texts: who as a young officer was an active member of the Prussian reform movement.In 1969, after a year at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, <mask> was appointed Professor of History at Stanford University; and in 1977 he became the Raymond A. Spruance Professor of International History there. In 1976, having written several articles on the life and work of Clausewitz, he published a biography, Clausewitz and the State (now in its third expanded edition), which has been translated into three languages. <mask>'s work together with Raymond Aron's Penser la guerre: Clausewitz, published in the same year, placed Clausewitz firmly in the history of ideas and politics of the Revolutionary, Napoleonic, and post-Napoleonic periods. <mask> and Aron reviewed each other's works favorably, although their perspectives on the subject differed. Unlike Aron, <mask> has shown little interest in the influence of Clausewitz's ideas on more recent and contemporary conflicts. He studies him, he has said, as he would study Mozart – for what he has composed, not for how later conductors or opera directors perform his work. The title of <mask>'s book points to the powerful role the Prussian state played in Clausewitz's life, a power that reappears in the central role of policy and politics in Clausewitz's theories.The same year the biography appeared, Howard's and <mask>'s translation of Clausewitz's major theoretical work, On War, was published. Highly praised, it has also received some criticism. The work, now available in five English-language editions, has been repeatedly reprinted. <mask>'s recent article, “Translation, Literal or Accurate,” in The Journal of Military History, July 2014, outlines the principles he and Howard followed in converting Clausewitz's early 19th century German into modern English – principles of translation that also apply to <mask>'s and Daniel Moran's subsequent translations of Clausewitz's Historical and Political Writings (Princeton, 1992). A related project was <mask>'s new edition of Makers of Modern

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type: original

texts: Strategy (Princeton, 1986), which retained three essays from the 1943 original, revised four others, and added twenty-two new essays. The work continues to be widely read and used as a text. It is currently being translated into simplified Chinese, the 14th translation of the work.Since 1980, when his study of modern art and its enemies in imperial Germany, The Berlin Secession, appeared, <mask> has published several monographs and collections of essays in the history of art, three of which have been translated into German. He combined his interests in the history of art and the history of war in Imagined Battles: Reflections of War in European Art (Chapel Hill, 1997), a work dedicated "to the memory of the men with whom I served, and against whom I served, in New Guinea and the Philippines." In 1986 <mask> became the Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Humanities at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. He retired in 1997. He continued to write, lecture and publish. Among his recent work is Clausewitz in His Time (New York:  Oxford, 2015), an expanded German edition of which, Clausewitz in seiner Zeit, appeared in 2017. He edited a volume of two essays by Hans Delbrueck (1848-1929) and himself, Krieg, Geschichte, Theories, Miles Verlag, Berlin 2018, and besides reviews in The Journal of Central European History and The Journal of Military History published an article on the function of history in Clausewitz's understanding of war in The Journal of Military History, October 2018.He celebrated his 95th birthday in April 2019 but continued to work. For example, an article, expansion of a lecture he gave at Princeton University in March 2019, which develops a new concept of Clausewitz's biography, appeared in the January 2020 issue of The Journal of Military History. A short article "From Document to Interpretation", will appear in the July 2020 issue of the journal. He introduced the 2020 Yearbook of the Clausewitz Research Association in Burg, Germany, and also published an article in the issue. <mask> died in September 2020 at the

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 age of 96. Honors and awards

<mask> was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a Member of the American Philosophical Society, which has awarded him its Thomas Jefferson Medal, an Honorary Fellow of the London School of Economics, and an Honorary Member of the German Clausewitz Society, which in 2020 awarded him its Silver Pin of Honor. He has received an honorary doctorate from the Humboldt University, Berlin, as well as three other honorary degrees, and the German government awarded him the Cross, Order of Merit First Class, German Federal Republic (2000), and the Great Cross of the Order of Merit, German Federal Republic (2013).In 1993, he was awarded the Samuel Eliot Morison Prize for lifetime achievement given by the Society for Military History In 2017, he received the $100,000 Pritzker Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement in Military Writing. Publications

A complete bibliography of <mask>'s publications is available on the home page of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. A list of all monographs and edited volumes, including foreign-language editions, complemented by a short biography appeared in The Second Generation: Émigrés from Nazi Germany as Historians, ed. A. Daum, H. Lehmann, J. Sheehan, New York 2016, pp. 420‒22; this volumes also includes an autobiographical essay entitled "External Events, Inner Drives" (pp. 72‒78). Further reading
 Andreas W. Daum, "Refugees from Nazi Germany as Historians: Origins and Migrations, Interests and Identities", in The Second Generation: Émigrés from Nazi Germany as Historians.With a Biobibliographic Guide, ed. Andreas Daum, Hartmut Lehmann, James J. Sheehan. New York: Berghahn Books, 2016, , 1‒52. References

1924 births
2020 deaths
Academics from Utah
American male non-fiction writers
American military historians
American people of French descent
American people of Jewish descent
German emigrants to the United States
Cultural historians
Intellectual historians
Military personnel from California
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of

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<mask>, (born 6 September 1942) is an Australian former rugby union footballer and noted administrator. He played 17 Tests for Australia between 1962 and 1967, and was a captain of Queensland, for whom he played from 1962 to 1972. He served as national coaching director from 1974 to 1995, and was a leading figure in lifting the standard of Australian rugby. He also served on the Board of Queensland Rugby and was an inaugural member of rugby's International Technical Committee and drafter of the Game’s Charter. He received the Joe French Award for his contributions to Australian rugby in 2014, and remains active in debates on governance of Australian rugby. In 2020, he was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame. He is the grandfather of Queensland Reds player Curtis Browning.Early life

<mask> was born in Bundaberg Queensland in 1942, and later attended boarding school at Brisbane Grammar School, where he was an accomplished sportsman and scholar and captained both cricket and rugby. <mask> progressed to the University of Queensland Rugby Club, and made the Queensland U19 team in 1961. Rugby career

<mask> played in the centres for Australia throughout the "Thornett Era", which saw the national side rise to new heights of success on the international stage. The Queenslander made an impact from an early age with his tackling skills, speed and ability to break the line. In 1962, he played for Queensland against the touring All Blacks, scoring the home side's only try. The selectors picked the 19 year old for the Second Test against the All Blacks in Sydney, however a bout of illness prevented him from playing. Later that year, he was selected for the 1962 Australia rugby union tour of New Zealand, captained by John Thornett.He debuted in the Second Test at Dunedin in the centres alongside Beres Ellwood, just two days after turning 20, and impressed with his fierce tackling. He cemented a place in the Wallaby side playing seven of 13 tour matches including two tests. In 1963 <mask> played in the historic defeat of the first England tour side in Australia, played at the SCG in

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Richard James Pickett Marks
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texts: driving rain. He was later selected for the watershed 1963 Australia rugby union tour of South Africa, which saw Thornett's Wallabies tie a series against South Africa for the first time, and, in the process, became the first side to score back to back victories in the two tests over the Spring Boks since 1896. <mask> played in three of the four tests, setting up winger John Williams for a crucial try in the historic Third Test victory at Ellis Park, Johannesburg. <mask> was selected again for the 1964 Australia rugby union tour of New Zealand, playing six of eight matches, including the three tests. The tour featured another historic high for Australian rugby, with a 29-5 victory in the Third Test at Wellington, which remains the highest margin loss for New Zealand at home to this day.More success following in 1965, when Australia won a series over South Africa for the first time. <mask> played against the Spring Boks in their two tests and for Queensland. He missed selection for Australia against the touring Lions the following year, but captained Queensland against the side. He then played in every test of the 1966–67 Australia rugby union tour of Britain, Ireland and France which saw an historic first victory over Wales and a record win over England. <mask> again played for Australia against the touring Irish in 1967, and captained Queensland against them. He then retired as Wallaby, but continued to play for Queensland until 1969 - and had a comeback season in 1972. He had played 51 matches for Australia at home and abroad, and captained the Wallabies against a French provincial side in 1967.He ranked the historic wins of the Spring Boks in 1963, New Zealand in 1964 and Wales in 1966 as career highlights. Rugby historian Jack Pollard described him as "a versatile centre who did everything sensibly and reduced mistakes to a minimum. There was nothing flash or colourful in his football, but he tackled hard and ran strongly...". Meares and Howell wrote that "His was a proud record. He had played fifty-one matches for his country, including 17 Tests. He was highly respected by his

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 peers, so much so that when Rothmans set up its Director of Coaching position for rugby, he obtained the position in 1974." National coaching director 1974-1995

In 1974, <mask> became the inaugural Rothmans coaching director, with responsibilities for establishing a National Coaching Scheme for Australian Rugby.He remained in the job until 1995, through an unprecedented period of success for Australian rugby. He authored an influential coaching manual, instigated a number of coach and player development initiatives, and served on the first IRB Technical Committee and wrote a Charter of the Game. After the nadir of Australian rugby in the early 1970s and a 1973 loss to Tonga, the Australian Rugby Union created a National Coaching Plan to “teach coaches the art of coaching through demonstration and practical involvement.” As the first national Coaching Director, <mask> was tasked with writing a 300 page Rugby Coaching Manual, consisting of conceptual and practical tuition. Rugby writer Spiro Zavos describes the manual as "a compendium of the best in rugby thinking and practice at the time. It is a masterpiece. If Aristotle had written about rugby, this is the sort of manual he would have produced... The point in all of this is that the National Coaching Plan worked.From the despair of the 1970s Australian rugby gloried in nearly two decades of success." The rugby historians Meares and Howell wrote of <mask>' time as Coaching Director:

The <mask> directorship established a number of other innovations. Russel Tulloch of Norths Rugby wrote for The Australian newspaper that under the <mask> regime: "development officers used the national coaching process, the ground-breaking and world-recognised program developed under the auspices of David Clark from the Australian Institute of Sport, run by <mask> and Brian O’Shea, and sponsored by Rothmans. Some funding was available from the ARU but predominantly came from the clubs. This program consolidated skilled coaching processes and was available to all coaches throughout Australia. It provided a consistent and practical methodology and played

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Dick Marks


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 a significant role in improving the quality of coaching of rugby in Australia... It is interesting to note that most of the players in the winning 1999 RWC had come from the amateur programs and were coached by people from the Clark/Marks/O’Shea program...".Rothman's sponsorship of the program ended in the mid 1990s, and <mask> was invited to continue in his position of National Director of Coaching on the payroll of the Australian Rugby Union. However, ill-health forced the resignation of the CEO, and his successor John O'Neil controversially replaced <mask> with Welsh coach Alex Evans,  whose background was not in coach education and whose tenure was short-lived. Nevertheless, wrote Meares and Howell, "the foundation laid by the coaching scheme ensured that outstanding Wallaby performances carried on through to the 1999 World Cup win." Later career, awards and activism

<mask> has made a name as a public speaker and master of ceremonies, "arguably the finest sports MC in the land" according to Meares and Howell. In 2014, he was awarded the prestigious Joe French Award for outstanding service to rugby over a long period of time. He remains influential in rugby circles, and in 2019 endorsed the #LetsFixAustralianRugby campaign to reform administration of the game in Australia, telling the Sydney Morning Herald: "We had a great system which won us two Rugby World Cups and produced Alan Jones, Bob Dwyer and Rod Macqueen. The emasculation of the system and the shutting down of the National Coaching Committee was the beginning of the end."In November 2020, <mask> was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame. Articles by <mask>

<mask>: Rugby failed to care for its precious garden by <mask> www.theaustralian.com.au; 19 May 2017. Let's Fix Australian Rugby by <mask>, 11 November 2019. The Solution? A recommended action by <mask>, 25 November 2019. External links
<mask> historical Wallaby profile. <mask> Statistics on ESPN.References

1942 births
Living people
Rugby union officials
Australian rugby union players
Australian rugby union captains
Australia international rugby union

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Randy Walker (August 21, 1968 – November 30, 1995), of the stage name <mask>, was an American rapper and record producer, working in Live Squad. In the early 1990s, he joined 2Pac's rap group Thug Life. The November 30, 1994, shooting of Shakur led to their split. On November 30, 1995, exactly one year after the shooting of Shakur, <mask> was shot and killed  at the age of 27. He stood  tall. Live Squad
Randy Walker was born in 1968 in Springfield Gardens, Queens, to an American father and Jamaican, immigrant mother. Randy had a younger brother and two sisters.His father died in 1981, and his mother, Lucilda, was a nurse at New York University Medical Center. In the late 1980s, Randy, dubbed <mask>, and his brother Christopher, dubbed Majesty, teamed with DJ K-Low, forming Live Squad. In 1988, both rapping and producing it, Live Squad debut with an EP, titled BQ In Full Effect, which, featuring Percee P, includes the tracks "Troopin It" and "We Ain't Havin' It." Noteworthy is <mask>'s voice, deep and raspy. In 1990, <mask> met Shock G of Digital Underground, the Bay Area rap group's 1991 album featured <mask> on its track "Family of the Underground." That year, Live Squad remixed the group's single "No Nose Job." That summer, Stretch met Underground ally Tupac "2Pac" Shakur.The two became fast friends. Rapping his February 1992 single "If My Homie Calls" on Yo! MTV Raps, 2Pac was backed by <mask>, friend of host Ed Lover, who, praising Live Squad's demo tape and taking "executive producer" credit on its releases, helped Live get signed to Tommy Boy Records. In 1992, Live Squad released a double A

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 side, "Murderahh! "/"Heartless," followed by single, "Game of Survival"/"Pump for a Livin'," in 1993. Live Squad also released an ultra-violent promo short film, Game Of Survival, on VHS tape, showcasing six songs from through group's forthcoming album. But in June, national outrage had broken out over the Los Angeles area's original gangsta rapper Ice-T's side project, his rock band Body Count's album of heavy metal with its track "Cop Killer."Tommy Boy, favoring radio friendliness, dropped Live Squad and shelved the album. Teaming with 2Pac
While Tupac filmed his breakthrough role in Juice, Stretch and Treach, of rap group Naughty By Nature, were extras. Once Tupac's trailer was robbed of jewelry, they delivered a beatdown on set. In late 1991, after studio recordings, live shows, and TV appearances with <mask>, 2Pac put out his debut album, 2Pacalypse Now, with two tracks, including "Crooked Ass Nigga," where Stretch produces and raps. Recently unable to put a track on Juice's soundtrack, 2Pac saw his album sell modestly, but Juice's release in 1992 sent his star on the rise. In 1993, 2Pac's second album, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., found Live Squad producing and featured on "Strugglin'," while featured, along with Treach and rapper Apache, on "5 Deadly Venomz." That was produced by Stretch, who produced two more tracks, "The Streetz R Deathrow" and, featuring Live Squad, "Holler If Ya Hear Me."Stretch made cameo appearances in music videos for the Mac Mall song "Ghetto Theme," directed by Tupac, and, in 1993, for the Above The Law, Money B, and Tupac song "Call It What You Want," as well as in


texts:
 movies, Ed Lover & Doctor Dre's 1993 film Who's the Man? and Tupac's 1996 film Bullet. In March 1994, on The Arsenio Hall Show, 2Pac and Stretch performed "Pain," a track on the Above the Rim soundtrack's only cassette version and merely a single's B side, but swiftly a rap favorite. 2Pac's group Thug Life
In 1992, with rapper Big Syke, 2Pac and Stretch recorded "Thug Life." In 1993, that song is still unreleased, Tupac expanded the group, named Thug Life, and got it on Interscope Records, releasing in 1994 the group's only album, Thug Life: Volume 1. Here, Stretch produces and raps on "Thug Music" and the lead single, "Bury Me a G." Amid controversy over lyrics, the label cut "Out on Bail", which Tupac and Stretch performed at The '94 Source Awards, anyway, and "Runnin' from tha Police", featuring Biggie Smalls. In 1993, Tupac met Biggie, a promising young rapper from Brooklyn, on his visit to California, whereupon Tupac supported and mentored him, a prospective member of Thug Life.During 1993, Live Squad, 2Pac, and Biggie performed a joint set at Maryland's Bowie State University, in Prince George’s County, Maryland. and recorded "House Of Pain," unreleased, for Biggie's debut album in the making. Biggie's debut album would arrive, without the song, in 1994 as Ready to Die. But the alliance would be severed through events on the night of November 30, 1994, at the Times Square building of Quad Recording Studios. November 1994 shooting
In late 1994, Tupac was reportedly hired by fledgling music manager James "Jimmy Henchman" Rosemond to record a verse for rapper Lil' Shawn's single "Dom Perignon."


texts:
 Arriving with Stretch and two others, they reportedly found rapper Lil' Cease—a member of the Bad Boy record label's circle via Biggie's side group Junior M.A.F.I.A.—watching the sidewalk from above and greeting them. But in the lobby, three men pulled pistols to rob Tupac, who, resisting, was shot five times.Suspecting shooting as the primary motive, Tupac pointed to, among others, Henchman and Biggie. Blaming Henchman for the setup, Tupac accused Biggie of withholding prior knowledge. The very day after the shooting, Tupac was convicted, in a Manhattan court, of sexual assault. And on February 14, 1995, he was sentenced to at least a year and a half in prison. In March, 2Pac's third album, Me Against the World, was released with Stretch removed from its track "So Many Tears." In a jailhouse interview published in April, Tupac discusses the November shooting and Stretch, incidentally 6'8": "I was, like, 'What should I do?' I’m thinking Stretch is going to fight; he was towering over those niggas.From what I know about the criminal element, if niggas come to rob you, they always hit the big nigga first. But they didn’t touch Stretch; they came straight to me." In the interview, Tupac also reflects,

No strong evidence emerged to implicate Stretch in the crime. Publicly responding, Stretch contends, "Pac's saying all this shit in the interview, like, 'I thought that Stretch was gonna fight. He was towering over them.' Now, that nigga know I ain't never going out like no bitch. But I ain't dumb.I ain't got no gun, what the fuck am I supposed to do? I might be towering over niggas, but I ain't towering


texts:
 over no slugs." Meanwhile, some reporting would suggest forensics evidence that Tupac had shot himself. Stretch offers, "Me personally, I only heard one shot. ... Tupac got shot trying to go for his shit. He tried to go for his gun, and he made a mistake on his own. But I'll let him tell the world that.... He tried to turn around and pull the joint out real quick, but niggas caught him. Grabbed his hand when it was by his waist." Bill Courtney, retired New York Police Department officer, once with its infamous "Hip-Hop Squad," suggests that the stickup answered Tupac's comments, published in New York's Daily News, about Jimmy Henchman's associate Haitian Jack, big in the Queens nightlife scene and criminal underworld. Haitain Jack and two other men had been indicted with Tupac for the November 1993 sexual assault, on a woman in Tupac's hotel room, whereby Tupac was convicted on December 1, 1994. By then, Haitain Jack had taken a misdemeanor plea deal for no jail time, and the newspaper published Tupac's gripe. The onetime "Hip-Hop Squad" officer hazards, "A message was being sent to him not to name-drop."Jimmy Henchman has since commented, "Nobody came to rob you. They came to discipline you." On June 15, 2011, the day before what would have been Tupac's 40th birthday, Dexter Isaac, imprisoned for murder, sent from Brooklyn's Metropolitan Detention Center to AllHipHop.com a confession. Isaac stated that he had been one of the men who in November 1994 robbed and shot Tupac at Jimmy Henchman's behest. <mask>'s murder
On October 12, 1995, with bond posted via Suge Knight, CEO of Death Row Records, and


texts: pending appeal, Tupac was released from prison in upstate New York. Joining the label in Los Angeles, Tupac feverishly recorded his fourth album, All Eyez on Me. Two tracks, in particular—"Ambitionz Az a Ridah" as well as "Holla At Me"—have lyrics against <mask>, one envisioning his death.But by the album's release on February 13, 1996, <mask> was already dead. Released a few months later, in July 1996, the sophomore album, It Was Written, by rapper Nas, from Queensbridge in Queens, would have Live Squad production on two tracks, "Take It In Blood" as well as "Silent Murder," from <mask>'s final recording session exactly one year after the November 30, 1994, shooting of Tupac. On November 30, 1995, leaving the Nas recording session at midnight, <mask> on his way to a Biggie Smalls event, dropped off his own brother Majesty at his Queens Village home. Two or three men in a black car pulled up beside and chasing Stretch's green minivan, rolled down the window and fired at it. Stretch crashed at 112th Avenue and 209th Street, just after 12:30 AM, and was found dead at the age of 27 via four bullets to his back. In one theory, Stretch had robbed "a big drug dealer of over 10 bricks" and, despite the "pressure on the street," refused to return the over 10 kilograms of cocaine, why "a hit was issued." In April 2007, via separate investigation into the murder of Jam Master Jay, legendary DJ of Run-DMC, in his native Jamaica, Queens, federal prosecutors named as a suspect in both murders one Ronald "Tenad" Washington.After Tupac's death by drive-by shooting in Las Vegas, in September 1996, a Live Squad

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 production, the track "Nothing to Lose," would appear on the first posthumous 2Pac album, released in 1997, R U Still Down? (Remember Me). Released the next year, Greatest Hits has the cryptic "God Bless the Dead," dedicated to "Biggy Smallz," but not the famed Live Squad and onetime 2Pac associate Biggie Smalls who is otherwise called The Notorious B.I.G., and instead a Latino rapper who worked with one of 2Pac's main producers, Johnny J. In 1999, a promotional release for The Notorious B.I.G. 's own posthumous album Born Again has a Bad Boy remix of "House of Pain," featuring Stretch and 2Pac. <mask>'s brother Majesty would found Grand Imperial Records jointly with rapper E-MoneyBags, who would be slain in July 2001, allegedly by order of Kenneth "Supreme" McGriff, a suspect behind the murder of Jam Master Jay. In 2001, Majesty released the Live Squad album that Tommy Boy Records had nixed, Game Of Survival.Discography

See also
27 Club
List of murdered hip hop musicians
List of unsolved murders

Notes

External links
 Stretch at Discogs
 Live Squad at Discogs

  Live Squad Fan Site (archived)

1968 births
1995 deaths
1995 murders in the United States
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American rappers
African-American male actors
African-American male rappers
American rappers of Jamaican descent
Deaths by firearm in Queens, New York
Gangsta rappers
Male murder victims
Murdered African-American people
Musicians from Queens, New York
People murdered in New York City
Rappers from New York City
Unsolved murders in the United States
20th-century


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<mask> (October 11, 1840 – May 16, 1910) was a colonel in the Union Army who received the Medal of Honor. He was born in Danville, Vermont and served in the 17th Maine Infantry during the American Civil War. He was captured and interned as a prisoner of war for nine months. Later, he commanded the Maine State Militia and served as a Brigadier General during the Spanish–American War. He was elected to the Maine House of Representatives in 1880, was a county attorney for Cumberland County, Maine, and argued a case before the Supreme Court. Early life and family
<mask> was born in Danville, Vermont on October 11, 1840, as the only son of <mask> and <mask>. His father Henry was born in Middlebury, Vermont on December 12, 1805, and worked as a merchant and banker for most of his life, including as a cashier at the Caledonia National Bank in Danville.He died in 1844, when <mask> was three years old. Henry's brother, Samuel, also worked at the bank later on, as did Samuel's son. <mask>'s mother Martha was born in Danville, and married Henry in 1839. <mask>, <mask>'s grandfather, was the former Vermont State Treasurer, and commanded a Connecticut company during the American Revolutionary War. When <mask> was 10, his mother remarried to Issac Dyer, a Maine lumberman, and moved with <mask> to his home in Baldwin, Maine. <mask> studied at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts and Lewiston Falls Academy in Auburn, Maine. In 1858, <mask> entered Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, at the time a small college town, and graduated in 1862.During his school years, he was a member of both the

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Martha Osgood Porter Mattocks
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 Peucinian Society and Delta Kappa Epsilon, and studied elocution and German under professor Joshua Chamberlain. In 1861, <mask> was elected by his peers as the Peucinian Orator, missing only 4 votes. In May of that year, at the beginning of the American Civil War, Mattocks formed a military company under the name of the "Bowdoin Guards." They were supplied arms and ammunition, but not uniforms, by the government. In all, 75 of the 144 students volunteered for the unit, to be commanded by <mask>. While at Bowdoin, Chamberlain "challenged him to bear down and live up to his potential." Chaimberlain and <mask> both enlisted in the Union Army in the summer of 1862, along with 25 other students, three of whom joined Charles in the 17th Maine Volunteers.Military service

American Civil War

In 1862, upon his graduation from Bowdoin College, <mask> enlisted in the Union Army. He was commissioned as a lieutenant of the 17th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment and fought with the Army of the Potomac in all its major battles, including the Battle of Fredericksburg, Battle of Chancellorsville and the Battle of Appomattox Court House. <mask> began a journal on April 18, 1863, that he kept almost every day until June 14, 1865, detailing his experiences throughout the war. His regiment fought in the Battle of Chancellorsville, where his company lost 14 men and two officers. A few days after the battle, he and his company were mentioned by name in the official report written by Brigadier General J. H. Hobart Ward, commending "their valuable assistance and gallant conduct on the night of the 2d of

masks: Charles Mattocks Mattocks Mattocks Mattocks


texts: May." On July 2, 1863, in the Wheatfield during the Battle of Gettysburg, his regiment lost over 100 soldiers. According to his letters to his mother, both men standing beside him had been killed.On July 22, <mask> was chosen as a "Conscript Delegate," ordered to organize conscripts from Vermont, Maine, and Massachusetts that would eventually reinforce the 17th Maine. In January 1864, the colonel of the 17th Maine Infantry Regiment was promoted and the lieutenant colonel was on detached duty. <mask> was given command of the regiment for two months as a major. After the lieutenant colonel returned in March and took command as colonel, <mask> had a short leave of absence. Less than a week after <mask> returned from leave in late March 1864, he was moved from the 17th Maine Infantry and placed in command of the 1st United States Sharpshooters. He commanded the 1st United States Sharpshooters in the Battle of the Wilderness, after which he was captured by the Confederate Army. He was a prisoner for six months, until he escaped the Confederate prison camp outside Columbia, South Carolina on November 3, 1864, alongside Captain Julius Litchfield and Lieutenant <mask>, officers from other Maine regiments who were captured in the same battle.On their way back to Union territory, they trekked for two days without food before encountering a slave, who fed them "chicken, corn bread & potatoes." He also received material support from both Union and Confederate Freemasons while in prison camps and during his escape. <mask> was recaptured  from the Union lines, on November 28, by Cherokee

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texts: scouts, then in service of the Confederacy. He was forced to walk over  to Morgantown, West Virginia, where they were then transported by train to a prison camp in Danville, Virginia. <mask> was exchanged and released in late February, 1865. Rather than resuming his previous command of the 1st United States Sharpshooters, <mask> was granted permission from the Secretary of War to rejoin the 17th Maine Infantry Regiment as major. Upon his return, he first served outside Petersburg, Virginia.After the fall of Petersburg, <mask> led the regiment in the Appomattox Campaign and was distinguished in leading a charge at the Battle of Sailor's Creek. Sailor's Creek was the last battle of the American Civil War in which <mask> participated. Three days later, on April 9, 1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House. <mask> was appointed a brevet colonel of volunteers, to rank from April 9, 1865, for his actions in the Battle of Sailor's Creek on April 6, 1865, for which he also was awarded the Medal of Honor in 1899. He was appointed a full colonel of volunteers, to rank from May 15, 1865. <mask> was mustered out of the volunteers with his regiment on June 4, 1865. On February 21, 1867, President Andrew Johnson nominated <mask> for appointment to the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from March 13, 1865, for "faithful and meritorious services" during the war, and the United States Senate confirmed the appointment on March 2, 1867.Regarding his command style, one of his enlisted soldiers, John Haley, wrote

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 after the war that, "I can't think of any officer I'd sooner part with, for he was very pompous and had yards and yards of superfluous red tape about him." Medal of Honor
On April 6, 1865, Major <mask> led his regiment in a charge during the Battle of Sailor's Creek. His regiment of 220 men captured two stands of colors, two pieces of artillery, about 300 prisoners, and a loaded wagon train. He was awarded the Medal of Honor on March 29, 1899. Timeline

 Commissioned first lieutenant July 31, 1862. Promoted to captain, Company A, December 4, 1862. Promoted to major, December 22, 1863.Assigned to command the 1st Berdan USS, by order of Major General William Birney on May 5, 1864. Captured at the Battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 1864. Prisoner of war until March 22, 1865. Appointed brevet-colonel of US Volunteers for "gallant and meritorious conduct at the battle of Amelia Springs"; promoted to lieutenant colonel. Promoted to Colonel, 17th Maine, May 9, 1865. Mustered out with the regiment, June 4, 1865. Other engagements
After the Civil War, <mask> entered the Maine State Militia as a captain in 1868.In 1879, he was promoted to colonel, commanding all infantry in the state. During the Spanish–American War, <mask> served as a Brigadier General of Volunteers in the United States Army, commanding the 3rd Brigade of the 2nd Division under Major General James F. Wade. The regiments under him were the 1st Maine Volunteer Infantry, 52nd Iowa Volunteer Infantry, and the 1st Mississippi Volunteer Infantry. <mask> was ordered to take command of the regiments at Chickamauga, Georgia, but the

masks: Mattocks Mattocks Mattocks Mattocks


texts:
 war ended before he was able to take part in the action. On October 7, 1898, <mask> along with 28 other generals were honorably discharged from the volunteer army of the United States by the War Department. This was not due to the performance of the generals, but rather because the size of the army had been reduced by 50%, and there was no longer a need for such a large number of officers. Post-Civil War

<mask> attended Harvard Law School, studied under Edward Fox, and graduated in 1867.On June 27, 1871, he married Ella R. Robinson, daughter of Augustus Robinson, in Portland, Maine. He then opened a law office in Portland, and in 1869, became county attorney for Cumberland County, Maine. He held the position from 1870 to 1873. During October 1882, Morril v. Jones appeared in front of the Supreme Court of the United States. <mask> represented the defendant, Treasurer Lot M. Morrill, who lost the case. <mask> maintained a large farm in Baldwin, Maine. <mask> was an active member of the executive committee of the Union Soldiers and Sailors, a post-war veterans group campaigning against the Democratic Party.<mask> was a Freemason, as well as an Adjutant General and Department Commander in the Grand Army of the Republic in Maine. He was also one of the first members of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion. <mask>, along with 20 other Maine veterans, was appointed to the Portland Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument Association, in order to supervise the creation of the Our Lady of Victories monument, memorializing Portland soldiers and sailors who died during the Civil War. He also acted


texts:
 as the orator to introduce a statue of Major General Joseph Hooker, erected in Massachusetts. In 1880, <mask> was elected to the Maine House of Representatives, as a Republican, and served there for four years. He was appointed Inspector-General on Governor Frederick Robie's staff on January 12, 1883. <mask> was appointed judge of probate for Cumberland County in December 1900.World's Columbian Exposition
In 1893, <mask> served as executive commissioner from Maine to the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He was in charge of the creation and execution of Maine's building for the exposition. It was described by Campbell's Illustrated Weekly as "one of peculiar shape, being somewhat irregular and running to a point" and designed to be different from any other State's building. It was built with granite and slate, much of which was donated by Maine quarrymen. Death and legacy
<mask> died at 17 Lewis Street in Portland, Maine, on May 16, 1910 from nephritis. He was buried in Evergreen Cemetery with full military honors. After his death, his wife, <mask>, was paid $50 monthly as part of <mask>'s military pension.In 1955, the <mask> P. <mask> Scholarship was established at Bowdoin College. The Brown Memorial Library in Baldwin, Maine, also home to the Baldwin Historical Society, was established in 1907 based on a tract of land originally donated by <mask>. Publications

See also

 List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)
 List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients
 List of Harvard Law School alumni
 Maine in the American Civil War

Notes

References

External

masks:
Mattocks
Mattocks
Mattocks
Mattocks
Ella Mattocks
Charles
Charles
Mattocks
Mattocks


texts:
 links

 <mask>' Congressional Medal of Honor
 <mask>' speech to the Maine Historical Society (Page 162)

1840 births
1910 deaths
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
Bowdoin College alumni
Burials in Maine
Harvard Law School alumni
Maine lawyers
Maine Republicans
Maine state court judges
Members of the Maine House of Representatives
Politicians from Portland, Maine
People from Danville, Vermont
People of Vermont in the American Civil War
Phillips Academy alumni
Union Army colonels
United States Army generals
People of Maine in the American Civil War
American Civil War prisoners of war
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers
Grand Army of the Republic

masks:
Charles Mattocks
Mattocks


texts:
<mask> (; 1829 – February 1892), also known as <mask>, was a Chinese politician and businessman. He was the eldest of the three sons of <mask>, the founder and financier of Tan Tock Seng Hospital. He was consul for Japan, Thailand and Russia, and was a member of the Royal Court of Siam. He was one of Singapore's leading Chinese merchants and was one of its richest men in Singapore at that time. He was also the first Asian member of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. After his father, <mask>'s death, he became the Kapitan Cina of the Straits Chinese community. He is believed to have been the head of the Triad in Malaya.Businessman
In his day, <mask> <mask> was one of Singapore's leading Chinese merchants, one of the richest men in Singapore and had sizable business interests in Singapore, Siam, Vietnam and Malaya. His business boomed with rice mills he owned in Bangkok and Saigon. After the death of his father, the name of the firm "Tan Tock Seng" – mainly involved in the rice business – was changed to "Tan Kim Ching". The business was carried on at "River-Side" (now known as Boat Quay) from 1851 to 1859 by <mask> <mask> as sole owner. In 1860, having admitted his brother <mask> Lim as a partner, the firm was known as "Tan Kim Ching & Brother", chop Chin Seng Ho, but a few months later <mask> Lim left the firm. The business which finally became known as "Kim Ching & Co." chop Chin Seng (成行) attained considerable success, and he bought rice mills at Saigon, Siam, and elsewhere which supplied him with his milled rice. In 1888,

masks:
Tan Kim Ching
Tan Kim Cheng
Tan Tock Seng
Tan Tock Seng
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Swee
Tan Swee


texts:
 the company opened a branch in Hong Kong.Apart from the rice business he had mining concessions in Patani, whose workers he could supply with his own rice. He was one of the earliest merchants to import silk from China. He also involved himself in the shipping business. In 1863, he paid $120,000 to found and set up the Tanjong Pagar Dock Company (the forerunner of today's Port of Singapore Authority), purchased two steamships, Siam and Singapore and promoted the Tanjong Pagar Dock Co. Some historians have said that the history of Kra Buri began with its governor, <mask> <mask>. He was a Siamese official and had tin mining operations on the Kra Province. British ally
He played a significant role in fostering relationships between Singapore and the colonial government on the one hand, and Siam and its ruler King Mongkut (Rama IV) on the other.He helped Sir Harry Ord secure a new treaty with Kedah in 1867, and played an integral role in ending the Larut wars by getting Abdullah to seek British intervention, which led to the signing of treaties at Pangkor. Man of the people in Singapore
When the Hokkien-Teochew Riots which broke out on 5 May 1854 over 400 people were killed during 10 days of violence. In a meeting with British authorities, <mask> <mask> represented the Hokkiens and with his assurance and that of Seah Eu Chin of the Teochews, the situation was brought to an end. A man of influence in Singapore, Hokkien marriages were often solemnized in his office and the marriage certificates authenticated with the company rubber stamp. In

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching


texts:
 1860 the Hokkien Huay Kuan was established in the premises of the Hock Keng Temple at Telok Ayer Street and <mask> <mask> was installed as its first leader. He held the position of president for 30 years. He was especially noted for his establishment of a marriage registry for the Hokkiens.In 1864, he was elected to the grand jury as one of five Chinese members on the jury. In 1865 he was made a Justice of the Peace by the British Straits Settlements government. In 1888, he was appointed to the municipal council. He was also made a Kapitan Cina, responsible for the conduct and administration of the Chinese population in Singapore. He was fluent in Malay and was arguably the most powerful Chinese leader in the region in the 19th century. Towards the end of his life he was prosecuted for keeping slaves, but he was discharged. At his death, he was the owner of the steamers Siam and Singapore, and of a large number of mining concessions, including some at Mount Ophir, Kampong Rusa, Patani, and various others, which had not been prospected.<mask> <mask>, Anna and The King of Siam
He played a key role in strengthening ties between Singapore and Siam. <mask> <mask> had a very close relationship with the royal family of Siam and often served as their go-between. In recognising the importance of his role, he was appointed ‘the first Siamese Consul in Singapore’ by King Mongkut in 1863 and in 1885, King Chulalongkorn elevated his title to that of consul-general. He was bestowed the royal title Phraya Astongt Disrarak Siamprajanukulkij. He was

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching


texts: also Special Commissioner for Siam in the Straits Settlements. He introduced his business partner in Singapore, Read, to the Siamese king in the late-1850s when the king desired to get out of a disadvantageous treaty with France. He had great influence on the Chinese outside the colony, especially in the northern Malay States bordering Siam, Kelantan and Patani (originally all the Malay states were vassals of Siam but British intervention brought them under the control of the British Empire as "independent states".Eventually Patani was reannexed in 1909 as part of the Kingdom of Siam). Exercising this influence, during the time of Sir Andrew Clarke, <mask> <mask> was instrumental in settling a difficulty that arose between the Siamese and Perak governments. When King Mongkut of Siam (also known as King Rama IV) wanted to find someone who would help educate the members of his immediate family without attempting to convert them through use of Christian indoctrination it was his consul in Singapore, <mask> <mask>, that he turned to, pointing out "It is not pleasant to us if the school mistress much morely endeavour to convert the scholars to Christianity than teaching language literature etc. like the American missionaries here." In response, and upon a suggestion from William Adamson of The Borneo Company, <mask> <mask> recommended a suitable teacher in Singapore at that time who happened to be Anna Leonowens, a young widow, looking for work to support herself and her two children. The story of the schoolteacher and the King of Siam has


texts:
 been made popular through the films The King And I (Yul Brynner and Deborah Kerr) and Anna and the King (Chow, Yun Fatt and Jodie Foster). When the King and Queen of Siam landed in Singapore in 1890 they stayed at <mask> <mask>'s home, "Siam House", in North Bridge Road.It was reported that the king, who was expected to arrive in Singapore at Tanjong Pagar Wharf on board the royal vessel Ubon Burratit on 30 May 1890, had landed at Johnston's Pier instead. Due to the late arrival, only <mask> <mask> was at the pier to receive him. When the king wished to acquire property in Singapore it was to <mask> <mask> that he turned, resulting in the acquisition of "Hurricane House" in the vicinity of Orchard Road. Philanthropy

Tan Tock Seng Hospital
On 25 July 1844, the foundation stone of the Tan Tock Seng Hospital was laid on Pearl's Hill. The stone was laid but the construction took three years. After that the hospital stayed empty for another two years because of insufficient funding. In 1852, in order to ease overcrowding at the hospital founded by his father <mask> Seng, <mask> offered to bear the cost of additions to the building, approximately two thousand dollars ($2,000).His generous gesture led to many other merchants increasing monthly subscriptions to Tan Tock Seng Hospital. By 1854, the additions were completed. An inscription engraved in stone at the hospital gate acknowledges the donation of $3,000 by <mask> <mask>. After all of that it was decided that the Tan Tock Seng Hospital had to move as the government wanted to build a new

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Tock
Tan
Tan Kim
Ching


texts:
 building. <mask> agreed to the move, on condition that the rebuilt hospital should not cost less than the original one. He also requested a female ward, which his mother paid for in 1858 to perpetuate the memory of <mask>ck Seng. In 1858, two years after the government's decision to acquire Pearl's Hill, construction work began and <mask> <mask> donated an additional $3,340.<mask> Chong Su
Tan together with <mask> Beng donated funds to build an ancestral temple to serve the needs of the <mask> clan (people bearing the <mask> surname) and in 1876 the Tan Si Chong Su was built. School funding
In 1849, when the Chinese school Chung Wen Ge was built, he donated $100. In 1854, he donated $150 towards the construction of the Chui Eng School. Royal Asiatic Society
In March 1878 The Straits Asiatic Society (formed on 4 November 1877) was renamed The Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society and <mask> <mask> was one of its founding members. Klang concessionaire
In 1866, <mask> <mask>, along with William Henry Macleod Read (Chairman of the Straits Chamber of Commerce), secured the lease for Klang from Raja Abdullah bin Raja Jaafar, the administrator of Klang. Among the benefits of this lease arrangement was being able to collect taxes. Their attempts to collect taxes from Raja Mahdi whose father Raja Sulaiman was Klang's headman, however, sparked off a civil war that became known as The Klang War or The Selangor Civil War.The Larut Wars and The Pangkor Engagement
 See articles at Larut War and Pangkor Engagement

<mask> <mask> was a member of

masks:
Tan
Tan To
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Si
Tan Swee
Tan
Tan
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching


texts: the Ghee Hin secret society and a supporter of the Raja Muda Abdullah of Perak and the Ghee Hin in Larut. It was <mask> <mask> who had encouraged Abdullah to write seeking the involvement of the British. Released from his arrest at sea, and his temporary incarceration on Penang, and forbidden return to Perak, Abdullah ventured to Singapore in October 1873 to seek help from the Ghee Hin there. Had Ngah Ibrahim not already aligned himself with the Hai San, he would not have got it. As it was, he arrived at an accommodation with <mask> <mask> whose influence among the Chinese, at that time, was without comparison. After going through the introduction provided by the Ghi Hin from Penang <mask> <mask> offered to put Abdullah on the throne in return for five elevenths (5/11) of all duties collected between Telok Serah and Krian for a period of ten years. <mask> <mask> together with an English merchant in Singapore (W. H. M. Read) drafted a letter to Governor Sir Andrew Clarke, which Abdullah signed, in which Raja Muda Abdullah expressed his desire to place Perak under British protection, and "to have a man of sufficient abilities to show him a good system of government."In the British intervention in Malaya 1867-1877 Parkinson tells us that Sir Andrew Clarke, just weeks after his arrival in Singapore, had already found evidence of the continuing disturbances in Perak and Selangor. Apart from his executive council, he talked to <mask> Cheng. Clarke decided that both the Hai San and Ghee Hin should have access to Larut with neither side being

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim


texts:
 excluded, a complete reversal of the policy of his predecessor, Sir Harry Ord. <mask> <mask> agreed and wrote to the Ghee Hin on Penang to put this to them and advocate peace. Clarke then sent Pickering to Penang to talk to the respective headmen in Penang. Pickering gave <mask> <mask>'s letter to Chin Ah Yam. Twenty Ghee Hin headmen met through the night at the Ghee Hin Kongsi house considering <mask> Cheng's letter.In the morning they met with Pickering and agreed to surrender their forces in seven days time. Following that outcome and the outcome of a meeting with Chung Keng Quee whom Pickering also met, Sir Andrew Clarke then gathered the main Chinese leaders (principally Chung Keng Quee and Chin Ah Yam) and some Malays – including Abdullah – at Pulau Pangkor where the "Pangkor Engagement" was formulated and signed, recognising Abdullah as Sultan, and getting the Chinese to agree to settle their differences in Larut under British arbitration. Singapore syndicates
During the tenure of Chiu Sin Yong's Revenue Farming syndicate in Singapore, backed by Khoo Thean Poh, <mask> testified against Cheang Hong Lim and his group who had mobilized all of their allies and affiliates and organized a conspiracy to scuttle Chiu's farming syndicate. <mask> Cheng's testimony was a godsend for Chiu and Khoo. <mask> and his father <mask> Seng, representing most of the Malacca-born Hokkien, led the Haizhang group while their archrivals Cheang Sam Teo and his son, Cheang Hong Lim led the Zhang Hai group, the division between Hokkien migrants from

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Tan
Tan Kim
Tan
Tan Tock


texts:
 Quanzhou and Zhangzhou. Awards
Commander of the Third Class of the Order of the Rising Sun of Japan. Special letter of thanks from the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir Andrew Clarke, for his role in settling a difficulty that arose between the Siamese and Perak governments.Special letter and honour from China for his contribution to the Famine Fund in 1890. "It is usual in the Straits to speak of well-to-do Chinamen as gentlemen but as a fact, very few of them would be entitled to the distinction in China; and none with exception perhaps of the Honorable Mr. Whampoa, a member of the Legislative Council of this Colony, and Consul for China, and Mr. <mask> <mask> the Siamese Consul who has some Chinese rank, none would be allowed to stand upright in the presence of a Mandarin." Personal life
<mask> had three wives and a total of 19 children. He had seven children with his first wife, Chua Yee Ren, three children with Khunying, Puen Anukulsiamkit, and nine children in his third marriage. His eldest daughter, <mask> Gay (), who had been taught Chinese and also a little English, was the first among those appointed trustees of his estate to take out probate of his will, one of the rare instances of a Chinese lady being appointed and assuming the duties of executrix of the will of a Chinese testator. Five of his grandsons (and who were all sons of <mask> Toh), <mask> Liat, <mask> Pin (), <mask> Liang (), <mask> Swee () and <mask> Wah () were well known members of the Chinese community. <mask> died in February 1892 and his remains were

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan
Tan Cheng
Tan Soon
Tan Boo
Tan Cheow
Tan Kwee
Tan Kwee
Tan Kwee
Death Tan


texts:
 interred at his private burial ground at the thirteenth mile on the Changi Road.Reports from local and foreign newspapers of the time suggest the high esteem in which he was held and give us an idea of what it was like. For example, an Australian paper, The North Queensland Register, quoting The Singapore Free Press Reports:

"The remains of the late Mr <mask> <mask> were this morning removed with more than usual pomp and display from his residence in North Bridge Road for interment in his private burial ground at Changi. Judging by the long lines of spectators and the throngs of Orientals at all the windows and street corners, all along the route of the procession, the ceremony was one of more than ordinary interest to the many sections of the Chinese community who were, thus represented, and who had assembled in thousands to do honour to the head of the Seh Tan, the deceased having, been for years one of the leading citizens in Singapore. Mr <mask> <mask> was during his lifetime Consul-General for Siam, and as representing His Siamese Majesty there were in attendance three Siamese priests, who took part in the unwieldy yet orderly procession, which covered more than a mile in length. Leading the procession, which was unusually picturesque on account of t e numerous, costly and rainbow tinted presentation banners freely subscribed for by the deceased's compatriots, was a gigantic figure which cost 40dol, some 15 feet or more in height, by name the Kye Loh Sin, a kind of Chinese Beelzebub whose functions was to act in some sort as a


texts:
 scarecrow for devils. And sufficiently terrible for this purpose he looked with his stark, staring red face and huge rolling eyes in violent oscillation with every jolt of his wooden car. Following these were the bearers of the titles of the deceased, which were apparently many and varied, other Mandarin monstrosities, painted Kling, Malay and Malacca bands, and innumerable detachments of discordant Chinese with a never ceasing rumble of drums and banging of brazen instruments.The coffin according to custom was carried in a most elaborate palanquin with a highly decorated a canopy the whole structure being carried by a band of 72 coolies in mourning costume. In the rear were the females of the deceased's family clad in sackcloth. The funeral cortege left the house in North Bridge Road shortly after eleven o'clock, and proceeded slowly along, via the Lochore Police Station, past the Gas Works to the thirteenth milestone is on the Changi Koai, the great body of the procession however, dispersing at a refreshment booth on the line of route. The interment proper, all things being favourable, and the astral influences sufficiently benign, will take place this evening about eight o'clock." Legacy
The setting up of the Tao Nan School, established on 18 November 1906, financed by the Hokkien Huay Kuan (which was led by <mask> <mask> before he died), was initiated by <mask> Liat, the grandson of <mask> <mask>. <mask> <mask>'s residence at Siam House served as temporary grounds for the school which moved to its own premises in Armenian Street and

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Boo
Tan Kim
Ching
Tan Kim
Ching


texts:
 later Marine Parade (1982). Although he was buried in Changi, his grave was transferred to Bukit Brown in 1940.There are two roads named after him in Singapore: the Tan Kim Cheng Road in Bukit Timah and the Kim Cheng Street in Tiong Bahru. References

Further reading
Pioneers of Singapore: Builders of Our Land By Lee Chin Lim, Soon Onn Chan Contributor Lee Chin Lim Published by Asiapac, 2004; ,
"Singapore Story" by the National Library Board of Singapore
The Golden Chersonese and The Way Thither by Isabella L. Bird (Mrs. Bishop) published 1892 G.P. Putnam's Sons
James Brooke of Sarawak: A Biography of Sir James Brooke - Page 251 by Emily Hahn - 1953 - 271 pages, Published 1953 by A. Barker
An Ode To Friendship—Celebrating Thailand-Singapore Relations, Mr Wong Wee Hon, Head (Archives Reference Room), National Archives of Singapore
Tanjong Pagar: A Pictorial Journey (1819–1989) = <mask> Pa-Ko T'u P'Ien Chi - Page 88 1989 - 149 pages Published 1989 by Tanjong Pagar Citizens'Consultative Committee
The Kuomintang Movement in British Malaya, 1912-1949 By <mask>t Yong, R. B. McKenna Published 1990, SUP
Singapore: Wealth, Power And The Culture Of Control By Carl A. Trocki Published 2006 Routledge (UK)
The Greek Favourite of the King of Siam - Page xiv by Sitsayamkan (Sit) - 1967 - 362 pages Published 1967 Donald Moore Press
Handbook to Singapore with Map, and a Plan of the Botanical Gardens By George Murray Reith Published 1892 Singapore and Straits Print. Off. Anna and the King of Siam - Page 74 by Margaret Landon, Lessing J. Malaysian Branch

masks:
Tan Jung
Ching Fat


texts:
 - Published 1922
Singapore Then & Now, Ray Tyers, University Education Press, 1976
The London Illustrated News, 6 March 1858
The Free Press, 31 May 1890
The Sunday Times, 30 November 1969
A King of Siam Speaks By M.R. Kukrit Pramoj, Mongkut, Seni Pramoj Published 1987 by The Siam Society
From Competition to Constraint: The International Rice Trade in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, A. J. H. Latham, University of Wales, Swansea
Tao Nan School by Mr Dhoraisingam S. Samuel
Lim Siew Yeen & Renuka M, National Library Board, Singapore, 2002
The King of Siam's Eclipse: The Total Solar Eclipse of 18 August 1868 by Heather Hobden
Ancestors of Claudine Chionh, Claudine Chionh, 2005
Lawrence Tan's Family Tree, Lawrence Tan
Koh Saeng Tat - The Opium King by Carl A Trocki
Lecture 3.2 The underside of Development, Topic 3: Singapore's Economic Development, Associate Professor Karl Hack, Humanities and Social Studies Education Academic Group, National Institute of Education
Class Structure and Social Mobility in the Chinese Community in Singapore and Malaya 1800-1911
Yen Ching-Hwang Modern Asian Studies, Vol.21, No. 3 (1987), pp. 417–445
Chinese Capitalism and the British Empire By Carl A. Trocki—A paper presented to the International Association of Historians of Asia, Conference, Taiwan, Taipei, 6–10 December 2004
The Siamese Royal Agent in Singapore: The Activities of <mask> <mask> by Miyamata, Toshiyuki., Southeast Asia: History & Culture, Number 31, 30 May 2002
"Rescuing Businesses through Transnationalism: Embedded Chinese Enterprise and

masks:
Tan Kim
Ching


texts:
 Nationalist Activities in Singapore in the 1930s Great Depression" by Kuo, Huei-Ying, Enterprise & Society - Volume 7, Number 1, March 2006, pp. 98–127
The rice trade between Siam and Singapore in the late nineteenth century : <mask> <mask> and Siam 'Garden Rice' by Toshiyuki Miyata
The Straits Settlements, 1826-67: Indian Presidency to Crown Colony By Constance Mary Turnbull Published by Athlone Press, 1972; pp. 32, 125, 296
Methodist Schools in Malaysia: Their Record and History By Seng Ong Ho Published by Board of Education, Malaya Annual Conference, 1965; p. 209
Journeys to Java by a Siamese King By Imtip Pattajoti Suharto Published by Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Thailand, 2001; , ; p. 5, 20
American Association of Singapore, 50th Anniversary: 50th Anniversary By American Association of Singapore, Glenn A. Wood Published by American Association of Singapore, 1967; p. 21
Siam and the British, 1874-75: Sir Andrew Clarke and the Front Palace Crisis By Shunyu Xie Published by Thammasat University Press, 1988; p. 42
Play and Politics, Recollection of Malaya by an Old Resident By William Henry Macleod Read published in London by W. Gardner Darton, 1901 (Call


texts:
<mask> (born 8 June 1992) is a Japanese kickboxer, fighting out of Futtsu, Japan. He is the former Krush Super Featherweight champion. As of 1 August 2020, he is ranked the #9 flyweight in the world by Combat Press. He first entered the rankings in May 2019. Kickboxing career
<mask> enjoyed one of the best runs of his career in 2014, when he went on a five fight winning streak, including a first round TKO of Leona Pettas. This run earned a chance to fight Hirotaka Urabe for the Krush Super Featherweight title. He failed to capture the title, as Urabe won a unanimous decision.He lost three of his next four fights, before entering the 2016 K-1 Super Featherweight Grand Prix. He managed a TKO win against Hitoshi Aketo in the quarterfinal, but lost by TKO to Koya Urabe in the semifinals. In July 2016, <mask> fought Motoki for the MA Japan Kick Super Featherweight title. He won the fight by unanimous decision. He would lose two of his next three fights, before successfully defending the MA Japan title, with a second round KO of Ryoji Washio. Shimano fought Masanobu Goshu for the Krush Super Featherweight title at Krush

masks:
Kotaro Shimano
Shimano
Shimano


texts: 89. He won the fight by unanimous decision.After defeating Rungphet Wor Rungniran, <mask> was scheduled to defend his Krush title for the first time at Krush 96, when he faced Tatsuya Oiwa. The fight went into an extra round, after which <mask> won a decision. <mask> was scheduled to defend his Krush title for the second time against Yuma Saikyo at Krush 99. Saikyo won the fight by unanimous decision. During the MA Japan Kick - Soeno Dojo 50th Anniversary event, <mask> was scheduled to fight Tapejyun Saichan for the WMAF World Super Featherweight title. He won the fight by a split decision, after an extra round was fought. He would follow this up with a second win with MA Japan, as he scored a knockout over Woo Seung Beom.<mask> extended his winning streak to four, with a unanimous decision win against Satoru Nariai, and a TKO win against Junpei Sano. He was scheduled to fight Ryusei Ashizawa at K-1 World GP 2020 in Tokyo. Ashizawa won the fight by TKO in the second round after a back and forth round, during which both Ashizawa and Shimano were knocked down. He won a unanimous decision against Yuki Miwa at K-1

masks: Shimano Shimano Shimano Shimano Shimano


texts:
 World GP 2021: K’Festa 4 Day.2. <mask> was afterwards scheduled to fight Sano Tenma at K-1 World GP 2021: Japan Bantamweight Tournament. <mask> was scheduled to face Hirotaka Urabe in a 61kg catchweight bout at K-1 World GP 2022 Japan on February 27, 2022. style=background:white colspan=9 |
|-  style="background:#fbb;"
| 2019-03-09|| Loss ||align=left| Yuma Saikyo || Krush.99 || Tokyo, Japan || Decision (Unanimous)|| 3 || 3:00
|-
!style=background:white colspan=9 |
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2018-12-16|| Win||align=left| Tatsuya Oiwa || Krush.96 || Tokyo, Japan || Ext.R Decision (Unanimous)|| 4 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2018-07-29|| Win||align=left| Rungphet Wor Rungniran || MA Japan Kick - Tekken 11 || Chiba (city), Japan || Decision (Unanimous)|| 3 || 3:00
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2018-06-30|| Win||align=left| Masanobu Goshu || Krush.89 || Tokyo, Japan || Decision (Unanimous)|| 3 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2018-03-10|| Win||align=left| Naoki Yamamoto || Krush.86 || Tokyo, Japan || KO (Left Hook)||

masks: Shimano Shimano


texts:
 1 || 1:53
|-  style="background:#fbb;"
| 2017-09-18|| Loss||align=left| Kouzi || K-1 World GP 2016 -60kg World Tournament || Tokyo, Japan|| Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2017-07-17|| Win||align=left| Jira Banchamek || MA Japan Kick - Tekken 10 || Chiba (city), Japan || Decision (Unanimous)|| 3 || 3:00
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2017-04-30|| Win||align=left| Ryoji Washio || MA Japan Kick - Festival of Martial Arts～FIGHT FOR PEACE8～ || Tokyo, Japan || KO || 2 || 1:51
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2017-03-03|| Win||align=left| "Dynamite" Yuta Takahashi || Krush.74 || Tokyo, Japan || Decision (Unanimous)|| 3 || 3:00
|-  style="background:#fbb;"
| 2016-12-04|| Loss||align=left| Ryuki || MA Japan Kick - Tekken 9|| Japan || Decision (Majority) || 3 || 3:00
|-  style="background:#fbb;"
| 2016-10-15|| Loss ||align=left| Hayato || Krush.70 || Tokyo, Japan || Decision (Unanimous)|| 3 || 3:00
|-  style="background:#cfc;"
| 2016-07-24|| Win||align=left| Motoki || MA Japan Kick - Tekken 8 || Chiba (city), Japan || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 ||


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Touch the Clouds (Lakota: Maȟpíya Ičáȟtagya or Maȟpíya Íyapat'o) (c. 1838 – September 5, 1905) was a chief of the Minneconjou Teton Lakota (also known as Sioux) known for his bravery and skill in battle, physical strength and diplomacy in counsel. The youngest son of Lone Horn, he was brother to Spotted Elk, Frog, and Hook Nose. There is evidence suggesting that he was a cousin to Crazy Horse. When Touch the Clouds's Wakpokinyan band split in the mid-1870s, the band traveled to the Cheyenne River Agency. He assumed the leadership of the band in 1875 after the death of his father and retained leadership during the initial period of the Great Sioux War of 1876-77. After the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he took the band north, eventually surrendering at the Spotted Tail Agency, where he enlisted in the Indian Scouts. However, not long after being present at the death of Crazy Horse, Touch the Clouds transferred with his band back to the Cheyenne River Agency.Touch the Clouds became one of the new leaders of the Minneconjou at the Cheyenne River Agency in 1881, keeping his position until his death on September 5, 1905. Upon his death his son, Amos Charging First, took over as the new chief. Rise to leadership

Born between 1837 and 1839, Touch the Clouds was the youngest son of the influential headman Lone Horn, leader of a Minneconjou band called the Wakpokinyan (Flies Along the Stream). Touch the Clouds was known for his height and great strength, to which his name relates. Lieutenant Henry R. Lemly, who met Touch the Clouds in 1877, described him as a Minneconjou "of magnificent physique, standing six feet


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 five inches in his moccasins, and without an ounce of surplus flesh, weighing 280 pounds". By the time that Touch the Clouds had reached his thirties, he had earned the respect of his peers and had been selected as the head of one of the tribe's warrior societies. In this role, he often led war parties against enemy tribes.White Bull later recalled an occasion in 1872 when <mask>kinyan appear to have split, with part of the band (including Touch the Clouds) going into the Cheyenne River Agency on the Missouri River. A portion led by Lame Deer chose to remain out. Lone Horn struggled to maintain dialogue between the various factions of Minneconjou and their relatives, part of his long record as a Lakota diplomat. After Lone Horn died in 1875, the mantle of leadership fell to his son, just as the US Army was beginning its campaign against the non-treaty Cheyenne and Lakota bands. Great Sioux War of 1876–77
At the beginning of the Great Sioux War of 1876-77, Touch <mask> Clouds stayed with his band at the Cheyenne River Agency through that summer.Shortly after word of Custer's defeat at the Little Bighorn reached the reservation, Touch the Clouds pleaded with army officers at the nearby post: "Have compassion on us. Don't punish us all because some of us fought when we had to." Believing that agency bands were supporting the "hostiles", the army prepared to disarm the friendly Lakota and confiscate their ponies. In late September 1876, suspicious of the Army's intentions, Touch the Clouds led a breakout of Minneconjou and Sans Arc who fled the agency, abandoning their lodgepoles and other possessions in their

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 hurried flight north. The arrival of these refugees, including Touch the Clouds, Roman Nose, Bull Eagle, Spotted Elk and other headmen, introduced a more moderate element into the leadership of the northern villages. In October 1876, the combined force fought troops in several skirmishes along the new road to the Tongue River Cantonment. After Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull departed with their bands, representatives of the Minneconjou met with Colonel Nelson Miles to discuss the possibility of surrender.By February 1877, Touch the Clouds was camped near Short Pine Hills on the Little Missouri River with about 60 or 70 lodges. Here, he met the famed Brulé leader, Spotted Tail, in a five-day council. He agreed to take his band in to surrender at the Spotted Tail Agency in northwestern Nebraska. They arrived on April 14, 1877 and Touch the Clouds was the first to ride forward. "I lay down this gun," he announced to all who could hear, "as a token of submission to Gen. Crook, to whom I wish to surrender." In the months that followed, Touch the Clouds and the Minneconjou lived peacefully at the Spotted Tail agency. The interpreter at Spotted Tail, Louis Bordeaux, described the Minneconjou leader as "an honorable and peaceable Indian, a man of good character, a very fine man, deprecated hostilities and was a peacemaker."The army persuaded him to enlist in the Indian Scouts. <mask> the Clouds served as the first sergeant for Company E.

Touch the Clouds' relationship with Army officials soured in late August 1877 when he and Crazy Horse were asked to lead scouts north to fight Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce. Four


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 days later, the army attempted to arrest Crazy Horse, but he slipped away to the Spotted Tail Agency. <mask> the Clouds accompanied his friend back to Camp Robinson, where Crazy Horse was fatally bayonetted when army soldiers attempted to force him into the guardhouse. Touch the Clouds was allowed to remain with Crazy Horse that night until the Oglala died. Placing his hand on Crazy Horse's chest, Touch the Clouds said, "It is good: he has looked for death, and it has come." Touch the Clouds went to Washington, D.C. as a delegate the following month.In October 1877, the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail Agencies were removed to the Missouri River, during which time Touch the Clouds and his band joined the Oglala. Many of the northern bands that had surrendered the previous spring broke away. They headed north to join Sitting Bull in Canada, where he had gone after the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Touch the Clouds was able to keep most of his band quiet and prevent them from leaving. He asked that they be transferred back home to the Cheyenne River Agency. Dr. James Irwin, agent at Red Cloud, supported the transfer. He noted that Touch the Clouds had been "very obedient and orderly during his stay with me and with his band remained behind when all the others left here."Cheyenne River Reservation

Touch the Clouds and his band finally returned in February 1878 to the Cheyenne River Reservation in central South Dakota. He lived there the remainder of his life. By the spring of 1882, the last remaining Minneconjou bands had returned to Cheyenne River, bringing together the tribe for the first time in several decades.


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 By this time, only three of the traditional six headmen of the tribe were still alive. In 1882, the Minneconjou either affirmed or appointed new leaders to fill vacancies. <mask> the Clouds was confirmed as a "shirt wearer" to fill the position of his late father. The other new leaders selected included White Bull, Big Crow, White Swan and <mask> the Bear.At the ceremony, the new leaders sang the following song: "It is hard to be chief; But I do my best to be a chief." In 1898, Touch the Clouds traveled to Omaha, Nebraska as part of the Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition, where he was photographed by Frank A. Rinehart. Touch the Clouds continued to be a vocal advocate for his people for the remainder of his life. In 1884, Rev. Addison Foster visited the Cheyenne River Reservation. Following a church service, Touch the Clouds remained behind "to say that he felt the importance of this new way and that he wished for himself and his people schools and churches." He died on September 5, 1905, on Cherry Creek River, South Dakota.Touch the Clouds was married at least twice. He had several daughters and at least one son. His oldest son, Amos Charging First, succeeded his father as a community leader, the next in the dynasty of Minneconjou headmen starting with the great Lone Horn. Notes

References

External links
Touch the Clouds, American Tribes
 Indian genealogy
 Discussion board about Touch the Clouds. 1905 deaths
Lakota leaders
19th-century Native Americans
20th-century Native Americans
Native American leaders
Native American people of the Indian Wars
Pine Ridge Campaign
1830s births
Miniconjou

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<mask> (; 16 February 1834 – 9 August 1919) was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist and artist. He discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms and connected many terms in biology, including ecology, phylum, phylogeny, and Protista. Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the influential but no longer widely held recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarises its species' evolutionary development, or phylogeny. The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures, collected in his Kunstformen der Natur ("Art Forms of Nature"), a book which would go on to influence the Art Nouveau artistic movement. As a philosopher, <mask> wrote Die Welträthsel (1895–1899; in English: The Riddle of the Universe, 1901), the genesis for the term "world riddle" (Welträtsel); and Freedom in Science and Teaching to support teaching evolution. <mask> was also a promoter of scientific racism and embraced the idea of Social Darwinism. Life

<mask> was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam (then part of the Kingdom of Prussia).In 1852 <mask> completed studies at the Domgymnasium, the cathedral high-school of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow (with whom he later worked briefly as assistant), and with the

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Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel
Ernst Haeckel
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Ernst Haeckel
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texts: anatomist-physiologist Johannes Peter Müller (1801–1858). Together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857 Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received the license to practice medicine. The occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel after contact with suffering patients. <mask> studied under Karl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena for three years, earning a habilitation in comparative anatomy in 1861, before becoming a professor of zoology at the University at Jena, where he remained for 47 years, from 1862 to 1909. Between 1859 and 1866 Haeckel worked on many phyla, such as radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms).During a trip to the Mediterranean, <mask> named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. In 1864, his beloved first wife, Anna Sethe, died. <mask> dedicated some species of jellyfish of particular beauty (such as Desmonema annasethe) to his unforgettable wife. From 1866 to 1867 <mask> made an extended journey to the Canary Islands with Hermann Fol. On 17 October 1866 he arrived in London. Over the next few days he met Charles Lyell, and visited Thomas Huxley and family at their home. On 21 October he visited Charles Darwin at Down House in Kent.In 1867 he married Agnes Huschke. Their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869 he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia (where he lived on the island of Hvar in a monastery), and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, and Greece. In 1907 he had a museum built in Jena to teach the public about evolution. <mask>

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Ernst Haeckel
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 retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical Church of Prussia. On the occasion of his 80th birthday celebration he was presented with a two-volume work entitled Was wir <mask> verdanken (What We Owe to <mask>), edited at the request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena. <mask>'s wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and he became substantially frailer, breaking his leg and arm.He sold his "Villa Medusa" in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, which preserved his library. <mask> died on 9 August 1919. <mask> became the most famous proponent of Monism in Germany. Politics
<mask>'s affinity for the German Romantic movement, coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism, influenced his political beliefs. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, <mask> believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and that ontogeny reflected phylogeny. He saw the social sciences as instances of "applied biology", and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. In 1906 <mask> belonged to the founders of the Monist League (Deutscher Monistenbund), which took a stance against philosophical materialism and promote a "natural Weltanschauung".This organization lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco (1869–1940), Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn. He was the first person to use the term "first world war". However, <mask>'s books were banned by the Nazi Party, which refused Monism and <mask>'s freedom of thought. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that <mask> had

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 often overtly recognized the great contribution of educated Jews to the German culture. Research

<mask> was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy. Although <mask>'s ideas are important to the history of evolutionary theory, and although he was a competent invertebrate anatomist most famous for his work on radiolaria, many speculative concepts that he championed are now considered incorrect. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found.He was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed the kingdom Protista in 1866. His chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated Kunstformen der Natur (Art forms of nature). <mask> did not support natural selection, rather believing in Lamarckism. <mask> advanced a version of the earlier recapitulation theory previously set out by Étienne Serres in the 1820s and supported by followers of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire including Robert Edmond Grant. It proposed a link between ontogeny (development of form) and phylogeny (evolutionary descent), summed up by Haeckel in the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it (now called "strong recapitulation"), in favour of the ideas first advanced by <mask> von Baer.The strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of adult ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that

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texts: what is repeated (and built upon) is the ancestral embryonic development process. <mask> supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be oversimplified and in part inaccurate, and the theory is now considered an oversimplification of quite complicated relationships, however comparison of embryos remains a powerful way to demonstrate that all animals are related. <mask> introduced the concept of heterochrony, the change in timing of embryonic development over the course of evolution. <mask> was a flamboyant figure, who sometimes took great, non-scientific leaps from available evidence. For example, at the time when Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), <mask> postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). At that time, no remains of human ancestors had yet been identified. He described these theoretical remains in great detail and even named the as-yet unfound species, Pithecanthropus alalus, and instructed his students such as Richard and Oskar Hertwig to go and find it.One student did find some remains: a Dutchman named Eugène Dubois searched the East Indies from 1887 to 1895, discovering the remains of Java Man in 1891, consisting of a skullcap, thighbone, and a few teeth. These remains are among the oldest hominid remains ever found. Dubois classified Java Man with <mask>'s Pithecanthropus label, though they were later reclassified as Homo erectus. Some scientists of the day suggested Dubois' Java Man as a potential intermediate form between modern humans and the common ancestor we

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 share with the other great apes. The current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern humans were African populations of Homo erectus (possibly Homo ergaster), rather than the Asian populations exemplified by Java Man and Peking Man. (Ironically, a new human species, Homo floresiensis, a dwarf human type, has recently been discovered in the island of Flores). Polygenism and racial theory

The creationist polygenism of Samuel George Morton and Louis Agassiz, which presented human races as separately created species, was rejected by Charles Darwin, who argued for the monogenesis of the human species and the African origin of modern humans.In contrast to most of Darwin's supporters, <mask> put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman Urmenschen (), which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved – in a kind of Lamarckian use-inheritance – as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. From this, Haeckel drew the implication that languages with the most potential yield the human races with the most potential, led by the Semitic and Indo-Germanic groups, with Berber, Jewish, Greco-Roman and Germanic varieties to the fore. As Haeckel stated:

Haeckel's view can be seen as a forerunner of the views of Carleton Coon, who also believed that human races evolved independently and in


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 parallel with each other. These ideas eventually fell from favour. <mask> also applied the hypothesis of polygenism to the modern diversity of human groups. He became a key figure in social darwinism and leading proponent of scientific racism, stating for instance:

Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction.In his view, 'Negroes' were savages and Whites were the most civilised: for instance, he claimed that '[t]he Negro' had stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race, which, he argued, was evidence of their being less evolved, and which led him to compare them to four-handed" Apes'. In his Ontogeny and Phylogeny Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote: "[<mask>'s] evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to a 'just' state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others ... all contributed to the rise of Nazism." In his introduction to the Nazi party ideologue Alfred Rosenberg's 1930 book, [The Myth of the Twentieth Century], Peter Peel affirms that Rosenberg had indeed read Haeckel. In the same line of thought, historian Daniel Gasman states that <mask>'s ideology stimulated the birth of Fascist ideology in Italy and France. However, Robert J. Richards notes: "<mask>, on his travels to Ceylon and Indonesia, often formed closer and more intimate relations with natives, even members of the untouchable classes, than with the European colonials." and

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 says the Nazis rejected Haeckel, since he opposed antisemitism, while supporting ideas they disliked (for instance atheism, feminism, internationalism, pacifism etc.). Asia hypothesis

Haeckel claimed the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia: he believed that Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved.<mask> argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa. <mask> later claimed that the missing link was to be found on the lost continent of Lemuria located in the Indian Ocean. He believed that Lemuria was the home of the first humans and that Asia was the home of many of the earliest primates; he thus supported that Asia was the cradle of hominid evolution. <mask> also claimed that Lemuria connected Asia and Africa, which allowed the migration of humans to the rest of the world. In <mask>'s book The History of Creation (1884) he included migration routes which he thought the first humans had used outside of Lemuria. Embryology and recapitulation theory

When Haeckel was a student in the 1850s he showed great interest in embryology, attending the rather unpopular lectures twice and in his notes sketched the visual aids: textbooks had few illustrations, and large format plates were used to show students how to see the tiny forms under a reflecting microscope, with the translucent tissues seen against a black background. Developmental series were used to show stages within a species, but inconsistent views and stages made it even more difficult to compare different species.It was agreed by


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 all European evolutionists that all vertebrates looked very similar at an early stage, in what was thought of as a common ideal type, but there was a continuing debate from the 1820s between the Romantic recapitulation theory that human embryos developed through stages of the forms of all the major groups of adult animals, literally manifesting a sequence of organisms on a linear chain of being, and <mask> von Baer's opposing view, stated in von Baer's laws of embryology, that the early general forms diverged into four major groups of specialised forms without ever resembling the adult of another species, showing affinity to an archetype but no relation to other types or any transmutation of species. By the time <mask> was teaching he was able to use a textbook with woodcut illustrations written by his own teacher Albert von Kölliker, which purported to explain human development while also using other mammalian embryos to claim a coherent sequence. Despite the significance to ideas of transformism, this was not really polite enough for the new popular science writing, and was a matter for medical institutions and for experts who could make their own comparisons. Darwin, Naturphilosophie and Lamarck

Darwin's On the Origin of Species, which made a powerful impression on Haeckel when he read it in 1864, was very cautious about the possibility of ever reconstructing the history of life, but did include a section reinterpreting von Baer's embryology and revolutionising the field of study, concluding that "Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscured, of

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 the common parent-form of each great class of animals." It mentioned von Baer's 1828 anecdote (misattributing it to Louis Agassiz) that at an early stage embryos were so similar that it could be impossible to tell whether an unlabelled specimen was of a mammal, a bird, or of a reptile, and Darwin's own research using embryonic stages of barnacles to show that they are crustaceans, while cautioning against the idea that one organism or embryonic stage is "higher" or "lower", or more or less evolved. Haeckel disregarded such caution, and in a year wrote his massive and ambitious Generelle Morphologie, published in 1866, presenting a revolutionary new synthesis of Darwin's ideas with the German tradition of Naturphilosophie going back to Goethe and with the progressive evolutionism of Lamarck in what he called Darwinismus. He used morphology to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life, in the absence of fossil evidence using embryology as evidence of ancestral relationships.He invented new terms, including ontogeny and phylogeny, to present his evolutionised recapitulation theory that "ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny". The two massive volumes sold poorly, and were heavy going: with his limited understanding of German, Darwin found them impossible to read. <mask>'s publisher turned down a proposal for a "strictly scholarly and objective" second edition. Embryological drawings

<mask>'s aim was a reformed morphology with evolution as the organising principle of a cosmic synthesis unifying science, religion, and art. He was giving successful "popular lectures" on his ideas to students and townspeople in Jena,

masks: Haeckel Haeckel


texts: in an approach pioneered by his teacher Rudolf Virchow. To meet his publisher's need for a popular work he used a student's transcript of his lectures as the basis of his Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte of 1868, presenting a comprehensive presentation of evolution. In the Spring of that year he drew figures for the book, synthesising his views of specimens in Jena and published pictures to represent types.After publication he told a colleague that the images "are completely exact, partly copied from nature, partly assembled from all illustrations of these early stages that have hitherto become known". There were various styles of embryological drawings at that time, ranging from more schematic representations to "naturalistic" illustrations of specific specimens. Haeckel believed privately that his figures were both exact and synthetic, and in public asserted that they were schematic like most figures used in teaching. The images were reworked to match in size and orientation, and though displaying <mask>'s own views of essential features, they support von Baer's concept that vertebrate embryos begin similarly and then diverge. Relating different images on a grid conveyed a powerful evolutionary message. As a book for the general public, it followed the common practice of not citing sources. The book sold very well, and while some anatomical experts hostile to Haeckel's evolutionary views expressed some private concerns that certain figures had been drawn rather freely, the figures showed what they already knew about similarities in embryos.The first published concerns came from Ludwig Rütimeyer, a professor


texts: of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Basel who had placed fossil mammals in an evolutionary lineage early in the 1860s and had been sent a complimentary copy. At the end of 1868 his review in the Archiv für Anthropologie wondered about the claim that the work was "popular and scholarly", doubting whether the second was true, and expressed horror about such public discussion of man's place in nature with illustrations such as the evolutionary trees being shown to non-experts. Though he made no suggestion that embryo illustrations should be directly based on specimens, to him the subject demanded the utmost "scrupulosity and conscientiousness" and an artist must "not arbitrarily model or generalise his originals for speculative purposes" which he considered proved by comparison with works by other authors. In particular, "one and the same, moreover incorrectly interpreted woodcut, is presented to the reader three times in a row and with three different captions as [the] embryo of the dog, the chick, [and] the turtle". He accused <mask> of "playing fast and loose with the public and with science", and failing to live up to the obligation to the truth of every serious researcher. <mask> responded with angry accusations of bowing to religious prejudice, but in the second (1870) edition changed the duplicated embryo images to a single image captioned "embryo of a mammal or bird". Duplication using galvanoplastic stereotypes (clichés) was a common technique in textbooks, but not on the same page to represent different eggs or embryos.In 1891 <mask> made the excuse that this "extremely rash

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 foolishness" had occurred in undue haste but was "bona fide", and since repetition of incidental details was obvious on close inspection, it is unlikely to have been intentional deception. The revised 1870 second edition of 1,500 copies attracted more attention, being quickly followed by further revised editions with larger print runs as the book became a prominent part of the optimistic, nationalist, anticlerical "culture of progress" in Otto von Bismarck's new German Empire. The similarity of early vertebrate embryos became common knowledge, and the illustrations were praised by experts such as Michael Foster of the University of Cambridge. In the introduction to his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, Darwin gave particular praise to Haeckel, writing that if Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte "had appeared before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it". The first chapter included an illustration: "As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy" with a footnote citing the sources and noting that "Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his Schöpfungsgeschichte." The fifth edition of <mask>'s book appeared in 1874, with its frontispiece a heroic portrait of <mask> himself, replacing the previous controversial image of the heads of apes and humans. Controversy
Later in 1874, <mask>'s simplified embryology textbook Anthropogenie made the subject into a battleground over Darwinism aligned with


texts: Bismarck's Kulturkampf ("culture struggle") against the Catholic Church.<mask> took particular care over the illustrations, changing to the leading zoological publisher Wilhelm Engelmann of Leipzig and obtaining from them use of illustrations from their other textbooks as well as preparing his own drawings including a dramatic double page illustration showing "early", "somewhat later" and "still later" stages of 8 different vertebrates. Though <mask>'s views had attracted continuing controversy, there had been little dispute about the embryos and he had many expert supporters, but Wilhelm His revived the earlier criticisms and introduced new attacks on the 1874 illustrations. Others joined in: both expert anatomists and Catholic priests and supporters were politically opposed to <mask>'s views. While it has been widely claimed that Haeckel was charged with fraud by five professors and convicted by a university court at Jena, there does not appear to be an independently verifiable source for this claim. Recent analyses (Richardson 1998, Richardson and Keuck 2002) have found that some of the criticisms of <mask>'s embryo drawings were legitimate, but others were unfounded. There were multiple versions of the embryo drawings, and Haeckel rejected the claims of fraud. It was later said that "there is evidence of sleight of hand" on both sides of the feud between <mask> and Wilhelm His.Robert J. Richards, in a paper published in 2008, defends the case for Haeckel, shedding doubt against the fraud accusations based on the material used for comparison with what Haeckel could access at the time. Awards and honors


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<mask> was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1885. He was awarded the title of Excellency by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1907 and the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908. In the United States, <mask>, a  summit in the Eastern Sierra Nevada, overlooking the Evolution Basin, is named in his honour, as is another Mount <mask>, a  summit in New Zealand; and the asteroid 12323 Haeckel. In Jena he is remembered with a monument at Herrenberg (erected in 1969), an exhibition at Ernst-Haeckel-Haus, and at the Jena Phyletic Museum, which continues to teach about evolution and share his work to this day. The ratfish, Harriotta haeckeli is named in his honor. The research vessel <mask> is named in his honor.In 1981, a botanical journal called Ernstia was started being published in the city of Maracay, Venezuela. In 2013, Ernstia, a genus of calcareous sponges in the family Clathrinidae. The genus was erected to contain five species previously assigned to Clathrina. The genus name honors <mask> for his contributions towards sponge taxonomy and phylogeny. Publications

Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species had immense popular influence, but although its sales exceeded its publisher's hopes it was a technical book rather than a work of popular science: long, difficult and with few illustrations. One of <mask>'s books did a great deal to explain his version of "Darwinism" to the world. It was a bestselling, provocatively illustrated book in German, titled Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, published in Berlin in 1868, and translated into English as The History of

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