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 contradictions through independent mental work. According to Litt, the being of education can only be understood in terms of its "ought". This "ought" is the synthesis that must be produced in order to recognise contradictions and accept them as given as the product of the human spirit, which has the claim to control contradictions through mental effort and to bring them into harmony.The bringing together of opposing poles is possible for the human spirit because those also originate from it. Man and the world
Litt emphasised the importance of the individual: ego and world are dependent on each other and are in a mutual process of development. Litt criticised the one-dimensional interpretation of Hegel, who pushed the individual into the shadows. The objective contents must be absorbed into the life of the respective subject in order to be useful. The term tradition is inseparable from that of individuation. "Man" and "world" have a reciprocal effect on each other and are in a positive dialectical tension with each other in that both work off each other. Through this mutual "working off", both form each other.Man forms himself in his definition of himself, and the world as the totality of spiritual-social-historical content forms itself in its virtuous assertion of claims, which is respected and strengthened. Science, work world and technology are designated as the world and are in a mutual interaction with humans. Man forms and creates the world and thus has a Weltbildungscharakter (world-forming character). The areas grouped together as the world are "forming powers". School pedagogical position

Ideals of education
For Litt, there is no ideal blueprint of education. Nevertheless, there are educational rubrics, such as


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 religion, science, art and morality, which remain untouchable in their educational character. It is characteristic of society to want to create an educational ideal in order to protect certain contents of education from criticism.This tendency is inappropriate and questionable. On the other hand, it is something else to seek the constructs of the mind for their own sake and to court their meaning and purpose in pure self-forgetfulness. Education can also be purposeful without an educational ideal. Without an ideal design, it aims at the self-forming of the subject in order to come to oneself, by man working his way through to his actual form of existence and thus making himself known. The formation of the human being cannot be concluded from any educational ideal. It is the same with the spirit, which either is or is not. In order to form the self that is conscious, it is necessary to discuss the given world one by one.Neither upbringing nor education need follow an ideal image, be it from religion or politics, in order to make it useful. On the other hand, the free-thinking spirit that wants to come into its own in the world commits itself to education. It is the task of education to educate the free-thinking spirit through the critical examination of the world. Cultural and educational goods
Litt emphasises the importance of selecting educational content. Because of the diversity of educational content in pedagogy, it is all the more important to examine its content. No educational content may claim general validity for itself, because its relevance is measured against certain life contexts of the respective culture. Pedagogy must attempt to move from a totality of cultural realities to the individual areas of culture


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 in order to bring a structure to the cultural areas and cultural goods and to classify them according to importance.However, this approach still ignores fundamental decisions about cultural and educational goods. For the observer and enjoyer, a cultural good can have great significance, but without relevance to education. There is no coincidence of cultural goods and educational goods. In order for cultural goods to prove themselves as educational goods, they must fit into the inner movement of the living whole and allow themselves to be related to the whole of youthful soul development. They must correspond to the world views of youth. Once the appropriate educational goods have been selected, they still need to be specified – for an intended target group with a comparable mindset. The mission of education
Education teaches man to keep himself and his relationship in order.The person gains better access to realising this. Work, with its objectivity, has a positive effect on the human being. This transfer of life makes it possible for man to conform to the order inherent in work, to grow humanly through work. Litt puts the pedagogisation of society into practice. Even the most functional family could no longer provide the performance that was still conceivable in the times of Pestalozzi or Diesterweg to enable the adolescent to successfully master everyday life. The school was constantly taking on new tasks in order to ensure and support the suitability for everyday life and the personal responsibility of the adolescent. A separation of education and the adult world (professional world) is no longer conceivable.From kindergarten onwards, children would also experience the constraints of the adult world. Educational and


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 vital values
The young person should be exposed to classical contents and cultural goods with an educational character of "timeless significance", because these are the actual educational values. Furthermore, in addition to the actual educational values, the school must also take into account and relate to the real demands of life, the social demands. This means that the so-called "vital values" have the same importance as the educational values. A tension arises between the two values that remains incompatible because it cannot be shattered and thus endured. Democratisation of the youth
Furthermore, Litt demands that daily political controversies be kept out of the classroom. School should not be misused for party-political purposes.On the other hand, he emphasises the important consolidation of the "youthful" character through spirituality and morality. Despite Litt's rejection of political and school interdependence, he advocates education towards democracy. A functioning school system shows itself through consistency. The school should distance itself from the general intellectual and cultural climate so as not to fall into the false belief that it has to react to political controversies. School has a preserving character because it is able to pass on the "educational solidarity of generations" and is obliged to remain consistent even in times of change. Criticism of the uniform school system
Litt advocates the divided school system and categorically rejects the "" (uniform school). Furthermore, Litt advocates the gymnasial educational directions with their respective core content.The task of the secondary schools is to offer high-achieving pupils a challenging education. The educational diversity offered at


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 secondary schools is very limited at vocational schools, he argues, because students remain experts in one field and general education, which includes learning basic social and intellectual skills, is neglected. This means that the vocational school has the task of opening up and connecting with fundamental areas of existence. It should put culture and history into a context that is appropriate for the respective occupation. Understanding and respect should also be important aspects of the educational task at these schools, as these are key points in preventing blatant and massive human rights violations. Pedagogical influence in the classroom
For Litt, "instruction" and "education" are to be seen as interlinked, because an educational aspect always flows into instruction. The pedagogical effect is decisive for orderly and consistent teaching, which focuses on education for objectivity, work ethic and fulfilment of duty.Litt finds it advantageous when the above-mentioned values are passed on by teachers without them having to exert direct influence on pupils, since every teacher has a different educational radiance and way of looking at things. Besides the reciprocal intertwining of "teaching" and "education", there is also one for "intellect" and "character" or "knowledge" and "education". "Knowledge" is always an assessment of the situation, and the becoming one of knowledge and conscience is a prerequisite for action to correspond to knowledge (belief). Tasks of the teachers

Required characteristics
Litt is of the opinion that there are born educators who are naturally endowed with an outstanding educational talent; nevertheless, most educators must learn certain aids and educational methods. In a narrower sense,


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 this means the consistency and definiteness of pedagogical form and an unrestricted knowledge of teaching methods. In addition, Litt argues in favour of the methodical, because systematic, planned procedures leave no room for misconstructions. In addition to methodological knowledge, pedagogical theory should be emphasised as a requirement for the teacher, even if it has nothing to do with practical implementation per se.Rather, it has a "historical site consciousness" which teachers should use to make it easier for students to find their way in world affairs. By historical location awareness, Litt also understands the "breadth of the intellectual horizon". It allows the teacher to convincingly represent the "spiritual powers whose precipitation confronts him as the content of his teaching activity. Moreover, it gives him the competence to face contemporary phenomena in an examining and conscientious manner. Pedagogical theory also has the task of giving the prospective teacher a sense of his pedagogical self-determination, based on inner freedom and a sense of duty. A good teacher can be recognised by the fact that he or she has the self-control not to take sides, but is able to confront contentious issues and central questions of life on a level of unity. For Litt, wanting to ideologically penetrate and influence the school is a danger.Granting freedom of choice
It is a mistake to deprive pupils of the opportunity to make decisions regarding their personal worldview by trying to take them in early on for that of the educating generation. Instead, they should be given the opportunity to shape their own vision of the future. This requires tolerance from the teacher and a taming of his own wishful images and ideas. In this


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 way, he is also better able to connect the pupils with the objective culture and to act as a mediator between the "I" and the "world", so that the educational process leads via the person to the thing. The teacher has the duty to bring objective content closer to his pupils. Education only fulfils its purpose if, in addition to "letting the growing person grow", guiding is also seen as a component of the educational process. Merely observing the direction of a child's development and meeting his or her requirements and preferences as well as promoting his or her interests is regressive as a sole "educational measure" and in no way sufficient for the developing human being."I" and "world" are in a reciprocal process of development and the confrontation with objective contents corresponding to the age as well as the talents is fundamental for the process of becoming a human being. Honours
 Mitglied des Ordens Pour le Mérite, Friedensklasse (1952)
 Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz mit Stern (20 December 1955)
 Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1958)
 Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz mit Stern und Schulterband (27 December 1960)

Work

Independent publications
 Geschichte und Leben. Von den Bildungsaufgaben geschichtlichen und sprachlichen Unterrichts. Leipzig/Berlin 1918; from the 2nd, modified edition with the subtitle Probleme und Ziele kulturwissenschaftlicher Bildung. Individuum und Gemeinschaft. Grundfragen der sozialen Theorie und Ethik. Leipzig/Berlin 1919; from the 2nd, modified edition (1924) with the subtitle Grundlegung der Kulturphilosophie; 3rd, again revised edition.1926. Erkenntnis und Leben. Untersuchungen über Gliederung, Methoden und Beruf der Wissenschaft. Leipzig/Berlin 1923. Die Philosophie der Gegenwart


texts: und ihr Einfluss auf das Bildungsideal. Leipzig/Berlin 1925. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Pädagogik.Abhandlungen zur gegenwärtigen Lage von Erziehung und Erziehungstheorie. Leipzig/Berlin 1926. Führen oder Wachsenlassen. Eine Erörterung des pädagogischen Grundproblems. Leipzig/Berlin 1927. Wissenschaft, Bildung, Weltanschauung. Leipzig/Berlin 1928.Kant und Herder als Deuter der geistigen Welt. Leipzig 1930. Einleitung in die Philosophie. Leipzig/Berlin 1933. Die Selbsterkenntnis des Menschen. Leipzig 1938. Der deutsche Geist und das Christentum.Vom Wesen geschichtlicher Begegnung. Klotz, Leipzig 1938, ; Nachdr. als Gemeinschaftsausgabe: Fischer, Norderstedt; Leipziger Univ.-Verlag, Leipzig 1997,  and . Das Allgemeine im Aufbau der geisteswissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis. Leipzig 1941. Geschichte und Verantwortung. Wiesbaden 1947.Denken und Sein. Stuttgart/Zürich 1948. Mensch und Welt. Grundlinien einer Philosophie des Geistes. Munich 1948. Staatsgewalt und Sittlichkeit. Munich 1948.Wege und Irrwege geschichtlichen Denkens. Munich 1948. Die Geschichte und das Übergeschichtliche. Hamburg 1949. Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichtsphilosophie. Munich 1950. Der Mensch vor der Geschichte.Bremen 1950. Naturwissenschaft und Menschenbildung. Heidelberg 1952. Hegel. Versuch einer kritischen Erneuerung. Heidelberg 1953. Das Bildungsideal der deutschen Klassik und die moderne Arbeitswelt.Bonn 1955. Die Wiedererweckung des geschichtlichen Bewußtseins. Heidelberg 1956. Technisches Denken und menschliche Bildung. Heidelberg 1957. Leibniz und die deutsche Gegenwart. Wiesbaden 1947.Wissenschaft und Menschenbildung im Lichte des Ost-West-Gegensatzes. Heidelberg 1958. Freiheit und Lebensordnung. Zur Philosophie und Pädagogik der Demokratie.


texts:
 Heidelberg 1962. Pädagogik und Kultur. Kleine pädagogische Schriften 1918–1926.Edited by F. Nicolin, Bad Heilbrunn 1965. Essays
 Die höhere Schule und das Problem der Einheitsschule. In Monatsschrift für höhere Schulen. 18 (1919), . Hegel und die Aufgaben deutscher Jugend. In Jugendführer und Jugendprobleme (Festschrift zu Georg Kerschensteiners 70. Geburtstag).Edited by Aloys Fischer, Eduard Spranger. Leipzig/Berlin 1930. Hegels Begriff des „Geistes“ und das Problem der Tradition. In Studium Generale. volume 4. Springer, . Leitsätze zur Begründung eines realistischen höheren Schulwesens.In Bildung und Erziehung. 5 (1952), . Charakterbildung geht vor Wissensbildung. In Pädagogische Wahrheiten und Halbwahrheiten kritisch beleuchtet (Festgabe für Wilhelm Flitner zum 70. Geburtstag). Edited by Eduard Spranger. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1959, , .Secondary literature
 Hans-Karl Beckmann: Der Erziehungsauftrag der Schule. In F. Schmaderer (ed. ): Die pädagogische Gestaltung des Schullebens. Beiträge zur Verwirklichung des Erziehungsauftrags der Schule (Schulpädagogische Aspekte). Ehrenwirth, Munich 1979, , . Ursula Bracht: Zum Problem der Menschenbildung bei <mask>tt. Studien zur wissenschaftstheoretischen Problematik im Gesamtwerk Theodor Litts.Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1973, . Holger Burckhart: <mask>: Das Bildungsideal der deutschen Klassik und die moderne Arbeitswelt. Darmstadt 2003. Thomas Friederich: <mask>tts Warnung vor "allzu direkten Methoden". In Deutsche Philosophen 1933. edited by Wolfgang Fritz Haug, Berlin 1989, . Lorenz Funderburk: Erlebnis, Verstehen, Erkenntnis. <mask>tts System der Philosophie aus erkenntnistheoretischer Sicht.Bonn 1971, . Hans Glöckel: Vom Unterricht. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1990, .

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Theodor Li
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 Wolfgang Klafki: <mask>tt. In Hans Scheuerl (ed. ): Klassiker der Pädagogik. Munich 1979.Wolfgang Klafki: Die Pädagogik <mask>tts. Eine kritische Vergegenwärtigung. Scriptor, Königstein 1982, . Julia Kurig: Die Technik als Herausforderung der Pädagogik in den 1950er Jahren: <mask>tts Bildungs- und Subjekttheorie für die Industriegesellschaft. In Jahrbuch für Historische Bildungsforschung 2014. Schwerpunkt Maschinen (Jahrbuch für Historische Bildungsforschung. Volume 20, ).Julius Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 2015, , ,  (PDF; 4,2 MB). Rudolf Lassahn: Das Selbstverständnis der Pädagogik <mask>tts. Ratingen 1968. Rudolf Lassahn: <mask>tt. Münster 1970.

 , Hans-Helmuth Knütter, : <mask> und die politische Bildung der Gegenwart (Berichte und Studien der Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung. Volume 31). Olzog, München 1981, .Friedhelm Nicolin (ed. ): <mask>. Pädagogische Analysen zu seinem Werk. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1973, . Friedhelm Nicolin: <mask>. In Josef Speck (ed. ): Geschichte der Pädagogik des 20.Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart 1977.
 : <mask>. Eine einführende Überschau. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1950, . Wolfgang Ritzel: Philosophie und Pädagogik im 20. Jahrhundert. Die philosophischen Bemühungen des 20.Jahrhunderts. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1980, .
 : Lieber will ich Steine klopfen. Der Philosoph und Pädagoge <mask> in Leipzig. Leipzig 1996. Wolfgang Schulz: Untersuchungen zur Kulturtheorie <mask>tts. Neue Zugänge zu seinem Werk. Dt.Studien-Verlag, Weinheim 1990, . Gerhard Steindorf: Lernen und Wissen. Theorie des Wissens und der Wissensvermittlung. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1985, . <mask>-Jahrbuch. Published by the Theodor-Litt-Forschungsstelle der Universität Leipzig, Leipzig 1999 ff.,

References

External links

masks:
Theodor Li
Theodor Li
Theodor Li
Theodor Li
Theodor Li
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 Professor <mask> on Universität Leipzig
 Werner Flach: <mask>tts Grundlehre. Dem Andenken Theodor Litts gewidmet.In iablis.de
 Harald Lönnecker: „… den Kern dieses ganzen Wesens hochzuhalten und … zu lieben." <mask> und die studentischen Verbindungen. Frankfurt 2005 (PDF; 288 kB) In burschenschaftsgeschichte.de (zuerst in Dieter Schulz, Heinz-Werner Wollersheim [ed. ]: <mask>tt-Jahrbuch. 4 (2005), , ). First in Dieter Schulz, Heinz-Werner Wollersheim (ed. ): <mask>tt-Jahrbuch. . Volume 4, Leipziger Univ.-Verlag, [Leipzig] 2005, , .In uni-leipzig.de. (Abstract from) Journal der Universität Leipzig. No. 2, April 2000, ,. 33 f. (PDF-S. 35 f.) (PDF; 34,2 MB)
  Der Nachlass des Erziehungswissenschaftlers und Philosophen Theodor Litt. (PDF 43 kB) In kobv.de
 Wolfgang Klafki: Die gegenwärtigen Kontroversen in der deutschen Erziehungswissenschaft über das Verhältnis der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Pädagogik zum Nationalsozialismus. In uni-marburg.de, "[…] Litt's political position in the Weimar Republic was that of a conservative-liberal republican of reason.Out of insight into the socio-political conditions of the time, he unequivocally declared his support for the binding nature of the Constitution of the Weimar Republic and, in the crisis years at the end of the Weimar period, unequivocally opposed right-wing extremism and left-wing extremism. threats to the constitutional state and the autonomy of universities position. At no time was his national attitude in danger of turning nationalistic, and he never gave cause to be misunderstood in this sense. In the first years after 1933, he had the courage – as one of very few university teachers in Germany at the time – to openly criticise the race theory and the historical view of

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Theodor Li
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 National Socialism in publications. […]"
 Littstraße (with a photograph of Litt). In uni-leipzig.de
 Theodor-Litt-Gesellschaft. In uni-leipzig.de (with links to the <mask> symposium, archive, research centre, publications an <mask>tt Preis)
  Litt, <mask> on archivdatenbank.bbf.dipf.<mask> on Lexikon Westfälischer Autorinnen und Autoren – 1750–1950
 <mask> spricht über die Aufgabe der Philosophie in der Gegenwart, Bonn 1959

20th-century German educators
20th-century German philosophers
Philosophers of culture
Rectors of Leipzig University
University of Bonn faculty
German non-fiction literature
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
1880 births
1962 deaths
People from

masks:
Theodor Litt
Theodor Li
Theodor
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Theodor Litt


texts: <mask> (born 28 November 1987) is an English professional golfer and former cricketer who appeared in 71 matches for the England cricket team between 2010 and 2013. Born and raised in South Africa, <mask> moved to England to complete his education, and began playing county cricket for Somerset in 2007. Three years later, he made his international debut in a One Day International (ODI) against Bangladesh. A wicket-keeper batsman, he was considered a one-day specialist, and all his international appearances came in ODIs or Twenty20 Internationals. <mask> played junior cricket for Western Province until the age of 18, but lack of opportunity led him to seek an alternative route in England. He studied at Millfield, where he was noticed by Somerset. The county's lack of a strong wicket-keeper gave Kieswetter his opportunity, and he made his debut for the team early in the 2007 season.Through his Scottish mother, he qualified to play county cricket, and his performances soon generated discussion about his potential to play for England. Around this time, the captain of South Africa, Graeme Smith, invited him to return to play in South Africa but <mask> preferred to qualify for England. In early 2010, <mask> achieved his target; some strong performances for the England Lions, especially in a match against the senior England team, won him a place in the squad to face Bangladesh. His selection, along with the presence of other South African-born players in the England team, was criticised; some commentators suggested there should be fewer foreign-born players in the team. <mask> scored his only international century in his third match, and a couple of months later

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Craig Kieswetter
Kieswetter
Kieswetter
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 he was the man of the match in the final when England won the 2010 ICC World Twenty20. After a promising start for England, he was dropped owing to his inconsistency before the end of 2010. He returned to the team the following year, but his place was insecure, and in 2013 he was replaced by Jos Buttler, his teammate at Somerset.<mask>'s career was cut short by an injury sustained while batting for Somerset in July 2014: a ball penetrated the gap between his helmet's grille and visor and struck him in the face, damaging his vision. There was some hope of a full recovery and he was named in a provisional England squad for the 2015 Cricket World Cup, but he continued to experience difficulties with his vision and he announced his retirement from professional cricket in June 2015, aged 27. In 2017, he became a professional golfer. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Johannesburg to an Afrikaner father, Wayne, and Scottish mother, Belinda. He studied at Diocesan College in Cape Town, and played cricket for Western Province junior teams between the ages of 13 and 18. <mask> was disappointed when he was asked to play club cricket for two or three seasons before returning to play for the senior team; he never received an explanation and decided instead to pursue a cricket career in England, where he moved at the age of 18. He studied for his A-levels for a year at Millfield, where Mark Davis, a former Somerset bowler, spotted him.He was quickly signed by Somerset. At the 2006 Under-19s World Cup in Sri Lanka, he represented South Africa and won a Man of the Match award in a game against the United States for his innings of 80 off 66 balls. <mask> made his

masks: Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter


texts: first appearance for Somerset's second team in May 2006, taking over from Sam Spurway as wicket-keeper midway through a match when the latter was injured. He scored 94 not out in his first innings of that match against Glamorgan, and by the end of the season he had scored  at an average of over 40. His performances were so strong that Somerset chose to release Spurway at the start of the 2007 season, and named <mask> alongside Carl Gazzard as their two wicket-keepers. In early April that year, he made his one-day debut for Somerset against Glamorgan; he made 69 not out off 58 balls and took a catch described as "world class" by Somerset's director of cricket, Brian Rose. He made his first-class debut the following month, keeping wicket while Derbyshire made 801 for8 declared and scored 63 in the Somerset reply.<mask> continued to perform well during 2007 and 2008, and was awarded the NBC Denis Compton Award, as the "most promising young player", for Somerset in both seasons, scoring several fifties in first-class and one-day cricket. Against Glamorgan, he scored 93 while batting at number eight. <mask> came in after two wickets had been lost in an over, with the score at 250 for 6. His innings, which included a partnership of 130 with Andrew Caddick, helped Somerset to reach 402 and eventually win the match. Towards the end of the 2008 season, during a 40-over match against Gloucestershire, <mask> scored his first century for Somerset, scoring  from , and sharing a competition-record 302-run partnership with Marcus Trescothick. In 2009, <mask> passed 1,000 first-class runs in a season for the only time during his career. Early in the year, he scored an

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 unbeaten 150 in a high-scoring draw against Warwickshire, his maiden first-class century.A few weeks later, he scored  against Durham to help his county avoid defeat. In his report for ESPNcricinfo, Andrew McGlashan described Kieswetter as "another likely South African to make the transition to England colours". <mask> scored two further first-class centuries during the year, both at Taunton, against Sussex and Lancashire; he averaged just under 60 for his 1,242 first-class runs in the season. In one-day cricket, <mask> opened the batting alongside Trescothick, and averaged 65.83, scoring an unbeaten 138 off 131 balls against Warwickshire. In the quarter-final of the 2009 Friends Provident Trophy, <mask> scored his second one-day century of the season, but Somerset were defeated by six wickets. His  in the 2009 Twenty20 Cup helped Somerset reach the final of that competition, where they were again beaten by Sussex. He was awarded his county cap during the final game of the 2009 County Championship against Worcestershire.International cricketer

International selection
Following his strong performances for Somerset, <mask> was part of the England Performance Programme squad that spent eight weeks of the English winter training in Loughborough and Pretoria. The South African national cricket captain, Graeme Smith, said he wanted Kieswetter to return to play cricket in South Africa; rather than directly inviting him to play for the South Africa national cricket team, he stated that "the challenge is to get him back into our franchise system first, but he is certainly someone we have seen and would like to get back into the system". <mask> repeated his


texts: desire to play international cricket for England. In 2010, <mask> qualified to play for England on the basis of having a British passport, via his Scottish mother, and his residency in England. Under the rules for international cricket, he had to wait until four years after his last appearance for South Africa, which was on 16 February 2006 during the Under-19s World Cup. In January 2010, he was named as part of the England Lions squad to tour the United Arab Emirates for a series against Pakistan A. The England head coach, Andy Flower, described <mask>'s performances during that tour as "a really good start", and described the Twenty20 warm-up match between the England Lions and the England senior team that followed the tour as "a chance for him to impress".During that match, which was played on the day that he qualified for England, <mask> scored  to help the Lions beat the senior team. After England's drawn T20I series with Pakistan in mid-February 2010, <mask> was added to the senior England squad for the ODI series against Bangladesh. He was immediately included in the team, playing as a specialist batsman alongside wicket-keeper Matt Prior, in the first warm-up match on 23 February against the Bangladesh Cricket Board XI. He scored 143, his career-best one-day score, from 123 balls. That score, and his performances for the England Lions, led to <mask>'s selection for the first ODI against Bangladesh on 28 February. Opening the innings alongside captain Alastair Cook, <mask> struggled in his first over; he made  in an innings described by ESPNcricinfos Andrew Miller as "tinged with nerves" and "chancy". In the next match, two days later, <mask>

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 misplayed his first ball and was nearly dismissed; he was then caught off a similar mishit from the next ball bowled.In the third match, he scored his first international century–  which helped England to 284 for five and a 45-run victory. England won the series 3–0. In contrast to the "hard-hitting batting" which Geoff Miller, the England selector, had cited as one of the reasons for his inclusion, <mask>'s century was patiently built after a nervous start. When the England squad was announced for the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, <mask> was named as the only wicket-keeper in the squad, replacing Prior. <mask> opened the innings with Michael Lumb throughout the tournament, and ESPNcricinfos Andrew McGlashan identified their performances as one of the reasons that England reached the final. During the final, <mask> was England's top-scorer, hitting  from , and was named as the man of the match as England won their first ICC global title. During the tournament, <mask> scored , the fourth-most of any player, at an average of 31.71 and a strike rate of 116.84.Dropped and recalled by England
After returning to England, <mask>'s form dipped, and he scored 121runs from eight ODIs against Australia and Bangladesh. As a result, when England played five ODIs against Pakistan in September, <mask> was omitted and Worcestershire's Steven Davies was preferred, although <mask> was included in the T20I squad. <mask> opened the innings alongside Davies, who was playing as wicket-keeper, in the two T20Is, but made scores of only six and sixteen. Although named in the T20I squad for the tour of Australia, he was not selected to play, and instead took part in the England

masks: Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter Kieswetter


texts: Performance Programme XI tour, before joining up with the England Lions to take part in the Regional Four Day Competition in the West Indies. During the competition, <mask> scored two centuries, against the Leeward Islands and the Combined Campuses and Colleges. <mask> began the 2011 season strongly for Somerset, scoring  in his first four one-day matches, including two centuries. Another century, in the County Championship prompted Jeremy James of ESPNcricinfo to ask "whether <mask> will regain his place in England's one-day side before Jos Buttler assumes it ahead of him".His form earned him a recall to England's one-day squads for the series against Sri Lanka, Geoff Miller saying "[Kieswetter] will offer some real fire power with the bat along with his ability with the gloves". In his first match back for England, the Twenty20 match, <mask> scored only four runs, but he was England's top-scorer in the first ODI match, with . He struck another half-century in the fourth match of the series: he scored 72 not out as England won by ten wickets. A week later, playing for Somerset against Nottinghamshire, he scored , the highest innings of his first-class career, as part of a 290-run partnership with James Hildreth. <mask> remained England wicket-keeper for the T20I and ODI matches against India late in the season. In the T20I, Buttler, his fellow Somerset wicket-keeper, made his debut, albeit as a specialist batsman; Jonny Bairstow, the Yorkshire wicket-keeper, made his debut in the final ODI in a similar role. In that series, <mask> struggled against the moving ball in English conditions but was praised for his attacking batting, including  from  in the

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 second match.Based on the number of appearances that he made for England, <mask> was awarded an incremental contract by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) in September 2011. During England's subsequent 5–0 ODI series loss in India, described by the Wisden Cricketers' Almanacks Stephen Brenkley as "a tour too far for England", <mask> was the only England batsman to maintain a strike rate above 100. He scored one half-century during the tour, and was included in the England Lions squad that toured Sri Lanka three months later. End of international career
Playing for the Lions, <mask> moved into the middle-order, rather than opening the batting; this was intended to prepare him for a similar switch with the senior England team to allow Kevin Pietersen to open. He scored a century and a half-century to help England win the series 3–2, though he was outperformed by Buttler. In early 2012, playing against Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates, <mask> batted only twice in the ODI series, and was praised for his 43-run contribution in the fourth match, though George Dobell of ESPNcricinfo identified his wicket-keeping as "still not as polished as he would like". Although <mask> dropped down the order in ODIs, he retained his place opening the batting in T20Is.In contrast to the 2010 World Twenty20, when the England players were told to attack bat selflessly, in 2012 the team was instructed to avoid losing early wickets, and <mask> struggled to adapt his game to score low-risk singles and rotate the strike. During the 2012 ICC World Twenty20, he lost his place in England's T20I team after a match against New Zealand in which he scored four runs from

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 fourteen balls. That was his final international Twenty20 match. In his 25 games, he scored  at an average of 21.91 and a strike rate of 111.91. Despite his struggles in international cricket, <mask> had a successful season with Somerset in 2012; he scored 848 first-class runs at an average of just over 60, including a century against Warwickshire and one for the Lions against Australia A. The following year, he retained his place in the ODI team for the tour of India, although ESPNcricinfos Alex Winter suggested that it might be due to "England's desire to protect the workload of their players ahead of back-to-back Ashes series." Winter's colleague, Dobell, described the England ODI wicket-keeper position as one of England's key areas requiring resolution, citing both Bairstow and Buttler as candidates to take over, as well as the possibility of Matt Prior, the England Test wicket-keeper, reclaiming the role.<mask> played the first three ODIs of the series, scoring 24 not out, 18 and 0 before he was dropped and replaced by Buttler. Dobell described Kieswetter as "perhaps... a little unfortunate", but cited his inability to adjust his game and the number of balls he blocked as the reasons for his removal. He played , scoring  at an average of 30.11. Later domestic career
The competition between <mask> and Buttler for England's one-day wicket-keeping role also caused conflict at Somerset for the 2013 season: both players wanted to fulfil the role for the county. <mask> began the season as the wicket-keeper in the County Championship, but broke his thumb during the third match of the season, which kept him out of action for six weeks. <mask> had a


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 particularly strong Twenty20 season, finishing as the leading run-scorer in the 2013 Friends Life t20 with , including five half-centuries. His teammate, Peter Trego, praised <mask>'s ability to build big innings in Twenty20 cricket, and <mask> himself said that he "tried to be a bit more of a responsible player, rather than just power blazing."He scored a late-season century against Warwickshire in the County Championship, but in a season in which Somerset struggled against relegation, he scored a relatively modest 606 first-class runs at an average of 31.89. At the end of the season, Buttler, whose contract with Somerset had expired, announced that he was joining Lancashire, leaving <mask> as the clear first-choice wicket-keeper at Somerset. <mask> signed with the Brisbane Heat for the 2013–14 Big Bash League. During the tournament, he scored  from eight matches including two half-centuries. He entered the 2014 Indian Premier League auction, but remained unsold. He was called up as a late replacement for the injured Luke Wright for England's squad in the 2014 ICC World Twenty20, but was not selected to play. He began the 2014 season positively for Somerset, particularly in the Twenty20 competition, in which he scored six half-centuries in ten innings, averaging just under 50.Injury and retirement from cricket

On 12 July 2014, <mask> suffered a broken nose and fractured cheek bone while batting for Somerset against Northamptonshire in a County Championship match. The bowler, David Willey, delivered a bouncer which went through the gap between the grille and the peak of <mask>'s helmet and struck him in the face. The injuries were initially described


texts: by Somerset's chairman, Andy Nash, as "serious but non-career threatening". He underwent facial surgery, and suffered from double vision for a while after. He returned to the Somerset side before the end of the 2014 season and scored a half-century in his first match back, against Middlesex, though he admitted that his vision was still not fully recovered. <mask> signed for the South African franchise Warriors as their overseas player to play in the Ram Slam T20 Challenge for the 2014–15 season. He played all ten matches for the Warriors, scoring  at an average of 22.11, including two half-centuries.On 10 December 2014, despite having been named in England's 30-man provisional 2015 Cricket World Cup squad, <mask> revealed that he was still suffering vision problems. He announced that he would not play in the 2015 season and would seek further treatment. The following June, he announced his retirement from professional cricket, saying that, although he was still capable of playing, he could not play to the standard he wanted: "In the end I just thought, there are too many mediocre players in county cricket– and good luck to them– but I don't want to be another one." He found batting in floodlit conditions particularly difficult, and described the vision in his right eye as being "only at 80 or 85 percent". He finished his career with similar statistics in first-class and one-day cricket; in both he averaged just under 40 and had scored eleven centuries. In Twenty20 cricket, his highest score was 89 not out, and he averaged just over 30. In an interview with ESPNcricinfo shortly after his retirement, <mask> said that he would be interested in working in

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 the media, perhaps as part of a commentary team for Twenty20 matches.Although rare, the injury to Kieswetter was followed by another high-profile case, when Phillip Hughes died after being struck on the head by a cricket ball while batting. These incidents led the ECB to make the wearing of helmets mandatory for professional cricketers in England from the start of the 2016 season, and banned them from wearing helmets with adjustable grilles, specifying that the gap between the grille and the helmet's peak should be no more than . Playing style
<mask>'s confident and attacking batting style was compared to that of Kevin Pietersen, another England batsman of South African origin. Although Kieswetter favoured the off-side, he was also strong behind square on both sides, and stood with a typical South African stance, his bat held high. He played with what Wisden described as an "attractive, uncomplicated front-foot technique". He began his career playing in front of his stumps, but once bowlers had worked out his technique, he moved his batting stance to outside the leg stump to give himself more space to drive the ball. This move had some success on flat subcontinental pitches, but was less effective in England, where the ball tended to change direction more.<mask> admitted that the change had not worked, saying that "I wasn’t really moving my feet. I was staying leg-side and playing with my hands. My technique just wasn’t strong enough to cope." After being dropped by England, <mask> worked on his batting, which had been described by Steve James as a "frenzy at the crease, as manic as a teenager on a night out". He moved back in front of his stumps, and


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 maintained a calmer mentality, aiming to construct an innings. He was generally more highly regarded for his batting than his wicket-keeping, often drawing criticism for the quality of his glovework. Despite this, he was at times considered to be a better wicket-keeper than two of his rivals for England; Bairstow and Buttler.Nonetheless, playing in an era when international teams did not play specialist wicket-keepers, <mask>'s selection was based primarily upon his batting ability, rather than his keeping ability. For a couple of matches during 2012, he was used as an off spin bowler by Somerset, collecting three wickets. Somerset experimented with Kieswetter throughout the order, trying to find the most effective place for him. He began as a middle-order batsman, but by the end of the 2007 season, although he remained in the middle-order in first-class cricket, <mask> regularly found himself opening the batting alongside Marcus Trescothick in one-day cricket, a role he would also take up in opening six matches of the 2009 Twenty20 Cup, although he later dropped back into the middle order to improve the balance of the side. On his international call-up, England chose to use Kieswetter as an opening batsman. He was selected "because of his proven ability to pierce the field in the Powerplay overs, particularly with his booming drives up and over the covers." He later moved down the order for England to accommodate Kevin Pietersen as opener.Golf career
After <mask>'s retirement from cricket, his father suggested that he take a break and play some golf. He had done so during his youth in South Africa, playing in provincial tournaments. After some lessons


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 with David Leadbetter, who suggested that he try to become a professional golfer, <mask> began to enter amateur tournaments. After performing well in those events, he set himself a target of becoming a professional, and playing regularly on the European Tour. In late 2016, he took part in a couple of PGA EuroPro Tour tournaments and one on the MENA Golf Tour. In early 2017, he turned professional and in March played in the MENA Golf Tour qualifying school in Morocco, finishing tied for 31st place and earning a card for the 2017 season. He played regularly on the Tour during 2017 and in September won his biggest prize of the season, winning US$360 in the Dubai Creek Open after finishing tied for 38th place.Notes

References

1987 births
Living people
Alumni of Diocesan College, Cape Town
Brisbane Heat cricketers
England One Day International cricketers
England Twenty20 International cricketers
English male golfers
English people of Scottish descent
English sportspeople of South African descent
NBC Denis Compton Award recipients
People educated at Millfield
Somerset cricketers
South African cricketers
South African emigrants to the United Kingdom
South African people of Scottish descent
Cricketers from Johannesburg
Golfers from Johannesburg
Warriors


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<mask> (November 9, 1731October 19, 1806) was an African-American naturalist, mathematician, astronomer and almanac author. He was a landowner who also worked as a surveyor and farmer. Born in Baltimore County, Maryland, to a free African-American mother and a father who had formerly been enslaved, <mask> had little or no formal education and was largely self-taught. He became known for assisting Major Andrew Ellicott in a survey that established the original borders of the District of Columbia, the federal capital district of the United States. <mask>'s knowledge of astronomy helped him author a commercially successful series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson on the topics of slavery and racial equality. Abolitionists and advocates of racial equality promoted and praised <mask>'s works.Although a fire on the day of <mask>'s funeral destroyed many of his papers and belongings, one of his journals and several of his remaining artifacts are presently available for public viewing. <mask> became a folk-hero after his death, leading to many accounts of his life being exaggerated or embellished. The names of parks, schools and streets commemorate him and his works, as do other tributes. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born on November 9, 1731, in Baltimore County, Maryland, to Mary Banneky, a free black woman, and Robert, a freed slave from Guinea who died in 1759. There are two conflicting accounts of <mask>'s family history. <mask> himself and his earliest biographers described him as having only African ancestry. None of <mask>'s surviving papers describe

masks:
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Banneker
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Benjamin Banneker
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texts: a white ancestor or identify the name of his grandmother.However, later biographers have contended that <mask>'s mother was the child of Molly Welsh, a former white indentured servant, and an African slave named Banneka. The first published description of Molly Welsh was based on interviews with her descendants that took place in 1836, long after the deaths of both Molly and <mask>. According to that story, Molly purchased Banneka to help establish a farm located near the future site of Ellicott's Mills, Maryland, west of Baltimore. A biographer suggested in 2002 that Banneka may have been a member of the Dogon people, who several anthropologists have claimed had an early knowledge of astronomy (see Dogon astronomical beliefs). Molly supposedly freed and married Banneka, who may have shared his knowledge of astronomy with her. The biographer suggested that <mask> acquired this knowledge from Molly, as <mask> was born after Banneka's death. A genealogist who in 2016 reported an analysis of records related to Banneker's family tree was unable to identify any documents that showed that Banneker had a white grandmother, but could not rule out that possibility.The report noted that the name "Bannaker" may have had the same origin as that of Banaka, a small village in the present-day Klay District of Bomi County in northwestern Liberia that had once participated in the African slave trade. A 2021 update to this genealogy stated that <mask>'s father, Robert, was by May 18, 1731, married to Mary Lett (then called Mary Beneca), the daughter of a white woman by an enslaved man.

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 The update noted that Banaka is the  home of the Vai people, who have lived there since about 1500 when they left the Mali Empire. In 1737, <mask> was named at the age of 6 on the deed of his family's  farm in the Patapsco Valley in rural Baltimore County. A letter writer stated in 1791 that <mask>'s parents had sent him to an obscure school where he learned reading, writing and arithmetic as far as double position. However, the remainder of <mask>'s early life is not well documented. Unverified accounts that first appeared in books published more than 140 years after <mask>'s death relate that, as a young teenager, Banneker met and befriended Peter Heinrich, a Quaker who later established a school near the Banneker family farm.(Quakers were leaders in the anti-slavery movement and advocates of racial equality (see Quakers in the abolition movement and Testimony of equality)). These accounts state that Heinrich shared his personal library and provided Banneker with his only classroom instruction. <mask>'s formal education (if any) presumably ended when he was old enough to help on his family's farm. Notable works
Around 1753, at about the age of 21, <mask> reportedly completed a wooden clock that struck on the hour. He appears to have modelled his clock from a borrowed pocket watch by carving each piece to scale. The clock continued to work until his death. After his father died in 1759, <mask> lived with his mother and sisters.In 1768, he signed a Baltimore County petition to move the county seat from Joppa to Baltimore. An entry for his property in a 1773 Baltimore

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 County tax list identified <mask> as the only adult member of his household. In 1772, brothers Andrew Ellicott, John Ellicott and Joseph Ellicott moved from Bucks County, Pennsylvania, and bought land along the Patapsco Falls near <mask>ott's Mills (now Ellicott City) subsequently developed. The Ellicotts were Quakers who held the same views on racial equality as did many of their faith. <mask> studied the mills and became acquainted with their proprietors. In 1788, George Ellicott, a son of Andrew Ellicott, loaned Banneker books and equipment to begin a more formal study of astronomy. During the following year, Banneker sent George his work calculating a solar eclipse.In 1790, <mask> prepared an ephemeris for 1791, which he hoped would be placed within a published almanac. However, he was unable to find a printer that was willing to publish and distribute the work. Survey of the original boundaries of the District of Columbia

In early 1791, U.S. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson asked surveyor Major Andrew Ellicott (a son of Joseph Ellicott and a cousin of George Ellicott) to survey an area that would contain a new federal district. In February 1791, Ellicott left a surveying team that he had been leading in western New York so that he could begin the district's survey. Ellicott then hired <mask> as a replacement to assist in the initial survey of the federal district's boundaries, advancing him $60 for travel expenses to and at Georgetown. The territory that became the original District of Columbia was formed from land along the Potomac River that the states of

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texts: Maryland and Virginia ceded to the federal government of the United States in accordance with the 1790 federal Residence Act and later legislation. The territory was a square that measured  on each side, totaling  (see: Founding of Washington, D.C.).Ellicott's team placed boundary marker stones at or near every mile point along the borders of the new capital territory (see: Boundary markers of the original District of Columbia). Biographers have stated that <mask>'s duties on the survey consisted primarily of making astronomical observations and calculations to establish base points, including one at Jones Point in Alexandria, Virginia, where the survey started and where the south corner stone was to be located. They have also stated that <mask> maintained a clock that he used to relate points on the ground to the positions of stars at specific times. However, some have noted that <mask>'s actual role in the survey is uncertain, as his involvement in the effort "rests on extremely meager documentation". An April 21, 1791, news report of the April 15 dedication ceremony for the first boundary stone (the south corner stone) stated that it was Andrew Ellicott who "ascertained the precise point from which the first line of the district was to proceed". The news report did not mention <mask>'s name. <mask> left the boundary survey in April 1791 within three months of its initiation because the time that he was devoting to the project was conflicting with the time that he had expected to use to calculate an ephemeris for the year of 1792.Further, the arrival of spring

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 required him to direct more attention to his farm than was needed during the winter. In addition, Andrew Ellicott's younger brothers, <mask> and Joseph Ellicott, who usually assisted Andrew, had completed the New York survey and were able to join the survey of the federal district at around that time. <mask> therefore returned to his home near Ellicott's Mills. The Ellicotts and other members of the surveying team then laid the remaining Virginia marker stones later in 1791. The team laid the Maryland stones and completed the boundary survey in 1792. <mask>'s almanacs
After returning to Ellicott's Mills, <mask> made astronomical calculations that predicted eclipses and planetary conjunctions for inclusion in an almanac and ephemeris for the year of 1792. To aid <mask> in his efforts to have his almanac published, Andrew Ellicott (who had been authoring almanacs and ephemerides of his own since 1780) forwarded <mask>'s ephemeris to James Pemberton, the president of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.Pemberton then asked William Waring, a Philadelphia mathematician and ephemeris calculator, and David Rittenhouse, a prominent American astronomer, almanac author, surveyor and scientific instrument maker who was at the time serving as the president of the American Philosophical Society, to confirm the accuracy of <mask>'s work. Waring endorsed <mask>'s work, stating, "I have examined <mask>'s Almanac for 1792, and am of the Opinion that it well deserves the Acceptance and

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texts: Encouragement of the Public." Rittenhouse responded to Pemberton by stating that <mask>'s ephemeris "was a very extraordinary performance, considering the Colour of the Author" and that he "had no doubt that the Calculations are sufficiently accurate for the purposes of a common Almanac. .... Every instance of Genius amongst the Negroes is worthy of attention, because their suppressors seem to lay great stress on their supposed inferior mental abilities." A biographer wrote that <mask> replied to Rittenhouse's endorsement by stating: "I am annoyed to find that the subject of my race is so much stressed. The work is either correct or it is not. In this case, I believe it to be perfect."Pemberton then made arrangements for Joseph Crukshank (a Philadelphia Quaker who was a founder of the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery and who had since 1770 been publishing almanacs, including at least one that Waring had calculated) to print <mask>'s almanac. Having thus secured the support of Pemberton, Rittenhouse and Waring, <mask> delivered a manuscript containing his ephemeris to William Goddard, a Baltimore printer who had published The Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia Almanack and Ephemeris for every year since 1782. Goddard then agreed to print and distribute <mask>'s work within an almanac and ephemeris for the year of 1792. Banneker's Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia Almanack and Ephemeris, for the Year of our Lord, 1792 was the first in a six-year series of almanacs and ephemerides that printers agreed to publish and sell. At least


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 28 editions of the almanacs, some of which appeared during the same year, were printed in seven cities in five states: Baltimore; Philadelphia; Wilmington, Delaware; Alexandria, Virginia; Petersburg, Virginia; Richmond, Virginia; and Trenton, New Jersey. The title pages of the Baltimore editions of Banneker's 1792, 1793 and 1794 almanacs and ephemerides stated that the publications contained:
the Motions of the Sun and Moon, the True Places and Aspects of the Planets, the Rising and Setting of the Sun, Place and Age of the Moon, &c. – The Lunations, Conjunctions, Eclipses, Judgment of the Weather, Festivals, and other remarkable Days; Days for holding the Supreme and Circuit Courts of the United States, as also the useful Courts in Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. Also – several useful Tables, and valuable Receipts.– Various Selections from the Commonplace–Book of the Kentucky Philosopher, an American Sage; with interesting and entertaining Essays, in Prose and Verse –the whole comprising a greater, more pleasing, and useful Variety than any Work of the Kind and Price in North America. (1) (2)

In addition to the information that its title page described, the 1792 almanac contained a tide table listing the methods for calculating the time of high water at four locations along the Chesapeake Bay (Cape Charles and Point Lookout, Virginia; Annapolis and Baltimore, Maryland). Later almanacs contained tables for making such calculations for those locations as well as for Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Halifax, Quebec, Hatteras, Nantucket and other places.


texts: Monthly tables in each edition listed astronomical data and weather predictions for each of the months' dates. A Philadelphia edition of Banneker's 1795 almanac contained a lengthy account of a yellow fever epidemic that had struck that city in 1793. Written by a committee whose president was the city's mayor, Matthew Clarkson, the account related the presumed origins and causes of the epidemic, as well as the extent and duration of the event. The title pages of two Baltimore editions of <mask>'s 1795 almanac had woodcut portraits of him as he may have appeared.However, a biographer later concluded that the portraits were more likely portrayals of an idealized African-American youth. A Baltimore edition of <mask>'s 1796 almanac contained a table enumerating the population of each U.S. state and the Southwest Territory as recorded in the 1790 United States census. The table listed the number of free persons and slaves in each state and the territory according to race and gender, as well as to whether they were above or below the age of 16 years. The table also listed the number of members of the U.S. House of Representatives that each state had during the almanac's year. The almanacs' editors prefaced the publications with adulatory references to <mask> and his race. Editions of <mask>'s 1792 and 1793 almanacs contained full or abridged copies of a lengthy commendatory letter that James McHenry, the Secretary of the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention and self-described friend of <mask>, had written to Goddard and his partner, James Angell, in August 1791 to


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 support the almanac's publication. As first published in <mask>'s 1792 almanac and later given an increased circulation when re-published in Philadelphia within The American Museum, or Universal Magazine, McHenry's full letter began:
<mask>, a free Negro, has calculated an Almanack, for the ensuing year, 1792, which being desirous to dispose of, to the best advantage, he has requested me to aid his application to you for that purpose.Having fully satisfied myself, in respect to his title to this type of authorship, if you can agree to him for the price of his work, I may venture to assure you it will do you credit, as Editors, while it will afford you the opportunity to encourage talents that have thus far surmounted the most discouraging circumstances and prejudices." (2)  Cited in Bedini 1999, p. 190, reference 2. However, the British Parliament's report of the debate that accompanied this effort did not mention either Banneker or his almanac. The title page of a Petersburg edition of <mask>'s 1794 "Virginia Almanack" stated that the work was "Calculated by that ingenious self taught astronomer <mask>, a black man", repeating a term that Angell had used in the 1793 Baltimore almanac. The introduction to a 1795 Philadelphia edition contained a poem titled: "Addressed to <mask>".Perot, full text, pp. 137–138. The verse began and ended:

Fain would the muse exalt her tuneful lays,And chant in strains sublime Banneker's praise;Fain would the soar on Fame's majestic wing,Thy genius, great Banneker, to sing;Thy talents and thy greatness would I shew,Not in applausive

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 strains to thee undue;..............Long may thou live an evidence to shew,That Afric's sable race have talents too.And may thy genius bright its strength retain;Tho' nature to decline may still remain;And may favour us to thy latest yearsWith thy Ephemeris call'd <mask>'s.A work which ages yet unborn shall nameAnd be the monument of lasting fame;A work which after ages shall adore,When Banneker, alas! shall be no more! The writer of a tribute in a 1796 Baltimore edition quoted a quatrain and amended another that an Englishman, Thomas Gray, had placed in a popular poem first published in 1751 (see Adaptations and parodies of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard). (1) § 1. Gray's Family and Life(2) § 9. An Elegy in a Country Churchyard. (3) § 10.Characteristics of the Elegy. The revised rhyme stated:
Nor you ye proud, impute to these the blameIf Afric's sons to genius are unknown,For Banneker has prov'd they may acquire a name,As bright, as lasting, as your own.Bedini, 1972, p. 324. Supported by Andrew, George and Elias Ellicott and heavily promoted by the Maryland and Pennsylvania abolition societies, the early editions of the almanacs achieved commercial success. Printers then distributed at least nine editions of <mask>'s 1795 almanac. A Wilmington, Delaware, printer issued five editions for distribution by different vendors. Printers in Baltimore issued three versions of the almanac, while three Philadelphia printers also sold editions. A Trenton, New Jersey, printer additionally sold a version of the work.(1)  In  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 394, Reference 11. (2)

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 Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 12..(3)  In Whiteman, 1969. (4)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 14. (5)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 15. (6)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 16. (7)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 17. (8)
Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 18.(9) (a) (b)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 19. (10)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 20. (11)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 21. (12)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 396, Reference 22. (13)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 23. (14) (a) (b)  In (c) Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 396, Reference 24. In 1796, <mask> gave a manuscript of one of his almanacs to Suzanna Mason, a member of the Ellicott family who was visiting his home.In 1836, Mason's daughter wrote a published memoir of her mother's life, letters and manuscripts. The memoir contained a copy of a poem that Mason had sent to Banneker shortly after her 1796 visit. A portion of the verse stated:But thou, a man exhalted high,Conspicuous in the world's keen eye,On record now thy name's enrolled,And future ages will be told,There lived a man called <mask>,An African astronomer. Banneker's journals

Banneker kept a series of journals that contained his notebooks for astronomical observations, his diary and accounts of his dreams. The journals, only one of which escaped a fire on the day of his funeral, additionally contained a number of mathematical calculations and puzzles. The surviving journal described in April 1800 Banneker's recollections of the 1749, 1766 and 1783


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 emergences of Brood X of the seventeen-year periodical cicada (Magicicada septendecim and related species) and stated, "... they may be expected again in they year 1800 which is Seventeen Since their third appearance to me." Describing an effect that the pathogenic fungus, Massospora cicadina, has on its host, the journal further stated that the insects:.... begin to Sing or make a noise from first they come out of the Earth till they die.The hindermost part rots off, and it does not appear to be any pain to them, for they still continue on Singing till they die. The journal also recorded <mask>'s observations on the hives and behavior of honey bees. Political views
Banneker's 1792 almanac contained an extract from an anonymous essay entitled "On Negro Slavery, and the Slave Trade" that the Columbian Magazine had published in 1790. After quoting a statement that David Rittenhouse had made (that Negroes "have been doomed to endless slavery by us — merely because their bodies have been disposed to reflect or absorb the rays of light in a way different from ours"), the extract concluded:The time, it is hoped is not very remote, when those ill-fated people, dwelling in this land of freedom, shall commence a participation with the white inhabitants, in the blessings of liberty; and experience the kindly protection of government, for the essential rights of human nature. A Philadelphia edition of <mask>'s 1793 almanac that Joseph Crukshank published contained copies of pleas for peace that the English anti-slavery poet William Cowper and others had authored, as well as


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 anti-slavery speeches and writings from England and America. The latter included extracts from speeches that William Pitt, Matthew Montagu and Charles James Fox had given to the British House of Commons in 1792 during the debate on a motion for the abolition of the British slave trade, an extract from a 1789 poem by an English Quaker, Thomas Wilkinson, and an extract from a query in Thomas Jefferson's 1787 Notes on the State of Virginia.Bedini, 1999, p. 191. Crukshank's edition of <mask>'s 1793 almanac also contained a copy of "A Plan of a Peace-Office, for the United States".Although the almanac did not identify the Plan's author, writers later attributed the work to Dr. <mask>, a signer of the 1776 Declaration of Independence. The Plan proposed the appointment of a "Secretary of Peace", described the Secretary's powers and advocated federal support and promotion of the Christian religion. The Plan stated:
I. Let a Secretary of Peace be appointed to preside in this office; ....; let him be a genuine republican and a sincere Christian, ....

II. Let a power be given to the Secretary to establish and maintain free schools in every city, village and township in the United States; .... Let the youth of our country be instructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and in the doctrines of a religion of some kind; the Christian religion should be preferred to all others; for it belongs to this religion exclusively to teach us not only to cultivate peace with all men, but to forgive—nay more, to love our very enemies. ....

III. Let every family be furnished at public

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 expense, by the Secretary of this office, with an American edition of the Bible.....

IV. Let the following sentence be inscribed in letters of gold over the door of every home in the United States:  THE SON OF MAN CAME INTO THE WORLD, NOT TO DESTROY MEN'S LIVES, BUT TO SAVE THEM. V. To inspire a veneration for human life, and a horror at the shedding of human blood, let all those laws be repealed which authorise juries, judges, sheriffs, or hangmen to assume the resentments of individuals, and to commit murder in cold blood in any case whatever. ....

VI. To subdue that passion for war, .... militia laws should everywhere be repealed, and military dresses and military titles should be laid aside. .... Correspondence with Thomas Jefferson

On August 19, 1791, after departing the federal capital area, Banneker wrote a letter to Thomas Jefferson, who in 1776 had drafted the United States Declaration of Independence and in 1791 was serving as the United States Secretary of State (see: List of Secretaries of State of the United States).(1) Bedini, 1999, pp. 155-163. (2) <mask>, 1792b(1). (3) (4)  Quoting language in the Declaration, the letter expressed a plea for justice for African Americans. To support his plea, <mask> included within his letter a handwritten manuscript of an almanac for 1792 containing his ephemeris with his astronomical calculations. He retained handwritten copies of the letter and Jefferson's August 30, 1791, reply in a volume of manuscripts that became part of a journal. In late 1792, James Angell published a Baltimore edition of <mask>'s 1793

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 almanac that contained copies of <mask>'s letter and Jefferson's reply.Soon afterwards, a Philadelphia printer distributed two sequential editions of a widely circulated pamphlet that also contained the letter and reply.The Universal Asylum, and Columbian Magazine also published <mask>'s letter and Jefferson's reply in Philadelphia in late 1792. The Magazine editors (A Society of Gentlemen) titled the letter as being "from the famous self-taught astronomer, <mask>, a black man". In his letter, <mask> accused Jefferson of criminally using fraud and violence to oppress his slaves by stating:
.... Sir, how pitiable is it to reflect, that altho you were so fully convinced of the benevolence of the Father of mankind, and of his equal and impartial distribution of those rights and privileges which he had conferred upon them, that you should at the same time counteract his mercies, in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren under groaning captivity and cruel oppression, that you should at the Same time be found guilty of that most criminal act, which you professedly detested in others, with respect to your Selves. (1) Allaben, p. 67. (2) Banneker, 1792b(1), p. 8.(3) Bedini, 1999, pp. 160, 162(4) <mask> <mask>(1) Bedini, 1999, pp. 160, 163. (2) <mask>, 1792b(1), p. 10. Jefferson's reply did not directly respond to <mask>'s accusations, but instead expressed his support for the advancement of his "black brethren". His reply, which writers have characterized as "courteous", "polite", "ambivalent", "ambiguous", "evasive", "tepid" and "noncommittal",

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 stated:

Philadelphia Aug. 30.1791.Sir,I thank you sincerely for your letter of the 19th. instant and for the Almanac it contained. no body wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you exhibit, that nature has given to our black brethren, talents equal to those of the other colours of men, & that the appearance of a want of them is owing merely to the degraded condition of their existence both in Africa & America. I can add with truth that no body wishes more ardently to see a good system commenced for raising the condition both of their body & mind to what it ought to be, as fast as the imbecillity of their present existence, and other circumstance which cannot be neglected, will admit. I have taken the liberty of sending your almanac to Monsieur de Condorcet, Secretary of the Academy of sciences at Paris, and member of the Philanthropic society because I considered it as a document to which your whole colour had a right for their justification against the doubts which have been entertained of them. I am with great esteem, Sir,Your most obedt. humble servt.Th: Jefferson

Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis de Condorcet, to whom Jefferson sent Banneker's almanac, was a noted French mathematician and abolitionist who was a member of the French Société des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of the Blacks).(1) Bedini, 1972, pp. 167. (2) (3)  It appears that the Academy of Sciences itself did not receive the almanac. When writing his letter, <mask> informed Jefferson that his 1791 work with Andrew Ellicott on the District boundary survey had affected his


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 work on his 1792 ephemeris and almanac by stating:

.... And altho I had almost declined to make my calculation for the ensuing year, in consequence of that time which I had allotted therefor being taking up at the Federal Territory by the request of Mr. Andrew Ellicott,  ....(1) Allaben, pp. 67–68. "..., but that having taken up my pen in order to direct to you as a present a copy of my Almanac which I have calculated for the Succeeding year, ..... and altho I had almost declined to make my calculation for the ensuing year, in consequence of that time which I had allotted therefor being taking up at the Federal Territory by the request of Mr. Andrew Ellicott, yet finding my Self underal several engagements to printers of this State to whom I have communicated my design, on my return to my place of residence, I industrially applied my Self thereto, ...."(2) Banneker, 1792b, pp. 9–10."And altho I had almost declined to make my calculation for the ensuing year, in consequence of that time which I had allotted therefor being taking up at the Federal Territory by the request of Mr. Andrew Ellicott,  ....". On the same day that he replied to <mask> (August 30, 1791), Jefferson sent a letter to the Marquis de Condorcet that contained the following paragraph relating to <mask>'s race, abilities, almanac and work with Andrew Ellicott:

I am happy to be able to inform you that we have now in the United States a negro, the son of a black man born in Africa, and of a black woman born in the United States, who is a very respectable mathematician. I procured him to be employed


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 under one of our chief directors in laying out the new federal city on the Patowmac, & in the intervals of his leisure, while on that work, he made an Almanac for the next year, which he sent me in his own hand writing, & which I inclose to you. I have seen very elegant solutions of Geometrical problems by him. Add to this that he is a very worthy & respectable member of society. He is a free man. I shall be delighted to see these instances of moral eminence so multiplied as to prove that the want of talents observed in them is merely the effect of their degraded condition, and not proceeding from any difference in the structure of the parts on which intellect depends.(1)  (Original source: (2) (3) Bedini, 1999, p. 166. In 1809, three years after <mask>'s death, Jefferson expressed a different opinion of <mask> in a letter to Joel Barlow that criticized a "diatribe" that a French abolitionist, Henri Grégoire, had written in 1808:the whole do not amount in point of evidence, to what we know ourselves of Banneker. we know he had spherical trigonometry enough to make almanacs, but not without the suspicion of aid from Ellicot, who was his neighbor & friend, & never missed an opportunity of puffing him. I have a long letter from <mask> which shews him to have had a mind of very common stature indeed. (1) (2)  (Original source: )(3) Bedini, 1999, p. 297. Death

<mask> never married. For reasons that are unclear, the four editions of his 1797 almanac were the last ones that printers published.(1)   Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 396, Reference 26. (2)  Bedini, 1999, p. 396,

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 Reference 27. (3)  Bedini, 1999, p. 396, Reference 28. (4)  Bedini, 1999, p. 396, Reference 29. After selling much of his homesite to the Ellicotts and others,(1) Bedini, 1999, pp. 241–251. (2)  he probably died in his log cabin nine years later on October 19, 1806, aged 74.(Some sources state that <mask> died on Sunday, October 9, 1806, which was actually a Thursday. )(1) Bedini, 1999, pp. 270, 272–273. (2)  In (4)  His chronic alcoholism, which worsened as he aged, may have contributed to his death. An obituary concluded:
Mr. <mask> is a prominent instance to prove that a descendant of Africa is susceptible of as great mental improvement and deep knowledge into the mysteries of nature as that of any other nation. A commemorative obelisk that the Maryland Bicentennial Commission and the State Commission on Afro American History and Culture erected in 1977 near his unmarked grave stands in the yard of the Mount Gilboa African Methodist Episcopal Church in Oella, Maryland (see Mount Gilboa Chapel). Artifacts
On the day of his funeral in 1806, a fire burned Banneker's log cabin to the ground, destroying many of his belongings and papers..In 1813, William Goodard, who had published the Baltimore edition of <mask>'s 1792 almanac (Banneker's first published almanac), donated the manuscript for the almanac to the American Antiquarian Society in Worcester, Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston holds in its collections the August 17, 1791, handwritten letter that <mask> sent to Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson endorsed the letter as received on August 21,


texts: 1791. The Library of Congress holds a copy of Jefferson's August 30, 1791, handwritten reply to <mask>. Jefferson produced this document on a letter copying press made by James Watt & Co. that he used before he sent his reply to <mask>. He retained the copy in his files. The Library of Congress also holds a copy of Jefferson's August 30, 1791, handwritten letter to the Marquis de Condorcet that described <mask>'s race, abilities, almanac and work with Andrew Ellicott.Jefferson produced this document on his copying press before sending the handwritten letter to the Marquis. The Library of Congress holds a handwritten duplicate of Jefferson's letter to the Marquis de Condorcet. The pagination in the duplicate differs from that in the copy that Jefferson produced on his copying press. The Library attributes the duplicate to Jefferson. The Princeton University Library holds within its Straus Autograph Collection the recipient's copy of the handwritten letter that Jefferson sent to Joel Barlow in 1809. Jefferson's letter cited the letter that <mask> had sent to him in 1791. Barlow endorsed Jefferson's letter after he received it.The Library of Congress holds a copy of Jefferson's 1809 letter to Joel Barlow that Jefferson had retained in his files after sending his handwritten letter to Barlow. Jefferson used a polygraph device that enabled him to make the copy at the same time that he was writing the original. An Englishman, John Isaac Hawkins, and an American, Charles Willson Peale, had earlier developed this device with the help of Jefferson's suggestions. (1) (2) (3) (4)


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 (5)

In 1987, a member of the Ellicott family, which had retained Banneker's only remaining journal, donated that document and other Banneker manuscripts to the Maryland Historical Society in Baltimore. The family also retained several items that <mask> had used after borrowing them from George Ellicott, as well as some that <mask> himself had owned. (1)  Tyson, pp. 17–18.(2) Bedini, 1972, pp. 301-302. (3) Bedini, 1999, p. 319. In 1996, a descendant of George Ellicott decided to sell at auction some of those items, including a drop-leaf table, candlesticks, candle molds, maps, letters and diaries. Although supporters of the planned Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum in Oella, Maryland, had hoped to obtain these and several other items related to <mask> and the Ellicotts, a Virginia investment banker won most of the items with a series of bids that totaled $85,000. The purchaser stated that he expected to keep some of the items and to donate the rest to the planned African American Civil War Memorial museum in Washington, D.C. In 1997, it was announced that the artifacts would initially be exhibited in the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. and then loaned to the Banneker-Douglass Museum in Annapolis, Maryland.After completion of the <mask>neker Historical Park and Museum in Oella, the artifacts would be loaned to that facility for a period of twenty years. The Oella museum displayed the table, candle molds and candlesticks after it opened in 1998. Mythology and commemorations

A substantial mythology exaggerating <mask>'s accomplishments has

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texts: developed during the two centuries that have elapsed since his death, becoming a part of African-American culture. Several such urban legends describe <mask>'s alleged activities in the Washington, D.C., area around the time that he assisted Andrew Ellicott in the federal district boundary survey. Others involve his clock, his astronomical works, his almanacs and his journals. (1) Whiteman, Maxwell (1969). BENJAMIN BANNEKER: Surveyor and Astronomer: 1731-1806: A biographical note In Whiteman, Maxwell (ed.)"The plan for a "Peace Office" in the Government of the United States, which also appeared in this issue (<mask>'s 1793 Philadelphia almanac) has been attributed to Banneker. According to Edwin Wolf 2nd, Librarian of the Library Company of Philadelphia from whose institution these copies have been made, the "Peace Office" is the work of Dr. <mask>. "(2) Bedini, 1972, p. 186. "Another important item in the 1793 almanac was "A Plan Of a Peace-Office for the United States," which aroused a good deal of comment at the time. It was believed by many to have been <mask>'s own work. Even within recent decades its authorship has been debated. In 1947 it was identified without question as the work of Dr. <mask>, in a volume of his writings that appeared in that year."(3) Bedini, 1972, p. 403, Item 85 "William Loren Katz. Eyewitness, the Negro in American History. New York. Putnam Publishing Corp., 1967 pp. 19–31, 61–62.Brief account of <mask>'s career and contributions, which are stated to have been in "the fields of science, mathematics, and political affairs, .... ." Among

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 the misstatements are the claims that <mask> produced the first clock made entirely with American parts, .... ."(4) (5) Bedini, 1999, p. 43. "<mask>'s clock was by no means the first timepiece in tidewater Maryland, as occasionally has erroneously been claimed. Timepieces were well known and available from the very earliest English settlements, ...."(6)

A United States postage stamp and the names of a number of recreational and cultural facilities, schools, streets, and other facilities and institutions throughout the United States have commemorated Banneker's documented and mythical accomplishments throughout the years since he lived.In 1983, Rita Dove, a future Poet Laureate of the United States, wrote a biographical poem about Banneker while on the faculty of Arizona State University. Electronic copies of <mask>'s publications

(1) In
(2) In

(1) Pages 3–10:
(2) Pages 11–12:

(1) Pages 222–224:
(2) Page 224:
  In''

See also
List of African-American inventors and scientists

Notes

References

Further reading

. Title page from Bedini, 1999, p. 314. External links

 .
 .

  Archived on July 28, 2015. 1731 births
1806 deaths
African-American writers
18th-century American male writers
People from Baltimore County,


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<mask> was an officer in the United States Army who received the Medal of Honor for actions near Majada, Laguna Province, Philippines, July 2, 1901. He was chief of staff of the 92nd Division during World War 1. Military career

Medal of Honor
He was awarded the Medal of Honor on March 10, 1902, for his action on July 2, 1901, during the Philippine Insurrection, when he charged alone against an insurgent outpost with his pistol, killing one, wounding two, and capturing three, with their rifles and equipment. The action took place near Majada, Laguna Province. Infantry
After his graduation from college, <mask>, with J. Walter Canada, raised sixty volunteers for duty in the Spanish–American War (Company L), and he was made their lieutenant. The company, also known as the 4th Tennessee Volunteer Infantry, did duty in Cuba under Captain Cordell Hull. It was composed of the members of <mask>'s college graduating class.<mask> was commissioned in July 1898 as a second lieutenant in the Army. During the Philippine Insurrection he commanded a company of Philippine Scouts in Cavite Province. In 1904, as a lieutenant, <mask> moved from the 4th Infantry to the 28th Infantry, and in 1908, he was a recruiting officer with the 12th Cavalry Regiment, stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. <mask> was an honorary graduate of the Army School of the Line in 1912. In 1913, he was a captain with the 16th Infantry Regiment, and in August 1914, he was stationed in or near El Paso, Texas, with that regiment. <mask> was a graduate of the Army Staff College in 1915, and in August of that year he was the adjutant at a new Army training camp at the Presidio. He served with <mask>. Pershing in the Punitive Expedition in Mexico in 1916.At the beginning of United States involvement in World War One, Captain <mask> was in Tennessee, where he and Lieutenant-Colonel Luke Lea began

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 a volunteer light-artillery unit, which later became the 114th Field Artillery. In the American Expeditionary Force in Europe, Colonel <mask> was chief of staff of the 92nd Infantry Division, composed of black troops, except for higher officers. Military historian Robert H. Ferrell wrote that <mask> "took assignments because of the opportunity for promotion and perhaps opportunity to move out of the division to more attractive" positions. He was a graduate of the Field Artillery School Advanced Course in 1923, and he graduated from the Army War College in 1925. In 1927 he transferred from the infantry to the artillery. In postwar service, <mask> was an instructor with the organized army reserves in Buffalo, New York. Legal duties
In 1908 <mask> was named an Army judge advocate.He was sent to Mindanao, Philippines, as part of the 28th Infantry. He was later transferred to the 7th Infantry. In 1910, he was ordered to St. Louis, Missouri, where he was to be acting judge advocate in the Department of the Missouri. Around 1913 <mask> was detailed to attend a military law school at Fort Leavenworth, after which he was selected to defend Colonel Lewis E. Goudier, who was accused of interfering with the administration of the Army's aviation school in San Diego, California. Civilian Conservation Corps
In May 1933, <mask> was appointed commandant of Group or District 4 of the Civilian Conservation Corps in Tompkins County, New York. He was one of the officers who "helped restore order following a mutiny of Negro recruits" in the CCC camp at Preston, New York. He was at the camp for reveille on July 8, 1933, but "satisfied that the trouble was over, [he] left the camp early."The black corpsmen had protested when two Negro clerks were replaced by whites. Six were arrested and 34 others were "sent back to Harlem." Retirement
In April 1940, the "Army Orders"

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 stated that "Col. <mask><mask>, Field Artillery, [is] relieved from Fort Hayes, O., and, for the convenience of the government[,] will proceed to his home and await retirement." "Army Orders" stated in September 1940: "By direction of the President, Col. <mask><mask>, Field Artillery, upon his own application[,] is retired from active service effective Sept. 30, 1940." Opinions and persuasion

Cavalry
In 1915, Captain <mask>, as an instructor at the Presidio training camp, paid tribute to the horse as a still-valid tool in twentieth-century warfare. In a class lecture, he said that despite the advent of the airplane, the cavalry was still best for gathering information, patrolling, reconnoitering, and harassing the enemy. The leader any given horse-mounted scouting unit had to be equipped with a compass, a map, field glasses, pencil and notebook, message blanks, and a watch.He noted the importance of the "getaway man" on the battlefield, a rider who would be detached from the scouting party but still be in touch with it. African-American soldiers

Letter to senator
In 1919, Colonel <mask> was stationed in Washington, D.C., between assignments in Europe. Self-identified as "General Staff, U.S.A," he wrote a letter to U.S. Senator Kenneth D. McKellar of Tennessee which contained, according to a newspaper account, "startling revelations as to negro troops failing to measure up to the required standard of efficiency and valor while in active service." According to historian Robert H. Ferrell, <mask> also sent letters to "officers he thought might enlighten the department on the use of African-American troops" in the Army. He gave out copies of his letter to reporters in Washington with the aim of getting publicity for his views, not only "from a military point of view but from that which all southerners have. I refer to the question of negro

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 officers and negro troops."He noted that he had been chief of staff of the mostly black 92nd Division since it was organized in October 1917,

The letter stated:
To start with, all company officers of infantry, machine guns and engineers were negroes, as were most of the artillery lieutenants and many of the doctors. Gradually as their incompetence became perfectly evident to all, the engineers and artillerymen were replaced by white officers. ... The letter said that the black soldiers of an American regiment attached to a French corps failed "in all their missions, laid down and sneaked to the rear, until they were withdrawn. Thirty officers of this regiment alone were reported for cowardice or failure to prevent their men from retreating." <mask> claimed that the 92nd Division had "had about thirty cases of rape, among which was one where twenty-two men at Camp Grant (Illinois) raped one womam, and we have had eight (I believe) reported in France with about fifteen attempts besides." There have been numerous accidental shootings, several murders, and also several cases of patrols or sentinels shooting at each other. . . . at the same time, so strict has been the supervision and training that many officers passing through our areas would remark that our men actually had the outer marks of better discipline than the other divisions. . . . Gen. Bullard asked me my estimate[,] and I said they could do anything but fight.Of the black troops, <mask> said, "Accuracy and the ability to describe facts is lacking in all[,] and most of them are just plain liars in addition." He stated: "They have, in fact, been dangerous to no one but themselves and women." Historian Ferrell wrote:

But what was surprising was his [<mask>'s] animus against African-Americans on the rape question. One might well ask how he could have said such things. On this point, he

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 provided no answers, only statements. . . . The colonel blamed black misconduct of this sort entirely on black officers. In regiments of engineers and artillery where supervised by white officers there had been only a single case of rape.He quoted <mask> as writing: "The undoubted truth is that the colored officers neither control nor care to control the men. They themselves have been engaged largely in the pursuit of French women, it being their first opportunity to meet white women who did not treat them as servants." Response
Editors of black publications The Crisis of New York and The Eagle of Washington, D.C., began a movement to have <mask> fired from the Army. According to W.E.B. Dubois, the publisher of The Crisis, the Post Office Department held up the magazine's distribution of its May 1919 issue because of "articles in the magazine related to prejudice alleged to have been shown toward American negro officers in France by white officers." That issue contained the full text of <mask>'s letter. The League for Democracy, an organization of Negro officers, wrote an objection to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, stating: "We cannot permit our descendants to read this letter [<mask>'s] in future histories and look upon our graves with scorn and contempt. . . .In this matter our slogan is '<mask> must be tried and the race vindicated.'" Oath of allegiance
Lieutenant-Colonel <mask> was a prosecutor in the noted June 1922 court-martial of Major Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, who was convicted of violating the 96th Article of War in publishing an open letter to President Warren G. Harding critical of the Army's high command. Wheeler-Nicholson based his defense on freedom of speech, but, as The New York Times put it, <mask> argued "that when an officer or soldier took the oath of allegiance [,] he waived these rights. He said he would sum up the

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 whole history of the case in the words of a song, 'Everybody's Out of Step but Jim,' referring to Major Nicholson." <mask> said that the Army way of doing things might not be perfect but constructive criticism was always welcome. He said of Nicholson's stance: "[A]ny attempt to restrain him has been tyranny. Any orders applying to him which he does not like are styled Prussianism.The service at large apparently meant nothing to him." Type of cannon
According to <mask>, while serving under Gen. Douglas MacArthur after 1927, <mask> promoted the use of the 105 mm cannons over the 75 mms by writing an article which drew the support of his commander-in-chief." "I knew I was right or I would not have written the article," he told MacArthur. Personal life

Birth and education
<mask> was born August 11, 1878, in Memphis, Tennessee, the son of Judge <mask><mask> of Mississippi and Betty Buckner <mask> of Lexington, Kentucky. He had two brothers, Autrey and Rowan Adams. He earned a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Tennessee in 1898, a Bachelor of Laws from the University of Minnesota in 1907, and a Master of Arts from the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1938. Marriages and children

First marriage

<mask>, who in 1903 was described as one of the "social lions" of San Antonio, Texas, was married on June 1 of that year to Augusta Goodhue of Beaumont, Texas, the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. <mask>. Goodhue, in Trinity Episcopal Church, San Francisco, California.It was "one of the events of the season in Army society." The next day they sailed for the Philippines, where Lieutenant <mask> was to be stationed with the 4th Infantry Regiment. The two returned to the United States the next year aboard the USAT Thomas. It was reported they had "quarreled and separated." A newspaper said that "At every meal they sat at the same table without speaking

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 to each other." Upon landing, <mask> went to the Palace Hotel and his wife to the California Hotel. It was noted that Mrs. <mask> had been the object of "considerable attention" aboard the ship by a fellow passenger, Ulysses S. Grant III, who "last night spent the evening with her at her apartments, which she shares with Mrs. Lake, the wife of a Honolulu hotel man."Mrs. <mask> told a reporter that she and her husband had "agreed that I shall, if I can, get a divorce on the grounds of incompatibility. If not, we will live apart. . . . It is outrageous for anybody to intimate that Lieutenant Grant came between my husband and myself. . . . We cannot live together and have agreed to disagree." Grant said: "I never met Lieutenant <mask> and his wife until the Thomas was ten days out from Manila. . . . What little attention I have shown the lady is what any gentleman surely could and can show without being criticized. Grant and Mrs. <mask> went to the theater together in San Francisco but each denied that their relationship was the cause of any rupture in the <mask> marriage. An uncontested divorce was granted to <mask> in December 1904 on the ground of desertion. He alleged that his wife refused to live with him in Fort Snelling, Minnesota.She resumed her birth name. Second marriage

In 1913, Captain <mask> was again a husband. His wife was costumed as a "colonial girl" at a dress ball presented by the Presidio Officers' Club. By 1914, they had a son, <mask>, and a daughter. They were divorced in San Francisco in 1919. In 1919, <mask> lived at 2701 Green Street, near the San Francisco Presidio. At the time of the 1920 census <mask> was single and living on a military base in Germany.In 1933, <mask> broke his collarbone when he and his daughter were in an automobile accident in Valparaiso, Indiana, as he drove her back to the University of Wisconsin.

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 Third marriage

In 1927, <mask> met Mary Owings Smith of Olympia, Washington, when he was stationed at Fort Lewis in that state. Later that year, he was living in San Francisco, at 2640 Van Ness Avenue. Colonel <mask>, 51, and Smith, 25, were married November 30, 1929, in San Francisco. They sailed the succeeding week for the Philippines, where <mask> was to be stationed. At the time of the 1940 census, <mask> was single and living in  Buffalo, New York. Civilian life

After leaving the Army, <mask> wrote for the North American Newspaper Alliance.He said he was a military analyst for the Buffalo Evening News in Europe and Japan during World War II and that he wrote about the Bikini atomic-bomb tests in 1946. Retirement and death

In 1961, <mask> was living in San Clemente, California, with his son, <mask>., and daughter-in-law. A reporter described him as "mellow," "scholarly" and "almost a disinterested spectator" of the modern world who "walks around his neighborhood and occasionally has a beer." <mask> died on March 16, 1964, in Orange, California, at the age of 85. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. His grave can be found in section 1, Lot 701-B. See also

 List of Medal of Honor recipients
 List of Philippine–American War Medal of Honor recipients

Further reading
  "Charges That Dr. Dubois Published Belated Letters," The Richmond Planet, July 19, 1919, page 1 (letter by black journalist Ralph Waldo Tyler to W.E.B.DuBois that Tyler had reported the news about <mask>'s letter to Senator McKellar before The Crisis had the story)

References

United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
United States Army colonels
1878 births
1964 deaths
People from Memphis, Tennessee
American military personnel of the Philippine–American War
Philippine–American War recipients of the Medal

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