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 court in 1793 described the emperor:
The Emperor is about five feet ten inches in height, and of a slender but elegant form; his complexion is comparatively fair, though his eyes are dark; his nose is rather aquiline, and the whole of his countenance presents a perfect regularity of feature, which, by no means, announce the great age he is said to have attained; his person is attracting, and his deportment accompanied by an affability, which, without lessening the dignity of the prince, evinces the amiable character of the man. Early years

Hongli was the fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor and was born to Noble Consort Xi. Hongli was adored by both his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor, and his father, the Yongzheng Emperor. Some historians argue that the main reason why the Kangxi Emperor appointed the Yongzheng Emperor as his successor was because Hongli was his favourite grandson. He felt that Hongli's mannerisms were very similar to his own. As a teenager, Hongli was capable in martial arts and possessed literary ability. After his father's enthronement in 1722, Hongli was made a qinwang (first-rank prince) under the title "Prince Bao of the First Rank" ().Like many of his uncles, Hongli entered into a battle of succession with his


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 elder half-brother Hongshi, who had the support of a large faction of the officials in the imperial court, as well as Yinsi, Prince Lian. For many years, the Yongzheng Emperor did not designate any of his sons as the crown prince, but many officials speculated that he favoured Hongli. Hongli went on inspection trips to the south, and was known to be an able negotiator and enforcer. He was also appointed as the chief regent on occasions when his father was away from the capital. Accession to the throne

Hongli's accession to the throne was already foreseen before he was officially proclaimed emperor before the assembled imperial court upon the death of the Yongzheng Emperor. The young Hongli was the favourite grandson of the Kangxi Emperor and the favourite son of the Yongzheng Emperor; the Yongzheng Emperor had entrusted a number of important ritual tasks to Hongli while the latter was still a prince, and included him in important court discussions of military strategy. In the hope of preventing a succession struggle from occurring, the Yongzheng Emperor wrote the name of his chosen successor on a piece of paper and placed it in a sealed box secured behind the tablet over the throne in the Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqing Palace).The


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 name in the box was to be revealed to other members of the imperial family in the presence of all senior ministers only upon the death of the emperor. When the Yongzheng Emperor died suddenly in 1735, the will was taken out and read before the entire Qing imperial court, after which Hongli became the new emperor. Hongli adopted the era name "Qianlong", which means "Lasting Eminence". Frontier wars

The <mask> Emperor was a successful military leader. Immediately after ascending the throne, he sent armies to suppress the Miao rebellion. His later campaigns greatly expanded the territory controlled by the Qing Empire. This was made possible not only by Qing military might, but also by the disunity and declining strength of the Inner Asian peoples.Under the Qianlong Emperor's reign, the Dzungar Khanate was incorporated into the Qing Empire's rule and renamed Xinjiang, while to the west, Ili was conquered and garrisoned. The incorporation of Xinjiang into the Qing Empire resulted from the final defeat and destruction of the Dzungars (or Zunghars), a coalition of Western Mongol tribes. The Qianlong Emperor then ordered the Dzungar genocide. According to the Qing dynasty scholar Wei Yuan, 40% of the 600,000 Dzungars were killed by smallpox,


texts: 20% fled to the Russian Empire or Kazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army, in what Michael Edmund Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue has argued that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of massacre launched by the Qianlong Emperor. The Dzungar genocide has been compared to the Qing extermination of the Jinchuan Tibetan people in 1776, which also occurred during the Qianlong Emperor's reign. When victorious troops returned to Beijing, a celebratory hymn was sung in their honour.A Manchu version of the hymn was recorded by the Jesuit Amoit and sent to Paris. The Qing Empire hired Zhao Yi and Jiang Yongzhi at the Military Archives Office, in their capacity as members of the Hanlin Academy, to compile works on the Dzungar campaign, such as Strategy for the pacification of the Dzungars (Pingding Zhunge'er fanglue). Poems glorifying the Qing conquest and genocide of the Dzungar Mongols were written by Zhao, who wrote the Yanpu zaji in "brush-notes" style, where military expenditures of the Qianlong Emperor's reign were recorded. The Qianlong Emperor was praised as being the source of "eighteenth-century


texts: peace and prosperity" by Zhao Yi. Khalkha Mongol rebels under Prince Chingünjav had plotted with the Dzungar leader Amursana and led a rebellion against the Qing Empire around the same time as the Dzungars. The Qing army crushed the rebellion and executed Chingünjav and his entire family. Throughout this period there were continued Mongol interventions in Tibet and a reciprocal spread of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia.After the Lhasa riot of 1750, the <mask> Emperor sent armies into Tibet and firmly established the Dalai Lama as the ruler of Tibet, with a Qing resident and garrison to preserve Qing presence. Further afield, military campaigns against Nepalese and Gurkhas forced the emperor into stalemate where both parties had to submit. On 23 January 1751, Tibetan rebels who participated in the Lhasa riot of 1750 against the Qing were sliced to death by Qing Manchu general Bandi, similar to what happened to Tibetan rebels on 1 November 1728 during his father, the Yongzheng emperor's reign. Six Tibetan rebel leaders plus Tibetan rebel leader Blo-bzan-bkra-sis were sliced to death. The rest of the Tibetan rebel leaders were strangled and beheaded and their heads were displayed to the Tibetan public on poles. The Qing seized the property of


texts: the rebels and exiled other Tibetan rebels. Manchu General Bandi sent a report to the Qing Qianlong emperor on 26 January 1751 on how he carried out the slicings and executions of the Tibetan rebels.The Tibetan rebels dBan-rgyas (Wang-chieh), Padma-sku-rje-c'os-a['el (Pa-t'e-ma-ku-erh-chi-ch'un-p'i-lo) and Tarqan Yasor (Ta-erh-han Ya-hsün) were sliced to death for injuring the Manchu ambans with arrows, bows and fowling pieces during the Lhasa riot when they assault the building the Manchu ambans (Labdon and Fucin) were in. Tibetan rebel Sacan Hasiha (Ch'e-ch'en-ha-shih-ha) was sliced to death for murder of multiple individuals. Tibetan rebels Ch'ui-mu-cha-t'e and Rab-brtan (A-la-pu-tan) were sliced to death for looting money and setting fire during the attack on the Ambans. Tibetan rebel Blo-bzan-bkra-sis, the mgron-gner was sliced to death for being the overall leader of the rebels who led the attack which looted money and killed the Manchu ambans. Two Tibetan rebels who had already died before the execution had their dead bodies beheaded, one died in jail, Lag-mgon-po (La-k'o-kun-pu) and the other killed himself since he was scared of the punishment, Pei-lung-sha-k'o-pa. Bandi sentenced to strangulation several rebel followers and


texts: bKra-sis-rab-brtan (Cha-shih-la-pu-tan) a messenger. He ordered the live beheadings of Man-chin Te-shih-nai and rDson-dpon dBan-rgyal (Ts'eng-pen Wang-cha-lo and P'yag-mdsod-pa Lha-skyabs (Shang-cho-t'e-pa La-cha-pu) for leading the attack on the building by being the first to go to on the staircase to the next floor and setting fire and carrying the straw to fuel the fire besides killing several men on orders from the rebel leader. In 1762 the Qianlong Emperor came close to war with the Afghan Amir Ahmad Shah Durrani because of Qing China's expansions in Central Asia.While Qing and Durrani empire troops were sent near the frontier in Central Asia, war did not break out. A year later, Durrani sent an envoy to Beijing gifting four splendid horses to Qianlong, which became the subject of a series of paintings, Four Afghan Steeds. However, the Afghan envoy failed to make a good impression to <mask> after refusing to perform the kowtow. <mask> later refused to intervene in the Durrani Empire's killing of the Sultan of Badakhshan, who was a vassal of Qing China. The Qianlong Emperor responded to the vassal Shan States's request for military aid against the attacking forces of Burma, but the Sino-Burmese War ended in complete failure. He

masks: Qianlong Qianlong


texts: initially believed that it would be an easy victory against a barbarian tribe, and sent only the Green Standard Army based in Yunnan, which borders Burma. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their latest invasion of the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom.Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–66 and 1766–67 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military manoeuvres nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite Manchu Bannermen nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital, Ava. However, the Manchu Bannermen of northern China could not cope with "unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases", and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close-call, King Hsinbyushin redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769.The Qing forces kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of Yunnan for about one decade in an attempt to wage


texts: another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. When Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790, the Qing government unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory. The Qianlong emperor ordered Manchu general Eledeng'e (also spelled E'erdeng'e (額爾登額) or possibly 額爾景額) to be sliced to death after his commander Mingrui was defeated at the Battle of Maymyo in the Sino-Burmese war in 1768 because Eledeng'i was not able to help flank Mingrui when he did not arrive at a rendezvous. The circumstances in Vietnam were not successful either. In 1787, Lê Chiêu Thống, the last ruler of the Vietnamese Lê dynasty, fled from Vietnam and formally requested to be restored to his throne in Thăng Long (present-day Hanoi). The <mask> Emperor agreed and sent a large army into Vietnam to remove the Tây Sơn (rebels who had captured all of Vietnam). The capital, Thăng Long, was conquered in 1788, but a few months later the Qing army was defeated, and the invasion turned into a debacle due to the surprise attack during Tết (Vietnamese New Year) by Nguyễn Huệ, the second and most capable of the three Tây Sơn brothers.The Qing Empire no longer supported Lê Chiêu Thống, and his family were imprisoned


texts: in Vietnam. The Qing would not intervene in Vietnam for another 90 years. Despite setbacks in the south, overall the Qianlong Emperor's military expansion nearly doubled the area of the already vast Qing Empire, and unified many non-Han peoples—such as Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Evenks and Mongols. It was also a very expensive enterprise; the funds in the Imperial Treasury were almost all put into military expeditions. Though the wars were successful, they were not overwhelmingly so. The Qing army declined noticeably and had a difficult time facing some enemies: the campaign against the Jinchuan hill peoples took 2 to 3 years—at first the Qing army were mauled, though Yue Zhongqi (a descendant of Yue Fei) later took control of the situation. The battle with the Dzungars was closely fought, and caused heavy losses on both sides.The Ush rebellion in 1765 by Uyghur Muslims against the Manchus occurred after Uyghur women were gang raped by the servants and son of Manchu official Sucheng. It was said that Ush Muslims had long wanted to sleep on [Sucheng and son's] hides and eat their flesh because of the rape of Uyghur Muslim women for months by the Manchu official Sucheng and his son. The Manchu <mask> Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel


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 town be massacred, the Qing forces enslaved all the Uyghur children and women and slaughtered the Uyghur men. Manchu soldiers and Manchu officials regularly having sex with or raping Uyghur women caused massive hatred and anger against Manchu rule among Uyghur Muslims. The invasion by Jahangir Khoja was preceded by another Manchu official, Binjing, who raped a Muslim daughter of the Kokan aqsaqal from 1818 to 1820. The Qing sought to cover up the rape of Uyghur women by Manchus to prevent anger against their rule from spreading among the Uyghurs. At the end of the frontier wars, the Qing army had started to weaken significantly.In addition to a more lenient military system, warlords became satisfied with their lifestyles. Since most of the warring had already taken place, warlords no longer saw any reason to train their armies, resulting in a rapid military decline by the end of the Qianlong Emperor's reign. This was the main reason for the Qing military's failure to suppress the White Lotus Rebellion, which started towards the end of the Qianlong Emperor's reign and extended into the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor. Cultural achievements

The Qianlong Emperor, like his predecessors, took his cultural role seriously. First, he worked to


texts: preserve the Manchu heritage, which he saw as the basis of the moral character of the Manchus and thus of the dynasty's power. He ordered the compilation of Manchu language genealogies, histories, and ritual handbooks and in 1747 secretly ordered the compilation of the [[Shamanism in the Qing dynasty#The Shamanic Code" of 1747|Shamanic Code]], published later in the Siku Quanshu. He further solidified the dynasty's cultural and religious claims in Central Asia by ordering a replica of the Tibetan Potala Palace, the Putuo Zongcheng Temple, to be built on the grounds of the imperial summer palace in Chengde.In order to present himself to Tibetans and Mongols in Buddhist rather than in Confucian terms, he commissioned a thangka, or sacred painting, depicting him as Manjushri, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom. He also was a poet and essayist. His collected writings, which he published in a tenfold series between 1749 and 1800, contain more that 40,000 poems and 1,300 prose texts, which if he had composed them all would make him one of the most prolific writers of all time. The <mask> Emperor was a major patron and important "preserver and restorer" of Confucian culture. He had an insatiable appetite for collecting, and acquired much of China's


texts: "great private collections" by any means necessary, and "reintegrated their treasures into the imperial collection." He formed a team of cultural advisers to help locate collections of merchant families who needed to sell or whose heirs had lost interest. He sometimes pressured or forced wealthy officials to surrender precious objects by offering to excuse shortcomings in their performance if they made a certain "gift".On several occasions he claimed that a painting could be secure from theft or fire only if it was taken into the Forbidden City. The Emperor's massive art collection became an intimate part of his life; he took landscape paintings with him on his travels to compare them with the actual landscapes, or to hang them in special rooms in palaces where he lodged, in order to inscribe them on every visit there. "He also regularly added poetic inscriptions to the paintings of the imperial collection, following the example of the emperors of the Song dynasty and the literati painters of the Ming dynasty. They were a mark of distinction for the work, and a visible sign of his rightful role as emperor. Most particular to the Qianlong Emperor is another type of inscription, revealing a unique practice of dealing with works of art


texts: that he seems to have developed for himself. On certain fixed occasions over a long period he contemplated a number of paintings or works of calligraphy which possessed special meaning for him, inscribing each regularly with mostly private notes on the circumstances of enjoying them, using them almost as a diary." In particular, the Qianlong Emperor housed within the Hall of Three Rarities (Sanxitang), a small chamber within the Hall of Mental Cultivation, three calligraphy works: “Timely Clearing After Snowfall” by Wang Xizhi, from the Jin Dynasty, “Mid-Autumn” by his son Wang Xianzhi, and “Letter to Boyuan” by Wang Xun.Most of the several thousand jade items in the imperial collection date from his reign. The Emperor was also particularly interested in collecting ancient bronzes, bronze mirrors and seals," in addition to pottery, [ceramics and applied arts such as enameling, metal work and lacquer work, which flourished during his reign; a substantial part of his collection is in the Percival David Foundation in London. The Victoria and Albert Museum and British Museum also have collections of art from the Qianlong era. One of his grandest projects was to assemble a team of scholars to assemble, edit, and print the largest collection


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 ever made of Chinese philosophy, history, and literature." Known as the Four Treasuries Project (or Siku Quanshu), it was published in 36,000 volumes, containing about 3,450 complete works and employing as many as 15,000 copyists. It preserved numerous books, but was also intended as a way to ferret out and suppress political opponents, requiring the "careful examination of private libraries to assemble a list of around eleven thousand works from the past, of which about a third were chosen for publication. The works not included were either summarised or—in a good many cases—scheduled for destruction."Burning of books and modification of texts

Some 2,300 works were listed for total suppression and another 350 for partial suppression. The aim was to destroy the writings that were anti-Qing or rebellious, that insulted previous "barbarian" dynasties, or that dealt with frontier or defence problems. The full editing of the Siku Quanshu was completed in about ten years; during these ten years, 3,100 titles (or works), about 150,000 copies of books were either burnt or banned. Of those volumes that had been categorised into the Siku Quanshu, many were subjected to deletion and modification. Books published during the Ming dynasty suffered


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 the greatest damage. The authority would judge any single character or any single sentence's neutrality; if the authority had decided these words, or sentence, were derogatory or cynical towards the rulers, then persecution would begin. In the Qianlong Emperor's time, there were 53 cases of Literary Inquisition, resulting in the victims executed by beheading or slow slicing (lingchi), or having their corpses mutilated (if they were already dead).Literary works
In 1743, after his first visit to Mukden (present-day Shenyang, Liaoning), the Qianlong Emperor used Chinese to write his "Ode to Mukden," (Shengjing fu/Mukden-i fujurun bithe), a fu in classical style, as a poem of praise to Mukden, at that point a general term for what was later called Manchuria, describing its beauties and historical values. He describes the mountains and wildlife, using them to justify his belief that the dynasty would endure. A Manchu translation was then made. In 1748, he ordered a jubilee printing in both Chinese and Manchu, using some genuine pre-Qin forms, but Manchu styles which had to be invented and which could not be read. Languages
In his childhood, the Qianlong Emperor was tutored in Manchu, Chinese and Mongolian, arranged to be tutored in Tibetan,


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 and spoke Chagatai (Turki or Modern Uyghur). However, he was even more concerned than his predecessors to preserve and promote the Manchu language among his followers, as he proclaimed that "the keystone for Manchus is language." He commissioned new Manchu dictionaries, and directed the preparation of the Pentaglot Dictionary which gave equivalents for Manchu terms in Mongolian, Tibetan and Turkic, and had the Buddhist canon translated into Manchu, which was considered the "national language".He directed the elimination of loanwords taken from Chinese and replaced them with calque translations which were put into new Manchu dictionaries. Manchu translations of Chinese works during his reign were direct translations contrasted with Manchu books translated during the Kangxi Emperor's reign which were transliterations in Manchu script of the Chinese characters. The Qianlong Emperor commissioned the Qin ding Xiyu Tongwen Zhi (欽定西域同文志; "Imperial Western Regions Thesaurus") which was a thesaurus of geographic names in Xinjiang in Oirat Mongol, Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, and Turki (Modern Uyghur). Tibetan Buddhism

The Qianlong Emperor showed a personal belief in Tibetan Buddhism, following the tradition of Manchu rulers associating with the


texts: Bodhisattva Manjusri. He continued their patronage of Tibetan Buddhist art and ordered translations of the Buddhist canon into Manchu. Court records and Tibetan language sources affirm his personal commitment. He learned to read Tibetan and studied Buddhist texts assiduously.His beliefs are reflected in the Tibetan Buddhist imagery of his tomb, perhaps the most personal and private expression of an emperor's life. He supported the Yellow Church (the Tibetan Buddhist Gelukpa sect) to "maintain peace among the Mongols" since the Mongols were followers of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama of the Yellow Church. He also said it was "merely in pursuance of Our policy of extending Our affection to the weak" which led him to patronize the Yellow Church. In 1744 he turned the Palace of Harmony (Yonghe Palace) into a Tibetan Buddhist temple for Mongols. To explain the practical reasons for supporting the "Yellow Hats" Tibetan Buddhists  and to deflect Han Chinese criticism, had the "Lama Shuo" stele engraved in Tibetan, Mongol, Manchu and Chinese, which said: "By patronizing the Yellow Church, we maintain peace among the Mongols. This being an important task we cannot but protect this (religion). (In doing so) we do not show any bias, nor do we


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 wish to adulate the Tibetan priests as (was done during the) Yuan dynasty."Berger 2003, p. 35. Mark Elliott concludes that these actions delivered political benefits but "meshed seamlessly with his personal faith." Anti-Islam laws
Qing policy on Muslims and Islam was changed during the reign of the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors. While the Kangxi emperors proclaimed Muslims and Han to be equal, his grandson the Manchu Qianlong emperor endorsed Han officials harsh recommendations towards treatment of Muslims. The Kangxi emperor said that Muslim and Han Chinese were equal when people argued for Muslims to be treated differently. The Qing Yongzheng emperor held the opinion that Islam was foolish, but he felt it did not pose a threat when a judge in Shandong petitioned him to destroy mosques and ban Islam. Yongzheng then fired an official for demanding Muslims be punished more harshly than non-Muslims.This policy changed in the reign of the Qianlong emperor. Chen Hongmou, a Qing official, said that Muslims needed to be brought to law and order by being punished more harshly and blaming Muslim leaders for criminal behavior of Muslims in a letter to the Board of Punishments called Covenant to Instruct and Admonish Muslims that he


texts: wrote in 1751. Although the Board of Punishment did nothing, the Shaanxi-Gansu Governor-General in 1762 then proceeded to implement his recommendation and had Muslim criminals punished severely more than Han Chinese ones. He also implemented the policy that the criminal deeds of Muslim congregants of Mosques ended up with their Imams being punished and held responsible for them. These anti-Muslim policies by the governor general received endorsement from the Manchu Qianlong emperor. Great changes happening to Chinese Muslims, like the introduction of a Sufi order, the Naqshbandiyya to the Hui, causing the Qianlong emperor to adopt this harsh attitude against Muslims in contrast to his grandfather and father. This led to larger connections between the Hui and the broader Islamic world from the west, as the Naqshbandiyya order came east to the Hui when Hui scholars in Suzhou were converted to Naqshbandiyya by Muhammad Yusuf Khoja.Afaq Khoja, Muhammad Yusuf's son, also further spread Naqshbandi orders among Chinese Muslims like Tibetan Muslims, Salars, Hui and other Muslim ethnicities in Hezhou, Gansu (now Linxia) and Xining in Qinghai and Lanzhou. Ma Laichi was the leader of one of these orders and he personally studied in the Islamic


texts: world in Bukhara to learn Sufism, and Yemen and in Mecca where he was taught by Mawlana Makhdum. This brought him prestige among Chinese Muslims. In an argument over the breaking of fast during Ramadan Ma Laichi said that before praying in the mosque, fast should be broken, not vice versa and this led to him getting many Naqshbandi converts from Hui and Turkic Salars. It came to court in 1731 when the Muslims arguing over how to break Ramadan fast filed lawsuits. The Muslim plaintiffs were told by the Qing authorities at the court to resolve them themselves, as the legal authorities who had no idea about Ramadan fasting. The dispute was not solved and continued to go on and was compounded by even more disputes like how to perform dhikr in Sufism, in a jahri (vocal) as taught by Ma Mingxin, another Sufi who learned in the western Islamic lands like Bukhara, or khufi (silent) like what Ma Laichi did.The Zabid Naqshbandiyyas in Yemen taught Ma Mingxin for two decades. They taught vocal dhikr. Ma Mingxin was also affected by another series of events in the Middle Eastern Muslim world, revivalist movements among Muslims like the Saudis who allied with Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. This renewal tajdid influenced Ma Mingxin in Yemen. While Ma


texts: Mingxin was in Yemen and away from China, all of Muslim Inner Asia was conquered by the "infidel" Qing dynasty giving even more relevance to his situation and views. Ma Laichi and Ma Mingxin again sued each other in court but this second time the Qing passed a verdict in favor of the quiet dhikr faction, the Silentist Khafiyya of Ma Laichi and gave it the status of orthodoxy while damning as heterodox the Aloudist Jahriyya of Ma Mingxin. Ma Mingxin ignored the order and kept proselytizing in Shaanxi, Ningxia and Xinjiang going to Guangchuan from Hezhou in 1769 after being kicked out and banned from Xunhua district.Turkic Salars in Xunhua followed his orders even after the Qing banned him from there and he continued to have further lawsuits and legal issues with the Khafiyya and Ma Laichi as the Qing backed the Khafiyya. A violent battle where a Qing official and Khafiyya followers were among one hundred slaughtered by a Jahriyya assault headed by Su Forty-three, a supporter of Ma Mingxin in 1781 led to Ma Mingxin declared a rebel and taken to jail in Lanzhou. The Qing executed Ma Mingxin after his release was demanded by the armed followers of Su Forty-three. A Jahriyya rebellion all over northwest China ensued after Ma Mingxin was


texts: executed. In response, the Manchus in Beijing sent Manchu Grand Secretary Agui with a battalion to slaughter Jahriyya chiefs and exile the adherents of the Sufi order to the border regions. Tian Wu led another Jahriyya rebellion 3 years after that, which was crushed by the Qing, and the Ma Datian, the Jahriyya's 3rd leader was exiled to Manchuria in 1818 by the Qing and died. This continual build up of conflict between Muslims and the Qing court led to the 19th century full-scale wars with Muslim rebellions against the Qing in southern and northern China.The change in Manchu attitudes towards Muslims, from tolerating Muslims and regarding them as equal to Han Chinese, before the 1760s, to the violence between the Qing state and Muslims after the 1760s, was due to progressive Qing involvement in the conflict between the Sufi orders Jahriyya and Khafiyya making it no longer possible for the Qing to keep up with the early rhetoric of Muslim equality. The Manchu court under <mask> began approving and implementing Chen Hongmou's anti-Muslim laws that targeted Muslims for practicing their religion and the violence by the Qing state, the communal violence between Jahriyya and Khafiyya coincided with the Jahriyya's major expansion. Chen


texts: Hongmou's policies were implemented as laws in 1762 by the Qing government's Board of Punishments and the Qing Manchu Qianlong emperor leading to severe tensions with Muslims. State authorities were mandated to receive all reports of Muslim criminal behaviour by local officials and all criminal behaviour by Muslims had to be reported by Muslim leaders to Qing authorities under these laws. This led to an inundation of anti-Muslim reports filing in Qing offices as the Qing court received information that Muslims were inherently violent and Muslim bandits were committing crimes as report after report were filed by local officials and Muslim crimes inundated court records. The Qing became even more anti-Muslim after receiving these reports about criminal behavior and started passing even more anti-Muslim laws one of them being that if any weapon was found in a group of 3 or more Muslims all of those Muslims would by sentenced as criminals by the Qing. A new criminal category or act, brawling (dou'ou) was designated by the Qing Manchu court of the Manchu Qianlong emperor in the 1770s especially as an anti-Muslim measure to arrest Muslims leading to even non-Jahriyya Muslims to join with Jahriyya against the Qing and leading the Qing court to


texts: be even more anti-Muslim, apprehensive of anti-Qing rebellion by Muslims.This led to the execution of Ma Mingxin in 1781 and the rebellion and violence was compounded by lack of Qing intelligence. A Qing official who was tasked with ending the Jahriyya and Khafiyya communal violence mistakenly thought the people he were talking to were Khafiyya when they were in fact Jahriyya, and he told them that the Qing would massacre all Jahriyya adherents. This led to him being murdered by the Jahriyya mob, which led to the Qing sending Manchu Grand Secretary Agui on a full scale pacification crackdown campaign against the Jahriyya. The military victory of the Qing against the Jahriyya led to even more Jahriyya anger. Officials went overboard in massacring Muslims deemed as state enemies to impress the Qing court, leading to further growth in Jahriyya membership, leading in turn to the 1784 rebellion by Tian Wu. The Qianlong emperor asked his minister what was going on as he was puzzled as to how the Muslims from many regions gathered together for revolt. He asked if the investigation of Muslim behavior b y Li Shiyao got leaked leading to rebels to incite violence by telling Muslims the government would exterminate them.He then pondered and said


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 none of these could be why and kept asking why. To solve the issue of the 1784 revolt, northwestern China was put under military occupation by the Qing for 50 years until the Taiping rebellion of southern China forced the Qing to move them away from northwest China leading to the massive 1860s and 1870s Muslim revolts in the northwest caused by growing violence. The sudden questions about Halal in Islam that Mongol Buddhists had in the 18th century was caused by all these things, northwestern China right next to Mongolia getting militarized, the Qing government officially declaring Muslims to be anti-Qing and violent and revivalist Islam coming to China

Christianity
Persecution of Christians by Yongzheng became even worse during the Qianlong reign. Palaces

The Qianlong Emperor was an aggressive builder. In the hills northwest of Beijing, he expanded the villa known as the "Garden of Perfect Brightness" (Yuanmingyuan) (now known as the Old Summer Palace) originally built by his father. He eventually added two new villas, the "Garden of Eternal Spring" and the "Elegant Spring Garden". In time, the Old Summer Palace would encompass , five times larger than the Forbidden City.To celebrate the 60th birthday of his mother, Empress Dowager


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 Chongqing, the Qianlong Emperor ordered a lake at the "Garden of Clear Ripples" (Qingyiyuan) (now known as the Summer Palace) dredged, named it Kunming Lake, and renovated a villa on the eastern shore of the lake. The Qianlong Emperor also expanded the imperial summer palace in Rehe Province, beyond the Great Wall. Rehe eventually became effectively a third capital and it was at Rehe that the Qianlong Emperor held court with various Mongol nobles. The emperor also spent time at the Mulan hunting grounds north of Rehe, where he held the imperial hunt each year. European styles
For the Old Summer Palace, the Qianlong Emperor commissioned the Italian Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione for the construction of the Xiyang Lou, or Western-style mansion, to satisfy his taste for exotic buildings and objects. He also commissioned the French Jesuit Michel Benoist, to design a series of timed waterworks and fountains complete with underground machinery and pipes, for the amusement of the imperial family. The French Jesuit Jean Denis Attiret also became a painter for the emperor.Jean-Damascène Sallusti was also a court painter. He co-designed, with Castiglione and Ignatius Sichelbart, the Battle Copper Prints. Other architecture
During the Qianlong


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 Emperor's reign, the Emin Minaret was built in Turpan to commemorate Emin Khoja, a Uyghur leader from Turfan who submitted to the Qing Empire as a vassal in order to obtain assistance from the Qing to fight the Zunghars. Descendants of the Ming dynasty's imperial family
In 1725, the Yongzheng Emperor bestowed a hereditary marquis title on a descendant of Zhu Zhilian, a descendant of the imperial family of the Ming dynasty. Zhu was also paid by the Qing government to perform rituals at the Ming tombs and induct the Chinese Plain White Banner into the Eight Banners. Zhu was posthumously awarded the title "Marquis of Extended Grace" in 1750, and the title was passed on for 12 generations in his family until the end of the Qing dynasty. However, it has been argued that Zhu Zhilian, in fact, had no relation to the imperial family at all.Banner system

The <mask> Emperor instituted a policy of "Manchu-fying" the Eight Banner system, which was the basic military and social organisation of the dynasty. In the early Qing era, Nurhaci and Huangtaiji categorised Manchu and Han ethnic identity within the Eight Banners based on culture, lifestyle and language, instead of ancestry or genealogy. Han Bannermen were an important part of the Banner


texts: System. The <mask> Emperor changed this definition to one of descent, and demobilised many Han Bannermen and urged Manchu Bannermen to protect their cultural heritage, language and martial skills. The emperor redefined the identity of Han Bannermen by saying that they were to be regarded as of having the same culture and being of the same ancestral extraction as Han civilians Conversely, he emphasised the martial side of Manchu culture and reinstituted the practice of the annual imperial hunt as begun by his grandfather, leading contingents from the Manchu and Mongol banners to the Mulan hunting grounds each autumn to test and improve their skills. The Qianlong Emperor's view of the Han Bannermen also differed from that of his grandfather in deciding that loyalty in itself was most important quality. He sponsored biographies which depicted Chinese Bannermen who defected from the Ming to the Qing as traitors and glorifying Ming loyalists.Some of the Qianlong Emperor's inclusions and omissions on the list of traitors were political in nature. Some of these actions were including Li Yongfang (out of his dislike for Li Yongfang's descendant, Li Shiyao) and excluding Ma Mingpei (out of concern for his son Ma Xiongzhen's image). The


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 identification and interchangeability between "Manchu" and "Banner people" (Qiren) began in the 17th century. Banner people were differentiated from civilians (Chinese: minren, Manchu: irgen, or Chinese: Hanren, Manchu :Nikan) and the term Bannermen was becoming identical with "Manchu" in the general perception. The Qianlong Emperor referred to all Bannermen as Manchu, and Qing laws did not say "Manchu", but "Bannermen". Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 抚顺尼堪 (Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor.It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans. Anti-gun measures
The Solons were ordered by the <mask> Emperor to stop using rifles and instead practice traditional archery. The emperor issued an edict for silver taels to be issued for guns turned over to the


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 government. Chinese political identity and frontier policy
The Qianlong Emperor and his predecessors, since the Shunzhi Emperor, had identified China and the Qing Empire as the same, and in treaties and diplomatic papers the Qing Empire called itself "China". The Qianlong Emperor rejected earlier ideas that only Han could be subjects of China and only Han land could be considered as part of China, so he redefined China as multiethnic, saying in 1755 that "there exists a view of China (zhongxia), according to which non-Han people cannot become China's subjects and their land cannot be integrated into the territory of China. This does not represent our dynasty's understanding of China, but is instead that of the earlier Han, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties."The <mask> Emperor rejected the views of Han officials who said Xinjiang was not part of China and that he should not conquer it, putting forth the view that China was multiethnic and did not just refer to Han. The Qianlong Emperor compared his achievements with that of the Han and Tang ventures into Central Asia. Han settlement
Han Chinese farmers were resettled from north China by the Qing government in the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation.


texts: Wasteland was reclaimed by Han squatters in addition to other Han people who rented land from Manchu landlords. Despite officially prohibiting Han settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing government decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. Due to this, Han people farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s. The <mask> Emperor allowed Han peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite him issuing edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776.Han tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area. Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, the path linking Jinzhou, Fengtian, Tieling, Changchun, Hulun, and Ningguta was settled by Han people during the <mask> Emperor's reign, and Han people were the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800. To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing government sold lands along the Sungari which were previously exclusively for Manchus to Han Chinese at the beginning of the Daoguang Emperor's reign, and Han people


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 filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s, according to Abbé Huc. Later years

In his later years, the Qianlong Emperor became spoiled with power and glory, disillusioned and complacent in his reign, and started placing his trust in corrupt officials such as Yu Minzhong and Heshen. As Heshen was the highest ranked minister and most favoured by the Qianlong Emperor at the time, the day-to-day governance of the country was left in his hands, while the emperor himself indulged in the arts, luxuries and literature. When Heshen was executed by the Jiaqing Emperor, the Qing government discovered that Heshen's personal fortune exceeded that of the Qing Empire's depleted treasury, amounting to 900 million silver taels, the total of 12 years of Treasury surplus of the Qing imperial court. The Qianlong Emperor began his reign with about 33.95 million silver taels in Treasury surplus.At the peak of his reign, around 1775, even with further tax cuts, the treasury surplus still reached 73.9 million silver taels, a record unmatched by his predecessors, the Kangxi and Yongzheng emperors, both of whom had implemented remarkable tax cut policies. However, due to numerous factors such as long term embezzlement and corruption by officials, frequent


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 expeditions to the south, huge palace constructions, many war and rebellion campaigns as well as his own extravagant lifestyle, all of these cost the treasury a total of 150.2 million silver taels. This, coupled with his senior age and the lack of political reforms, ushered the beginning of the gradual decline and eventual demise of the Qing Empire, casting a shadow over his glorious and brilliant political life. Macartney Embassy

During the mid-18th century, European powers began to pressure for increases in the already burgeoning foreign trade and for outposts on the Chinese coast, demands which the aging Qianlong emperor resisted. In 1793 King George III sent a large-scale delegation to present their requests directly to the emperor in Beijing, headed by George Macartney, one of the country's most seasoned diplomats. The British sent a sample of trade goods that they intended to sell in China; this was misinterpreted as tribute that was adjudged to be of low quality. Historians both in China and abroad long presented the failure of the mission to achieve its goals as a symbol of China's refusal to change and inability to modernize.They explain the refusal first on the fact that interaction with foreign kingdoms was limited to


texts: neighbouring tributary states. Furthermore, the worldviews on the two sides were incompatible, China holding entrenched beliefs that China was the "central kingdom". However, after the publication in the 1990s of a fuller range of archival documents concerning the visit, these claims have been challenged. One historian characterized the emperor and his court as "clearly clever and competent political operators", and concluded that they acted within the formal Qing claims to universal rule; they reacted prudently to reports of British expansion in India by placating the British with unspecified promises in order to avoid military conflicts and loss of trade. Macartney was granted an audience with the Qianlong Emperor on two days, the second of which coincided with the emperor's 82nd birthday. There is continued debate about the nature of the audience and what level of ceremonials were performed. Macartney wrote that he resisted demands that the British trade ambassadors kneel and perform the kowtow and debate continues as to what exactly occurred, differing opinions recorded by Qing courtiers and British delegates.<mask> gave Macartney a letter for the British king stating the reasons that he would not grant Macartney's


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 requests:

Yesterday your Ambassador petitioned my Ministers to memorialise me regarding your trade with China, but his proposal is not consistent with our dynastic usage and cannot be entertained. Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country's barbarian merchants, have carried on their trade with our Celestial Empire at Canton. Such has been the procedure for many years, although our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders. Your request for a small island near Chusan, where your merchants may reside and goods be warehoused, arises from your desire to develop trade... Consider, moreover, that England is not the only barbarian land which wishes to establish... trade with our Empire: supposing that other nations were all to imitate your evil example and beseech me to present them each and all with a site for trading purposes, how could I possibly comply? This also is a flagrant infringement of the usage of my Empire and cannot possibly be entertained. Hitherto, the barbarian merchants of Europe have had a definite locality assigned to them at Aomen for residence and trade, and have been forbidden to encroach an inch beyond the limits assigned to that


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 locality....If these restrictions were withdrawn, friction would inevitably occur between the Chinese and your barbarian subjects... Regarding your nation's worship of the Lord of Heaven, it is the same religion as that of other European nations. Ever since the beginning of history, sage Emperors and wise rulers have bestowed on China a moral system and inculcated a code, which from time immemorial has been religiously observed by the myriads of my subjects. There has been no hankering after heterodox doctrines. Even the European (missionary) officials in my capital are forbidden to hold intercourse with Chinese subjects... The letter was unknown to the public until 1914, when it was translated, then later used as a symbol of China's refusal to modernize. Macartney's conclusions in his memoirs were widely quoted:

The Empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of able and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past, and to overawe their neighbours merely by her bulk and appearance.But whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may, perhaps, not sink outright; she may drift some


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 time as a wreck, and will then be dashed to pieces on the shore; but she can never be rebuilt on the old bottom. Titsingh Embassy
A Dutch embassy arrived at the Qianlong Emperor's court in 1795, which would turn out to be the last time any European appeared before the Qing imperial court within the context of traditional Chinese imperial foreign relations. Representing Dutch and Dutch East India Company interests, Isaac Titsingh traveled to Beijing in 1794–95 for celebrations of the 60th anniversary of the Qianlong Emperor's reign. The Titsingh delegation also included the Dutch-American Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest, whose detailed description of this embassy to the Qing court was soon after published in the United States and Europe. Titsingh's French translator, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes, published his own account of the Titsingh mission in 1808. Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France provided an alternate perspective and a useful counterpoint to other reports that were then circulating.Titsingh himself died before he could publish his version of events. In contrast to Macartney, Isaac Titsingh, the Dutch and VOC emissary in 1795 did not refuse to kowtow. In the year following Mccartney's rebuff, Titsingh and his


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 colleagues were much feted by the Chinese because of what was construed as seemly compliance with conventional court etiquette. Abdication
In October 1795, the Qianlong Emperor officially announced that in the spring of the following year he would voluntarily abdicate and pass the throne to his son. It was said that the Qianlong Emperor had made a promise during the year of his ascension not to rule longer than his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor, who had reigned for 61 years. The Qianlong Emperor anticipated moving out of the Hall of Mental Cultivation (Yangxindian) in the Forbidden City. The hall had been conventionally dedicated for the exclusive use of the reigning sovereign, and in 1771 the emperor ordered the beginning of construction on what was ostensibly intended as his retirement residence in another part of the Forbidden City: a lavish, two-acre walled retreat called the "Palace of Tranquil Longevity (Ningshou Palace)", which is today more commonly known as the "Qianlong Garden".The complex, completed in 1776, is currently undergoing a ten-year restoration led by the Palace Museum in Beijing and the World Monuments Fund (WMF). The first of the restored apartments, the Qianlong Emperor's Juanqinzhai, or "Studio of Exhaustion


texts:
 From Diligent Service," began an exhibition tour of the United States in 2010. The Qianlong Emperor relinquished the throne at the age of 85, after almost 61 years on the throne, to his son, the 36-year-old Jiaqing Emperor, in 1796. For the next three years, he held the title "Taishang Huang (or Emperor Emeritus)" (太上皇) even though he continued to hold on to power and the Jiaqing Emperor ruled only in name. He never moved into his retirement suites in the Qianlong Garden. He died in 1799.Palace Museum: Jiaqing Emperor (嘉庆皇帝)

Legends

A legend, popularised in fiction, says that the Qianlong Emperor was the son of Chen Shiguan (陳世倌), a Han Chinese official from Haining County, Zhejiang Province. In his choice of heir to the throne, the Kangxi Emperor required not only that the heir be able to govern the empire well but that the heir's son be of no less calibre, thus ensuring the Manchus' everlasting reign over China.The son of Yinzhen, the Kangxi Emperor's fourth son, was a weakling so Yinzhen surreptitiously arranged for his daughter to be exchanged for Chen Shiguan's son, who became the favourite grandson of the Kangxi Emperor. Yinzhen succeeded his father and became the Yongzheng Emperor, while his "son", Hongli, succeeded him in


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 turn as the Qianlong Emperor. During his reign, the <mask> Emperor went on inspection tours to southern China and stayed in Chen Shiguan's house in Haining, where he wrote calligraphy. He also frequently issued imperial edicts to waive off taxes from Haining County. However, there are major problems with this story. First, the Yongzheng Emperor's eldest surviving son, Hongshi, was only seven when Hongli was born, far too young to make the drastic choice of replacing a child of imperial birth with an outsider (and risking disgrace if not death). Second, the Yongzheng Emperor had three other princes who survived to adulthood and had the potential to ascend the throne.Indeed, since Hongshi was the son forced to commit suicide, it would have been far more logical for him to be the adopted son, if any of them were. Stories about the Qianlong Emperor's six inspection tours to southern China in disguise as a commoner have been a popular topic for many generations. In total, he visited southern China six times – the same number of times as his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor. Family
Empress

 Empress Xiaoxianchun (孝賢純皇后) of the Fuca Clan (富察氏)Titles: Main Consort of the Fourth Prince (皇四子嫡福晋) → Princess Consort Bao of the First Rank (寶亲王妃) →


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 Empress (皇后) → Empress Xiaoxian (孝賢皇后) → Empress Xiaoxianchun (孝賢純皇后) First daughter (3 November 1728 – 14 February 1730)
 Yonglian, Crown Prince Duanhui (端慧皇太子 永璉; 9 August 1730 – 23 November 1738), second son
 Princess Hejing of the First Rank (固倫和敬公主; 31 July 1731 – 30 September 1792), third daughter. Married Septeng Baljur (色布騰巴爾珠爾; d. 1775) of the Khorchin Borjigit clan in April/May 1747, and had issue: one son, four daughters. Yongcong, Prince Zhe of the First Rank (哲親王 永琮; 27 May 1746 – 29 January 1748), seventh son

 Empress of the Nara clan (皇后 那拉氏; 11 March 1718 – 19 August 1766). She is the only Qing Empress who did not receive a posthumous name.Her maiden clan is a matter of debate, either Ula-nara or Hoifa-nara.Titles: Side Consort of the Fourth Prince (皇四子側福晉) → Side Consort of Prince Bao of the First Rank (寶亲侧妃) → Consort Xian (嫻妃) → Noble Consort Xian (嫻貴妃) → Imperial Noble Consort (皇貴妃) → Empress (皇后)
 Yongqi, Prince of the Third Rank (貝勒 永璂; 7 June 1752 – 17 March 1776), 12th son
 Fifth daughter (23 July 1753 – 1 June 1755)
 Yongjing (永璟; 22 January 1756 – 7 September 1757), 13th son

Empress Xiaoyichun (孝儀純皇后) of the Weigiya (魏佳) ClanTitles: Noble Lady (貴人) → Imperial Concubine Ling (令嬪) → Consort Ling (令妃) → Noble


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 Consort Ling (令貴妃) → Imperial Noble Consort (皇貴妃) → Imperial Noble Consort Lingyi (令懿皇貴妃) → Empress Xiaoyi (孝儀皇后) → Empress Xiaoyichun (孝儀純皇后)
 Princess Hejing of the First Rank (固倫和靜公主; 10 August 1756 – 9 February 1775), seventh daughter. Married Lhawang Dorji (拉旺多爾濟; 1754–1816) of the Khalkha Borjigit clan in August/September 1770
 Yonglu (永璐; 31 August 1757 – 3 May 1760), 14th son
 Princess Heke of the Second Rank (和碩和恪公主; 17 August 1758 – 14 December 1780), ninth daughter. Married Fulong'an (福隆安; 1746–1784) of the Manchu Fuca clan on 10 May 1760, and had issue (one son). Married Fengšeninde (丰紳殷德; 1775–1810) of the Manchu Niohuru clan on 12 January 1790, and had issue (one son). Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France. Paris. Hall, D.G.E.(1960). Burma (3rd edition ed.). Hutchinson University Library. .

 Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737–1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents. London : John Murray. [digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, "China Through Western


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 Eyes." van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus.(1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1795. Philadelphia: M.L.E. Moreau de Saint-Méry. Van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1798). An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795, Vol.I. London : R. Phillips. [digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, "China Through Western Eyes." Further reading
 Chang, Michael (2007). A court on horseback: imperial touring & the construction of Qing rule, 1680–1785. Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center. Ho Chuimei, Bennet Bronson. Splendors of China's Forbidden City: The Glorious Reign of Emperor <mask>.(London: Merrell, in association with The Field Museum, Chicago, 2004). .
 Kahn, Harold L. Monarchy in the Emperor's Eyes: Image and Reality in the Ch'ien-Lung Reign. (Cambridge, Mass.,: Harvard University Press, Harvard East Asian Series, 59, 1971). .
 Kuhn, Philip A. Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990). (alk. paper). James A. Millward, Ruth W. Dunnell, Mark C. Elliot and Philippe


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 Foret. ed., New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde.''(London; New York: Routledge, 2004). .
 Nancy Berliner, "The Emperor's Private Paradise: Treasures from the Forbidden City" (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2010) . External links

1711 births
1799 deaths
18th-century Chinese monarchs
Monarchs who abdicated
Qing dynasty emperors
Yongzheng Emperor's sons
Genocide perpetrators
Anti-Christian sentiment in Asia
Qing dynasty Buddhists
Chinese Buddhist


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Captain <mask>,  (2 February 1885 – 2 February 1966), also known as Hew Stoker and commonly credited in films as H. G<mask>  or Dacre Stoker, was an Irish Royal Navy officer who commanded the Royal Australian Navy's submarine  during the First World War. Stoker was captured in 1915 and he spent the remaining three-and-a-half years as a prisoner of war of the Ottoman Empire. He retired from the navy in 1920 to pursue an acting career on the stage and film. As an amateur athlete, Stoker competed in the Wimbledon tennis championships throughout the 1920s. With the outbreak of the Second World War, he was recalled to service in the navy, where he helped with public relations. When the war finished, Stoker returned to his acting career. In 1962, at the age of 77, he became Irish Croquet Champion.Early life
<mask> <mask> <mask> was born in Dublin, Ireland, on 2 February 1885, the fourth of six children and second son of Dr <mask> and Jane Martin <mask> . William's brother was Dr Francis Owen <mask>, a two-time winner of the Wimbledon Championships Gentlemen's Doubles and an Irish international rugby union player. They were cousins of the author <mask>. <mask> was educated in Dublin; he was an average student but excelled at sport, particularly tennis and rugby. Naval career
Stoker joined the Royal Navy on 15 January 1900 as a cadet on the training ship  at Dartmouth Harbour. On 30 May 1901, he was promoted to midshipman and posted to  as part of the Channel Fleet and was later posted to  in the Mediterranean. On 30 July 1904, Stoker was made a sub-lieutenant and left Implacable to study at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, after which he volunteered for the new Royal Navy Submarine Service but was posted for a year to  in the Western Atlantic before being accepted to submariner training in October 1906.Stoker was promoted to lieutenant on 31 December

masks:
Henry Hugh Gordon Dacre Stoker
. Stoker
Henry Hugh
Gordon Dacre
Stoker
William Stoker
Ross Stoker
Stoker
Bram Stoker
Henry


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 1906; he completed his submariner training in October 1907 and was given command of the submarine  in January 1909. The following January, he assumed command of , which in August 1911 was stationed at Gibraltar. Australian service
In 1913, after hearing rumours of a man in Sydney sponsoring men to play polo, Stoker volunteered to be loaned to the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). On 7 November 1913, he was subsequently given command of , which was built at Barrow-in-Furness and commissioned into the RAN at Portsmouth on 28 February 1914. AE2 was accompanied by its sister submarine , with crews composed of both RN and RAN personnel, and sailed from England for Australia on 2 March 1914. The first leg, under the escort of , arrived at Colombo, on 9 April. The second leg, with an escort provided by , arrived in Singapore on 21 April.The final leg was completed under escort of  and arrived in Sydney on 24 May, completing a voyage of , the longest voyage recorded by a submarine up to that time. First World War
Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, AE1 and AE2 joined the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (ANMEF) to capture the German colony New Guinea. The German territories surrendering on 22 September; AE2 patrolled the sea around Fiji and returned to Sydney for maintenance on 16 November. AE2 departed Sydney on 19 December to meet up with the second convoy of Australian Imperial Force (AIF) in Albany, Western Australia. She joined the convoy to Suez, completing most of it under tow. Stoker was promoted to lieutenant commander on 31 December 1914. On 28 January 1915, AE2 arrived at Suez, where it joined the Mediterranean Fleet, which operated in support of the Dardanelles campaign.To Vice-Admiral John de Robeck, Stoker presented plans for his submarine to force a passage through the heavily defended Dardanelles Strait,


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 and enter the Sea of Marmara and disrupt shipping, which would make supply and reinforcement of the enemy more difficult. On 25 April 1915, Stoker took AE2 through the  strait and entered the Sea of Marmara, the first allied submarine to do so. Other submarines soon followed. On 30 April, while attempting to rendezvous with , AE2 was damaged by the Ottoman torpedo boat Sultanhisar while on the surface, after which AE2 was no longer able to dive, and Stoker was forced to surrender and scuttle her. Stoker spent the rest of the war a prisoner of war (POW) in the Ottoman Empire. He made three unsuccessful escape attempts, but spent the majority of his time entertaining other POWs. He was repatriated to England in December 1918 and reverted back to Royal Navy service on 9 February 1919.He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) on 22 April 1919 "In recognition of his gallantry in making the passage of the Dardanelles in command of HM Australian Submarine AE2 on 25 April 1915". On 17 October 1919 he was mentioned in despatches "For valuable services in HM Australian Submarine AE2 in the prosecution of the war". On 10 February 1919, Stoker was given command of . He was promoted to commander on 31 December 1919. In 1920 he was offered command of submarine depot vessel , but instead chose to resign and was put on the retired list on 2 October 1920. Second World War
In 1939, at the outbreak of the Second World War, Stoker was recalled to service in the Royal Navy. He was given the rank of acting captain and was Chief of Staff to Rear-Admiral Richard Matthew King, commander at Belfast-based .In August 1940, Stoker was given command of HMS Minos, an onshore base at the Port of Lowestoft. In July 1942, Stoker was assigned as a Public Relations Officer with the Admiralty Press Division. In April 1944, he was a staff officer with the Supreme Headquarters


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 Allied Expeditionary Force but after the Normandy landings, he returned to his previous role in the Admiralty. Stoker again retired from the Navy with the rank of captain in late 1945. Sporting career
Stoker was an avid sportsman who as a schoolboy was proficient at tennis and rugby. He volunteered to serve on RAN’s submarine after hearing a false rumour of sponsorship to play polo in Sydney, Australia. Competing under the name Hew <mask>, he entered the 1920 Wimbledon Championships, losing in the first round to former finalist and doubles champion Major Josiah George Ritchie.In the following year's Wimbledon Championship, Stoker reached the third round, beating L. Andrews in the first and Arthur Wallis Myers in the second, losing to eventual finalist Manuel Alonso Areizaga. The 1922 at Wimbledon, Stoker defeated Sydney Watts in the first round but lost to Cecil Tindell-Green in the second. Stoker again made the second round at the 1923 Wimbledon Championships, beating Alexander Blair and losing to H.A. Carless. Stocker made the second round in 1924, winning against Brian Helmore and losing to Sydney Montague Jacob. In 1925 Wimbledon Championships Stoker lost in the first round to John Pennycuick. Stoker's final entry to Wimbledon came in 1927, when he lost his first-round match against William Powell.Stoker continued his involvement in sport; he served as president of the Royal Navy Lawn Tennis Association between 1953 and 1963. In 1962, at the age of 77, he became Croquet Singles Champion of Ireland. Partial filmography

One Precious Year (1933) – Sir John Rome
Channel Crossing (1933) – Captain R.H. Kilbee
The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934) – Police Chief At Siege (uncredited)
Koenigsmark (1935) – (uncredited)
Brown on Resolution (1936) – Captain Holt
The First Offence (1936) – Dr. Penrose
Pot Luck (1936) – Davey
It's You I Want (1936) –


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 Braille
Moonlight Sonata (1937) – Club Member (uncredited)
Non-Stop New York (1937) – Captain
Crackerjack (1938) – Supt. Benting
Full Speed Ahead (1940) – Sir Robert Barrymore
Brighton Rock (1947) – Registrar (uncredited)
Call of the Blood (1948) – Uncle Ben
Woman Hater (1948) – Old Boy (uncredited)
It's Hard to Be Good (1948) – Elderly Man (uncredited)
Call of the Blood (1949) – French doctor
The Inheritance (1950)
Four Days (1951) – Baxter
Where's Charley? (1952) – Wilkinson
Star in the Summer Night  an episode from Armchair Theatre (1959) – Martin McDonald

Family life and legacy
Stoker was married twice; his first wife was Olive Joan Violet Gwendoline Leacock, daughter of Colonel Schuler Leacock of the Bengal Cavalry. The marriage ended in divorce when Stoker, after returning to England after service with the RAN and being a POW in Turkey, discovered she had given birth to three children in his absence. In 1925, Stoker published an autobiography called "Straws in the Wind"; the same year, he married actor Dorothie Margaret Pidcock, to whom he  remained married until his death on his 81st birthday, 2 February 1966.With the introduction of a separate Australian Honours system, there has been debate about whether Stoker should be awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia for his service as commander of AE2 during the Dardanelles campaign. References

Further reading

External links
H.G. Stoker at allmovie

1885 births
1966 deaths
British male tennis players
Irish croquet players
Dublin hurlers
Irish male tennis players
Irish polo players
Irish sailors in the Royal Navy
Royal Navy submarine commanders
Royal Navy officers of World War II
Royal Navy officers of World War I
Sportspeople from Dublin (city)
Irish male stage actors
Irish male film actors
20th-century Irish male actors
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Graduates of the Royal


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<mask> (born November 13, 1953) is an American actress known for her roles as Monica Colby in the 1980s primetime soap opera Dynasty and its spin-off series The Colbys, Cat Grant in the first season of the 1993–1997 television series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, and as Captain Elizabeth Lochley during the final season of Babylon 5 in 1998. Early life
An only child, Scoggins is the daughter of <mask> and <mask>. Her father was a trial lawyer, and her mother graduated from law school and was a tennis champion. She attributes her own success to their influence. At the age of nine, Scoggins won a diving championship; by 13, she was accumulating swimming medals. At Dickinson High School, Scoggins was an athlete, excelling in various sports such as cheerleading, gymnastics, and diving. She graduated from Dickinson High School at age 16 and enrolled at Southwest Texas State University in 1970.As a student-athlete there, she was on the varsity gymnastics team and graduated with a bachelor's degree in physical education. While at Southwest Texas State, <mask> nearly qualified for a spot on the 1980 Olympic diving team. After graduation, <mask> briefly taught physical education before being recruited by John Casablancas of the Elite Model Management agency. Elite sent <mask> to New York, where she worked for a year before embarking on a European fashion modeling circuit that included Italy, Germany, and France. <mask> returned to the United States and studied with the Herbert Berghof Studio and the Wynn Hanmann Studio in hopes of launching an acting career. Career

<mask> Steele, T. J. Hooker, Blue Thunder, and The A-Team, <mask> had a role on the Dynasty spin-off series The Colbys, playing Monica Colby,  the daughter of

masks:
Tracy Dawn Scoggins
John Scott Scoggins
Lou Cille Scoggins
Scoggins
Scoggins
Scoggins
Scoggins
Scogginsmington
Scoggins


texts:
 Charlton Heston's character. Following the cancellation of The Colbys after two seasons, <mask> reprised the role in the final season of Dynasty. <mask> landed recurring or short-term parts on TV series during the 1980s and 1990s, including the role of Cat Grant in Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, Amanda Carpenter on Lonesome Dove: The Outlaw Years, Elizabeth Lochley on  Babylon 5 and its two spin-offs Crusade and Babylon 5: The Lost Tales (in 2007), Cassandra in three episodes of Highlander: The Series, Marie-Diane on The Secret Adventures of Jules Verne, and Anita Smithfield in two Dallas TV movies (Dallas: J.R. Returns and Dallas: War of the Ewings). This was not her first role in Dallas, as she had played a small part as another character in a 1983 episode. <mask> appeared on a 1996 episode of Wings and in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Destiny"'. <mask> starred in the 1992 straight-to-video production Demonic Toys.She was in the 1995 3DO game Snow Job. Alan Spencer cast <mask> in a  pilot for CBS called Galaxy Beat. The pilot did not sell. Spencer said that she is "one of the funniest people on Earth". In 2005, <mask> landed a role as a main character, Grace Neville, on the gay supernatural series Dante's Cove. In 2006, she had a guest role in the fourth-season premiere of the TV show Nip/Tuck, and returned to the role of Elizabeth Lochley in the direct-to-DVD production Babylon 5: The Lost Tales. Her recent television credits include NCIS and Castle.Filmography

Television

 The Dukes of Hazzard as Linda Mae Barnes (1 episode, 1981)
 The Devlin Connection as Sylvia March (1 episode, 1982)
 The Fall Guy as June (1 episode, 1982)
 Remington Steele as Chrissie Carstairs (1 episode, 1983)
 The Optimist as

masks: Scoggins Scoggins Scoggins Scoggins Scoggins Scoggins


texts:
 The Lady Golfer (1 episode, 1983)
 Dallas as Dianne Kelly (1 episode, 1983)
 Manimal as Kathy Bonann (1 episode, 1983)
 Hardcastle and McCormick as Crystal Dawn (1 episode, 1983)
 The A-Team as Shana Mayer / Elly Payne (3 episodes, 1983)
 The Renegades as <mask> (1983)
 Hawaiian Heat (1984) as Irene Gorley
 T. J. Hooker as Jill Newmark (1 episode, 1984)
 Mike Hammer as Claire (1 episode, 1984)
 Blue Thunder as Gretchen Terrell (1 episode, 1984)
 Hawaiian Heat as Irene Gorley (10 episodes, 1984)
 The Colbys as Monica Colby (49 episodes, 1985–1987)
 Hotel as Dana March (1 episode, 1987)
 Dynasty as Monica Colby (10 episodes, 1985, 1989)
 Raven as Alexis Page (1 episode, 1992)
 Renegade as Jeanette (1 episode, 1992)
 The Heights as Belinda (1 episode, 1992)
 Doogie Howser, M.D. as Kelly Phillips (1 episode, 1993)
 Danger Theatre as Clarise Payne (1 episode, 1993)
 Burke's Law as Roxanne North (1 episode, 1994)
 Garfield and Friends as Heather St. Claire (1 episode, 1994)
 Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman as Catherine 'Cat' Grant (21 episodes, 1993–1994)
 The Commish as Christine Rivers (1 episode, 1995)
 Star Trek: Deep Space Nine as Gilora (1 episode, 1995)
 Cybill as Invincigirl (1 episode, 1996)
 Unhappily Ever After as Morgana (1 episode, 1996)
 Wings as Elise (1 episode, 1996)
 Lonesome Dove: The Outlaw Years as Amanda Carpenter (22 episodes, 1995–1996)
 Highlander as Cassandra (3 episodes, 1996–1997)
 High Tide as Christy Keaton (1 episode, 1997)
 Silk Stalkings as Jessica Scott (2 episodes, 1993–1997)
 Mike Hammer, Private Eye as Beth Reynolds (1 episode, 1997)
 Babylon 5 as Capt. Elizabeth Lochley (21 episodes, 1998)
 Crusade as Capt. Elizabeth Lochley (13 episodes, 1999)
 Felicity as Kelly (1 episode, 2001)


texts:
 Nip/Tuck as Jill White (1 episode, 2006)
 Dante's Cove as Grace Neville (12 episodes, 2005–2007)
 NCIS as Tabitha Summers (1 episode, 2008)
 Castle as Lana (1 episode, 2012)

Film

 Twirl (1981) as Cindy Ryan
 Toy Soldiers (1984) as Monique
 In Dangerous Company (1988) as Evelyn
 Jury Duty: The Comedy (1990) as Hope Hathaway
 Dan Turner, Hollywood Detective (1990) as Vala Duvalle
 The Gumshoe Kid (1990) as Rita Benson
 Play Murder for Me (1990) as Tricia Merritt
 Face the Edge (1990) as Cindy
 Watchers II (1990) as Barbara White
 Timebomb (1991) as Ms. Blue
 Ultimate Desires (1991) as Samantha Stewart
 Demonic Toys (1992) as Judith Gray
 Alien Intruder (1993) as Ariel
 Dollman vs. Demonic Toys (1993) as Judith Gray
 Dead On (1994) as Marla Beaumont
 Dallas: J.R. Returns (1996) (TV) as Anita Smithfield
 Dallas: War of the Ewings (1998) (TV) as Anita Smithfield
 Babylon 5: The River of Souls (1998) (TV) as Capt. Elizabeth Lochley
 Babylon 5: A Call to Arms (1999) (TV) as Capt. Elizabeth Lochley
 A Crack in the Floor (2001) as Jeremiah's Mother
 Hellborn (2003) as Helen
 Homeland Security (2004) as Catherine Adel
 Popstar (2005) as Judy McQueen
 The Cutter (2005) as Alena
 Saurian (2006) as Simtra
 Mr. Hell (2006) as Dominique Horney
 The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (2006) as Detective Karen Utterson
 Babylon 5: The Lost Tales (2007) as Colonel Elizabeth Lochley
 Otis (2008) as Rita Vitale
 Cat Power (2013) as Julie Richman
 Borrowed Moments (2014) as Betsy

References

External links

1953 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Texas
American film actresses
American television actresses
Female models from Texas
Living people
People from Galveston, Texas
Texas State


texts:
<mask> (; born 29 May 1969) is a Turkish broadcaster, entrepreneur, international TV producer and businessman. He is the owner of TV channels TV8 and TV8.5, Turkey's digital platform Exxen, production companies in several countries, including United States, Mexico, Romania, Hungary, Brazil, Colombia and Greece. He is the founder and member of directors Acun Media Group, which does productions for leading television channels worldwide, and he develops broadcasting strategies for the channels he works with. Furthermore, he is the owner of the format of competition program Exatlon, which is the first sports reality format in the world. Several documentaries and programs have been made about <mask>'s life, covering his career from sports reporter to media mogul. He has been awarded more than 1000 prizes in various categories and has been described as one of the most reliable names in Turkey. In the period 2018 to 2020, he was listed among the 500 most influential businessmen in the media and entertainment sector by Variety magazine.Early years
<mask> <mask>, whose family comes from Turkey's northeast Erzurum province, was born in Edirne on 29 May 1969. He has paternal Azerbaijani ancestry. After having completed his primary education there, he completed his middle and high school education at Istanbul's Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi (formerly named Kadıköy Maarif Koleji). <mask> began his higher education in English teaching at Istanbul University, but chose to start business instead of finishing his degree. <mask> entered the media sector at the age of 22 and began working for Turkish television channel Show TV as a sports reporter. After having worked as a sports reporter for several years, at 2004 he founded his own production company Acun Medya, which quickly became one of Turkey's most prominent production companies. In 2008,

masks:
Ali Acun Ilıcalı
Ilıcalı
Acun
Ilıcalı
Ilıcalı
Ilıcalı


texts:
 <mask> was among the country's highest-paying tax payers for the first time.After this, he has been among the top 100 highest paying taxers of Turkey every year and he has become the first in its field. Career
<mask> started his career in Media in the year of 1990 as a reporter. In 2002, <mask> produced several programs and content for a number of Turkey's most popular television channels. His travel/entertainment program, Acun Firarda, which he prepared and presented himself by travelling to more than 100 countries, was particularly successful. He quickly became one of the most recognized names in Turkey, where his shows typically enjoyed very high ratings. In 2004, <mask> founded his own production company Acun Medya, purchasing a number of worldwide format rights, which he adopted for Turkish viewers. These included Deal or no Deal?, Fear Factor, Survivor, MasterChef, Got Talent, The Voice, Dancing with the Stars, Rising Star and Ninja Warrior, all of which were broadcast on popular prime-time slots.In 2013, Acun Medya incorporated television channel TV8. With Acun Medya productions, TV8's ratings increased rapidly, soon becoming Turkey's most widely viewed TV channel. Acun Medya subsequently forged a partnership with Doğuş Production Group, one of Turkey's most prominent media companies. In 2016, Ilıcalı launched the entertainment and sports channel TV8.5, which quickly became one of the country's most highly viewed thematic TV channels. <mask>'s first foray into the international media sector began with projects he produced in 2016 in Greece. <mask> Medya produced a number of television programs in Greece, including The Voice, Survivor, Got Talent and My Style Rocks. These programs, which were broadcast on the Skai TV, enjoyed ratings of 70%, making them some of the most-viewed programs in Greek television history.As

masks: Ilıcalı Ilıcalı Ilıcalı Ilıcalı Ilıcalı Acun


texts: a result of its successes in Greece, Acun Medya developed a format bringing sports and reality programming together for the first time. Exatlon, a new competition program, was broadcasting in a number of countries, including USA, Mexico, Romania, Colombia, Brazil and Hungary. At the 2017 Brazil edition, presented by the local host Luís Ernesto Lacombe, Ilıcalı and some partners menaced the local presenter hours before the grand final and took the stage himself. Exatlon currently remains among the most highly viewed programs in the countries in which it is broadcast. Following the success of Exatlon, <mask> concluded an agreement with Ricardo Salinas, owner of Mexico's largest media group, for the production of television content for a three-year period. These productions are currently being broadcast - in both daytime and evening slots - on Azteca Uno, Mexico's most popular television channel. Today, through the formats he has developed and the global program rights he has purchased, Acun Medya is producing content on four continents and in more than 10 countries.Ilıcalı was engaged in a partnership with Dutch football team Fortuna Sittard in the Eredivisie League during the 2020-21 season. In 2021, he terminated his partnership with the team, announcing plans to purchase an English football team. In the same year, he launched Exxen, Turkey's digital platform that provides family-oriented content. Within one week of its launch, Exxen had drawn more than 500,000 subscribers. Also in 2021, Acunmedya Akademi, has been launched with Nişantaşı University to provide training in television production, gastronomy and digital. On the first day after its launch, Acunmedya Akademi received 50,000 applications from prospective students. On 19 January 2022, Hull City announced that Acun Medya, backed by Ilıcalı, had purchased the club


texts:
 from Assem Allam.Personal life
<mask> has been married three times, and has four daughters. In 1989, he married Seda Başbuğ with whom he has a daughter. Ten months after the birth of his daughter, <mask> lost both his mother and father in a car accident, and in 1993 he divorced Başbuğ. In 2003, he married Zeynep Yılmaz, with whom he had two daughters. <mask> also has a fourth daughter, from his subsequent marriage with Şeyma Subaşı. <mask>, who lives by the motto My greatest passion is to play games, make people play and entertain, at the same time to have fun and entertain, because life is a playground is known for his passion for speed and adrenalin. His hobbies include riding and collecting speedboats, sports cars and motorcycles.He is also interested in e-sports, a global trend that has become increasingly popular in recent years. A lover of both football and basketball, <mask> follows both sports very closely, and frequently attends matches all over the world. He is also a huge fan of Turkey's Fenerbahçe football team and is the owner of English football club Hull City. References

External links

1969 births
Living people
People from Edirne
Turkish game show hosts
Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi alumni
Turkish sports journalists
Turkish male television actors
Turkish male film actors
Turkish businesspeople
Golden Butterfly Award winners
Turkish people of Azerbaijani

masks: Ilıcalı Ilıcalı Ilıcalı Ilıcalı Ilıcalı


texts:
<mask> (; 23 January 1932 – 29 April 1968), born <mask> (), was a prominent dissident who was imprisoned and later executed by the People's Republic of China during the Cultural Revolution for her criticism of Mao Zedong's policies. She is widely considered to be a martyr and exemplar for Chinese and other Christians, like the Chinese church leader and teacher Watchman Nee. Early life
<mask> was born to a prominent family in Suzhou, Jiangsu province. By age 16, she had joined an underground Chinese Communist Party (CCP) cell and was writing articles criticizing the corruption of the Nationalist government under the pen name <mask>. Three months before the CCP took power in mainland China, she ran away from home in order to attend a journalism school run by the CCP. During her tenure, she was assigned to work in a group to administer land reform in the countryside, where she witnessed the torture and violent deaths of landlords as justified by the principle of class struggle. Becoming a dissident
<mask> later enrolled in the Chinese literature department at Peking University where she was an editor of the school paper Honglou (The Red Building) which met in her dorm room.During the Hundred Flowers Movement of 1956-1957, intellectuals such as herself were encouraged to criticize the CCP, but were later punished for doing so. When <mask>'s friends who were part of the Red Building, Zhang Yuanxun and Shen Zeyi published a poem on a poster "This is the Time" which called for open dialogue towards reform, this opened debate at the university; the two also founded a short lived (23 days) magazine called "The Square" to talk about these

masks:
Lin Zhao
Peng Lingzhao
Peng Lingzhao
Lin Zhao
Lin
Lin


texts: ideas. During this time <mask> published two poems, "It is Time" and "Party I Call out to You", which expressed faith in the Communist Party, but her disaffection with communists who had never "borne the heavy burden of discrimination, slight, and suspicion". When Zhang Yuanxun was forced to endure a debate that was turning into a struggle session, <mask> stood on top of a table and dressed down the mob saying "What kind of meeting are we having tonight? Is it a debate or a condemnation? It should not be a condemnation! We don't need to condemn anyone."Though <mask> had criticized Zhang before herself, she did not feel condemning fellow communists was right. In response to her friendship with members of The Square and defense of civil debate, <mask> was branded a rightist in the Anti-Rightist Campaign which started in July 1957. She was the only rightist who refused to criticize and insisted she had done no wrong. As a result of being persecuted for this, <mask> started to become a dissident. During 1958, <mask> was ordered to perform menial tasks for the university, including killing mosquitoes as part of the Four Pests Campaign and cataloguing old newspapers for the reference library of the university's journalism department. There she met a fellow rightist Gan Cui, who in 1959 asked permission (as was required at the time) to marry <mask> and be assigned to a job near with her after his graduation. He was instead sent to Talimu Forth Farm, Xinjiang, to a reform though labor camp for the next 20 years, to break the couple up.Gan visited <mask> in Shanghai for a week, and then got on the bus to Xinjiang; they never saw each other

masks:
Lin Zhao
Lin
Lin
Lin Zhao
Lin
Lin
Lin Zhao
Lin


texts:
 again. The LanZhou University Rightist Counter-Revolutionary Clique
In late 1959 while on medical parole in Shanghai, she met Zhang Chunyuan, a history student and People's Liberation Army veteran. Zhang Chunyan was a leader of the Lanzhou University Rightist Counter-Revolutionary Clique who had traveled from his exile in Tianshui, Gansu to recruit <mask> after one of the Cliques members got ahold of her work through his sister, a fellow rightist from Peking University. He had previously unsuccessfully tried to contact members of the Square, but they were denounced before he could establish contact. After reading "Song of the Seagull" he had decided to recruit <mask> to the group and was ecstatic to receive from <mask> some draft copies of her works to publish in the underground magazine he was working on Spark Fire. Zhang, along with a fellow Clique member Gu Yan, discussed many issues with <mask> before Zhang returned to Gansu. It was during these talks that <mask> discovered from the firsthand accounts by Zhang the starvation and cannibalism that was happening as a result of the devastation in Gansu Province, about where 1 in 3 of the villagers around Tianshui had died and Zhang had seen human flesh for sale.A fellow Peking University Rightist, Lui Faqing had been sent to Gansu, and was starving to death. <mask> having learned of the situation there, sent 35 Jin (about 40lb) of grain ration coupons to him, saving his life. May 1960 was the beginning of the end for the Lanzhou Clique, Tan Chanxue, Zhang Chenyuan's girlfriend, and a core member of the group was arrested trying to escape to Hong Kong. Zhang tried to free her using a

masks:
Lin
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao


texts:
 fake Public Security ID, but was captured in the process. In late September, some 30 members of the Clique were rounded up in Wushan County, along with the local deputy secretary of the Communist Party Committee and the party secretary of the Chengguan People's Commune, Du Yinghua, who had been in communication with Zhang Chenyuan, and supported the Clique. On 24 October, <mask> was arrested in Suzhou. On 23 November 1960 her father.Peng Guoyan, overcome with grief for his daughter's fate, swallowed rat poison and died. <mask> was imprisoned in Shanghai No. 2 Detention house. In August 1961, Zhang Chenyuan, had been able to escape, and made his way to Shanghai, he circled her prison twice as a token of respect for <mask>. He was arrested again 6 September 1961. He and Party Secretary, Du Yinghua, were executed 22 March 1970 for attempting to communicate with each other, as well as engaging in counter-revolutionary activities while in prison. Initial arrest and parole
After Zhang ChenYuan escaped, in August 1961 the prison tried to parole <mask> due to her tuberculosis in order to use her as bait to capture Zhang.<mask> refused parole and treatment. In March 1962, she was granted and accepted parole due both her tuberculosis and to a softening of her views somewhat due to the ending of the Great Leap Forward and the 9th Plenary Session of the 8th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, where economic policy was being changed to prevent starvation. Mao had effectively lost control of the Party since the 8th Plenary Session at Lushan. Chen Yun Was effectively running the economy and turning it away from Maoism. He would later

masks:
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao


texts: be purged for being a Capitalist roader for this and sent to work in a factory for 3 years. <mask> returned to Suzhou and was told about the suicide of her father. Within a few weeks, she realized she had been mistaken, her fellow writers were still in jail, and while some economic reforms had taken place, it did not live up to her expectations.At the end of March, <mask> informed the neighborhood police that she had packed her clothes and was ready to return to prison. While waiting on the legal system to come for her, <mask> approached Hu Ziheng, her former teacher at the South Jiangsu Journalism Vocational School, who was working for Liberation Daily. She publicly argued with him, and satirized him, and overwhelmed him with the fury and bite of her words. She met Huang Zheng, (recently returned from a labor camp) and convinced him to help her draft a political platform for the "Battle League of Free Youths of China". Which was in her mind, a future coalition of young, intellectual rightists, democracy activists, united in a non-violent movement for a renaissance of human liberation. She attempted to smuggle some of her writings out of China, via a stateless alien named Arnold Newman, asking him to share them with the world. He was promptly arrested, as <mask> was being followed by the authorities.She also sent a letter to Lu Ping, the president of Peking University to try to get him to have the 800 students who had been sent to labor camps, freed. <mask> did not seem to know, that over 300 of the rightists from Peking University had starved to death in Qinghe Laogai in 1960 alone. In August, she was brought to court for her

masks:
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin
Lin Zhou


texts:
 involvement with the Lanzhou University Rightist Counterrevolutionary Clique. She argued that it was just to oppose totalitarian rule, saying she would "fight to the death to oppose" it and that the real crime was not what she and the other rightists had done, but what the government had done to them. The judge, replied "Are you sick?" (mentally). In November, she was taken back into custody, and on 23 December 1962 she was transferred to the Shanghai Municipal Prison.Tilanqiao Prison & No. 1 Detention House

<mask> was in Tilanqiao for eight and a half months. During this time she went on a hunger strike, stopped taking medicine for tuberculosis, and attempted suicide, resulting in her being locked in rubber cell. On 19 June she wrote a "Hunger Strike Declaration" in which she stated she "would rather spend the rest of my life in prison and wear out its floor; I vow to never be unworthy of my original aspirations or change a bit of my original ideas". She recruited a cellmate to the Battle League of Free Youths of China. When the new recruit was released, they made contact with Huang Zheng who was promptly arrested, unknown to her the cellmate had been recruited by the Police. Huang Zheng would receive 15 additional years in labor camps as a result.<mask> also met Yu Yile, a Christian preacher, who tried unsuccessfully to get <mask> to drop her political activism. On 8 August 1963, <mask> was transferred to Shanghai No. 1 Detention house for intensive interrogations. This was to be a very strict period of time, with prisoners forbidden from even sharing their names with each other, no mail services, and no family visits. Her files

masks:
Lin Zhao
Lin
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao


texts:
 from this period were separate from those which were smuggled out of China later. <mask>'s own later writings make up entirely what is known about this period. She alleges that she faced sexual harassment, and when she submitted a formal report to the prison authorities this resulted in harsher treatment, long periods of time spent in handcuffs.One of the female guards also pulled her hair out and beat her while she was handcuffed to a chair. She again submitted a report, and the prison informed her that she may use self-defense, an absurd notion for a cuffed prisoner locked in a chair. On 24 November, <mask> learned of the assassination of John F. Kennedy. She had admired him, from the few statements that Chinese state media had printed. She wrote "Mourning inside a Jail Cell" in response and pledged to visit his tomb one day to pay her respects, but contented herself for the moment in believing that he was able to see "inside a certain prison in Red China, a young soldier of freedom, with wounds from shackles in her arms, was propping up her sick body, and using a straw stem as her pen and the crudest ink and paper, silently writing down her mourning and her grief for you". Someone (unnamed) was sent to live in her cell, who issued beatings and verbal abuse day and night. On 5 February 1964, she attempted suicide by swallowing medicated soap.She wrote a Self Eulogy in blood, this was her first work written in blood, and likely was written just before attempting suicide. Among this writing, was the words that would later be etched on her own tomb in red letters mimicking the original:

 Freedom is without a price
 yet within bounds my

masks:
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao


texts:
 life lies
 Shattered Jade is what I will to be,
 Offered to China as a sacrifice! <mask>'s writing at the time identified her with the traditional Confucian scholar, who had through history, given up their lives to preserve their dignity. On 12 April 1964, <mask> wrote a poem "Family Sacrifice" in memory of Xu Jinyuan, her uncle, The Party Secretary of the Communist Youth League in Suzhou who had been executed by the Nationalists in the Shanghai massacre. 12 April a date buried in dust,
 Who still remembers the blood shed 37 years ago? The dead is gone; his descendant commemorates him,
 But the blood and tears were shed in vain,
 Uncle, your niece cries for you in the red prison. I know you - in the melody of the International,
 You taught my mother, who taught me.If only you knew, the millions of people you gave your life for,
 Are still not free today and are hungry slaves! Many of her other writings from this period are lost or still in locked archives. On 4 November 1964 <mask> was indicted as the principle criminal of the Battle League of Free Youth of China Counterrevolutionary Clique, as well as plotting to publicize A Spark of Fire with the Lanzhou University Rightists, participation in other counterrevolutionary activities both on parole and in prison, and attempting to overthrow "the people's democratic dictatorship" amongst other crimes..

She again attempted suicide by cutting her left wrist. However, when on 5 December, when she was being tried for "Resorting to loud shouting in an effort to instigate the inmates into an insurrection" She responded that "The indictment neglected to list the important fact that, while in

masks:
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao


texts: prison, I established an ordnance bureau and build three munitions factories and two arsenals". After being sentenced for this, she gleefully corrected the spelling and grammar of her indictment, as well as pointed out the twisted logic involved. However, she did understand that in effect the conclusion of the trial would not be in her favor, and her only hope to a long sentence without surrendering and agreeing to reform was help from above. In accordance with Chinese tradition, she wrote to the mayor of Shanghai, Ke Qingshe asking for his intervention.Ke was an early communist whose wife had been driven to suicide during a purge. Mao had personally spared him, he was as a result, was strongly tied with Mao. She wrote two letters to him, finishing the second in February. On 10 April 1965, Liberation Daily reported Ke's death. <mask> saw a connection where one was not; she assumed that Ke had taken up her case with Mao and been killed as a result. It is during this time that <mask> seems to have been driven into state of conspiracy that affected her sanity. In fairness, she had been followed by police, and had an informer sent to befriend her.Alongside her actual mental instability, caused by the belief that her last hope had been murdered, there was the fact that the State really was out to get her. <mask> conducted a spirit marriage between herself and Ke. She did still consider Ke an enemy as a party official however, however she considered it also an act of protest against Mao personally, as she wrongly believed he had Ke Qingshe killed. In May 1965, Zhang Yuanxun, who had been in a labor camp since his arrest in 1958, was given a


texts:
 week pass he travel to Shanghai and visited <mask> claiming to be her fiancé, his goal was to try to make <mask> accept reform. On the 6th, he was allowed to see her and she used the chance to list wrongs that were done to her by the guards, of whom, at least a dozen were present in the room with <mask> and Zhang. The guards alleged she was crazy, and <mask> denied that she was, and pointed out that crazy people were not jailed for their words as she was. <mask> presented him with a small sailboat made from candy wrappers, she asked Zhang to look after her family, and to "tell people in the future about this suffering".Zhang Yuanxun kept this for more than 30 years, before passing the sailboat to the filmmaker Jie Hu. As Zhang Yuanxun left, he and <mask>'s mother were told by a director from the Shanghai Public Security Bureau "We have done what we can for <mask>. She refuses to be educated, and chooses to resist to the end. It's a dead end there is nothing more we can do." On 16 May 1966, Mao Zedong started work to launch the Cultural Revolution. On 31 May 1965, <mask> was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment as a political prisoner

In a report dated 5 December 1966, it was recommended that <mask> be executed based on "serious crimes" which included:
 Insanely attacking, cursing, and slandering our great Chinese Communist Party and our great leader Chairman Mao... Regarding the proletarian dictatorship and socialist system with extreme hostility and hatred...Publicly shouting reactionary slogans, disrupting prison order, instigating other prisoners to rebel, and broadcasting threats to take revenge on behalf of executed

masks:
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin
Lin
Lin
Lin
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao
Lin


texts:
 counter-revolutionary criminals... Persistently maintaining a reactionary stand, refusing to admit her crimes, resisting discipline and education, and defying reform...

<mask> was executed by gunshot on 29 April 1968. <mask>'s family was not made aware of her death until a CCP official approached her mother on 1 May 1968 to collect a five-cent bullet fee for the bullet used to kill her. Themes

<mask>'s available writings are uncompromising, assertive, aggressive. Often utilizing her knowledge of history and classical Chinese literature. They are a melting pot infused with Christian sentiments, illusions to classical Chinese writings, calls for the end of the Bandits (The Communist Party) and exaltations of freedom. An example of her melting pot of thinking is the topic of suicide, her ideals of the "Chinese code of honor" that is typified by a Confucian scholar who dies before he accepts dishonor clashes with her Christianity.In her writing "Father's blood" (his death a suicide) <mask> tries to deal with that dissidence within her heart. She asserted that his suicide was not an act of futility but one of resistance, refusing to bend to the communist state. She writes as recounted in blood letters "Blood! Blood! As a Christian I wish to plead with all the Christian churches and the Holy Sea in Rome: judge the multitude of suicides in mainland China with fairness!...Do not view all the suicides of the victims of Communist...rule as spiritual evil! God's gift of life should have been in itself beautiful! therefore it is sin to lightly dispose of it!...But it is precisely in order to protect the beauty, dignity, freedom, and purity of

masks:
Lin
Lin
Lin Zhao
Lin Zhao