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 Catholicism.In 1746, she was living at the home of her uncle Sir Hugh Paterson at Bannockburn near Stirling. Relationship with Prince Charles Stuart
After the defeat of the Prince's rebellion at Culloden in April 1746, Charles fled Scotland for France. In 1752, he heard that Clementina, whom we had already met with her uncle, was at Dunkirk and in some financial difficulties, so he sent 50 louis d'ors to help her and then dispatched Sir Henry Goring to entreat her to come to Ghent and live with him as his mistress. Goring, who described Clementina as a "bad woman", complained of being used as "no better than a pimp", and shortly after left Charles' employ. However, by November 1752, Clementina was living with Charles, and was to remain as his mistress for the following eight years. The couple moved to Liège where Charlotte, their only child, was born on 29 October 1753 and baptised into the Roman Catholic faith at the church of Sainte Marie-des-Fonts. Some contemporary accounts of British agents cite the birth of a baby boy and a second child.The relationship between the Prince and Clementina was disastrous. Charles was already a disillusioned, angry alcoholic when they began living together, and he became violent towards Clementina and insanely possessive of her, treating her as a "submissive whipping post". Often away from home on jaunts, he seldom referred to his daughter, and when he did, it was as "ye cheild". During a temporary move to Paris, the Prince's lieutenants record ugly public arguments between the two, and that his drunkenness and temper was damaging his reputation. By 1760, they were in Basel, and Clementina had had


type: original

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 enough of his intoxication and their nomadic lifestyle. She contacted Charles's staunchly Roman Catholic father James Stuart ('the Old Pretender') and expressed a desire to secure a Catholic education for Charlotte and to retire to a convent. James agreed to pay her an annuity of 10,000 livres and, in July 1760, there is evidence to suggest he aided her escape from the watchful Charles, with the seven-year-old Charlotte, to the convent of the Nuns of the Visitation in Paris.She left a letter for Charles expressing her devotion to him but complaining she had to flee in fear of her life. A furious Charles circulated descriptions of them both, but it was to no avail. Life with her daughter
For the next twelve years, <mask> and Charlotte continued to live in various French convents, supported by the 10,000 livre pension granted by James Stuart. Charles never forgave Clementina for depriving him of "ye cheild", and stubbornly refused to pay anything for their support. On 1 January 1766 James died, but Charles, now considering himself de jure Charles III of Scotland, England and Ireland, still refused to make any provision for the two, forcing Clementina, now styling herself Countess Alberstroff, to appeal to his brother Cardinal Henry Stuart for assistance. Henry gave them an allowance of 5,000 livres, but in return extracted a statement from Clementina that she had never been married to Charles – a statement she later tried to retract. This lower amount forced them to find cheaper lodgings in the convent of Notre Dame at Meaux-en-Brie.Towards the end of 1772, <mask> and Charlotte unexpectedly arrived in Rome to press their desperate cause

masks: Clementina Clementina


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 in person. The trip had pushed Clementina further into debt. To their arrival, the Prince reacted angrily, refusing even to see them, forcing their helpless return to France, from where Charlotte's pleading letters continued. Later life
In 1783, Charlotte, Clementina’s daughter, finally became legitimized and was allowed to see her father. Charlotte, in need of money for her and Clementina, allied with her father in Florence as his caretaker. Charlotte left Clementina her three children to take care of while Charlotte was in Florence. On 17 November 1789, Charlotte died at age 36 of liver cancer at Palazzo Vizzani Sanguinetti, a Renaissance palace located in Bologna.In Charlotte’s will, written three days before her death, stated that Clementina would be left 50,000 livres and an annuity of 15,000. However, Cardinal Henry Stuart would ‘release’ the money; he had only agreed to do so if Clementina would sign an quittance, renouncing any former claim of the estate for both her and her descendants. <mask> <mask> looked after her three grandchildren and lived until 1802, in her later years taking up residence in Switzerland and bringing up her grandson Roehenstart in the reformed faith. During the years of the French Revolution, his father paid for his education in Germany. On her death, she left him a substantial fortune. In culture
She is a minor character in the novel Redgauntlet (1824) by Sir Walter Scott. Scottish singer-songwriter Brian McNeill composed the song "How the Foreign Winds Do Blaw" on his tenth studio album The Baltic tae Byzantium about Walkinshaw.Notes

Sources

1720 births
1802 deaths
Clementina
Mistresses of

masks: Clementina Walkinshaw


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<mask> (April 5, 1916 – November 9, 1995), an American photographer and teacher, was born in Toledo, Ohio. Baer was head of the photography department at the San Francisco Art Institute, and known for his photographs of San Francisco's "Painted Ladies" Victorian houses, California buildings, landscape and seascapes. Baer learned basic commercial photography in Chicago and honed his skills as a World War II United States Navy combat photographer. Returning to civilian life, over the next few years he developed into "one of the foremost architectural photographers in the world," receiving important commissions from premier architects in post-war Central California. In the early 1970s, influenced by a friendship with Edward Weston, Baer began to concentrate on his personal landscape art photography. During the last decades of the 20th century, he also became a sought-after instructor in various colleges and workshops teaching the art of landscape photography. Early life and education
<mask>'s parents encouraged him in an active outdoor life growing up in Toledo.He attended the University of Toledo in 1934 and later transferred to the University of Michigan from where he graduated in 1937 with a BA in English. Continuing on there, he earned an MA in Theater Arts in 1938. Baer soon found a dull but well-paying job in the advertising office of the Chicago department store Marshall Field's. Dissatisfied, he apprenticed as a low-paid menial assistant, at a greatly reduced salary, to a Michigan Avenue commercial photography company. He shortly was photographing in the field, and developing and printing photographs. Along with two associates, Baer was sent on assignment to Colorado in 1939. He had

masks:
Morley Baer
Morley Baer


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 seen an exhibition of Edward Weston's photographs at the Katherine Kuh Galleries in January of that year, and became enamored at the sparse elegance of Weston's black-and-white prints.He  extended his trip west to California to meet Weston at his studio in Carmel-by-the-Sea. The two did not meet, but Baer made the most of the trip by visiting San Francisco, the Monterey Peninsula, and Carmel. Military photographer
Although he returned to Chicago, he already had applied for Art Center School while in San Francisco but his plans were derailed by the onset of World War II. In 1941 he enlisted in the Navy almost immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor and went through the Navy photo school at Pensacola, where he learned to adjust to its stereotyped approach to producing photographs. Baer graduated, commissioned as an ensign, and was transferred to Norfolk for a series of stories on the Atlantic Theater of operations. His duties included public relations, aircraft recon, editorial assignments, teaching, and combat photography from aircraft and carriers. Accompanied by a writer, Baer covered military operations in North Africa, southern France, Brazil, and the Caribbean Sea.In 1945 he was assigned to the operational Naval Aviation Photographic Unit, commanded by the photographer Edward Steichen. Working under a variety of terrain, sea, and weather conditions, ever changing light, and new environments in physically demanding activities, he made dozens of photographs a day, and perfected his technical and compositional photographic skills. When discharged from the Navy in 1946 he was a complete and confident professional photographer. Post-war years
In 1945 Baer, now a civilian in San


texts: Francisco, met up again with Frances Manney, a young woman awaiting admission to Stanford University, who previously had hired Baer as her photography tutor during his brief time in Norfolk. The two married and investing their dwindling funds, established a commercial photography business in a small store-front studio in Carmel in 1946. Baer had no difficulty discovering opportunities aplenty in the booming post-war building trades. In dire need of competent photographers to illustrate their projects, builders and architects vied to hire the Baer team.As his reputation grew, he had as much work as he could handle. His published architectural photographs from that time testify to his active professional career. His clients were among the more noted Bay Area architectural firms. Although Baer had briefly fulfilled his long-held dream of meeting Edward Weston, they had met only briefly. So, through a Weston friend sometime in 1947, Baer learned of an Ansco view camera for sale, a camera he had previously used in Chicago and was very familiar with its capabilities. Able to buy it for the then princely sum of $90, it became the camera he most used for the rest of his life. Although he had others for some assignments, the Ansco was the instrument with which he made his most memorable photographs.It became almost an extension of his photographic seeing and visualization in his later fine art landscape work. <mask> and Frances became frequent visitors to Edward Weston's home/studio in Carmel's Wildcat Hill and with whom they had a close friendship until Weston's death in 1958. For the production of Weston's monumental photographic Portfolios I and II <mask> worked closely with Edward's son Brett

masks: Morley Morley


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 Weston in making the prints, while Frances did the spotting of the finished prints. Besides being helpful to Weston, this association greatly benefited Baer's career in the world of fine-art photography. Through Weston he met most of the prominent West Coast photographers. The more noted among them earlier had formed Group f/64 in San Francisco; its members included Weston, Ansel Adams, Imogen Cunningham, Willard Van Dyke, and Henry Swift, among others. Baer again met up with Steichen in 1950 when he and Frances made a trip to New York.Although Steichen carefully examined the photographic portfolio Baer showed him, he was less than enthralled by its subject matter – their photographic sensitivities were vastly different. Bay Area residency
Finding attractive work opportunities in the San Francisco area in the early fifties, the Baers sold their house on Carmelo Avenue in Carmel and re-located to Berkeley. Baer soon was making a name for himself as a leading architectural photographer performing portfolio work for architects and interior designers while freelancing for housing design magazines. Ansel Adams recruited him as an instructor at the San Francisco Art Institute, then under the direction of Minor White. When White left for the East Coast in 1953, Baer became Head of the Institute's Photography Department. In 1953 the Baers moved into a 1920s era house in Greenwood Common that had been renovated by architect Rudolph Schindler for its owner, who sold it in 1951 to William Wurster, who, in turn, sold it in 1953 to Baer. Baer soon became very active in neighborhood affairs.Showing their lifetime appreciation for landscaping, the Baers hired Lawrence Halprin to design their outdoor


texts:
 areas. Baer rapidly became a sought-after architectural photographer for noted architects, including Craig Edwards, the firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), Charles Willard Moore, and William Turnbull, Jr. Baer's photographs of buildings by Bernard Maybeck, Greene and Greene, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Julia Morgan are considered important today in understanding American architecture and design in the first half of the 20th century. 1960s onwards
Through the influence of Nathaniel A. Owings, SOM hired Baer to photograph US consulate buildings being constructed throughout Western Europe. The Baers and their young son moved to Spain for two years. Baer found time to produce personal work by photographing out-of-the-way locations in Andalucia. The family traveled the country in a VW bus in which they camped as necessary, freeing them to go where they pleased. These photographs led to Baer's first one-man exhibition at San Francisco's M. H. de Young Memorial Museum in 1959 and his first published portfolio.When he returned to California, SOM hired <mask> for a large photographic survey that lasted through the mid-1960s. During this time <mask> also was the architectural photographer for the pioneering Sea Ranch, California in Gualala. He contributed work for the 1965 Sierra Club publication Not Man Apart, which also included entries from artists such as Robinson Jeffers, Dorothea Lange, and Beaumont Newhall. Jeffers exerted a strong influence on Baer's subsequent thinking and artistic sensitivities. In fact, <mask> was so impressed by Jeffers that he began forming the idea of combining his photographs of the Sur coastline with Jeffers' somber but expansive poetry. Finally getting around

masks: Baer Baer Baer


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 to this project in his last years, it resulted in the book "Stones of the Sur", brilliantly curated by James Karman. The dynamic juxtaposition of photographs and poetry combined to reveal, in a mild paraphrasing of Karman, "much about the meaning and mystery of the world".In 1966 the American Institute of Architects gave Baer their Architectural Photography Award. The success of Not Man Apart led to a later assignment as the principal photographer for the 1968 publication, Here Today. Subsequently he was selected as the only photographer for the 1978 book Painted Ladies, a collection of color photographs of the more stately San Francisco Victorian houses, Baer's first major color photography project. Garrapata
In 1965 the Baers built a second home and studio, designed by Bay Area Modernist architect William Wurster, south of Carmel near the Big Sur coast with dramatic shore and ocean views. Wurster designed the two-story house with its river-stone facade, creating an organic building blending with the surrounding rocks and cliffs, and sometimes referred to as 'The Stone House.' It commanded a striking view of Garrapata Beach and Soberanes Point with its long stretches of surf and beach. Unfortunately, Frances never felt comfortable in the Stone House, feeling it cold, damp, and isolated and continued to live in Berkeley while <mask> used the Garrapata residence as his combination home and studio.The remote coastal location brought Baer into intimate contact with the primal natural elements of wind, water, light, and rocks at the cliffs and beach, an environment in which he did much of his best work. However his photographic eye seldom left architecture. He recounts standing on a sidewalk


texts: in downtown Monterey waiting for his equipment to dry after a heavy rainstorm, when he began studying the surrounding classic Monterey buildings. Becoming increasingly interested in their clean lines, he resolved to photograph them. This began his late 60s/early 70s Monterey Historical Series which resulted in his book 'Adobes in the Sun'. With Garrapata as his base, Baer photographed throughout the West but mostly in Central California. He exhibited his landscape portfolios of classical black-and-white photographs, wrote or contributed to several books of photography, and became an instructor in photography workshops.In the early 1970s, Baer joined Adams and other prominent central California fine art photographers to found the Friends of Photography in Carmel, which organized yearly photographic student workshops at Carmel's Sunset Center and at the Julia Morgan-designed Asilomar Conference Grounds. Those workshops inspired development of what became known as the West Coast style of landscape photography through the last decades of the 20th century. He published two photography collections in 1973, 'Andalucia' and 'Garrapata Rock'. Along with his increasing success as a fine art landscape photographer, Baer continued with assignments as a commercial architectural photographer for several architect clients primarily throughout the Monterey Peninsula. He was the sole photographer for the exhibition, California Design 1910 in late 1974 at the Pasadena Conference Center; one of his landscape photographs graces the cover. Recalling his grandfather's accounts of his yearly journeys from Ohio to California, <mask> was enamored by visions of California's golden hills and sea-swept coasts. So,


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 when he read the poetic descriptions of the western lands by the early 20th writer, Mary Austin, he conceived the idea of matching some particularly lucid passages from her book, The Land of Little Rain, with some of his more appropriate photographs.Result was the 1979 book, Room and Time Enough. He teamed with Augusta Fink, the biographer of Mary Austin, to produce a synergistic combination of prose and photography into a paean to the Western landscape. Carmel
In 1972, after the couple became temporarily estranged, the Baers sold the Greenwood Common house. Frances remained as an art teacher in the Bay Area. In 1979 they sold the Garrapata house, and <mask> briefly moved to a smaller home in Carmel. In 1980, Baer was awarded the Rome Prize in Design and a fellowship at the American Academy in Rome, where he mainly photographed the fountains of Rome. Baer had an exhibition, appropriately titled "The Fountains of Rome", in May 1981 at the Bonnafont Gallery in San Francisco.He returned to his Carmel home/studio after the year in Rome, and reunited with Frances. The couple then bought a house/studio on Carmel Valley Road in 1985, where they lived the remainder of their lives. Photographic philosophies and techniques
From the beginning of their relationship, both as husband and wife and as business partners, <mask> and <mask> worked as a team. Their separate but personal photographic visions and techniques centered around careful composition of the subject matter, complete familiarity with their equipment and materials, and dedication to the art and profession of photography. Both believed that only the view camera  – <mask> with an 8x10, Frances with a 5x7 – allowed them to express their

masks:
Morley
Morley
Frances Baer
Morley


texts: feelings about a photographic subject. Although devoted partners, the Baers were intense mutual competitors and had an arrangement for 'artistic rights' to a potential photograph discovered while driving the countryside – as Frances recounts in her chapter, "Rules of the Road" in 'California Plain'. It belonged to the person on whose side of the car the subject lay.Whenever we are driving, subject matter on the left side of the road is the domain of the driver, and the passenger has first dibs on everything on the right side. The book is devoted to one of <mask>'s favorite subjects, traditional barns. Indeed one of his subjects, the San Luis Obispo Octagon Barn in San Luis Obispo, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Baer's overall approach to making a photograph was centered on uniting technical capabilities of his camera and lens with emotional feelings at the moment of making the photograph. He always would apply his 'strongest seeing,' to borrow a phrase from Edward Weston, to bring out what he saw as the dominant element in a scene. His photographs were always finely set up, some would say "tightly". Although he eschewed use of the term 'composition', he applied an admonition from Weston that "composition is just the strongest way of seeing".Indeed, along with that uncompromising admonishment, <mask> held to an amplifying Weston dictum that "Photography as a creative expression ... must be seeing plus". Dr Jim Jordan may have captured Baer's philosophy expressed by his photographs in his essay on <mask> in his book (p 15 of the 'Light Years' essay), in that Baer finds universal themes in his subjects precisely because he has searched inwardly to relate to them on

masks: Morley Morley Morley


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 an intense visceral level, "The photograph itself is a kind of icon, an object in its own right that acts upon the emotional and intellectual relationship between the photographer and subject ..."

<mask>'s philosophy of art photography, and indeed of life itself, is exemplified in the work of several of his photographic assistants. Among them are Marco Zecchin, Patrick Jablonski, Frank Long, and the late Erik Lauritzen. Lauritzen's own work is archived at UC Santa Cruz. Equipment
Motivated by a strong sense of simplicity in equipment and technique learned from Edward Weston, and reinforced by his readings of Robinson Jeffers' sparse poetry for which he had sincere admiration, Baer reduced his photographic equipment to a compact minimum. With time and experience, he acquired the equipment and techniques that completely suited his photographic style. Once he had settled on a particular technique he rarely changed it.Baer used the same Ansco 8x10S view camera on an apparently flimsy but really very sturdy wood tripod for virtually all his serious photography. After fifty years of usage the Ansco had become almost an extension of his mind and eye; he could adjust its settings by feel alone while under his darkcloth and concentrating on his subject in the ground glass viewer. Eloquently, almost lovingly, he expresses his feelings towards the ancient Ansco in his Photographers Notes in The Wilder Shore. Baer designed a special metal carrying case, with a sturdy leather-strap handle, constructed for him by a Monterey metal worker. He replaced it only once during his career. The case held his camera, several lenses, film holders and other paraphernalia he needed in the field. With his camera on


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 one shoulder, and the carrying case in the opposite hand, he was perfectly laterally balanced as he strode towards the subject of his photograph.Precise in his lens selection and use, Baer used a wide range of lens focal lengths from a 120 mm wide angle to a 19" (480 mm), what he called his 'long lens'. As his favorite lens he claimed that  "It sees how I see the material." Having a lens for almost every occasion was important since Baer did mostly contact prints of his 8x10 negatives where, besides being esthetically displeasing to him, cropping was not an option. Although owning a Navy surplus Saltzman 8x10 enlarger, he rarely used it since contact prints were his preferred medium of expression – it's now a prized possession of one of his last assistants. He standardized his procedures to the extent possible, based on thorough testing for film exposure and development characteristics, changing them only when necessary. Darkroom techniques
Baer developed his 8x10 negatives by inspection during the development process. While the development was well underway, he would briefly check his highlight densities with a dim green safelight and continued development until he obtained his desired densities.He developed early Isopan and later Super XX Black & White film in his variation of ABC Pyro. Although reluctant to use filters, Baer did so when necessary for effectively expressing the subject – as he described in technical entries in his several books. He seldom changed from his favorite film (Pyro) and print developers (Amidol), modifying them as materials evolved. Baer's explains his techniques for achieving the vivid colors of the subjects in Painted Ladies in a short article (P79). He


texts: decided that 'Eastman's Professional Ektachrome as the most amenable color material (this was late 70s). He had it processed by a professional laboratory and achieved the consistent fine results he sought. In his Photographer's Notes to The Wilder Shore (p151) he explains what he was trying to express in his photographs of the California landscape and his frequent use of color to achieve it.He continued with Professional Ektachrome film developed in a commercial developer but exposed at values he worked out in extensive testing to achieve the subdued colors he thought best expressed subtleties of the California landscape. With his varied Navy photography experience, his many years of study, and intimate knowledge of his equipment, materials and darkroom techniques, Baer was well-qualified to take on any photographic assignment that came along. That confidence also allowed him to concentrate on the photographic task at hand, "... to interpret and thus to fully realize the potential for maximum expression ..." in his photographs. In evaluating a potential photographic subject, Baer thought both in esthetic and organizational terms but also in the technical challenges he would face in actually making the photograph. His assistant once watched Baer as he stared at a subject tree muttering, 'I am looking at the Pyro in the tree trunks [for the negative] and the Amidol [for the print] in the leaves'. He already was thinking of the technical problems he would have to solve in exposing the negative to get the tones he wanted in the final print. <mask> <mask> died on November 9, 1995, in Monterey, California.His photographic archive was divided between personal work and architectural work. Film

masks:
Legacy Morley
Baer


texts: negatives that Baer felt represented his most significant work were given to the Special Collections of the University of California, Santa Cruz. His architecture photography archive, comprising mostly photographs of Stanford University buildings commissioned by the University or its architects, are housed at Stanford University. All his other archives, containing numerous entries, are itemized in the Online Archive of California. A final tribute to Baer's artistry and emotional sensitivity may be abstracted from James Karman's assessment of the feelings of both <mask>er and Robinson Jeffers toward the earth in general, and towards the Big Sur coast in particular. In his insightful and scholarly Introduction in "Stones of the Sur", he captures the magnetic attraction of the magnificent wild coastline for both Jeffers and Baer. Baer shared the same sense of mystery — and the feeling of tenderness for the mote that we inhabit, with its massive mountains and fathomless seas.Like Jeffers, living on the edge of the continent, he was attuned to an order and a scale of existence beyond the human; he sought to document the sublime beauty, alien and austere at times, of the natural world, especially that portion ... he encountered in his beloved Big Sur. Karman also touched on Baer's love of teaching. In addition to the formal institutions, in late Fall 1984, Baer created his own Annual Master Photographers Invitational Photographic workshops. He mailed invitations to selected students, scouted the venues, organized accommodations, and selected his preferred restaurants. He and his photographic assistant eagerly participated with the students, with Baer speculating on how he was viewing his


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 subject and how he'd eventually create a printable negative. Afterwards, he hosted workshop students in his Carmel Valley home for his legendary English bangers BBQ. Afterwards, he leafed through his current portfolio, commenting on it and answering students' questions.Frances, hovering in the background, sometimes joined the group, obviously enjoying the sessions. References

 , Text by Dr. Jim Jordan

 , Essay by Amy Conger, PhD

Notes

External links

 Morley Baer Photographs and Archives(Stanford University Archives)
 Morley Baer Photographs and Archives(UCSC)
 UC Santa Cruz photography archives
 Photography West Gallery: <mask> — Baer images by topic. SFGate.com: Obituary

 Marco Zecchin Photography
 Erik Lauritzen Photographs (Stanford University Archives)
 Patrick Jablonski Photography

Architectural photographers
Landscape photographers
War photography
Nature photographers
Photographers from California
1916 births
1995 deaths
Artists from Toledo, Ohio
People from Carmel-by-the-Sea, California
University of Toledo alumni
University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy officers
•
20th-century American photographers
World War II photographers
Military personnel from


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<mask>FRSE (born 26 December 1947) is a Scottish poet, playwright, translator and broadcaster. Between 2011 and 2016 she was the Makar, or National Poet of Scotland, and served as Poet Laureate for Glasgow between 2005 and 2011. Early life
<mask> was born in Craigneuk, a "little ex-mining village just outside Motherwell", Lanarkshire. Her mother and father had both served in the army during the Second World War, and later, her father was a local government clerk. In 1952 the family moved into a new council house in the mining village of Newarthill, where her sister was born in 1957. Though she was encouraged by her teachers to study English, <mask> was determined to go to Glasgow School of Art where she studied between 1965 and 1970. After graduation <mask> taught art at High Schools in Glasgow and Bristol, a career at which she says she was "terrible"

Career
Having written poetry as a child and whilst studying at Art School, <mask> won a BBC Scotland Poetry Competition in 1971 and Gordon Wright published her first collection of Poetry, Memo For Spring in 1972 under his Reprographia imprint.It is often claimed that at this time <mask> was part of a Philip Hobsbaum writers' group, a crucible of creative activity – with other members including Alasdair Gray, James Kelman, Tom Leonard, Aonghas MacNeacail and Jeff Torrington, <mask> has repeatedly claimed this to be an invention. She has however recalled the support and inspiration she drew from the Scottish poetry scene of the early 1970s and  meetings with the elder generation - Norman MacCaig, Edwin Morgan, Robert Garioch - and with contemporaries such as Leonard, Kelman and Gray. <mask> went on to produce revue shows with Leonard

masks:
Liz Lochhead Hon
Elizabeth Anne Lochhead
Lochhead
Lochhead
Liz Lochhead
Lochhead
Liz Lochhead
Lochhead


texts: and Gray, including Tickly Mince, and The Pie of Damocles. Other the following years <mask> published further collections Islands (1978) and The Grimm Sisters (1979) and moved first to Toronto as part of the first Scottish/Canadian writers exchange and later made her home in New York. In 1986 she returned permanently to Glasgow. <mask>'s success in poetry was rivalled by her writing for the theatre. Her plays include Blood and Ice (1982), Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off (1987), Perfect Days (2000) and a highly acclaimed adaptation into Scots of Molière's Tartuffe (1985).She adapted the medieval texts of the York Mystery Plays, performed by a largely amateur cast at York Theatre Royal in 1992 and 1996. Her adaptation of Euripides' Medea won the Saltire Society Scottish Book of the Year Award in 2001. Her plays have been performed on BBC Radio 4: Blood and Ice (11 June 1990), The Perfect Days (16 May 1999), Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off (11 February 2001) and The Stanley Baxter Playhouse: Mortal Memories (26 June 2006). Her adaptation of Helen Simpson's short story Burns and the Bankers was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on Burns Night, 25 January 2012. Her plays Educating Agnes and Thebans premiered in the early 2000s, and in 2011 as part of the Glasgay Festival, <mask>'s play Edwin Morgan's Dreams and Other Nightmares premiered at the Tron and it was revived three years later as part of the cultural celebrations for the commonwealth games. She has produced many new works for the Oran Mor in Glasgow, including Mortal Memories (2012) and Between the Thinks Bubble and the Speech Balloon (2014) with Tom Leonard, William Letford, Grace Cleary, and Henry Bell. Like

masks:
Lochhead
Lochhead
Liz Lochhead


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 her work for theatre, her poetry is alive with vigorous speech idioms; later collections include True Confessions and New Clichés (1985), Bagpipe Muzak (1991), Dreaming Frankenstein: and Collected Poems (1984), The Colour of Black and White (2003) and A Choosing (2011).<mask> also enjoys writing songs and combining poetry with music and she has collaborated with Dundee singer-songwriter Michael Marra to whom she dedicated the poem 'Ira and George'. as well as providing guest vocals on the track 'Trouble is Not a Place' from the 2014 EP The Bird That Never Flew by Glaswegian experimental hip hop group Hector Bizerk. She has also collaborated extensively with saxophonist Steve Kettley and Dundonian band The Hazey Janes. <mask> performs internationally in theatres and literary festivals, as well as appearing regularly at nights around Glasgow and Edinburgh. Politics
<mask> is a republican and vocal supporter of Scottish independence, having performed with pro-independence group National Collective and opined in The Guardian that Robert Burns would have voted for independence. <mask> is also well known as a feminist, both from her writing and public appearances, she has said in the past, 'feminism is like the hoovering, you just have to keep doing it.' In 2012, <mask> travelled to Palestine and was deeply affected by what she saw in the West Bank.She has been a firm opponent of the Israeli Occupation and a supporter of the call for a cultural boycott of Israel. In 2014 she was involved in preparing A Bird is Not a Stone, an anthology of contemporary Palestinian poetry translated into the languages of Scotland. <mask> is openly critical of Scottish arts funding body Creative Scotland.

masks:
Liz Lochhead
Liz Lochhead
Lochhead
Liz Lochhead
Liz Lochhead
Lochhead


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 Honours and awards
In 2005, <mask> became the Poet Laureate for Glasgow, a position she held until stepping down in 2011, when she was named as the second Scots Makar, or national poet of Scotland, succeeding Edwin Morgan who had died the previous year. She stepped down from this role in February 2016, and was succeeded by Jackie Kay in March 2016. She is currently the Honorary President of the Caledonian Cultural Fellows at Glasgow Caledonian University. and holds honorary doctorates from ten of Scotland's universities.She was writer in residence at Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design in 1980 and later at Glasgow University, The University of Edinburgh, Glasgow School of Art, the Royal Shakespeare Company, and Eton. In 2014 she was elected a Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In 2015 <mask> was awarded the Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry. <mask> is only the 11th woman to have been awarded the prize since its inception in 1933, and the eighth Scot. Personal life
In 1986, <mask> married the architect Tom Logan. The couple lived together in Glasgow until his death in 2010. After his death she wrote the poem Favourite Place about their caravan on the West Coast of Scotland.It ends:

But tonight you are three months dead
and I must pull down the bed and lie in it alone. Tomorrow, and every day in this place
these words of Sorley MacLean’s will echo through me:
The world is still beautiful, though you are not in it. And this will not be a consolation
but a further desolation. Published works
 1972: Memo For Spring. Reprographia. 1978: Islands. Print Studio Press.1979: The Grimm Sisters. Coach House Press. 1999: Bagpipe Muzak. Penguin Books. 1999: Perfect Days.

masks:
Lochhead
Liz Lochhead
Lochhead
Liz Lochhead


texts:
 Nick Hern Books. 2000: Medea.Nick Hern Books. 2001: Cuba (with Gina Moxley). Faber & Faber. 2002: Misery Guts. Nick Hern Books. 2003: The Colour of Black and White. Polygon.2003: Dreaming Frankenstein and Collected Poems, 1967–84. Polygon. 2003: Thebans. Nick Hern Books. 2003: True Confessions: And New Cliches. Polygon. 2006: Good Things.Nick Hern Books. 2009: Educating Agnes. Nick Hern Books. 2009: Blood and Ice. Nick Hern Books. 2010: Mary Queen of Scots Got Her Head Chopped Off. Nick Hern Books.2011: A Choosing. Polygon
 2012: <mask>: Five Plays. Nick Hern Books. Radio plays

Reviews
 Mills, Paul (1982), The Individual Voice, which includes a review of The Grimm Sisters, in Murray, Glen (ed. ), Cencrastus No. 8, Spring 1982, pp. 45 & 46,

References

External links
  includes a "Critical Perspective" section
Scottish Poetry Library.Profile of Lochhead
BBC profile
National Centre for Early Music – archive of Mystery Plays
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<mask> ( ; born September 19, 1994) is an American football defensive tackle for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League (NFL). He attended the University of Mississippi for three years until declaring early for the 2016 NFL Draft where he was picked 29th overall by the Arizona Cardinals. Regarded by ESPN as the "Southeast's best high school football prospect since the early 1980s," <mask> was the highest-touted prospect committing to the Ole Miss Rebels since Eli Manning in 1999. High school career
A native of Loganville, Georgia, <mask> attended Grayson High School, where he was a three-sport athlete in football, basketball, and track. He played as a defensive end and running back for the Grayson Rams high school football team. In his junior season, he registered 59 tackles and 18 sacks on defense while also running for 528 yards and scoring 17 touchdowns on offense. Grayson High School went undefeated throughout the season, finishing 15–0 with a GHSA 6A state title win over Marietta Walton.In his senior year, Nkemdiche registered 59 tackles, 12 tackles for loss, and seven sacks on defense, while on offense, he had 235 total rushing yards and 10 touchdowns. Early in the season, Grayson defeated Dalvin Cook's Miami (FL) Central 35–3 in a game that was nationally televised on ESPN. The Rams went on to a 10–2 season record, and were upset by Mitch Hyatt's North Gwinnett in the second round of the GHSA 6A state playoffs. Nkemdiche was the Gwinnett Daily Post Defensive Player of the Year. He finished his career at Grayson with 41 career sacks. He was named first-team All-American as a junior by MaxPreps, as well as second-team as a senior. In addition, Nkemdiche in

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Robert Chukwudumebi Nkemdiche
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 track & field during his junior season.At the 2011 Gwinnett County T&F Championship, he earned second-place finishes in both the shot put, with a throw of 13.41 meters (43 ft, 8 in), and the discus, with a throw of 37.98 meters (124 ft, 5 in). In addition, he had marks of a 350-pound max bench press, 335-pound power clean, 500-pound squat, and a 4.56-second 40-yard dash time. Recruiting
Regarded as a five-star recruit by both Rivals.com and Scout.com, <mask> was not only considered the No. 1 defensive line prospect of his class, but also the consensus No. 1 player overall. He was only the fourth player since 2002 to be the consensus No. 1 prospect, along with Jadeveon Clowney, Vince Young, and Ernie Sims.Nkemdiche went wire-to-wire as the No. 1 overall player in the Rivals.com Top100, also the first since Clowney. <mask> and his older brother, Denzel, originally planned attending college together. After Denzel Nkemdiche signed with Ole Miss, <mask> was believed to follow. However, he instead committed to Clemson on June 14, 2012. In October 2012, ESPN The Magazine reported that Nkemdiche was not firm on his non-binding verbal commitment, and was still considering other schools, including Ole Miss. Consequently, Nkemdiche decommitted from Clemson in November 2012, re-considering a number of schools including Clemson, Ole Miss, Alabama, and Georgia.By January 2013, he narrowed his list down to just Ole Miss and Louisiana State. Giving her opinion on their sons' college selection, Nkemdiche's mother said she would "love for them to play together, as well as have the power of two." That way, she would not have to worry about going to different games—taking pressure off of her

masks: Nkemdiche Robert Robert


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 shoulders. Also, on top of the family tie to Ole Miss, Nkemdiche was said to have a close relationship with the head coach of the Ole Miss football team, Hugh Freeze. In November 2012, Denzel <mask> told reporters that <mask> personally told him that he was going to commit to Ole Miss. <mask> indeed committed to Ole Miss on National Signing Day to play college football under head coach Hugh Freeze. College career
One of the most highly touted recruits in the program's history, Nkemdiche arrived at Ole Miss with plenty of hype, being named SEC’s Top Impact Freshman by Sporting News before the season.He played in 11 games with 10 starts (six at defensive end and four at defensive tackle), and amassed 34 tackles (25 solo), 2.0 sacks, two pass breakups, and three quarterback hurries on the 2013 season. Nkemdiche made his college debut against conference opponent Vanderbilt, posting two tackles with a tackle-for-loss and a pass break-up. He missed the Louisiana State and Idaho games with a strained hamstring. After the season, <mask> was named Freshman All-SEC by the league's coaches, and a First team Freshman All-American selection by Athlon and College Football News. As a sophomore, Nkemdiche started every game at the defensive tackle position on an Ole Miss defensive line that led the nation in scoring defense (16.0 ppg) and lead the SEC in tackles for loss (7.6/game). Nkemdiche himself contributed 35 tackles with 4.0 tackles-for-loss, 2.0 sacks, and a pass breakup on the season. His best game was against in-state rival Mississippi State, in which he was credited for a career-high seven tackles, of which three were solo, and one tackle-for-a-loss.<mask> was a semifinalist for

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Nkemdiche
Robert
Robert Nkemdiche
Nkemdiche
Nkemdiche


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 the Lombardi Award and was named All-SEC first team by Associated Press (AP), as well as All-America second team by AP, Sporting News, USA Today, and CBS Sports. After an incident involving marijuana (see below) in December 2015, Nkemdiche was suspended for the 2016 Sugar Bowl against Oklahoma State. After the season, <mask> decided to forego his senior year and enter the 2016 NFL Draft. Professional career

Arizona Cardinals
The Arizona Cardinals selected <mask> in the first round (29th overall) of the 2016 NFL Draft. On May 29, 2016, the Arizona Cardinals signed Nkemdiche to a four-year, $8.60 million contract that includes $8.15 million guaranteed and a signing bonus $4.45 million. He only played in five games and recorded one tackle during his rookie season. In his second season in 2017, he played in 12 games, recording 11 tackles and a forced fumble.In Week 1 of the 2018 season, <mask> recorded his first career sack. In Week 14, he suffered a knee injury that required season-ending surgery. He was placed on injured reserve on December 11, 2018. He finished the season with 32 tackles, 4.5 sacks, and a forced fumble. On May 2, 2019, the Cardinals declined the fifth-year option on <mask>'s contract. On July 28, 2019, <mask> was waived by the Cardinals with a failed physical designation. Miami Dolphins
On August 8, 2019, <mask> was signed by the Miami Dolphins on a one-year $1.16 million deal.He was placed on the reserve/PUP list to start the season while recovering from knee surgery. He was activated off PUP on October 28, 2019 prior to Week 8. He was waived by the Dolphins on November 5, 2019. <mask> was suspended two weeks by the NFL on November 13, 2019. He was

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 reinstated from suspension on November 26, 2019. Seattle Seahawks
On April 29, 2021, <mask> signed with the Seattle Seahawks. He was released on August 31, 2021 and re-signed to the practice squad the next day.He was promoted to the active roster on September 28, 2021. Personal life
<mask> was born in Atlanta, Georgia to Nigerian immigrants Beverly and <mask>. His father, a cardiologist, has reportedly applied for a researcher position at University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi. Nkemdiche's mother, a politician, returned to Nigeria in 2009 and  represents Onitsha South in the Anambra State House of Assembly. His older brother, Denzel <mask>, played linebacker for Ole Miss. On December 12, 2015, Nkemdiche fell from a fourth-floor window of the Grand Hyatt Atlanta in Buckhead. “It appears that the victim (Nkemdiche) broke the window and then walked approximately 15 feet and climbed over a wall and fell approximately 15 feet,” read the Atlanta Police Department report.<mask> was conscious and in stable condition when officers reported to the scene, and was immediately transported to Grady Memorial Hospital. Police later found seven marijuana cigarettes in <mask>'s room, leading him to be charged with drug possession. References

External links
Arizona Cardinals bio

 Ole Miss Rebels bio

1994 births
Living people
American sportspeople of Nigerian descent
People from Loganville, Georgia
Sportspeople from the Atlanta metropolitan area
Players of American football from Georgia (U.S. state)
American football defensive ends
American football defensive tackles
Ole Miss Rebels football players
Arizona Cardinals players
Miami Dolphins players
Seattle Seahawks

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Nkemdiche
Nkemdiche
Sunday Nkemdiche
Nkemdiche
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<mask> (11 January 1923 – 18 August 2016) was a German historian and philosopher. <mask>'s major interest was the comparative studies of fascism and communism (cf. Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism). Originally trained in philosophy, he was professor emeritus of modern history at the Free University of Berlin, where he taught from 1973 until his 1991 retirement. He was previously a professor at the University of Marburg from 1965 to 1973. He was best known for his seminal work Fascism in Its Epoch, which received widespread acclaim when it was published in 1963. <mask> was a prominent conservative academic from the early 1960s and was involved in many controversies related to the interpretation of the history of fascism and communism, including the Historikerstreit in the late 1980s.In later years, Nolte focused on Islamism and "Islamic fascism". Nolte received several awards, including the Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize and the Konrad Adenauer Prize. He was the father of the legal scholar and judge of the International Court of Justice <mask>. Early life
<mask> was born in Witten, Westphalia, Germany to a Roman Catholic family. Nolte's parents were <mask>, a school rector, and Anna (née Bruns) <mask>. According to Nolte in a March 28, 2003 interview with a French newspaper Eurozine, his first encounter with communism occurred when he was 7 years old in 1930, when he read in a doctor's office a German translation of a Soviet children's book attacking the Catholic Church, which angered him. In 1941, Nolte was excused from military service because of a deformed hand, and he studied Philosophy, Philology and

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Ernst Nolte
Nolte
Nolte
Georg Nolte
Nolte
Heinrich Nolte
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 Greek at the Universities of Münster, Berlin, and Freiburg.At Freiburg, Nolte was a student of Martin Heidegger, whom he acknowledges as a major influence. From 1944 onwards, Nolte was a close friend of the Heidegger family, and when in 1945 the professor feared arrest by the French, Nolte provided him with food and clothing for an attempted escape. Eugen Fink was another professor who influenced Nolte. After 1945 when Nolte received his BA in philosophy at Freiburg, he worked as a Gymnasium (high school) teacher. In 1952, he received a PhD in philosophy at Freiburg for his thesis Selbstentfremdung und Dialektik im deutschen Idealismus und bei Marx (Self Alienation and the Dialectic in German Idealism and Marx). Subsequently, Nolte began studies in Zeitgeschichte (contemporary history). He published his Habilitationsschrift awarded at the University of Cologne, Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche, as a book in 1963.Between 1965 and 1973, Nolte worked as a professor at the University of Marburg, and from 1973 to 1991 at the Free University of Berlin. Nolte married Annedore Mortier and they had a son, <mask>, now a professor of international law at Humboldt University of Berlin. Fascism in Its Epoch

Nolte came to notice with his 1963 book Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche (Fascism in Its Epoch; translated into English in 1965 as The Three Faces of Fascism), in which he argued that fascism arose as a form of resistance to and a reaction against modernity. Nolte's basic hypothesis and methodology were deeply rooted in the German "philosophy of history" tradition, a form of intellectual history which seeks to


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 discover the "metapolitical dimension" of history. The "metapolitical dimension" is considered to be the history of grand ideas functioning as profound spiritual powers, which infuse all levels of society with their force. In Nolte's opinion, only those with training in philosophy can discover the "metapolitical dimension", and those who use normal historical methods miss this dimension of time. Using the methods of phenomenology, Nolte subjected German Nazism, Italian Fascism, and the French Action Française movements to a comparative analysis.Nolte's conclusion was that fascism was the great anti-movement: it was anti-liberal, anti-communist, anti-capitalist, and anti-bourgeois. In <mask>'s view, fascism was the rejection of everything the modern world had to offer and was an essentially negative phenomenon. In a Hegelian dialectic, Nolte argued that the Action Française was the thesis, Italian Fascism was the antithesis, and German National Socialism the synthesis of the two earlier fascist movements. Nolte argued that fascism functioned at three levels, namely in the world of politics as a form of opposition to Marxism, at the sociological level in opposition to bourgeois values, and in the "metapolitical" world as "resistance to transcendence" ("transcendence" in German can be translated as the "spirit of modernity"). Nolte defined the relationship between fascism and Marxism as such:

Nolte defined "transcendence" as a "metapolitical" force comprising two types of change. The first type, "practical transcendence", manifesting in material progress, technological change, political equality, and


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 social advancement, comprises the process by which humanity liberates itself from traditional, hierarchical societies in favor of societies where all men and women are equal. The second type is "theoretical transcendence", the striving to go beyond what exists in the world towards a new future, eliminating traditional fetters imposed on the human mind by poverty, backwardness, ignorance, and class.Nolte himself defined "theoretical transcendence" as such:

Nolte cited the flight of Yuri Gagarin in 1961 as an example of “practical transcendence”, of how humanity was pressing forward in its technological development and rapidly acquiring powers traditionally thought to be only the province of the gods. Drawing upon the work of Max Weber, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Karl Marx, Nolte argued that the progress of both types of "transcendence" generates fear as the older world is swept aside by a new world, and that these fears led to fascism. Nolte wrote that:

In regard to the Holocaust, <mask> contended that because Adolf Hitler identified Jews with modernity, the basic thrust of Nazi policies towards Jews had always aimed at genocide. Nolte wrote that:

Nolte believed that, for Hitler, Jews represented "the historical process itself". <mask> argues that Hitler was "logically consistent" in seeking genocide of the Jews because Hitler detested modernity and identified Jews with the things that he most hated in the world. According to Nolte, "In Hitler's extermination of the Jews, it was not a case of criminals committing criminal deeds, but of a uniquely monstrous action in which principles ran riot in a

masks: Nolte Nolte


texts: frenzy of self-destruction". Nolte's theories about Nazi antisemitism as a rejection of modernity inspired the Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka to argue that National Socialism was an attack on "the very roots of Western civilisation, its basic values and moral foundations".The Three Faces of Fascism has been much praised as a seminal contribution to the creation of a theory of generic fascism based on a history of ideas, as opposed to the previous class-based analyses (especially the "Rage of the Lower Middle Class" thesis) that had characterized both Marxist and liberal interpretations of fascism. The German historian Jen-Werner Müller wrote that Nolte "almost single-handedly" brought down the totalitarianism paradigm in the 1960s and replaced it with the fascism paradigm. British historian Roger Griffin has written that although written in arcane and obscure language, Nolte's theory of fascism as a "form of resistance to transcendence" marked an important step in the understanding of fascism, and helped to spur scholars into new avenues of research on fascism. Criticism from the left, for example by Sir Ian Kershaw, centered on Nolte's focus on ideas as opposed to social and economic conditions as a motivating force for fascism, and that Nolte depended too much on fascist writings to support his thesis. Kershaw described Nolte's theory of fascism as "resistance to transcendence" as "mystical and mystifying". The American historian Fritz Stern wrote that The Three Faces of Fascism was an "uneven book" that was "weak" on Action Française, "strong" on Fascism and "masterly" on National Socialism. Later


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 in the 1970s, <mask> was to reject aspects of the theory of generic fascism that he had championed in The Three Faces of Fascism and instead moved closer to embracing totalitarian theory as a way of explaining both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.In <mask>'s opinion, Nazi Germany was a "mirror image" of the Soviet Union and, with the exception of the "technical detail" of mass gassing, everything the Nazis did in Germany had already been done by the communists in Russia. Methodology
All of Nolte's historical work has been heavily influenced by German traditions of philosophy. In particular, Nolte seeks to find the essences of the "metapolitical phenomenon" of history, to discover the grand ideas which motivated all of history. As such, <mask>'s work has been oriented towards the general as opposed to the specific attributes of a particular period of time. In his 1974 book Deutschland und der kalte Krieg (Germany and the Cold War), Nolte examined the partition of Germany after 1945, not by looking at the specific history of the Cold War and Germany, but rather by examining other divided states throughout history, treating the German partition as the supreme culmination of the "metapolitical" idea of partition caused by rival ideologies. In Nolte's view, the division of Germany made that nation the world's central battlefield between Soviet communism and American democracy, both of which were rival streams of the "transcendence" that had vanquished Nazi Germany, the ultimate enemy of "transcendence". <mask> called the Cold War

the ideological and political conflict for the future structure of a united

masks: Nolte Nolte Nolte Nolte


texts: world, carried on for an indefinite period since 1917 (indeed anticipated as early as 1776) by several militant universalisms, each of which possesses at least one major state.Nolte ended Deutschland und der kalte Krieg with a call for Germans to escape their fate as the world's foremost battleground for the rival ideologies of American democracy and Soviet communism by returning to the values of the German Empire. Likewise, Nolte called for the end of what he regarded as the unfair stigma attached to German nationalism because of National Socialism, and demanded that historians recognize that every country in the world had at some point in its history had "its own Hitler era, with its monstrosities and sacrifices". In 1978, the American historian Charles S. Maier described <mask>'s approach in Deutschland und der kalte Krieg as: This approach threatens to degenerate into the excessive valuation of abstraction as a surrogate for real transactions that Heine satirized and Marx dissected. How should we cope with a study that begins its discussion of the Cold War with Herodotus and the Greeks versus the Persians? ... Instead Nolte indulges in a potted history of Cold War events as they engulfed Asia and the Middle East as well as Europe, up through the Sino-Soviet dispute, the Vietnam War and SALT. The rationale is evidently that Germany can be interpreted only in the light of the world conflict, but the result verges on a centrifugal, coffee-table narrative.Nolte has little regard for specific historical context in his treatment of the history of ideas, opting to seek what Carl Schmitt labeled the


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 abstract "final" or "ultimate" ends of ideas, which for Nolte are the most extreme conclusions which can be drawn from an idea, representing the ultima terminus of the "metapolitical". For Nolte, ideas have a force of their own, and once a new idea has been introduced into the world, except for the total destruction of society, it cannot be ignored any more than the discovery of how to make fire or the invention of nuclear weapons can be ignored. In his 1974 book Deutschland und der kalte Krieg (Germany and the Cold War), Nolte wrote there was "a worldwide reproach that the United States was after all putting into practice in Vietnam, nothing less than its basically crueler version of Auschwitz". The books Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche, Deutschland und der kalte Krieg, and Marxismus und industrielle Revolution (Marxism and the Industrial Revolution) formed a trilogy in which Nolte seeks to explain what he considered to be the most important developments of the 20th century. The Historikerstreit

Nolte's thesis
Nolte is best known for his role in launching the Historikerstreit ("Historians' Dispute") of 1986 and 1987. On 6 June 1986 Nolte published a  feuilleton opinion piece entitled "Vergangenheit, die nicht vergehen will: Eine Rede, die geschrieben, aber nicht mehr gehalten werden konnte" ("The Past That Will Not Pass: A Speech That Could Be Written but Not Delivered") in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. His feuilleton was a distillation of ideas he had first introduced in lectures delivered in 1976 and in 1980.Earlier in 1986, <mask> had planned to deliver a speech before the Frankfurt


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 Römerberg Conversations (an annual gathering of intellectuals), but he had claimed that the organizers of the event withdrew their invitation. In response, an editor and co-publisher of the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Joachim Fest, allowed Nolte to have his speech printed as a feuilleton in his newspaper. One of Nolte's leading critics, British historian Richard J. Evans, claims that the organizers of the Römerberg Conversations did not withdraw their invitation, and that Nolte had just refused to attend. Nolte began his feuilleton by remarking that it was necessary in his opinion to draw a "line under the German past". Nolte argued that the memory of the Nazi era was "a bugaboo, as a past that in the process of establishing itself in the present or that is suspended above the present like an executioner's sword". Nolte complained that excessive present-day interest in the Nazi period had the effect of drawing "attention away from the pressing questions of the present—for example, the question of "unborn life" or the presence of genocide yesterday in Vietnam and today in Afghanistan". The crux of Nolte's thesis was presented when he wrote:

"It is a notable shortcoming of the literature about National Socialism that it does not know or does not want to admit to what degree all the deeds—with the sole exception of the technical process of gassing—that the National Socialists later committed had already been described in a voluminous literature of the early 1920s: mass deportations and shootings, torture, death camps, extermination of entire groups using strictly objective selection criteria, and


texts: public demands for the annihilation of millions of guiltless people who were thought to be "enemies".It is probable that many of these reports were exaggerated. It is certain that the “White Terror” also committed terrible deeds, even though its program contained no analogy to the “extermination of the bourgeoisie”. Nonetheless, the following question must seem permissible, even unavoidable: Did the National Socialists or Hitler perhaps commit an “Asiatic” deed merely because they and their ilk considered themselves to be the potential victims of an “Asiatic” deed? Wasn’t the 'Gulag Archipelago' more original than Auschwitz? Was the Bolshevik murder of an entire class not the logical and factual prius of the "racial murder" of National Socialism? Cannot Hitler's most secret deeds be explained by the fact that he had not forgotten the rat cage? Did Auschwitz in its root causes not originate in a past that would not pass?In addition, <mask> sees his work as the beginning of a much-needed revisionist treatment to end the "negative myth" of Nazi Germany that dominates contemporary perceptions. <mask> took the view that the principal problem of German history was this "negative myth" of Nazi Germany, which cast the Nazi era as the ne plus ultra of evil. <mask> contends that the great decisive event of the 20th century was the Russian Revolution of 1917, which plunged all of Europe into a long-simmering civil war that lasted until 1945. To Nolte, fascism, communism's twin, arose as a desperate response by the threatened middle classes of Europe to what Nolte has often called the "Bolshevik peril". He

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 suggests that if one wishes to understand the Holocaust, one should begin with the Industrial Revolution in Britain, and then understand the rule of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. In his 1987 book Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, 1917–1945, <mask> argued in the interwar period, Germany was Europe's best hope for progress. <mask> wrote that "if Europe was to succeed in establishing itself as a world power on an equal footing [with the United States and the Soviet Union], then Germany had to be the core of the new 'United States'".Nolte claimed if Germany had to continue to abide by Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, which had disarmed Germany, then Germany would have been destroyed by aggression from her neighbors sometime later in the 1930s, and with Germany's destruction, there would have been no hope for a "United States of Europe". The British historian Richard J. Evans accused Nolte of engaging in a geopolitical fantasy. The ensuing controversy
These views ignited a firestorm of controversy. Most historians in West Germany and virtually all historians outside Germany condemned Nolte's interpretation as factually incorrect, and as coming dangerously close to justifying the Holocaust. Many historians, such as Steven T. Katz, claimed that Nolte's “Age of Genocide” concept “trivialized” the Holocaust by reducing it to just one of many 20th century genocides. A common line of criticism was that Nazi crimes, above all the Holocaust, were singular and unique in their nature, and should not be loosely analogized to the crimes of others. Some historians such as Hans-Ulrich Wehler were most forceful in arguing


texts: that the sufferings of the "kulaks" deported during the Soviet "dekulakization" campaign of the early 1930s were in no way analogous to the suffering of the Jews deported in the early 1940s.Many were angered by <mask>'s claim that "the so-called annihilation of the Jews under the Third Reich was a reaction or a distorted copy and not a first act or an original", with many wondering why Nolte spoke of the "so-called annihilation of the Jews" in describing the Holocaust. Some of the historians who denounced Nolte's views included Hans Mommsen, Jürgen Kocka, Detlev Peukert, Martin Broszat, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Michael Wolffsohn, Heinrich August Winkler, Wolfgang Mommsen, Karl Dietrich Bracher and Eberhard Jäckel. Much (though not all) of the criticism of Nolte came from historians who favored either the Sonderweg (Special Way) and/or intentionalist/functionalist interpretations of German history. Coming to Nolte's defence were the journalist Joachim Fest, the philosopher Helmut Fleischer, and the historians Klaus Hildebrand, Rainer Zitelmann, Hagen Schulze, Thomas Nipperdey and Imanuel Geiss. The last was unusual amongst <mask>'s defenders as Geiss was normally identified with the left, while the rest of <mask>'s supporters were seen as either on the right or holding centrist views. In response to Wehler's book, Geiss later published a book entitled Der Hysterikerstreit. Ein unpolemischer Essay (The Hysterical Dispute: An Unpolemical Essay) in which he largely defended Nolte against Wehler's criticisms.Geiss wrote Nolte's critics had "taken in isolation" his statements and were guilty of being "hasty


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 readers"

In particular, controversy centered on an argument of Nolte's 1985 essay “Between Myth and Revisionism” from the book Aspects of the Third Reich, first published in German as "Die negative Lebendigkeit des Dritten Reiches" ("The Negative Vitality of the Third Reich") as an opinion piece in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 24 July 1980, but which did not attract widespread attention until 1986 when Jürgen Habermas criticized the essay in a feuilleton piece. Nolte had delivered a lecture at the Siemens-Stiftung in 1980, and excerpts from his speech were published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung without attracting controversy. In his essay, Nolte argued that if the PLO were to destroy Israel, then the subsequent history written in the new Palestinian state would portray the former Israeli state in the blackest of colors with no references to any of the positive features of the defunct state. In <mask>'s opinion, a similar situation of history written only by the victors exists in regards to the history of Nazi Germany. Many historians, such as British historian Richard J. Evans, have asserted that, based on this statement, Nolte appears to believe that the only reason why Nazism is regarded as evil is because Germany lost World War II, with no regard for the Holocaust. In a review which appeared in the Historische Zeitschrift journal on 2 April 1986 Klaus Hildebrand called <mask>'s essay "Between Myth and Revisionism" “trailblazing”. In the same review Hildebrand argued Nolte had in a praiseworthy way sought:

"to incorporate in historicizing fashion that central element for the


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 history of National Socialism and of the "Third Reich" of the annihilatory capacity of the ideology and of the regime, and to comprehend this totalitarian reality in the interrelated context of Russian and German history".Habermas' attack
The philosopher Jürgen Habermas in an article in the Die Zeit of 11 July 1986 strongly criticized Nolte, along with Andreas Hillgruber and Michael Stürmer, for engaging in what Habermas called “apologetic” history writing in regards to the Nazi era, and for seeking to “close Germany’s opening to the West” that in Habermas's view has existed since 1945. In particular, Habermas took Nolte to task for suggesting a moral equivalence between the Holocaust and the Khmer Rouge genocide. In Habermas's opinion, since Cambodia was a backward, Third World agrarian state and Germany a modern, industrial state, there was no comparison between the two genocides. War of words in the German press
In response to Habermas's essay, Klaus Hildebrand came to Nolte's defence. In an essay entitled "The Age of Tyrants", first published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on July 31, 1986, he went on to praise Nolte for daring to open up new questions for research. Nolte, for his part, started to write a series of letters to newspapers such as Die Zeit and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung attacking his critics; for example, in a letter to Die Zeit on 1 August 1986, Nolte complained that his critic Jürgen Habermas was attempting to censor him for expressing his views, and accused Habermas of being the person responsible for blocking him from attending the Römerberg Conversations. In the same


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 letter, Nolte described himself as the unnamed historian whose views on the reasons for the Holocaust had caused Saul Friedländer to walk out in disgust from a dinner party hosted by Nolte in Berlin in February or March 1986 that Habermas had alluded to an earlier letter

Responding to the essay "The Age of Tyrants: History and Politics" by Klaus Hildebrand that defended Nolte, Habermas wrote:

"In his essay <mask>lte discusses the 'so-called' annihilation of the Jews (in H.W.Koch, ed. Aspects of the Third Reich, London, 1985). Chaim Weizmann's declaration in the beginning of September 1939 that the Jews of the world would fight on the side of Britain, 'justified'so opined <mask> to treat the Jews as prisoners of war and intern them. Other objections aside, I cannot distinguish between the insinuation that world Jewry is a subject of international law and the usual anti-Semitic projections. And if it had at least stopped with deportation. All this does not stop Klaus Hildebrand in the Historische Zeitschrift from commending Nolte's 'pioneering essay', because it 'attempts to project exactly the seemingly unique aspects of the history of the Third Reich onto the backdrop of the European and global development'. Hildebrand is pleased that Nolte denies the singularity of the Nazi atrocities."In an essay entitled "Encumbered Remembrance", first published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on August 29, 1986, Fest claimed that <mask>'s argument that Nazi crimes were not singular was correct. Fest accused Habermas of "academic dyslexia" and "character assassination" in his attacks on Nolte. In a letter to

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Ernst No
NolteHler
Nolte


texts: the editor of Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung published on September 6, 1986 Karl Dietrich Bracher accused both Habermas and Nolte of both "...tabooing the concept of totalitarianism and inflating the formula of fascism". The historian Eberhard Jäckel, in an essay first published in the Die Zeit newspaper on September 12, 1986, argued that Nolte's theory was ahistorical on the grounds that Hitler held the Soviet Union in contempt and could not have felt threatened as Nolte claimed. Jäckel later described Nolte's methods as a "game of confusion", comprising dressing hypotheses up as questions and then attacking critics demanding evidence for his assertions as seeking to block one from asking questions. The philosopher Helmut Fleischer, in an essay first published in the Nürnberger Zeitung newspaper on September 20, 1986, defended Nolte against Habermas on the grounds that Nolte was only seeking to place the Holocaust into a wider political context of the time. Fleischer accused Habermas of seeking to impose on Germans a left-wing moral understanding of the Nazi period and of creating a "moral" Sondergericht (Special Court).Fleischer argued that Nolte was only seeking the "historicization" of National Socialism that Martin Broszat had called for in a 1985 essay by trying to understand what caused National Socialism, with a special focus on the fear of communism. In an essay first published in Die Zeit on September 26, 1986, the historian Jürgen Kocka argued against Nolte that the Holocaust was indeed a "singular" event because it had been committed by an advanced Western nation, and argued that <mask>'s


texts:
 comparisons of the Holocaust with similar mass killings in Pol Pot's Cambodia, Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union, and Idi Amin's Uganda were invalid because of the backward nature of those societies. Hagen Schulze, in an essay first published in Die Zeit on September 26, 1986, defended Nolte, together with Andreas Hillgruber, and argued that Habermas was acting from "incorrect presuppositions" in attacking <mask> and Hillgruber for denying the "singularity" of the Holocaust. Schulze argued that Habermas's attack on Nolte was flawed because he failed to provide any proof that the Holocaust was unique, and argued there were many "aspects" of the Holocaust that were "common" to other historical events. In an essay first published in the Frankfurter Rundschau newspaper on November 14, 1986, Heinrich August Winkler wrote of Nolte's essay "The Past That Will Not Pass":

“Those who read the Frankfurter Allgemeine all the way through to the culture section were able to read something under the title “The Past That Will Not Pass” that no German historian to date had noticed: that Auschwitz was only a copy of a Russian original – the Stalinist Gulag Archipelago. From a fear of the Bolsheviks’ Asiatic will to annihilate, Hitler himself committed an “Asiatic deed”. Was the annihilation of the Jews a kind of putative self-defence?That is what Nolte’s speculation amounts to.”

The political scientist Kurt Sontheimer, in an essay first published in the Rheinischer Merkur newspaper on November 21, 1986, accused <mask> and his supporters of attempting to create a new “national consciousness” intended to sever the Federal


texts:
 Republic's “intellectual and spiritual ties with the West”. The German political scientist Richard Löwenthal noted that news of the Soviet kulak expulsions and the Holodomor did not reach Germany until 1941, so that Soviet atrocities could not possibly have influenced the Germans as Nolte claimed. In a letter to the editor of the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on November 29, 1986, Löwenthal argued the case for a "fundamental difference" in mass murder between Germany and the Soviet Union, and against the "equalizing" of various crimes in the 20th century. The German historian Horst Möller, in an essay first published in late 1986 in the Beiträge zur Konfliktforschung magazine, argued that Nolte was not attempting to "excuse" Nazi crimes by comparing them with the crimes of others, but was instead trying to explain Nazi war-crimes. Möller argued that Nolte was only attempting to explain "irrational" events rationally, and that the Nazis really did believe that they were confronted with a world Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy out to destroy Germany. In an essay entitled "The Nazi Reign – A Case of Normal Tyranny? ", first published in Die neue Gesellschaft magazine in late 1986, the political scientist Walter Euchner wrote that Nolte was wrong when he wrote of Hitler's alleged terror of the Austrian Social Democratic Party parades before 1914, arguing that Social Democratic parties in both Germany and Austria were fundamentally humane and pacifistic, instead of the terrorist-revolutionary entities Nolte alleged them to be.Der europäische Bürgerkrieg
Another area of controversy was <mask>'s 1987 book Der


texts:
 europäische Bürgerkrieg (The European Civil War) and some accompanying statements, by which Nolte appeared to flirt with Holocaust denial as a serious historical argument. In a letter to Otto Dov Kulka of 8 December 1986 Nolte criticized the work of French Holocaust denier Robert Faurisson on the ground that the Holocaust did in fact occur, but he went on to argue that Faurisson's work had admirable motives in the form of sympathy for Palestinians and opposition to Israel. In Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, Nolte claimed that the intentions of Holocaust deniers are "often honorable", and that some of their claims are "not evidently without foundation". Kershaw has argued that <mask> was operating on the borderlines of Holocaust denial with his implied claim that the "negative myth" of Nazi Germany was created by Jewish historians, his allegations of the domination of Holocaust scholarship by Jewish historians, and his statements that one should withhold judgment on Holocaust deniers, who Nolte insists are not exclusively Germans or fascists. In Kershaw's opinion, Nolte is attempting to imply that Holocaust deniers are perhaps on to something. In Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, Nolte put forward five different arguments as a way of criticizing the uniqueness of the Shoah thesis. These were as follows:
 There were other equally horrible acts of violence in the 20th century.Some of the examples Nolte cited were the Armenian genocide; Soviet deportations of the so-called “traitor nations,” such as the Crimean Tatars and the Volga Germans; British “area bombing” in World War II; and American violence in the


texts: Vietnam War. Nazi genocide was only a copy of Soviet genocide, and thus can in no way be considered unique. Nolte argued that the vast majority of Germans had no knowledge of the 'Holocaust while it was happening Nolte claimed that the genocide of the Jews was Hitler's personal pet project, and that the Holocaust was the work of only a few Germans who were entirely unrepresentative of German society Contradicting the American historian Raul Hilberg, who claimed that hundreds of thousands of Germans were complicit in the Holocaust, from high-ranking bureaucrats to railway clerks and locomotive conductors, Nolte argued that the functional division of labour in modern society meant that most people in Germany had no idea of how they were assisting in genocide. In support of this, Nolte cited the voluminous memoirs of German generals and Nazi leaders, such as Albert Speer, who claimed to have no idea that their country was engaging in genocide during World War II. Nolte maintained that to a certain degree Nazi anti-Semitic policies were justifiable responses to Jewish actions against Germany, such as Weizmann's alleged 1939 “declaration of war” on Germany. Finally, Nolte hinted at the possibility that the Holocaust had never happened at all. Nolte claimed that the Wannsee Conference never took place, and argued that most Holocaust scholarship is flawed because most Holocaust historians are Jewish, and thus “biased” against Germany and in favour of the idea that there was a Holocaust.The British historian Richard J. Evans criticized <mask>, accusing him of taking too seriously the work of Holocaust deniers,


texts:
 whom Evans called cranks, not historians. Likewise, Evans charged that Nolte was guilty of making assertions unsupported by the evidence, such as claiming that SS massacres of Russian Jews were a form of counterinsurgency, or taking at face value the self-justifying claims of German generals who professed to be ignorant of the Shoah. Perhaps the most extreme response to <mask>'s thesis occurred on 9 February 1988, when his car was burned by leftist extremists in Berlin. Nolte called the case of arson "terrorism", and maintained that the attack was inspired by his opponents in the Historikerstreit. International reaction
Criticism from abroad came from Ian Kershaw, Gordon A. Craig, Richard J. Evans, Saul Friedländer, John Lukacs, Michael Marrus, and Timothy Mason. Mason wrote against Nolte, calling for the sort of theories of generic fascism that Nolte himself had once championed:

Anson Rabinbach accused Nolte of attempting to erase German guilt for the Holocaust. Ian Kershaw wrote that Nolte was claiming that the Jews had essentially brought the Holocaust down on themselves, and were the authors of their own misfortunes in the Shoah.Elie Wiesel called Nolte, together with Klaus Hildebrand, Andreas Hillgruber, and Michael Stürmer, one of the “four bandits” of German historiography. The American historian Charles Maier rejected Nolte's claims regarding the moral equivalence of the Holocaust and Soviet terror on the grounds that while the latter was extremely brutal, it did not seek the physical annihilation of an entire people as state policy. The American historian Donald McKale blasted both <mask> and


texts:
 Andreas Hillgruber for their statements that the Allied strategic bombing offensives were just as much acts of genocide as the Holocaust, writing that that was just the sort of nonsense one would expect from Nazi apologists like <mask> and Hillgruber. In a 1987 essay, the Austrian-born Israeli historian Walter Grab accused <mask> of engaging in an “apologia” for Nazi Germany. Grab called Nolte's claim that Weizmann's letter to Chamberlain was a "Jewish declaration of war" that justified the Germans "interning" European Jews a "monstrous thesis" that was not supported by the facts. Grab accused Nolte of ignoring the economic impoverishment and total lack of civil rights that the Jewish community in Germany lived under in 1939. Grab wrote that <mask> "mocks" the Jewish victims of National Socialism with his "absolutely infamous" statement that it was Weizmann with his letter that caused all of the Jewish death and suffering during the Holocaust.Conclusion of dispute
Writing in 1989, the British historian Richard J. Evans declared that:

Citing Mein Kampf, Evans argued that Hitler was an anti-Semite long before 1914 and that it was the SPD (the moderate left), not the Bolsheviks, whom Hitler regarded as his main enemies. Nolte's opponents have expressed intense disagreement with his evidence for a Jewish "war" on Germany. They argue that Weizmann's letter to Chamberlain was written in his capacity as head of the World Zionist Organization, not on behalf of the entire Jewish people of the world, and that <mask>'s views are based on the spurious idea that all Jews comprised a distinct "nationality" who took


texts:
 their marching orders from Jewish organizations. Because of the views that he expressed during the Historikerstreit, <mask> has often been accused of being a Nazi apologist and an anti-Semite. Nolte has always vehemently denied these charges, and has insisted that he is a neo-liberal in his politics. Nolte is by his own admission an intense German nationalist and his stated goal is to restore the Germans' sense of pride in their history that he feels has been missing since 1945. In a September 1987 interview, Nolte stated that the Germans were "once the master race (Herrenvolk), now they are the "guilty race" (Sündervolk).The one is merely an inversion of the other". Nolte's defenders have pointed to numerous statements on his part condemning Nazi Germany and the Holocaust. Nolte's critics have acknowledged these statements, but claim that Nolte's arguments can be constructed as being sympathetic to the Nazis, such as his defence of the Commissar Order as a legitimate military order, his argument that the Einsatzgruppen massacres of Soviet Jews were a reasonable "preventative security" response to partisan attacks, his statements citing Viktor Suvorov that Operation Barbarossa was a "preventive war" forced on Hitler allegedly by an impending Soviet attack, his claim that too much scholarship on the Holocaust has been the work of "biased" Jewish historians, or his use of Nazi-era language such as his practice of referring to Red Army soldiers in World War II as “Asiatic hordes”. Later work
In his 1991 book Geschichtsdenken im 20. Jahrhundert (Historical Thinking in the 20th Century), <mask> asserted


texts: that the 20th century had produced three “extraordinary states”, namely Germany, the Soviet Union, and Israel. He claimed that all three were “abnormal once”, but whereas the Soviet Union and Germany were now “normal” states, Israel was still “abnormal” and, in Nolte's view, in danger of becoming a fascist state that might commit genocide against the Palestinians. Between 1995 and 1997, Nolte debated with the French historian François Furet in an exchange of letters on the relationship between fascism and communism.The debate had started with a footnote in Furet's book, Le Passé d'une illusion (The Passing of an Illusion), in which Furet acknowledged Nolte's merit of comparatively studying communism and Nazism, an almost-forbidden practice in Continental Europe. Both ideologies typify in a radical way the contradictions of liberalism. They follow a chronological sequence: Lenin predates Mussolini, who, in turn, precedes Hitler. Furet noted that <mask>'s theses went against the established notions of culpability and apprehension to criticize the idea of anti-fascism common in the West. This prompted an epistolary exchange between the two of them in which Furet argued that both ideologies were totalitarian twins that shared the same origins, but Nolte maintained his views of a kausaler Nexus (causal nexus) between fascism and communism to which the former had been a response. After Furet's death, their correspondence was published as a book in France in 1998, Fascisme et Communisme: échange épistolaire avec l'historien allemand <mask>e prolongeant la Historikerstreit (Fascism and Communism: Epistolary

masks:
Nolte
Ernst Nolt


texts: Exchanges with the German Historian <mask> Extending the Historikerstreit). It was translated into English as Fascism and Communism in 2001.While pronouncing Stalin guilty of great crimes, Furet contended that although the histories of fascism and communism were essential to European history, there were singular events associated with each movement which differentiated them. He did not feel there was a precise parallel, as Nolte suggested, between the Holocaust and dekulakization. Nolte often contributed Feuilleton (opinion pieces) to German newspapers such as Die Welt and the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. He was often described as one of the "most brooding, German thinkers about history". The historical consciousness and self-understanding of the Germans form a major theme of his essays. Nolte called the Federal Republic "a state born of contemporary history, a product of catastrophe erected to overcome catastrophe" In a Feuilleton piece published in Die Welt entitled “Auschwitz als Argument in der Geschichtstheorie” (Auschwitz as An Argument in Historical Theory) on 2 January 1999, Nolte criticized his old opponent Richard J. Evans for his book In The Defence of History, on the grounds that aspects of the Holocaust are open to revision and so Evans’s attacks on Nolte during the Historikerstreit had been unwarranted. Specifically, citing the American political scientist Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Nolte argued that the effectiveness of the gas chambers as killing instruments was exaggerated, more Jews were killed by mass shooting than by mass gassing, the number of people killed at Auschwitz was


texts:
 overestimated after 1945 (the Soviets initially exaggerated the death toll at 4 million although the consensus today is 1.1 million), Binjamin Wilkomirski's memoir of Auschwitz was a forgery and so the history of the Holocaust is open to reinterpretation.In October 1999, Evans stated in response that he agreed with Nolte on those points but argued that form of argument to be an attempt by Nolte to avoid responding to his criticism of him during the Historikerstreit. On 4 June 2000, Nolte was awarded the Konrad Adenauer Prize. The award attracted considerable public debate and was presented to Nolte by Horst Möller, the Director of the Institut für Zeitgeschichte (Institute for Contemporary History), who praised Nolte’s scholarship but tried to steer clear of Nolte’s more controversial claims. In his acceptance speech, Nolte commented, "We should leave behind the view that the opposite of National Socialist goals is always good and right," while suggesting that excessive "Jewish" support for Communism furnished the Nazis with "rational reasons" for their anti-Semitism. In August 2000, <mask> wrote a favorable review in the Die Woche newspaper of Norman Finkelstein’s book The Holocaust Industry, claiming Finkelstein’s book buttressed his claim that the memory of the Holocaust had been used by Jewish groups for their own reasons. <mask>’s positive review of The Holocaust Industry may have been related to Finkelstein’s endorsement in his book of Nolte’s demand, first made during the Historikerstreit, for the “normalization” of the German past

In a 2004 book review of Richard Overy's monograph The


texts: Dictators, the American historian Anne Applebaum argued that it was a valid intellectual exercise to compare the German and the Soviet dictatorships, but she complained that <mask>'s arguments had needlessly discredited the comparative approach. In response, Paul Gottfried in 2005 defended Nolte from Applelbaum's charge of attempting to justify the Holocaust by contending that Nolte had merely argued that the Nazis had made a link in their own minds between Jews and communists and that the Holocaust was their attempt to eliminate the most likely supporters of communism.In a June 2006 interview with the newspaper Die Welt, <mask> echoed theories that he had first expressed in The Three Faces of Fascism by identifying Islamic fundamentalism as a "third variant", after communism and National Socialism, of "the resistance to transcendence". He expressed regret that he would not have enough time for a full study of Islamic fascism In the same interview, Nolte said that he could not forgive Augstein for calling Hillgruber a "constitutional Nazi" during the Historikerstreit and claimed that Wehler had helped to hound Hillgruber to his death in 1989. <mask> ended the interview by calling himself a philosopher, not a historian, and argued that the hostile reactions that he often encountered from historians were caused by his status as a philosopher writing history. In his 2005 book The Russian Roots of Nazism: White Émigrés and The Making of National Socialism, the American historian Michael Kellogg argued that there were two extremes of thinking about the origins of National Socialism, with Nolte arguing for a


texts:
 "causal nexus" between communism in Russia and Nazism in Germany, but the other extreme was represented by the American historian Daniel Goldhagen, whose theories debate a unique German culture of "eliminationist" anti-Semitism. Kellogg argued that his book represented an attempt at adopting a middle position between Nolte's and Goldhagen's positions but that he leaned closer to <mask>'s by contending that anti-Bolshevik and anti-Semitic Russian émigrés played an underappreciated key role in the 1920s in the development of Nazi ideology, their influence on Nazi thinking about Judeo-Bolshevism being especially notable. In his 2006 book No Simple Victory, the British historian Norman Davies lends Nolte's theories support:

Davies concluded that revelations made after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe about Soviet crimes had discredited Nolte's critics. Courtois wrote the preface to the French edition of The European Civil War, published in 2000.Awards
 Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize (1985)
 Konrad Adenauer Prize (2000)
 Gerhard Löwenthal Honor Award (2011)

Works
 "Marx und Nietzsche im Sozialismus des jungen Mussolini" pp. 249–335 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 191, Issue #2, October 1960. "Die Action Française 1899–1944" pp. 124–165 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 9, Issue 2, April 1961. "Eine frühe Quelle zu Hitlers Antisemitismus" pp. 584–606 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 192, Issue #3, June 1961. “Zur Phänomenologie des Faschismus” pp.373–407 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 10, Issue #4, October 1962. Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche: die Action


texts:
 française der italienische Faschismus, der Nationalsozialismus, München : R. Piper, 1963, translated into English as The Three Faces of Fascism; Action Francaise, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1965.
 Review of Action Français Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth-Century France by Eugen Weber pp. 694–701 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 199, Issue # 3, December 1964.
 Review of Le origini del socialismo italiano by Richard Hostetter pp. 701–704 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 199, Issue #3, December 1964.
 Review of Albori socialisti nel Risorgimento by Carlo Francovich pp. 181–182 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 200, Issue # 1, February 1965. “Grundprobleme der Italienischen Geschichte nach der Einigung” pp. 332–346 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 200, Issue #2, April 1965.“Zur Konzeption der Nationalgeschichte heute” pp. 603–621 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 202, Issue #3, June 1966. "Zeitgenössische Theorien über den Faschismus" pp. 247–268 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 15, Issue #3, July 1967. Der Faschismus: von Mussolini zu Hitler. Texte, Bilder und Dokumente, Munich: Desch, 1968. Die Krise des liberalen Systems und die faschistischen Bewegungen, Munich : R. Piper, 1968.Sinn und Widersinn der Demokratisierung in der Universität, Rombach Verlag: Freiburg, 1968. Les Mouvements fascistes, l'Europe de 1919 a 1945, Paris : Calmann-Levy, 1969. "Big Business and German Politics: A Comment" pp. 71–78 from The American Historical Review, Volume 75, Issue#1, October 1969. “Zeitgeschichtsforschung und Zeitgeschichte” pp. 1–11


texts:
 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 18. Issue #1, January 1970.“The Relationship Between "Bourgeois" And "Marxist" Historiography” pp. 57–73 from History & Theory, Volume 14, Issue 1, 1975. “Review: Zeitgeschichte als Theorie. Eine Erwiderung” pp. 375–386 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 222, Issue #2, April 1976. Was ist bürgerlich? und andere Artikel, Abhandlungen, Auseinandersetzungen, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979."What Fascism Is Not: Thoughts on the Deflation of a Concept: Comment" pp. 389–394 from The American Historical Review, Volume 84, Issue #2, April 1979. “Deutscher Scheinkonstitutionalismus?” pp. 529–550 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 288, Issue #3, June 1979. "Marxismus und Nationalsozialismus" pp. 389–417 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 31, Issue # 3 July 1983.
 Review of Revolution und Weltbürgerkrieg. Studien zur Ouvertüre nach 1789 by Roman Schnur pp.720–721 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 238, Issue # 3 June 1984.

 Review of Der italienische Faschismus. Probleme und Forschungstendenzen pp. 469–471 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 240, Issue #2 April 1985. “Zusammenbruch und Neubeginn: die Bedeutung des 8. Mai 1945” pp. 296–303 from Zeitschrift für Politik, Volume 32, Issue #3, 1985. “Philosophische Geschichtsschreibung heute?” pp.265–289 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 242, Issue #2, April 1986. “Une Querelle D'Allemandes? Du Passe Qui Ne Veut Pas S'Effacer” pp. 36–39 from Documents, Volume 1, 1987.

 Review: Ein Höhepunkt der Heidegger-Kritik? Victor Farias' Buch "Heidegger et le Nazisme" pp. 95–114 from Historische


texts:
 Zeitschrift, Volume 247, Issue #1, August 1988. "Das Vor-Urteil als "Strenge Wissenschaft."Zu den Rezensionen von Hans Mommsen und Wolfgang Schieder” pp. 537–551 from Geschichte und Gesellschaft, Volume 15, Issue #4, 1989.

 Review of The Politics of Being The Political Thought of Martin Heidegger by Richard Wolin pp. 123–124 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 258, Issue # 1 February 1994. "Die historisch-genetische Version der Totalitarismusthorie: Ärgernis oder Einsicht?" pp. 111–122 from Zeitschrift für Politik, Volume 43, Issue #2, 1996. Historische Existenz: Zwischen Anfang und Ende der Geschichte?, Munich: Piper 1998, .Les Fondements historiques du national-socialisme, Paris: Editions du Rocher, 2002. L'eredità del nazionalsocialismo, Rome: Di Renzo Editore, 2003.
 co-written with Siegfried Gerlich Einblick in ein Gesamtwerk, Edition Antaios: Dresden 2005, . Die dritte radikale Widerstandsbewegung: der Islamismus, Landt Verlag, Berlin 2009, . References
Notes

Bibliography

 Bauer, Yehuda Rethinking the Holocaust New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001 . Bauer, Yehuda "A Past That Will Not Go Away" pp. 12–22 from The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed and the Reexamined edited by Michael Berenbaum and Abraham Peck, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998. Braunthal, Gerard Review of Theorien über den Faschismus by <mask>e pp.487–488 from The American Historical Review, Volume 75, Issue # 2, December 1969. Brockmann, Stephen "The Politics Of German History" pp. 179–189 from History and Theory, Volume 29, Issue #2, 1990. Craig, Gordon "The War of the German


texts:
 Historians" pp. 16–19 from New York Review of Books, 15 February 1987. Diner, Dan "The Historians' Controversy: Limits to the Historicization of National Socialism" pp. 74–78 from Tikkun, Volume 2, 1987.Eley, Geoff "Nazism, Politics and the Image of the Past: Thoughts on the West German Historikerstreit" pp. 171–288 from Past and Present, Volume 121, 1988. Friedländer, Saul "West Germany and the Burden of the Past: The Ongoing Debate" pp. 3–18 from Jerusalem Quarterly, Volume 42, Spring 1987. Friedrich, Carl “Review: Fascism versus Totalitarianism: <mask>'s Views Reexamined” pp. 271–284 from Central European History, Volume 4, Issue #3, September 1971
 Gilbert, Felix “Review of Deutschland und der Kalte Krieg” pp. 618–620 from The American Historical Review, Volume 81, Issue #3 June 1976.Grab, Walter “German Historians And The Trivialization Of Nazi Criminality: Critical Remarks On The Apologetics Of Joachim Fest, <mask> And Andreas Hillgruber” pp. 273–278 from Australian Journal of Politics and History, Volume 33, Issue #3, 1987. Gutman, Yisreal "Nolte and Revisionism" pp. 115–150 from Yad Vashem Studies, Volume 19, 1988. Heilbrunn, Jacob "Germany's New Right" pp. 80–98 from Foreign Affairs, Volume 75, Issue #6, November–December 1996. Hanrieder, Wolfram F. Review of Deutschland und der Kalte Krieg pp.1316–1318 from American Political Science Review, Volume 71, September 1977. Hirschfeld, Gerhard "Erasing the Past?" pp. 8–10 from History Today Volume 37, Issue 8, August 1987. Jarausch, Konrad "Removing the Nazi Stain? The Quarrel of the German Historians" pp. 285–301 from German Studies Review, Volume

masks:
Ernst Nolte
Ernst Nolte