortress of Berat. A Byzantine army of relief under Michael Tarchaneiotes and John Synadenos arrived in March 1281.Sully was ambushed and captured, his army put to flight and the interior of Albania was lost to the Byzantines. On 3July 1281 <mask> and his son-in-law, Philip of Courtenay, the titular Latin emperor, made an alliance with Venice "for the restoration of the Roman Empire". They decided to start a full-scale campaign early the next year. Margaret of Provence called Robert and Otto of Burgundy and other lords who held fiefs in the Kingdom of Arles to a meeting at Troyes in the autumn of 1281. They were willing to unite their troops to prevent <mask>'s army from taking possession of the kingdom, but <mask> of France strongly opposed his mother's plan and <mask> of England would not promise any assistance to them. <mask> acknowledged that his wife held the County of Tonnerre and her other inherited estates as a Burgundian fief, which appeased Robert of Burgundy. <mask>'s ships started to assemble at Marseilles to sail up the Rhone in the spring of 1282.Another fleet was gathering at Messina to start the crusade against the Byzantine Empire. The empire's collapse

Sicilian Vespers

Always in need of funds, <mask> could not cancel the , although it was the most unpopular tax in the

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Philip III
Edward I
Charles
Charles
Charles


texts: Regno. Instead he granted exemptions to individuals and communities, especially to the French and Provençal colonists, which increased the burden on those who did not enjoy such privileges. The yearly, or occasionally more frequent, obligatory exchange of the the coins almost exclusively used in local transactionswas also an important, and unpopular, source of revenue for the royal treasury. <mask> took out forced loans whenever he needed "immediately a large sum of money for certain arduous and pressing business", as he explained in one of his decrees. Purveyances, the requisitioning of goods, increased the unpopularity of <mask>'s government in southern Italy and Sicily. His subjects were also liable to be forced to guard prisoners or lodge soldiers in their homes.The restoration of old fortresses, bridges and aqueducts and the building of new castles required the employment of craftsmen, although most of them were unwilling to participate in such lengthy projects. Thousands of people were forced to serve in the army in foreign lands, especially after 1279. Trading in salt was declared a royal monopoly. In December 1281, <mask> again ordered the collection of the , requiring the payment of 150% of the customary amount. <mask> did not pay attention to the island of Sicily, although it had been the centre of resistance against him in 1268. He transferred the capital from Palermo to Naples. He did not visit the island after 1271, preventing Sicilians from directly informing him of their grievances.Sicilian noblemen were seldom employed as royal

masks: Charles Charles Charles Charles