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 1980. In 1975 he had an LSD experience with Simeon Wade and Michael Stoneman in Death Valley, California and later wrote "it was the greatest experience of his life, and that it profoundly changed his life and his work". In front of Zabriskie Point they took LSD while listening to a well-prepared music program: Richard Strauss's Four Last Songs, followed by Charles Ives's Three Places in New England, ending with a few avant-garde pieces by Stockhausen. According to Wade, as soon as he came back to Paris, <mask> scrapped the second History of Sexuality's manuscript, and totally rethought the whole project. The History of Sexuality and Iranian Revolution: 1976–1979
In 1976, Gallimard published <mask>'s Histoire de la sexualité: la volonté de savoir (The History of Sexuality: The Will to Knowledge), a short book exploring what <mask> called the "repressive hypothesis".It revolved largely around the concept of power, rejecting both Marxist and Freudian theory. <mask> intended it as the first in a seven-volume exploration of the subject. Histoire de la sexualité was a best-seller in France and gained positive press, but lukewarm intellectual interest, something that upset <mask>, who felt that many misunderstood his hypothesis. He soon became dissatisfied with Gallimard after being offended by senior staff member Pierre Nora. Along with Paul Veyne and François Wahl, <mask> launched a new series of academic books, known as Des travaux (Some Works), through the company Seuil, which he hoped would improve the state of academic research in France. He also produced introductions for the memoirs of Herculine Barbin and My Secret Life. <mask>'s Histoire de la sexualité concentrates on the relation between truth and sex.He defines


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texts: truth as a system of ordered procedures for the production, distribution, regulation, circulation, and operation of statements. Through this system of truth, power structures are created and enforced. Though <mask>'s definition of truth may differ from other sociologists before and after him, his work with truth in relation to power structures, such as sexuality, has left a profound mark on social science theory. In his work, he examines the heightened curiosity regarding sexuality that induced a "world of perversion" during the elite, capitalist 18th and 19th century in the western world. According to <mask> in History of Sexuality, society of the modern age is symbolized by the conception of sexual discourses and their union with the system of truth. In the "world of perversion", including extramarital affairs, homosexual behavior, and other such sexual promiscuities, <mask> concludes that sexual relations of the kind are constructed around producing the truth. Sex became not only a means of pleasure, but an issue of truth.Sex is what confines one to darkness, but also what brings one to light. Similarly, in The History of Sexuality, society validates and approves people based on how closely they fit the discursive mold of sexual truth. As <mask> reminds us, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Church was the epitome of power structure within society. Thus, many aligned their personal virtues with those of the Church, further internalizing their beliefs on the meaning of sex. However, those who unify their sexual relation to the truth become decreasingly obliged to share their internal views with those of the Church. They will no longer see the arrangement of societal norms as an effect of the Church's deep-seated

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 power structure. <mask> remained a political activist, focusing on protesting government abuses of human rights around the world.He was a key player in the 1975 protests against the Spanish government who were set to execute 11 militants sentenced to death without fair trial. It was his idea to travel to Madrid with six others to give a press conference there; they were subsequently arrested and deported back to Paris. In 1977, he protested the extradition of Klaus Croissant to West Germany, and his rib was fractured during clashes with riot police. In July that year, he organised an assembly of Eastern Bloc dissidents to mark the visit of Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev to Paris. In 1979, he campaigned for Vietnamese political dissidents to be granted asylum in France. In 1977, Italian newspaper Corriere della sera asked <mask> to write a column for them. In doing so, in 1978 he travelled to Tehran in Iran, days after the Black Friday massacre.Documenting the developing Iranian Revolution, he met with opposition leaders such as Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari and Mehdi Bazargan, and discovered the popular support for Islamism. Returning to France, he was one of the journalists who visited the Ayatollah Khomeini, before visiting Tehran. His articles expressed awe of Khomeini's Islamist movement, for which he was widely criticised in the French press, including by Iranian expatriates. <mask>'s response was that Islamism was to become a major political force in the region, and that the West must treat it with respect rather than hostility. In April 1978, <mask> traveled to Japan, where he studied Zen Buddhism under Omori Sogen at the Seionji temple in Uenohara. Final years: 1980–1984
Although remaining critical of


texts: power relations, <mask> expressed cautious support for the Socialist Party government of François Mitterrand following its electoral victory in 1981. But his support soon deteriorated when that party refused to condemn the Polish government's crackdown on the 1982 demonstrations in Poland orchestrated by the Solidarity trade union.He and sociologist Pierre Bourdieu authored a document condemning Mitterrand's inaction that was published in Libération, and they also took part in large public protests on the issue. <mask> continued to support Solidarity, and with his friend Simone Signoret traveled to Poland as part of a Médecins du Monde expedition, taking time out to visit the Auschwitz concentration camp. He continued his academic research, and in June 1984 Gallimard published the second and third volumes of Histoire de la sexualité. Volume two, L'Usage des plaisirs, dealt with the "techniques of self" prescribed by ancient Greek pagan morality in relation to sexual ethics, while volume three, Le Souci de soi, explored the same theme in the Greek and Latin texts of the first two centuries CE. A fourth volume, Les Aveux de la chair, was to examine sexuality in early Christianity, but it was not finished. In October 1980, <mask> became a visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley, giving the Howison Lectures on "Truth and Subjectivity", while in November he lectured at the Humanities Institute at New York University. His growing popularity in American intellectual circles was noted by Time magazine, while <mask> went on to lecture at UCLA in 1981, the University of Vermont in 1982, and Berkeley again in 1983, where his lectures drew huge crowds.<mask> spent many evenings in the San Francisco gay scene,

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 frequenting sado-masochistic bathhouses, engaging in unprotected sex. He praised sado-masochistic activity in interviews with the gay press, describing it as "the real creation of new possibilities of pleasure, which people had no idea about previously." <mask> contracted HIV and eventually developed AIDS. Little was known of the virus at the time; the first cases had only been identified in 1980. <mask> initially referred to AIDS as a "dreamed-up disease". In summer 1983, he developed a persistent dry cough, which concerned friends in Paris, but <mask> insisted it was just a pulmonary infection. Only when hospitalized was <mask> correctly diagnosed; treated with antibiotics, he delivered a final set of lectures at the Collège de France.<mask> entered Paris' Hôpital de la Salpêtrière—the same institution that he had studied in Madness and Civilisation—on 10 June 1984, with neurological symptoms complicated by sepsis. He died in the hospital on 25 June. Death
On 26 June 1984, Libération announced <mask>'s death, mentioning the rumour that it had been brought on by AIDS. The following day, Le Monde issued a medical bulletin cleared by his family that made no reference to HIV/AIDS. On 29 June, <mask>'s la levée du corps ceremony was held, in which the coffin was carried from the hospital morgue. Hundreds attended, including activists and academic friends, while Gilles Deleuze gave a speech using excerpts from The History of Sexuality. His body was then buried at Vendeuvre-du-Poitou in a small ceremony.Soon after his death, <mask>'s partner Daniel Defert founded the first national HIV/AIDS organisation in France, AIDES; a play on the French language word for "help" (aide) and the English language acronym for the disease.

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 On the second anniversary of <mask>'s death, Defert publicly revealed that <mask>'s death was AIDS-related in The Advocate. Personal life
<mask>'s first biographer, Didier Eribon, described the philosopher as "a complex, many-sided character", and that "under one mask there is always another". He also noted that he exhibited an "enormous capacity for work". At the ENS, <mask>'s classmates unanimously summed him up as a figure who was both "disconcerting and strange" and "a passionate worker". As he aged, his personality changed: Eribon noted that while he was a "tortured adolescent", post-1960, he had become "a radiant man, relaxed and cheerful", even being described by those who worked with him as a dandy. He noted that in 1969, <mask> embodied the idea of "the militant intellectual".<mask> was an atheist. He loved classical music, particularly enjoying the work of Johann Sebastian Bach and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and became known for wearing turtleneck sweaters. After his death, <mask>'s friend Georges Dumézil described him as having possessed "a profound kindness and goodness", also exhibiting an "intelligence [that] literally knew no bounds." His life-partner Daniel Defert inherited his estate, whose archive was sold to the France's national library, for €3.8m ($4.5m, April 2021). Politics
Politically, <mask> was a leftist throughout much of his life, though his particular stance within the left often changed. In the early 1950s, while never adopting an orthodox Marxist viewpoint, <mask> had been a member of the French Communist Party, leaving the party after three years as he expressed disgust in the prejudice within its ranks against Jews and homosexuals. After spending some time working in Poland, governed at

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 the time as a socialist state by the Polish United Workers' Party, he became further disillusioned with communist ideology.As a result, in the early 1960s, <mask> was a proponent of adult-child underage sex and of pedophilia, considering them a form of liberation for both actors; he argued young children could give sexual consent. In 1977, along with Jean-Paul Sartre, Jacques Derrida, and other intellectuals, <mask> signed a petition to the French parliament calling for the decriminalization of all "consensual" sexual relations between adults and minors below the age of fifteen, the age of consent in France. Philosophical work

<mask>'s colleague Pierre Bourdieu summarized the philosopher's thought as "a long exploration of transgression, of going beyond social limits, always inseparably linked to knowledge and power." Philosopher Philip Stokes of the University of Reading noted that overall, <mask>'s work was "dark and pessimistic." Though it does, however, leave some room for optimism, in that it illustrates how the discipline of philosophy can be used to highlight areas of domination. In doing so, as Stokes claimed, the ways in which we are being dominated become better understood, so that we may strive to build social structures that minimise this risk of domination.In all of this development there had to be close attention to detail; it is the detail which eventually individualizes people. Later in his life, <mask> explained that his work was less about analyzing power as a phenomenon than about trying to characterize the different ways in which contemporary society has expressed the use of power to "objectivise subjects." These have taken three broad forms: one involving scientific authority to classify and

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 'order' knowledge about human populations; the second has been to categorize and 'normalise' human subjects (by identifying madness, illness, physical features, and so on); and the third relates to the manner in which the impulse to fashion sexual identities and train one's own body to engage in routines and practices ends up reproducing certain patterns within a given society. Literature
In addition to his philosophical work, <mask> also wrote on literature. Death and the Labyrinth: The World of Raymond Roussel, published in 1963 and translated in English in 1986, is <mask>'s only book-length work on literature. He described it as "by far the book I wrote most easily, with the greatest pleasure, and most rapidly." <mask> explores theory, criticism, and psychology with reference to the texts of Raymond Roussel, one of the first notable experimental writers.<mask> also gave a lecture responding to Roland Barthes' famous essay "The Death of the Author" titled "What Is an Author?" in 1969, later published in full. According to literary theoretician Kornelije Kvas, for <mask>, "denying the existence of a historical author on account of his/ her irrelevance for interpretation is absurd, for the author is a function of the text that organizes its sense." Theory of power
<mask>'s analysis of power comes in two forms: empirical and theoretical. The empirical analyses concern themselves with historical (and modern) forms of power and how these emerged from previous forms of power. <mask> describes three types of power in his empirical analyses: sovereign power, disciplinary power, and biopower. <mask> is generally critical of "theories" that try to give absolute answers to "everything."Therefore, he considered his own


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 "theory" of power to be closer to a method than a typical "theory." According to <mask>, most people misunderstand power. For this reason, he makes clear that power cannot be completely described as:
 A group of institutions and/or mechanisms whose aim it is for a citizen to obey and yield to the state (a typical liberal definition of power);
 Yielding to rules (a typical psychoanalytical definition of power); or
 A general and oppressing system where one societal class or group oppresses another (a typical feminist or Orthodox Marxist definition of power). <mask> is not critical of considering these phenomena as "power", but claims that these theories of power cannot completely describe all forms of power. <mask> also claims that a liberal definition of power has effectively hidden other forms of power to the extent that people have uncritically accepted them. <mask>'s own theory of power begins on micro-level, with singular "force relations". Richard A. Lynch defines <mask>'s concept of "force relation" as "whatever in one's social interactions that pushes, urges or compels one to do something."According to <mask>, force relations are an effect of difference, inequality or unbalance that exists in other forms of relationships (such as sexual or economic). Force, and power, is however not something that a person or group "holds" (such as in the sovereign definition of power), instead power is a complex group of forces that comes from "everything" and therefore exists everywhere. That relations of power always result from inequality, difference or unbalance also means that power always has a goal or purpose. Power comes in two forms: tactics and strategies. Tactics is power on the micro-level, which can for example be

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 how a person chooses to express themselves through their clothes. Strategies on the other hand, is power on macro-level, which can be the state of fashion at any moment. Strategies consist of a combination of tactics.At the same time, power is non-subjective according to <mask>. This posits a paradox, according to Lynch, since "someone" has to exert power, while at the same time there can be no "someone" exerting this power. According to Lynch this paradox can be solved with two observations:
 By looking at power as something which reaches further than the influence of single people or groups. Even if individuals and groups try to influence fashion, for example, their actions will often get unexpected consequences. Even if individuals and groups have a free choice, they are also affected and limited by their context/situation. According to <mask>, force relations are constantly changing, constantly interacting with other force relations which may weaken, strengthen or change one another. <mask> writes that power always includes resistance, which means there is always a possibility that power and force relations will change in some way.According to Richard A. Lynch, the purpose of <mask>'s theory of power is to increase peoples' awareness of how power has shaped their way of being, thinking and acting, and by increasing this awareness making it possible for them to change their way of being, thinking and acting. Sovereign power
With "sovereign power" <mask> alludes to a power structure that is similar to a pyramid, where one person or a group of people (at the top of the pyramid) holds the power, while the "normal" (and oppressed) people are at the bottom of the pyramid. In the middle parts of the pyramid are the


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 people who enforce the sovereign's orders. A typical example of sovereign power is absolute monarchy. In historical absolute monarchies, crimes had been considered a personal offense against the sovereign and his/her power. The punishment was often public and spectacular, partly to deter others from committing crimes, but also to reinstate the sovereign's power. This was however both expensive and ineffective – it led far too often to people sympathizing with the criminal.In modern times, when disciplinary power is dominant, criminals are instead subjected to various disciplinary techniques to "remold" the criminal into a "law abiding citizen". According to Chloë Taylor, a characteristic for sovereign power is that the sovereign has the right to take life, wealth, services, labor and products. The sovereign has a right to subtract – to take life, to enslave life, etc. – but not the right to control life in the way that later happens in disciplinary systems of power. According to Taylor, the form of power that the philosopher Thomas Hobbes is concerned about, is sovereign power. According to Hobbes, people are "free" so long they are not literally placed in chains. Disciplinary power
What <mask> calls "disciplinary power" aims to use bodies' skills as effectively as possible.The more useful the body becomes, the more obedient it also has to become. The purpose of this is not only to use the bodies' skills, but also prevent these skills from being used to revolt against the power. Disciplinary power has "individuals" as its object, target and instrument. According to <mask>, "individual" is however a construct created by disciplinary power. The disciplinary power's techniques create a "rational self-control", which in

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texts: practice means that the disciplinary power is internalized and therefore doesn't continuously need external force. <mask> says that disciplinary power is primarily not an oppressing form of power, but rather so a productive form of power. Disciplinary power doesn't oppress interests or desires, but instead subjects bodies to reconstructed patterns of behavior to reconstruct their thoughts, desires and interests.According to <mask> this happens in factories, schools, hospitals and prisons. Disciplinary power creates a certain type of individual by producing new movements, habits and skills. It focuses on details, single movements, their timing and speed. It organizes bodies in time and space, and controls every movement for maximal effect. It uses rules, surveillance, exams and controls. The activities follow certain plans, whose purpose it is to lead the bodies to certain pre-determined goals. The bodies are also combined with each other, to reach a productivity that is greater than the sum of all bodies activities.Disciplinary power has according to Foucault been especially successful due to its usage of three technologies: hierarchical observation, normalizing judgement and exams. By hierarchical observation, the bodies become constantly visible to the power. The observation is hierarchical since there is not a single observer, but rather so a "hierarchy" of observers. An example of this is mental asylums during the 19th century, when the psychiatrist was not the only observer, but also nurses and auxiliary staff. From these observations and scientific discourses, a norm is established and used to judge the observed bodies. For the disciplinary power to continue to exist, this judgement has to be normalized. <mask>

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texts: mentions several characteristics of this judgement: (1) all deviations, even small ones, from correct behavior are punished, (2) repeated rule violations are punished extra, (3) exercises are used as a behavior correcting technique and punishment, (4) rewards are used together with punishment to establish a hierarchy of good and bad behavior/people, (5) rank/grades/etc.are used as punishment and reward. Examinations combine the hierarchical observation with judgement. Exams objectify and individualize the observed bodies by creating extensive documentation about every observed body. The purpose of the exams is therefore to gather further information about each individual, track their development and compare their results to the norm. According to <mask>, the "formula" for disciplinary power can be seen in philosopher Jeremy Bentham's plan for the "optimal prison": the panopticon. Such a prison consists of a circle-formed building where every cell is inhabited by only one prisoner. In every cell there are two windows – one to let in light from outside and one pointing to the middle of the circle-formed building.In this middle there is a tower where a guard can be placed to observe the prisoners. Since the prisoners will never be able to know whether they are being watched or not at a given moment, they will internalize the disciplinary power and regulate their own behavior (as if they were constantly being watched). <mask> says this construction (1) creates an individuality by separating prisoners from each other in the physical room, (2) since the prisoners cannot know if they are being watched at any given moment, they internalize the disciplinary power and regulate their own behavior as if they were always watched,


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 (3) the surveillance makes it possible to create extensive documentation about each prisoner and their behavior. According to <mask> the panopticon has been used as a model also for other disciplinary institutions, such as mental asylums in the 19th century. F.W. Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management

Marcelo Hoffman posits that an example of disciplinary power can be seen in Frederick Winslow Taylor's book The Principles of Scientific Management. Taylor's purpose was to increase the efficacy of workers by having their behavior controlled by the company's management.He mentions as an example an attempt to increase the amount of pig iron carried by each worker during a day from 12.5 tonnes to 47 tonnes, without causing the workers to strike. Here, Hoffman says, is a clear example of how the disciplinary power tries to make the body more obedient the more useful it becomes. Taylor describes that he started out with observing his 75 workers to pick out the most skilled workers. He had studied the workers history, character, habits and ambitions. Here is an example of how the disciplinary power creates an individuality. One of the selected workers, "Schmidt", was according to Taylor a man with high ambitions that valued a high salary. Schmidt accepted the terms given: He would earn 61% more if he agreed to obey without protest the orders given to him by an appointed instructor.Schmidt was thereafter observed and controlled in every detail of his working day – he was told when and how to work, when to rest, etc. According to Taylor, Schmidt never failed to obey during the three years during which he was subjected to this detailed control and higher workload. Another example mentioned by Taylor is taken from a


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 different industry, where Taylor had calculated the "optimal" workload for each worker. There Taylor had developed a system where every worker was not only continuously observed, but also punished if they had failed to reach up to the daily quota the previous workday. Every day the workers received a yellow or white note at the end of each shift, where yellow notes were given to those who had not reached the daily quota. Those who were given yellow notes were then threatened with redeployment to a "working role better fit for their productive capacities", which according to Taylor effectively led the workers to work harder. According to Taylor, the workers who were given yellow notes were not immediately redeployed.Instead, Taylor writes that a "skilled teacher" were sent to teach the workers how to do the work properly. The teachers job was however not only to "teach" the workers how to work more effectively, but also to observe them and their working capacity. Besides this teacher, Taylor also describes that the workers were observed by others, such as administrators, managers, etc. Biopower

With "biopower" <mask> refers to power over bios (life) – power over populations. Biopower primarily rests on norms which are internalized by people, rather than external force. It encourages, strengthens, controls, observes, optimizes and organize the forces below it. <mask> has sometimes described biopower as separate from disciplinary power, but at other times he has described disciplinary power as an expression of biopower.Biopower can use disciplinary techniques, but in contrast to disciplinary power its target is populations rather than individuals. Biopower studies populations regarding (for example) number of births,


texts: life expectancy, public health, housing, migration, crime, which social groups are over-represented in deviations from the norm (regarding health, crime, etc.) and tries to adjust, control or eliminate these norm deviations. One example is the age distribution in a population. Biopower is interested in age distribution to compensate for future (or current) lacks of labor power, retirement homes, etc. Yet another example is sex: because sex is connected to population growth, sex and sexuality have been of great interest to biopower. On a disciplinary level, people who engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts have been treated for psychiatric diagnoses such as "perversion", "frigidity" and "sexual dysfunction".On a biopower-level, the usage of contraceptives has been studied, some social groups have (by various means) been encouraged to have children, while others (such as poor, sick, unmarried women, criminals or people with disability) have been discouraged or prevented from having children. In the era of biopower, death has become a scandal and a catastrophe, but despite this biopower has according to <mask> killed more people than any other form of power has ever done before it. Under sovereign power, the sovereign king could kill people to exert his power or start wars simply to extend his kingdom, but during the era of biopower wars have instead been motivated by an ambition to "protect life itself". Similar motivations has also been used for genocide. For example, Nazi Germany motivated its attempt to eradicate Jews, the mentally ill and disabled with the motivation that Jews were "a threat to the German health", and that the money spent on healthcare for mentally ill and disabled would be better spent on "viable


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 Germans". Chloë Taylor also mentions the Iraq War was motivated by similar tenets. The motivation was at first that Iraq was thought to have weapons of mass destruction and connections to Al-Qaeda.However, when the Bush and Blair administrations didn't find any evidence to support either of these theories, the motivation for the war was changed. In the new motivation, the cause of the war was said to be that Saddam Hussein had committed crimes against his own population. Taylor means that in modern times, war has to be "concealed" under a rhetoric of humanitarian aid, despite the fact that these wars often cause humanitarian crises. During the 19th century, slums were increasing in number and size across the western world. Criminality, illness, alcoholism and prostitution was common in these areas, and the middle class considered the people who lived in these slums as "unmoral" and "lazy". The middle class also feared that this underclass sooner or later would "take over" because the population growth was greater in these slums than it was in the middle class. This fear gave rise to the scientific study of eugenics, whose founder Francis Galton had been inspired by Charles Darwin and his theory of natural selection.According to Galton, society was preventing natural selection by helping "the weak", thus causing a spread of the "negative qualities" into the rest of the population. Theory of the body and sexuality
According to <mask>, the body is not something objective that stands outside of history and culture. Instead, <mask> argues, the body has been and is continuously shaped by society and history – by work, diet, body ideals, exercise, medical interventions, etc. <mask> presents no "theory" of the body, but does


texts: write about it in Discipline and Punish as well as in The History of Sexuality. <mask> was critical of all purely biological explanations of phenomena such as sexuality, madness and criminality. Further, <mask> argues, that the body is not sufficient as a basis for self-understanding and understanding of others. In Discipline and Punish, <mask> shows how power and the body are tied together, for example by the disciplinary power primarily focusing on individual bodies and their behavior.<mask> argues that power, by manipulating bodies/behavior, also manipulates people's minds. <mask> turns the common saying "the body is the prison of the soul" and instead posits that "the soul is the prison of the body." According to <mask>, sexology has tried to exert itself as a "science" by referring to the material (the body). In contrast to this, <mask> argues that sexology is a pseudoscience, and that "sex" is a pseudo-scientific idea. For <mask> the idea of a natural, biologically grounded and fundamental sexuality is a normative historical construct that has also been used as an instrument of power. By describing sex as the biological and fundamental cause to peoples' gender identity, sexual identity and sexual behavior, power has effectively been able to normalize sexual and gendered behavior. This has made it possible to evaluate, pathologize and "correct" peoples' sexual and gendered behavior, by comparing bodies behaviors to the constructed "normal" behavior.For <mask>, a "normal sexuality" is as much of a construct as a "natural sexuality". Therefore, <mask> was also critical of the popular discourse that dominated the debate over sexuality during the 1960s and 1970s. During this time, the popular discourse argued for a

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texts: "liberation" of sexuality from a cultural, moral and capitalistic oppression. <mask>, however, argues that peoples' opinions about and experiences of sexuality are always a result of cultural and power mechanisms. To "liberate" sexuality from one group of norms only means that another group of norms takes its place. This, however, does not mean that <mask> considers resistance to be futile. What Foucault argues for is rather that it is impossible to become completely free from power, and that there is simply no "natural" sexuality.Power always involves a dimension of resistance, and therefore also a possibility for change. Although <mask> considers it impossible to step outside of power-networks, it is always possible to change these networks or navigate them differently. According to <mask>, the body is not only an "obedient and passive object" that is dominated by discourses and power. The body is also the "seed" to resistance against dominant discourses and power techniques. The body is never fully compliant, and experiences can never fully be reduced to linguistic descriptions. There is always a possibility to experience something that is not possible to describe with words, and in this discrepancy there is also a possibility for resistance against dominant discourses. <mask>'s view of the historical construction of the body has influenced many feminist and queer-theorists.According to Johanna Oksala, <mask>'s influence on queer theory has been so great than he can be considered one of the founders of queer theory. The fundamental idea behind queer theory is that there is no natural fundament that lies behind identities such as gay, lesbian, heterosexual, etc. Instead these identities are considered cultural


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 constructions that have been constructed through normative discourses and relations of power. Feminists have with the help of <mask>'s ideas studied different ways that women form their bodies: through plastic surgery, diet, eating disorders, etc. <mask>'s historization of sex has also affected feminist theorists such as Judith Butler, who used <mask>'s theories about the relation between subject, power and sex to question gendered subjects. Butler follows <mask> by saying that there is no "true" gender behind gender identity that constitutes its biological and objective fundament. However, Butler is critical of <mask>.She argues <mask> "naively" presents bodies and pleasures as a ground for resistance against power, without extending his historization of sexuality to gendered subjects/bodies. <mask> has received criticism from other feminists, such as Susan Bordo and Kate Soper. Johanna Oksala argues that <mask>, by saying that sex/sexuality are constructed, doesn't deny the existence of sexuality. Oksala also argues that the goal of critical theories such as <mask> is not to liberate the body and sexuality from oppression, but rather to question and deny the identities that are posited as "natural" and "essential" by showing how these identities are historical and cultural constructions. Theory of subjectivity
<mask> considered his primary project to be the investigation of how people through history have been made into "subjects." Subjectivity, for <mask>, is not a state of being, but a practice – an active "being." According to <mask>, "the subject" has, by western philosophers, usually been considered as something given; natural and objective.On the contrary, <mask> considers subjectivity to be a construction

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texts: created by power. <mask> talks of "assujettissement", which is a French term that for Foucault refers to a process where power creates subjects while also oppressing them using social norms. For Foucault "social norms" are standards that people are encouraged to follow, that are also used to compare and define people. As an example of "assujettissement", <mask> mentions "homosexual", a historically contingent type of subjectivity that was created by sexology. <mask> writes that sodomy was previously considered a serious sexual deviation, but a temporary one. Homosexuality, however, became a "species", a past, a childhood and a type of life. "Homosexuals" has by the same power that created this subjectivity been discriminated against, due to homosexuality being considered as a deviation from the "normal" sexuality.However, <mask> argues, the creation of a subjectivity such as "homosexuality" does not only have negative consequences for the people who are subjectivised – the subjectivity of homosexuality has also led to the creation of gay bars and the pride parade. According to <mask>, scientific discourses have played an important role in the disciplinary power system, by classifying and categorizing people, observing their behavior and "treating" them when their behavior has been considered "abnormal". He defines discourse as a form of oppression that does not require physical force. He identifies its production as "controlled, selected, organized and redistributed by a certain number of procedures", which are driven by individuals' aspiration of knowledge to create "rules" and "systems" that translate into social codes. Moreover, discourse creates a force that extends beyond societal institutions and could be found


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 in social and formal fields such as health care systems, educational and law enforcement. The formation of these fields may seem to contribute to social development; however, <mask> warns against discourses' harmful aspects on society. Sciences such as psychiatry, biology, medicine, economy, psychoanalysis, psychology, sociology, ethnology, pedagogy and criminology have all categorized behaviors as rational, irrational, normal, abnormal, human, inhuman, etc.By doing so, they have all created various types of subjectivity and norms, which are then internalized by people as "truths". People have then adapted their behavior to get closer to what these sciences has labeled as "normal". For example, <mask> claims that psychological observation/surveillance and psychological discourses has created a type of psychology-centered subjectivity, which has led to people considering unhappiness a fault in their psychology rather than in society. This has also, according to <mask>, been a way for society to resist criticism – criticism against society has been turned against the individual and their psychological health. Self-constituting subjectivity
According to <mask>, subjectivity is not necessarily something that is forced upon people externally – it is also something that is established in a person's relation to themselves. This can, for example, happen when a person is trying to "find themselves" or "be themselves", something Edward McGushin describes as a typical modern activity. In this quest for the "true self", the self is established in two levels: as a passive object (the "true self" that is searched for) and as an active "searcher".The ancient Cynics and the 19th-century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche posited that


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 the "true self" can only be found by going through great hardship and/or danger. The ancient Stoics and 17th-century philosopher René Descartes, however, argued that the "self" can be found by quiet and solitary introspection. Yet another example is Socrates, who argued that self-awareness can only be found by having debates with others, where the debaters question each other's foundational views and opinions. <mask>, however, argued that "subjectivity" is a process, rather than a state of being. As such, <mask> argued that there is no "true self" to be found. Rather so, the "self" is constituted/created in activities such as the ones employed to "find" the "self". In other words, exposing oneself to hardships and danger does not "reveal" the "true self", according to <mask>, but rather creates a particular type of self and subjectivity.However, according to <mask> the "form" for the subject is in great part already constituted by power, before these self-constituting practices are employed. Schools, workplaces, households, government institutions, entertainment media and the healthcare sector all, through disciplinary power, contribute to forming people into being particular types of subjects. Theory of freedom
Todd May defines <mask>'s concept of freedom as: that which we can do of ourselves within our specific historical context. A condition for this, according to <mask>, is that we are aware of our situation and how it has been created/affected (and is still being affected) by power. According to May, two of the aspects of how power has shaped peoples′ way of being, thinking and acting is described in the books where Foucault describes disciplinary power and the history of sexuality. However, May argues, there


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 will always be aspects of peoples′ formation that will be unknown to them, hence the constant necessity for the type of analyses that <mask> did. <mask> argues that the forces that have affected people can be changed; people always have the capacity to change the factors that limit their freedom.Freedom is thus not a state of being, but a practice – a way of being in relation to oneself, to others and to the world. According to Todd May <mask>'s concept of freedom also includes constructing histories like the ones Foucault did about the history of disciplinary power and sexuality – histories that investigate and describe the forces that have influenced people into becoming who they are. From the knowledge that is reached from such investigations, people can thereafter decide which forces they believe are acceptable and which they consider to be intolerable and has to be changed. Freedom is for Foucault a type of "experimentation" with different "transformations". Since these experiments cannot be controlled completely, May argues they may lead to the reconstruction of intolerable power relations or the creation of new ones. Thus, May argues, it is always necessary to continue with such experimentation and Foucauldian analyses. Practice of critique
Foucault's "alternative" to the modern subjectivity is described by Cressida Heyes as "critique."For Foucault there are no "good" and "bad" forms of subjectivity, since they are all a result of power relations. In the same way, <mask> argues there are no "good" and "bad" norms. All norms and institutions are at the same time enabling as they are oppressing. Therefore, <mask> argues, it is always crucial to continue with the practice of "critique". Critique is for Foucault a


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 practice that searches for the processes and events that led to our way of being – a questioning of who we "are" and how this "we" came to be. Such a "critical ontology of the present" shows that peoples′ current "being" is in fact a historically contingent, unstable and changeable construction. Foucault emphasizes that since the current way of being is not a necessity, it is also possible to change it.Critique also includes investigating how and when people are being enabled and when they are being oppressed by the current norms and institutions, finding ways to reduce limitations on freedom, resist normalization and develop new and different way of relating to oneself and others. <mask> argues that it is impossible to go beyond power relations, but that it is always possible to navigate power relations in a different way. Epimeleia heautou, "care for the self"
As an alternative to the modern "search" for the "true self", and as a part of "the work of freedom", <mask> discusses the antique Greek term epimeleia heautou, "care for the self" (ἐπιμέλεια ἑαυτοῦ). According to <mask>, among the ancient Greek philosophers, self-awareness was not a goal in itself, but rather something that was sought after in order to "care for oneself". Care for the self consists of what <mask> calls "the art of living" or "technologies of the self." The goal of these techniques was, according to <mask>, to transform oneself into a more ethical person. As an example of this, <mask> mentions meditation, the stoic activity of contemplating past and future actions and evaluating if these actions are in line with one's values and goals, and "contemplation of nature."Contemplation of nature is another stoic activity, that consists of reflecting


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 on how "small" one's existence is when compared to the greater cosmos. Theory of knowledge

<mask> is described by Mary Beth Mader as an epistemological constructivist and historicist. <mask> is critical of the idea that humans can reach "absolute" knowledge about the world. A fundamental goal in many of <mask>'s works is to show how that which has traditionally been considered as absolute, universal and true in fact are historically contingent. To <mask>, even the idea of absolute knowledge is a historically contingent idea. This does however not lead to epistemological nihilism; rather, <mask> argues that we "always begin anew" when it comes to knowledge. At the same time <mask> is critical of modern western philosophy for lacking "spirituality".With "spirituality" <mask> refers to a certain type of ethical being, and the processes that lead to this state of being. <mask> argues that such a spirituality was a natural part of the ancient Greek philosophy, where knowledge was considered as something that was only accessible to those that had an ethical character. According to <mask> this changed in the "cartesian moment", the moment when René Descartes reached the "insight" that self-awareness was something given (Cogito ergo sum, "I think, therefore I am"), and from this "insight" Descartes drew conclusions about God, the world, and knowledge. According to <mask>, since Descartes knowledge has been something separate from ethics. In modern times, <mask> argues, anyone can reach "knowledge", as long as they are rational beings, educated, willing to participate in the scientific community and use a scientific method. <mask> is critical of this "modern" view of knowledge. <mask> describes two types of "knowledge":


texts: "savoir" and "connaissance", two French terms that both can be translated as "knowledge" but with separate meanings for Foucault.By "savoir" <mask> is referring to a process where subjects are created, while at the same time these subjects also become objects for knowledge. An example of this can be seen in criminology and psychiatry. In these sciences, subjects such as "the rational person", "the mentally ill person", "the law abiding person", "the criminal", etc. are created, and these sciences center their attention and knowledge on these subjects. The knowledge about these subjects is "connaissance", while the process in which subjects and knowledge is created is "savoir". A similar term in Foucaults corpus is "pouvoir/savoir" (power/knowledge). With this term Foucault is referring to a type of knowledge that is considered "common sense", but that is created and withheld in that position (as "common sense") by power.The term power/knowledge comes from Jeremy Bentham's idea that panopticons wouldn't only be prisons, but would be used for experiments where the criminals′ behaviour would be studied. Power/knowledge thus refers to forms of power where the power compares individuals, measures differences, establishes a norm and then forces this norm unto the subjects. This is especially successful when the established norm is internalized and institutionalized (by "institutionalized" <mask> refers to when the norm is omnipresent). Because then, when the norm is internalized and institutionalized, it has effectively become a part of peoples' "common sense" – the "obvious", the "given", the "natural". When this has happened, this "common sense" also affects the explicit knowledge (scientific knowledge), <mask> argues.


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 Ellen K. Feder states that the premise "the world consists of women and men" is an example of this. This premise, Feder argues, has been considered "common sense", and has led to the creation of the psychiatric diagnosis gender identity disorder (GID).For example, during the 1970s, children with behavior that was not considered appropriate for their gender was diagnosed with GID. The treatment then consisted of trying to make the child adapt to the prevailing gender norms. Feder argues that this is an example of power/knowledge since psychiatry, from the "common sense" premise "the world consists of women and men" (a premise which is upheld in this status by power), created a new diagnosis, a new type of subject and a whole body of knowledge surrounding this new subject. Influence and reception
<mask>'s works have exercised a powerful influence over numerous humanistic and social scientific disciplines as one of the most influential and controversial scholars of the post-World War II period. According to a London School of Economics' analysis in 2016, his works Discipline and Punish and The History of Sexuality were among the 25 most cited books in the social sciences of all time, at just over 100,000 citations. In 2007, <mask> was listed as the single most cited scholar in the humanities by the ISI Web of Science among a large quantity of French philosophers, the compilation's author commenting that "What this says of modern scholarship is for the reader to decide—and it is imagined that judgments will vary from admiration to despair, depending on one's view". According to Gary Gutting, <mask>'s "detailed historical remarks on the emergence of disciplinary and regulatory biopower have been widely influential."Leo


texts: Bersani wrote that:"[<mask>] is our most brilliant philosopher of power. More originally than any other contemporary thinker, he has attempted to define the historical constraints under which we live, at the same time that he has been anxious to account for—if possible, even to locate—the points at which we might resist those constraints and counter some of the moves of power. In the present climate of cynical disgust with the exercise of political power, <mask>'s importance can hardly be exaggerated." <mask>'s work on "biopower" has been widely influential within the disciplines of philosophy and political theory, particularly for such authors as Giorgio Agamben, Roberto Esposito, Antonio Negri, and Michael Hardt. His discussions on power and discourse have inspired many critical theorists, who believe that <mask>'s analysis of power structures could aid the struggle against inequality. They claim that through discourse analysis, hierarchies may be uncovered and questioned by way of analyzing the corresponding fields of knowledge through which they are legitimated. This is one of the ways that <mask>'s work is linked to critical theory.His work Discipline and Punish influenced his friend and contemporary Gilles Deleuze, who published the paper "Postscript on the Societies of Control", praising <mask>'s work but arguing that contemporary western society has in fact developed from a 'disciplinary society' into a 'society of control'. Deleuze went on to publish a book dedicated to <mask>'s thought in 1988 under the title Foucault. <mask>'s discussions of the relationship between power and knowledge has influenced postcolonial critiques in explaining the discursive formation of colonialism, particularly in Edward Said's


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 work Orientalism. <mask>'s work has been compared to that of Erving Goffman by the sociologist Michael Hviid Jacobsen and Soren Kristiansen, who list Goffman as an influence on Foucault. <mask>'s writings, particularly The History of Sexuality, have also been very influential in feminist philosophy and queer theory, particularly the work of the major Feminist scholar Judith Butler due to his theories regarding the genealogy of maleness and femaleness, power, sexuality, and bodies. Critiques and engagements

Crypto-normativity

A prominent critique of <mask>'s thought concerns his refusal to propose positive solutions to the social and political issues that he critiques. Since no human relation is devoid of power, freedom becomes elusive—even as an ideal.This stance which critiques normativity as socially constructed and contingent, but which relies on an implicit norm to mount the critique led philosopher Jürgen Habermas to describe <mask>'s thinking as  "crypto-normativist", covertly reliant on the very Enlightenment principles he attempts to argue against. A similar critique has been advanced by Diana Taylor, and by Nancy Fraser who argues that "<mask>'s critique encompasses traditional moral systems, he denies himself recourse to concepts such as 'freedom' and 'justice', and therefore lacks the ability to generate positive alternatives." Genealogy as historical method
The philosopher Richard Rorty has argued that <mask>'s "archaeology of knowledge" is fundamentally negative, and thus fails to adequately establish any "new" theory of knowledge per se. Rather, <mask> simply provides a few valuable maxims regarding the reading of history. Rorty writes:

<mask> has frequently been criticized by historians for what they


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 consider to be a lack of rigor in his analyses. For example, Hans-Ulrich Wehler harshly criticized <mask> in 1998. Wehler regards <mask> as a bad philosopher who wrongfully received a good response by the humanities and by social sciences.According to Wehler, <mask>'s works are not only insufficient in their empiric historical aspects, but also often contradictory and lacking in clarity. For example, <mask>'s concept of power is "desperatingly undifferentiated", and <mask>'s thesis of a "disciplinary society" is, according to Wehler, only possible because <mask> does not properly differentiate between authority, force, power, violence and legitimacy. In addition, his thesis is based on a one-sided choice of sources (prisons and psychiatric institutions) and neglects other types of organizations as e.g. factories. Also, Wehler criticizes <mask>'s "francocentrism" because he did not take into consideration major German-speaking theorists of social sciences like Max Weber and Norbert Elias. In all, Wehler concludes that <mask> is "because of the endless series of flaws in his so-called empirical studies ... an intellectually dishonest, empirically absolutely unreliable, crypto-normativist seducer of Postmodernism". Feminist critiques
Though American feminists have built on <mask>'s critiques of the historical construction of gender roles and sexuality, some feminists note the limitations of the masculinist subjectivity and ethical orientation that he describes.Sexuality
The philosopher Roger Scruton argues in Sexual Desire (1986) that <mask> was incorrect to claim, in The History of Sexuality, that sexual morality is culturally relative. He criticizes <mask> for assuming that there could be societies in which a

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 "problematisation" of the sexual did not occur, concluding that, "No history of thought could show the 'problematisation' of sexual experience to be peculiar to certain specific social formations: it is characteristic of personal experience generally, and therefore of every genuine social order." <mask>'s approach to sexuality, which he sees as socially constructed, has become influential in queer theory. <mask>'s resistance to identity politics, and his rejection of the psychoanalytic concept of "object choice", stands at odds with some theories of queer identity. Social constructionism and human nature
<mask> is sometimes criticized for his prominent formulation of principles of social constructionism, which some see as an affront to the concept of truth. In <mask>'s 1971 televised debate with Noam Chomsky, <mask> argued against the possibility of any fixed human nature, as posited by Chomsky's concept of innate human faculties. Chomsky argued that concepts of justice were rooted in human reason, whereas <mask> rejected the universal basis for a concept of justice.Following the debate, Chomsky was stricken with <mask>'s total rejection of the possibility of a universal morality, stating "He struck me as completely amoral, I'd never met anyone who was so totally amoral [...] I mean, I liked him personally, it's just that I couldn't make sense of him. It's as if he was from a different species, or something." Education and authority
Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa, while acknowledging that <mask> contributed to give a right of citizenship in cultural life to certain marginal and eccentric experiences (of sexuality, of cultural repression, of madness), asserts that his radical critique of authority was detrimental


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 to education. Psychology of the self

One of <mask>'s claims regarding the subjectivity of the self has been disputed. Opposing <mask>'s view of subjectivity, it is possibly more reasonable to assume that other factors, such as biological, environmental, and cultural are explanations for the self. References

Sources

Further reading
 Artières, Philippe, Jean-François Bert, Frédéric Gros, and Judith Revel, eds. 2011.Cahier Foucault. France: L'Herne. Derrida, Jacques. 1978. "Cogito and the History of Madness." Pp. 31–63 in Writing and Difference, translated by Alan Bass.Chicago: Chicago University Press. Dreyfus, Herbert L. and Paul Rabinow. 1983. <mask>: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics (2nd ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <mask>, <mask>. "Sexual Morality and the Law,"  [originally published as "La loi de la pudeur"].Pp. 271–85 in Politics, philosophy, Culture. <mask>, <mask>, Ignacio Ramonet, Daniel Mermet, Jorge Majfud, and Federico Kukso. 2018. Cinco entrevistas a Noam Chomsky (in Spanish). Santiago: Aun Creemos en los Sueños. .
Garland, David. 1997."'Governmentality' and the Problem of Crime: Foucalt, Criminology, Sociology." Theoretical Criminology 1(2):173–214. Ghamari-Tabrizi, Behrooz. 2016. <mask> in Iran: Islamic Revolution and Enlightenment. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Deleuze, Gilles.1988. <mask>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Retrieved via U of Minnesota Press. Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. 1983. Anti-Oedipus.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Retrieved via U of Minnesota Press. MacIntyre, Alasdair. 1990. Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Merquior, J.

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Foucault
Michel Foucault
Foucault
Michel
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Foucault
Foucault


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 G. 1987.<mask>. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. A critical view of <mask>'s work. Olssen, M. 2009. Toward a Global Thin Community: Nietzsche, <mask> and the Cosmopolitan Commitment. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Press. Roudinesco, Élisabeth.2008. Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, <mask>, Althusser, Deleuze, Derrida. New York City: Columbia University Press. Veyne, Paul. 2008. <mask>. Sa pensée, sa personne.Paris: Éditions Albin Michel. Wolin, Richard. 1987. Telos 67, <mask>'s Aesthetic Decisionism. New York: Telos Press Ltd. External links

 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on <mask>. By Johanna Oksala
 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on <mask>.By Mark Kelly
 Foucault.info. Large resource site which includes extracts from <mask>'s work and a comprehensive bibliography of all of <mask>'s work in French
 Foucault News. Large resource site, which includes a blog with news related to Foucault research, bibliographies and other resources
 Foucault bibliographies. Bibliographies and links to bibliographies of, and relating to <mask>ult News site
 Progressive Geographies. Stuart Elden's blog and resource site. Includes extensive resources on Foucault
 Wikipedia Bibliography of Foucault's books in English

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texts: <mask> (November 6, 1861 – December 28, 1890) was an American painter and innovator of American Impressionism. His mature works include both brightly colored landscape paintings and dark, finely drawn portraits and figures. One of the major American painters of the late 19th century, and a friend of many prominent artists of the era, Bunker died from meningitis at the age of 29. <mask> was born in New York City to <mask>, the secretary-treasurer of the Union Ferry Company, and his wife, <mask> (sister of illustrator Sol Eytinge Jr.). In 1876 he enrolled at the Art Students League of New York and the National Academy of Design. By 1880 he was participating in the annual exhibitions of the National Academy, the American Watercolor Society, and the Brooklyn Art Association. In 1881 Bunker exhibited a watercolor at the Boston Art Club.He subsequently exhibited both oil paintings and watercolors at the Club in 1882 and 1883. In 1886, the American printmaker Louis Prang exhibited two of Bunker's works from his own collection at the Club. In 1882 Bunker left New York to study at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris, most notably with Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the spring of 1883, accompanied by fellow students Charles A. Platt and Kenneth R. Cranford, Bunker left Paris to travel through the French countryside and the coast of Normandy, returning to continue his studies in mid-October. The following year the three artists summered and painted in Brittany. By year's end Bunker had returned to New York City. In 1885 Bunker was elected to the Society of American Artists.In October of that year, at the recommendation of James Carroll Beckwith, he moved to Boston to teach at the Cowles Art School, where he was the chief instructor of figure and cast drawing, artistic

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Dennis Miller Bunker
Life Bunker
Matthew Bunker
Mary Anne Eytinge Bunker


texts: anatomy, and composition. He lived and taught in the art school building. Concurrently Bunker was given his first solo exhibition, at Noyes and Blakeslee Gallery in Boston. Despite these successes, Bunker was homesick for France, and wrote of feeling "supremely ridiculous" in "this atmosphere of wealth and respectability". While meager finances prevented him from staying in Boston during the summer, let alone traveling to Europe, Bunker did accept an invitation from Abbott Handerson Thayer to join him and paint in South Woodstock, Connecticut in 1886. In that year he also met Isabella Stewart Gardner, who would prove to be a valuable friend and patron. Bunker painted portraits during the winter of 1887, and spent the summer in Newburyport, Massachusetts with artist friends; including Henry Oliver Walker.In November he met John Singer Sargent in Boston, during the latter's first working trip to America. In 1888 Bunker undertook a number of portrait commissions of important Bostonians, including members of the Gardner family, Samuel Endicott Peabody, and J. Montgomery Sears. Bunker spent the summer in England, where he joined Sargent and his family in Calcot, painting during the day and playing tennis in the evening. During the spring of 1889 Bunker resigned from the Cowles Art School. At a reception he met Eleanor Hardy, whom he would marry the following year. In the summer Bunker stayed at a boarding house in Medfield, Massachusetts, and enjoyed his most productive season of painting. In the fall he returned to New York, writing daily to Hardy in Boston.By this time, Bunker's circle of friends included not only Sargent, Gardner, and Platt, but Thomas Wilmer Dewing, William Merritt Chase, Stanford White, William Dean Howells, Charles Martin Loeffler, and Augustus


texts:
 Saint-Gaudens, as well. In 1890 Bunker first exhibited his impressionist landscapes at the St. Botolph Club in Boston. He received an offer to teach at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and planned to take over William Merritt Chase's class in Brooklyn that winter. In June he visited the art colony at Cornish, New Hampshire, and in July returned to paint further at Medfield. On October 2 Bunker married Eleanor Hardy in Boston. The couple then moved to New York. Returning to Boston to celebrate Christmas with the Hardy family, Bunker fell ill. On December 28 he died of heart failure, probably caused by cerebro-spinal meningitis.He was Buried at Milton Cemetery, Milton, MA and his tombstone was designed by his friends Stanford White and Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Platt and other friends organized a memorial exhibition at the St. Botolph Club, held in 1891. Work
The paintings of Bunker's early maturity in New York (ca. 1880-82) were often marine subjects, featuring a series of beached boats, painted on Long Island. In these he followed the standard academic practice of first painting loose, preparatory sketches (Beached, ca. 1881-2) prior to more conventionally finished exhibition pieces. The early portraits (Portrait of Walter Griffin, 1881, Portland Museum of Art) also evidence rigorous craftsmanship.While studying in Paris, Bunker's summer excursions to the countryside resulted in another series, this time of scenes of Larmor, a town in Brittany. The focus of these compositions, be it church spire (Brittany Town Morning, Larmor, 1884, Terra Foundation for American Art), cemetery cross, or a lone tree (Tree, 1884-5, private collection), was invariably that of a richly painted, dark graphic shape against a bright sky. Nevertheless, the pictures are characterized by soft


texts: atmospheric effects and tonal subtlety. No less subtle are the landscapes Bunker painted after returning to America; paintings done in South Woodstock, Connecticut (Pines Beyond the Fence, 1886, private collection) still favor dramatic value contrasts, with subjects carefully painted against a light sky, but the palette has grown lighter, the color more saturated. By 1887 Bunker completed his Portrait of Anne Page, a painting requiring much labor, but one of his most poignant works. In its restrained use of color, delicate modeling of form, and aesthetic elegance it is reminiscent of the works of Thayer and James McNeill Whistler. There soon followed the Boston commissions, portraits mostly of male sitters—still somber in tone, they are painted in a more confident manner, suggesting the influence of Sargent (Portrait of George Augustus Gardner, 1888, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston).That Bunker spent the summer of 1888 painting with Sargent is verified by personal correspondence, as well as through several pieces by the latter artist (<mask>er Painting at Calcot, 1888, Terra Foundation for American Art), but no paintings of the English sojourn by Bunker have survived; possibly he destroyed them in dissatisfaction. However, once back in Boston the experience came to fruition, for over the next two years Bunker produced a series of canvases which evidenced that he was one of the first American artists to fully understand and successfully practice impressionism. In the Greenhouse, ca. 1888, Chrysanthemums, 1888  (Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum), The Pool, Medfield, 1889 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), and Meadow Lands, 1890 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) all feature a rich palette, vertiginous compositions, and his unique "fish hook" shaped brush strokes. At the same time,


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 Bunker's last figure pieces remained faithful to his academic training. Jessica, 1890 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), The Mirror, 1890 (Terra Foundation for American Art), and Eleanor Hardy Bunker, 1890 (Metropolitan Museum of Art) are characterized by a restricted color range and heightened elegance. Legacy
Although highly regarded during his lifetime, the 20th century assessment of American Impressionism was largely negative, and Bunker's work was all but forgotten soon after his death.His teachings influenced a number of painters (upon his resignation from the Cowles school, his students wrote a letter of appreciation, urging him to reconsider), among whom were William McGregor Paxton and Lilla Cabot Perry. It was a student of Paxton's named R. H. Ives Gammell who did the most to maintain Bunker's reputation, organizing two exhibitions at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in the 1940s, and publishing a biography in 1953. The current revival of interest in his work is the result of a less programmatic reassessment of 19th century art:

Thus, depending upon the viewpoint of the writer, Bunker can be seen as either a traditionalist or an innovator. In truth, he was both. Notes

References
 Hirshler, Erica E., et al., <mask> Bunker: American Impressionist, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1994. External links

 A finding aid to the <mask> Bunker papers, 1882-1943, bulk 1882-1890 at the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution
Boston Art Club: Official website

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Dennis Miller
Dennis Miller


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<mask> (born December 1, 1943) is a Greek American architect. He is the founder and chairman Emeritus of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Media Lab, and also founded the One Laptop per Child Association (OLPC). Negroponte is the author of the 1995 bestseller Being Digital translated into more than forty languages. Early life
Negroponte was born to Dimitrios Negropontis (), a Greek shipping magnate and alpine skier, and grew up in New York City's Upper East Side. He has three brothers. His elder one, <mask>, is the former United States Deputy Secretary of State. <mask> is an Emmy Award-winning filmmaker.<mask> is an artist and was President of the Drawing Center from 2002 to 2007. He attended Buckley School in New York, Fay School in Massachusetts, Le Rosey in Switzerland, and The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, from which he graduated in 1961. Subsequently, he studied at MIT as both an undergraduate and graduate student in Architecture where his research focused on issues of computer-aided design. He earned a master's degree in architecture from MIT in 1966. Despite his accomplished academic career, Negroponte has spoken publicly about his dyslexia and his difficulty in reading. Career

MIT
Negroponte joined the faculty of MIT in 1966. For several years thereafter he divided his teaching time between MIT and several visiting professorships at Yale, Michigan and the University of California, Berkeley.In 1967, Negroponte founded MIT's Architecture Machine Group, a combination lab and think tank which studied new approaches to human–computer interaction. In 1985, Negroponte created the MIT Media Lab with Jerome B. Wiesner. As director, he developed the lab into a pre-eminent laboratory

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 for new media and a high-tech playground for investigating the human–computer interface. Negroponte also became a proponent of intelligent agents and personalized electronic newspapers, for which he popularized the term the Daily Me. Wired
In 1992, Negroponte became involved in the creation of Wired Magazine as the first investor. From 1993 to 1998, he contributed a monthly column to the magazine in which he reiterated a basic theme: "Move bits, not atoms." Negroponte expanded many of the ideas from his Wired columns into a bestselling book Being Digital (1995), which made famous his forecasts on how the interactive world, the entertainment world and the information world would eventually merge.Being Digital was a bestseller and was translated into some forty languages. Negroponte is a digital optimist who believed that computers would make life better for everyone. However, critics such as Cass Sunstein have criticised his techno-utopian ideas for failing to consider the historical, political and cultural realities with which new technologies should be viewed. In the 1980s Negroponte predicted that wired technologies such as telephones would become unwired by using airwaves instead of wires or fiber optics, and that unwired technologies such as televisions would become wired—a prediction commonly referred to as the Negroponte switch. Later career
In 2000, Negroponte stepped down as director of the Media Lab as Walter Bender took over as executive director. However, Negroponte retained the role of laboratory chairman. When Frank Moss was appointed director of the lab in 2006, Negroponte stepped down as lab chairman to focus more fully on his work with One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) although he retains his appointment as


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 professor at MIT (Professor Post-Tenure of Media Arts and Sciences).In November 2005, at the World Summit on the Information Society held in Tunis, Negroponte unveiled the concept of a $100 laptop computer, The Children's Machine, designed for students in the developing world. The price has increased to US$180, however. The project is part of a broader program by One Laptop Per Child, a nonprofit organization started by Negroponte and other Media Lab faculty to extend Internet access in developing countries. Negroponte is an active angel investor and has invested in over 30 startup companies over the last 30 years, including Zagats, Wired, Ambient Devices, Skype and Velti. He has sat on several boards, including Motorola (listed on the New York Stock Exchange) and Velti (listed on the NASDAQ and formerly on the London Stock Exchange ). He is also on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard. In August 2007, he was appointed to a five-member special committee with the objective of assuring the continued journalistic and editorial integrity and independence of the Wall Street Journal and other Dow Jones & Company publications and services.The committee was formed as part of the merger of Dow Jones with News Corporation. Negroponte's fellow founding committee members are Louis Boccardi, Thomas Bray, Jack Fuller, and the late former Congresswoman Jennifer Dunn. Negroponte has influenced modern day futurists such as David Houle. Epstein controversy
According to reporting from the MIT Technology Review, in response to the controversy of the MIT Media Lab accepting funding from Jeffrey Epstein five years after Epstein's conviction for sex trafficking minors, Negroponte told MIT staff, "If you wind back the clock, I would still say, 'Take


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 it.'" Negroponte was reported to have said that in the fund-raising world these types of occurrences were not out of the ordinary, and they shouldn’t be reason enough to cut off business relationships. His comments supporting the donation from a convicted child sex offender reportedly left some of his listeners "stunned" and reduced one person present to tears. References

External links

  (November 2009)

 C-SPAN Q&A interview with Negroponte, November 25, 2007

 <mask>e Keynote at NetEvents, Hong Kong inc. first production olpc laptop December 2006
 <mask>e Q&A at NetEvents, Hong Kong December 2006
 <mask>e about books and OLPC on NECN
 Microsoft and Intel help deliver a $100 Windows 8.1 tablet
 <mask> Keynote at NetEvents, Hong Kong inc. first production olpc laptop December 2006

1943 births
Alumni of Institut Le Rosey
American business theorists
American computer scientists
American technology writers
American writers of Greek descent
Greek Orthodox Christians from the United States
Choate Rosemary Hall alumni
Futurologists
Greek academics
Living people
One Laptop per Child
MIT School of Architecture and Planning alumni
MIT Media Lab people
People from the Upper East Side
People from Wallingford, Connecticut
Wired (magazine) people
Fay School alumni
Buckley School (New York City)

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Nicholas Negropont
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<mask> (died August 7, 707), known posthumously as Prince Xuan of Liang (), was a Chinese prince and politician of the Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties. <mask> served as a chancellor and imperial prince during the reign of his aunt, Empress <mask> of Zhou, and was again a powerful chancellor during the second reign of Empress <mask>'s son, Emperor Zhongzong of Tang. He was aided in navigating the fraught period that followed Emperor Zhongzong's restoration by successive affairs with the influential consort Shangguan Wan'er and the powerful Empress Wei. Although he amassed significant authority and enjoyed the trust of Emperor Zhongzong, he was killed during an unsuccessful rebellion by the crown prince Li Chongjun in 707. Background
It is not known when <mask> was born. His father <mask> (武元慶) was a half-brother of <mask>—both had, as father, the early Tang Dynasty general <mask> (武士彠), but <mask> and his brother <mask> (武元爽) were born of <mask>o's first wife Lady Xiangli, while <mask> and her two sisters were born of <mask>o's second wife Lady Yang. After <mask>an became empress to Emperor Gaozong in 655, despite previous intrafamily unpleasantries—<mask> and <mask>ang, as well as <mask>'s nephews <mask>g (武惟良) and <mask> (武懷運) were often disrespectful of Lady Yang previously—Empress <mask>'s brothers and cousins were often promoted by Emperor Gaozong, with <mask> promoted to Zongzheng Shaoqing

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Wu Sansi
Wu Zetian
Wu
Wu Sansi
Wu Yuanqing
Wu Zetian
Wu Shihuo
Wu Yuanqing
Wu Yuanshuang
Wu Shihu
Wu Zetian
Wu Shihu
Wu Zeti
Wu Yuanqing
Wu Yuanshu
Wu Shihuo
Wu Weilian
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 (宗正少卿), the deputy minister of imperial clan affairs.However, sometime before 666, Empress <mask>, angry that her brothers and cousins did not appreciate the promotions, had them all demoted, with <mask> demoted to be the prefect of Long Prefecture (龍州, roughly modern Mianyang, Sichuan). After he arrived at Long Prefecture, he, in fear that Empress <mask> had further retaliation in the works, died. It is not completely clear, but it was likely that <mask> went to Long Prefecture with his father <mask>. He was later made a commanding general of the imperial guards. During Empress dowager <mask>'s regency
Emperor Gaozong died in 683, and was initially succeeded by his and Empress <mask>'s son Li Zhe the Crown Prince (as Emperor Zhongzong), but Empress <mask> retained power as empress dowager and regent. In spring 684, after Emperor Zhongzong showed signs of independence, she deposed him and replaced him with another son, Li Dan the Prince of Yu, but wielded power even more tightly thereafter. Sometime during her regency, <mask> became minister of defense (夏官尚書, Xiaguan Shangshu).Both he and his cousin <mask> (<mask>ang's son) advised Empress Dowager <mask> to find excuses to kill two senior members of the imperial Li clan—Emperor Gaozong's uncles Li Yuanjia (李元嘉) the Prince of Han and Li Lingkui (李靈夔) the Prince of Lu due to their senior status. (Eventually, after two other princes—Emperor

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Wu
Wu Sansi
Wu Yuanqing
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Wu
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 Gaozong's brother Li Zhen the Prince of Yue and Li Zhen's son Li Chong the Prince of Langye unsuccessfully rose against Empress Dowager <mask> in 688, Empress Dowager <mask> took the opportunity to also force Li Yuanjia and Li Lingkui, as well as many other members of the Li clan, to commit suicide or to execute them.) <mask> and <mask> were also said to be often advocating that Empress Dowager <mask> take over the throne herself as "emperor." During <mask>'s reign
In 690, Empress Dowager <mask> had Emperor Ruizong yield the throne to her, and she took the throne as "emperor," establishing a new Zhou Dynasty and interrupting Tang. She created a number of her Wu clan relatives imperial princes, and <mask> was created the Prince of Liang and made the minister of civil service affairs (, Tianguan Shangshu). He did not appear to have as much power as <mask> (who became chancellor), but was nevertheless honored. For example, in 693, when <mask> made sacrifices to heaven and earth, she offered the sacrifices herself first, followed by <mask>, and then <mask>.It was said that he had done some studies in literature and history and was good at flattery. As the years went by, he often flattered <mask>'s successive lovers Huaiyi, Zhang Yizhi, and Zhang Changzong. In 694, <mask> led a group of non-Han chieftains in requesting that a massive iron pillar be erected to commemorate <mask>'s reign with text on

masks:
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texts: it to deprecate Tang and to praise Zhou, and <mask> agreed, putting the chancellor Yao Shu in charge of the project. It was said that the chieftains gathered up their wealth and bought iron, but the iron they bought was not enough, and so the people's farm equipment were requisitioned and melted for the project. In 695, <mask> was made the Minister of Rites and was put in charge of editing the imperial history. In 696, when Khitan attacked under the leadership of Li Jinzhong and Sun Wanrong, <mask> was put in command of one of the major armies defending against the Khitan attack, assisted by Yao. In 697, <mask> was given the designation Tong Fengge Luantai Sanpin (), making him a chancellor de facto, but about a month later, he was stripped of the chancellor designation.It was said that he and <mask> both had designs on being crown prince, and often had their associates try to persuade <mask> that in ages past, there had never been an emperor who had, as his heir, someone with a different family name. (At that time, <mask>'s crown prince was her son Li Dan (the former Emperor Ruizong).) In 698, however, at the suggestion of the chancellor Di Renjie, concurred in by Wang Jishan and Wang Fangqing, as well as <mask>'s close advisor Ji Xu and her lovers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, <mask> recalled Li Zhe the Prince of Luling (the former Emperor Zhongzong) from exile and soon, after Li Dan

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Wu Zetian
Wu Zetian
Wu Zetian


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 offered to yield the position of crown prince to him, created him crown prince and changed his name to Li Xian and then to <mask>. In 698, <mask> made <mask> acting Neishi (), the head of the legislative bureau of government (, Fengge); the next year, he was made full Neishi. In 700, however, he was no longer chancellor and was made an advisor to Li Xian. He received the honorific title of Tejin (). In 702, <mask> considered launching a major attack against Eastern Tujue and she initially put <mask> in command, assisted by Jing Hui.She later changed the orders to have Li Dan in command, assisted by <mask>, his cousin <mask>ning the prince of Jiancheng, and the chancellor Wei Yuanzhong. However, the army was eventually not launched. In 704, at <mask>'s suggestion, <mask> constructed the vacation palace Xingtai () at Mount Wan'an (, near the capital Luoyang), at much expense and labor. During Emperor Zhongzong's second reign
<mask> was overthrown in a coup in 705 led by the officials Zhang Jianzhi, Cui Xuanwei, Jing Hui, Huan Yanfan, and Yuan Shuji. Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were killed in the coup, and Emperor Zhongzong was restored to the throne; <mask>an was sent to a secondary palace under heavy guard, and while she also retained the title of "emperor," no longer had power. By that time, <mask> had been carrying out an affair with <mask>'s secretary and Emperor Zhongzong's concubine

masks:
Wu Xian
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Wu You
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texts: Consort Shangguan Wan'er. Through her introduction, <mask> began an affair with Emperor Zhongzong's wife Empress Wei as well and also became a trusted advisor to Emperor Zhongzong who, while he was restored through the efforts of Zhang Jianzhi and his colleagues, feared them.In addition, <mask>'s son <mask>un (武崇訓) had been married to Emperor Zhongzong's and Empress Wei's daughter Li Guo'er the Princess Anle, who also had much power in her father's administration and had influence over her father and it is said that she used this power and influence in a corrupt manner and because of this, she gained a lot of wealth and had a extravagant luxurious and luxury life. Meanwhile, the coup leaders initially did not regard <mask> as a threat, and they brushed aside suggestions by two lower level officials participating in the coup, Xue Jichang (薛季昶) and Liu Youqiu. However, they soon realized that <mask>'s power was on the rise, and they unsuccessfully suggested Emperor Zhongzong to kill some of the more powerful <mask> clan members (which would have included <mask>) or to demote them—and indeed, he made <mask> Sikong (司空, one of the Three Excellencies) and chancellor again with the designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Sanpin (同中書門下三品, a modification of the Tong Fengge Luantai Sanpin designation that <mask> used), although <mask> declined the titles. Meanwhile, Emperor Zhongzong designated 16 officials,

masks:
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Wu Sansi
Wu Chongx
Wu Sansi
Wu Sansi
Wu
Wu Sansi
Wu Sansi
Wu Zetian
Wu Sansi


texts: including the coup leaders but also <mask> and his cousin <mask> (the husband of Emperor Zhongzong's sister Princess Taiping), as contributors to his return to the throne and gave them iron certificates that were supposed to guarantee that they would be spared of death penalties 10 times except for treason. Jing, fearful of <mask>'s power, retained the mid-level official Cui Shi to watch for <mask>'s moves—but Cui Shi, realizing that Emperor Zhongzong trusted <mask>si and feared the coup leaders, instead became <mask>si's associate, along with Zheng Yin, who suggested that <mask>si find some way to remove the five coup leaders, now all chancellors, from their posts. <mask>si and Empress Wei, in turn, argued to Emperor Zhongzong that the five coup leaders were overpowering in the government and should be given honorific titles but be removed from office. At their suggestion, Emperor Zhongzong created the five coup leaders princes and awarded them much wealth, but removed them from governmental posts, including chancellor positions—and soon sent Zhang Jianzhi and Cui Xuanwei out of the capital.<mask>, now in power, had much of <mask>an's policies, which the five coup leaders had reversed, reinstated. Meanwhile, to diffuse some of the popular sentiment against the <mask> clan, Emperor Zhongzong demoted their titles slightly, and <mask>'s title was reduced from Prince of Liang to the lesser title

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Wu Youji
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Wu San
Wu San
Wu San
Wu San
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texts: of Prince of Dejing. As Emperor Zhongzong also trusted Wei Yuanzhong (whom <mask>an had exiled in 703 but whom Emperor Zhongzong recalled upon his restoration to the throne), when <mask> died in late 705, <mask> tried to ingratiate Wei by writing into <mask>'s will a provision giving Wei an additional fief of 100 households. Wei, in gratitude, did not oppose the <mask> clan further from that point. In spring 706, <mask>, fearful that Jing, Huan, and Yuan were still in the capital, sent them out of the capital to serve as prefectural prefects. Meanwhile, an incident occurred that allowed <mask> to act further against the five coup leaders—as Emperor Zhongzong's son-in-law Wang Tongjiao (王同皎), himself a participant in the coup, was accused of plotting with Zhang Zhongzhi (張仲之), Zu Yanqing (祖延慶), and Zhou Jing (周璟) to kill <mask> and deposing Empress Wei. The alleged plotters were all killed, and <mask> and Empress Wei thereafter accused the five coup leaders of having been part of Wang Tongjiao's plot, and the five were demoted further, to more distant prefecture, with no possibility of return from exile.Meanwhile, <mask>, knowing that Emperor Zhongzong was very sensitive about any accusation of adultery by Empress Wei, intentionally had people post public accusations that she had been involved in adultery—and then framed the five coup leaders of doing so, and the five coup leaders, already in

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Wu Zetian
Wu Sansi
Wu Zetian
Wu
Wu Sansi
Wu Sansi
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Wu Sansi


texts: exile, were stripped of all of their titles and honors. <mask>, at Cui Shi's suggestion, then sent the secret police official Zhou Lizhen (周利貞) to the Lingnan region, where the five had been exiled, to survey the area, but with instructions to have the five killed. When Zhou reached Lingnan, Zhang Jianzhi and Cui Xuanwei had already died, but he killed Huan, Jing, and Yuan in cruel manners. It was said that after news of the five coup leaders' deaths reached <mask>, he commented, "I do not know who are good people and who are bad people on this earth. I only know that people who are good to me are good, and people who are bad to me are bad." In spring 707, with an ongoing drought, Emperor Zhongzong sent <mask> and <mask> to Emperor Gaozong's and <mask>'s tomb to pray for rain, and when rain came, Emperor Zhongzong restored <mask>'s ancestral temple to near-imperial ancestral temple status. Meanwhile, Emperor Zhongzong had created his son Li Chongjun, by a concubine, crown prince, as Empress Wei's only son Li Chongrun had been killed by <mask> in 701, but Li Guo'er, encouraged by <mask>un, had designs on becoming crown princess, and repeatedly asked Emperor Zhongzong to make her crown princess.Both she and <mask>un also repeatedly insulted Li Chongjun, sometimes calling him "slave." In fall 707, Li Chongjun, in anger, started a rebellion with the generals Li Duozuo, Li Sichong (李思沖), Li

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Wu Sansi
Wu Sansi
Wu Youji
Wu Zetian
Wu Zetian
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 Chengkuang (李承況), Dugu Yizhi (獨孤禕之), and Shazha Zhongyi (沙吒忠義), as well as Emperor Zhongzong's cousin Li Qianli (李千里) the Prince of Cheng and Li Qianli's son Li Xi (李禧) the Prince of Tianshui. They attacked <mask>'s mansion and killed <mask>, <mask>un, and some of their relatives. Li Chongjun's subsequent attempt to reach the palace and arrest Consort Shangguan, Empress Wei, and Li Guo'er, however, were unsuccessful, and his troops collapsed; he was killed. Li Chongjun was beheaded, and his head was presented to <mask>'s and <mask>un's caskets. <mask> and <mask>un were buried in grand funerals, and <mask> was posthumously recreated the Prince of Liang with the posthumous name of Xuan (宣, "responsible"). After Emperor Zhongzong's death in 710, a coup led by Princess Taiping and Li Dan's son Li Longji the Prince of Linzi overthrew Empress Wei and restored Emperor Ruizong to the throne, and <mask>'s tomb was destroyed.In fiction and popular culture
 One of the protagonists in the Ming dynasty erotic novel Su'e pian. Portrayed by Eric Li in The Greatness of a Hero (2009). See also
 Prince of Liang

References

 Old Book of Tang, vol. 183. New Book of Tang, vol. 206. Zizhi Tongjian, vols.203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208. Tang dynasty imperial princes
Chancellors under <mask>an
Chancellors under Emperor Zhongzong of Tang
Tang dynasty generals
Tang dynasty historians
8th-century Chinese

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<mask>en Horowitz. He co-founded and later sold the software company Opsware to Hewlett-Packard. <mask> is also a co-founder of Ning, a company that provides a platform for social networking websites. He sits on the board of directors of Meta Platforms. <mask> was one of six inductees in the World Wide Web Hall of Fame announced at the First International Conference on the World-Wide Web in 1994. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Cedar Falls, Iowa, and raised in New Lisbon, Wisconsin.He is the son of Patricia and <mask>, who worked for a seed company. In December 1993, he received his bachelor's degree in computer science from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. As an undergraduate, he interned twice at IBM in Austin, Texas. He worked in the AIX graphics software development group responsible for the MIT X Window implementation and ports of the 3D language APIs:  SGI's Graphics Language (GL) and PHIGS. He also worked at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois, where he became familiar with Tim Berners-Lee's open standards for the World Wide Web. Andreessen and full-time salaried co-worker Eric Bina worked on creating a user-friendly browser with integrated graphics that would work on a wide range of computers. The resulting code was the Mosaic Web browser.Career
During his career, Andreesen has worked at Netscape, Opsware, founded Andreessen Horowitz and invested in many successful companies including, Facebook, Foursquare, GitHub, Pinterest, LinkedIn and Twitter. Netscape

After his graduation from UIUC in 1993, Andreessen moved to California to work at Enterprise Integration Technologies. Andreessen then met with Jim Clark, the founder of Silicon Graphics, who had recently exited the firm. Clark believed the Mosaic browser had great commercial possibilities and suggested starting an Internet software company. Soon, Mosaic Communications Corporation was in business in Mountain View, California, with Andreessen as co-founder and vice president of technology. The

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Andreessen
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 University of Illinois was unhappy with the company's use of the Mosaic name, so Mosaic Communications changed its name to Netscape Communications, and its flagship Web browser was the Netscape Navigator. Netscape's IPO in 1995 put Andreessen into the public eye.He was featured on the cover of Time and other publications. Netscape was acquired in 1999 for $4.3 billion by AOL. <mask>'s hiring as its Chief Technology Officer was contingent on the completion of the acquisition. The same year, he was named to the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35. Loudcloud

After AOL acquired Netscape in late 1998, Andreessen went on to found Opsware with Ben Horowitz, Tim Howes, and In Sik Rhee. Originally named Loudcloud, the company provided computing, hosting and software services to consumer facing internet and e-commerce companies. Loudcloud sold its hosting business to EDS and changed its name to Opsware in 2003, with <mask> serving as chairman.Acquired by Hewlett-Packard for $1.6 billion in 2007, it was one of the first companies to offer software as a service and to attempt cloud hosting. <mask> Horowitz

Between 2005 and 2009, <mask> and longtime business partner Ben Horowitz separately invested a total of $80 million in 45 start-ups that included Twitter and Qik. The two became well known as super angel investors. On July 6, 2009, Andreessen and Horowitz announced their Silicon Valley venture-capital firm Andreessen Horowitz. The firm had been scrutinized among several other venture capital firms for lack of diversity in its workforce. In an interview with New York Magazine, Andreessen stated the diversity discussion was valid, however, he believed the firm, as well as other venture capital firms of Silicon Valley, had been wrongly accused of intentionally discriminating against women and people of color. When asked specifically about the critique of ethnic and gender diversity in Silicon Valley, Andreessen responded that the issues were the "same thing."Investments
Begun with an

masks: Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen


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 initial capitalization of $300 million, within three years the firm grew to $2.7 billion under management across three funds. <mask> Horowitz's portfolio holdings include Facebook, Foursquare, GitHub, Pinterest, Twitter, and Honor, Inc.

On September 1, 2009, an investor group that included Andreessen Horowitz acquired a majority stake in Skype for $2.75 billion, which was considered risky. The deal paid off in May 2011 when Microsoft bought Skype for $8.5 billion. In 2010, the firm assisted Silicon Valley attorney Ted Wang in creating the first free standardized seed round financing documents, the Series Seed Documents. <mask> first joined the eBay board of directors in 2008, and served on it for six years. In October 2014, <mask> announced his resignation from the board due to the company's decision to break off its online payments unit PayPal. The decision to cut ties with PayPal was a point of contention between Andreessen and investor Carl Icahn.Icahn advocated for the PayPal split while <mask> opposed the spin off, resulting in public disputes. <mask> was accused by Icahn of putting his own interests in front of what was best for shareholders. Icahn published his argument in an open letter that detailed alleged conflicts of interest in eBay's 2009 sale of Skype to a group of private investors, which included <mask>'s own firm. Industry influence
Andreessen advises the leaders of companies in which <mask> Horowitz invests, including Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook and Mark Pincus of Zynga. <mask> and Horowitz were ranked No. 6 on Vanity Fairs 2011 New Establishment List, no. 1 on CNET's 2011 most influential investors list and Nos.2 and 21, respectively, on the 2012 Forbes Midas List of Tech's Top Investors. In April 2012, <mask>en Horowitz General Partners Ben Horowitz, Peter Levine, Jeff Jordan, John O'Farrell, and Scott Weiss pledged to donate half of their lifetime incomes from venture capital to charitable organizations. In 2012, Andreessen was named in the Time 100, an annual list of the 100 most influential people in the

masks: Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen Andreessen Andreesseness