texts: visible in the church's pavement. He also spent some time in Perugia, at the invitation of the governor, where he prepared maps of the Perugian republic. On account of his mathematical skills, Pope Gregory XIII invited him to Rome, appointed him pontifical mathematician and made him a member of the commission for the reform of the calendar. He also placed him in charge of the painters whom the Pope had summoned to the Vatican to continue the decoration of the palace, most notably to make a number of maps of the regions of modern Italy in the newly constructed Gallery of Maps along the Cortile del Belvedere. This project, begun in early 1580 and completed about 18 months later, mapped the entirety of the Italian peninsula in 40 large-scale frescoes, each depicting a region as well as a perspective view of its most prominent city. When the pontiff commissioned the architect Domenico Fontana to repair the Claudian harbour it was Danti who furnished the necessary plans. While at Rome Danti published a translation of a portion of Euclid with annotations and wrote a life of the architect Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, preparing also notes for the latter's work on perspective.In 1583, in recognition of his work, Gregory made him Bishop of Alatri in the Campagna. He was appointed on 14 November 1583, and consecrated as bishop on 30 November 1583 by Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti de Nuce, Patriarch of Jerusalem. with Giovanni Battista Santorio, Bishop of Alife, and Gerolamo Mazzarelli, Bishop of Nona, serving as co-consecrators. Danti showed himself a zealous pastor in his new office. As Bishop of Alatri, Danti convoked a diocesan synod, corrected many abuses, and showed great solicitude for the poor. While bishop, he was the principal co-consecrator of Marco Pedacca, Bishop of Lacedonia (1584); and Basilio


type: original

texts:
 Gradi, Bishop of Stagno (1584). Shortly before his death Pope Sixtus V summoned him to Rome to assist in the erection of the grand obelisk in the piazza of the Vatican.Besides the works already mentioned, <mask> was the author of Trattato del'uso e della fabbrica dell'astrolabo con la giunta del planifero del Raja; Le Scienze matematiche ridotte in tavole, also a revised and annotated edition of La Sfera di Messer G. Sacrobosco tradotta da Pier Vincenzio <mask>. The first mentioned work deals with the use and construction of the astrolabe and is one of the oldest instructions for scientific instruments. <mask> wrote the first Italian treatise on this topic to accompany the book. <mask> died at Alatri on 10 October 1586, three years into his service. In 1588, Giovanni Antonio Magini was chosen to occupy the chair of mathematics at the University of Bologna, over Galileo. Works

See also

List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics

References

External links and additional sources

 (for Chronology of Bishops)
 (for Chronology of Bishops)
 Egnatio <mask>, Les deux règles de la perspective pratique de Vignole, 1583, Pascal Dubourg Glatigny, Paris, 2003, . <mask> <mask> at the Catholic Encyclopedia

Mark Rosen, The Mapping of Power in Renaissance Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of <mask> <mask> in .jpg and .tiff format. 1536 births
1586 deaths
People from Perugia
16th-century Italian mathematicians
16th-century Italian cartographers
16th-century Italian astronomers
Italian Dominicans
16th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops
Bishops in Lazio
Catholic clergy scientists
Italian scientific instrument makers
Bishops appointed by Pope Gregory

masks: Danti Danti Danti Danti Danti Ignazio Danti Ignazio Danti


texts:
<mask> (July 13, 1881 – October 22, 1963) was an arts patron, philanthropist and a founder of the Berkshire Symphonic Festival, which came to be known as Tanglewood. At the height of the Great Depression, <mask> gathered the human resources and secured the financial backing that supported the festival's early success. Her leadership from the first concerts in August 1934 through the mid-1950s has been recognized as foundational to assuring the success of one of the world's most celebrated seasonal music festivals. Early life
<mask> was the daughter of <mask> and Jeannie Porter Steele. She was born in New York City on July 13, 1881. Her father was a prosperous corporate lawyer and director of Allied Chemical. Her father was an active member of the New York Bar Association and was active in helping to write what is today's corporate law.After World War I, <mask> <mask> wrote many articles advocating the forgiveness of war debts for which he received the French Legion of Honor. Other material relates primarily to United States Tax laws. Her mother was the child of wealthy American parents and raised primarily in Paris. She had two sibling, sisters Elsa, who died in childhood, and Hilda, who married Lyman Beecher Stowe, the grandson of Harriet Beecher Stowe. <mask>'s childhood was spent largely between New York City and Paris. Life in the Berkshires
As World War I raged in Europe, the <mask> family moved their summer vacations from France to the Berkshire Hills of western Massachusetts. During the Gilded Age, the region had been highly favored by families of prominence and wealth.The Great Depression had taken its toll on the Berkshire's summer colony, but it was still popular with families whose fortunes were intact. Her father purchased an estate in the Glendale section of Stockbridge near Chesterwood the home of his friend sculptor Daniel Chester French. By now in her mid-thirties, <mask> would not

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Gertrude Robinson Smith
Smith
Gertrude Robinson Smith
Charles Robinson Smith
Charles Robinson
Smith
Gertrude
Smith
Smith


texts:
 sit out the War in the safety of her family's new estate. She and Edith Wharton joined forces to organize medical supplies for the troops in France. Traveling to Europe in a blacked-out ship, she flew over the front lines to help deliver the supplies. She also took some of the first aerial photographs of active combat which were published by the New York Times and New York Herald Tribune. In recognition of her fund raising to buy Ice Trucks to deliver blood to wounded soldiers, <mask> was made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honor.In 1919 with the help of her friend Miriam Oliver and a few local artisans, <mask> constructed her own residence on the family's Stockbridge property. With her cultured background and formidable presence, she became a well known personality among the region's rich and famous summer residents. First concert season
In the spring of 1934 <mask> was approached by Henry Kimball Hadley, a composer and the Associate Conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra. While he was in the Berkshires seeking support for his dream of creating a summer classical music concert series, fortune smiled when he was referred to <mask>. Her passionate appreciation of classical music, confident take charge reputation and circle of wealthy friends quickly led to a brief inaugural series of concerts that summer. Berkshire historian Carole Owens recounts <mask>'s ready response to the challenge, "<mask>, a woman of girth, guts and money, seemingly without pausing for breath, set about launching a cultural institution in a midst of a depression. She did it in three months.In August 1934 the first outdoor concerts called the Berkshire Symphonic Festival took place." These first concerts were held in the Interlaken neighborhood of Stockbridge on the grounds of an estate owned by Daniel Hanna, son of Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna. Tanglewood

Following the initial success of the 1934 and 1935

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 summer concerts, <mask> and Hadley began to plan for an annual seasonal festival. In 1936 the venue moved to Holmwood, the home of Margaret Vanderbilt in nearby Lenox. That season saw the Boston Symphony Orchestra (BSO) replace the New York Philharmonic Orchestra as the festival's crown jewel. Under the direction of Serge Koussevitzky the BSO gave its first concert in the Berkshires on August 13, 1936. In 1937 the site changed to "Tanglewood", an estate donated by Mrs. Gorham Brooks and Miss Mary Aspinwall Tappan."Tanglewood" took its name from Tanglewood Tales, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, while he lived in a cottage located on the estate. In 1937 a powerful summer storm gave <mask> the opportunity to transform a drenching rain into a triumph the following summer. Her take charge determination took center stage as recalled in a 1990 Berkshire Magazine article titled “Madame Chairman”: A now infamous episode revealing <mask>’s strength of character occurred on the night of August 12, 1937, when a thunderstorm stopped the festival performance of Wagner’s "Ride of the Valkyries". A "Boston Globe" article recounts how <mask> strode purposefully to the stage when the concert stopped and addressed the record crowd of 5,000, haranguing: “Now do you see why we must have a permanent building for these concerts?”  In minutes, more than $30,000 was raised. The thunderstorm and <mask> Saarinen designed Music Shed opened the following season on August 4, 1938. <mask>'s speech at the dedication was recorded and archived, so can still he heard. Nearly eighty years later, the venerable Koussevitzky Music Shed continues to serve as Tanglewood's main stage.Legacy
<mask> <mask>'s persuasive confidence and relentless hard work helped to create and lead Tanglewood through the success of its early years. Efforts by <mask> and her cadre of wealthy patrons and music lovers were essential to the development of what has

masks:
Smith
Smith
Robinson Smith
Robinson Smith
Smithel
Smith
Gertrude Robinson
Smith
Smith


texts:
 become a multi-faceted festival of performance and musician training. Writing in the August 27, 2012 edition of the New Yorker Magazine on the occasion of Tanglewood's seventy-fifth anniversary, Alex Ross recalls a pivotal moment Tanglewood emerged from the Berkshire Symphonic Festival, which originally offered the New York Philharmonic as its main attraction. <mask> <mask>, a formidable local philanthropist who campaigned for women’s welfare and reportedly threw a mean curveball, was the festival’s leading patron, and when the Philharmonic lost interest <mask> turned instead to Koussevitzky, who seized on her notion that the enterprise could become an American version of the Salzburg Festival. Ambitious and bold, <mask>'s vision of an annual summer music festival comparable to the Salzburg Festival, has met and exceeded expectations from those first Depression era Berkshire summers. In 1966 the festival was expanded to include a highly regarded instructional program for young musicians, the Boston University Tanglewood Institute. Concerts by these gifted young musicians draw large audiences.<mask>'s cultured background, commanding presence and organizational talents served her well as President of the Berkshire Symphonic Festival from 1934 through 1955. Through these first two decades she led a fledgling festival to the enduring success and international acclaim enjoyed by Tanglewood today. <mask> <mask> died on October 22, 1963 in New York City at New York Hospital. She had suffered a stroke a month earlier. References

External links
 <mask> <mask> speaks at the Dedication of Tanglewood’s historic Music Shed Retrieved December 19, 2015
 The Grand Dames of Berkshire Music, by Carole Owens Retrieved June 25, 2016

American patrons of music
1881 births
1963 deaths
People from New York City
People from Stockbridge, Massachusetts
Philanthropists from New York (state)
20th-century American

masks:
Gertrude Robinson
Smith
Smith
Smith
Smith
Gertrude Robinson
Smith
Gertrude Robin
Smith


texts:
<mask><mask> (born 1959) is an American writer and historian from North Carolina who specializes in the issues of culture, religion, and race associated with the Civil Rights Movement of the twentieth century. He has joint appointments at Duke University and the University of North Carolina. He has won numerous teaching awards, as well as recognition for creative and experimental courses. In one, he took students on a tour of sites of important civil rights events in the South. His books have won the Frederick Jackson Turner Award, James A. Rawley Prize (OAH), the 2007 University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Religion, and the Southern Book Award. In addition, two of his books, Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the Black Freedom Struggle (1998) and Blood Done Sign My Name (2004), have been adapted as films, and the latter also as a 2008 play. In 2017 <mask> published The Blood of Emmett Till, which was longlisted for the National Book Award.Early life and education
<mask> was born in North Carolina. His parents are <mask>, a Methodist minister, and <mask>, a school teacher. In his youth, the family was living in Oxford, North Carolina, in 1970, when Henry Marrow, a 23-year-old black veteran, was killed by three white men. The suspects were acquitted by an all-white jury. Blacks organized a boycott of white businesses in the mostly segregated town, and achieved integration after 18 months. <mask>'s father was driven out of his church because of his support of the civil rights movement. <mask> attended the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and graduated with a B.A.at Emory University in 1987. He earned his PhD in history at Duke University in 1994. Teaching career
<mask> began his teaching career at Duke University, where he taught "United States History from the New Deal to the Present" for two years while finishing his doctorate in 1994. During that time, he was named Research Fellow at the Center for Ethical Studies at Duke University, for his work, "Dynamite: A Story from the Second Reconstruction in South Carolina," which was later published in Glenda Gilmore, et al., Jumpin' Jim Crow: The New Southern Political

masks:
Timothy B
. Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Vernon Tyson
Martha Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Tyson


texts: History (Princeton University Press, 2000.) He won the Mattie Russell Teaching Fellowship for his course, "And Still I Rise: African American Culture in the Twentieth Century." In 1994, <mask> became assistant professor of Afro-American Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he taught "Introduction to Afro-American History," "Race and American Politics," and "Freedom Stories: Writing Movement History." He won the Lilly Teaching Award for 1996–97.With three colleagues, professors Craig Werner and Steve Kantrowitz, and graduate assistant Danielle McGuire, <mask> led a series of busloads of students from Madison to Chicago, Illinois; Nashville, Tennessee; and then on to Birmingham, Selma, and Montgomery, Alabama; Jackson, Hattiesburg, and Duck Hill, Mississippi; and New Orleans, Louisiana, to explore and discuss the civil rights histories of these cities. Called Freedom Ride: The Sites and Sounds of the Civil Rights Movement, it won the 2002 Best Course Award from the North American Association of Summer Sessions. <mask> became full professor of Afro-American Studies. From 2002 to the present, <mask> was named Distinguished Lecturer by the Organization of American Historians. <mask> was selected as a John Hope Franklin Senior Fellow at the National Humanities Center in 2004-05. He returned to Duke University, where he serves as Senior Research Scholar at the Center for Documentary Studies, with secondary appointments in the Duke Divinity School and the Department of History. At the Divinity School, <mask> teaches about race, religion and civil rights in the South.He also has a position in the Department of American Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In 2007, <mask> taught an experimental course entitled "The South in Black and White," which met at Hayti Heritage Center in downtown Durham, for students of Duke, North Carolina Central University, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In the fall of 2008, <mask> and Mary D. Williams, a leading gospel singer, led a community-based course in Wilmington, called "Wilmington in Black and White." Meeting at the historic Williston School, participants

masks: Tyson Tyson Tyson Tyson Tyson Tyson Tyson Tyson


texts:
 explored the ways that Southern history and culture may illuminate efforts at racial reconciliation and healing in one community. Blood Done Sign My Name
<mask>'s books include Blood Done Sign My Name (2004), published by Crown, a memoir and history of the killing by whites of Henry Marrow, a black Army veteran, in Oxford, North Carolina in 1970. The book explores the African-American reaction to acquittal of the suspects by the all-white jury. There was violence, but also organized protests: a march to the capital and an 18-month boycott of white businesses that achieved eventual integration in the town.<mask> drew from research that he did in the 1990s and completed as his master's thesis. The Blood of Emmett Till
The Blood of Emmett Till by <mask><mask> published in 2017 reexamines events from 1955. Law agencies and historians have investigated the Till case for years. Now <mask><mask> has a shocking Revelations. <mask> the crafty author got the reaction from the audience he wanted when he released his book, The Blood of Emmett Till in 2017. <mask> stated in his book a shocking confection, that the women in question recanted her statement made under oath in 1955. <mask> stated all over the news networks and in his book promotions, that the women in question changed her statement.After the release of <mask>’s book with the recanted statement, it prompted a new investigation to <mask>’s claim. The Department of Justice’s Civil Rights Division, the United States Attorney’s Office for the Northern District of Mississippi, and the Mississippi District Attorney’s Office, Fourth District and the FBI to look into the truthfulness of Tyson’s claim. The FBI interviewed <mask> and his assistant. The FBI looked at all of <mask>’s recorded and sparsely written notes. <mask> nor his assistant could produce any evidence that XXXX change her testimony. A mistake made by <mask> a Research Scholar and his assistant, or a Blatant Fabrication. The FBI did not fine sufficient evidence where XXXX recanted anything.After a three-year invitation at Taxpayers’ expense, the FBI closed the Emmett Till case in December 2021

Reception
 2005, the book won the Southern

masks:
Tyson
Tyson
Timothy B
. Tyson
Timothy B
. Tyson
Timothy Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Tyson
Tyson


texts:
 Book Award and was a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award. 2006, <mask> was awarded the Grawemeyer Award in Religion, which carries a $200,000 cash prize, by the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary. His book has been selected by dozens of college and community reading programs, including University of North Carolina, Villanova University, the University of Iowa, Guilford College, the University of North Carolina-Asheville, and Greensboro College, and also "One Book, One Community" reading programs in Wilmington, Rocky Mount, Wake County, and other North Carolina communities. Adaptations
 The Hollywood screenwriter and director Jeb Stuart, best known for The Fugitive and Die Hard, wrote a screenplay based on Blood Done Sign My Name and directed the movie of the same name. It was filmed in Shelby, Charlotte, Gastonia, Monroe, and Statesville, North Carolina, in the summer of 2008. Nate Parker, the star of The Great Debaters, plays Benjamin Chavis. Rick Schroder of NYPD Blue stars as <mask>, a Methodist minister.An independent film, Blood Done Sign My Name was released in February 2010. Mike Wiley, playwright and actor, adapted the book as a play by the same name; Blood Done Sign My Name (2008) premiered at Duke University's Shaefer Theater. It was also produced at the city hall in Oxford, North Carolina on February 13, 2009, where it played to a packed house that gave it a standing ovation. Work on Robert F. Williams
In 1998, <mask> published the article, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the Black Freedom Struggle", in the Journal of American History. The following year, he published the book Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (1999). It won the Frederick Jackson Turner Prize for best first book in U.S. history from the Organization of American Historians, as well as the James A. Rawley Prize (OAH) for best book on the subject of race. Sandra Dickson and Churchill Roberts adapted the material as Negroes with Guns: Rob Williams and Black Power, a documentary film produced at the University of Florida's Documentary Institute.It was broadcast on national television in February

masks:
Tyson
Vernon Tyson
Tyson


texts:
 2007. Negroes with Guns, for which <mask> served as lead consultant, won the Erick Barnouw Award for best historical film from the Organization of American Historians. Work on Wilmington Race Riot
<mask>'s first book, Democracy Betrayed: The Wilmington Race Riot of 1898 and Its Legacy (1998), was co-edited with David S. Cecelski. Its publication marked the centennial of the massacre and coup d'état in Wilmington. It won the Outstanding Book Award from the Gustavus Myers Center for the Study of Bigotry and Human Rights in North America. In 2006, <mask> wrote a special section, "Ghosts of 1898," on the events in Wilmington for the Charlotte Observer and the Raleigh News and Observer. This 16-page special section was widely distributed.Soon afterward, the North Carolina General Assembly passed legislation to require teaching in public schools about the white supremacy campaigns and the Wilmington Race Riot of 1898. "Ghosts of 1898" won an Excellence Award from the National Association of Black Journalists. Wake County School Board protest
<mask> was arrested on June 15, 2010 by Raleigh police on charges of second-degree trespassing. He, along with Rev. William Barber, the President of the North Carolina Chapter of the NAACP, and two others protested recent decisions by the Wake County school board by taking over the seats of several school board members. They were opposing the school board's decision to change its diversity policy, based on busing students to try to balance socio-economic diversity. In consideration of parents' concerns, the school board recently decided to change to a community school system, where students can attend schools close to where they live.<mask> believes this will lead to de facto segregation because of residential patterns. References

External links
 Duke University Faculty Profile
 NPR Interview
 NPR's On The Media

1959 births
Living people
Emory University alumni
University of North Carolina at Greensboro alumni
People from Oxford, North Carolina
Duke University alumni
Duke University faculty
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Historians of the United States
American male

masks: Tyson Tyson Tyson Tyson Tyson


texts:
<mask> is a retired American auctioneer. He spent his entire career, from 1974 to 2016, with Sotheby's where he was a vice-chairman and was Sotheby's longest serving auctioneer. He has also chaired the boards of several American and British preservation and educational organizations. Early life
<mask> was born in 1949 in Canton, China (now named Guangzhou), where his father served as an American consul for the US State Department. Nine months later he and his parents were withdrawn by the State Department as the Red Army advanced on Canton and transferred to Haifa, Israel. His father eventually became American consul general in London and Rome, where <mask> spent much of his youth and education, receiving his high school diploma from St. Stephen's School in Rome. He later graduated from the Art History program at Wesleyan University, where he participated in anti-Vietnam War demonstrations.Auction career
<mask> began his auction career as a catalog trainee at Sotheby's in 1974. He initially joined the company in order to learn more about his passion, collecting. By 1975 he was an auctioneer. Between his start at Sotheby's and the mid-1990s, Redden created numerous new auction categories for the company, including the specialty categories such as “space-memorabilia”, “baseball memorabilia, comic books, arcade machines, and computerized animation art.” Early in his career, in the late 1970s, he was appointed the director of PB-84, Sotheby's satellite auction house that focused on lower-priced items and unusual collecting categories. He later also became credited with developing the Internet strategy for Sotheby's in the late 1990s when he became chairman of Sothebys.com. <mask> is best known as the manager and auctioneer for many of Sotheby's most celebrated live auctions. <mask> served as a vice-chairman of Sotheby's from February 2000 to 2016, when he retired.He was also the Worldwide Chairman of Sotheby's Books and Manuscripts. As an auctioneer <mask>'s sales included two first printings of the U.S. Declaration of Independence,

masks:
David Redden
Redden
Redden
Redden
Redden
Redden
Redden


texts: the Collections of the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, the Empress Josephine's copy of Redoute's Les Liliacees containing the original watercolors, the Estate of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis; a series of popular auctions for the Walt Disney Company; the largest, most complete, and best preserved Tyrannosaurus rex fossil ever recovered known as “Sue”; the most valuable coin ever sold, the 1933 Double Eagle; the Bay Psalm Book, the first book printed in America; the world's most valuable stamp, the British Guiana 1¢ Magenta; Albert Einstein's manuscript on Special Relativity, a moon lander (still on the moon), three returned space capsules, and the first sale of luna rocks brought back from the Moon; the manuscript of the Magna Carta now in the National Archives; two of the greatest book sales of the 20th century, the library of H. Bradley Martin and the Garden Ltd. Collection; the Nelson Bunker Hunt sale of Ancient Coins, the Four Battleflags of the Revolution, the George Catlin Native American portraits collected in the 19th century by Benjamin O'Fallon, and the Bomberg Talmud from the Valmadonna Library. Several books have been written about his sales including Tyrannosaurus Sue by Steve Fiffer, Illegal Tender by <mask>, and The One-Cent Magenta by James Barron. Other notable auctions include: The Barry Halper Collection of Baseball Memorabilia, The Washington-Lafayette Cincinnati Medal, James Naismith's manuscript for The Rules of Basketball, The Guidon (flag) from the Battle of Little Bighorn, Robert Kennedy's copy of The Emancipation Proclamation signed by Lincoln, and Treasure from the SS Central America. Privately, Redden sold Gilbert Stuart's Lansdowne Portrait of George Washington to the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery,  the papers of Martin Luther King Jr. to the city of Atlanta and the nine Forbes family Fabergé Imperial Easter Eggs. He was also involved in the discovery of the missing first half on the manuscript for Huckleberry Finn.Upon his retirement, <mask> was the longest-serving auctioneer in Sotheby's

masks:
David Tripp
Redden


texts:
 history. Collusion scandal
In the 1990s Sotheby's and Christie's colluded on auction commissions and other business practices. <mask>, who had no prior knowledge of the crime, was the first staff member at either Christie's or Sotheby's to speak out publicly decrying the criminal activities of the leadership of the two firms. Acting
<mask> performed in the following films:

 Jane Austen in Manhattan
 Gossip Girl: Season 3, Episode 3 "The Lost Boy"
 A Late Quartet
 W.E. Boards and philanthropy
<mask> has served as chairman of the following boards: Scenic Hudson, Black Rock Forest, which has created the David Redden Conservation Science Fund which awards grants to scientists of all ages and supports lectures and seminars; The Olana Partnership, the Hudson Highlands Nature Museum, the American Trust for the British Library, and St. Stephen's School in Rome, Italy. He also served on the boards of the Hudson Highlands Land Trust, the Chelsea Square Conservancy, Friends of Hudson River Park, Madison Square Boys & Girls Club, and the Theater Institute at Storm King. While serving as Chairman of Scenic Hudson, he led $50 million in preservation efforts and land acquisitions.He and his wife have donated conservation easements over a portion of their Storm King Mountain property to the Hudson Highlands Land Trust. For many years he was a sought-after auctioneer for charity benefits. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
In 2017 <mask> was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The physical decline has prevented <mask> from completing the editing of his very extensive Private Diary of a Sotheby’s Auctioneer. In 2019 his family created the David <mask> ALS Fund to benefit research and treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis at Columbia University. Personal life
In 1978 <mask> married Jeannette, currently a Commissioner of the Palisades Interstate Park. They have two children, Stephen and Clare.References

Living people
People from Guangzhou
Sotheby's people
Wesleyan University alumni
American auctioneers
American philanthropists
1949

masks: Redden Redden Redden Redden Redden Redden Redden


texts:
<mask> (October 21, 1936 – November 21, 2010) was a Danish psychologist and writer. Overview
<mask> became a student in 1955, and a psychologist in 1969. From 1969-76 he was employed by Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening (English: The Confederation of Danish Employers). He's been included in the prestigious Danish book of biographies, Kraks Blå Bog (English: Krak's Blue Book). He's been granted financial support or backing from Statens Kunstfond (English: Danish Arts Agency) eight times throughout his career as a writer. In 1974 he received the RAI Prix Italia for his radio play Skriget fra Golgatha (English: The Scream from Golgatha). In 1981 he received Gyldendals Boglegat (English: Gyldendal's Book Grant) and in 1988 Johannes Ewalds Legat (English: Johannes Ewald's Grant).His works
<mask>' works are generally divided into four groups: works of fiction, works on psychology, biographical works on Danish Sumatra rubber plantation manager Vilhelm Jung and works on his own famous great aunt Karen Blixen's life and works. He is credited as the ideas man behind two episodes of the popular Danish TV-series Huset på Christianshavn, namely #64, Karlas kald (English: Karla's Calling), scripted by Karen Smith and #68, Dagen efter dagen derpå (English: The Day after the Following Day), scripted by Henning Bahs. As a writer of fiction he has written poetry, short stories, novels and plays (mostly for radio), and in genres he has dealt with both social realism and the fantastic. During his authorship he has experimented a lot with genres and language structures, which led famous Danish

masks:
Anders Westenholz
Anders Westenholz
Anders Westenholz


texts:
 writer and critic Poul Borum (1934–1996) to write about him in a review: "<mask> is difficult to read, but worth every effort". It's the fantastic genres that dominate <mask>' authorship, and he is one of the first Danish writers to seriously deal with fantasy, and he has also touched upon new age as a genre. And not just with youngsters, who he sometimes writes to, as a target group. Together with for instance Erwin Neutzsky-Wulff he is among the few Danish writers to write fantastic literature (fantasy, sci-fi, horror etc.)for mature readers. Apart from his work as a writer of his own accord, <mask> has also worked as a translator. In this regard he will probably be best known for his translations of the American D&D-related fantasy series DragonLance Chronicles and DragonLance Legends by Margaret Weis & Tracy Hickman as well as a number of works by Stephen King among others. Bibliography

Works of fiction
 Polyp (English: Polyp), novel, 1968
 Martyrium (English: Martyrdom), novel, 1970
 [Title unknown], short story in the anthology Og: en tekstantologi (English: And: A Text Anthology), 1971
 Det syvende æg (English: The Seventh Egg), novel, 1972
 Stueantennen (English: The Indoor Aerial), radio play, 1972
 Venskab, evt. ægteskab (English: Friendship, Possibly Marriage), radio play, 1972
 Skriget fra Golgatha (English: The Scream from Golgatha), radio play, 1973
 Glasmuren (English: The Glass Wall), novel, 1981
 Solen er kommet nærmere: digtcyklus (English: The Sun Has Come Closer: Cycle of Poems), poetry, 1983
 Den gamle fra havet (English: The Old One from the Sea),


texts:
 short story in the anthology At ønske en pludselig forvandling: ny dansk prosa (English: To Wish For A Sudden Change: New Danish Prose); ed. Uffe Andreasen og Erik Skyum-Nielsen, 1983
 Genkomsten (English: The Second Coming), novel, 1984
 Kommer straks (English: Won't Be A Minute), novel, 1984 - with Norman Lindtner
 Så I røgen? (English: Did You See the Smoke?: over- og undertoner i den daglige samtale (English: What's the Point? : Over- and Undertones in Daily Conversation), about interpersonal communication, 1990
 Tale er guld: mere om over- og undertoner i den daglige samtale (English: Speech is Golden: More about Over- and Undertones in Daily Conversation), about interpersonal communication, 1991
 Hvilken psykoterapi skal jeg vælge? (English: What Kind of Psychotherapy Should I


texts:
<mask>Bob<mask> (1745–1833) was an Irish barrister, politician and judge. He sat in the Irish House of Commons and was a judge of the Court of Common Pleas (Ireland). In 1803 he published a number of attacks on various members of the Irish Government in the form of a series of letters written under the pseudonym "Juverna". The letters caused a major scandal, and  after some delay <mask> was identified as the author. He was prosecuted after some  further delay and convicted of seditious libel. He was spared a prison sentence but forced to resign from the Bench, and retired into private life, where he continued his feud with the Dublin administration. His motives for writing the Juverna letters are unclear, although he had made a similar anonymous attack on a senior Irish judge, Christopher Robinson, in 1779.Biography
He was born in Dublin, eldest son of <mask>, an apothecary who practiced on Fishamble Street, and who  was  described
as  a "decent, orderly apothecary
and  a good, orthodox,
hard-praying Protestant". Thomas was  rather self-conscious  about  his  relatively  humble  origins,  which may be why, when he was almost 60,  he qualified as a physician. <mask> (1760-1845), also an  MP and a High  Court judge,  was <mask>'s youngest  brother. He was regarded as by far  the  abler lawyer of the two, but his career was hampered by <mask>'s disgrace. <mask> married Susan Evans,  daughter  of John  Evans of Dublin in 1778 (William married her sister). They  had  one daughter Margaret, who  married  her cousin <mask> Alloway of Ballyshaneduff, County Laois, and had at least six children. Career

He entered Middle Temple in 1774 and was called to the Bar in 1776.He took silk in 1791, and was appointed counsel to the Revenue Board. His political  patron in the  1790s was Arthur Hill, 2nd Marquess of Downshire. The   leading statesman Henry Grattan, who  knew  the <mask> family  well, noted cynically that <mask>'s father  attributed  Bob's success to the  goodness

masks:
Robert (
) Johnson
Johnson
Thomas Johnson
William Johnson
Robert
Robert
Robert
William Johnson
Johnson
Johnson


texts:
  of Providence, whereas everyone else attributed it to the goodness of the Marquess of Downshire. Others  thought  his rise to be due at least partly  to his notorious servility to those in power. He held office as Recorder of Hillsborough. He was also  Barracks  Master for Dublin, a non-professional  office
which made him something of an object  of ridicule,  as it was considered demeaning for a barrister to hold it. Due to  Downshire's patronage  he also served as MP for Hillsborough.He  was  opposed to  Catholic Emancipation, and in the aftermath of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 he criticised the authorities for excessive leniency to the rebels. He supported the Act of Union 1800, and  thereby lost the patronage of Lord Downshire, who was  one of the strongest opponents of Union,  and damaged his career in the process. Downshire  committed  suicide  in 1801: according to his family  this  was as a result of his loss of political influence. <mask> served briefly in the last session of the pre-Union Irish Parliament as member for Philipstown, and was made a judge of the Common Pleas in 1801, shortly after the Union took effect. He was not highly regarded as a lawyer ("deficient in knowledge" was the general view), and his promotion,   which was very badly  received by the   legal profession, was undoubtedly
his reward for supporting the Act of Union. He received compensation for the loss of his previous offices of Revenue counsel and  the embarrassing  role of Barracks Master. He had a town house in Dublin city centre and a house at Milltown in south County Dublin; he also had a country residence at the Derries, or Ballyshaneduff, near Ballybrittas, County Laois,
which was built by his son-in-law.After  his  disgrace  he lived  for
a time  in  Paris. He was a member of the popular drinking club, The Monks of the Screw (or Order of Saint Patrick), which had been founded about 1780 by John Philpot Curran. The Juverna affair
In 1803 the radical  English


texts:
 journalist William Cobbett published a series of letters in his weekly newspaper
The Political Register, written by an author calling himself "Juverna". The name Juverna (or "Iverna") is a variant of "Hibernia", and was used by certain Irish nationalists as a poetic symbol for Ireland. The "Juverna" letters attacked the Irish executive with great venom, and were  sympathetic to the
recentlyrics executed <mask>. They were extremely well-informed about the Irish judiciary, suggesting that the author was himself a judge. Suspicion fell at first on <mask>'s colleague on the Court of Common Pleas, Luke Fox, who was noted for his  bad temper  and violent outbursts  in Court.However in a personal interview with William Downes, 1st Baron Downes, the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland, Fox was able to convince Downes of his innocence. Further inquiries proved <mask> to be the author: he may have fallen under suspicion because many years earlier he had published a similar attack on a long-serving High Court judge, Christopher Robinson, under another pseudonym,  "Causidicus". <mask> was highly
intelligent,  and  could  be an agreeable  companion  enough, but  he  had few  friends or admirers: Daniel O'Connell  probably spoke for many when he described him as "dishonest". His appointment
to  the Bench  had been  greeted with  general  condemnation by the legal profession, and his notorious servility to  the powerful  aroused  contempt. His  case accordingly aroused very little sympathy. Apprehension of Offenders Act
He pleaded for leniency (presumably after confessing to having written the letters), but the authorities took a severe view of the matter, and a warrant was issued for his arrest to stand trial in England for seditious libel. This  was made possible
by the  recent passage of an Act of Parliament, the Apprehension of Offenders Act 1804, which provided that a warrant issued in England could be transmitted to Ireland and there endorsed  for  execution by a justice

masks:
Robert Emmet
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson


texts:
 of the peace.Though  its enactment was certainly convenient  for  the  prosecution, there  is no real evidence that, as  the
Government's critics alleged, it was passed to deal specifically with the <mask> case. Arrest and trial

<mask> did everything possible to evade prosecution, petitioning each of his judicial colleagues in vain to cancel the warrant. Finally Downes, losing patience, had him arrested and sent to London for trial. Downes, who was a very stern man, told <mask> that his attempt to evade justice was as serious a matter as the libel itself. After some further delay he was convicted of seditious libel in the autumn of 1805, but was spared a prison sentence. He was forced to resign from the Bench the following year,  although rather surprisingly he was given a pension of £1200. Last years

The rest of his long life was spent in retirement at the Derries, his daughter's country house in  County Laois.He became increasingly eccentric, and made spirited  attacks on  whichever Government was in power. In his last years it was said that he talked endlessly about military matters, of which in fact he knew nothing. On his death his estates passed to his grandson <mask> Alloway (1810-1877); his  daughter <mask> Alloway had died the previous year. Sources
Ball, F. Elrington The Judges in Ireland 1221-1921 London John Murray 1926
Burke, John and Burke, Bernard "Landed  Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland" London Henry Colburn 1849
Cole, G.D.H. The Life of William Cobbett Routledge reprint 2011
Hart, A.R. A History of the King's Serjeants-at-law at law in Ireland Dublin Four Courts Press 2000
Memoirs of the life and times of the  Right Hon. Henry Grattan Vol.5 1846
Nash, Michael L. The Removal of Judges under the Act of Settlement 1701 Glion Institute of Higher Education 2007
Woods, C.J. "<mask>, <mask>" Cambridge Dictionary of Irish Biography

Notes

1745 births
1833 deaths
Members of the Middle Temple
Lawyers from Dublin (city)
Justices of the Irish Common

masks:
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Robert Morellet
Margaret Johnson
Johnson
Robert


texts:
<mask>, known as <mask> ( 1400 Venice – c. 1462 Venice) was an Italian painter, whose work reflected the International Gothic style with a Venetian influence. He designed the mosaics of the Birth of the Virgin and Presentation in the Temple (St. Mark's, Venice). His best known paintings are the Man of Sorrows (Metropolitan Mus.) and the St. Peter (National Gall. of Art, Washington, D.C.). Biography

Early life
<mask>, known as <mask> was born in Venice c. 1400. His grandfather and father were painters.Personal life
He was married in 1420. There is no known portrait of Giambono and little is known of his personal life. Early career
He was an artist of the International Gothic style of art prevalent in Europe during the last half of the 14th century and the early years of the 15th century and decorated frames and wood in gold and polychromy. Originally known for his mosaic designs located in the Mascoli Chapel, San Marco, Venice, he is also now recognized as an accomplished panel painter. <mask> died in Venice in 1462. Art

Style
The International Gothic style is characterized by elegant and graceful figures with noble men and women wearing elaborate jewelry and richly embroidered clothes, featuring masses of curled hair and highly complex head pieces. “Landscapes and architectural settings were miniaturize; however, details of nature- leaves, flowers, insects, birds- are rendered with near microscopic

masks:
Michele Taddeo di Giovanni Bono
Giambono
Michele Taddeo di Giovanni Bono
Giambono
Death Giambono


texts:
 detail".Artwork of the period is typified by the use of light, bright colors especially gold used in “manuscripts and panel paintings, tapestries and polychromed sculpture”. Art influences
<mask> was active as an artist between 1420 and 1462 and was a follower of Jacobello del Fiore (c. 1385 – c. 1439), Gentile da Fabriano (c. 1360- c 1450) Pisanello. Selected works

Mosaics
Birth of the Virgin (1431–1433) Mascoli Chapel, San Marco, Venice

On the left vault in the Mascoli Chapel are two mosaics depicting the life of the Virgin, the Birth and the Presentation. The Birth panel shows “fanciful architecture, obliquely placed” similar to the backgrounds found in art work by Gentile da Fabriano. A group of people stand at the front of the building and surround the infant child. The mosaic has elaborate decorative elements that give the appearance of "complexity and detailed observation". The Visitation (c. 1451) Mascoli Chapel, San Marco, Venice

On the opposite side of the vault in Mascoli Chapel the life cycle of the Virgin is continued with the Visitation and Dornition of the Virgin.The style of these two panels differs from that used in the Birth and Presentation. As seen in the Visitation the building has several classical triangular shaped construction elements above horizontal structures with rounded arches and Corinthian capitals associated with the Florentine Renaissance style. The facades are centrally


texts:
 placed and symmetrical and the three-dimensional structure is realistic. Paintings
St. Chrysogonus on Horseback (c. 1450) San Trovaso, Venice

In a painting representative of the International Gothic style, a youthful St. Chrysogonus wears a suit of armor and a cloak embroidered with a raised black and gold pattern while mounted on a richly-caparisoned horse. The posture and color of the white horse is highlighted by the dark green trees that serve as a background in the lower half of the picture. Above the trees, the sky is represented by a gold ground that gives lightness to the painting. The emblems on the shield, flag and the presence of angels in the top corners of the painting generates a Christian theme with the Saint in a protective role.The "tense pose of the Saint", suggested movement of the horse, and the flowing shape of the pennant and cloak provides an emotional force that is not seen in comparable paintings of this time period. Virgin and Child (c. 1450) Galleria Franchetti, Ca' d'Oro, Venice

The figures are dressed in solid colors and are silhouetted against the brocaded textile in the background. The Virgin's angular facial features and serious expression contrast with the rounded features of the Christ-Child. The child is holding a goldfinch that represents a “premonition of the Passion". The richly decorated velvet background features pomegranates, a fruit closely “associated with blood,


texts:
 death and resurrection”. Textiles featuring pomegranate fruit in the pattern were widely adopted by Italians and are typically found in ecclesiastical and courtly depictions. Giambono was among the first Italian artists to use the iconographic meaning of these textiles in a Christian context.Portrait of a Man (1432–1434) Palazzo Rosso, Genoa

Movement: Renaissance (Early Italian, “quattrocentro”),
Theme:  Portrait,
Technique: Tempera and silver on wood,
Size: 53 x 40 cm
The painting is important as one of the very few surviving examples of a Venetian portrait from the early 15th century. The unknown subject is dressed in an ornately decorated velvet robe with the neck opening lined with fur. The man wears an oversized hat and a doublet with a high collar worn under the robe. The dress and facial features of the man suggest the subject is not Italian, but rather a northern European who was living in Venice. The portrait has also been attributed to Gentile de Fabriano and Pisanello, but the generalized facial characteristics set “against a uniform bluish background are typical of Giambono's work". Polyptych of St. James (c. 1450) Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

The polyptych has five panels each featuring a religious saint. St. James the Greater occupies the larger central panel with St John the Evangelist and St Filippo Benizzi situated to the left, is St Michael the Archangel and St Louis of Toulouse are to


texts:
 the right of the central panel.The highly detailed figures provide a “slow semicircular rhythm” to the polyptych. Each figure is painted in bold solid colors contrasting against a gold ground. The depiction of the Archangel Michael in his heavy armor decorated with gold, his pale face and mass of curls, particularly reflects the strong influence of Pisanello. The Man of Sorrows (ca. 1420–1430) Metropolitan Museum, New York
Movement: Renaissance (Early Italian, “quattrocentro”)
Theme: New Testament
Technique: Tempera and gold on wood
Size:  47 x 31.1 cm

The Man of Sorrows depicts the small figure of Saint Francis at the left side of the picture expressing his grief over Christ's Crucifixion. Christ is positioned in an open tomb with a gash on the right side of his abdomen caused by a lance and wounds to his hands resulting from crucifixion. “Although Christ is unquestionably dead, there is still energy in his partly lowered head and extended arms.Streams of blood, sculpted in thick gesso, gush from wounds carved into the panel”. St. Francis is receiving the stigmata that come from the wounds of Christ. Coronation of a Virgin (c. 1448) Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

Coronation of a Virgin, also known as Paradise, was “commissioned from Giambono in 1447 by Giovanni Dotto”. The work was originally destined for the Church of S. Agnese but is currently located in the Gallerie dell’ Accademia, Venice. Giovani


texts:
 Dotto stipulated that the painting be similar to the one previously painted by Antonio Vivarini and Giovanni d'Alemagna for the church of San Pantalon, Venice. Notes

Further reading
Hartt, Frederick, Wilkens, David, (2010). History of Italian Renaissance Art 7th Edition, Pearson.Land, Norman E.. “<mask>, <mask>” in Grove Dictionary of Art, ed. Jane Turner, Macmillan and Co., 32 vols., London, 1996, vol. 12:  579–581. Reprinted in Encyclopedia of Italian Renaissance and Mannerist Art, ed. Jane Turner, 2 vols. London, 2000, 1: 657–660. __.“<mask>’s ‘Coronation of the Virgin’ for S. Agnese in Venice:  A New Proposal,” Burlington Magazine, 119 (March 1977): 167-174. __. “Two Panels by <mask> and Some Observations on St. Francis and the Man of Sorrows in Fifteenth-Century Venetian Painting,” Studies in Iconography, 6 (1980): 29–51. __. “A New Proposal for <mask>’s Altarpiece for S. <mask> in S. Daniele in Friuli,” Pantheon, 39, 4 (1981):  304–309. __. “The Master of the San Marino ‘Saints’ and Other Followers of <mask>,” Acta Historiae Artium, 28, fasc.1-2 (1982): 23-38. __.“A New Panel by <mask> and a Reconstructed Altarpiece,” Apollo, 119 (March 1984):  160–165. __.“<mask>, Cennino Cennini and Fantasia,” Konsthistorisk tidskrift, 55, 2 (1986):  47–53. Stokstad, Marilyn, (2004). Medieval Art 2nd Edition, Boulder CO, Westview Press. Stokstad, Marilyn, (2008). Art History 3rd Edition, Pearson.References

External

masks:
Giambono
Michele
Michele Giambono
Michele Giambono
Michele Giambono
Michele
Michele Giambono
Michele Giambono
Michele Giambono


texts:
 links

 Metropolitan Museum of Art: http://www.metmuseum.org/
 Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice: http://www.gallerieaccademia.org/?lang=en
 Galleria Franchetti, Ca' d'Oro, Venice: http://www.cadoro.org/sito/ing_museo.html
  Web Gallery of Art biography

1400s births
1460s deaths
15th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Venice
Italian Renaissance


texts: <mask>, 1st <mask>,  (3 January 18838 October 1967) was a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was Deputy Prime Minister during the wartime coalition government under Winston Churchill, and served twice as Leader of the Opposition from 1935 to 1940 and from 1951 to 1955. Attlee was born into an upper-middle-class family, the son of a wealthy London solicitor. After attending the public school Haileybury College and the University of Oxford, he practised as a barrister. The volunteer work he carried out in London's East End exposed him to poverty and his political views shifted leftwards thereafter. He joined the Independent Labour Party, gave up his legal career, and began lecturing at the London School of Economics. His work was interrupted by service as an officer in the First World War.In 1919, he became mayor of Stepney and in 1922 was elected Member of Parliament for Limehouse. Attlee served in the first Labour minority government led by Ramsay MacDonald in 1924, and then joined the Cabinet during MacDonald's second minority (1929–1931). After retaining his seat in Labour's landslide defeat of 1931, he became the party's Deputy Leader. Elected Leader of the Labour Party in 1935, and at first advocating pacificism and opposing re-armament, he became a critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler and Mussolini in the lead-up to the Second World War. Attlee took Labour into the wartime coalition government in 1940 and served under Winston Churchill, initially as Lord Privy Seal and then as Deputy Prime Minister from 1942. As the European front of WWII reached its conclusion, the war cabinet headed by Churchill was

masks:
Clement Richard Attlee
Earl Attlee


texts: dissolved and elections were scheduled to be held. The Labour Party lead by Attlee won a landslide victory in the 1945 general election, on their post-war recovery platform.Following the election, Attlee lead the construction of the first Labour majority government. His government's Keynesian approach to economic management aimed to maintain full employment, a mixed economy and a greatly enlarged system of social services provided by the state. To this end, it undertook the nationalisation of public utilities and major industries, and implemented wide-ranging social reforms, including the passing of the National Insurance Act 1946 and National Assistance Act, the formation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948, and the enlargement of public subsidies for council house building. His government also reformed trade union legislation, working practices and children's services; it created the National Parks system, passed the New Towns Act 1946 and established the town and country planning system. Attlee's foreign policy focused on decolonization efforts which he delegated to Ernest Bevin, but personally oversaw the partition of India (1947), the independence of Burma and Ceylon, and the dissolution of the British mandates of Palestine and Transjordan. He and Bevin encouraged the United States to take a vigorous role in the Cold War; unable to afford military intervention in Greece, he called on Washington to counter Communists there. The strategy of containment was formalized between the two nations through the Truman Doctrine.He supported the Marshall Plan to rebuild Western Europe with American money and, in 1949, promoted the NATO military alliance against the Soviet bloc. After leading Labour to a narrow victory at the 1950


texts:
 general election, he sent British troops to fight alongside South Korea in the Korean War. Attlee had inherited a country close to bankruptcy after the Second World War and beset by food, housing and resource shortages; despite his social reforms and economic programme, these problems persisted throughout his premiership, alongside recurrent currency crises and dependence on US aid. His party was narrowly defeated by the Conservatives in the 1951 general election, despite winning the most votes. He continued as Labour leader but retired after losing the 1955 election and was elevated to the House of Lords; where he served until his death in 1967. In public, he was modest and unassuming, but behind the scenes his depth of knowledge, quiet demeanour, objectivity and pragmatism proved decisive. He is often ranked as one of the greatest British prime ministers.Attlee's reputation among scholars has grown, thanks to his creation of the modern welfare state, and the establishment of the NHS. He is also commended for continuing the special relationship with the US and active involvement in NATO. As of 2022, Attlee remains the longest serving Leader of the Labour Party. Early life and education
Attlee was born on 3 January 1883 in Putney, Surrey (now part of London), into an upper middle-class family, the seventh of eight children. His father was <mask> (1841–1908), a solicitor, and his mother was Ellen Bravery Watson (1847–1920), daughter of Thomas Simons Watson, secretary for the Art Union of London. His parents were "committed Anglicans" who read prayers and psalms each morning at breakfast. Attlee grew up in a two-storey villa with a large garden and tennis court, staffed by three servants and a gardener.His father, a political Liberal,


texts:
 had inherited family interests in milling and brewing, and became a senior partner in the law firm of Druces, also serving a term as president of the Law Society of England and Wales. In 1898 he purchased a  estate in Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex. At the age of nine, Attlee was sent to board at Northaw Place, a boys' preparatory school in Hertfordshire. In 1896 he followed his brothers to Haileybury College, where he was a middling student. He was influenced by the Darwinist views of his housemaster Frederick Webb Headley, and in 1899 he published an attack on striking London cab-drivers in the school magazine, predicting they would soon have to "beg for their fares". In 1901, Attlee went up to University College, Oxford, reading modern history. He and his brother Tom "were given a generous stipend by their father and embraced the university lifestyle—rowing, reading and socializing".He was later described by a tutor as "level-headed, industrious, dependable man with no brilliance of style ... but with excellent sound judgement". At university he had little interest in politics or economics, later describing his views at this time as "good old fashioned imperialist conservative". He graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1904 with second-class honours. Attlee then trained as a barrister at the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in March 1906. He worked for a time at his father's law firm Druces and Attlee but did not enjoy the work, and had no particular ambition to succeed in the legal profession. He also played football for non-League club Fleet. Attlee's father died in 1908, leaving an estate valued for probate at £75,394 (equivalent to £ in ).Early career
In 1906, he became a volunteer at Haileybury House, a charitable club for


texts:
 working-class boys in Stepney in the East End of London run by his old school, and from 1907 to 1909 he served as the club's manager. Until then, his political views had been more conservative. However, after his shock at the poverty and deprivation he saw while working with the slum children, he came to the view that private charity would never be sufficient to alleviate poverty and that only direct action and income redistribution by the state would have any serious effect. This sparked a process that caused him to convert to socialism. He subsequently joined the Independent Labour Party (ILP) in 1908 and became active in local politics. In 1909, he stood unsuccessfully at his first election, as an ILP candidate for Stepney Borough Council. He also worked briefly as a secretary for Beatrice Webb in 1909, before becoming a secretary for Toynbee Hall.He worked for Webb's campaign of popularisation of the Minority Report as he was very active in Fabian socialist circles, in which he would go round visiting many political societies—Liberal, Conservative and socialist—to explain and popularise the ideas, as well as recruiting lecturers deemed suitable to work on the campaign. In 1911, he was employed by the UK Government as an "official explainer"—touring the country to explain Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George's National Insurance Act. He spent the summer of that year touring Essex and Somerset on a bicycle, explaining the act at public meetings. A year later, he became a lecturer at the London School of Economics, teaching Social Science and Public Administration. Military service during the First World War
Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Attlee applied to join the British Army. Initially his


texts: application was turned down, as at the age of 31 he was seen as being too old; however, he was eventually commissioned as a temporary lieutenant in the 6th (Service) Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment, on 30 September 1914. On 9 February 1915 he was promoted to captain, and on 14 March was appointed battalion adjutant.The 6th South Lancashires were part of the 38th Brigade of the 13th (Western) Division, which served in the Gallipoli campaign in Turkey. Attlee's decision to fight caused a rift between him and his older brother Tom, who, as a conscientious objector, spent much of the war in prison. After a period spent fighting in Gallipoli, Attlee collapsed after falling ill with dysentery and was put on a ship bound for England to recover. When he woke up he wanted to get back to action as soon as possible, and asked to be let off the ship in Malta, where he stayed in hospital in order to recover. His hospitalisation coincided with the Battle of Sari Bair, which saw a large number of his comrades killed. Upon returning to action, he was informed that his company had been chosen to hold the final lines during the evacuation of Suvla. As such, he was the penultimate man to be evacuated from Suvla Bay, the last being General Stanley Maude.The Gallipoli Campaign had been engineered by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. Although it was unsuccessful, Attlee believed that it was a bold strategy which could have been successful if it had been better implemented on the ground. This led to an admiration for Churchill as a military strategist, something which would make their working relationship in later years productive. He later served in the Mesopotamian Campaign in what is now Iraq, where in April 1916 he was badly


texts:
 wounded, being hit in the leg by shrapnel while storming an enemy trench during the Battle of Hanna. He was sent firstly to India, and then back to the UK to recover. On 18 December 1916 he was transferred to the Heavy Section of the Machine Gun Corps, and 1 March 1917 he was promoted to the temporary rank of major, leading him to be known as "<mask>" for much of the inter-war period. He would spend most of 1917 training soldiers at various locations in England.From 2 to 9 July 1917, he was the temporary commanding officer (CO) of the newly formed L (later 10th) Battalion, the Tank Corps at Bovington Camp, Dorset. From 9 July, he assumed command of 30th Company of the same battalion; however, he did not deploy to France with it in December 1917, as he was transferred back to the South Lancashire Regiment on 28 November. After fully recovering from his injuries, he was sent to France in June 1918 to serve on the Western Front for the final months of the war. After being discharged from the Army in January 1919, he returned to Stepney, and returned to his old job lecturing part-time at the London School of Economics. Marriage and children
Attlee met Violet Millar while on a long trip with friends to Italy in 1921. They fell in love and were soon engaged, marrying at Christ Church, Hampstead, on 10 January 1922. It would come to be a devoted marriage, with Attlee providing protection and Violet providing a home that was an escape for Attlee from political turmoil.She died in 1964. They had four children:
 Lady Janet Helen (1923–2019), she married the scientist Harold Shipton (1920–2007) at Ellesborough Parish Church in 1947. Lady Felicity Ann (1925–2007), married the business executive John Keith Harwood (1926–1989) at Little Hampden in


texts:
 1955
 Martin Richard, Viscount Prestwood, later 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–1991)
 Lady Alison Elizabeth (1930–2016), married Richard Davis at Great Missenden in 1952. Early political career

Local politics
Attlee returned to local politics in the immediate post-war period, becoming mayor of the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney, one of London's most deprived inner-city boroughs, in 1919. During his time as mayor, the council undertook action to tackle slum landlords who charged high rents but refused to spend money on keeping their property in habitable condition. The council served and enforced legal orders on homeowners to repair their property. It also appointed health visitors and sanitary inspectors, reducing the infant mortality rate, and took action to find work for returning unemployed ex-servicemen.In 1920, while mayor, he wrote his first book, The Social Worker, which set out many of the principles that informed his political philosophy and that were to underpin the actions of his government in later years. The book attacked the idea that looking after the poor could be left to voluntary action. He wrote on page 30:In a civilised community, although it may be composed of self-reliant individuals, there will be some persons who will be unable at some period of their lives to look after themselves, and the question of what is to happen to them may be solved in three ways – they may be neglected, they may be cared for by the organised community as of right, or they may be left to the goodwill of individuals in the community. and went on to say at page 75:Charity is only possible without loss of dignity between equals. A right established by law, such as that to an old age pension, is less galling than an allowance made by a rich man


texts:
 to a poor one, dependent on his view of the recipient's character, and terminable at his caprice. In 1921, George Lansbury, the Labour mayor of the neighbouring borough of Poplar, and future Labour Party leader, launched the Poplar Rates Rebellion; a campaign of disobedience seeking to equalise the poor relief burden across all the London boroughs. Attlee, who was a personal friend of Lansbury, strongly supported this.However, Herbert Morrison, the Labour mayor of nearby Hackney, and one of the main figures in the London Labour Party, strongly denounced Lansbury and the rebellion. During this period, Attlee developed a lifelong dislike of Morrison. Member of Parliament
At the 1922 general election, Attlee became the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Limehouse in Stepney. At the time, he admired Ramsay MacDonald and helped him get elected as Labour Party leader at the 1922 leadership election. He served as MacDonald's Parliamentary Private Secretary for the brief 1922 parliament. His first taste of ministerial office came in 1924, when he served as Under-Secretary of State for War in the short-lived first Labour government, led by MacDonald. Attlee opposed the 1926 General Strike, believing that strike action should not be used as a political weapon.However, when it happened, he did not attempt to undermine it. At the time of the strike, he was chairman of the Stepney Borough Electricity Committee. He negotiated a deal with the Electrical Trade Union so that they would continue to supply power to hospitals, but would end supplies to factories. One firm, Scammell and Nephew Ltd, took a civil action against Attlee and the other Labour members of the committee (although not against the Conservative members who had also


texts: supported this). The court found against Attlee and his fellow councillors and they were ordered to pay £300 damages. The decision was later reversed on appeal, but the financial problems caused by the episode almost forced Attlee out of politics. In 1927, he was appointed a member of the multi-party Simon Commission, a royal commission set up to examine the possibility of granting self-rule to India.Due to the time he needed to devote to the commission, and contrary to a promise MacDonald made to Attlee to induce him to serve on the commission, he was not initially offered a ministerial post in the Second Labour Government, which entered office after the 1929 general election. Attlee's service on the Commission equipped him with a thorough exposure to India and many of its political leaders. By 1933 he argued that British rule was alien to India and was unable to make the social and economic reforms necessary for India's progress. He became the British leader most sympathetic to Indian independence (as a dominion), preparing him for his role in deciding on independence in 1947. In May 1930, Labour MP Oswald Mosley left the party after its rejection of his proposals for solving the unemployment problem, and Attlee was given Mosley's post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. In March 1931, he became Postmaster General, a post he held for five months until August, when the Labour government fell, after failing to agree on how to tackle the financial crisis of the Great Depression. That month MacDonald and a few of his allies formed a National Government with the Conservatives and Liberals, leading them to be expelled from Labour.MacDonald offered Attlee a job in the National Government, but he turned down the offer and opted to


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 stay loyal to the main Labour party. After Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government, Labour was deeply divided. Attlee had long been close to MacDonald and now felt betrayed—as did most Labour politicians. During the course of the second Labour government, Attlee had become increasingly disillusioned with MacDonald, whom he came to regard as vain and incompetent, and of whom he later wrote scathingly in his autobiography. He would write:

In the old days I had looked up to MacDonald as a great leader. He had a fine presence and great oratorical power. The unpopular line which he took during the First World War seemed to mark him as a man of character.Despite his mishandling of the Red Letter episode, I had not appreciated his defects until he took office a second time. I then realised his reluctance to take positive action and noted with dismay his increasing vanity and snobbery, while his habit of telling me, a junior Minister, the poor opinion he had of all his Cabinet colleagues made an unpleasant impression. I had not, however, expected that he would perpetrate the greatest betrayal in the political history of this country ... The shock to the Party was very great, especially to the loyal workers of the rank-and-file who had made great sacrifices for these men. 1930s opposition

Deputy Leader
The 1931 general election held later that year was a disaster for the Labour Party, which lost over 200 seats, returning only 52 MPs to Parliament. The vast majority of the party's senior figures, including the Leader Arthur Henderson, lost their seats. Attlee, however, narrowly retained his Limehouse seat, with his majority being slashed from 7,288 to just 551.He was one of only three Labour MPs who had experience of government to


texts: retain their seats, along with George Lansbury and Stafford Cripps. Accordingly, Lansbury was elected Leader unopposed with <mask> as his deputy. Most of the remaining Labour MPs after 1931 were elderly trade union officials who could not contribute much to debates, Lansbury was in his 70s, and Stafford Cripps another main figure of the Labour front bench who had entered Parliament in 1931, was inexperienced. As one of the most capable and experienced of the remaining Labour MPs, Attlee therefore shouldered a lot of the burden of providing an opposition to the National Government in the years 1931–35, during this time he had to extend his knowledge of subjects which he had not studied in any depth before, such as finance and foreign affairs in order to provide an effective opposition to the government. Attlee effectively served as acting leader for nine months from December 1933, after Lansbury fractured his thigh in an accident, which raised Attlee's public profile considerably. It was during this period, however, that personal financial problems almost forced Attlee to quit politics altogether. His wife had become ill, and at that time there was no separate salary for the Leader of the Opposition.On the verge of resigning from Parliament, he was persuaded to stay by Stafford Cripps, a wealthy socialist, who agreed to make a donation to party funds to pay him an additional salary until Lansbury could take over again. During 1932–33 Attlee flirted with, and then drew back from radicalism, influenced by Stafford Cripps who was then on the radical wing of the party, he was briefly a member of the Socialist League, which had been formed by former Independent Labour Party (ILP) members, who opposed the ILP's disaffiliation from the main


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 Labour Party in 1932. At one point he agreed with the proposition put forward by Cripps that gradual reform was inadequate and that a socialist government would have to pass an emergency powers act, allowing it to rule by decree to overcome any opposition by vested interests until it was safe to restore democracy. He admired Oliver Cromwell's strong-armed rule and use of major generals to control England. After looking more closely at Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, and even his former colleague Oswald Mosley, leader of the new blackshirt fascist movement in Britain, Attlee retreated from his radicalism, and distanced himself from the League, and argued instead that the Labour Party must adhere to constitutional methods and stand forthright for democracy and against totalitarianism of either the left or right. He always supported the crown, and as Prime Minister was close to King George VI. Leader of the Opposition
George Lansbury, a committed pacifist, resigned as the Leader of the Labour Party at the 1935 Party Conference on 8 October, after delegates voted in favour of sanctions against Italy for its aggression against Abyssinia.Lansbury had strongly opposed the policy, and felt unable to continue leading the party. Taking advantage of the disarray in the Labour Party, the Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin announced on 19 October that a general election would be held on 14 November. With no time for a leadership contest, the party agreed that Attlee should serve as interim leader, on the understanding that a leadership election would be held after the general election. Attlee therefore led Labour through the 1935 election, which saw the party stage a partial comeback from its disastrous 1931 performance, winning 38 per cent of the vote,


texts: the highest share Labour had won up to that point, and gaining over one hundred seats. Attlee stood in the subsequent leadership election, held soon after, where he was opposed by Herbert Morrison, who had just re-entered parliament in the recent election, and Arthur Greenwood: Morrison was seen as the favourite, but was distrusted by many sections of the party, especially the left-wing. Arthur Greenwood meanwhile was a popular figure in the party; however, his leadership bid was severely hampered by his alcohol problem. Attlee was able to come across as a competent and unifying figure, particularly having already led the party through a general election.He went on to come first in both the first and second ballots, formally being elected Leader of the Labour Party on 3 December 1935. Throughout the 1920s and most of the 1930s, the Labour Party's official policy had been to oppose rearmament, instead supporting internationalism and collective security under the League of Nations. At the 1934 Labour Party Conference, Attlee declared that, "We have absolutely abandoned any idea of nationalist loyalty. We are deliberately putting a world order before our loyalty to our own country. We say we want to see put on the statute book something which will make our people citizens of the world before they are citizens of this country". During a debate on defence in Commons a year later, Attlee said "We are told (in the White Paper) that there is danger against which we have to guard ourselves. We do not think you can do it by national defence.We think you can only do it by moving forward to a new world. A world of law, the abolition of national armaments with a world force and a world economic system. I shall be told that that is quite


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 impossible". Shortly after those comments, Adolf Hitler proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. Attlee responded the next day noting that Hitler's speech, although containing unfavourable references to the Soviet Union, created "A chance to call a halt in the armaments race ... We do not think that our answer to Herr Hitler should be just rearmament. We are in an age of rearmaments, but we on this side cannot accept that position". Attlee played little part in the events that would lead up to the abdication of Edward VIII, as despite Baldwin's threat to step down if Edward attempted to remain on the throne after marrying Wallis Simpson, Labour were widely accepted not to be a viable alternative government due to the National Government's overwhelming majority in the Commons.Attlee, along with Liberal leader Archibald Sinclair, was eventually consulted with by Baldwin on 24 November 1936, and Attlee agreed with both Baldwin and Sinclair that Edward could not remain on the throne, firmly eliminating any prospect of any alternative government forming were Baldwin to resign. In April 1936, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, introduced a Budget which increased the amount spent on the armed forces. Attlee made a radio broadcast in opposition to it, saying:

In June 1936, the Conservative MP Duff Cooper called for an Anglo-French alliance against possible German aggression and called for all parties to support one. Attlee condemned this: "We say that any suggestion of an alliance of this kind—an alliance in which one country is bound to another, right or wrong, by some overwhelming necessity—is contrary to the spirit of the League of Nations, is contrary to the Covenant, is contrary to Locarno


texts: is contrary to the obligations which this country has undertaken, and is contrary to the professed policy of this Government". At the Labour Party conference at Edinburgh in October Attlee reiterated that "There can be no question of our supporting the Government in its rearmament policy". However, with the rising threat from Nazi Germany, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, this policy eventually lost credibility. By 1937, Labour had jettisoned its pacifist position and came to support rearmament and oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement.At the end of 1937, Attlee and a party of three Labour MPs visited Spain and visited the British Battalion of the International Brigades fighting in the Spanish Civil War. One of the companies was named the "Major Attlee Company" in his honour. In the House of Commons, Attlee stated "I cannot understand the delusion that if Franco wins with Italian and German aid, he will immediately become independent. I think it is a ridiculous proposition." Dalton, the Labour Party's spokesman on foreign policy, also thought that Franco would ally with Germany and Italy. However, Franco's subsequent behaviour proved it was not such a ridiculous proposition. As Dalton later acknowledged, Franco skilfully maintained Spanish neutrality, whereas Hitler would have occupied Spain if Franco had lost the Civil War.In 1938, Attlee opposed the Munich Agreement, in which Chamberlain negotiated with Hitler to give Germany the German-speaking parts of Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland: We all feel relief that war has not come this time. Every one of us has been passing through days of anxiety; we cannot, however, feel that peace has been established, but that we have nothing but an armistice in a


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 state of war. We have been unable to go in for care-free rejoicing. We have felt that we are in the midst of a tragedy. We have felt humiliation. This has not been a victory for reason and humanity. It has been a victory for brute force.At every stage of the proceedings there have been time limits laid down by the owner and ruler of armed force. The terms have not been terms negotiated; they have been terms laid down as ultimata. We have seen to-day a gallant, civilised and democratic people betrayed and handed over to a ruthless despotism. We have seen something more. We have seen the cause of democracy, which is, in our view, the cause of civilisation and humanity, receive a terrible defeat. ... The events of these last few days constitute one of the greatest diplomatic defeats that this country and France have ever sustained.There can be no doubt that it is a tremendous victory for Herr Hitler. Without firing a shot, by the mere display of military force, he has achieved a dominating position in Europe which Germany failed to win after four years of war. He has overturned the balance of power in Europe. He has destroyed the last fortress of democracy in Eastern Europe which stood in the way of his ambition. He has opened his way to the food, the oil and the resources which he requires in order to consolidate his military power, and he has successfully defeated and reduced to impotence the forces that might have stood against the rule of violence. and:

The cause [of the crisis which we have undergone] was not the existence of minorities in Czechoslovakia; it was not that the position of the Sudeten Germans had become intolerable. It was not the wonderful principle of self-determination.It was because Herr Hitler had decided that


texts: the time was ripe for another step forward in his design to dominate Europe. ... The minorities question is no new one. It existed before the [First World] War and it existed after the War, because the problem of Germans in Czechoslovakia succeeded that of the Czechs in German Austria, just as the problem of Germans in the Tyrol succeeded that of the Italians in Trieste, and short of a drastic and entire reshuffling of these populations there is no possible solution to the problem of minorities in Europe except toleration. However, the new Czechoslovakian state did not provide equal rights to the Slovaks and Sudeten Germans, with the historian Arnold J. Toynbee already having noted that "for the Germans, Magyars and Poles, who account between them for more than one quarter of the whole population, the present regime in Czechoslovakia is not essentially different from the regimes in the surrounding countries". Eden in the Munich debate acknowledged that there had been "discrimination, even severe discrimination" against the Sudeten Germans. In 1937, Attlee wrote a book entitled The Labour Party in Perspective that sold fairly well in which he set out some of his views.He argued that there was no point in Labour compromising on its socialist principles in the belief that this would achieve electoral success. He wrote: "I find that the proposition often reduces itself to this – that if the Labour Party would drop its socialism and adopt a Liberal platform, many Liberals would be pleased to support it. I have heard it said more than once that if Labour would only drop its policy of nationalisation everyone would be pleased, and it would soon obtain a majority. I am convinced it would be fatal for the Labour Party." He also wrote that


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 there was no point in "watering down Labour's socialist creed in order to attract new adherents who cannot accept the full socialist faith. On the contrary, I believe that it is only a clear and bold policy that will attract this support". In the late 1930s, Attlee sponsored a Jewish mother and her two children, enabling them to leave Germany in 1939 and move to the UK.On arriving in Britain, Attlee invited one of the children into his home in Stanmore, north-west London, where he stayed for several months. Deputy Prime Minister

<mask> remained as Leader of the Opposition when the Second World War broke out in September 1939. The ensuing disastrous Norwegian Campaign would result in a motion of no confidence in Neville Chamberlain. Although Chamberlain survived this, the reputation of his administration was so badly and publicly damaged that it became clear a coalition government would be necessary. Even if Attlee had personally been prepared to serve under Chamberlain in an emergency coalition government, he would never have been able to carry Labour with him. Consequently, Chamberlain tendered his resignation, and Labour and the Conservatives entered a coalition government led by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940, with Attlee joining the Cabinet as Lord Privy Seal on 12 May. Attlee and Churchill quickly agreed that the War Cabinet would consist of three Conservatives (initially Churchill, Chamberlain and Lord Halifax) and two Labour members (initially himself and Arthur Greenwood) and that Labour should have slightly more than one third of the posts in the coalition government.Attlee and Greenwood played a vital role in supporting Churchill during a series of War Cabinet debates over whether or not to negotiate peace terms with


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 Hitler following the Fall of France in May 1940; both supported Churchill and gave him the majority he needed in the War Cabinet to continue Britain's resistance. Only Attlee and Churchill remained in the War Cabinet from the formation of the Government of National Unity in May 1940 through to the election in May 1945. Attlee was initially the Lord Privy Seal, before becoming Britain's first ever Deputy Prime Minister in 1942, as well as becoming the Dominions Secretary and Lord President of the Council on 28 September 1943. Attlee himself played a generally low key but vital role in the wartime government, working behind the scenes and in committees to ensure the smooth operation of government. In the coalition government, three inter-connected committees effectively ran the country. Churchill chaired the first two, the War Cabinet and the Defence Committee, with Attlee deputising for him in these, and answering for the government in Parliament when Churchill was absent. Attlee himself instituted, and later chaired the third body, the Lord President's Committee, which was responsible for overseeing domestic affairs.As Churchill was most concerned with overseeing the war effort, this arrangement suited both men. Attlee himself had largely been responsible for creating these arrangements with Churchill's backing, streamlining the machinery of government and abolishing many committees. He also acted as a concilliator in the government, smoothing over tensions which frequently arose between Labour and Conservative Ministers. Many Labour activists were baffled by the top leadership role for a man they regarded as having little charisma; Beatrice Webb wrote in her diary in early 1940:
He looked and spoke like an insignificant elderly


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 clerk, without distinction in the voice, manner or substance of his discourse. To realise that this little nonentity is the Parliamentary Leader of the Labour Party ... and presumably the future P.M. [Prime Minister] is pitiable". Prime Minister

1945 election

Following the defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of the War in Europe in May 1945, Attlee and Churchill favoured the coalition government remaining in place until Japan had been defeated. However, Herbert Morrison made it clear that the Labour Party would not be willing to accept this, and Churchill was forced to tender his resignation as Prime Minister and call an immediate election.The war had set in motion profound social changes within Britain, and had ultimately led to a widespread popular desire for social reform. This mood was epitomised in the Beveridge Report of 1942, by the Liberal economist William Beveridge. The Report assumed that the maintenance of full employment would be the aim of post-war governments, and that this would provide the basis for the welfare state. Immediately on its release, it sold hundreds of thousands of copies. All major parties committed themselves to fulfilling this aim, but most historians say that Attlee's Labour Party were seen by the electorate as the party most likely to follow it through. Labour campaigned on the theme of "Let Us Face the Future", positioning themselves as the party best placed to rebuild Britain following the war, and were widely viewed as having run a strong and positive campaign, while the Conservative campaign centred entirely around Churchill. Despite opinion polls indicating a strong Labour lead, opinion polls were then viewed as a novelty which had not proven their worth, and most commentators expected that


texts: Churchill's prestige and status as a "war hero" would ensure a comfortable Conservative victory.Before polling day, The Manchester Guardian surmised that "the chances of Labour sweeping the country and obtaining a clear majority ... are pretty remote". The News of the World predicted a working Conservative majority, while in Glasgow a pundit forecast the result as Conservatives 360, Labour 220, Others 60. Churchill, however, made some costly errors during the campaign. In particular, his suggestion during one radio broadcast that a future Labour Government would require "some form of a gestapo" to implement their policies was widely regarded as being in very bad taste, and massively backfired. When the results of the election were announced on 26 July, they came as a surprise to most, including Attlee himself. Labour had won power by a huge landslide, winning 47.7 per cent of the vote to the Conservatives' 36 per cent. This gave them 393 seats in the House of Commons, a working majority of 146.This was the first time in history that the Labour Party had won a majority in Parliament. When Attlee went to see King George VI at Buckingham Palace to be appointed Prime Minister, the notoriously laconic Attlee and the famously tongue-tied King stood in silence; Attlee finally volunteered the remark, "I've won the election". The King replied "I know. I heard it on the Six O'Clock News". As Prime Minister, Attlee appointed Hugh Dalton as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary, and Herbert Morrison as Deputy Prime Minister, with overall responsibility for nationalisation. Additionally, Stafford Cripps was made President of the Board of Trade, Aneurin Bevan became Minister of Health, and Ellen Wilkinson, the only woman


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 to serve in Attlee's cabinet, was appointed Minister of Education. The Attlee government proved itself to be a radical, reforming government.From 1945 to 1948, over 200 public Acts of Parliament were passed, with eight major pieces of legislation placed on the statute book in 1946 alone. Domestic policy
Francis (1995) argues there was consensus both in the Labour's national executive committee and at party conferences on a definition of socialism that stressed moral improvement as well as material improvement. The Attlee government was committed to rebuilding British society as an ethical commonwealth, using public ownership and controls to abolish extremes of wealth and poverty. Labour's ideology contrasted sharply with the contemporary Conservative Party's defence of individualism, inherited privileges, and income inequality. On 5 July 1948, <mask>e replied to a letter dated 22 June from James Murray and ten other MPs who raised concerns about West Indians who arrived on board the . As for the prime minister himself, he was not much focused on economic policy, letting others handle the issues. Health

Attlee's Health Minister, Aneurin Bevan, fought hard against the general disapproval of the medical establishment, including the British Medical Association, by creating the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948.This was a publicly funded healthcare system, which offered treatment free of charge for all at the point of use. Reflecting pent-up demand that had long existed for medical services, the NHS treated some 8 and a half million dental patients and dispensed more than 5 million pairs of spectacles during its first year of operation. Welfare
The government set about implementing the wartime plans of Liberal William Beveridge for


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 the creation of a "cradle to grave" welfare state. It set in place an entirely new system of social security. Among the most important pieces of legislation was the National Insurance Act 1946, in which people in work were required to pay a flat rate of national insurance. In return, they (and the wives of male contributors) were eligible for a wide range of benefits, including pensions, sickness benefit, unemployment benefit, and funeral benefit. Various other pieces of legislation provided for child benefit and support for people with no other source of income.In 1949, unemployment, sickness and maternity benefits were exempted from tax. Housing
The New Towns Act 1946 set up development corporations to construct new towns, while the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 instructed county councils to prepare development plans and also provided compulsory purchase powers. The Attlee government also extended the powers of local authorities to requisition houses and parts of houses, and made the acquisition of land less difficult than before. The Housing (Scotland) Act 1949 provided grants of 75 per cent (87.5 per cent in the Highlands and Islands) towards modernisation costs payable by Treasury to local authorities. In 1949, local authorities were empowered to provide people suffering from poor health with public housing at subsidised rents. To assist home ownership, the limit on the amount of money that people could borrow from their local authority to purchase or build a home was raised from £800 to £1,500 in 1945, and to £5,000 in 1949. Under the National Assistance Act 1948 local authorities had a duty "to provide emergency temporary accommodation for families which become homeless through no fault of their own".A large


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 house-building programme was carried out with the intention of providing millions of people with high-quality homes. The Housing (Financial and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1946 increased Treasury subsidies for the construction of local authority housing in England and Wales. Four out of five houses constructed under Labour were council properties built to more generous specifications than before the Second World War, and subsidies kept down council rents. Altogether, these policies provided public-sector housing with its biggest-ever boost up until that point, while low-wage earners particularly benefited from these developments. Although the Attlee government failed to meet its targets, primarily due to economic constraints, over a million new homes were built between 1945 and 1951 (a significant achievement under the circumstances) which ensured that decent, affordable housing was available to many low-income families for the first time ever. Women and children
A number of reforms were embarked upon to improve conditions for women and children. In 1946, universal family allowances were introduced to provide financial support to households for raising children.These benefits had been legislated for the previous year by Churchill's Family Allowances Act 1945, and was the first measure pushed through parliament by <mask>'s government. Conservatives would later criticise Labour for having been "too hasty" in introducing family allowances. A Married Women (Restraint Upon Anticipation) Act was passed in 1949 "to equalise, to render inoperative any restrictions upon anticipation or alienation attached to the enjoyment of property by a woman", while the Married Women (Maintenance) Act 1949 was enacted with the intention of improving the


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 adequacy and duration of financial benefits for married women. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 1950 amended the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 to bring prostitutes within the law and safeguard them from abduction and abuse. The Criminal Justice Act 1948 restricted imprisonment for juveniles and brought improvements to the probation and remand centres systems, while the passage of the Justices of the Peace Act 1949 led to extensive reforms of magistrates' courts. The Attlee government also abolished the marriage bar in the Civil Service, thereby enabling married women to work in that institution. In 1946 the government set up a National Institute of Houseworkers as a means of providing a social democratic variety of domestic service.By late 1946, agreed standards of training were established, which was followed by the opening of a training headquarters and the opening of an additional nine training centres in Wales, Scotland, and then throughout Great Britain. The National Health Service Act 1946 indicated that domestic help should be provided for households where that help is required "owing to the presence of any person who is ill, lying-in, an expectant mother, mentally defective, aged or a child not over compulsory school age". 'Home help' therefore included the provision of home-helps for nursing and expectant mothers and for mothers with children under the age of five, and by 1952 some 20,000 women were engaged in this service. Planning and development
Development rights were nationalised while the government attempted to take all development profits for the State. Strong planning authorities were set up to control land use, and issued manuals of guidance which stressed the importance of safeguarding agricultural land. A chain


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 of regional offices was set up within its planning ministry to provide a strong lead in regional development policies. Comprehensive Development Areas (CDAs), a designation under the Town and Country Planning Act 1947, allowed local authorities to acquire property in the designated areas using powers of compulsory purchase in order to re-plan and develop urban areas suffering from urban blight or war damage.Workers' rights
Various measures were carried out to improve conditions in the workplace. Entitlement to sick leave was greatly extended, and sick pay schemes were introduced for local authority administrative, professional and technical workers in 1946 and for various categories of manual workers in 1948. Worker's compensation was also significantly improved. The Fair Wages Resolution of 1946 required any contractor working on a public project to at least match the pay rates and other employment conditions set in the appropriate collective agreement. In 1946, purchase tax was removed completely from kitchen fittings and crockery, while the rate was reduced on various gardening items. The Fire Services Act 1947 introduced a new pension scheme for fire-fighters, while the Electricity Act 1947 introduced better retirement benefits for workers in that industry. A Workers' Compensation (Supplementation) Act was passed in 1948 that introduced benefits for workers with certain asbestos-related diseases which had occurred before 1948.The Merchant Shipping Act 1948 and the Merchant Shipping (Safety Convention) Act 1949 were passed to improve conditions for seamen. The Shops Act 1950 consolidated previous legislation which provided that no one could be employed in a shop for more than six hours without having a break for at least 20