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 Raleigh, Wake County, and North Carolina are best evident in the extensive collection of books and other resources by and about African Americans she established, making the Harrison Library groundbreaking. It was her hope and desire that the African American community would know and be proud of their African American heritage. <mask> established this quality collection as a result of meticulous efforts to collect publications about African Americans. In an interview, <mask> stated, "I felt there was a need to emphasize black books. Black collections were not popular then like they are today. I felt more people should know about black history, black authors, and the contributions of black people." Commonly, publications about African Americans were only in print for two years, as a result, <mask> attentively monitored publishers and vendors of African American books.She would even visit the University Place Book Shop in New York City to select and purchase rare items for the collection. This collection of over 5,000 volumes ranging from adult and children's fiction and nonfiction, serials, pamphlets, and vertical file materials grew gradually but slowly during the thirty-eight years <mask> Huston <mask> Collection of Black Literature. Emphasis on community outreach and programming

<mask> <mask> <mask> viewed the civic education of community members as essential and she created a well-defined philosophy of community affairs that is evident throughout her career. <mask> stated: "If you're a public librarian, you have to be with the people to find out their wants and needs and supply them with the materials to give them the insight to a more wholesome life through reading materials.You can't just sit behind a desk and issue books." Programming at the Harrison Library included lectures featuring black and white speakers, children's authors, and an expanded story time. An emphasis was placed on adult education, "[teaching] them how to live better, longer, fuller and more enjoyable lives." Educational programs directed to residents of the rural Raleigh area provided instruction in the development of reading and

masks: Lee Lee Lee Leellie Lee Mollie Huston Lee Lee


type: original

texts:
 writing skills. Discussion groups on relevant topics were also created for patrons of all ages with the idea of keeping community members informed and aware of current news issues. The Harrison Library was well known regionally and nationally for providing services and programs for the aged, blind, disadvantaged, and illiterate. Programming at the Harrison Library fulfilled a need within the community.Children were provided with educational and recreational tools to assist with their formation as good citizens and adults were provided with materials to aid with their wholesome and useful life within their community. Membership and honors

The esteem to which <mask> <mask> <mask> was held is indicated by her selection as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) library delegate and her appointment as a trustee of the State Library of North Carolina. <mask> also was instrumental in the foundation of the North Carolina Negro Library Association (NCNLA) which dissolved once the American Library Association (ALA) and the North Carolina Library Association opened membership to African Americans. She was the second African American elected at-large to the ALA council, serving from 1950 to 1954 and in 1971 <mask> represented ALA at the White House Conference on Aging. In 1971, <mask> was the first African American woman elected "Tar Heel of the Week" as a result of her numerous professional and civic contributions to the state of North Carolina. Publications
<mask> <mask> <mask>'s contributions to the field of library science include the following:
<mask>, <mask> <mask>. 1944.Development of Negro Libraries in North Carolina. North Carolina Libraries. 3(2):4. <mask>, <mask> <mask>. 1955. North Carolina Negro Library Association, 1935-54. Library Service Review.2(1):10-32. References

External links
 Richard B. Harrison Library Mollie <mask> <mask> Collection

American librarians
American women librarians
African-American librarians
Howard University alumni
Columbia University School of Library Service alumni
Shaw University faculty
People from Raleigh, North Carolina
1982

masks: Mollie Huston Lee Lee Lee Lee Mollie Huston Lee Lee Mollie Huston Lee Mollie Huston Huston Lee


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<mask> (; born 2 May 1983) is a retired Slovenian World Cup alpine ski racer. <mask> is the most successful Slovenian ski racer in history with a career that culminated with two gold medals at the 2014 Winter Olympics. She was awarded the title of the Slovenian Sportswoman of the Year in 2005, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2015, and with her four medals she is the most decorated Slovenian athlete at the Winter Olympics. <mask> started her career as a giant slalom specialist, but later competed in all five alpine skiing disciplines. She is one of seven female racers who has won in all five World Cup disciplines and one of three to do it in a single season. <mask> is the 2014 Olympic champion in downhill and giant slalom and the 2015 world champion in downhill and combined. She was also the world champion in giant slalom in 2011 and super-G in 2013.<mask> won a total of 26 World Cup races during her career, and won the World Cup overall title in 2013. In that season, she won 11 races and tallied a record number of World Cup points – 2414, beating the previous record of Hermann Maier of 2000 points from the 2000 season. She also won the super-G and giant slalom titles, and finished first in the combined event (although no globe was awarded) and finished second in slalom and downhill. Maze also improved Maier's previous record of podium finishes in a single season (22) with 24 podiums. Skiing career

Early years
<mask> made her World Cup debut at age 15 in Slovenia in January 1999, in a giant slalom race at Maribor. During her early World Cup seasons, Maze competed in slalom, giant slalom, and super-G, but scored World Cup points only in the first two disciplines. At the 2001 World Championships, Maze's best result was a 16th place in slalom.In January 2002, <mask> won her first podium, a second place in giant slalom in Maribor. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in the United States, <mask> finished twelfth in the giant slalom in her Olympic

masks:
Tina Maze
Maze
Maze
Maze
Maze
Maze
Maze
Maze


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 debut at Park City, Utah. 2003–2004 seasons
On 26 October 2002, <mask> won her first World Cup race at the season opener in Sölden, Austria. She shared the giant slalom win with Nicole Hosp of Austria and Andrine Flemmen of Norway in the first-ever a three-way tie in a World Cup race. <mask> finished the 2003 season on the 38th place in the overall standings with 190 points, all in giant slalom. At the 2003 World Championships, she finished 5th in giant slalom. In the 2004 season, <mask> scored one podium, a runner-up position in giant slalom, and finished 33rd in the overall standings with 244 points.She scored her first points in super-G and started competing in downhill races. 2005–2008 seasons
The 2005 season was a successful season for <mask> as she won 3 giant slalom races and scored two super-G podiums, both 3rd places. She finished the season 10th in the overall standings with 650 points: 366 in giant slalom, where she finished fourth. At the 2005 World Championships Maze finished sixth in super-G and 10th in the combined. In the 2006 season, <mask> won one giant slalom race and two more podiums, a third place in giant slalom and a runner-up position in super-G. She finished the season 14th in the overall standings with 525 points and scored World Cup points in all disciplines for the first time. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, <mask> competed in the giant slalom and super-G events, where she finished 12th and 39th, respectively. The 2007 season was not as successful for her as the previous two seasons, with only 3 top 10 finishes.She finished the season 30th in the overall standings with 268 points. At the 2007 World Championships, <mask>'s best result was a 14th place in super-G. In February 2008, <mask> won her first downhill in St. Moritz, Switzerland, which was the first downhill victory won by a Slovenian female skier. It was also her first non-giant slalom victory. She finished the 2008 season 28th overall with 287

masks: Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze


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 points. 2009–2010 seasons: The breakthrough

Following the declining results in the 2007 and 2008 seasons, <mask> decided to break with the national ski team and founded her personal "Team to aMAZE" with her coach and partner Andrea Massi. This move turned out to be a decisive step in <mask>'s career as her results began to improve significantly.In the 2009 Alpine Skiing World Cup, <mask> scored two wins, both in giant slalom, in Maribor, Slovenia, and in Åre, Sweden. She also won three more podiums, finishing second in downhill and was third twice in super-G. At the 2009 World Championships in Val-d'Isère, France, <mask> won a silver medal in giant slalom, her first medal in a "big competition." In that race, she was only 15th after the first run but excelled in the second, "because she was angry." In addition to the silver medal, <mask> finished 14th in the downhill and fifth in the super-G. <mask> concluded the 2009 season sixth in the overall standings with 852 points, her best result to that date. She also finished third in the giant slalom standings. In the 2010 season, <mask> won one giant slalom race and had runner-up finishes in slalom and giant slalom. That season, Maze had fifteen top 10 results and finished fourth in the overall standings.Again, she finished third in the giant slalom standings. <mask> was the flag bearer for Slovenia at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. She won two silver medals – in super-G and giant slalom at Whistler. These were the first silver medals at Winter Olympics for independent Slovenia (athletes only won bronze medals before 2010). <mask> was fifth in the super combined, ninth in slalom, and 18th in downhill. 2011–2012 seasons
<mask> began the 2011 season strong with several good results and podiums. That season, she won the first races in her career in super combined (Tarvisio, Italy) and slalom (Lenzerheide, Switzerland).She

masks: Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze


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 finished on podium six more times. <mask> finished the 2011 season third in the overall standings with 1139 points. At the 2011 World Championships in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, <mask> won the silver medal in the super combined and the gold medal in the giant slalom. She finished 5th in the slalom and downhill, and 11th in the super-G. The 2012 season was a very interesting one as <mask> had no victories but had ten podium finishes. She finished the season second in the overall standings with 1402 points, behind Lindsey Vonn of United States. 2013: The record breaking season

<mask> started the 2013 season with a win in giant slalom in Sölden, Austria.She then won the 2nd giant slalom in Aspen, United States, followed by two wins in St.Moritz, Switzerland, both in giant slalom and super combined. She then won again in giant slalom in Courchevel, France making it 4 wins out of the first 4 races in this discipline. She collected 11 podiums till the New Year, with five wins, two 2nd and four 3rd places, gaining a sizable lead in the overall standings. She also broke the records for most points in a calendar year (2,180) and most podiums (19) in a calendar year. Her first victory in super-G on 13 January 2013 in St. Anton made her a member of the small group of all-event winners in alpine skiing. On 26 January, <mask> finished second in giant slalom in Maribor to clinch her first World Cup title in GS, then won the slalom the following day. On 24 February, she won the second super combined of the season in Méribel, France, and secured the overall World Cup title with nine races remaining.Despite having the most points in super combined standings, the crystal globe for this discipline is no longer awarded due to a lack of events. On 1 March, <mask> finished second in super-G in Garmisch, her 19th podium of the season, breaking the previous ladies' record. The next day, she won the downhill to record a win in all disciplines in a

masks: Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze


texts: single season, previously accomplished by only two female skiers. In this race, <mask> also surpassed 2,000 World Cup points in a single season and therefore broke Hermann Maier's record from the 2000 season, which was exactly 2,000 points. The last downhill race of the season at the World Cup finals was cancelled, so <mask> finished as runner-up in the downhill standings, a single point behind Lindsey Vonn, whose season had ended in February after a knee injury at the World Championships. The last super-G race was also cancelled and <mask> won the super-G title. In the last race, a giant slalom on 17 March, she gained her eleventh victory of the season and finished with a record 2,414 points.Maze broke various statistical records in this season. They include the highest number of podiums in a single season (24, record previously held by Hermann Maier (22) and by Hanni Wenzel and Pernilla Wiberg for ladies (18)), highest number of top 5 finishes (31, previously Hermann Maier and Pernilla Wiberg (24)), highest number of points after first 10 races (677, previously Katja Seizinger, 643), highest percent of possible points won (69%, previously 61% by Pernilla Wiberg), and the highest point difference to the second-placed skier (1313, compared to 743 for Hermann Maier and 578 for Lindsey Vonn). In fact, Maze collected more World Cup points than second and third skier combined. Maze finished on podium in all Giant slalom events of the season, a feature previously achieved only by Vreni Schneider in the 1989 season. She is also the only woman to remain at the top of the overall ranking throughout the season – a feature only achieved at men's Cup by Bode Miller. In addition to the overall title, Maze won the super-G and giant slalom titles, finished at the top of the combined list by winning both races in the season, and finished second in the Downhill and slalom listing. The titles went to Lindsey Vonn and Mikaela Shiffrin,

masks: Maze Maze Maze


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 respectively.She also came extremely close to sweeping all 6 titles, losing the downhill title to Vonn by a mere 1 point with the seasons final race cancelled due to bad weather, and where Maze would have needed only a top 15 finish to pass the injured Vonn. Shiffrin needed to beat <mask> in the seasons final slalom race to steal away the season slalom title from points leader <mask>, and overcome an over second deficit on Maze after the first run to do so. <mask> came to the 2013 World Championships in Schladming, Austria, as a favorite. At the time, she was the leader in the World Cup standings in three of the five disciplines (giant slalom, super-G, and super combined), second in slalom and third in downhill. Several former alpine skiers stated that she is capable of winning a medal in every single discipline. In the first race at Planai, Maze won the gold medal in super-G and three days later won the silver medal in super combined. She then finished seventh in downhill, won another silver medal in giant slalom, and took fifth in slalom.In October 2013, <mask> was awarded the Skieur d'Or Award by members of the International Association of Ski Journalists for her record-breaking performances during the previous season, thereby becoming the first Slovenian skier to receive the honour since its inception in 1963. 2014 season

<mask> started the 2014 season less successfully, with one victory and three more podiums before the Winter Olympics in February. The decline in results was partially attributed to the change of the coach from the previous season, when Walter Ronconi replaced Livio Magoni. In January 2014, Ronconi was replaced by Mauro Pini, who, according to Maze's team, brought a positive change to the team. Following the Olympics, <mask> won two more podiums, two third places. At the end of the season, she was completely exhausted and finished the last races with difficulties, having fulfilled her goals with two Olympic


texts:
 gold medals. She won a third place in the downhill standings and finished 4th overall.At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia, <mask> finished fourth in the super combined at Rosa Khutor. The second event was the downhill, where <mask> tied for first place with Dominique Gisin of Switzerland. This was the first gold medal for Slovenia at any Winter Olympics and the first time that a gold medal was shared at an Olympic alpine skiing event. <mask> finished fifth in super-G, won another gold in the giant slalom, and was eighth in the slalom. Following her Olympic success, <mask> was nominated for the Laureus Award for the second year in a row. 2015 season

The start of the 2015 season was stronger than the previous year's for Maze. Winning three races and four additional podiums, <mask> came to the 2015 World Championships in Vail / Beaver Creek, Colorado, United States, as the overall World Cup leader and was, as in 2013, seen as a potential candidate to win a medal in all five disciplines.She took silver in the super-G race, continued with winning gold both in downhill and super-combined and then finished 5th in giant slalom and 8th in slalom, what was her best overall performance at World Championships. Following the World Championships, <mask> was tired and did not finish any of the two races in Maribor, which meant that she started to lose advantage over Anna Fenninger. Final races of the season were a close battle between <mask> and Fenninger. <mask> won six more podiums until the end of the season and was leading 18 points in the overall standings before the last race but Fenninger won the last giant slalom and defended her overall title from the 2014 season. Maze finished the season second, with her second-highest number of season points. She also finished third in the slalom, super-G, and downhill standings. At the end of the season, <mask> hinted that she may retire from competitive sport in the following

masks: Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze Maze


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 months.Retirement
In May 2015, Maze announced that she would take a break from the sport for a year, not competing in the 2015–16 season and focusing on her studies instead. On 20 October 2016 in Sölden, <mask> announced her retirement from competitive skiing. She officially concluded her career on 7 January 2017 at the giant slalom race in Maribor, at the venue where she made her World Cup debut in 1999. World Cup results

Season titles
4 titles (1 overall, 1 giant slalom, 1 super-G, 1 super-combined)

Season standings
Place (points)

Race victories
26 wins – (4 DH, 1 SG, 14 GS, 4 SL, 3 SC)
81 podiums – (11 DH, 17 SG, 28 GS, 17 SL, 6 SC, 2 PSL)

Olympic results

World Championship results

Personal life
When not competing or training abroad, Maze lives in Črna na Koroškem. She is in a relationship with Andrea Massi, who is also the head of Maze's team. In November 2017, they announced they are expecting a child together. She gave birth to a girl in February 2018.In 2012, <mask> recorded a pop-rock single My Way Is My Decision, produced by Raay. During the year-long break from competing, <mask> concluded her studies at the Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, obtaining an elementary school teacher degree. Awards

Footnotes
 Crystal globes in combined have not been officially awarded for 2013 season. However, athletes still get their medals. References

External links

 <mask>ze World Cup standings at the International Ski Federation

1983 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Slovenj Gradec
Slovenian female alpine skiers
Alpine skiers at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Olympic alpine skiers of Slovenia
Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Olympic medalists in alpine skiing
Olympic gold medalists for Slovenia
Olympic silver medalists for Slovenia
FIS

masks:
Maze
Maze
Maze
Tina Ma


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<mask> (died 1542) was a chronicler in the Duchy of Pomerania. He studied at the universities of Rostock and Wittenberg, and was a secretary of the Pomeranian dukes. His manuscripts, rediscovered in 1729, 1832 and 1973, are written in Low German and Standard German language, and were printed in the 19th and 20th centuries. They contain a Low German and three Standard German chronicles covering the history of Pomerania until 1536. Biography

Kantzow was born in Stralsund. His year of birth is uncertain, a date around 1505 is suggested by Kosegarten (1842) and in the ADB. No reports about his parents and his childhood survived.The earliest report of Kantzow is in the University of Rostock's matriculae. This entry covers a matriculation period from 29 September 1525 to 1 April 1526 and reads "<mask>tzouw [de] Szundensis". Kantzow's matriculation was accordingly dated to "ao. 1525" by Kosegarten, to "probably 1525" in the ADB, to 1526 in the NDB and to "verifiably 1526" by Berger (2001). In Rostock, he probably graduated as a magister of theology before he is reported as a secretary of the Pomeranian dukes in 1528 and thereafter. Until 1532, Kantzow was secretary of the dukes Barnim IX and George I at the court in Stettin (now Szczecin), but followed Philip I to the court in Wolgast after the duchy was partitioned between Barnim IX and Philipp I, nephew of the deceased George I. As a ducal secretary, Kantzow participated in the implementation of the Protestant Reformation in Pomerania.In the spring of 1538, Kantzow was matriculated at the University of Wittenberg, probably as a member of Pomeranian count Ludwig von Everstein's entourage. In Wittenberg, Kantzow was instructed by rector Philipp Melanchthon while upholding contacts to Pomerania. He continued to hold several prebendaries and benefices, which he had

masks:
Thomas Kantzow
Thomas Can


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 obtained from the Pomeranian dukes for his secretary services. In 1542, he left Wittenberg due to an illness and on 25 September died on his way home in Stettin, where he was buried in St. Mary's church. Chronicles

In contrast to Johannes Bugenhagen, who in 1518 based his Latin Pomerania on a limited amount of sources from abbeys and printed sources, Kantzow also had access to the extensive ducal archives, where he gathered most of the information for his chronicles, and further derived historiographic information from archeological remnants, inscriptions, coins, folklore, eyewitness accounts and own experiences. The table below provides an overview of the major chronicles written by Kantzow:

Fragmenta der pamerischen geschichte

The first chronicle written by Kantzow was Fragmenta der pamerischen geschichte, full title:  (English translation: "Fragments of the Pomeranian History, from which (if one orders the time properly, and makes right what is not right) one may well gain a good access to a chronicle"). Wilhelm Böhmer, teacher in Stettin and member of the Society for Pomeranian History and Antiquity Studies, rediscovered the handwritten chronicle in landlord von Löper's library in Stramehl (now Strzmiele) in 1832.In 1835, Böhmer published the transliterated script in a printed book titled <mask>zows Chronik von Pommern in niederdeutscher Mundart sammt einer Auswahl aus den übrigen ungedruckten Schriften desselben (English translation: "<mask>w's chronicle of Pomerania in Low German tongue including a selection of further unprinted scripts of the same [author]"), which did not alter Kantzow's spelling. In the preface, Böhmer postulates that the chronicle was written after 1531 or 1532, and a few years before 1538, a determination also followed by Berger (2001). In ADB and NDB, a date prior to 1538 is

masks:
Thomas Kant
Thomas Kantzo


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 assumed. Kantzow's friend Nicolaus (also Niklaus) Klempzen (also Klemptzen) had added a note to the original manuscript's title reading "by <mask>w anno 1538", also a second front page was attached to Kantzow's original one, which Böhmer assumed to originate from the ducal chancellory, which read "First volume of fragments, from which deceased <mask>zow has written the Chronicon Pomeraniae", written in Fraktur letters, with "1538" added in another handwriting. The chronicle, written in Pomeranian Low German, covers the history of Pomerania prior to 1536, with the first part beginning with the death of duke Eric II in 1459 and ending in 1536, and a second and third part beginning in the Slavic period and ending in 1459. While overall the chronicle is not as detailed as later works of Kantzow, it offers a much more comprehensive coverage of the years 1523 to 1536, when Pomerania became Lutheran. Part of the work remains unfinished.Ursprunck, Altheit vnd Geschicht der Volcker vnd Lande Pomern, Cassuben, Wenden vnd Rügen

The second chronicle written by Kantzow was the Standard German variant of the abovementioned Low German chronicle, written before 1538 and also rediscovered by Böhmer in von Löper's library. The title Ursprunck, Altheit vnd Geschicht der Volcker vnd Lande Pomern, Cassuben, Wenden vnd Rügen (English translation: "Origin, oldness and history of the peoples and lands of Pomerania(ns), Cashubia(ns), Wendland (resp. Wends) and Rügen") was proposed by Kosegarten, who derived it from the preface in Kantzow's manuscript. While the Low German chronicle was not structured, the Standard German chronicle is divided into eleven books, the sixth of which is missing in the manuscript. It is not simply a translation of its Low German counterpart, but is more comprehensive, while lacking information about the

masks:
Thomas Kazo
Thomas Kant


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 period after the death of Bogislaw X in 1523. Standard German was chosen over Low German to reach a wider audience, and because the court of Philipp I, who had been raised in the High German-speaking Electorate of the Palatinate, adopted Standard German as its official language at about the same time the chronicle was written. An edition of the manuscript was first printed by Baron von Medem in 1841 as <mask>ws Chronik von Pommern in hochdeutscher Sprache (English translation: "<mask>w's chronicle of Pomerania in Standard German language").In the edition, von Medem changed Kantzow's spelling to resemble the contemporary one, and filled incomplete parts with fragments of other chronicles of Kantzow. Ursprunck, altheit vnd geschicht der volcker vnd lande Pomern, Cassuben, Wenden vnd Rhügen

The chronicle Ursprunck, altheit vnd geschicht der volcker vnd lande Pomern, Cassuben, Wenden vnd Rhügen (same translation as above) was written between 1538 and 1542 and consists of 14 books. Though in part identical with the first Standard German chronicle, it is more comprehensive, has an abundance of sidenotes, yet is also unfinished. Kantzow's manuscript was discovered in 1729 by Albert Schwartz, professor at the University of Greifswald, in Zudar, where it was in the possession of the children of deceased pastor Joachim Wildahn. Schwartz made a copy which was stored in the library of the university,  In 1816, Hans Gottfried Ludwig Kosegarten published a printed edition of Schwartz's copy titled Pomerania oder Ursprunck, Altheit und Geschicht der Völcker und Lande Pomern, Caßuben, Wenden, Stettin, Rhügen. Mildahn's original had disappeared before 1835, but was rediscovered by Kosegarten in 1836 in the archives of Putbus. In 1897, a largely unchanged transcription of the Putbus manuscript was printed by Georg Gaebel in

masks:
Thomas Kantzo
Thomas Kantzo


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 Des Thomas Kantzow Chronik von Pommern in hochdeutscher Mundart (English translation: "<mask>w's chronicle of Pomerania in Standard German tongue"), vol.I.

Vom alten Pomerland

The book Vom alten Pomerland (English translation: "Of the old Pomerania") was an incomplete work written in Wittenberg, with seven writings constituting preparatory works for the eighth one, of which a ninth one is largely a copy written by someone else but corrected by Kantzow. The manuscripts were part of Kantzows handwritings discovered in the abovementioned von Löper's library, and published by Böhmer together with the abovementioned Low German chronicle. Pomerania, Ursprunck, Aldtheitt vnd Geschicht der Volcker und Lande Pommern, Cassuben, Wenden, Stettin vnd Rugenn

After Kantzow's death, Nicolaus von Klempzen compiled this chronicle from Kantzow's legacy, and published it in four books known either as Kantzow's or Klempzen's Pomerania. A corresponding manuscript was discovered only in 1973 in the archives of Copenhagen ("Thott 644 Fol. "), proving that Klempzen was merely publishing, not re-organizing Kantzow's chronicle, as was assumed before. A transcription of this chronicle was published as print edition in 1908, before the discovery of the Copenhagen manuscript, by Georg Gaebel, titled Pomerania. Eine pommersche Chronik aus dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert (English translation: "Pomerania.A Pomeranian chronicle from the 16th century"). Sources

References

Bibliography

Petersohn, Jürgen (1973) (in German): Die dritte hochdeutsche Fassung von Kantzows pommerscher Chronik. Identifikation eines verkannten Geschichtswerks, in: Baltische Studien NF 59, pp. 27–41. People from Stralsund
1542 deaths
Chroniclers
History of Pomerania
University of Rostock alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Year of birth


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<mask> (12 March 1883 – 13 September 1972) was an Indian freedom fighter and social reformer. Early life

Born in Jat family of village Magloona in Sikar district of present-day Rajasthan in 1883, <mask>, whose actual name was Birama, was the son of Thakarsi, a penurious camel-driver, and his wife Saran. The family were Hindu and belonged to the Dhaka gotra and the Jat clan. When Birama was five, his family left Magluna for the nearby town of Ratangarh. Thakarsi, who used to escort prosperous Seths (Businessman) from Ratangarh to Delhi on his camel, died in 1890 when Birama was seven. This put paid to Birama's already slim chances of gaining an education; it is said that for a prolonged period, his mother had perforce to move from place to place in search of shelter and fodder for her animals. Mother and son finally settled at village Kelania in present-day Sri Ganganagar district in 1897.However, this was not the end of their misfortunes: Rajasthan was then headed for one of its periodic famines. By one account: "There was no vegetation left on the ground. There was no drop of water. All the animals died for want of fodder. People survived on grasses and the bark of "Khejri" trees. Even that also became scarce. There was nothing like governance.The ruling Samants were least bothered for the poor people....". It was in these circumstances that Birama's mother Saran died in 1899 at village Kelania. Education

The famine of 1899 forced the 16-year-old Birama to leave the desert region and move to Punjab in search of livelihood. Circumstances had induced in him an ineffable spiritual quest. He approached Mahant Kushaldas of the Udasin sect, to whom he expressed the desire to learn Sanskrit, to be able to study the higher Hindu scriptures from primary sources. Noting that

masks:
Swami Keshwanand
Swamiji


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 Birama belonged to the Jat caste, who were customarily precluded from studying the higher scriptures or even the liturgical Sanskrit language, Mahant Kushaldas advised him to become a sannyasi, or renunciate, which would render him eligible to learn Sanskrit. Accordingly, Birama became a sannyasi in 1904, was inducted into the Udasin sect, and commenced his education at the Sadhu Ashram Fazilka, a Hindu seminary located in Punjab.He learned the Hindi and Sanskrit languages and the Devanagari and Gurmukhi scripts at the Ashram. At the Kumbha Mela held at Prayag in 1905, Mahatma Hiranandji Avadhut conferred on Birama the new name "<mask>wanand". Career
<mask>walla Bagh Massacre of 1919, which caused a profound impact on the collective psyche of the Punjab, left <mask> profoundly moved. He started attending the meetings of the Indian National Congress, joined the Indian Independence Movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, and participated in the non-co-operation movement, for which was imprisoned for two years (1921–1922) at Ferozepur. In 1930, he was given charge of Congress activities in Ferozepur district. He was again arrested the same year, but was soon released pursuant to the Gandhi-Irwin pact.Educator
<mask>, an orphan, illiterate, nomadic man who never received formal education, was the founder of more than 300 schools, 50 hostels and innumerable libraries, social service centres and museums. In 1911, within a few years of his initiation into the Udasin Dasnami sect as a sanyasi, swami Keshawanand started the "Vedant Pushp Vatika" library within the precincts of the Sadhu Ashram Fazilka. The following year, he started a Sanskrit school at the same place. In 1932, swami <mask> was made director of the Jat School, Sangaria, which was at the verge of

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 closure for want of funds. He went from village to village to collect funds, and was successful in averting the closure of the school, which was renamed Gramothan Vidyapith, Sangaria in 1948. Within the precincts of this school, <mask>nd developed a museum with a valuable collection of rare documents, paintings and antiques, thus initiating the idea of conservation in a profoundly backward area. The students of the school, aided by the local community, undertook a large-scale, successful project to green the precincts of the school, which is located in one of the most arid regions of India.Gramothan Vidyapith, Sangaria has become an inspiration for educators far and wide. Propagation of Hindi
Swami Keshwanand felt that the knowledge of the Hindi language is a must to keep the country united and to educate the public about nationality. <mask>'s own mother-tongue was of course Hindi, and he somehow felt that forcing people from other parts of India to learn that language would aid national unity. He started his programme of spreading Hindi by founding, in 1920, a Hindi forum, the 'Nagari Pracharini Sabha', at Abohar in the Ferozepur district of Punjab. This forum was later renamed "Sahitya Sadan, Abohar". In 1933, he started a press named "Deepak" at Abohar, which published material in Hindi language that was distributed either free or at a very nominal price. He organised the 30th All India Hindi Sahitya Sammelan at Sahitya Sadan, Abohar, in 1941.<mask> was a longtime member of the Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, Allahabad. He either himself wrote, or arranged for the translation into Hindi, of around 100 books. At immense effort over the course of eleven years, he arranged for the publication of the Hindi edition of the book "History of Sikhs" in 1954. In 1942, he was honoured

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Swami
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 with the "Sahitya Vachaspati" for his pains in propagating his own mother-tongue to other people. Social reformer
<mask>'s deep understanding of the rural society of the desert region can be gleaned from his book "Maru Bhumi Seva Karya". In this book, he has explained the peculiarities of the Desert region, identified the problems and suggested solutions. It was <mask>wanand's lifelong endeavour to eradicate social evils like untouchability, illiteracy, child marriage, indebtedness, poverty, backwardness, alcohol abuse, moral dissipation, etc.<mask>, born in a Jat Hindu family of Dhaka clan, and a renunciate belonging to the Udasi sect which was propagated by Srichandji, son of guru Nanakdevji, the founder of the Sikh faith, was a unique example of communal harmony. He organised celebrations in honour of Sikh, Bishnoi, Namdhari and Jain gurus. During the partition of India in 1947, he got wounded Muslims admitted to hospitals and arranged food and shelter for them. <mask>wanand started a girls' school called (Gramothan Vidyapeath) in Sangriya in August 1917. Because of his efforts, many others in Sangriya have prioritised education. <mask> was presented the “Abhinandan Granth” by the then chief minister of Rajasthan on 9 March 1958. He was a member of the Rajya Sabha for two consecutive terms, 1952–58 and 1958–64.He died on 13 September 1972 in Delhi. The department of Posts, Government of India, issued a commemorative postage stamp in his honour on 15 August 1999. In 2009, <mask>wanand Rajasthan Agricultural University was named after him. References

1883 births
1972 deaths
Rajasthani people
Indian independence activists from Rajasthan
Keshawanand
People from Sikar district
Indian social reformers
20th-century Indian educational theorists
Rajya Sabha members from

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texts: <mask>-Rahman al-Mahdi, KBE (; June 1885 – 24 March 1959) was one of the leading religious and political figures during the colonial era in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1898–1955), and continued to exert great authority as leader of the Neo-Mahdists after Sudan became independent. The British tried to exploit his influence over the Sudanese people while at the same time profoundly distrusting his motives. Throughout most of the colonial era of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan the British saw <mask>-Rahman al-Mahdi as important as a moderate leader of the Mahdists. <mask>-Rahman was the posthumous son of <mask>, who had proclaimed himself the Mahdi or redeemer of the Islamic faith in 1881, and died in 1885 a few months after his forces had captured Khartoum. A joint British and Egyptian force recaptured Sudan in 1898. At first, the British severely restricted <mask>-Rahman's movement and activity. However, he soon emerged as the Imam (leader) of the Ansar religious sect, supporters of the Mahdist movement.The British maintained a close political relationship with <mask>-Rahman. Meanwhile, he grew wealthy from cotton production, for which his supporters provided labor since he was a child exiled to Aba Island, and was influential and well loved among his people. The British administration distrusted him because they could not control him or use him to exert influence on Sudan. In the 1930s, <mask>-Rahman spoke out against a treaty between Egypt and Britain that recognized Egyptian claims of sovereignty in Sudan, although no Sudanese had been consulted, travelling to London to make his case. His Ansar followers became an influential

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 faction in the General Congress established in 1938, and in the successor Advisory Council set up in 1944. <mask>-Rahman was patron of the nationalist Ummah (Nation) political Party in the period before and just after Sudan became independent in 1956. In 1958 the Umma party won the most seats in the first parliamentary elections after independence.In November 1958 the army staged a coup, which <mask>-Rahman supported. He died on 24 March 1959, aged 73. In the post-WW I period, the Mahdi's family became the wealthiest family in Sudan from cotton production, mainly supported by the Baggara followers from Darfur and Kordofan. These western tribes had been the backbone of the original Mahdist movement. The riverine tribes were more inclined to side with the rival Khatmiyya movement. <mask>-Rahman's economic activity, and the resulting wide range of contacts with merchants and owners and his schemes for irrigating cotton fields, gave him influence among Sudanese engaged in commerce. As of 1 January 1922, the government became wary of his influence and power, and so suspended his economic activity.The allowance of <mask>-Rahman was increased somewhat, but only so that he could support old women and other incapable people whose income had also been stopped by the government. Background

Since antiquity Egypt has straddled the trade route between the Mediterranean and Arabia, India and countries to the east. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 it gained huge strategic importance. In 1882 the British took effective control of Egypt in the Anglo-Egyptian War. Northern and central Sudan had been nominally under Egyptian

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texts: suzerainty since an Ottoman force had conquered and occupied the region in 1821. The primary motive was not territorial conquest but to secure a source of slaves to serve in the Egyptian army. The slaves, paid in lieu of taxes, were brought from the formerly inaccessible regions of south Sudan.When the British explorer Samuel Baker visited Khartoum in 1862, he found that everyone in the town was involved in the slave trade, including the Governor-General. The Egyptian and Nubian garrison lived on the land like an army of occupation. Bribery was the only way to get anything done. Torture and floggings were routine in the prisons. Baker said of Khartoum "a more miserable and unhealthy place can hardly be imagined". He described the Governor General Musa Pasha as combining "the worst of Oriental failings with the brutality of a wild animal". In the 1870s, a Muslim cleric named Muhammad Ahmad began to preach renewal of the faith and liberation of Sudan from the Egyptians.In 1881 he proclaimed himself the Mahdi, the promised redeemer of the Islamic world. The Mahdi's followers were named "Ansar", or helpers, the name that was given to the citizens of Medina who helped the Prophet Muhammed. The religious and political revolt gathered momentum, with the Egyptians steadily losing ground and the British showing little enthusiasm for a costly engagement in this remote region. By the end of 1883, the Ansar army had wiped out three Egyptian armies. A force under William Hicks was sent to suppress the revolt but was destroyed. When the governor of Darfur, Slatin Pasha, surrendered to the Mahdi almost all of the west of Sudan had come


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 under his control. Major-General Charles George Gordon was given the job of evacuating the Egyptian garrison from Khartoum.He arrived on 18 February 1884. Gordon was reluctant to abandon the population of Khartoum to the forces of the Mahdi, and also felt that by evacuating the city he would open the way for the Mahdi to threaten Egypt. He bombarded the authorities in Cairo with telegrams suggesting alternative courses, and delayed starting the evacuation. On 13 March 1884 the tribes north of Khartoum declared for the Mahdi, cutting the telegraph and blocking river traffic. Khartoum was besieged, falling on 25 January 1885 after a siege of 313 days. A relief column arrived two days after the city had fallen and Gordon had been killed. Despite a short-lived public outcry in Britain over Gordon's death, Britain took no further action in Sudan for several years.Mahdiyah (1885–1898)
Muhammad Ahmad died of typhus a few months after his victory, leaving power to his three deputies, or Kalifas. <mask>-Rahman was born on 15 July 1885 in Omdurman, three weeks after his father's death. His mother was granddaughter of a former Sultan of Darfur, Mohammed al-Fadl. As a child, <mask>-Rahman's only formal education was that of a religious school where the pupils memorized the Quran. By the age of eleven he had recited the Quran. After a prolonged struggle, by 1891 the Kalifa <mask> ibn Muhammad emerged as sole leader due to his support from the warlike nomadic Baggara Arabs of the west. He proved to be an able and ruthless ruler of the Mahdiyah, the Mahdist state.At first the state was run on military lines as a Jihadist state. Later, a

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texts: more conventional form of administration was introduced. The Kalifa consolidated his rule in Sudan, then invaded Ethiopia, killing Emperor Yohannes IV in March 1889 and penetrating as far as Gondar. The same year, the Kalifa attacked Egypt at Tushki, but was defeated. However, the state suffered from economic problems and internal opposition to the Khalifa, particularly from the Mahdi's family, and the Khalifa was forced to concentrate on consolidation. The British detected his weakness, and prepared an invasion motivated in part by a wish to revenge Gordon's death, in part by a desire for raw cotton for their textile industry. A methodical invasion was launched in 1896. slowly moving south supported by a railway that the army built along its route.The force reached Berber in September 1897 and Atbara in April 1898. The British and Egyptian force led by General Kitchener defeated the Kalifa at the Battle of Omdurman on 2 September 1898. The battle is known as the Battle of Karari to Mahdists. In his book The River War, Sir Winston Churchill, who was present at the Battle, summed up the result: "The River War is over. In its varied course, which extended over fourteen years and involved the untimely destruction of perhaps 300,000 lives, many extremes and contrasts have been displayed, There have been battles which were massacres, and others that were mere parades. There have been occasions of shocking cowardice and surprising heroism... of wisdom and incompetence. But the result is at length achieved and the flags of England and Egypt wave unchallenged over the valley of the Nile".The British sent the Mahdi's family to


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 al-Shakaba on the Blue Nile in September 1898. The group included the Khalifa Muhammad Sharif, the Mahdi's cousin and one of his chosen successors. In 1899 the government heard rumors that the family group was advocating a Mahdist revival and dispatched a military force to al-Shakaba. One account says the force attacked the family and followers, firing on them at random. <mask>-Rahman was badly wounded and his two elder brothers were killed. Another account says Muhammad Sharif and the two elder sons of the Mahdi were arrested. There was a skirmish when an attempt was made to rescue them.Muhammad Sharif and the Mahdi's two sons were found guilty by a court martial trial and were shot. Organized resistance to the British had ended by 1899, although sporadic fighting continued for a few more years. In theory the British ruled the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in partnership with Egypt through an arrangement called the "condominium". In practice, although Egypt bore most of the costs of the military conquest and occupation of Sudan, the British ran the country as they chose. The head of the military and the civil administration under the 19 January 1899 Condominium Agreement was a British-nominated Governor General, who acted independently of the Cairo government. Early period of British rule

After the British took control, <mask>-Rahman lived at first with a relative in the Gezira. On the advice of the Inspector General Slatin Pasha, <mask>-Rahman was constantly watched in the early years of British rule, was given a very small allowance and was not allowed to call himself Imam or the Mahdi.Both Slatin and the Governor-General

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texts: Reginald Wingate were determined to stamp out Mahdism. Slatin had been held a prisoner of the Mahdists for eleven years. He placed many restrictions on the Mahdist leaders such as prohibiting them from reading the Mahdi's prayer book, from visiting "sacred" places associated with their movement other than the Mahdi's tomb, and from praying or making offerings at the tomb. From 1906 <mask>-Rahman lived in Gezirat al-Fil, near to Omdurman. He was subject to constant and obtrusive supervision by the intelligence department. After 1908 <mask>-Rahman was allowed to live in Omdurman and study under a distinguished Azharite named Muhammad al-Badawi, where he gained some understanding of Islamic jurisprudence and the fundamentals of his religion, including the Hadith, or Prophet's tradition. However, he was never to become a well-educated and knowledgeable Islamic scholar as his father had been.The government lent him money to build the family mosque in Omdurman in 1908, and let him farm part of his father's land on Aba Island. He emphasized his peaceful intentions, convincing the colonialist government that his movement was not dangerous. A British official described him in 1909, when he was aged about twenty-four, as "an obsequious, sorry-looking youth in soiled clothes". In 1910 he made a public speech in which he supported the Condominium administration of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. <mask>-Rahman quietly began to regroup the Ansar as a religious sect. Until 1914, he lived in seclusion in Omdurman or on Aba Island, closely watched by Slatin's intelligence agents. Despite the surveillance he built considerable influence in the


texts:
 White Nile region.He often visited the many mosques in Omdurman to meet his followers with his face covered so he would not be recognized by government agents. He received many visitors who sought his blessing. World War I
When World War I broke out in 1914, Turkey sided with Germany against Britain. Governor-General Wingate had to persuade the Sudanese people that Turkey was no longer a truly Muslim state. Wingate was helped by Sudanese memories of the harsh former Turkish rule. Wingate described Britain as the true defender of Islam, and called the Turkish rulers a "Syndicate of Jews, financiers and low-born intriguers". The British and most of the northern Sudanese saw the Sayyids, the leaders of the main Islamic groups, as the natural spokesmen for the people.Wingate decided to enlist Sayyid <mask>-Rahman to support the British cause. <mask>-Rahman publicly declared his full support for the British and assisted in suppressing a rebellion in the Nuba Mountains in 1915. In 1915 Sayyid <mask>-Rahman made a series of tours and visits to parts of the country where Mahdism was still strong, particularly among the Baggara of the White Nile region, speaking in opposition to the Turkish sultan's calls for Jihad. When he toured Aba Island in 1915, he was greeted by thousands of sword-carrying Mahdists who prayed that "the day had arrived". Alarmed at the possibility of a Mahdist revival, the British ordered him to return to Omdurman in 1916. However, <mask>-Rahman appointed agents in Blue Nile and Funj provinces and later in Kordofan and Darfur. Their ostensible role was to report on any illegal activity and to encourage


texts:
 payment of taxes to the British.They took advantage of their visits to collect payments of zakat to <mask>-Rahman and to encourage the Ansar, who now freely used the illegal Mahdist prayer book, ratib al-mahdi. The British encouraged the development of a version of the Ansar movement that was not fanatical, and did much to accommodate <mask>-Rahman's ambitions, although they could not go as far as supporting his goal of becoming King of Sudan. However, the toleration and even support of Mahdism during World War I was not based on official policy. A British official who was critical of the support given to <mask>-Rahman at this time later wrote that some changes were "a modification of policy deliberately proposed; others ... the unforeseen consequence of action taken; others, perhaps the majority, appear superficially to represent a gradual drift, of which the Government was at the time unconscious". Post World War I

In 1919 Sayyid <mask>-Rahman al-Mahdi was among a delegation of Sudanese notables who went to London to congratulate King George V of the United Kingdom on the British victory in the war. In a dramatic gesture of loyalty, <mask>-Rahman presented the Mahdi's sword to the King. The delegation was led by Sayyid Ali al-Mirghani, the leader of the Khatmiyya movement, who was later to clash with <mask>-Rahman over several issues.After the war, the Turkish empire was broken up, leading to a revival of Egyptian nationalism. Some Egyptians claimed that Sudan was a natural extension of Egypt. The Sudanese view was mixed, with some wanting ties with Egypt to offset British influence and others wanting complete

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Abd al
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texts: independence of Egypt. In the post-war period, the Mahdi's family became wealthy from cotton production based on irrigation and migrant laborers, mainly their Baggara followers from Darfur and Kordofan. These western tribes had been the backbone of the original Mahdist movement. The riverine tribes were more inclined to side with the rival Khatmiyya movement. The government supported <mask>-Rahman in these commercial enterprises.<mask>-Rahman's economic activity, and the resulting wide range of contacts with merchants and owners of pump-schemes for irrigating cotton fields, gave him influence among Sudanese engaged in commerce. As of 1 January 1922, the government suspended payment of allowances to Mahdist notables other than the old and those whose movements were restricted. The allowance of <mask>-Rahman was increased somewhat, but only so that he could support old women and other incapable people whose allowances had been stopped. By the 1920s, <mask>-Rahman was a respected religious and political leader. In 1921, he held a meeting at his home where the attendees signed two documents that laid out the Mahdist objectives. These were for Sudan to be ruled by Britain rather than Egypt, and for Sudan to eventually achieve self-government. In the early 1920s, between 5,000 and 15,000 pilgrims were coming to Aba Island each year to celebrate Ramadan.Many of them identified <mask>-Rahman with Isa, the prophet Jesus, and assumed that he would drive the Christian colonists out of Sudan. The British found that <mask>-Rahman was in correspondence with agents and leaders in Nigeria and Cameroon, predicting the eventual victory of


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 the Mahdists over the Christians. They blamed him for unrest in these colonies. After pilgrims from West Africa held mass demonstrations on Aba Island in 1924, <mask>-Rahman was told to put a stop to the pilgrimages. For a long time the British were ambivalent in their attitude to <mask>-Rahman. He had provided valuable political assistance during World War I and in 1924. On the other hand, the Sudan Government found that his services had a hidden agenda and described his actions as "evasive and obstructive".On balance the British found it best to treat <mask>-Rahman as an ally, although some felt that Governor-General Reginald Wingate (1900–18) was too lenient towards him. In September 1924 Sayyid Ali al-Mirghani, leader of the Khatmiyya movement and <mask>-Rahman's rival, said he would prefer Sudan to be part of the Egyptian kingdom than to be an independent monarchy under Sayyid <mask>-Rahman. At that time the British favored Sayyid Ali, whom they saw as a purely religious leader, while Sayyid <mask>-Rahman also had potentially dangerous political ambitions. Political crises
In 1924, there was a crisis in Egypt when a government hostile to the British was elected. On 19 November 1924, the Governor of Sudan Sir Lee Stack was shot and assassinated while driving through Cairo. The British responded with anger, demanding of the Egyptian government a public apology, an inquiry, suppression of demonstrations and payment of a large fine. Further, they demanded withdrawal of all Egyptian officers and Egyptian army units from the Sudan, an increase to the scope of an irrigation scheme in Gezira and laws to protect foreign


texts: investors in Egypt.Egyptian army units in Sudan, bound by their oath to the Egyptian king, refused to obey the orders of their British officers and mutinied. The British violently suppressed the mutiny, removed the Egyptian army from Sudan and purged the administration of Egyptian officials. The "condominium" remained legally in force, as it would until Sudan gained independence, but in practice Egypt now had no say in the administration of Sudan. In the aftermath of the upheaval the British saw educated Sudanese as potential propagators of "dangerous" nationalist ideas imported from Egypt. Although <mask>-Rahman had backed the government and condemned local supporters of the Egyptians, he was also viewed with suspicion as a potential enemy of the colonial power. However, at the start of 1926, <mask>-Rahman was awarded the KBE (Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire). Sir Geoffrey Archer was appointed Governor-General of Sudan in 1925 in place of Sir Lee Stack.One of his early decisions was to initiate the formation of the Sudan Defence Force, with a command completely separate from the Egyptian army. He dropped the Egyptian title "Sirdar" for the supreme commander, and did not wear the Egyptian tarboush. He made it very clear that he was commander in chief of a purely Sudanese army, while reassuring Sudanese officers who had served in the Egyptian army that they would be retained if they had not taken part in the mutiny. The British authorities, who had again became hostile to Mahdism, banned enlistment of Ansar into the Sudanese Defence Force. The Sudan Political Service advised Archer to keep <mask>-Rahman


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 at arm's length. In March 1926 Archer ignored this advice and made an official visit to <mask>-Rahman on Aba Island accompanied by a full escort of troops and officials. When Archer arrived on 14 February, he was formally welcomed by Sayyid <mask>-Rahman with 1,500 Ansar supporters.Escorted by horsemen, the dignitaries went on by car to a reception at <mask>-Rahman's house. Replying to a speech by <mask>-Rahman, Archer said his visit marked "an important stage forward in the relations" between <mask>-Rahman and his followers and the government. Archer said he had come to cement the ties of friendship and understanding. Archer's visit precipitated a crisis in the colonial administration. It was felt he had been far too friendly to <mask>-Rahman, who was viewed with suspicion by many administrators. Archer was forced to resign, replaced by Sir John Maffey. <mask>-Rahman was placed under restriction on travel outside Omdurman and Khartoum and was told to instruct his supporters to halt their political and religious activities.Growing influence and British hostility

Sayyid <mask>-Rahman invited the Yemenite scholar <mask>-Rahman ibn Hurayn al-Jabri to come to Omdurman and make a study of Mahdism. Al-Jabri wrote a book covering the history of the movement and its justification in the hadith, essentially designed to glorify the Mahdi and his son. <mask>-Rahman tried to publish the book in 1925–26, but the British confiscated the manuscript, which they considered to be highly seditious. To avoid publicity, they did not prosecute al-Jabri but quietly deported him. <mask>-Rahman made overtures to the "effendiyya", the growing

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texts: elite of educated people in Sudan, patronizing their social and educational institutions. He became the acknowledged leader of a group of intelligentsia who were opposed to indirect rule or unification with Egypt, and were building a Sudanese national movement. In 1931 the colonial government lowered the starting rates of pay for Sudanese officials.After protests and demonstrations were ignored, a general strike was declared on 24 November 1931. With no other leader taking the initiative, it was left to Sayyid <mask>-Rahman to act as mediator and successfully bring the strike to an end. This helped consolidate his position as a leader in the eyes of intelligentsia. In 1935 Sayyid <mask>-Rahman founded al-Nil (The Nile), an organ of the Ansar and the first daily newspaper in Sudan in the Arabic language. The newspaper helped him gain influence with the educated elite in Sudan, including politically oriented government officials, many of whom joined the Ansar and became lifetime adherents of <mask>-Rahman. By the mid-1930s, the British realized that <mask>-Rahman expected to be recognized as royalty, had firm control over a thriving Mahdist movement, and was actively seeking new adherents. British officials became increasingly suspicious of his motives, and their correspondence showed a mixture of hostility and fear of his growing influence.In 1933, and more forcefully in 1934, during the prophet's birthday celebrations <mask>-Rahman displayed signs with "various expressions advertising the Mahdi's prophetic standing". Sir Stewart Symes, Governor-General of Sudan from 1934 to 1940, sternly warned him to remove the signs or

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 face consequences. A British view of <mask>-Rahman at this time was given by Sir Stewart Symes, writing in April 1935, "He has the defects of a Sudanese of his type, the liking of intrigue, vanity, irrelevance and opportunism. On the other hand, he has quick perceptions, panache and subtle tenacity of purpose... He has used [or misued] the opportunities ... of laying the foundations of his Mahdist organization in the provinces... His favorite role is that of the loyal supporter of Government who is maliciously misunderstood". Symes refused to take action to suppress neo-Mahdism, preferring to follow a policy of ensuring that <mask>-Rahman conformed to agreed guidelines of behavior, with the implied threat of punishment if he broke these rules. He allowed some restrictions to be lifted, while retaining others.Political activity under British rule

The British had ceded some power in Egypt with the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1922 and more in the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The 1936 treaty was designed to counter Benito Mussolini's ambition to link Libya to Ethiopia via Sudan in a new Italian empire. The treaty recognized Egyptian claims of sovereignty in Sudan in return for British rights in the Nile valley and the Suez Canal. It allowed for unrestricted immigration of Egyptians to Sudan and for the return of Egyptian troops. The Sudanese were not consulted. In 1937, <mask>-Rahman visited England and Egypt, where he met with high-ranking officials and with King Farouk. His purpose was to present Sudanese criticism of the Anglo-Egyptian treaty in person.He was openly critical of the Egyptian plans for unity of the Nile


texts: valley, which he considered unrealistic. In May 1937, his eldest son al-Siddiq al-Mahdi visited Egypt and was given a royal reception. These moves concerned the British, who saw them as potentially the start of a Mahdist alliance with Egypt, despite <mask>-Rahman's avowed Sudanese nationalism. In the period before the Second World War (1939–1945) the British wanted to reduce growth of Egyptian influence in Sudan, which had become more likely as a result of the 1936 treaty, while also suppressing the ultra-nationalist neo-Mahdist movement. They gave their support to Sayyid Ali al-Mirghani of the Khatmiyyah sect as a counterpoise to Sayyid <mask>-Rahman. Sayyid <mask>-Rahman responded by telling the British that Sayyid Ali al-Mirghani was pro-Italian due to his family commitments in Eritrea, but this was not accepted by the British. The government had promulgated the Powers of Nomad Shiekhs Ordinance in 1922, and had recognized and reinforced the judicial powers of over 300 tribal leaders by 1923.They had ignored the aspirations of educated Sudanese in government employment to take a greater role in administration. The principle of indirect rule had also given the Sayyids, including <mask>-Rahman, more power to prevent changes demanded by the secular opposition. In a shift of policy, the Graduates' General Congress was launched in 1938 as a forum for the intelligentsia of Sudan to express their opinions and as an alternative voice to that of the tribal leaders, who had become discredited. In August and September 1940, the Congress became split between Ansar and Khatmiyya supporters. At first the Ansar were dominant, but


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 they lost this position by the end of 1942. Many of <mask>-Rahman's supporters saw him as a source of financial backing and admired his advocacy of an independent Sudan, but did not follow him as a religious leader and were not members of the Ansar movement. By the end of 1942, the government had decided the Congress had no political value.The Mahdists had split into rival camps, other factions had emerged, and the attendees at the annual meeting of the Congress included artisans, merchants and illiterates. In May 1944, the government created a central Advisory Council, with the full backing of Sayyid <mask>-Rahman. The majority of the Council members were Ansar or tribal leaders. Many educated Sudanese were suspicious of the Council and drifted towards the Khatmiyya side in the 1944 elections, not for religious reasons but because they were hostile to the government, wanted to retain links with Egypt as a counterpoise to British influence and did not want a monarchy under Sayyid <mask>-Rahman. Lead-up to independence

In August 1944, Sayyid <mask>-Rahman met with senior Congress members and tribal leaders to discuss formation of a pro-independence political party that was not associated with Mahdism. The first step taken was to launch a new daily newspaper, al-Umma (The Community). In February 1945, the Umma party had been organized and the party's first secretary, <mask>, applied for a government license.The constitution of the party made no mention of Sayyid <mask>-Rahman or of the Ansar; the only visible link to <mask>-Rahman was the party's reliance on him for funding. However, there were rumors that the Umma party

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texts: had been created by the colonial government and aimed to place Sayyid <mask>-Rahman on the throne. These rumors persisted until June 1945, when the government publicly said it would not support a Mahdist monarchy. <mask>-Rahman at this time was a flamboyant figure with broad popular support. His stature served to diminish that of the politicians, who were seen as his followers rather than as leaders. <mask>-Rahman could not afford a sudden British withdrawal, since that would open the door for an Egyptian take-over and the loss of his power. The British also were against an Egyptian take-over, but for different reasons.Yet <mask>-Rahman could not be seen as supporting an indefinite colonial status, and continued to promote independence. <mask>-Rahman and the British were engaged in delicate and unstable arrangements characterized by mutual distrust. When, in 1946, Isma'il al-Azhari of the Sudanese al-Ashiqqa party began seeking support for unification of the Nile Valley, <mask>-Rahman was strongly opposed to any hint that the king of Egypt might have authority of any kind in Sudan. He and his followers set up an "Independence Front" and organized huge demonstrations throughout Sudan against the draft Anglo-Egyptian agreement on Sudan. In November 1946, <mask>-Rahman left with a delegation for London via Cairo. Completely ignored by the Egyptian government in Cairo, he talked with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee for two hours in London. When Attlee asked why the Sudanese had not spoken up while Egypt pressed its claims over Sudan for the last seventy years, <mask>-Rahman said that was because the British had excluded

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texts: them from any talks.He went on to say the Sudanese would fight with all their power for independence. <mask>-Rahman supported the work of the Legislative Assembly which began in December 1948. He saw it as the first time that Sudan's political and religious groups had been able to meet each other in a venue where the British could not stir up disputes between the different factions. He said that Isma'il al-Azhari opposed the Assembly purely because it would bring Sudan away from Egypt and nearer to full independence. In December 1950 a member of the Umma tabled a resolution asking the Governor-General to demand that Egypt and Britain grant Sudan independence at once. The British strongly opposed the measure, saying the Assembly was not truly representative since the Khatmiyya had chosen not to participate. The resolution was passed by one vote.<mask>-Rahman and al-Azhari both claimed victory: <mask>-Rahman since the vote had been passed, and the al-Azhari since the British had said the Assembly was not representative. Sayyid <mask>-Rahman said that from then on the British did everything they could to break up the Umma party and to thwart him personally. They tried without success to get tribal chiefs and village leaders to leave the Umma. He claimed that it was the Umma that forced the British to establish a committee to start drafting a constitution for an independent Sudan in 1951, a constitution that was endorsed in April 1952. However, broader considerations were anyway leading the British towards support for an independent Sudan despite attempts by the United States to persuade them to give Egypt a role. Elections


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 and independence

Egypt gained full independence with the Egyptian Revolution of 23 July 1952 in which King Farouk was overthrown by a group of officers that included Gamal <mask> Nasser, later to emerge as the sole ruler in 1954. Sayyid <mask>-Rahman visited London and met the British Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden on 11 November 1952.On 10 January 1953 the Egyptian government ratified an agreement with the Umma representatives and other pro-independence Sudanese parties that gave the Sudanese the right of self-determination. During a transition period no longer than three years parliamentary elections would be held and a Sudanese government formed. British and Egyptian troops and officials would leave the country and would be replaced by Sudanese. In 1953, <mask>-Rahman made a major proclamation in which he supported a republican system, "since the democratic republican system is a system deeply rooted in Islam, our pure, tolerant, and democratic religion". The first parliamentary elections were held that year. The National Unionist Party (NUP), the successor to the al-Ashiqqa party, gained a solid majority in parliament and Isma'il al-Azhari became Prime Minister. The NUP victory, greatest in northern and central Sudan, may have partly been due to support from the Khatmiyya.Another factor may have been fear that the Umma party would try to re-establish a Mahdist state with <mask>-Rahman as king. In August 1954, Sayyid <mask>-Rahman sponsored a tour of the south by Buth Diu of the Southern Liberal Party. In his speeches, Buth Diu quoted NUP campaign promises supporting a Federal system in which the southern

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texts: provinces would have considerable autonomy. Prime minister Azhari described this as seditious talk and threatened to use force to prevent secession from Sudan by the south. In May 1955, Isma'il al-Azhari announced that Sudan would seek complete independence, a reversal of the earlier NUP position in favor of union with Egypt. As Isma'il al-Azhari began to assert his power, both Sayyid Ali al-Mirghani and Sayyid <mask>-Rahman became concerned that they would lose their political influence. From October 1955 Sayyid Ali began to seek ways to oust Isma'il al-Azhari from power.A key issue was whether a plebiscite should be held to determine if Sudan was to be independent of Egypt, which Sayyid Ali supported and Isma'il al-Azhari opposed. To strengthen his position in parliament, Isma'il al-Azhari started making overtures to associates of Sayyid <mask>-Rahman to explore the idea of an NUP-Umma coalition. Sudan formally became independent on 1 January 1956. On 2 February 1956 Isma'il al-Azhari announced a new cabinet that included representatives of all political parties and factions. The first parliamentary elections after independence were held on 27 February and 8 March 1958. The result was a victory for <mask>-Rahman's Umma Party, which won 63 of the 173 seats. The Southern Sudan Federal Party competed in the election, and won 40 of the 46 seats allocated to the southern provinces.The Federal party platform represented a serious challenge to the authorities. However, when it became clear that the party's demands for a federal structure would be ignored by the Constituent Assembly, on 16 June 1958 the southern MPs left


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 parliament. In November 1958, the army staged a coup led by General Ibrahim Abboud. Two days later <mask>-Rahman proclaimed his strong support for the army's action, saying "It grieves me greatly to say that the politicians who have led the political parties have all failed... This now is a day of release. The men of the Sudanese army have sprung up and taken matters into their own hands... They will not permit hesitation, anarchy or corruption to play havoc in this land ... God has placed at our disposal ... someone who will take up the reins of government with truth and decisiveness ... Rejoice at this blessed revolution and go to your work calmly and contentedly, to support the men of the Sudanese revolution".It is possible that <mask>-Rahman expected to be appointed President for Life. If so, he was disappointed. Legacy

Sayyid <mask>-Rahman died on 24 March 1959, aged 73. Throughout a long and turbulent career he had always been a strong and consistent leader of the neo-Mahdist movement. By the end of the condominium in 1956, Sayyid <mask>-Rahman was reported to be the wealthiest of all Sudanese. The British would have preferred the Ansar movement to be purely religious in nature, but Sayyid <mask>-Rahman al-Mahdi was also to become a competent political leader of Sudan. Explanations for the resurgence of neo-Mahdism in Sudan have included the British need for a figurehead, <mask>-Rahman's financial influence as his cotton growing business expanded, or a resurgence of religious and nationalist feeling in the Ansar sect.<mask>-Rahman's son Sayyid al-Siddiq al-Mahdi was Imam of the Ansar for the next two years. After

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 al-Siddiq's death in 1961 he was succeeded as imam by his brother Sayyid al-Hadi al-Mahdi, while al-Siddiq's son Sadiq al-Mahdi took over the leadership of the Umma party. Sadiq Al-Mahdi was arrested in 1970, and for many years alternated between spells in prison in Sudan and periods of exile. In 1985, Sadiq al-Mahdi, who studied at Oxford and fought for democracy, was again elected president of the Umma party. In the 1986 elections he became Prime Minister of Sudan, holding office until the government was overthrown by a Muslim Brotherhood coup d'état in 1989. After further imprisonment and exile, Sadiq al-Mahdi returned to Sudan in 2000 and in 2002 was elected Imam of the Ansar. In 2003 Sadiq Al-Mahdi was re-elected President of Umma.Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

1885 births
1959 deaths
20th-century Sudanese politicians
Al-Mahdi family
Mahdism
People from


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<mask> (born March 26, 1941) is an American physician and broadcaster who hosted the Dr. <mask> radio program, a syndicated radio talk show which aired live from 1979 until December 10, 2010. He was also nationally syndicated in television as a medical news reporter and host of his own television shows including NBC's Dr. <mask>. Life and education
Born in Newark, New Jersey on March 26, 1941, <mask>'s father was a vitamin manufacturer in the 1940s and 50s. <mask> studied zoology at Cornell University and earned his M.D. from Cornell University Medical School in 1967. <mask> later opened a private ophthalmology practice in San Diego, California and acted as an instructor of Anatomy and a clinical instructor at the University of California, San Diego. <mask> soon quit medical practice altogether in 1973.He later said that he "... didn't like medicine originally...I kind of found the thing I love the most, which is really the information and communicating the information". He spent the next several years experimenting with lifestyles that included buying and selling antiques, acting as a silversmith and goldsmith, organic farming, painting, living in a 1950s-vintage bus and engaging in a self-described hand-to-mouth existence that included scavenging for food thrown out by grocery stores. During this period he describes himself as a hippie. In the late 1970s, <mask> worked for an antique auction gallery and also had a jewelry and antique shop of his own in Sacramento, California. To supplement his income he served as medical director of the County Alcohol and Drug Rehabilitation Center in Sacramento, California. A co-worker introduced <mask> to the owner of country music station KRAK and suggested <mask> try doing a talk

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 show. He did 6 call in-shows for that station in 1978.His radio career began. He moved to the San Francisco Bay Area in 1980, and currently lives in rural Mendocino County. <mask> maintains collections of Chinese art, Chinese snuff bottles, and rare books on anatomy. On October 5, 2007, Christie's held an auction of <mask>'s anatomy art collection. <mask>'s sister is a Hollywood costume designer. The Dr. <mask> radio program
In 1979, <mask> began broadcasting regularly on KGO radio in San Francisco. At that time talk radio had never been successfully syndicated.In 1986 Ed McLaughlin, then president of ABC Radio's failed attempt to syndicate talk radio, quit his job and teamed up with <mask>. The show soon reached 350-400 markets with 8.5 million weekly listeners. They also launched Medical Minutes, 60 second medical news segments into 400 markets. McLaughlin proved radio talk shows could be successfully syndicated. He then turned his attention to a then unknown radio personality from Sacramento named Rush Limbaugh, who by summer of 1989 surpassed <mask> in ratings and went on to become the most successful talk radio host in America. For most of the 90's <mask> was the second most listened to radio talk show in America. By 2005, the Dr. <mask> radio program was syndicated to over 200 markets by Premiere Radio Networks, and aired weekday afternoons on America's Talk on XM Radio.The program was estimated to have 1.5 million unique listeners a week. The program's format was unique. <mask> answered personal medical questions from callers and
included commentary on articles that appeared in medical journals as well as opinions about controversial medical issues. From the beginning of his career, <mask> was a strong advocate

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 for the scientific method and often criticized the media for unnecessarily publicizing unsupported health scares without proper scientific investigation. He was very concerned about the decline in scientific literacy in America. He railed against pseudoscience and magical thinking and was very critical of unproven alternative healing methods, the vitamin and herbal supplement industry, fad diets and diet pills, and many anti-science groups opposing vaccines, or fluoride or other scientifically accepted practices. He also questioned many mainstream medical practices like new born circumcision, cesarean sections, hysterectomies, and the over diagnosis of fad health maladies.He was an early supporter of medical marijuana and research into the therapeutic use of psychedelic drugs. He generally opposed the war on drugs. On December 1, 2010, <mask> announced his retirement from radio. In 2010 <mask> was named by Talkers Magazine to be among the 100 most important radio talk show hosts of all time. Other radio and television broadcasts

From 1979, when <mask> was the only physician in America employed full-time by a local television news station, until March 2007, <mask> did nightly health reports for KGO-TV news, the local ABC station in the San Francisco Bay Area. These television news reports were syndicated nationally to over 100 local television news stations. He also did nightly live segments on KGO-TV news called "House Calls" during which he spontaneously answered live viewer call-in questions.He used his art background to draw explanations while he answered questions. This segment was also done live by satellite for KABC-TV in Los Angeles. He has now retired from these regular television reports. In 1986, KGO-TV

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 produced Dr. <mask>'s Medical Journal, a weekly live audience health magazine show, the first of its genre. The show was syndicated and also carried by Discovery Channel as well as PBS. It won the IRIS award at the National Association of Television Programming Executives (NATPE) in 1986 and was accepted into the permanent collection of the Museum of Broadcasting on April 11, 1988. Variety's review reported that "<mask> is clearly charming, glib and informed."In June 1992, NBC television network launched <mask>, a half-hour daily television show, the first time an M.D. hosted his own daily network television show. The Hollywood Reporter described him a "Likeable, informed man with something to say." He hosted other television shows, Hey Dr. <mask>, Calling Dr. <mask>, and By Appointment with Dr. <mask> all with varied success. He also hosted a quarterly series of TV specials called "Medical Breakthroughs Presented by HealthCentral", which are syndicated to local stations via the HealthCentral Company. Publications

Periodicals
<mask> was the author of the "Edell Health Letter", published from 1982 until 1994. Five years later the editorial staff of Healthcentral.com wrote articles based on his radio show topics on  HealthCentral.com from 1999 until 2001 when the site went bankrupt and was sold to new owners.Books
 The Brush & The Stone, Art Media Resources, 1999
 Eat, Drink, & Be Merry, Harper, 2000
 Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Healthiness, Harper, 2005

Websites
In 1999, <mask> launched the aforementioned HealthCentral, a website featuring both personally authored content and general health-related information with the mission of "becoming your favorite consumer health information service." <mask> lost his

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 ownership position in this company when it filed for bankruptcy in 2001. The site is now owned and operated by Washington, D.C.-based The HealthCentral Network. The site no longer publishes new content by <mask>, though his advice column and articles that predate the bankruptcy are featured prominently. Awards
<mask> has won media awards for his work, including the C. Everett Koop Media Award, the Edward R. Murrow Award, a national Emmy, the American Cancer Society Recognition Award, and the American Heart Association Award. In August 2011 Dr. <mask> was honored by The Independent Investigations Group with an 'Iggie' award for promoting science and critical thinking in mainstream media. In 1996 the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSICOP) presented <mask> with the Public Education in Science Award.References

 Antonucci, Mike (January 5, 2004). "The Dr. <mask> You Don't Know". San Jose Mercury News

External links

 "About Dr. <mask>". Retrieved December 23, 2005
 uncredited (October 10, 2001) "HealthCentral Files Chapter 11"East Bay Business Times
abc7news.com <mask>'s TV bio
HEALTHCENTRAL.COM
<mask>ell Retirement Video From KGO-TV
<mask> interview on the Skeptics Guide to the Universe (Episode 154, Segment 3, July 2, 2008)
<mask> interview on the Skeptics Guide to the Universe (Episode 250, Segment 4, April 28, 2010)
<mask> interview on the Skeptics Guide to the Universe (Episode 538, Segment 6, October 31, 2015

1941 births
Living people
American health and wellness writers
American medical writers
American male non-fiction writers
American ophthalmologists
American talk radio hosts
20th-century American Jews
Television anchors from San Francisco
American skeptics
Weill Cornell Medical College alumni
21st-century

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<mask> (1692–1757) was an Edinburgh surgeon, physician, philosopher and empiric. As a young man he was a member of the Rankenian Club, a group of intellectuals who were to go on to become some of the most influential figures of the Scottish Enlightenment. <mask>'s lecture notes (1730–31) give a clear account of contemporary medical and surgical practice and are characterised by the empirical approach to the advancement of medical knowledge, especially in the evolving understanding of nerve and muscle function. His Treatise on Opium (1753) was a practical guide for physicians in the use of the drug which emphasises its complications. It was the longest, most balanced and most comprehensive English language account yet written. <mask>'s legacy is also apparent in the work of his pupil Robert Whytt (1714–1766) and his surgical apprentice James Hill (1703–1776). <mask> had taught both the value of repeated observation and a sceptical approach to prevailing dogma.Whytt was to advance knowledge of nerve and muscle function  while Hill went on to make important contributions to the understanding and management of head injury. Early life

<mask> was born in Edinburgh in 1692. On 14 March 1711 he was apprenticed to the Edinburgh surgeon-apothecary Alexander Simpson. In July 1719 he passed the entrance examination for the Incorporation of Surgeons of Edinburgh, becoming a freeman or fellow. Around this time he joined the Rankenian Club, and was the only surgeon known to have done so. The Rankenian was regarded as one of the most important of the many learned clubs and societies which were a defining feature of the Scottish Enlightenment. The Scots Magazine in May 1771 reckoned that "the Rankenians

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 were highly instrumental in disseminating throughout Scotland freedom of thought, boldness of disquisition, liberality of sentiment, accuracy of reasoning, correctness of taste and accuracy of composition."Its members were to become major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment. Medical career

<mask> worked as surgeon-apothecary in Edinburgh from about 1720, and between then and 1754 trained twelve surgical apprentices. Yet he was attracted to a career as a physician and to qualify as such he applied for, and on 21 June 1736 was awarded, the degree of MD (St Andrews) in absentia. The next year he successfully applied to become a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (RCPE). <mask>'s lectures

In 1730–31 <mask> delivered lectures in Edinburgh on medicine and surgery, a copy of which is in the RCPE library. His surgical background and the influence of his Rankenian friends are apparent throughout his lectures; he repeatedly emphasises the need to rely on observed rather than inferred phenomena before reaching conclusions. His philosophy of medicine based on observation and experience is very much in the tradition of Thomas Sydenham (1624–1689), the English physician who emphasised careful observation and objective characterisation of disease.The lectures provide a comprehensive account of contemporary medical, and some surgical practice but also deal with contemporary theories about nerve and muscle function. <mask> was well versed in the literature of the day and analysed the theories of James Keill (1673–1719), the Edinburgh physician and anatomist, Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) the Swiss mathematician and physician, John Mayow (1641–79), who had devised the 'gunpowder

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 theory' of muscle function. He was sceptical about the iatromechanical theories of Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) and Thomas Willis (1621–75). The lectures were documented by his pupil Robert Whytt (1714–1766) and their influence on his thinking on nerve and muscle function is apparent in Whytt's Essay on the Vital and Other Involuntary Motions of Animals published in 1751. Treatise on opium

The treatise was published as a response to an important paper on opium published in 1742 by <mask>'s Edinburgh contemporary Charles Alston (1683–1760), professor of botany and materia medica. Alston described opium's history and its preparation from poppies he had grown, the first person in Britain to have done so. <mask> took exception to Alston's conclusion that 'opium does more honour to medicine than any other remedy whatever' and counters this by emphasising the risks '...that I may prevent such mischief as I can, I here give it as my sincere opinion... that opium is a poison by which great numbers are daily destroyed.'In 41 chapters he provides a comprehensive account of the indications for the drug including its complications. True to his reputation he is critical about writers whose knowledge of the drug is based on chemical or animal experiments rather than clinical practice. The treatise is a detailed, balanced and valuable guide to prevailing knowledge and practice. <mask>'s apprentice James Hill

James Hill (1703–1776) was apprenticed to <mask> in 1723 and went on to work as a surgeon in Dumfries. In 1772 he published Cases in Surgery which was in effect an account of cases that he had treated over a working lifetime in surgery including head injuries. Hill had been taught by <mask> the

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 value of observation and the need for scepticism. Hills's series of head injuries which he had treated were the best published in the eighteenth century.Hill's ability to clinically diagnose  cerebral compression from bleeding following head injury enabled him to  treat this successfully  by directed trephine and drainage. His writing was  an important addition to the increasing understanding of the basis of the management of head injury and were being quoted 100 years after publication. Legacy

<mask> was recognised by Whytt (and presumably by other contemporaries) as a sceptic and empiric, and, in his discussions with fellow Rankenians may well have influenced the early thoughts on the doctrine of empiricism developed by David Hume and that of scepticism with which he is associated. The similarities between <mask>'s lectures and what became Hume's analysis of causation, probability, and practice are striking. His influence on Hill and Whytt was considerable and his son, <mask> became Professor of Midwifery at Edinburgh  credited with setting up, at his own expense, the first lying-in ward in Scotland in Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. <mask>'s reputation may have been damaged by his actions leading up to the divorce of his son <mask>. His philosophy is summarised in his entry in the Dictionary of eighteenth-century British philosophers.Further reading

References

Scottish medical researchers
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
18th-century Scottish medical doctors
1692 births
1757 deaths
Medical doctors from Edinburgh
Scottish surgeons
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
Scottish medical writers
Philosophers from

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<mask> (20 October 1901 – 7 November 1993) was an American-born UK-based jazz singer and entertainer. Her long career spanned more than 70 years from 1921 until her death and she was a major figure in the Harlem Renaissance. <mask> entered the Guinness Book of World Records in 2003 as the world's most enduring recording artist, having released material over eight consecutive decades. She performed with major artists such as Art Tatum, Ethel Waters, Josephine Baker, Louis Armstrong, Lena Horne, Cab Calloway, Fela Sowande, Rudy Vallee and Jools Holland, and recorded as a jazz singer with Duke Ellington (with whom she made her most famous recording, "Creole Love Call" in 1927) and with Fats Waller. Early life and marriage
<mask> was born in Brooklyn, New York, United States, to Elizabeth and <mask> in 1901. <mask> and her sister Evelyn attended the Pratt Institute, where <mask> taught piano; Evelyn died of influenza in 1918, by which time her father had also died, leaving <mask> to support herself and her mother. In 1924, <mask> married the British sailor Bertram Errol Hicks, who was born in Trinidad and Tobago.Soon after their marriage he opened a short-lived club in Harlem, New York, called "The Big Apple" and became her official business manager. American career 1921–1935
<mask> began her stage career in 1921 on Broadway in the chorus line of Noble Sissle's and Eubie Blake's musical Shuffle Along. Shuffle Along became a huge hit and propelled <mask>'s career. She went on to appear in a number of similar black musical shows, including Runnin' Wild on Broadway in 1923, in which she sang James P. Johnson's hit song

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 "Old-Fashioned Love." Chocolate Kiddies European tour, 1925

In 1925, <mask> toured Europe with the Chocolate Kiddies revue. The show included songs written by Duke Ellington. <mask> was hired to join the cast of the Chocolate Kiddies revue in New York, where they rehearsed before setting sail for Europe.The initial tour started at Hamburg, Germany, on 17 May 1925, and ended in Paris, France, in December 1925 visiting many major cities in-between. The revue was designed to give Europeans a sampling of black entertainment from New York. Included in the cast were The Three Eddies, Lottie Gee, Rufus Greenlee and Thaddeus Drayton, Bobbie and Babe Goins, Charles Davis and Sam Wooding and his Orchestra. After the initial tour disbanded, Sam Wooding and his Orchestra continued touring the Chocolate Kiddies revue for several years later. During <mask>'s visit to Germany she also sang at Berlin's renowned transvestite club, the Eldorado Café. The venue is immortalised in Christopher Isherwood's 1939 novel Goodbye to Berlin, as well as in the 1972 film Cabaret and the musical of the same name. In 1926, <mask> appeared in the short-lived Broadway musical My Magnolia, which had a score written by Luckey Roberts and Alex C. Rogers, after which she appeared in Tan Town Topics with songs written by Fats Waller.<mask> then starred in Desires of 1927 (with a score written by Andy Razaf and J. C. Johnson), which toured America from October 1926 through to September 1927. Tan Town Topics, Small's Paradise and Desires of 1927
In 1926, upon <mask>'s return to New York after touring Europe with the Chocolate Kiddies, she was featured in Tan

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texts: Town Topics, a revue containing songs written by Fats Waller and Spencer Williams. The cast included Fats Waller, Eddie Rector and Ralph Cooper, <mask>, Maude Mills, Arthur Gaines, Leondus Simmons and a dance troupe called the Tan Town Topics Vamps. The show opened at Harlem's Lafayette Theatre on 5 April followed by a short road tour on the eastern Theater Owners Booking Association (TOBA) circuit taking in Baltimore, Chicago and Philadelphia. During July 1926, <mask> appeared in residency with Lottie Gee and the Southern Syncopated Orchestra at Small's Paradise, New York. On Tuesday, 5 October, <mask> appeared again at Small's Paradise at a special party, "Handy Night", hosted by the venue to honour W. C. Handy and to celebrate the release of his newly published book Blues: An Anthology—Complete Words and Music of 53 Great Songs. For entertainment, <mask>, Lottie Gee, Maude White and Chic Collins provided a selection of jazz and blues numbers.From October 1926, <mask> toured America playing the TOBA circuit until September 1927 in the highly praised show Desires of 1927, conceived by J. Homer Tutt and produced by impresario Irvin C. Miller. As the Pittsburgh Courier noted: "<mask> and assistants have some show. Speed, pretty girls, catchy music, a touch of art, which touches the border line of nudity – the names of such well-known stage celebrities as <mask>, J. Homer Tutt, Henry "Gang" Jones, the Harmony Trio, Charles Hawkins, Arthur Porter, "Billy" McKelvey and Clarence Nance." Billed as the star "soubrette" of the show, <mask>'s performance included several songs (most notably "Sweet Virginia Bliss"), flat-foot

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 dancing and accompanying herself on the ukulele while singing. Recordings with Duke Ellington
In New York in October 1927, <mask> recorded her wordless vocals on "Creole Love Call" and "The Blues I Love To Sing" with Duke Ellington and his Orchestra, and on November 3, 1927, <mask> recorded “Chicago Stomp Down” with Duke Ellington and The Chicago Footwarmers for OKeh Records. "Creole Love Call" became a worldwide hit and catapulted both <mask>'s and Ellington's careers into the mainstream. For historical reasons the story behind "Creole Love Call"'s conception is interesting to recount: In 1927, <mask> and Duke Ellington were touring in the same show, Dance Mania.The show played several large cities before reaching New York City. In mid-November, <mask> travelled from Chicago (where she had been performing at the Sunset Café) to New York City in her Packard automobile with her husband Bert. When they arrived in New York, <mask> was approached in 7th Avenue by a reporter who enquired about her career plans. <mask>, however, declined to enlighten the reporter. Nevertheless, Miss <mask>'s reappearance in New York City garnered much speculation, as she was featured on the front pages of several newspapers, encouraging rumours she would soon be starring in a big Broadway show. In the meantime, <mask> and Ellington appeared together in Dance Mania at the Lafayette Theatre, Harlem from 14 November for one week before heading off with the show to play in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania at the Standard Theatre. In Dance Mania, <mask> closed the first half of the bill and Duke and his orchestra performed in the second half.Duke had a

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