texts: commission, by most accounts, <mask> suggested to Pole that an appropriate subject for the sovereign, a new gold coin equal to one pound that was to be struck, would be Saint George. Until the early 20th century, gold coins were struck for circulation, rather than as bullion pieces. Kevin Clancy, in his volume on the history of the sovereign coin, doubted whether the Spencer commission was truly the inspiration for the George and Dragon design which that coin has long featured, and that the idea might not even have come from <mask>. Clancy argued that such motifs were common at the time and that the story originated with <mask>, whom he deemed an unreliable witness on his own past.For a fee of 100 guineas (£105), <mask> created the sovereign's design, engraving it himself. He depicted the saint atop a fiery steed which is trampling the wounded dragon. George has a broken spear in his hand; part is in the dragon and another fragment lies on the ground. <mask>'s original design, used for circulation in 1817–1819 and reprised by the Royal Mint in 2017, has the ribbon of the Order of the Garter surrounding the George and dragon design, with its motto HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE. The design, with Saint George bearing a sword rather than a spear, is ordinarily seen on the sovereign, and was also used for the crown from 1818. Clancy noted of the design process for the crown, "what emerges is the presence of Pole at each turn. He bombarded the young artist with suggestions and instructions on how the design should be changed from the shape of the sword to the perceived ferocity of the dragon."<mask> had placed his full last name on both sides of the crown, for


type: original

texts: which he was criticised by the public, and some said the saint would surely fall off his horse with the next blow. After the death in 1817 of Thomas Wyon Sr, the father of the man who had adapted <mask>'s designs, Pole most probably offered <mask> the post of chief engraver at the Royal Mint, with a salary of £500 per annum. and a house within the grounds of the Mint. However, it soon appeared that a law passed under William III barred foreigners from the post, and so Pole left it vacant, while granting <mask> the salary and emoluments of the office. Sir John Craig wrote in his history of the Royal Mint: "The arrangement was not put into writing, and misunderstanding was easy for a foreigner. Pole categorically denied any commitment beyond the grant for the time being of a salary for coinage designs as cheaper than payment of fees. The Italian persistently contended that he was seduced into Mint service by a promise of formal appointment to the chief engravership".According to H.W.A. Linecar in his book on British coin designs and designers, "the arrangement might have worked very well, even though it was against accepted procedure, had <mask> been other than he was." In 1819, <mask> was awarded the commission to design the Waterloo Medal, a huge piece some  in diameter that the government planned to award to the victorious generals and national leaders who had defeated Napoleon. Such a medal had been proposed by the Prince Regent (later George IV) soon after the battle. <mask>'s price was £2,400, and the down payment allowed him to bring his family from Italy. The medal was originally supposed to be to a design by John Flaxman, but <mask> refused to

masks: Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci


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 engrave the work of another artist, and Pole allowed him to design his own medal, a decision that antagonised London's art establishment against <mask>. A gigantic undertaking, the medal would take <mask> 30 years to complete.Conflict at the Mint (1820–1836)

After the death of George III in 1820, <mask> prepared the coinage bust of the new King, George IV. The King despised <mask>'s work for its bloated expression—according to Clancy, "its full features implying something of the appetites of the monarch". The King and <mask> also came into conflict over the Coronation medal, with the King objecting to being placed on the same level as the allegorical representations of his kingdoms. <mask> stated, "I shall elevate His Majesty", and did so. The King's toupee also caused difficulty in the engraving process. On the coinage, the sovereign was modified to remove its garter, and the saint's broken spear was replaced by a sword. Thus, it became very similar to the design used on modern-day sovereigns but for the lack of a streamer on Saint George's helmet.This version of the reverse was struck from 1821 to 1825, but <mask>'s design would be thereafter absent from the sovereign from 1825 to 1874, after his death. Aware of King George's dissatisfaction at the coinage effigy, the Mint played for time. Pole's resignation in 1823 deprived <mask> of a friend and supporter at the Mint. Sculptor Francis Chantrey had prepared a bust of the King which the monarch liked, and ordered that it be placed on the coinage. <mask> would not copy the work of another artist, and refused. The new coinage of 1823–1825 was engraved by <mask>'s assistant, Jean-Baptiste Merlen, and

masks: Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci


texts: by William Wyon; <mask> was thereafter excluded from work on the coinage. The Mint considered sacking <mask>, but realised that if it did, the £1,700 advanced for fees and expenses on the Waterloo medal would probably be wasted, and he kept his position and pay on condition he focused on the completion of the medal.Despite this, by 1826, only a portion of one side had been completed. Though the banishment of the George and Dragon design from the sovereign after 1825 was more part of a general redesign of the coinage than an attack upon <mask>, according to Clancy he "cannot have masked the sense he must have felt of tides turning against him". There was conflict at the Mint between <mask> and William Wyon, that sometimes involved Merlen. According to Graham Pollard in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, "<mask>'s temperament did not foster good relations with his colleagues at the mint; the insecurity of his position there was deepened by a spasmodic but bitter campaign conducted through the newspapers by his partisans and those of William Wyon." <mask> appealed to each new Master of the Mint for appointment to the post of chief engraver. In 1828, the incumbent Master, George Tierney, worked a compromise that satisfied no one. Wyon was appointed as chief engraver, and <mask> as chief medallist, with the salaries of the top two engraving positions divided between them.Of <mask>'s salary of £350, £50 was conditional on his training an apprentice. <mask> in succession named two of his sons, but the allowance was stopped after 1830 as it had come to light that each resided abroad, and one was not a British subject and so was ineligible for

masks: Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci


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 regular Mint employment. <mask>'s understanding of the arrangement was that he would create such medals as might be ordered by government departments, with each medal a separate fee in addition to the annual salary. This effectively left <mask> with little to do at the Mint. He created several medallic works, for example a small memorial medal for the King's brother, Frederick, Duke of York in 1827 that was popular, in royal circles, mounted in rings. He was asked to design the Coronation medal after King William IV came to the throne on George's death in 1830, but declined as he was asked to copy a bust by Chantrey, and the King refused to sit for him. He created, in 1830–1831, the Army Long Service and Good Conduct Medal, the first non-campaign medal of the British Army.He took twelve months to do so, a period of time Craig found unduly long. He continued to cut cameos, and to work, slowly, on the Waterloo Medal. <mask>'s biographer, Michael A. March, tied his disinclination to work on the Waterloo Medal to his unhappiness about his position at the Mint, and he may have concluded that he would be sacked if he finished the medal. In 1836, the new Master, Henry Labouchere, stated that he felt the medal could be finished in 18 months, and offered <mask> payment if he would take on four apprentices and finish it. <mask> declined. Later career and death (1837–1855)

<mask> enjoyed a friendly relationship with Princess Victoria of Kent, the niece and heiress presumptive of King William, and cut several cameos of her.After she succeeded to the throne as Queen Victoria in 1837, <mask> was selected to sculpt her Coronation medal, which he did; the Queen


texts: granted him several sittings. Although the Queen was pleased, there were mixed reviews. When questions were asked in the House of Commons, Labouchere stated that <mask> may have been ill. Joseph Hume opined that the reverse was no better done than the cheap medals sold in the streets for a penny each. In 1838, <mask> made the silver seal of the Duchy of Lancaster, using a new process by which the punch or die could be cast in metal directly from the original wax or clay mould, rather than having to be copied by hand engraving. The following year, <mask> left for Rome to take up a position as chief engraver at the papal mint, but returned to London a few months later, deeming the salary too low. By the early 1840s, the Audit Office was questioning the amount spent on Pistrucci. In 1844, the Master of the Mint, William Gladstone restored <mask>'s salary to the full £350 and offered him £400 to complete the Waterloo Medal.<mask> moved his residence from the Mint on Tower Hill to Fine Arts Cottage, Old Windsor, and set to work in full earnest. He was slowed by injuries from a fall, and it was not until the beginning of 1849 that he submitted the matrices of the medal, and was paid the remaining balance of £1,500. The matrices were so large no one at the Royal Mint was willing to take the risk of hardening them and possibly ruining three decades' work. So only soft impressions were taken, with no medals in gold, silver and bronze as intended, though replicas have since been minted from other dies. Even if the government had struck the medals, there was almost no one to present them to, for of the intended recipients, all were dead but the Duke of

masks: Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci Pistrucci


texts:
 Wellington. The conflict between <mask> and William Wyon continued into the late 1840s, and sometimes featured in the press, contributing to the feeling that all was not well at the Mint. A Royal Commission on reform of the Royal Mint was appointed in 1848.<mask> submitted a report, in which he settled some old scores. The reforms abolished the positions of chief engraver (Wyon died in 1851) and chief medallist, with <mask> appointed a modeller and engraver to the Mint, to receive a salary in addition to payment for any work done. <mask> in 1850 moved from Old Windsor to Flora Lodge, Englefield Green, near Windsor, where he lived with his daughters Maria Elisa and Elena, both gem engravers. He continued to accept private commissions for cameos and medals. <mask> died there of "inflammation of the lungs", on 16 September 1855, and is buried  at Christ Church, Virginia Water, Surrey. Appraisal

<mask> is probably remembered most for his George and Dragon design for the sovereign. Not greatly liked at the time of its origin, it has come to be celebrated.The Deputy Master of the Mint who restored the design to the sovereign in 1871, Charles Fremantle, stated his view that "it is hardly possible to over-rate the advantages accruing to a coinage from an artistic and well-executed design". By 1893, it was on all of Britain's gold coins; The Art Journal described <mask>'s design as having "triumphantly borne the test of time". Marsh noted, "it is indeed a tribute that his wonderful design should still adorn the gold coinage of our current Queen Elizabeth II. It is one of the finest ever in our coinage history, and has certainly stood the test of time. Long


texts: may it continue." <mask>'s design has also appeared on a non-circulating £20 silver coin in 2013 and on the crown in 1818–1823, 1887–1900, 1902 and 1951. Roderick Farey, in his biographical articles on <mask>, described him as "an Italian with a fiery disposition, he had numerous arguments with the authorities but no-one could doubt his genius firstly as a cameo cutter and later as an engraver and medallist."Those disputes, and a perceived slowness to complete his works (especially the Waterloo Medal) have been sources of the criticism by later writers. Howard Linecar, in his book on British coin designs and designers, wrote, "there is little doubt that <mask> held the cutting of these dies as a bargaining counter in his relentless efforts to obtain the post of Chief Engraver at the Royal Mint ... On balance it is perhaps fair to say that <mask>, having probably been promised that which he could not have ... squeezed the last drop of blood out of the situation." According to Clancy, "With great talent can often come controversy and throughout his career <mask> was acclaimed and reviled in equal measure, maintaining a series of tense relationships with his colleagues, the most pointed of which [was] with his fellow engraver William Wyon." Craig concluded, "Apart from the George and Dragon design, which was less esteemed then than now ... this artist's Mint works, unlike his private commissions, were failures". The Waterloo Medal is regarded by many as a masterpiece on a par with his St George and the Dragon. Pollard stated that the Waterloo Medal, "shows Pistrucci's command of the types (or figures) of cameos, an understanding of the figurative


texts:
 language of the Roman Renaissance, and an appreciation of the antique sculptured relief—his types, none the less, were always original". Marsh also praised the medal:, "no better piece of intaglio engraving  or design has surely ever been seen before or since.It contains as much as thirty ordinary-sized medals, and this alone is more than most medalists achieved in a life time." Farey concluded his study of Pistrucci,

Gallery

Notes

References

Bibliography

Leonard Forrer. <mask> <mask>: Italian medallist & gem-engraver, 1784-1855 (Spink, 1906). Further reading
Billing, Archibald & Pistrucci, B. The science of gems, jewels, coins, and medals, ancient and modern (inc. biography of Pistrucci) (London: Bell & Daldy, 1867) pp. 135–211. Illustrated.Contains list of works as well as biography. External links

B<mask> at Artnet
Pieces by <mask> in the Royal Collection
Head of Medusa, Cameo (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Portraits by <mask> (National Portrait Gallery, London)
  <mask> <mask>, in: World of coins
Museo della Zecca di Roma page with some of <mask>'s coin and medal models (in Italian)

1783 births
1855 deaths
19th-century engravers
British engravers
Italian medallists
Artists from Rome
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom
19th-century sculptors
Coin

masks:
Benedetto
Pistrucci
. Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Benedetto
Pistrucci
Pistrucci


texts:
<mask> (18 August 1844 – 17 March 1917) was a Scottish architect. Best known for his church buildings in the Gothic revival style, <mask> was also a keen antiquarian who oversaw meticulously researched restoration projects. Early life
<mask> was born at 37 North Frederick Street in Edinburgh, third son of four children, to French parents, who ran a business on George Street importing and manufacturing ladies shoes. His father, <mask>, was from Privas in the Ardèche area of France. He met Hippolyte's mother, Sarah or  Sartia Bauress, whilst living in Dublin and moved to Edinburgh around 1840. Their firm "Madame Blanc et Fils" was at 68 George Street immediately opposite a house they moved to later in Hippolyte's life at 69 George Street. <mask> attended George Heriot's School, winning the dux medal in 1859, and was then articled to the architect David Rhind.While working for Rhind, he attended classes at the School of Art and Design, where he met Thomas Ross, and became interested in medieval architecture. In 1864, after completing his articles, he joined the Government Office of Works under Robert Matheson, where he became a senior draughtsman in 1869. He married Elizabeth Shield on 21 August 1873, and they moved to 12 St Vincent Street. They later moved to the Grange area in south Edinburgh: first to 2 Thirlestane Road and finally to 17 Strathearn Place. Architectural career
For much of his career <mask>'s office was at 40 Frederick Street, extremely close to his parental home and their shop. In 1901 the office moved to 1 Rutland Square. From the early 1870s, <mask> began to undertake

masks:
Hippolyte Jean Blanc
Blanc
Hippolyte Blanc
Victor Jacques Blanc
Blanc
Blanc
Blanc


texts: private commissions.In 1875, he won his first architectural competition, for Christ Church, Morningside, and the following year won a second, for Mayfield Free Church. He left the Office of Works in 1878 to concentrate on his increasing workload, and by 1887 he had taken on a partner, James Gordon. <mask> executed numerous church buildings, including Kirkliston Free Church (1880), St Luke's, Broughty Ferry (1884), Coats Memorial Baptist Church, Paisley (1885), St Matthew's Parish Church (now Morningside Parish Church) (1888, opened 1890) and Morningside Free Church, Edinburgh (1892), now the Church Hill Theatre. He carried out restoration work to Edinburgh Castle (1886), John Knox House (1886), St Cuthbert's Church, Edinburgh (1892), and St Duthac's Church, Tain (1896). Secular work includes Mayville Gardens in Trinity, Edinburgh, a pleasant and quirky Victorian cul-de-sac with a low terrace of ornate houses on each side (1881). Other major commissions included houses at Eriska, Argyll, and Ferguslie Park, Paisley (1888–91), since demolished. Bangour Village Hospital, West Lothian, was a competition win in 1898, and he designed the former Bernard's Brewery buildings in Gorgie (1887).<mask> also designed several monuments. In 1912 he took his son, Frank Edward Belcombe <mask>, into partnership, and from 1913 his own architectural work drew to a close. His son continued to practice under the name Hippolyte J. Blanc & Son, until around 1950. From 1893 to 1898 his nephew, Louis David <mask> (1877-1944), also trained under him (working largely on the Coats Memorial Church in Paisley). Louis went

masks: Blanc Blanc Blanc Blanc


texts:
 on to specialise in department store design, being employed by Harrods as their in-house architect from around 1928. <mask>'s eldest son, <mask> <mask>, chose to be a dentist rather than an architect. Sir Frank Mears trained under Hippolyte from 1896 to 1901.Alexander Lorne Campbell trained under him in 1897. Other activities

In 1871 <mask> was elected president of the Edinburgh Architectural Association for the first of three times. He became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland in 1879, a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in 1901, and was elected to the Royal Scottish Academy (RSA) in 1896. In addition, he was an active member of several other learned societies. He wrote and lectured extensively, largely on the subject of medieval church architecture. <mask> served as president and treasurer of the RSA from 1907–17, and was president of the Edinburgh Photographic Society from 1888 until 1892, and honorary president from 1896 until his death. In 1910 he was appointed to a Royal Commission which oversaw British involvement in International Exhibitions held in Brussels (1910), Rome (1911) and Turin (1911).He was active in encouraging the careers of younger architects, and acted as assessor on several architectural competitions. From 1913 to 1916 he served on the ruling council of the prominent Edinburgh conservationist group the Cockburn Association. Death

<mask> died from pneumonia at his home at 17 Strathearn Place, Morningside, and was buried in Warriston Cemetery in its lower section, just south of the vaults, SE of the monument to James Young

masks:
Blanc
Victor Hippolyte
Blanc
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texts:
<mask> (born February 24, 1962) is an American businessman, lawyer, and former politician. A member of the Republican Party, <mask> served in the United States House of Representatives from 2003 to 2007, representing Indiana's 2nd congressional district. In 2002, <mask> ran for the U.S. House, defeating former Democratic congresswoman Jill Long Thompson. <mask> was a member of the Agriculture, Small Business, Transportation and Infrastructure, and Ways and Means committees. In 2004, he defeated lawyer and then-Mishawaka Marian School Board President Joe Donnelly, later losing in a rematch against Donnelly in 2006. After leaving Congress, <mask> served as president of the Club for Growth, a fiscally conservative 501(c)4 organization, from 2009 through the end of 2014. Early life, education, and career
<mask> was born in Jackson, Michigan.He grew up in Michigan, graduating from Williamston High School in 1980. He graduated in 1984 from Hillsdale College, in Hillsdale, Michigan, with a double major in business administration and political economy. While at Hillsdale College he joined the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. After graduation, he went to work at Society National Bank, now known as KeyBank, which had recruited him into its management program in Cleveland. At the time when he left to go to law school, he was employed as a foreign exchange trader for the bank. <mask> attended law school classes at night at Western Michigan University Cooley Law School, in Lansing, Michigan, while working as a credit manager for his family's business, Chocola Cleaning Materials. He graduated in 1988.In 1988, <mask> was hired as corporate counsel by CTB International in Milford, Indiana, a manufacturer of products for the poultry, egg, swine, and grain production industries, which his grandfather, Howard Brembeck, had founded. He initially managed all the legal aspects of the business as corporate counsel. He then held

masks:
Joseph Christopher Chocola
Chocola
Chocola
Chocola
Chocola
Chocola
Chocola
Chocola


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 various management positions until he was named CEO in 1994. In April 1999, he left the CEO position to become chairman of the board. In August 2002, CTB International was sold to Berkshire Hathaway, the investment firm of billionaire Warren Buffett. The <mask> family received 55% of the $140 million paid to shareholders of the company. Congressional elections

2000
In the 2000 election, <mask> made an unsuccessful bid for Congress in what was then , losing to incumbent Democrat Timothy J. Roemer by a 52–47% margin.In that campaign, <mask> spent more than $1 million, including $465,000 of his own money. In the October 8, 2000, edition of the Elkhart Truth, an Elkhart, Indiana newspaper, <mask> was quoted as saying that "Bush's plan of individual investment of 2 percent of the money is a start. Eventually, I'd like to see the entire Social Security system privatized. It's not a 'risky scheme'." In late October, after Roemer had featured that statement in political ads, <mask> said, "There is no one proposing, including me, a plan of total privatization." The newspaper, saying <mask> had made his statement in meeting its editorial board, refused to retract the story. Roemer refused to stop running the ad despite <mask>'s contention that the quotation was taken out of context.2002
Roemer retired after his 2001–2003 term. In 2002, <mask> ran again for the open seat, which had been renumbered as the 2nd District after redistricting. In November, he defeated former Congresswoman Jill Long Thompson by a 51-46 margin with 188,446 votes cast, in a race that included campaign appearances by President Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, and other top Republicans, to assist his bid. 2004
In 2004, <mask> defeated Democrat Joe Donnelly by a 54–45% margin with 259,355 votes cast, in an election where Bush received 56 percent of the district's vote. In that race, <mask> outspent Donnelly $1.4 million to $700,000. <mask>

masks: Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola


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 was assisted by a fundraising visit from Vice President Dick Cheney during the campaign. 2006

<mask> defeated Tony Zirkle, an attorney, Navy veteran, and frequent candidate, in the Republican primary on May 2, 2006 by 70% to 30%.In the November general election, <mask> lost to Democratic candidate Joe Donnelly, whom he had defeated in 2004, by a 54–46% margin with 191,861 votes cast. House of Representatives (2003–2007)

According to a profile by the Associated Press, "<mask> is a strong supporter of President Bush". The two do differ on some positions, such as illegal immigration. <mask> has supported (against the President's position) the "tough enforcement first" House version of changes in immigration law, in opposition to the President's calls for a guest worker program. In January 2006, <mask> said that great strides were being made in transitioning Iraq from military coalition to police control. He said it was too early to predict when the job will be done. Social issues
 <mask> was a cosponsor of the Federal Marriage Amendment in 2003 and voted for that Amendment when it came to the floor in 2004.He again was a cosponsor of the Marriage Protection Amendment in 2006 (H.J. Res. 88) and voted for the amendment on July 18, 2006. He voted in 2005 for an amendment to the Constitution preventing the desecration of the American flag. Voted for the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act in July 2006, which restricts credit card companies from processing payment towards Internet gambling companies. Voted for the Pledge Protection Act in mid-July 2006, which would prevent federal courts from ruling on cases involving the Pledge of Allegiance. Voted against overriding President George W. Bush's veto of the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act in July 2006.The bill would have modified restrictions on embryonic stem cell research and allowed for federal funding of the research. Fiscal and economic issues

masks: Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola Chocola


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 Introduced a bill that would place currency manipulation tariffs on China. He later denounced this bill when he became president of the Club for Growth. Voted against increasing the Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program by $1 billion in March 2006. Voted for the Tax Relief Extension Reconciliation Act in May 2006, which extended tax cuts set to expire over the next seven (7) years. Voted for the Permanent Estate Tax Relief Act in June 2006. The bill permanently exempted personal estates of less than $5 million per spouse from estate taxes, and lowered the tax rate on larger estates.In the summer of 2006, voted for a bill that would allow private companies to drill for oil in ANWR. One of two cosponsors of HELPS Retirees Act (H.R. 2177), also known as the Healthcare Enhancement for Local Public Safety Retirees Act of 2005, which enables retired public safety officers to designate up to $5,000 per year from governmental pension or deferred compensation funds for health care premiums on a pre-tax basis. This earned <mask> an endorsement from the International Association of Fire Fighters, one of his only endorsements from organized labor. References

External links

 Collected news and commentary at The Christian Science Monitor
 Collected news and commentary at Politico
 Collected news and commentary at The Washington Times
 <mask>, 100 People to Watch This Fall, The Hill, August 7, 2013
 Campaign finance at Influence Explorer
 Column archive at Redstate.com

1962 births
Living people
Politicians from Jackson, Michigan
American Presbyterians
Indiana Republicans
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Indiana
21st-century American businesspeople
People from Bristol, Indiana
People from Milford, Indiana
21st-century American politicians
Hillsdale College alumni
Western Michigan University Cooley Law School alumni
Members of the United States House of Representatives

masks:
Chocola
Chris Chocola


texts:
Laura-<mask> (born c. 1954) is a cognitive neuroscientist and a developmental cognitive neuroscientist known for her research and scientific discoveries involving the language capacity of chimpanzees, the biological bases of language in humans, especially early language acquisition (be it language on the hands in signed languages or on the tongue in spoken languages), early reading, and bilingualism, bilingual reading, and the bilingual brain. Significant scientific discoveries include the existence of linguistic babbling on the hands of deaf babies (“manual babbling”) and the equivalent neural processing of signed and spoken languages in the human brain. She is recognized for her contributions to the creation of the new scientific discipline, called educational neuroscience. <mask> chaired a new undergraduate department at Dartmouth College, called "Educational Neuroscience and Human Development" (2002-2007), and was a Co-Principal Investigator in the National Science Foundation and Dartmouth's Science of Learning Center, called the "Center for Cognitive and Educational Neuroscience" (2004-2007). At Gallaudet University (2011–present), <mask> led a team in the creation of the first PhD in Educational Neuroscience program in the United States. <mask> is the Co-Principal Investigator as well as Science Director of the National Science Foundation and Gallaudet University’s Science of Learning Center, called the "Visual Language and Visual Learning Center (VL2)". <mask> is also founder and Scientific Director of the Brain and Language Laboratory for Neuroimaging (“BL2”) at Gallaudet University.Biography

Education
<mask> received her Bachelor of Science degree in 1975 from Ramapo College of New Jersey while taking undergraduate classes and conducting cross-species language

masks:
Ann Petitto
Petitto
Petitto
Petitto
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Petitto


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 research with the chimpanzee "Nim Chimpsky" at Columbia University (New York City, New York). <mask> then conducted psycholinguistic research on American Sign Language (ASL) in the laboratory of  Dr. Ursula Bellugi  at The Salk Institute for Biological Studies (La Jolla, California), along with Linguist, Edward Klima, of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), where <mask> began graduate study in the Department of Linguistics (1976–1977). <mask> continued graduate study at New York University (Master's degree, 1978, specializing in Rehabilitative Counseling Psychology and Deafness, 1977–1978). <mask> then researched the phonological structure of ASL in "The Linguistics Research Laboratory" of Dr. William Stokoe at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. (1978–1979). In 1979, <mask> began graduate study at Harvard University, Department of Human Development and Psychology, in its "Language & Cognition" track. While Drs. Roger Brown (primary Graduate Advisor)<ref

name=r1043 /> and Courtney Cazden (co-Advisor) were <mask>'s mentors in "Cognition," Noam Chomsky at MIT was <mask>'s mentor in "Language."<mask> first met the renowned Linguist when working with Nim Chimpsky on Project Nim in the mid 1970s and this intellectual mentorship endured throughout her Harvard graduate studies and for decades to follow.<ref

name=r1020 /> <mask> was graduated from Harvard with a master's degree in 1981, and a Doctorate/Ed.D. in March, 1984. Leaving Harvard in fall 1983 to take up her first faculty appointment in McGill University's Department of Psychology (Montreal, Quebec, Canada), <mask> also won a John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship (awarded to 10 young scientists in the USA). Commuting between McGill and Salk in her first few faculty years,

masks: Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto


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 <mask> studied with Dr. Ursula Bellugi and Dr. Francis Crick (Salk), and Dr. Elizabeth Bates (UCSD), intellectual mentorships that would span decades thereafter. <mask>'s McGill psychology department role expanded when she also became a research scientist at the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, and a collaborating scientist on The McDonnell-Pew Centre Grant in Cognitive Neuroscience with Drs. Brenda Milner, Michael Petrides (PIs), as well as with Dr. Robert Zatorre (1990-2001). Scientific contributions
<mask>'s research and discoveries span several scientific disciplines.Her early work with Nim Chimpsky and her later work with humans, encompasses anthropology, comparative ethology, evolutionary biology, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive science, theoretical linguistics, philosophy, psychology, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, child development, evolutionary psychology, American Sign Language, deaf studies, and bilingualism. Her overall discoveries involve:

 (1) cross-species (apes and humans) language and cognitive capacities,
 (2) the nature of early human language acquisition, structure, and representation in the human brain; especially infants’ (ages 6–12 months) peaked neural sensitivity (involving the brain's STG and associated neural networks) to maximally-contrasting, rhythmic temporal patterning that in turn permits them to discover human language phonological structure in early life, and which is key to phonetic segmentation in word learning, discerning linguistic/syntactic patterning, and phonetic decoding in early reading,
 (3) the structure, grammar, and representation of natural signed languages of Deaf people, and
 (4) the nature of bilingual infants, children, and adults' dual language and reading development, processing, and bilingual

masks: Petitto Petitto Petitto


texts: brain organization. Advancement of New Discipline: Petitto had an early role in the creation of a new scientific discipline with her colleague and husband Kevin Niall Dunbar, which they termed Educational Neuroscience. Educational Neuroscience is a sister discipline of Cognitive Neuroscience, in which basic neuroscience and behavioral science discoveries about the developing brain and the growing child are joined with their translational implications, towards the ultimate goal of solving core problems in society and the education of young children. Advancement of Technology: Petitto's science shows a history of pushing technology in new directions so as to answer previously insoluble questions in science, involving, for example, novel use of Positron Emission Technology (PET) with anatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) so as to identify the brain tissue and systems underlying human signed languages as compared with the tissue/systems underlying spoken languages; OPTOTRAK (high-speed kinetics and dynamic motion capture system) to build a device analogous to a speech spectrogram but for signed languages so as to study the fundamental frequency (fo or FF) of deaf and hearing infants’ linguistic manual babbling; and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) neuroimaging to conduct original studies comparing bilingual and monolingual adult brains. To surmount the discipline's widely known challenges of studying developing newborn brains over time with fMRI, Petitto used functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) neuroimaging to conduct among the first studies of human infant brains as they develop over time while acquiring one versus two languages (monolingual and bilingual infant brains compared). Petitto uses Eye-Tracking; and, with a team of collaborating


texts:
 scientists, Petitto led a research team to advance and integrate novel technology involving a Robot, an Avatar, Thermal Infrared Imaging plus fNIRS, with Eye-Tracking, and Kinect to build an artificial agent + human infant language learning tool (called RAVE) capable of socially-contingent and socially interactive communications with an infant when it is most engaged and "ready to learn."Taken together, <mask>'s research discoveries and scientific writings have offered testable hypotheses and theory regarding the neural basis for the brain's specialization for human language, the types of language features a child must minimally be exposed to (and when) in early life (sensitive or critical periods), what happens if early critical periods are missed, and how best to facilitate optimal language learning in all children acquiring all human languages be they signed or spoken. Early research
Beginning in 1973 in the Department of Psychology at Columbia University, Petitto attempted to teach signed language to a baby chimpanzee ("Project Nim Chimpsky," named after Noam Chomsky, with Professors Herbert Terrace and Thomas Bever). <mask> had a leading role on Project Nim Chimpsky as the "Primary Sign Language Teacher", "Project Coordinator", and primary "Surrogate Mother". Despite the dangers of living with a chimpanzee, Petitto lived with and cared for Nim as a child in an attempt to create a natural language, cognitive, and highly caring and rich social environment, mirroring that of a human child. Most of the chimp's scientific training and accomplishments were achieved during <mask>'s 4-year tenure on the Project as Nim's teacher and caretaker. She and her colleagues have authored several of the world's seminal scientific papers on the question of language in chimpanzees,


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 including now classic articles on the similarities and differences between the ape and human mind. After her undergraduate work with Nim Chimpsky, <mask> went on to make discoveries about the linguistic structure, acquisition, and representation in the brain of the world's natural signed languages, especially American Sign Language (ASL).Using signed languages as a new "microscope" to discover the central/universal properties of human language in the brain (those that are distinct from the modality of language transmission and reception), Petitto focused on the following lines of research:
 (1) Universal Linguistic Structures (cross-linguistic studies of signed and spoken languages, and cross-linguistic studies of different signed languages, especially ASL and Langue des Signes Québécoise, LSQ),
 (2) Linguistic timing milestones in development (the highly similar maturational timing in the achievement of language milestones across young children acquiring spoken and signed languages),
 (3) Universal linguistic structures in development (the highly similar acquisition of specific parts of natural language structure, with similar timing and use, across signed and spoken languages). For example, similar pronouns, pronominal reference, and pronoun-reversals, across young children acquiring spoken and signed languages, despite the radically different linguistic form of pronouns in signed languages. The discovery of rhythmically alternating, phonetic-syllabic "manual babbling" on the hands in babies acquiring signed languages (be they Deaf or hearing), identical in linguistic structure, timing, and use to vocal Babbling in hearing babies acquiring spoken languages. For decades, Babbling was viewed as inextricably tied to sound and speech. However, the discovery of hand Babbling


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 demonstrated that rather than sound being key, Babbling reflects the infant's biologically given sensitivity to highly specific patterns that are part of language structure. The discovery forced a reconceptualization of the nature of human Language by decoupling Speech and Language. The discovery of manual Babbling was featured on both the cover of Science  and the front page of the New York Times on the same day,
 (4) Distinct knowledge representation in development, e.g., domain-specific versus domain-general knowledge in child development: the difference between language versus communicative gesture in all children's development,<ref

name=r1042 >Petitto, L.A. (1994).Modularity and Constraints in Early Lexical Acquisition: Evidence from children's early language and gesture. In P. Bloom (Ed. ), Language acquisition: Core readings. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. </ref><ref

name=r1043 /><ref

name=r1034 />
 (5) Brain Tissue Dedication for Aspects of Human Language Structure and Processing (convergences of specific linguistic functions on specific brain tissue and neural systems across signed and spoken languages). For example, previously regarding spoken language, phonological processing was found to occur in the left hemisphere's (LH) Superior Temporal Gyrus (brain tissue regarded as unimodal sound processing tissue for 125 years), and the Left Inferior Frontal Cortex was regarded as the brain's site for the search and retrieval of information about word meanings (due to its proximity to LH speech production mechanisms). However, <mask>, Robert Zatorre, and team found that the same brain tissue and neural systems recruitment are used when processing the same parts of language regardless of whether the language was on the hands in signed languages or the tongue in spoken


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 languages.<mask> is associated with advancing the  hypothesis that this brain site and systems are not neurally set to sound but to specific patterns that are universal to human language structure, which corroborated her earlier infant manual babbling discoveries and moved beyond "where" language processing occurs in the human brain to explain "why": the nature of its underlying neural basis. <mask>'s research has contributed to the body of knowledge establishing that the signed languages of deaf people around the world are real languages with the full expressive capacity as spoken languages. <mask> and colleagues were also the first to study experimentally the validity of a widely used educational practice with Deaf children in the 1970s, whereupon teachers (typically hearing) used parts of ASL signs and linguistic structure simultaneously while speaking English in the classroom, called "Simultaneous Communication" (or "Simcom"). The Petitto team's experimental study of Simcom with Deaf children demonstrated empirically that it was highly impoverished at representing either ASL or English, and, in turn, it was a non-optimal teaching method. Instead their work supported the use of a natural signed language with Deaf children from early life such as ASL, which would best provide a solid linguistic foundation upon which to learn other languages (such as English). They advanced the idea that Deaf Education would be best to move to a full Bilingual and Bicultural educational model, and that this course was most commensurate with the biological requirements in human brain development to achieve the most healthy language learning. This research had lasting implications for subsequent Deaf Education policy and practice.Current research
<mask>'s more recent studies involve the

masks: Petitto Petitto Petitto Petitto


texts:
 use of a combination of four disciplines:
 Genetic analyses (polymorphisms in candidate genes),
 Behavioral measures of higher cognitive processes from psycholinguistics and developmental science, combined with
 Neuroimaging from cognitive neuroscience and developmental cognitive neuroscience. <mask> and team predominately use brain imaging technology called functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)<ref

name=r1001 /> in addition to an optical neuroimaging system called NIRx, combined with eye-tracking, and thermal infrared imaging technology as pioneered by colleague Arcangelo Merla,
 Artificial Intelligence and intelligent machines in human socially contingent conversations: The Robot-Avatar-Thermal Infrared Imaging Enhanced learning tool, called "RAVE" to teach signed language to young deaf babies with "minimal language exposure" (MLE) in early life. Since 2000, <mask>'s cognitive neuroscience/educational neuroscience research program has continued. <mask> and her laboratory team are known for discovering that young bilingual children are not harmed, delayed, or confused by early dual language exposure. These children not only achieve their language milestones (in each language) on the same timetable as monolinguals, they demonstrate the same semantic and conceptual development as monolinguals, with societal implications that early-life (rather than later) bilingual and multilingual language exposure is optimal for language and reading success. <mask> and her team have also identified the mechanisms that make possible the human infant's early capacity to phonetically discriminate (segment and categorize) the constantly varying linguistic stream around them, and they have articulated the developmental conditions required for this capacity to grow most vibrantly in


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 all children. <mask> and team have identified fundamental processes that underlie human reading and spelling in all language users and found evidence for select reading advantages in young bilingual children as compared to matched monolingual peers, termed the "bilingual reading advantage".They have further discovered surprising ways in which bilingual schooling can ameliorate the deleterious effects of low SES. They are also among the first group of researchers to compare directly adult bilingual and monolingual brains and what happens when the adult brain learns two artificial languages as a second language. She has conducted studies of how extensive training (expertise) in one domain of knowledge impacts or "transfers" to other domains of knowledge (and the extent of this transfer). Since 2014, <mask> (PI) and her team conduct behavioral, brain, and Artificial Intelligence (Robot, Avatar, Thermal Infrared Imaging) studies specifically to advance understanding of the human learning capacity across the lifespan, and especially the optimal conditions for language learning in young deaf and hearing children acquiring signed and spoken languages. Research awards
<mask> is the recipient of over twenty international prizes and awards including,

The Sin Wai-Kin Distinguished Visiting Professorship in the Humanities, University of Hong Kong (to facilitate the creation of an Educational Neuroscience Laboratory and studies), 2014–2016. The 14th Dalai Lama: Invited presentation before, and dialogue with the 14th Dalai Lama about the neuroscience of how experience can impact brain structures and functions, October 2010. Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).Elected October 2008. Presented at the Fellow Forum, Chicago, 14 February 2009. Fellow of


texts:
 the Association for Psychological Science (APS), December 2008. The Justine and Yves Sergent International Prize in Cognitive Neuroscience, Université de Montréal Honorary Diploma, Faculty of Medicine, Quebec, Canada, 2004. Pope John Paul II: Invited presentation and expert panel member representing the newly created discipline "Educational Neuroscience" (Mind, Brain and Education) at the 400th Anniversary Celebration of Galileo Galilei's Birthday at the Pontifical Scientific Academy with an audience before Pope John Paul II, Vatican City, Italy, November 2003. Guggenheim Award (for her "unusually distinguished achievements in the past and exceptional promise for future accomplishment" in the discipline of Neuroscience), conferred Spring, 1998. Visiting Resident Scholar, Departments of Nuclear Medicine & Cognitive Science, at the Università & Ospedale Istituto San Raffaele, in Milan, Italy, 1998–1999.Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 1991–1992. Visiting Resident Scholar, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, and the Medical Research Council (Speech and Language Group), in Cambridge, England, in conjunction with the Medical Research Council (Cognitive Development Unit), in London, England, 1987–1988. American Psychological Association Boyd R. McCandless "Young Scientist Award" (for "outstanding early career contributions to, and achievements in Developmental Psychology"), conferred at the APA Convention, Atlanta, GA, 1988. American Psychological Association "Young Psychologist Award", conferred at the 24th International Congress of Psychology, Sydney, Australia, 1988. References

American psychologists
American women psychologists
Developmental psychologists
Cognitive


texts:
 scientists
Cognitive neuroscientists
American neuroscientists
American women neuroscientists
Developmental psycholinguists
Psycholinguists
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
McGill University faculty
University of Toronto faculty
New York University alumni
Harvard University alumni
Ramapo College alumni
Dartmouth College faculty
Scientists from New York City
1950s births
Living people
American women academics
21st-century American


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<mask> (born 1969) is a British comics artist, notable for pencilling on Midnight Nation and Supreme Power, both written by J. Michael Straczynski. He has also worked with author Peter David on The Incredible Hulk and Supergirl. He had a creator-owned series, Kin, which he wrote himself, published by Top Cow Productions in 2000. Writer Geoff Johns, who has collaborated with <mask>, has opined that <mask>'s rendition of Superman is the best of his generation and that the only other artist in the same league with <mask> in this regard is Curt Swan. Comics career

1990
<mask> began his professional career in 1991, illustrating covers and interior short stories for publications such as Doctor Who Magazine and Toxic!. This led to a stint at Marvel UK in 1992 as regular series' artist on Motormouth & Killpower. It was on that series that he began a long-running collaboration with inker Cam Smith, who would continue to ink <mask>'s work for many years.In 1992, <mask> was recruited by Marvel Comics to illustrate covers for The Incredible Hulk, beginning with issue No. 400. Shortly thereafter, he was hired as the series' ongoing artist beginning with issue No. 403 (March 1993) and ending with No. 425 (Jan. 1995). During his initial time at Marvel, <mask> contributed covers, interiors and pin-up illustrations for various series, such as X-Men Unlimited, the Sabretooth Special, X-Men Classic, X-Men Prime, and Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme,

masks:
Gary Frank
Frank
Frank
Frank
Gary Frank
Frank
Frank
Frank


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 among others. He drew covers for Acclaim Comics' Ninjak and Harris Comics' Vampirella.In 1996, <mask> and Smith were hired as the art team on DC Comics' new Supergirl ongoing series, which re-teamed <mask> with writer Peter David. <mask>'s run as penciller ended with issue No. 9 (May 1997), although he continued to provide covers for the series until issue No. 21. Other assignments for DC included a Birds of Prey one-shot and the DC/Marvel Amalgam Comics one-shot, Bullets and Bracelets. In 1997, <mask> and Smith moved to Image Comics, where they, along with writer John Arcudi, were hired as the new creative team on the Wildstorm title Gen¹³, beginning with the epilogue story in issue No. 25.Their run on the series was praised for its dark, realistic style in both writing and art; however, the drastic change in tone and style alienated many longtime fans who had grown accustomed to the more fantastical and cartoonish approach of the Brandon Choi/J. Scott Campbell run. The Arcudi/<mask> tenure on the series lasted two years, until issue No. 41 (July 1999). It was during this run, in 1998, that Wildstorm head Jim Lee moved his studio and all its properties to DC Comics. Therefore, issues No. 25–36 were published by Image and issues No.37–41 were published by DC/Wildstorm. 2000s
In 2000, <mask> worked on various assignments for both DC and Marvel, including issue No. 7 of Tom Strong under DC's America's Best Comics imprint and writing

masks:
Frank
Frank
Frank
Frank
Frank Smith
Frank


texts: and penciling a two-page X-Men story in X-Men: Millennial Visions, his final collaboration to date with inker Cam Smith. Kin, a six-issue miniseries created, written and penciled by <mask>, was published under Image's Top Cow imprint. The story tells of a secret government agency named S.I.A. who discovers that a race of neanderthal men exists in the mountains of Alaska and proceed to eliminate them to obtain their technology, which developed differently from that of the rest of the world. The book's protagonist, S.I.A.agent Trey McAloon, is opposed to the agency's plans and confronts them about it, while the book's other main character, Alaskan Park Ranger Elizabeth Leaky, establishes contact with one of the neanderthals. The miniseries' conclusion was open-ended, with questions left unanswered, but so far no sequel or continuation of the story has been announced. The trade paperback collection of Kin entitled Kin: Descent of Man includes six pages of additional story that were not featured in the original issues. In 2000, <mask> began his first collaboration with J. Michael Straczynski, the television writer and creator of Babylon 5. <mask> served as penciller on Straczynski's Midnight Nation, a 12-issue limited series published by Top Cow from 2000 to 2002 under their now-defunct Joe's Comics imprint. The first issue of the series included a five-page interview with <mask> and Straczynski. One of the inkers on the series was Jon

masks: Frank Frank Frank Frank


texts: Sibal, with whom <mask> would begin a long-running artistic collaboration that continues to this day.On 16 July 2002, it was announced that <mask> had signed an exclusive contract with Marvel. His first work under this contract was a two-issue story arc on The Avengers issues No. 61–62, written by Geoff Johns and inked by Jon Sibal. In 2003, <mask> re-teamed with Straczynski on Supreme Power, a revamp of Marvel's superhero team Squadron Supreme, published under their mature-audience Marvel MAX imprint. With its realism and mature storytelling, the series became Marvel's first MAX title to sell over 100,000 copies, making it their best-selling mature-readers series of all time. The series ran for 18 issues from October 2003 to October 2005. During his run on Supreme Power, <mask> provided covers for a diverse number of Marvel series such as Silver Surfer No.7; Wolverine/Punisher No. 2; The Incredible Hulk No. 75; issues No. 4 and 6 of the Supreme Power spin-off miniseries, Doctor Spectrum; The Amazing Spider-Man No. 515 and 517; Black Panther No. 10; and numerous others, as well as two pages of interior art for the Avengers: Finale one-shot. On 10 May 2007, having worked several years on a Marvel exclusive contract, <mask> signed a new one with DC Comics.He served as the  artist on Action Comics with writer Geoff Johns. The creative team produced the "Brainiac" storyline in which Superman's adopted father Jonathan Kent was killed.

masks: Frank Frank Frank Frank Frank


texts:
 <mask> and Johns continued to work on Superman in the Superman: Secret Origin six-issue mini-series. The story features what Johns and DC Executive Editor Dan DiDio called a "definitive" telling of the origin story of Superman, dealing with his life in Smallville, his first adventure with the Legion of Super-Heroes as Superboy, and his arrival in Metropolis and at the Daily Planet. 2010s
In 2012, <mask> and Johns collaborated on Batman: Earth One, an  original graphic novel set on Earth-one of the DC Multiverse. The novel is the first in a series of graphic novels that redefines Batman. Since 2017, Johns and <mask> have worked together on Doomsday Clock, a limited series featuring Superman and Doctor Manhattan.Work in other media
In 1990, prior working in the comics industry, <mask> produced a book titled Rovers: Portrait of a Football Team, which featured caricatures of a number of Bristol Rovers F.C. players from the 1989–90 season. He wrote it in conjunction with then-Rovers player Geoff Twentyman. <mask>'s artwork was featured during the finale of the TV series Smallville when the character Chloe Sullivan is shown reading a Superman comic book to her son. Bibliography
Comics work (interior pencil art) includes:

DC Comics

Action Comics #858–863, 866–870, 900, Annual #10 (2007–11)
The Batman Chronicles #10 (1997)
Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty (among other artists) (1998)
Batman: Earth One (2012)
Batman: Earth One - Volume Two

masks:
Frank
Frank
Frank
Gary Frank
Frank


texts:
 (2015)
Batman: Earth One - Volume Three (2021)
Black Canary/Oracle: Birds of Prey, one-shot (1996)
Bullets and Bracelets #1 (Amalgam Comics, 1996)
Countdown #30 (General Zod) (2007)
DC Universe: Legacies, limited series, (Blue Beetle) #10 (2011)
DC Rebirth, one shot (among other artists) (2016)
Doomsday Clock  #1–12 (2017–2019)
Gen¹³ vol. 2 #37–41 (Wildstorm (1999)
JLA #15 (1998)
Just Imagine Stan Lee With <mask> Creating Shazam (2002)
Justice League, vol. 2, (Shazam!)#7–11, No. 0, #14–16, #18–21 (2012–13)
Supergirl, vol. 4, #1–9 (1996–97)
Superman: New Krypton Special, one-shot (among other artists) (2008)
Superman: Secret Origin, miniseries, #1–6 (2009–10)
Tangent Comics: The Flash #1  (1997)
Tom Strong #7 (America's Best Comics, 2000)
War of the Supermen #0 (among other artists) (2010)
Wonder Woman Annual #1 (2007)

Marvel Comics

The Avengers vol. 3 #61–62 (2003)
Avengers Finale (among other artists) (2005)
Dark Angel #6 (1992)
Doctor Strange Sorcerer Supreme #82–83 (1995)
The Incredible Hulk, vol. 2, #403–411, 413–418, 420–423, 425 (1993–95)
The Incredible Hulk, vol. 3, #100–101, 106–107 (2007)
Motormouth #1-4 (1992)
Motormouth & Killpower #6 (1992)
Sabretooth Special # 1 (1995)
Squadron Supreme vol. 2 #1–5, 7 (2006)
Supreme Power #1–18 (2003–05)
X-Men: Prime (among other artists) (1995)

Other publishers
Gen¹³ vol.2 #25–36 (Image Comics 1997–99)
Godwheel #1 (Malibu Comics, 1995)
Kin #1–6 (Image Comics, 2000)
Midnight Nation


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 #1–12 (Image omics, 2000–01)
Vampirella/Dracula: The Centennial (Harris Publications, 1997)

References

External links

<mask> at Mike's Amazing World of Comics
<mask> at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators
<mask> at 2000 AD online

1969 births
Artists from Bristol
British comics artists
Date of birth missing (living people)
Inkpot Award winners
Living

masks:
Gary Frank
Gary Frank
Gary Frank


texts:
<mask> ( ; 1 January 1912 – 11 September 1997) was the Prime Minister of Nepal for two terms from 16 November 1951 to 14 August 1952 and again from 15 June 1953 to 11 April 1955. Personal life
<mask> was born to <mask> and his first wife <mask> in 1912 in Varanasi, British Raj. His brothers were <mask> and <mask>, who also served as the Prime Minister of Nepal, and politician and journalist <mask>. Political career

<mask> (M.P.) was an outstanding personality of Nepal, who dominated Nepali politics for a full eight years from 1947 to 1955. During the first four years he was supreme leader of the anti-Rana movement, and during the last four years he was the Prime Minister. His first four years were a story of success, whereas his last four years were a record of failure, though he was a powerful head of the government and enjoyed the
confidence of the King throughout most of those years.He led the
successful anti-Rana movement as its supreme commander, but his
activities as Prime Minister were controversial and a sign of failure. After 1955, his political career virtually ended, though King Mahendra
nominated him as a member of the upper house of parliament in 1959,
only to encounter the absolute majority of Nepali Congress. In the 1980s
M.P. once again tried to come back in politics through election to the
national legislature but he did not succeed. M.P. died in 1997, but now he is with us through his memoir entitled
A Role in a Revolution. I myself (along with some of my friends in the
History Department at Tribhuvan University) was fortunate enough to
have carried

masks:
Matrika Prasad Koirala
Koirala
Krishna Prasad Koirala
Mohan Kumari Koirala
Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala
Girija Prasad Koirala
Tarini Prasad Koirala
Matrika Prasad Koirala


texts:
 out a tape-recorded interview with M.P.for the Centre for
Nepal and Asian Studies (CNAS) in the 1980s. This interview covered
some crucial issues which he faced and tackled during the anti-Rana
movement and during his tenure of office as a Prime Minister. While
taking his interview, we were quite impressed by his sharp memory as
when he narrated the story of his father's activities, and also described his
own role during the anti-Rana movement and as Prime Minister. We
requested him to write a memoir to provide first-hand information about
this crucial period of the history of Nepal from 1947 to 1955. He smiled
and said, "Well, if the government puts me in jail for six months, my
memoir will be complete." We are glad to know that he wrote this
memoir, but, as mentioned in the preface of the book, a reputed (I would
like to say irresponsible) publisher from New Delhi lost his original
manuscript (p. vii). M.P.’s courage must be highly applauded because he
390 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
took great pains to rewrite his memoir, which has now been published in
book form.Prior to reviewing the contents of the book, we must congratulate and
thank Ganesh Raj Sharma for his painstaking efforts to produce this
volume, along with his ten-page preface which includes his own analyses
of one or two political issues. One, on the basis of his conversation with
M.P. Sharma, which has also been entrusted with this responsibility by
M.P.’s wife, as he had already produced a significant volume on the
autobiography of B.P<mask> (M.P.’s younger half brother) and on


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 the
basis of his interview with B.P. himself. In a way, Sharma has become a
unique person by producing two volumes on two brothers, two Prime
Ministers and two big personalities of modern Nepal. M.P.’s memoir is not complete.As the name of the book suggests, it
contains M.P.’s experiences as a leader of the democratic movement
against the Ranas from 1947 to 1951, along with his own family
background and a critical overview of the Rana regime. A large number
of documents, ninety two in total, have been attached as an appendix in
part two of the book, from which we can extract a rough picture of the
political history of Nepal from 1951 to 1955, especially on issues in
which M.P. was involved. But for that to be useful, one must have a
detailed knowledge of the events of those fateful years. Divided into nine sections, the first part of the memoir focuses on
three main aspects of Nepali history. They are M.P.’s childhood and
youth along with his father's exiled life in India and afterwards; the
positive and negative aspects of Rana rule; and finally the democratic
movement starting with the formation of the NNC (Nepali National
Congress) and ending with the Delhi Compromise. M.P.admits that his father (<mask> <mask>) was very
sophisticated and lavish in his habits, but later on became very austere. He
would not smoke, though he was the sole distributor of all brands of
imported cigarettes in Nepal; he would never even touch a dice, shells or
cards, even though gambling was officially and openly permitted for
several days a year. But the irony of history is that such a man

masks:
Krishna Prasad
Koirala


texts:
 in just one
stake "gambled away his whole life's earnings" (p. 5), and chose to live an
exiled life in India. M.P. describes his father's miserable condition in
India and also his younger brother's (Hari) death of cholera at Bettia "for
want of proper treatment" (pp. 6–8). He appreciates his father's decision
to give up all facilities, including a house provided by the Maharaja of
Kolhapur, since he was fighting against the atrocities of a Maharaja (of
Nepal) (pp.8–10). M.P. recollects how, upon the death of Chandra
Book Reviews 391
Shamsher, the new Prime Minister immediately summoned his father to
Nepal, but tells us how he (<mask>) again suffered at the hands of
the next Prime Minister resulting in his painful death inside the jail. M.P. writes, "Albeit, the policemen surrounded even the dead body and stood
guard until his mortal remains were consumed by the funeral pyre and his
body was reduced to ashes" (pp. 68–69). Writing about himself, M.P.describes his school life in India
including his meeting with Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru as a
school boy. He gives a brief account of the national education of India
initiated by Gandhi and Tagore (pp. 47–48), and a glimpse of the civil
disobedience movement of 1930 in which he himself was involved
(pp. 51–58). His employment under the Rana regime, first as an
apprentice and then as translator, is discussed in detail, and an interesting
incident that took place on the day of his appointment is narrated in an
attractive way (pp. 63–64). He tells us how he was relieved from his job
two months after his father's arrest


texts:
 in 1942 and how the Prime Minister
subsequently reacted when the Director General, upon the advice of
M.P.’s English boss, requested reconsideration of his sacking, by saying
“Tell your Angrej (Englishman) it is our Nepali politics which he is
incapable of understanding" (p. 67).Giving a brief picture of the Rana regime, M.P. rightly calls it a time
of "plots, assassinations, and fights for power within the family," and says
that the ruling family looted the entire property of the nation, seeing it as
their own estate (p. 19). He gives the example of Padma Shamsher, who
was Prime Minister for less than three years and took more than six
million rupees in cash when he left for India (p. 21). But his mention of a
Rana having two million acres of land in birta holdings must be an
exaggeration (p. 21). M.P. is judicious in making a critical appreciation of the Rana Prime
Ministers. He gives credit to Jang Bahadur for granting political asylum
to Chand Kuwar and Hazrat Mahal, and taking back the Naya Muluk
lands in the Tarai from the British.He considers this as "permanent
achievements for the nation" (p. 24). He also has words of praise for other
Prime Ministers who undertook certain reform-oriented activities for the
country. So much so that he even appreciates the attempt of Mohan
Shamsher Rana in getting Nepal admitted to the United Nations in 1955
(p. 28). Not to forget that it was against Mohan that the Nepali Congress
launched the movement and ended Rana rule. Coming to the socio-political aspects of the Rana rule, M.P. narrates
some of his personal experiences with


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 the Rana government, and
392 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
mentions how people (including high officials) lived in a state of terror. When <mask> Koirala told Juddha Shamsher that the Ranas were
interested only in "three B's," namely Bank, Birta and Building, his elder
brother (possibly Kali Dass Koirala), who was just promoted to Sardar
was very afraid that he might lose his job (pp.33–34). M.P. gives credit to the Prachanda Gorkha and Praja Parishad
organizations who revolted against the Rana regime before Nepali
Congress. Most historians argue that King Tribhuvan had a secret
connection with Praja Parishad and donated some money to it. But M.P. writes that King Tribhuvan "flatly denied (his) participation and
knowledge of it. The money he gave to Mr. Bhakta (Dharma Bhakta
Mathema – a leader of Praja Parishad) which was found during the
searches was for the specific purpose of Mr. Bhakta's marriage" (p. 37).However, he admits that "King Tribhuvan had moral sympathy with any
effort against the Ranas to set up a popular representation in the
governance of the country" (p. 37). To close his narration about the Rana rule, M.P. argues that the
“tallest claim the Rana clan has made is the preservation of independence
of the country" (p. 38). In reality, and ironically, "they kept the country
locked in, including its independence" (p. 41). The last four sections of the book form the most significant part of the
memoir as they are the most relevant to the title of the book. In over one
hundred pages, M.P. analyzes the history of the democratic


texts:
 movement,
especially focusing on his role in it.M.P. also mentions certain events
beyond his role in order to maintain coherence in the memoir. Although
these events have been discussed on the basis of secondary sources,
readers will still find new information in them (though this should still be
verified by primary sources). M.P. starts his analysis of the Nepali democratic movement with B.P<mask>'s press statement of October 1946 and the formation of the Nepali
National Congress (NNC) in January 1947. He, however, does not
mention the foundation of All India Nepali National Congress, which was
established on the last day of October 1946.M.P. gives great importance
to the Biratnagar Jute Mill Strike (1947). He claims that it was due to his
active role in the strike that he was made working president of NNC
without being a primary member of the party (p. 84). Most writers believe
that he was forced to resign just three months after his appointment,
because of opposition from members representing Kathmandu. But M.P. insists here that he voluntarily resigned. However, he admits that D.R.Regmi was made president to represent Kathmandu (p. 95). M.P. also
Book Reviews 393
argues that Shri Prakash Gupta prepared four different drafts of the 1948
Constitution (p. 94). This is new information and should be verified by
other sources. On the clash between B.P<mask> and D.R. Regmi, the author writes,
“while B.P.<mask> was insistent D.R. Regmi was no less a stickler. There was no honourable way out" (p. 98). However, M.P. joined the
Koirala group "finding the juridical side in

masks:
. Koirala
. Koirala
Koirala


texts:
 B.P.’s favour and in
consideration that Mr. Regmi was more of an academic politician than a
man of action" (p. 99). Later on, after the NNC split into two factions,
M.P. tried to make a compromise with Regmi but it failed because
“Regmi was adamant" (p. 103).We have read in books that after NNC
was banned, a few youths from Kathmandu founded the Praja Panchayat
to fight against the Rana regime through constitutional means. M.P. claims that this organization was founded on his advice (p. 100). Similarly, our history books only mention that M.P. was elected president
of NNC in the Daravanga Convention of March 1949, but M.P. claims
that B.P<mask> and Gopal <mask>i were also candidates for the
post.The election was held by secret ballot, and M.P. won with an
overwhelming majority (p. 102). At about the same time, M.P. had talks
with a trusted Mir Subba from Mohan Shamsher for a compromise
between the Congress and the Ranas (pp. 102–103). This attempt failed
because of the negative attitude of the Rana premier. The merger of NNC and the Nepal Democratic Congress (NDC) that
took place in April 1950 is described in detail.M.P. has his own
arguments for his being chosen as the president of the new party – Nepali
Congress (NC) as against the claim of B.P<mask> (pp. 106–112). The
new party replaced the words "Constitutional and peaceful means" by "all
possible means" in their objectives (p. 110). M.P. reveals how NDC
leaders made a false claim that they had the royal seal by King Tribhuvan
to form a provisional parallel government (p. 112).M.P. admits that even before the

masks:
. Koirala
Prasad Bhattara
. Koirala


texts:
 Bairgania Conference (in September
1950), NC had collected sufficient quantity of arms, but he stood for
violence only "as a last recourse" and that also only in the form of mass
insurrections (p. 112). He presents K.I. Singh as an opponent of B.P<mask> from the beginning: He also mentions how Singh opposed the
idea of empowering a single man to launch the movement under the
assumption that B.P. would be that man (pp. 118–119).M.P. expresses
the difficulty he had in maintaining the secrecy of party decisions,
because of the presence of an undercover Rana agent in disguised form. However he refuses to mention his name as he says “I cannot furnish
394 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
specific proof or evidence for the same” (p. 118). M.P. also emphasizes
two incidents – getting the contact and commitment of Rudra Shamsher at
Palpa, which B.P<mask> successfully conducted (p. 124), and a mission
to create a feeling of terror among the Rana authorities in the capital led
by Ganesh Man and Sunder Raj, which, however, failed because of a
betrayal by a driver (p. 126). King Tribhuvan's refusal to give royal
assent to punish the culprits is also narrated (p. 127).When describing the royal flight to the Indian Embassy in November
1950, M.P. confirms the rumor, through King Tribhuvan, that leaving
Gyanendra in the palace was intentional and not accidental (p. 128). He
also mentions a rumor that Mohan consulted the British envoy after the
royal flight, and when the latter assured him that the new king will be
recognized, Gyanendra was proclaimed the new ruler (p.

masks:
. Koirala
. Koirala


texts:
 129). However
M.P. is not correct to say that Gyanendra remained King from 7 November 1950 to 14 February 1951 (p. 132), because after Mohan's
declaration of 8 January 1951 he remained Tribhuvan's representative
only. The author has presented Tribhuvan's side of the story regarding the
mistake committed by Mohan after the royal flight (p. 129), but in my
opinion his version is difficult to accept as at that time the King was a
prisoner at Indian Embassy, if not at the royal palace. In the chapter titled “Revolution” M.P.has analyzed in detail the story
of the 1950 Movement after the royal flight to Indian Embassy. The
reader is grateful for his ability to recollect day-to-day events. In the
beginning, the revolutionary force was unable to gain permanent control
of any major district, but later on it succeeded in capturing important
areas from government forces. M.P. is correct to say that “The close of
November was not very hopeful for us” (p. 152), but “the month of
December definitely brought us brighter beams of hope” (p. 161). Especially significant in this regard was the capture of Biratnagar in the
east and Nepalgunj in the west. M.P.also describes the surrender of
government forces at Palpa as "a great event in the history of the
insurrectionary upsurge led by the NC...the fall of Palpa shook the Ranas
to the roots" (p. 167). At that time, when revolutionary forces were losing
battles against the Rana army, the NC leaders wanted to meet the King at
New Delhi to get a press statement from him in support of the movement. NC leaders also wanted to meet Indian


texts:
 leaders to ask for their support in
logistics. "Both of our purposes were badly defeated," writes M.P. (p.
144). He indirectly questions the so-called favourable attitude of the
Indian government towards the NC, and writes, "we were in a deep pit
from where there was no escape. There certainly was a feeling amongst us
Book Reviews 395
that we had been brusquely let down, if not betrayed" (p. 144).Despite
the indifferent attitude of the then Indian government, the revolutionaries
were firmly committed to their duties. M.P. has duly acknowledged the
valuable contribution of a number of revolutionaries in the two-month
armed struggle against Rana rule, including the commanders of the Mukti
Sena such as Puran Singh, G.B. Yakthumba and others. M.P. has also written a translation of a revolutionary song which was
often played on Democratic Radio, established in Biratnagar (p. 162). But
his translation does capture the actual wording of the song.In my opinion,
the translation of the song should be as follows:-
O Nepalis! March forward! Waving the flag of revolution! Waving the flag of revolution
Come on elder and younger sisters
Come on elder and younger brothers
Let us work together for the salvation of our Nepal
Let all of us be united for the progress of our homeland
The NC started armed struggle against the Ranas with the support and
cooperation of the Indian government, but M.P. argues that Indian support
was half-hearted from the very beginning. When the Rana government,
realizing its helplessness, opened negotiations with the Indian
government, the attitude of India


texts:
 towards the NC completely changed. M.P.has portrayed this episode beautifully in the chapter entitled “The
Delhi Parley.” He points out the change in attitude of the Indian Prime
Minister after he met two Rana generals, sent by the Rana Prime Minister
to negotiate at Delhi. He also gives Nehru's statement in the Indian
parliament as evidence that the Indian leader “held the view that complete
old order was not possible but a completely new order also was not in his
mind” (p. 172). M.P. mentions NC helplessness in these words, “In Delhi,
we never sat across the table to iron out our differences and the so-called
tripartite conference as such never took place. The representatives of the
Government of India would convey to us the views of the Ranas and of
course the King was out of the picture till the finalisation of the parley”
(p. 176). But, even at this critical juncture, the NC, under M.P.,
successfully solved the question of political prisoners, ensured the party's
right to nominate all the popular representations in the interim cabinet,
and got significant portfolios of home and finance (pp. 178–179).Humiliated by the Indian government, M.P. was also defied by his
own partymen when they refused to accept him as their leader in the
interim cabinet. But M.P. rejects this allegation and writes, “In order to
396 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
keep the prestige of the Nepali Congress aloft and to keep the ranks
closed up and to pave an easier path for the inner political struggle now to
begin inside Nepal I had preferred to place myself out of power,


texts:
 and exert
my energy to the organisational wing only” (p. 182). He was further
disappointed, when his proposal to include either M.B. Shah or Surya
<mask> in the Cabinet was opposed by B.P<mask> and
Subarna Shamsher (p. 182).In name, M.P. was the supreme commander
of the revolution, but in practice his younger brother (B.P.) emerged as
the real hero. At this humiliating point, M.P. ends his memoir-cumautobiography. The author has given a list of events that occurred after the royal flight (pp. 168–169).However the list contains some mistakes. Gyanendra was installed as King on 7 November (not on 8 November);
M.P. gives the impression that the insurrection started even before
Tribhuvan reached Delhi, when it was not so. Mohan Shamsher's first
statement came on 24 December, (not on 24 November) and the first
batch of prisoners were released on 17 January 1951 (not on 13–14
January). Moreover, M.P. fails to mention that more than 50 percent of
released prisoners refused to come out of jail until the political settlement
was finalized. In addition, there is a major pen error on p. 130, where the
author writes “Padma” instead of “Mohan” (31st line).Part two of the book consists of ninety-two documents which are
given as appendices. All of them, except the first and the last, are related
to the history of Nepal from 1951 to 1955 – a period when M.P. became
Prime Minister three times. This part of the book may be read as a
supplement to the memoir sections dealing with the later part of M.P.’s
political career. These documents clearly show the Indian government's influence

masks:
Prasad Upadhaya
. Koirala


texts:
 and
interference on Nepali affairs during the reign of King Tribhuvan. Three
documents are produced in original form. They are the cabinet proceeding
of April 1951 (pp.194–195), Tribhuvan's letter to M.P. in August 1952
(p. 260) and Mahendra's letter to M.P. as a crown prince in March 1955
(p. 370). The first two letters are in English, prepared by Indian personnel,
and the third is in Nepali, to demonstrate Mahendra's attempt to end
Indian involvement in Nepal's administration. Again there are some
letters written by Nehru to Tribhuvan (pp. 200–202, 229–230, 231–232),
addressing the latter as “My dear friend” forgetting formal protocol to
address the head of the state. Similarly, M.P.had sought permission of the
Indian advisor to Nepal, quoting provisions of the Indian Constitution, to
remove a minister from the cabinet (p. 241). Book Reviews 397
A number of letters had been exchanged between M.P. and Nehru on
different aspects of Nepali politics, which include (a) resolution of a
dispute between M.P. and B.P<mask> (pp. 208–210), (b) Tanka <mask>'s
demand for a coalition cabinet (p. 210), (c) Nehru's dissatisfaction on the
delay of Constituent Assembly election (p. 244), (d) M.P.’s detailed
information about the reorganization of administration in Nepal
(pp. 211–217) and (e) the discourtesy shown by an INA (Indian National
Army?)crew to the prime minister and ministers of Nepal (pp. 249–250). Many voices were raised against the Indian Ambassador, Chandeshwar
<mask> Singh, by Nepali leaders, including B.P<mask>, for his
active interference in Nepali affairs. However

masks:
. Koirala
Prasad
Prasad Narayan
. Koirala


texts:
 King Tribhuvan and M.P. repeatedly requested the Indian Prime Minister for his renewal, which is
new information for readers (pp. 258–259).It is worth mentioning one specific letter written by Nehru to M.P. on
8 May 1954, because it gives a number of instructions to M.P. as the
Prime Minister of Nepal, which include (a) Nehru's draft of an aidememoir for its approval by Nepal, (b) a warning to M.P. not to say
anything that would irritate China, (c) the presence of Indian
representatives in talks between Nepali and Chinese officials,
(d) instructions to the Nepal Government to give up extraterritorial rights
in Tibet as well as a 10,000 rupees tribute and (e) a threatening note to
remain careful about the U.S. (pp. 294–297). All these points clearly
demonstrate Nehru's dictatorial attitude towards Nepal. However, one
positive aspect of the letter should be mentioned, and that is Nehru's
instruction to Nepali ministers to keep in touch with their people (p. 297).There are also some letters written by Nepali ambassadors in New
Delhi (Vijaya Shamsher and Mahendra Bikram) which focus on proposed
diplomatic relations between Nepal and China. One remarkable point of
these letters is the desire or condition of China to hold the talks in
Kathmandu and in secret, against the instructions of Nehru. These letters
also mention some objectionable articles on Nepal published in two
newspapers, Searchlight and The Statesman, as well as the statement of
D.R. Regmi (foreign minister) on Tibet, which the Indian government
called a “silly” statement. But these documents do not mention


texts:
 the
contents of these articles or the statement. A number of brief letters (more than two dozen) written during the last
days of M.P.’s prime ministerial tenure have also been reproduced. They
deal with M.P.’s deteriorating relations with the Crown Prince and
ministers (Tanka <mask> and Bhadrakali Mishra) (pp.346–373). However
these letters do not give any new information to the reader. 398 Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2), 2008
On the whole, the documents produced in part two of the memoir give
scattered information on Nepali politics from 1951 to 1955. They may be
used by researchers as primary sources. A review of M.P.’s memoir is not complete until we mention the tenpage preface of Ganesh Raj Sharma, the undeclared editor of the book. Sharma argues that “M.P. was not as regular nor as expressive in his
response to ideas and events as B.P.was” (p. viii), but, instead, “was a
store house of knowledge about the personalities and events of Nepali
politics, which remained unrevealed unlike in the case of B.P<mask>”
(p. ix). In my opinion, the memoir is more regular, if not more expressive,
than B.P.’s Atmabrittanta, which is quite irregular in chronological terms. Sharma is correct to say that “M.P. was appointed Prime Minister in 1951
on the suggestion of Nehru,” but his claim that M.P. was removed from
office in 1955 because of India's displeasure, as he along with King
Tribhuvan opposed the aide-memoir sent by Nehru, is debatable (p. ix). He has produced a different version of the aide-memoir which reads,
“... especially on matters of Nepal's relationship

masks:
Prasad
. Koirala


texts:
 with Tibet and China,
special advice will be sought from the Government of India” (p. xi),
whereas Nehru's draft of the same speaks only about “consultations” with
the Government of India (p. 298).On the basis of information supplied by M.P. and Rishikesh Shah,
Sharma argues that Nehru had given tacit consent to King Mahendra for
the royal takeover of December 1960, though it was limited only to the
removal of B.P<mask> and not the dissolution of the parliament (pp. xi–xii) This point also seems to be debatable, in view of Nehru's strong
public condemnation of the coup. There is one more debatable point in
the preface, and that is the so-called understanding between “King
Birendra and B.P<mask> to bring M.P<mask> to power as a stop-gap in
the transition from the partyless Panchayat system to a multiparty
parliamentary democracy” (p. xii).B.P.’s question about the possibility of
M.P.’s becoming Prime Minister (p. xii) prevents Sharma from reaching
such big conclusions. However, in the conclusion part of his preface, Sharma seems to have
strictly followed the duty (dharma) of an editor, when he says “The same
period and the leadership roles have been described somewhat differently
by his brother, B.P<mask>. As the person tasked with bringing the
memoir of both M.P. and B.P. into publication, I have been careful to
ensure that their words are held sacrosanct other than in basic editing, so
that both brothers reach out to the readers in their own words and as they
wished” (p. xv). Sharma, however, does not elaborate the points of
Book Reviews 399
difference between the two

masks:
. Koirala
. Koirala
. Koirala
. Koirala


texts:
 brothers, the narration of which would have
greatly benefited readers and researchers.To point out some technical shortcomings, the documents in part two
are not numbered, nor are the sections in part one. This may create
difficulties for researchers who wish to acknowledge them as sources. Similarly, readers may have been interested to see some rare photos of
those days, but the book contains none. Even so, the memoir is a
significant contribution to the study of the 1950 movement and the
following four years. It is especially helpful to researchers as a source
book. Tri Ratna Manandhar
Tribhuvan University

References

1912 births
1997 deaths
20th-century prime ministers of Nepal
Finance ministers of Nepal
M
Nepali Congress politicians from Province No. 1
People from Biratnagar
Politicians from Varanasi
Prime ministers of


texts:
<mask> (22 October 1879 – 18 December 1957) was an Italian-Austrian Jewish financier and banker, and was the wealthiest man in Central Europe during World War I. Nicknamed "Austrian Stinnes", he was active in aviation's pioneering days and invested in the arts. Castiglioni was credited as being instrumental to the founding of what would eventually become BMW AG. Early life
Castiglioni was born in Trieste, then part of Austria-Hungary, to the chief rabbi. It is not known when <mask> developed his interest in aviation, but it is known that he was passionate about flying. <mask>'s education was primarily law, gaining employment as an attorney and legal officer of a bank in Padua, quickly learning international finance and how to manage capital. He was the son of a rubber maker, so naturally <mask> found work with the Austro-American Gummiwarenfabrik AG (rubber products) in Vienna as an agent for the Kaufmann automobile tire division in Constantinople. Camillo found great success in this position, demonstrating his abilities to negotiate and structure financial deals.In fact, <mask> was so successful, he was promoted to director of the export department of the parent company in Vienna. Around 1901, along with Viktor Silberer and Franz Hinterstoissera <mask> helped to create the Viennese aero club (later Austrian aero club). He eventually was made deputy director, then in 1904 he was appointed to general director of the company. Through his experience in the rubber and tire production field, <mask> saw the birth of aviation as an industry, going from a ballooning hobby, to makeshift glider craft requiring tires, to fully operational aircraft operated by engines. He met many influential men in his

masks:
Camillo Castiglioni
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo
Camillo


texts:
 business, and came to realize that aviation sparked not only his passion for flight, but also recognized the tremendous financial opportunity of aviation's potential as an industry. In order to draw from the arising enthusiasm for airplanes and ballooning, as well as to take advantage of the lucrative business the hobby generated, <mask> established one of his first companies, Luftfahrzeug-Gesellschaft, in 1907. Being a pure commercial firm – it acquired the Etrich balloon patents and sold balloon fliers in Austria Hungary.There were many contests that these inspired balloon drivers entered, and <mask> was no different- he bought his own balloon and successfully took his balloon driver examination on 24 August 1909. Aviation financing
During the First World War, he became one of the richest and most influential financiers in Central Europe. The first major investor in the series production of aircraft. In 1914, he purchased the German aircraft company Hansa- und Brandenburgische Flugzeugwerke, which employed Ernst Heinkel as its chief designer. Acquired a majority holding in Austro-Daimler with its chief designers Puch and Porsche. Press "czar" and sponsor of the arts (financed Max Reinhardt and helped him to organize the Salzburg Festival). After a series of setbacks, his financial empire broke up in 1926.He retired to Switzerland, then to Milan where he set up a private bank and once again amassed a considerable fortune. After the Second World War, negotiated a large US loan for his friend Josip Broz Tito in Yugoslavia. When Tito refused to pay his commission, Castiglioni succeeded in getting Yugoslavian assets in Italy worth millions sequestered. In 1916, he was awarded the Franz Joseph

masks: Camillo Camillo


texts:
 Order with ribbon on the Military Service Cross for his services to aviation and in 1918 with the St-Georges Order for his achievements in the war material production. Castiglioni became rich in ventures during the period of inflation, acquiring a majority interest in Alpine Montan AG. The Austrian aviation company Österreichische Luftfahrtsgesellschaft was founded by him. BMW influence
Castiglioni significantly influenced the development of BMW AG in its early years.The granting of a license agreement by Austro-Daimler to the Rapp-Werke in 1917 was partly attributable to Castiglioni. 1918 At Castiglioni's insistence the Wiener Bankverein (Vienna) acquired the majority of BMW's share capital. 1922 Castiglioni purchased all the equipment relating to engine construction, the associated know-how and the rights to the name "Bayerische Motoren Werke AG" from the BMW AG, which was renamed Süddeutsche Bremse AG. <mask> Castiglioni, who was facing problems of liquidity. Failed speculation and bankruptcy
In February 1924, Castiglioni partnered with Fritz Mannheimer, and later other influential bankers to speculate on the devaluation of the French franc. They shorted hundreds of millions of franc, eventually causing the franc to drop almost 40% in less than a month. By the beginning of March 1924, one United States dollar was worth 28 francs. Then, however, investment bank Lazard, on the behalf of Banque de France and powered by J.P. Morgan & Co., bought immense amounts of francs, causing the franc to rise again, to 15 franc per dollar. Castiglioni, Mannheimer and their partners lost millions.In September 1924, the Austrian Depositenbank, of which Castiglioni had been president, collapsed. A warrant for


texts:
 his arrest on a charge of fraud was issued, but Castiglioni had been taken care to be in Italy when the crash came. The Austrian State said that if he deposited $4,200,000 ($ in present-day value), he could return unmolested. Philanthropy
Castiglioni built up a large art collection and a theatre in Vienna. He was the richest man in Central Europe and much beloved by the Viennese whom he assisted financially on Sundays and odd occasions. He was also a patron of the arts and for some time supported the famed producer Max Reinhardt, for whom he built a theater. So fond was he of appearing in the public limelight that he lived with all the pomp and ceremony of royalty, even traveling in the Kaiser Karl's private parlor car, which he bought.Because of his famous banking activities, his life was documented in a 1988 movie on television titled <mask> Castiglioni oder die Moral der Haifische (in English: <mask> Castiglioni, or the morality of sharks), directed by Peter Patzak. See also
Fritz Mannheimer
History of BMW
Palais Miller von Aichholz

References

External links
 BMW Group archives

Austro-Hungarian Jews
Austrian bankers
Italian bankers
Italian Austro-Hungarians
Businesspeople from Trieste
1879 births
1957 deaths
Businesspeople from Vienna
Austrian transportation


texts:
Henry A. (<mask><mask>, (September 8, 1927 - October 24, 2020), born in Brooklyn, was an expert in video communications technology and was involved in the broadcast, promotion, and distribution of notable boxing matches involving fighters including Muhammad Ali, Joe Frazier, and George Foreman during the 1970s. An authority in microwave and satellite technology, <mask> utilized his expertise to telecast major boxing events such as “The Rumble in the Jungle” in Zaire, “The Thrilla in Manila” in the Philippines, as well as other major events in Kingston, Jamaica; Caracas, Venezuela; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and Madison Square Garden in New York. <mask> has developed and designed systems for E.I. Dupont, Western Electric, Bell Telephone, Westinghouse Electric, Revlon, RCA and others. He also installed and designed the first cyclotron monitoring equipment for Columbia University's School of Engineering.From 1974 to 1978 <mask> served as Minister of Communications for the former Republic of Zaire. Personal and early life
Born in Brooklyn, NY, <mask> secured a scholarship to attend Stuyvesant High School, which was at the time one of the few science and technical-based schools in New York City.<mask> finished his four-year science program in three years and became acquainted with emerging radio wave electronic equipment, as well as video networking and related electrical power systems. Upon graduating from Stuyvesant High School, <mask> entered the United States Army as a military cadet in the Army's Specialized Training Program (ASTRP) for enlistees under seventeen years of age. While enrolled in ASTRP, <mask> studied at Norwich University (Northfield, Vermont), a private military cadet-based university and one of the top scientific universities

masks:
Hank
) Schwartz
Schwartz
Hank
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz
Schwartz


texts:
 combining Cavalry Training and research related to newer communication networking, supporting electronic and communication networks that could be delivered to any fighting front. <mask> became a second lieutenant and was assigned to oversee the physical education and cavalry related activities of an ASTRP platoon and ASTRP student soldiers. At the end of WWII, <mask> was honorably discharged from the US Army and gained acceptance into Brooklyn Polytech to finish his research. <mask> earned a license from the University of the State of New York allowing him to teach radio, television and communication systems. Sports Broadcasting
Schwartz's company, Video Techniques, provided event promoters new microwave and satellite technologies that were necessary to broadcast television signals throughout the world.Video Techniques also served as the worldwide distributor of several major international sports events and provided the missing link that enabled pay-per-view cable broadcast in the U.S. In the late 1960s <mask> was invited by Bruce Norris, owner of the Detroit Red Wings, to improve the broadcast quality of televised games. <mask> had previously participated in the live broadcast of several auto racing events and had developed expertise in the transmission of video communications signals to microwave towers. <mask>'s knowledge regarding both the technical side of international networking and the communications systems needed to transmit television signals worldwide led him to become involved in the international broadcasting of boxing matches. In 1971 Madison Square Garden hired Video Techniques to broadcast the historic fight between Joe Frazier and Muhammad Ali. In 1972 <mask> was invited by the Japanese television network ITV to advise

masks: Hank Schwartz Schwartz Schwartz Schwartz Schwartz Schwartz


texts:
 the production crew and engineering staff for the global broadcast of the fight between Mac Foster and Muhammad Ali. By the time Ali fought Jerry Quarry and Oscar Bonevena, Video Techniques had hit its peak and was considered to be the leader in these new distribution technologies.In 1973, <mask> traveled to Jamaica to televise the fight between George Foreman and Joe Frazier, which was the first sporting event ever broadcast on HBO. In 1974 Video Techniques acted as the promoter and producer of The Rumble in the Jungle where Ali regained his title as World Heavyweight Champion; this also marked the first telecast from the former Republic of Zaire. Video Techniques also participated in the promotion and worldwide distribution of Foreman/Roman from Tokyo, Japan, Foreman-Norton in Caracas, Venezuela, Ali-Bugner in Kuala Lumpur, and Ali-Frazier in the Philippines (The Thrilla in Manilla), Ali-Wepner from Cleveland, Ohio, and Ali-Holmes from Caesar's Palace, Las Vegas. Some notable boxing events that were produced, marketed, and funded by <mask> includes: Ali/Mac Foster in Tokyo, Ali/Bob Foster in Las Vegas, Foreman/Frazier in Kingston, Ali/Foreman in Zaire, Ali/Frazier III in the Philippines, the 1980 Kenya Golden Gloves Olympics in Kenya, and the World Television Champions II in New York City. Satellite Involvement
Hank was involved in the launching of the foreign satellite in China through a contract signed with Wu Keli, the vice president of the China Great Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC). The “Long March-3 Rocket” was expected to launch in 1988 and would be used to put a Westar satellite in a geostationary orbit. <mask> developed the first TELEMISSION program for Egypt supported by both the United States Government Overseas Private

masks:
Schwartz
Hank Schwartz
Schwartz