texts:
 Cicero describes visiting <mask>' tomb, which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder, which Archimedes had requested be placed on his tomb to represent his mathematical discoveries. Unlike his inventions, Archimedes' mathematical writings were little known in antiquity. Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him, but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until  by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople, while commentaries on the works of Archimedes by Eutocius in the 6th century opened them to wider readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance and again in the 17th century, while the discovery in 1906 of previously lost works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results. Biography

Archimedes was born c. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily, at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia. The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years before his death in 212 BC.In the Sand-Reckoner, <mask> gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing else is known. A biography of <mask> was written by his friend Heracleides, but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever married or had children, or if he ever visited Alexandria, Egypt, during his youth. From his surviving written works, it is clear

masks: Archimedes Archimedes Archimedes


type: original

texts: that he maintained collegiate relations with scholars based there, including his friend Conon of Samos and the head librarian Eratosthenes of Cyrene. The standard versions of <mask>' life were written long after his death by Greek and Roman historians. The earliest reference to Archimedes occurs in The Histories by Polybius ( 200–118 BC), written about 70 years after his death. It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person, and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city from the Romans.Polybius remarks how, during the Second Punic War, Syracuse switched allegiances from Rome to Carthage, resulting in a military campaign to take the city under the command of Marcus Claudius Marcellus and Appius Claudius Pulcher, which lasted from 213 to 212 BC. He notes that the Romans underestimated Syracuse's defenses, and mentions several machines Archimedes designed, including improved catapults, cranelike machines that could be swung around in an arc, and stone-throwers. Although the Romans ultimately captured the city, they suffered considerable losses due to Archimedes' inventiveness. Cicero (106–43 BC) mentions Archimedes in some of his works. While serving as a quaestor in Sicily, Cicero found what was presumed to be Archimedes' tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse, in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes. Cicero had the tomb cleaned up and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription. The tomb carried a sculpture illustrating Archimedes' favorite mathematical proof, that the volume and surface area of the


texts: sphere are two-thirds that of the cylinder including its bases.He also mentions that Marcellus brought to Rome two planetariums Archimedes built. The Roman historian Livy (59 BC–17 AD) retells Polybius' story of the capture of Syracuse and <mask>' role in it. Plutarch (45–119 AD) wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the ruler of Syracuse. He also provides at least two accounts on how Archimedes died after the city was taken. According to the most popular account, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet Marcellus, but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. This enraged the soldier, who killed Archimedes with his sword.Another story has Archimedes carrying mathematical instruments before being killed because a soldier thought they were valuable items. Marcellus was reportedly angered by Archimedes' death, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset (he called Archimedes "a geometrical Briareus") and had ordered that he should not be harmed. The last words attributed to Archimedes are "Do not disturb my circles" (Latin, "Noli turbare circulos meos"; Katharevousa Greek, "μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε"), a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. There is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in Plutarch's account. A similar quotation is found in the work of Valerius Maximus (fl. 30 AD), who wrote in Memorable Doings and Sayings, "" ("...


texts:
 but protecting the dust with his hands, said 'I beg of you, do not disturb this). Discoveries and inventions

Archimedes' principle

The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape.According to Vitruvius, a votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II of Syracuse, who had supplied the pure gold to be used; Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith. Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density. In Vitruvius' account, Archimedes noticed while taking a bath that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect could be used to determine the crown's volume. For practical purposes water is incompressible, so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced, the density of the crown could be obtained. This density would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added. Archimedes then took to the streets naked, so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress, crying "Eureka!"(, heúrēka!, ). The test on the crown was conducted successfully, proving that silver had indeed been mixed in. The story of the golden crown does not appear anywhere in Archimedes' known works. The practicality of the method it describes has been called into question due to the extreme accuracy that


texts:
 would be required while measuring the water displacement. Archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the principle known in hydrostatics as Archimedes' principle, which he describes in his treatise On Floating Bodies. This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. Using this principle, it would have been possible to compare the density of the crown to that of pure gold by balancing the crown on a scale with a pure gold reference sample of the same weight, then immersing the apparatus in water.The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly. Galileo Galilei, who in 1586 invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in air and water inspired by the work of Archimedes, considered it "probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself." Archimedes' screw

A large part of Archimedes' work in engineering probably arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse. The Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis described how King Hiero II commissioned Archimedes to design a huge ship, the Syracusia, which could be used for luxury travel, carrying supplies, and as a naval warship. The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity. According to Athenaeus, it was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations, a gymnasium and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities. Since a ship of this size


texts:
 would leak a considerable amount of water through the hull, Archimedes' screw was purportedly developed in order to remove the bilge water.Archimedes' machine was a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder. It was turned by hand, and could also be used to transfer water from a  body of water into irrigation canals. Archimedes' screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain. Described in Roman times by Vitruvius, Archimedes' screw may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The world's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS Archimedes, which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on the screw. Claw of Archimedes
The Claw of Archimedes is a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of Syracuse. Also known as "the ship shaker", the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended.When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. There have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw, and in 2005 a television documentary entitled Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device. Heat ray

Archimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse. The 2nd-century author Lucian wrote that during the siege of Syracuse (c. 214–212 BC), Archimedes destroyed enemy ships


texts:
 with fire. Centuries later, Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning-glasses as Archimedes' weapon. The device, sometimes called the "Archimedes heat ray", was used to focus sunlight onto approaching ships, causing them to catch fire. In the modern era, similar devices have been constructed and may be referred to as a heliostat or solar furnace.This purported weapon has been the subject of an ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance. René Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes. It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship. Lever
While Archimedes did not invent the lever, he gave a mathematical proof of the principle involved in his work On the Equilibrium of Planes. Earlier descriptions of the lever are found in the Peripatetic school of the followers of Aristotle, and are sometimes attributed to Archytas. There are several, often conflicting, reports regarding Archimedes' feats using the lever to lift very heavy objects. Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block-and-tackle pulley systems, allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move.According to Pappus of Alexandria, Archimedes' work on levers caused him to remark: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth" (). Olympiodorus later attributed the same boast to Archimedes' invention of the baroulkos, a kind of windlass,


texts:
 rather than the lever. Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled. Astronomical instruments
Archimedes discusses astronomical measurements of the Earth, Sun, and Moon, as well as Aristarchus' heliocentric model of the universe, in the Sand-Reckoner. Despite a lack of trigonometry and a table of chords, Archimedes describes the procedure and instrument used to make observations (a straight rod with pegs or grooves), applies correction factors to these measurements, and finally gives the result in the form of upper and lower bounds to account for observational error. Ptolemy, quoting Hipparchus, also references Archimedes' solstice observations in the Almagest.This would make <mask> the first known Greek to have recorded multiple solstice dates and times in successive years. Cicero mentions Archimedes briefly in his dialogue De re publica, which portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC. After the capture of Syracuse c. 212 BC, General Marcus Claudius Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms, constructed by Archimedes and used as aids in astronomy, that showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. Cicero mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus. The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse, and donated the other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome.


texts:
 Marcellus' mechanism was demonstrated, according to Cicero, by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus, who described it thus:

This is a description of a planetarium or orrery. Pappus of Alexandria stated that Archimedes had written a manuscript (now lost) on the construction of these mechanisms entitled On Sphere-Making.Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism, another device built  BC that was probably designed for the same purpose. Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing. This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times, but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks. Mathematics
While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices, Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics. Plutarch wrote that Archimedes "placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life", though some scholars believe this may be a mischaracterization. Method of exhaustion

Archimedes was able to use indivisibles (a precursor to infinitesimals) in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus. Through proof by contradiction (reductio ad absurdum), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay.This technique is known as the method of exhaustion, and he employed it to approximate the areas of figures and the value


texts:
 of π. In Measurement of a Circle, he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle then a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon, calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step. As the number of sides increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. After four such steps, when the polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 3 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 (approx. 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416. He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle ().Archimedean property
In On the Sphere and Cylinder, Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude. Today this is known as the Archimedean property of real numbers. Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between  (approximately 1.7320261) and  (approximately 1.7320512) in Measurement of a Circle. The actual value is approximately 1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it. This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was: "as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results." It is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these values.The infinite series


texts:
In Quadrature of the Parabola, Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is  times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio :

If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines, and whose third vertex is where the line that is parallel to the parabola's axis and that passes through the midpoint of the base intersects the parabola, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the series  which sums to . Myriad of myriads
In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe could contain. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted. He wrote:There are some, King Gelo (Gelo II, son of Hiero II), who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited.To solve the problem, Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad. The word itself derives from the Greek , for the number 10,000.He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million, i.e., 10,000 x 10,000) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion, or 8. Writings

The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek,


texts:
 the dialect of ancient Syracuse. The written work of Archimedes has not survived as well as that of Euclid, and seven of his treatises are known to have existed only through references made to them by other authors. Pappus of Alexandria mentions On Sphere-Making and another work on polyhedra, while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the  Catoptrica. Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in Alexandria. The writings of Archimedes were first collected by the Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus (c. 530 AD), while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD helped to bring his work a wider audience. Archimedes' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra (836–901 AD), and into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187 AD) and William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286 AD).During the Renaissance, the Editio princeps (First Edition) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin. Surviving works
The following are ordered chronologically based on new terminological and historical criteria set by Knorr (1978) and Sato (1986). Measurement of a Circle

This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium, who was a student of Conon of Samos. In Proposition II, Archimedes gives an approximation of the value of pi (), showing that it is greater than  and less than . The Sand Reckoner

In this treatise, also known as Psammites, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand that will


texts:
 fit inside the universe. This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos, as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies.By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad, Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 in modern notation. The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father was an astronomer named Phidias. The Sand Reckoner is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy. Quadrature of the Parabola

In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He achieves this by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio . On the Equilibrium of Planes

There are two books to On the Equilibrium of Planes: the first contains seven postulates and fifteen propositions, while the second book contains ten propositions. In the first work, Archimedes proves the Law of the lever, which states that:

Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles, parallelograms and parabolas.On the Sphere and Cylinder

In this two-volume treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter. The volume is 3


texts:
 for the sphere, and 23 for the cylinder. The surface area is 42 for the sphere, and 62 for the cylinder (including its two bases), where  is the radius of the sphere and cylinder. The sphere has a volume  that of the circumscribed cylinder. Similarly, the sphere has an area   that of the cylinder (including the bases). On Spirals

This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral.It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity. Equivalently, in polar coordinates (, ) it can be described by the equation   with real numbers  and . This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a moving point) considered by a Greek mathematician. On Conoids and Spheroids

This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus. In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres, and paraboloids. On Floating Bodies

In the first part of this two-volume treatise, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity. This may have been an attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the Earth is round.The fluids described by Archimedes are not  since he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape. In the second part, he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of


texts:
 paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, similar to the way that icebergs float. Archimedes' principle of buoyancy is given in the work, stated as follows:Any body wholly or partially immersed in fluid experiences an upthrust equal to, but opposite in sense to, the weight of the fluid displaced. Ostomachion

Also known as Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes' Box, this is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram, and the treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square.Research published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford University in 2003 argued that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17,152 ways. The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection have been excluded. The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics. The origin of the puzzle's name is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient Greek word for 'throat' or 'gullet', stomachos (). Ausonius refers to the puzzle as , a Greek compound word formed from the roots of  () and  (). The cattle problem

This work was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript consisting of a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Germany in 1773.It is addressed to


texts:
 Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations. There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be square numbers. This version of the problem was first solved by A. Amthor in 1880, and the answer is a very large number, approximately 7.760271. The Method of Mechanical Theorems

This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906. In this work Archimedes uses indivisibles, and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes may have considered this method lacking in formal rigor, so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results.As with The Cattle Problem, The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes in Alexandria. Apocryphal works
Archimedes' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the nature of circles. The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic. The scholars T. L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form, since it quotes Archimedes, suggesting modification by another author. The Lemmas may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost. It has also been claimed that Heron's formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to Archimedes. The earliest reliable reference to the formula is


texts:
 given by Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD.Archimedes Palimpsest

The foremost document containing the work of Archimedes is the Archimedes Palimpsest. In 1906, the Danish professor Johan Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople to examined a 174-page goatskin parchment of prayers, written in the 13th century AD, after reading a short transcription published seven years earlier by Papadopoulos-Kerameus. He confirmed that it was indeed a palimpsest, a document with text that had been written over an erased older work. Palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them, which was a common practice in the Middle Ages as vellum was expensive. The older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th century AD copies of previously lost treatises by Archimedes. The parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s. On 29 October 1998, it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $2 million at Christie's in New York.The palimpsest holds seven treatises, including the only surviving copy of On Floating Bodies in the original Greek. It is the only known source of The Method of Mechanical Theorems, referred to by Suidas and thought to have been lost forever. Stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest, with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts. The palimpsest was stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, where it was subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and  light to read the overwritten text.


texts:
 It has since returned to its anonymous owner. The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest include:
 On the Equilibrium of Planes
 On Spirals
 Measurement of a Circle
 On the Sphere and Cylinder
 On Floating Bodies
 The Method of Mechanical Theorems
 Stomachion
 Speeches by the 4th century BC politician Hypereides
 A commentary on Aristotle's Categories
 Other works

Legacy

Sometimes referred to as the father of mathematics and mathematical physics, Archimedes had a wide influence on mathematics and science. Mathematics and physics

Historians of science and mathematics almost universally agree that Archimedes was the finest mathematician from antiquity.Eric Temple Bell, for instance, wrote:

Likewise, Alfred North Whitehead and George F. Simmons  said of Archimedes:

Reviel Netz, Suppes Professor in Greek Mathematics and Astronomy at Stanford University and an expert in Archimedes notes:

Leonardo da Vinci repeatedly expressed admiration for Archimedes, and attributed his invention Architonnerre to Archimedes. Galileo referred to him as a "superhuman" and as "my master", while Huygens remarked "I think Archimedes is comparable to no one" and modeled his work after him. Leibniz said "He who understands Archimedes and Apollonius will admire less the achievements of the foremost men of later times." Gauss' heroes were <mask> and Newton, and Moritz Cantor, who studied under him in the University of Göttingen, reported that he once remarked in conversation that “there had been only three epoch-making mathematicians: Archimedes, Newton, and Eisenstein." The inventor Nikola Tesla praised him, saying:

Attempts


texts:
 at reconstruction

In a 12th-century text titled Mappae clavicula there are instructions on how to perform the weighings in the water in order to calculate the percentage of silver used, and to solve the problem. The Latin poem Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris of the 4th or 5th century describes the use of a hydrostatic balance to solve the problem of the crown, and attributes the method to Archimedes. A test of the Archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973 by the Greek scientist Ioannis Sakkas.The experiment took place at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens. On this occasion 70 mirrors were used, each with a copper coating and a size of around . The mirrors were pointed at a plywood  of a Roman warship at a distance of around . When the mirrors were focused accurately, the ship burst into flames within a few seconds. The plywood ship had a coating of tar paint, which may have aided combustion. A coating of tar would have been commonplace on ships in the classical era. In October 2005 a group of students from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology carried out an experiment with 127 one-foot (30 cm) square mirror tiles, focused on a  wooden ship at a range of around .Flames broke out on a patch of the ship, but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes. It was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these conditions. The MIT group repeated the experiment for the television show MythBusters, using a wooden fishing boat in San Francisco as the target. Again some charring occurred, along with a small amount of flame. In order to


texts:
 catch fire, wood needs to reach its autoignition temperature, which is around . When MythBusters broadcast the result of the San Francisco experiment in January 2006, the claim was placed in the category of "busted" (i.e. failed) because of the length of time and the ideal weather conditions required for combustion to occur.It was also pointed out that since Syracuse faces the sea towards the east, the Roman fleet would have had to attack during the morning for optimal gathering of light by the mirrors. MythBusters also pointed out that conventional weaponry, such as flaming arrows or bolts from a catapult, would have been a far easier way of setting a ship on fire at short distances. In December 2010, MythBusters again looked at the heat ray story in a special edition entitled "President's Challenge". Several experiments were carried out, including a large scale test with 500 schoolchildren aiming mirrors at a  of a Roman sailing ship  away. In all of the experiments, the sail failed to reach the  required to catch fire, and the verdict was again "busted". The show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been blinding, dazzling, or distracting the crew of the ship. Honors and commemorations

There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes () in his honor, as well as a lunar mountain range, the Montes Archimedes ().The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of <mask>, along with a carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder. The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to 1st century AD poet Manilius, which


texts:
 reads in Latin: Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri ("Rise above oneself and grasp the world"). <mask> has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Germany (1973), Greece (1983), Italy (1983), Nicaragua (1971), San Marino (1982), and Spain (1963). The exclamation of Eureka! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California. In this instance, the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California Gold Rush. See also

Concepts
 Arbelos
 Archimedean point
 Archimedes' axiom
 Archimedes number
 Archimedes paradox
 Archimedean solid
 Archimedes' twin circles
 Methods of computing square roots
 Salinon
 Steam cannon
 Trammel of Archimedes

People
 Diocles
 Pseudo-Archimedes
 Zhang Heng

References

Notes

Citations

Further reading

Boyer, Carl Benjamin.1991. A History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley. .
Clagett, Marshall. 1964–1984. Archimedes in the Middle Ages 1–5. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Dijksterhuis, Eduard J.[1938] 1987. Archimedes, translated. Princeton: Princeton University Press. .
Gow, Mary. 2005. Archimedes: Mathematical Genius of the Ancient World. Enslow Publishing. .
Hasan, Heather. 2005.Archimedes: The Father of Mathematics. Rosen Central. .
Heath, Thomas L. 1897. Works of Archimedes. Dover Publications. . Complete works of Archimedes in English. Netz, Reviel, and William Noel. 2007.The Archimedes Codex. Orion Publishing Group. .
Pickover, Clifford A. 2008. Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them. Oxford University Press. .
Simms, Dennis L. 1995. Archimedes the Engineer. Continuum International


texts:
 Publishing Group. .
Stein, Sherman.1999. Archimedes: What Did He Do Besides Cry Eureka?. Mathematical Association of America. . External links

Heiberg's Edition of Archimedes. Texts in Classical Greek, with some in English. The Archimedes Palimpsest project at The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland

 Testing the Archimedes steam cannon

3rd-century BC Greek people
3rd-century BC writers
People from Syracuse, Sicily
Ancient Greek engineers
Ancient Greek inventors
Ancient Greek mathematicians
Ancient Greek physicists
Hellenistic-era philosophers
Doric Greek writers
Sicilian Greeks
Mathematicians from Sicily
Scientists from Sicily
Geometers
Ancient Greeks who were murdered
Ancient Syracusans
Fluid dynamicists
Buoyancy
280s BC births
210s BC deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
3rd-century BC


texts:
<mask> (; 26 November 1928 – 22 January 2017)  was a Russian author, historian and polemicist, born in Moscow and father of poet Andrei Navrozov. A leading translator of Russian texts into English under the Soviet regime, Navrozov emigrated to the United States in 1972, where he published a best-selling memoir, The Education of <mask>v, and became a prominent Russian dissident. Biography

Early life
Navrozov was born to playwright <mask> (after whom his son was named), a founding member of the Soviet Writers' Union, who volunteered in World War II and was killed in action in 1941. After completing the course at Moscow Power Engineering Institute, did not take the degree, switching to the exclusive Referent Faculty of the Moscow Institute of Foreign Languages, a faculty created by Joseph Stalin's personal order to produce a new generation of experts with a superior knowledge of Western languages and cultures. On graduation in 1953 was offered a "promising position" at the Soviet Embassy in London, with the attendant obligation to join the Communist Party. Declined both offers, and thenceforth refused all government posts or academic affiliations as a matter of principle. Regarded as a unique expert on the English-speaking countries, but only ever worked as a freelance.Position as translator
<mask> was the first, and to date the last, inhabitant of Russia to translate for publication works of literature from his native tongue into a foreign language, including those by Dostoevsky, Hertzen and Prishvin, as well as philosophy and fundamental science in 72 fields. In 1965, still freelance but now exploiting what amounted to his virtual monopoly over English translations for publication, acquired a country house in Vnukovo, sixteen miles from Moscow, in a

masks:
Lev Navrozov
Lev Navrozo
Andrei Navrozov
Navrozov


texts:
 privileged settlement where such Soviet nabobs as Andrei Gromyko, then Foreign Minister, and former Politburo member Panteleimon Ponomarenko had their country houses. Dissident historian
In 1953 he began his clandestine documented study of the history of the Soviet regime, working on a cycle of books in the hope of smuggling the manuscript abroad. During this period he published translations only, publishing no original work in view of the unacceptable limits imposed by censorship. In 1972 he emigrated to the United States  with wife and son, after receiving a special invitation from the U.S. State Department arranged through the intercession of several politically influential American friends. During 1972-1980 he contributed articles to Commentary, including the scandalous 1978 publication of the articles "What the CIA Knows About Russia," which Admiral Stansfield Turner publicly admitted he was unable to rebut, and "Notes on American Innocence," which resulted in an unsuccessful $3 million action for defamation brought against the author by the former Prime Minister of Israel Golda Meir. The Education of <mask>v
In 1975, Harper & Row published the first volume of his study of the Soviet regime from within, The Education of <mask>v.The book recounts the contemporary effects of Joseph Stalin's public relations campaign in the aftermath of the assassination of rival Sergei Kirov. "It bids fair to take its place beside the works of Laurence Sterne and Henry Adams," wrote the American philosopher Sidney Hook, "... but it is far richer in scope and more gripping in content." Eugene Lyons, author of the pioneering 1937 work Assignment in Utopia, described the book as "uniquely revealing," while Robert Massie, author of Nicholas and Alexandra, wrote of the

masks:
Lev Navrozo
Lev Navrozo


texts:
 author's "individual genius." Saul Bellow, the Nobel Prize–winning novelist, responded to The Education by using Navrozov as the model for a modern Russian dissident thinker in two of his books, thereby beginning a lively correspondence that continued until the American novelist's death. In particular, the narrator of More Die of Heartbreak describes Navrozov, along with Sinyavsky, Vladimir Maximov and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, as one of his epoch's "commanding figures" and "men of genius." Later life
After 1975, Navrozov published several thousand magazine articles and newspaper columns, which, however diverse the subjects drawing his attention and commentary, have a common theme, namely the incapacity of the West to survive in the present era of increasingly sophisticated totalitarianism. He was the founder, in 1979, of the Center for the Survival of Western Democracies, a non-profit educational organisation whose original Advisory Board brought together Saul Bellow, Malcolm Muggeridge, Dr. Edward Teller, Lt. Gen. Daniel O. Graham, the Hon.Clare Boothe Luce, Mihajlo Mihajlov, Sen. Jesse Helms, and Eugène Ionesco. Later work
Navrozov was concerned with the possibility that China is developing deadly weapons based on nanotechnology. He often cites Eric Drexler as the inspiration for this interest. As early as 2003, Canadian science writer George Dvorsky, chairman of the board of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, noted that "<mask>, the Russian weapons expert who believes that China will eventually try to take over the world using nanoweapons, is declaring K. Eric Drexler to be the Einstein of nanotechnology. Specifically, Navrozov is comparing Einstein's famous warning to President Roosevelt about the viability of atomic weapons to


texts:
 Drexler's 1986 book, Engines of Creation, where he warns about the possibility of the development of nanoweapons. Navrozov is concerned, however, that Drexler is not being taken seriously by the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), an organization that Navrozov compares to the Manhattan Project. But as Navrozov notes, the irony in all this is that the NNI has denied the military
aspects of nanotechnology.'Imagine,' says Navrozov, 'the U.S. Manhattan Project policy of tacit denial of the military importance of nuclear power, the implication being that the Manhattan Project, with all the money allocated for it, should concentrate on the development of nuclear power as fuel.' Disturbingly, while the Chinese have been startlingly open about the potential military uses of
molecular assemblers, Navrozov notes that 'the current government-NNI policy completely excludes research involved in molecular nano assemblers because of the false non-feasibility argument as put forward by Richard Smalley with peremptory categorical zeal.' Ultimately, as the debate between Drexler and Smalley rages, Navrozov sees no harm in assuming that Drexler is right, that we should err on the side of caution. 'Now, let us conjecture, for the sake of argument, the opposite,' argues Navrozov, 'What would be the danger? That the
West, including Dr. Smalley and his carbon nanotubes, would be reduced to dust or would surrender unconditionally to become a vast Hong Kong.'" He died on 22 January 2017 at the age of 88. Notes

External links
 Columns by <mask>v at WorldTribune.com
 Biography at the Lifeboat Foundation
 Interview with Navrozov at Worldthreats.com

1928 births
2017 deaths
Soviet dissidents
Soviet emigrants to the United States
Soviet historians
20th-century


texts:
<mask> (born in 1976, Toledo, Ohio) is an American contemporary artist working primarily in drawing, painting, and sculpture. <mask> lives and works in Berkeley California. <mask> holds a B.F.A. in Painting from Cleveland Institute of Art, (1999) and an M.F.A. in Painting and Drawing from the California College of the Arts (2001). Work and Themes
Through painting, drawing and sculptural installation, <mask> work explores the course of her personal history and broader cultural contexts, examining the intersection of feminism, LGBTQ+ identity, politics, consumerism, notions of value, and desire. <mask>'s sculptural representations are life sized re-creations of objects which she makes from paper, hot glue, and acrylic paint.In some exhibitions she arranges her sculptures of domestic objects, books, magazines, handbags, and shoes into still life arrangements, creating installations blending the real and the imaginary. Her two-dimensional paintings and drawings are based on imagery gathered from various sources such as fashion magazines, newspapers, and books. Exhibitions

Solo
2001 “The Best of the Best,” a.o.v., San Francisco, CA. 2003 “Louis Vuitton,” Manolo Garcia Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 2003 “BENZ,” San Francisco Arts Commission, San Francisco, CA. 2005 “Caught Up In The Moment,” Heather Marx Gallery, San Francisco, CA. 2007 “The Past is Never Where You Think You Left It,” Heather Marx Gallery, San Francisco, CA.2008 “In Between Things,” University of Georgia, Broad Street Gallery, Athens, GA.
2009 “Timeless,” Charlie James Gallery, Los

masks:
Libby Black
Black
Education Black
Blacks
Black


texts:
 Angeles, CA. 2010 “Be Here Now,” Marx & Zavattero, San Francisco, CA. 2010 “If Nothing Else Matters,” PEEL, Houston, TX. 2010 “Work Out,” San Jose Institute of Contemporary Art, San Jose, CA. 2012 “Nothing Lasts Forever,” Marx & Zavattero, San Francisco, CA
2015 “There's No Place Like Home,” Joshua Liner Gallery, New York, NY
2016 “A Light That Never Goes Out,” Gallery 16, San Francisco, CA
2018 “Little Girl Blue,” Guerrero Gallery, San Francisco, CA

Group
2001: “Memory and History of Place,” Euphart Museum of Art, Los Altos, CA. 2001: “Belief System,” The Luggage Store, San Francisco, CA. 2002: “Openings,” San Francisco Arts Commission, San Francisco, CA.2002: “Rolex,” Musee D'Honneur Minuscule, New Langton Arts, San Francisco, CA. 2004: “2004 California Biennial,” Orange County Museum of Art, Newport Beach, CA. 2004: “The Hunt: Ritual and Narrative,” Sun Valley Center for the Arts, Sun Valley, ID. 2005: “Bay Area Now 4,” Yerba Buena Center for the Arts, San Francisco, CA. 2005: “The Superfly Effect,” Jersey City Museum, Jersey City, NJ. 2005: “The Real World,” Kala Institute Gallery, Berkeley, CA. 2006: “Strictly Graphite,” College of Marin Art Gallery, Kentfield, CA.2006: “Smoke and Mirrors: Deception in Contemporary Art,” Visual Arts Gallery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
2007: “GRAPHIC: New Bay Area Drawing,” di Rosa Preserve, Napa, CA. 2007: “Artist of Invention: A Century of CCA,” Oakland Museum of California, Oakland, CA. 2008: “Art on Paper 2008,” Weatherspoon Art Museum, Greensboro, NC. 2009: “Tigersprung:


texts:
 Obscure Couture,” The McKinney Avenue Contemporary, Dallas, TX. 2010: “New Art for a New Century: Contemporary Acquisitions 2000-2010,” Orange County Museum of Art, Newport Beach, CA. 2011: “New Image Sculpture,” McNay Art Museum, San Antonio, TX. 2011: “Queer States,” Visual Arts Center, University of Texas, Austin, TX.2012: “Simulacrum,” Columbus College of Art and Design, Columbus, OH. 2013: “Faux Real,” Laguna Art Museum, Laguna Beach, CA. 2014:“The Stuff of Legends,” Grey Matter, Dallas, TX. 2014: “Pencils Down,” Palo Alto Art Center, Palo Alto, CA. 2015: “Misappropriations: New Acquisitions,” Orange County Museum of Art, Newport Beach, CA. 2016: “Quiet Please: The Mental Game of Art and Tennis,” Berkeley Art Center, Berkeley, CA. 2017: “Sanctuary City: With Liberty and Justice for Some,” San Francisco Arts Commission, San Francisco, CA.2017: “With Liberty and Justice for Some,” Berkeley Art Center, Berkeley, CA. 2017: “Detritus,” San Jose Institute of Contemporary Art, San Jose, CA. 2017: “Pulped Fictions,” The Torrance Museum, Torrance, CA. 2018: “California Love,” Galerie Droste, Wuppertal, Germany. 2018: “Vanity of Earthly Achievements,” Orth Contemporary, Tulsa, OK.
2018: “Superset,” Fused, San Francisco CA. 2018: “Art Is Where The Heart Is,” Galerie LJ, Paris, France. 2019: “Closer Look: Intimate-Scale Sculpture from the Permanent Collection,” Orange County Museum of Art, Santa Ana, CA.2019: EPOCH: <mask>, Josephine Taylor, and Taravat Talepasand, Gallery 16, San Francisco, CA. Publications

Publications with contributions by


texts:
 Black
2004 California Biennial. New Port Beach: Orange County Museum of Art, 2005. Bay Area Now 4. San Francisco: Yerba Buena Center for the Arts, 2006, pages 16–17. Deluxe: How Luxury Lost Its Luster, by Dana Thomas. London: penguin press, 2007, page 170.Artist of Invention: A Century of CCA, San Francisco: California College of the Arts, 2007. New Image Sculpture, by Eleanor Heartney, and Rene Paul Barilleaux. San Antonio: McNay Art Museum, 2011, pages 32–39. Beautiful Decay, Book 9: The Seven Deadly Sins, by Amir H Fallah. Los Angeles: Beautiful/Decay, 2012. One Painting a Day,by Timothy Callaghan. Beverly: Quarry Books, 2013.Boxed: A Visual History and the Art of Boxing, by Franklin Sirmans. New York: Damiani/Paul Kasmin Gallery, 2014, pages 64–65. Quiet Please: The Mental Game of Art and Tennis, by By Ann Trinca. Berkeley: Berkeley Art Center, 2016, pages 1–20. Much Love and Respect. San Francisco: Gallery 16, 2019. Find Your Artistic Voice, by Lisa Congdon.San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2019, pages 86–91

Collections
<mask>'s work is held in the following public and private collections:
Oakland Museum of California, Oakland, CA. Orange County Museum of Art, Newport Beach, CA. Pier 24 Photography, San Francisco, CA. The West Collection, Philadelphia, PA. Awards
2020 Marcus Early Career Research Award

References

1976 births
Living people
20th-century American artists
21st-century American artists
People from Berkeley, California
California College of the Arts alumni
20th-century American women artists
21st-century American women


texts:
<mask> (17 January 1918 – 11 February 1993), popularly known as <mask>, was an Indian film director and screenwriter. He was also an Urdu and Hindi poet. His Hindi films include Mahal (1949), Pakeezah (1972) and Razia Sultan (1983). He established Kamal Pictures (Mahal Films) in 1953 and Kamalistan Studio in Bombay in 1958. Early life
<mask> was born in Amroha, United Provinces in British India (present-day Uttar Pradesh) and later took on the name <mask> (or Amrohvi). He was a first cousin to Pakistani writers Jaun Elia and Rais Amrohvi. Career
In 1938, he left Amroha to study in Lahore, now part of Pakistan, where singer K. L. Saigal discovered him and took him to Mumbai (Bombay) to work for Sohrab Modi's Minerva Movietone film company, where he started his career working on films like Jailor (1938), Pukar (1939), Bharosa (1940), A. R. Kardar's film (Shahjehan 1946).He made his debut as a director in 1949, with Mahal, starring Madhubala and Ashok Kumar, which was a musical hit, with songs by Lata Mangeshkar and Rajkumari Dubey. He directed only four films; of these were Mahal (1949) for Bombay Talkies, Daaera (1953) with Meena Kumari and Nasir Khan, Pakeezah, which was conceived in 1958 but was not brought to the screen until 1972. He also wrote the screenplay, lyrics and produced the latter. Film Pakeezah (1972) has been called one of the extraordinary musical melodramas ever made in India, although flawed but noble. Meena Kumari herself, in her public comments to the press, after seeing the movie, said that it was <mask>'s tribute to her. This was followed by Razia Sultan (1983), his last film. Though, he started a film, Majnoon with Rajesh Khanna and Rakhee Gulzar as leads, however the film got shelved.He wrote scripts for the movies made by Sohrab Modi, Abdul Rashid Kardar and K. Asif. He was one of the four dialogue writers for the latter's famous 1960 movie, Mughal-e-Azam, for which he won the

masks:
Syed Amir Haider Kamal Naqvi
Kamal Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi


texts:
 Filmfare Award. As a director, he developed a style that combined a stylised direction with minimalist performances. This style was different from the one with expressive acting that was common in Indian cinema of his period. In 1958, he started Kamaal Studios for his banner Mahal Films, though it closed down after three years and later changed hands to become Natraj Studios. It was mentioned that the last movie he wanted to make was called Aakhri Mughal. He had written a substantial portion of the script.But it went into oblivion after his death. Noted film maker J P Dutta was to revive the film in the late 1990s which was supposed to have been Abhishekh Bachchan's debut movie. But later Dutta scrapped the project. He was again planning to revive the film in 2007 after the debacle of his costume drama Umrao Jaan (2006) remake from the cult film from the 1980s. Personal life
<mask> married four times: His first wife was Bilkis Bano (who was a maid to Nargis's mother, Jaddan Bai). After her passing away, he married Sayeda Al-Zehra Mehmoodi, daughter of Jamal Hasan. She died on 9 April 1982.He met Meena Kumari during the filming of Tamasha. Veteran actor Ashok Kumar introduced them. They fell in love and married on 14 February 1952, on Valentine's Day in a much private ceremony. Only <mask>'s friend Baaqar Ali and Meena Kumari's younger sister Madhu were aware of this development. The couple then made Daera (1953 film), a film based on their love story, however the movie tanked at the box office. During the filming of Azaad in 1954, both of them planned another movie, Pakeezah. The film went on studio floors by 1956, but as the craze of colour films increased, particularly after the release of Mother India (1957), the black & white scenes were re-shot to colour sequences.After the release of Guru Dutt's classic Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959 film) which marked the arrival of Cinemascope technique, the film was again

masks: Amrohi Amrohi


texts:
 shot, this time in Cinemascope. By the 1960s, Meena Kumari was at the peak of her career which caused tensions between the couple and ultimately led to a mutual separation in March 1964. Film Pakeezah got shelved. In March 1969, the film was revived with an ill Meena Kumari, (due to her alcoholism) in the lead. They lived together for a total of 11 years. Raaj Kumar was roped in, as by that time, Ashok Kumar- the original lead was too old to portray the hero of the film. Pakeezah was released on 4 February 1972, 14 years after it first began.Unfortunately, it received a lukewarm response from the critics. Although the film received warm reception from the audience, it was Meena Kumari's untimely death on 31 March 1972 which acted as an ultimate push and made it one of the top grossers of that year. The film is now considered as a cult classic and has a status much similar to K. Asif's 1960 magnum opus, Mughal-E-Azam. <mask> got married for the fourth time with his physician. During his last years, he used to regularly visit the hospital for minor ailments. There he met his fourth wife, who was actually his doctor. After the death of Mehmoodi in 1982, <mask> felt lonely and in order to avoid being a burden on his children, he decided to get married, drawing sharp reactions from the media.<mask> had three children with Mehmoodie: two sons, Shandaar and Taajdaar, both of whom worked with him in Razia Sultan, and a daughter, Rukhsar <mask>. He had no children with Bilkis Bano, Meena Kumari and his fourth wife. Shandaar died on 21 August 2011 in Goa. He was survived by his wives, Shahida <mask> and Khursheed Naqvi <mask>. He was laid to rest in Mumbai the following day. <mask>'s grandsons Mashhoor <mask> and Bilal <mask> are also actors. Kamal Amrohi Studios
Kamal Amrohi Studios (Kamalistan Studios) was established in 1958, spread over 15 acre, it is situated in Jogeshwari East, off Jogeshwari – Vikhroli Link

masks:
Kamal Amrohi
Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi
Amrohi
Amrohi
Amrohi
Amrohi
Amrohi
Amrohi


texts:
 Road in Mumbai.It continues to run, managed by <mask>'s son, Tajdar <mask>; despite 2010 news reports of it being sold, and continued litigation thereafter. Over the years, it has been venues of films like Razia Sultan (1983) <mask>'s last film as a director, Amar Akbar Anthony (1977) and Kaalia (1981),  Khalnayak (1993), Koyla (1997), and recently the first schedule of film, Dabangg 2 was shot there in 2012, apart from the television shows are also shot at the complex. Death and legacy

<mask> died on 11 February 1993 in Mumbai, twenty one years after his wife Meena Kumari's death  and ten years after making his last film, Razia Sultan (1983). He was buried next to Meena Kumari in Rehmatabad Qabristan, an Indian-Iranian graveyard in Mumbai. <mask>'s only daughter from his second wife, Mehmoodie, Rukhsaar <mask> gave a newspaper interview describing her version of life-events, which she witnessed, between her father <mask> and Meena Kumari. In February 2022, Music label Saregama and actor Bilal <mask> (grandson of <mask>) announced a web series on the love story of <mask> and Meena Kumari against the backdrop of making of the film Pakeezah. The series which will be helmed by Yoodlee films is expected to go on floors in 2023.Filmography

Soundtrack
1998 Such a Long Journey (writer: "Thare Rahiyo")

Awards and recognition
 1961: Filmfare Award for Best Dialogue: Mughal-e-Azam (1960)
 1972: Nominated for Filmfare Award for Best Director for film Pakeezah (1972). References

External links

  website
 Filmography of <mask> on Complete Index To World Film (CITWF) website

1918 births
1993 deaths
Urdu-language film directors
Indian male screenwriters
Indian Shia Muslims
People from Amroha district
Hindi-language film directors
20th-century Indian film directors
Film directors from Uttar Pradesh
20th-century Indian screenwriters
Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh
20th-century Indian male

masks:
Amrohi
Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi
Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi
Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi
Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi
Amrohi
Kamal Amrohi


texts:
<mask> ( 1864 – January 5, 1943) was an American agricultural scientist and inventor who promoted alternative crops to cotton and methods to prevent soil depletion. He was the most prominent black scientist of the early 20th century. While a professor at Tuskegee Institute, <mask> developed techniques to improve soils depleted by repeated plantings of cotton. He wanted poor farmers to grow other crops, such as peanuts and sweet potatoes, as a source of their own food and to improve their quality of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts. Although he spent years developing and promoting numerous products made from peanuts, none became commercially successful. Apart from his work to improve the lives of farmers, <mask> was also a leader in promoting environmentalism.He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP. In an era of high racial polarization, his fame reached beyond the black community. He was widely recognized and praised in the white community for his many achievements and talents. In 1941, Time magazine dubbed <mask> a "Black Leonardo". Color film of <mask> shot in 1937 at the Tuskegee Institute by African American surgeon Allen Alexander was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 2019. The 12 minutes of footage includes <mask> in his apartment, office and laboratory, as well as images of him tending flowers and displaying his paintings. The film was digitized by The National Archives as part of its multi-year effort to preserve and make available the historically significant film collections of the National Park Service.Early years

<mask> was born into slavery, in

masks:
George Washington Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver


texts: Diamond Grove (now Diamond), Newton County, Missouri, near Crystal Place, sometime in the mid 1860s. The date of his birth is uncertain and was not known to <mask>; but it was before slavery was abolished in Missouri, which occurred in January 1865, during the American Civil War. His master, <mask>, was a German American immigrant, who had purchased <mask>'s parents, Mary and Giles, from William P. McGinnis on October 9, 1855, for $700. Giles died before <mask> was born and when he was a week old, he, his sister, and his mother were kidnapped by night raiders from Arkansas. <mask>'s brother, James, was rushed to safety from the kidnappers. The kidnappers sold the trio in Kentucky. <mask> hired John Bentley to find them, but he found only the infant <mask>.Moses negotiated with the raiders to gain the boy's return, and rewarded Bentley. After slavery was abolished, <mask> and his wife, Susan, raised <mask> and his older brother, James, as their own children. They encouraged <mask> to continue his intellectual pursuits, and "Aunt Susan" taught him the basics of reading and writing. Black people were not allowed at the public school in Diamond Grove. <mask> decided to go to a school for black children 10 miles (16 km) south, in Neosho. When he reached the town, he found the school closed for the night. He slept in a nearby barn.By his own account, the next morning he met a kind woman, Mariah Watkins, from whom he wished to rent a room. When he identified himself as "<mask>'s <mask>", as he had done his whole life, she replied that from now on his name was "<mask>". <mask> liked Mariah Watkins, and her words "You must learn all you can, then go back out into the world and give your learning back to the

masks:
Carver
Moses Carver
George
George
George
Moses Carver
George
Moses Carver
George
George
George
Carver
George
George Carver
George


texts:
 people" made a great impression on him. At age 13, because he wanted to attend the academy there, he moved to the home of another foster family, in Fort Scott, Kansas. After witnessing the killing of a black man by a group of whites, <mask> left the city. He attended a series of schools before earning his diploma at Minneapolis High School in Minneapolis, Kansas. During his time spent in Minneapolis there was another <mask> in town, which caused confusion over receiving mail.<mask> chose a middle initial at random, and began requesting letters to him be addressed to <mask><mask>. Someone once asked if the "W" stood for Washington, and <mask> grinned and said "Why not?" But he never used Washington as his middle name, and signed his name as either <mask><mask> or simply <mask>. College education

<mask> applied to several colleges before being accepted at Highland University in Highland, Kansas. When he arrived, however, they refused to let him attend because of his race. In August 1886, <mask> traveled by wagon with J. F. Beeler from Highland to Eden Township in Ness County, Kansas. He homesteaded a claim near Beeler, where he maintained a small conservatory of plants and flowers and a geological collection.He manually plowed  of the claim, planting rice, corn, Indian corn and garden produce, as well as various fruit trees, forest trees, and shrubbery. He also earned money by odd jobs in town and worked as a ranch hand. In early 1888, <mask> obtained a $300 loan at the Bank of Ness City for education. By June he left the area. In 1890, <mask> started studying art and piano at Simpson College in Indianola, Iowa. His art teacher, Etta Budd, recognized <mask>'s talent for painting flowers and plants; she

masks:
Carver
George Carver
Carver
George W
. Carver
Carver
George W
. Carver
George Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver


texts:
 encouraged him to study botany at Iowa State Agricultural College (now Iowa State University) in Ames. When he began there in 1891, he was the first black student at Iowa State.<mask>'s Bachelor's thesis for a degree in Agriculture was "Plants as Modified by Man", dated 1894. Iowa State University professors Joseph Budd and Louis Pammel convinced <mask> to continue there for his master's degree. <mask> did research at the Iowa Experiment Station under Pammel during the next two years. His work at the experiment station in plant pathology and mycology first gained him national recognition and respect as a botanist. <mask> received his Master of Science degree in 1896. <mask> taught as the first black faculty member at Iowa State. Despite occasionally being addressed as "doctor," <mask> never received an official doctorate, and in a personal communication with Pammel, he noted that it was a "misnomer", given to him by others due to his abilities and their assumptions about his education.With that said, both Simpson College and Selma University awarded him honorary doctorates of science in his lifetime. Iowa State later awarded him a doctorate of humane letters posthumously in 1994. Tuskegee Institute

In 1896, Booker T<mask>, the first principal and president of the  Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University), invited <mask> to head its Agriculture Department. <mask> taught there for 47 years, developing the department into a strong research center and working with two additional college presidents during his tenure. He taught methods of crop rotation, introduced several alternative cash crops for farmers that would also improve the soil of areas heavily cultivated in cotton, initiated research into

masks:
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
. Washington
Carver
Carver


texts: crop products (chemurgy), and taught generations of black students farming techniques for self-sufficiency. <mask> designed a mobile classroom to take education out to farmers. He called it a "Jesup wagon" after the New York financier and philanthropist Morris Ketchum Jesup, who provided funding to support the program.To recruit <mask> to Tuskegee, Washington gave him an above average salary and two rooms for his personal use, although both concessions were resented by some other faculty. Because he had earned a master's in a scientific field from a "white" institution, some faculty perceived him as arrogant. Unmarried faculty members normally had to share rooms, with two to a room, in the spartan early days of the institute. One of <mask>'s duties was to administer the Agricultural Experiment Station farms. He had to manage the production and sale of farm products to generate revenue for the institute. He soon proved to be a poor administrator. In 1900, <mask> complained that the physical work and the letter-writing required were too much.In 1904, an Institute committee reported that <mask>'s reports on yields from the poultry yard were exaggerated, and <mask> confronted <mask> about the issue. <mask> replied in writing, "Now to be branded as a liar and party to such hellish deception it is more than I can bear, and if your committee feel that I have willfully lied or [was] party to such lies as were told my resignation is at your disposal." During <mask>'s last five years at Tuskegee, <mask> submitted or threatened his resignation several times: when the administration reorganized the agriculture programs, when he disliked a teaching assignment, to manage an experiment station elsewhere, and when he

masks: Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Washington Carver Carver Washington Carver


texts:
 did not get summer teaching assignments in 1913–14. In each case, <mask> smoothed things over. <mask> started his academic career as a researcher and teacher. In 1911, <mask> wrote a letter to him complaining that <mask> had not followed orders to plant particular crops at the experiment station. This revealed Washington's micro-management of <mask>'s department, which he had headed for more than 10 years by then.<mask> at the same time refused <mask>'s requests for a new laboratory, research supplies for his exclusive use, and respite from teaching classes. <mask> praised <mask>'s abilities in teaching and original research but said about his administrative skills:

When it comes to the organization of classes, the ability required to secure a properly organized and large school or section of a school, you are wanting in ability. When it comes to the matter of practical farm managing which will secure definite, practical, financial results, you are wanting again in ability. In 1911, <mask> complained that his laboratory had not received the equipment which <mask> had promised 11 months before. He also complained about Institute committee meetings. <mask> praised <mask> in his 1911 memoir, My Larger Education: Being Chapters from My Experience. <mask> called <mask> "one of the most thoroughly scientific men of the Negro race with whom I am acquainted."After <mask> died in 1915, his successor made fewer demands on <mask> for administrative tasks. While a professor at Tuskegee, <mask> joined the Gamma Sigma chapter of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity. He spoke at the 1930 Conclave that was held at Tuskegee, Alabama, in which he delivered a powerful and emotional speech to the men in attendance. From 1915 to

masks: Washington Carver Washington Carver Carver Washington Carver Washington Carver Carver Washington Washington Carver Washington Carver Washington Carver Carver


texts:
 1923, <mask> concentrated on researching and experimenting with new uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes, soybeans, pecans, and other crops, as well as having his assistants research and compile existing uses. This work, and especially his speaking to a national conference of the Peanut Growers Association in 1920 and in testimony before Congress in 1921 to support passage of a tariff on imported peanuts, brought him wide publicity and increasing renown. In these years, he became one of the most well-known African Americans of his time. Rise to fame

<mask> developed techniques to improve soils depleted by repeated plantings of cotton.Together with other agricultural experts, he urged farmers to restore nitrogen to their soils by practicing systematic crop rotation: alternating cotton crops with plantings of sweet potatoes or legumes (such as peanuts, soybeans and cowpeas). These crops both restored nitrogen to the soil and were good for human consumption. Following the crop rotation practice resulted in improved cotton yields and gave farmers alternative cash crops. To train farmers to successfully rotate and cultivate the new crops, <mask> developed an agricultural extension program for Alabama that was similar to the one at Iowa State. To encourage better nutrition in the South, he widely distributed recipes using the alternative crops. Additionally, he founded an industrial research laboratory, where he and assistants worked to popularize the new crops by developing hundreds of applications for them. They did original research as well as promoting applications and recipes, which they collected from others.<mask> distributed his information as agricultural bulletins. <mask>'s work was known by officials

masks: Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver


texts: in the national capital before he became a public figure. President Theodore Roosevelt publicly admired his work. Former professors of <mask>'s from Iowa State University were appointed to positions as Secretary of Agriculture: James Wilson, a former dean and professor of <mask>'s, served from 1897 to 1913. Henry Cantwell Wallace served from 1921 to 1924. He knew <mask> personally because his son Henry A. Wallace and the researcher were friends. The younger Wallace served as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture from 1933 to 1940, and as Franklin Delano Roosevelt's vice president from 1941 to 1945.The American industrialist, farmer, and inventor William C. Edenborn of Winn Parish, Louisiana, grew peanuts on his demonstration farm. He consulted with <mask>. In 1916, <mask> was made a member of the Royal Society of Arts in England, one of only a handful of Americans at that time to receive this honor. <mask>'s promotion of peanuts gained him the most notice. In 1919, <mask> wrote to a peanut company about the potential he saw for peanut milk. Both he and the peanut industry seemed unaware that in 1917 William Melhuish had secured  for a milk substitute made from peanuts and soybeans. The United Peanut Associations of America invited <mask> to speak at their 1920 convention.He discussed "The Possibilities of the Peanut" and exhibited 145 peanut products. By 1920, the U.S. peanut farmers were being undercut by low prices on imported peanuts from the Republic of China. In 1921, peanut farmers and industry representatives planned to appear at Congressional hearings to ask for a tariff. Based on the quality of <mask>'s presentation at their convention, they asked the African-American professor to testify on the tariff

masks: Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver


texts:
 issue before the Ways and Means Committee of the United States House of Representatives. Due to segregation, it was highly unusual for an African American to appear as an expert witness at Congress representing European-American industry and farmers. Southern congressmen, reportedly shocked at <mask>'s arriving to testify, were said to have mocked him. As he talked about the importance of the peanut and its uses for American agriculture, the committee members repeatedly extended the time for his testimony.The Fordney–McCumber Tariff of 1922 was passed including one on imported peanuts. <mask>'s testifying to Congress made him widely known as a public figure. Life while famous

During the last two decades of his life, <mask> seemed to enjoy his celebrity status. He was often on the road promoting Tuskegee University, peanuts, and racial harmony. Although he only published six agricultural bulletins after 1922, he published articles in peanut industry journals and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, "Professor <mask>'s Advice". Business leaders came to seek his help, and he often responded with free advice. Three American presidents—Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge and Franklin Roosevelt—met with him, and the Crown Prince of Sweden studied with him for three weeks.From 1923 to 1933, <mask> toured white Southern colleges for the Commission on Interracial Cooperation. With his increasing notability, <mask> became the subject of biographies and articles. Raleigh H. Merritt contacted him for his biography published in 1929. Merritt wrote:

At present not a great deal has been done to utilize Dr. <mask>'s discoveries commercially. He says that he is merely scratching the surface of scientific

masks: Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver


texts: investigations of the possibilities of the peanut and other Southern products. In 1932, the writer James Saxon Childers wrote that <mask> and his peanut products were almost solely responsible for the rise in U.S. peanut production after the boll weevil devastated the American cotton crop beginning about 1892.His article, "A Boy Who Was Traded for a Horse" (1932), in The American Magazine, and its 1937 reprint in Reader's Digest, contributed to this myth about <mask>'s influence. Other popular media tended to exaggerate <mask>'s impact on the peanut industry. From 1933 to 1935, <mask> worked to develop peanut oil massages to treat infantile paralysis (polio). Ultimately, researchers found that the massages, not the peanut oil, provided the benefits of maintaining some mobility to paralyzed limbs. From 1935 to 1937, <mask> participated in the USDA Disease Survey. <mask> had specialized in plant diseases and mycology for his master's degree. In 1937, <mask> attended two chemurgy conferences, an emerging field in the 1930s, during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, concerned with developing new products from crops.He was invited by Henry Ford to speak at the conference held in Dearborn, Michigan, and they developed a friendship. That year <mask>'s health declined, and Ford later installed an elevator at the Tuskegee dormitory where <mask> lived, so that the elderly man would not have to climb stairs. <mask> had been frugal in his life, and in his seventies he established a legacy by creating a museum of his work, as well as the George Washington Carver Foundation at Tuskegee in 1938 to continue agricultural research. He donated nearly  in his savings to create the foundation. <mask> headed the modern

masks: Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver


texts: organic movement in the southern agricultural system. <mask>'s background for his interest in organic farming sprouted from his father being killed during the Civil War, and when his mother was kidnapped by Confederate slave raiders. Now an orphan, <mask> found comfort in botany when he was just 11 years old in Kansas.<mask> learned about herbal medicine, natural pesticides, and natural fertilizers that yielded plentiful crops from his caretaker. When crops and house plants were dying, he would use his knowledge and go and nurse them back to health. As a teenager, he was termed the "plant doctor". When his study about infection in soybean reached Booker T. <mask>, he invited him to come and teach at the Tuskegee Agricultural school. Although the emancipation allowed Black families 40 acres and a mule, President Johnson revoked this and gave the land to white plantation owners instead. This prompted Black farmers to exchange what was once their land, and in turn, a small part of the land's harvest. This led to sharecropping.<mask> soon realized that farmers were not obtaining enough food to survive, and how the industrialization of cotton had contaminated the soil. <mask> wanted to find a way to organically transform Alabama's failing soil. He found that alternating nitrogen-rich crops would let the soil get back to its natural state. Keeping crops like sweet potatoes, peanuts, and cowpeas would produce more food surplus and different types of food for farmers. <mask> worked to pioneer organic fertilizers like swamp muck and compost for the farmers to use. These fertilizers were more sustainable to the planet and helped farmers to spend less money on fertilizers since they were recycling products. <mask>

masks: Carver Carver Carver Washington Carver Carver Carver Carver


texts:
 pushed for woodland preservation, to help improve the quality of the topsoil.He urged farmers to feed their hogs acorns. The acorns contained natural pesticides and feeding them acorns was cheaper for the farms too. <mask>'s efforts towards the holistic and organic approach are still in practice today. In his research, <mask> discovered Permaculture. Permaculture could be used to produce carbon from the atmosphere, produce a higher quantity of crops, and let crops flourish despite global warming. President Biden realized the success of Permaculture as described by <mask>, and is now using it in sustainable agriculture in his climate policy. Relationships

<mask> never married.At age 40, he began a courtship with Sarah L. Hunt, an elementary school teacher and the sister-in-law of Warren Logan, Treasurer of Tuskegee Institute. This lasted three years until she took a teaching job in California. In her 2015 biography, Christina Vella reviews his relationships and suggests that <mask> was bisexual and constrained by mores of his historic period. When he was 70, <mask> established a friendship and research partnership with the scientist Austin W. Curtis Jr. This young black man, a graduate of Cornell University, had some teaching experience before coming to Tuskegee. <mask> bequeathed to Curtis his royalties from an authorized 1943 biography by Rackham Holt. After <mask> died in 1943, Curtis was fired from Tuskegee Institute.He left Alabama and resettled in Detroit. There he manufactured and sold peanut-based personal care products. Death

Upon returning home one day, <mask> took a bad fall down a flight of stairs; he was found unconscious by a maid who took him to a hospital. <mask> died January 5, 1943,

masks: Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver


texts:
 at the age of 79 from complications (anemia) resulting from this fall. He was buried next to Booker T<mask> at Tuskegee University. Due to his frugality, <mask>'s life savings totaled $60,000, all of which he donated in his last years and at his death to the Carver Museum and to the George Washington Carver Foundation. On his grave was written, "He could have added fortune to fame, but caring for neither, he found happiness and honor in being helpful to the world."Personal life

Voice pitch
Even as an adult <mask> spoke with a high pitch. Historian Linda O. McMurry noted that he "was a frail and sickly child" who suffered "from a severe case of whooping cough and frequent bouts of what was called croup." McMurry contested the diagnosis of croup, holding rather that "His stunted growth and apparently impaired vocal cords suggest instead tubercular or pneumococcal infection. Frequent infections of that nature could have caused the growth of polyps on the larynx and may have resulted from a gamma globulin deficiency. ... until his death the high pitch of his voice startled all who met him, and he suffered from frequent chest congestion and loss of voice." Christianity

<mask> believed he could have faith both in God and science and integrated them into his life. He testified on many occasions that his faith in Jesus was the only mechanism by which he could effectively pursue and perform the art of science.<mask> became a Christian when he was still a young boy, as he wrote in connection to his conversion in 1931:

He was not expected to live past his 21st birthday due to failing health. He lived well past the age of 21, and his belief deepened as a result. Throughout his career, he always found friendship

masks:
. Washington
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver


texts:
 with other Christians. He relied on them especially when criticized by the scientific community and media regarding his research methodology. <mask> viewed faith in Jesus Christ as a means of destroying both barriers of racial disharmony and social stratification. He was as concerned with his students' character development as he was with their intellectual development. He compiled a list of "eight cardinal virtues" whose possession defines "a lady or a gentleman":

 Be clean both inside and out.Who neither looks up to the rich nor down on the poor. Who loses, if needs be, without squealing. Who wins without bragging. Who is always considerate of women, children and old people. Who is too brave to lie. Who is too generous to cheat. Who take his share of the world and lets other people have theirs.Beginning in 1906 at Tuskegee, <mask> led a Bible class on Sundays for several students at their request. He regularly portrayed stories by acting them out. He responded to critics with this: "When you do the common things in life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of the world." Honors
1923, Spingarn Medal from the NAACP, awarded annually for outstanding achievement. 1928, honorary doctorate from Simpson College
1939, the Roosevelt Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Southern Agriculture
1940, <mask> established the George Washington Carver Foundation at the Tuskegee Institute. 1941, The George Washington Carver Museum was dedicated at the Tuskegee Institute. 1942, Ford built a replica of <mask>'s birth cabin at the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn as a tribute.1942, Ford dedicated a laboratory in Dearborn named after <mask>. 1943, Liberty ship  launched
1947, George


texts:
 Washington Carver Area High School, named in his honor is opened by the Chicago Public Schools in the Riverdale/Far South Side area of Chicago, Illinois, United States. 1950, George Washington Carver State Park named
1951–1954, U.S. Mint features <mask> on a 50 cents silver commemorative coin
1965, Ballistic missile submarine  launched. 1969, Iowa State University constructs Carver Hall in honor of <mask>– a graduate of the university. 1943?, the US Congress designated January 5, the anniversary of his death, as George Washington <mask> Recognition Day. 1999, USDA names a portion of its Beltsville, Maryland campus the George Washington Carver Center. 2002, Iowa Award, the state's highest citizen award.2004, George Washington Carver Bridge, Des Moines, Iowa
2007, the Missouri Botanical Gardens has a garden area named in his honor, with a commemorative statue and material about his work
Willowbrook Neighborhood Park in Willowbrook, California was renamed George Washington Carver Park in his honor. Schools named for <mask> include the <mask> Washington <mask> Elementary School of the Compton Unified School District in Los Angeles County, California, the George Washington Carver School of Arts and Science of the Sacramento City Unified School District in Sacramento, California, and the Dr. <mask> <mask> Elementary School, a Newark public school in Newark, New Jersey. Taxa named after him include: Colletotrichum carveri and Metasphaeria carveri,  both named by Job Bicknell Ellis and Benjamin Matlack Everhart in 1902; Cercospora carveriana, named by Pier Andrea Saccardo and Domenico Saccardo in 1906; Taphrina carveri named by Anna Eliza Jenkins in 1939; and Pestalotia carveri, named by E. F. Guba in 1961.

masks:
Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
George
Carver
George Washington
Carver


texts:
 Legacy
A movement to establish a U.S. national monument to <mask> began before his death. Because of World War II, such non-war expenditures had been banned by presidential order. Missouri senator Harry S. Truman sponsored a bill in favor of a monument. In a committee hearing on the bill, one supporter said:

The bill is not simply a momentary pause on the part of busy men engaged in the conduct of the war, to do honor to one of the truly great Americans of this country, but it is in essence a blow against the Axis, it is in essence a war measure in the sense that it will further unleash and release the energies of roughly 15,000,000 Negro people in this country for full support of our war effort.The bill passed unanimously in both houses. On July 14, 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated $30,000 for the George Washington Carver National Monument west-southwest of Diamond, Missouri, the area where <mask> had spent time in his childhood. This was the first national monument dedicated to an African American and the first to honor someone other than a president. The  national monument complex includes a bust of <mask>, a ¾-mile nature trail, a museum, the 1881 <mask> house, and the Carver cemetery. The national monument opened in July 1953. In December 1947, a fire broke out in the Carver Museum, and much of the collection was damaged. Time magazine reported that all but three of the 48 <mask> paintings at the museum were destroyed.His best-known painting, displayed at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, depicts a yucca and cactus. This canvas survived and has undergone conservation. It is displayed together with several of his other paintings. <mask> was featured on U.S. 1948

masks:
Carver
Carver
Carver
Moses Carver
Carver
Carver


texts:
 commemorative stamps. From 1951 to 1954, he was depicted on the commemorative Carver-Washington half dollar coin along with Booker T<mask>. A second stamp honoring <mask>, of face value 32¢, was issued on 3 February 1998 as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. Two ships, the Liberty ship SS George <mask> and the nuclear submarine USS George <mask> (SSBN-656), were named in his honor.In 1977, <mask> was elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. In 1990, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. In 1994, Iowa State University awarded <mask> a Doctor of Humane Letters. In 2000, <mask> was a charter inductee in the USDA Hall of Heroes as the "Father of Chemurgy". In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed <mask> <mask> as one of 100 Greatest African Americans. In 2005, <mask>'s research at the Tuskegee Institute was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society. On February 15, 2005, an episode of Modern Marvels included scenes from within Iowa State University's Food Sciences Building and about <mask>'s work.In 2005, the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, opened a <mask> <mask> garden in his honor, which includes a life-size statue of him. Many institutions continue to honor <mask> <mask>. Dozens of elementary schools and high schools are named after him. National Basketball Association star David Robinson and his wife, Valerie, founded an academy named after <mask>; it opened on September 17, 2001, in San Antonio, Texas. The Carver Community Cultural Center, a historic center located in San Antonio, is named for him. Reputed inventions

<mask> was given credit in popular folklore for many inventions that did not

masks:
. Washington
Carver
Washington Carver
Washington Carver
Carver
Carver
Carver
George Washington
Carver
Carver
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
Carver
Carver


texts:
 come out of his lab. Three patents (one for cosmetics; , and two for paints and stains;  and ) were issued to <mask> in 1925 to 1927; however, they were not commercially successful.Aside from these patents and some recipes for food, <mask> left no records of formulae or procedures for making his products. He did not keep a laboratory notebook. Mackintosh notes that, "<mask> did not explicitly claim that he had personally discovered all the peanut attributes and uses he cited, but he said nothing to prevent his audiences from drawing the inference." <mask>'s research was intended to produce replacements from common crops for commercial products, which were generally beyond the budget of the small one-horse farmer. A misconception grew that his research on products for subsistence farmers were developed by others commercially to change Southern agriculture. <mask>'s work to provide small farmers with resources for more independence from the cash economy foreshadowed the "appropriate technology" work of E. F. Schumacher. Peanut products
Dennis Keeney, director of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University, wrote in the Leopold Letter (newsletter):

<mask> worked on improving soils, growing crops with low inputs, and using species that fixed nitrogen (hence, the work on the cowpea and the peanut).<mask> wrote in 'The Need of Scientific Agriculture in the South': "The virgin fertility of our soils and the vast amount of unskilled labor have been more of a curse than a blessing to agriculture. This exhaustive system for cultivation, the destruction of forest, the rapid and almost constant decomposition of organic matter, have made our agricultural problem one requiring more brains


texts:
 than of the North, East or West." <mask> worked for years to create a company to market his products. The most important was the Carver Penol Company, which sold a mixture of creosote and peanuts as a patent medicine for respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis. Sales were lackluster and the product was ineffective according to the Food and Drug Administration. Other ventures were The Carver Products Company and the Carvoline Company. Carvoline Antiseptic Hair Dressing was a mix of peanut oil and lanolin.Carvoline Rubbing Oil was a peanut oil for massages. <mask> is often mistakenly credited with the invention of peanut butter. By the time <mask> published "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it For Human Consumption" in 1916, many methods of preparation of peanut butter had been developed or patented by various pharmacists, doctors and food scientists working in the US and Canada. The Aztecs were known to have made peanut butter from ground peanuts as early as the 15th century. Canadian pharmacist Marcellus Gilmore Edson was awarded  (for its manufacture) in 1884, 12 years before <mask> began his work at Tuskegee. Sweet potato products
<mask> is also associated with developing sweet potato products. In his 1922 sweet potato bulletin, <mask> listed a few dozen recipes, "many of which I have copied verbatim from Bulletin No.129, U. S. Department of Agriculture". <mask>'s records included the following sweet potato products: 73 dyes, 17 wood fillers, 14 candies, 5 library pastes, 5 breakfast foods, 4 starches, 4 flours, and 3 molasses. He also had listings for vinegars, dry coffee and instant coffee, candy, after-dinner mints, orange drops, and lemon drops. <mask> bulletins

During his more

masks: Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver Carver


texts:
 than four decades at Tuskegee, <mask>'s official published work consisted mainly of 44 practical bulletins for farmers. His first bulletin in 1898 was on feeding acorns to farm animals. His final bulletin in 1943 was about the peanut. He also published six bulletins on sweet potatoes, five on cotton, and four on cowpeas.Some other individual bulletins dealt with alfalfa, wild plum, tomato, ornamental plants, corn, poultry, dairying, hogs, preserving meats in hot weather, and nature study in schools. His most popular bulletin, How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption, was first published in 1916 and was reprinted many times. It gave a short overview of peanut crop production and contained a list of recipes from other agricultural bulletins, cookbooks, magazines, and newspapers, such as the Peerless Cookbook, Good Housekeeping, and Berry's Fruit Recipes. <mask>'s was far from the first American agricultural bulletin devoted to peanuts, but his bulletins did seem to be more popular and widespread than previous ones. See also

African-American history
Carver College
Carver Academy, Texas
George Washington Carver Center for Arts and Technology, a public high school in Towson, Maryland
Carver High School (disambiguation)
Carver Junior College, Cocoa, Florida, closed in 1963
Carver Middle School (disambiguation)
List of people on stamps of the United States

Citations

General references

Scholarly studies
 Hersey, Mark D. My Work Is That of Conservation: An Environmental Biography of <mask> Washington <mask> (University of Georgia Press; 2011) 306 pages. Hersey, Mark. "Hints and Suggestions to Farmers: <mask> <mask> and Rural Conservation in the South."Environmental History

masks:
Carver
Carver
George
Carver
George Washington
Carver


texts:
 11#2 (2006): 239–268. Mackintosh, Barry. "<mask> <mask>: The Making of a Myth." Journal of Southern History 42#4 (1976): 507–528. in JSTOR
Barry Mackintosh, "<mask> <mask> and the Peanut: New Light on a Much-loved Myth", American Heritage 28(5): 66–73, 1977. McMurry, L. O. "<mask>, <mask>."American National Biography Online February 2000
 McMurry, Linda O. <mask> <mask>: scientist and symbol (Oxford University Press, 1982). online; Google copy)

Popular works
<mask>, <mask>. "1897 or Thereabouts: <mask> <mask>'s Own Brief History of His Life." George Washington Carver National Monument. Collins, David R. <mask> <mask>: Man's Slave, God's Scientist, (Mott Media, 1981)
William J. Federer, <mask> <mask>: His Life & Faith in His Own Words, AmeriSearch (January 2003)
<mask> <mask>: In His Own Words (Paperback), ed. G. R. Kremer, University of Missouri Press; 1987, Reprint edition (January 1991)
H. M. Morris, Men of Science, Men of God (1982)
E. C. Barnett and D. Fisher, Scientists Who Believe (1984)

Further reading
Gray, James Marion. <mask> <mask>.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1991. Holt, Rackham. <mask> <mask>: An American Biography, rev. ed. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963. Kremer, Gary R. Race and Meaning: The African American Experience in Missouri, University of Missouri Press, 2014. McKissack, Pat, and Fredrick McKissack.<mask> <mask>: The Peanut Scientist, rev. ed. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002. Moore, Eva. The Story of <mask> <mask>, New York: Scholastic, 1995. Vella, Christina. <mask>, Louisiana State University Press, 2015.External links

Archival collections
Guide to the <mask> <mask> Letter to Dana H. Johnson. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine

masks:
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
Carver
George Washington
George Washington
Carver
Carver
George Washington
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
Carver
George Washington
Carver


texts:
 Libraries, Irvine, California. Finding Aid to the <mask> Washington Carver Collection. Special Collections Department, Iowa State University Library, Ames, Iowa. William and Annette Curtis collection of George Washington Carver items, MSS 6223 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University

Other
National Park Service:
Legends of Tuskegee: <mask> <mask> from the National Park Service
George Washington <mask> National Monument from the National Park Service
Carver Tribute from Tuskegee University
The Legacy of <mask> <mask> from Iowa State University
National Historic Chemical Landmark from the American Chemical Society
George Washington Carver Correspondence Collection Manuscript collection in Special Collections, National Agricultural Library. Biotechnology Organization Award

George Washington Carver Digital Collection, Iowa State University. George Washington Carver History

Print publications

<mask> Washington <mask>."How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption", Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 31. <mask> <mask>. "How the Farmer Can Save His Sweet Potatoes and Ways of Preparing Them for the Table", Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 38, 1936. <mask> <mask>. "How to Grow the Tomato and 115 Ways to Prepare it for the Table", Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 36, 1936. Peter D. Burchard, "<mask> <mask>: For His Time and Ours", National Park Service: George Washington Carver National Monument. 2006.Louis R. Harlan (ed. ), The Booker T. Washington Papers, Volume 4, pp. 127–128. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 1975. Raleigh H. Merritt, From Captivity to Fame or the Life of <mask> <mask>, Boston: Meador

masks:
George
George Washington
Carver
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver
George Washington
Carver


texts:
 Publishing. 1929.<mask> <mask> Bagley, <mask> <mask>: Biography, Inventions & Quotes (2013). Date of birth unknown
1860s births
1943 deaths
People from Newton County, Missouri
Accidental deaths from falls
American botanists
African-American inventors
20th-century American inventors
American mycologists
American food scientists
African-American Christians
American agriculturalists
Agriculture educators
Alabama Republicans
Iowa State University alumni
Iowa State University faculty
People from Tuskegee, Alabama
American adoptees
People from Hanover, Massachusetts
Spingarn Medal winners
African-American scientists
African-American educators
Tuskegee University faculty
People from Ness County, Kansas
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
People from Indianola, Iowa
19th-century American slaves
Scientists from Missouri
Burials in Alabama
Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts
20th-century African-American

masks:
George Washington
Carver Mary
George Washington
Carver