texts: An American contemporary Samoan novelist, poet, and painter is named <mask>l. Growing up amidst traditional Samoan singing and poetry influenced her writing. Albert Wendt is the Samoan novelist and poet who inspired Figiel the most. After completing her formal education in New Zealand and Samoa, she went on to complete a Bachelor of Arts degree in the United States. She was 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 Where We Once Belonged won the 1997 Best First Book award in the South East Asia/South Pacific Region of the Commonwealth Writers' Prize. Her works have been translated into many other languages.The University of Hawaii hosted the Pacific Island Studies conference for twenty years. The performances of <mask> and Teresia Teaiwa were recorded at this conference and subsequently released in a joint production with Hawai'i Dub Machine records and Elepaio Press. The album title is Terenesia. In 1998 and 2010 she was a contributor to The Contemporary Pacific journal. Selected poetry by Figiel was included in UPU, a collection of Pacific Island writers' work which was first presented at the Silo Theatre as part of the Auckland Arts Festival in March 2020. The UPU was remounted as part of the festival. Diabetes has affected her life in many ways.The death of her mother and father due to diabetes is one of the reasons that members of her family have had the disease. In 2003 she was diagnosed with diabetes. Figiel kept her diagnosis a secret because she didn't want her condition to shape her as a writer and a public figure. She was compelled to speak up about the disease after the deaths of family members and friends. In 2012 after moving to the United States, Figiel began to address her diabetes both publicly and personally, making appearances at various conferences and university campuses. She served as an advocate in the Pacific region by sharing her personal experiences to help with efforts to address the causes of diabetes. Good health can be achieved by targeting those with diabetes and those who are working to prevent it.She was able to complete the Nautica Malibu triathlon because of her improved condition. <mask>'s story was featured on CNN where she explained how she had difficulty managing her diabetes because she was from American Samoa, where food is a major part of the culture. She lost 100 pounds after moving to Utah. There were many occasions when her blood sugar was very low. Her son was able to help her inject her with the medicine. He saved her life continuously. Where We Once Belonged is a novel set in the fictional village of Malaefou.It is about the character Alofa and her various encounters with violence and sex. The prose that Figiel writes is very poetic and dream-like. Su'ife-Filoi is a Samoan form of story telling that involves the "quilt-like weaving of words". The first instance of a novel written by a Samoan female was published in the United States. A 2008 production of the play winning the Chapman Tripp theatre award for best new New Zealand play was adapted from the novel. In her second novel, They Who Do Not Grieve, Figiel incorporates her poetic talents through the voices of three generations of women who descend from Samoa and New Zealand. The story of two twin sisters who introduce tattooing to Samoa is told in They Who Do Not Grieve.The themes of femininity and coming of age are addressed. The Girl in the Moon Circle was published in 1996 by the Institute of Pacific Studies. From the point of view of a ten-year-old girl named Samoana, it depicts life in Samoan society. The collection shows the simplistic aspects of Samoan culture, along with the commonplace experiences of a young ten-year-old girl, such as school, friends, family, church and boy crushes. The Institute of Pacific Studies published To a Young Artist in Contemplation in 1998. In her novel Freelove, the 17 year old Inosia Alofafua Afatasi from the fictional Western Samoan village of Nu'uolemanusa is sent by her mother on an errand to the city of Apia. A chance encounter with her spiritual brother, who is the son of the pastor in her village, leads her into an unexpected and forbidden relationship.The tale comments on social and communal changes and was published in print by Little Island Press. Review They Who do not Grieve is one of the works on the list. A year ago. There are Indigenous Women Writers in the Pacific. The text is called Postcolonial Text. The year 2012 Songs of the fat brown woman poem A Garland of Exile and Belonging Time Pacific was excerpted at the Frigatezine Between the steel bars poem.

masks:
Sia Figie
Figiel
Figiel


type: paraphrased

texts: <mask> was an English traveller and topographical artist. He is known for his views from Italian gardens. He was the second son of John and Matthew, who were both solicitors and barristers. He did not graduate from Christ Church, Oxford. He traveled to Vienna and the Balkans in 1818 and to Albania in 1819. He met Lord Byron during his journey to the Near East. He took over Claverton manor on the death of his father.He joined the Travellers Club in the 19th century. He traveled to Spain and Portugal in the 19th century. In 1835, a Commissioner for the Houses of Parliament was created, and in 1836, she became a member of the Society of Dilettanti. He traveled to Germany, Sweden, and Russia before his marriage. He studied monumental art. He was a member of the Royal Fine Art Commission from 1841 to 1863. The Commission was formed from a proposal by the Select Committee of Benjamin Hawes to promote the fine arts in conjunction with the rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament.There were committee arabesques from the Palazzo del Te. The group of 22 were dominated by noblemen, patrons and politicians, and included Samuel Rogers and Thomas Wyse. After contracting Malaria in the Campagna, she never again enjoyed perfect health. He died at 11 Grosvenor Square in London on January 5, 1873. The library was put up for sale. The books were mostly based on his drawings. There are illustrations of the architecture of Claverton and the Duke's House.The year was 1836. The plates were mostly from architectural drawings by Charles James Richardson, who was only 14 years old when the Old manor was destroyed. John Weale published Richardson's Observations on the architecture of England during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James I in the same year. The Spanish Scenery was written by Louis Haghe. Louis Haghe, William Day and others created the scenery of Portugal and Spain. James Duffield Harding created engravings of the Gardens of Rome and Albano. The latter's style is thought to have been influenced by James Duffield Harding.The Quarterly Review has articles on architecture. The Prospects of Art in the Future Parliament House from 1835, which was written by John Britton, was presaged by the Fine Art Commission. The Claverton manor estate was purchased in 1816 by the father of <mask> and he brought in Jeffry Wyatt to modify the manor house, but he was persuaded to build a new house on an elevated site. St Mary Hall, Oxford, at age 22, graduating M.A., was the alma mater of <mask>, who was from a Cornish background. In 1784. He was made a bencher of the Middle Temple after being called to the bar at the Inner Temple. The website of the American Museum and Gardens, located in Claverton manor, states that the distinction between the Excise solicitor <mask> and the Inner Temple is incorrect.He had a son who was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1816. She was the daughter of SamuelEdwards of Cotham Lodge, who died in 1816. The Alumni Oxonienses record shows that his father's residence was "Colham, Gloucestershire". This is likely to mean " Cotham". In 1824, John died in Portland Place, London, at the age of 73. The new house at Claverton was built in a neo-classical style using Bath stone, away from the old house. The old house was completed in 1625.Richardson's 1837 book on the period documented some of the details of the old manor, which became a noted example of Jacobean architecture. The architect came to know the woman. There is an art gallery in the south wing of Claverton manor. The introduction of the cult of cybele at Rome by Andrea Mantegna is in the National Gallery, London, and he acquired it from the Venetian dealer Antonio Sanquirico. It was exhibited several times under the original title. Sebastiano del Piombo is believed to have created a portrait of Michelangelo that was later exhibited by his father. It was taken to be a self-portrait of Baccio Bandinelli and was attributed to him in 1899.The American Museum is located at Claverton manor, and its 30 acres of gardens are open to the public. The garden has a 17th-century gateway, walls, and a flight of steps. Elizabeth Anne Grey was the oldest daughter of the Member of Parliament and died in 1822. The 2nd Duke of Northumberland bought out the coal rights of the Greys of Backworth. The Grey family lived in London in the 18th century. The only son of <mask> and Elizabeth Anne <mask> was born in Italy, and he became an army officer. Their daughter Minna was married in the late 19th century.Alice Jane died unmarried in 1921. The younger brother of the Revd Charles Pasley <mask> died in 1841 and his son entered Rugby School as a ward in 1847. The Scots Guards were part of the British Conquest of Egypt. He became a director of the machine tool company after retiring from the Army. Susan Lawrence Endicott was the widow of Marshall Owen Roberts. The births and deaths of English watercolourists.

masks:
GeorgeVivian
George
John Vivian
John Vivian
George
Vivian
Vivian


texts: Medina del Campo had a Spanish philosopher named <mask>. The application of empirical methods, as well as his philosophy, is of the standard direction and his reasonings are a clear precedent of René Descartes. In 1554, he was the first to propose the famous "Cogito ergo sum". He was well-known for his practice of medicine, but he had many other occupations. There was no one who took care of his manuscripts. Many of the documents that researchers have given shape to are related to business or lawsuits. He was the second of five brothers and his father owned a small shop of fabrics and low quality cloths.His mother died in 1515 and her sons went to live with her aunt. This is not certain because the source of this was a neighbor that testified against him in a lawsuit, but it is thought that he descended from a family of converted Jews originally from Portugal. We can't rule out this conversion because we know that he lived with his parents on Serrano street, which is located in the old Jewish quarter of town. Juan Martnez Silceo was the archbishop of Toledo between 1545 and 1557. He was involved in the disputes between the realists and the nominalists, preferring the latter and rejecting the authority of the old masters. He studied medicine here as well. He became a doctor in Medina.He married Isabel Rodriguez and lived on Ra Nueva where he worked as a doctor and managed the business that he inherited from his family. He had a large amount of capital and invested in a wide range of business, which included managing the collection of several parishes, trading and warehousing wines, and renting rooms to other merchants who went to the "Great Exhibitions of the Kingdom" in Medina. His fame as a physician exceeded the boundaries of Medina, and he practiced in many important cities of Castille. He was summed to attend to Prince Charles, heir to the throne, who had suffered a serious accident, when he came to the court of Phillip II. The Prince lived until 1568. A watermill dam that could function without water was designed by him and his companion Francisco Lobato and was patented in 1563. At the request of King Maxmilian II of Austria, the Medinan engineer decided to design a special mill.A refugee from the wars against the Protestants. The future king of Bohemia wanted to go up the Douro River so he ordered the construction of a galley and the removal of any building that disrupted his navigation. This made it hard for the locals to design a mill that could grind with the force of water without being on the river bank. The model they tested on the Zapardiel River sucked in so much water that there wasn't a single drop by midday. The project fell into oblivion because the king paid no attention to the model and the dam that returned the water to the river. He never paid me anything, despite the promises of funding by the Habsburgs, and we have already spent 150 ducats. His synthesis of philosophy and medicine led to his unique thought.He was against the authority of the old masters and medievals. He used paradoxes and syllogisms to show the errors of those he questioned. It can be argued that his philosophy was more negative than positive, but this is understandable considering the context of ideological suppression in the face of religious authority. The famous essayist Menéndez Pelayo wrote about this famous thinker, saying that he is more advanced than any other thinker of his time. The phenomenon of his intelligence was not noted by anyone. Novae veraeque Medicinae Novae veraeque Medicinae is a medical book that focuses on the study of the causes and types of certain diseases. The medieval tradition of "magister dixit" is challenged in this work, which was dedicated to Prince Don Carlos.His method is based on his experience as a physician. The healing methods are simple and the doctor's experience is the final criterion of truth. I will not give an opinion or sentence to a philosopher if it is not based on reason. Nature restores the natural balance of any body, thanks to the heat generated by a fever, which is the body's defense mechanism to remove the damage that affects it. Antonio Hernndez Morejn, the physician and historian, praised the conclusions of <mask>'s studies of diseases. Antoniana Margarita was recently translated into Spanish from the original Latin. The work is dedicated to his teacher Juan Martnez Siliceo and is a tribute to his parents, even though the subtitle clearly indicates its scientific and philosophical contents.The document is difficult to read because there are no chapters or paragraphs and it uses the language of the New Christians to explore new ideas. The logical conclusions were not developed to their fullest extent. The philosophy of beasts, the theory of human knowledge and the immortality of the soul are addressed in the book. The Christian humanism of the Renaissance denied that animals are equal to humans, while acknowledging some resemblance. In the case of animals, the senses do not lead to knowledge, but they cause automatic reactions. Many animals are capable of acting on internal impulses, as well as on external stimuli, and have some non-conscious ability to learn. The capacity for real knowledge for animals is denied by <mask>.According to the author, if animals feel like humans, there would be nothing to differentiate, and if humans and animals are equal, animals can learn about the Universal, which would be "absurd and impious." Some of his detractors were very close. In 1556, Francisco de Sosa published his work "Endeclago against Antoniana Margarita, in which is treated many and very sensitive reasons and authorities of the proof of the feeling and movement of brutes." Human knowledge is opposed to medieval scholasticism. The spirit of the human is capable of converting the information provided by the senses into real thought. The ability to extract from physical sensations the substance of things is one of the qualities of the soul. In human beings, there is something that identifies the faculty of feeling with the quality of thought, in the same way, that thought and language are linked.Knowledge is an essential faculty of the soul and the human being has a soul conscious of itself thanks to the thoughts it develops. "I know that I know something, anyone who knows exists, then I exist" is the phrase in this work. Even though Descartes was accused of plagiarizing in his time, history has not recognized his contribution. Animals have souls, but they die with them. The human soul is self-sufficient. He has three proof that have not been found. The human soul is capable of existing despite the death of the body because of its consciousness.The human soul does not change even though the body ages or becomes sick, that is, its essence is not affected by external factors. The desire of all humans to attain happiness, along with the wish to know the future and the consequences of our actions, are the reasons that prompt us to do good. After René Descartes published his Discourse on Method in 1637, the originality of the thoughts was questioned and even said to be an overt plagiarism of Gmez <mask>, as the Spanish philosopher had been studied by many prestigious intellectuals during the 16th and 17th century. Pierre Daniel Huet was the first to suggest the similarities between the two. Descartes was forced to defend himself against these accusations, as evidenced by a letter he wrote in 1641 to his friend Father Marin Mersenne. Many scholars of the 17th and 18th Centuries sided with Descartes and despised the work of <mask>, among them Pierre Bayle and Diderot and d'Alembert. This hypothesis was stumbled upon by chance.Many others have defended the contrary thesis. They argue that Descartes was influenced by the work of another Spanish physician and philosopher, Francisco Valles, who read it in French. There are people who accuse Descartes of being a fake. The empirical method: Descartes' is a priori and deductive, whereas <mask>'s is a posteriori and inductive, is the basis for this criticism. Descartes says that animals have a body, mind and memory, while <mask> says the same using different language. Both the "Cogito ergo sum" of Descartes and the "quidquid noscit, est, ergo ego sum" of <mask> have the same basic syllogism. The University of Salamanca alumni are 16th-century Spanish philosophers.

masks:
Gmez Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira


texts: <mask> the Conqueror, also known as <mask>stard, was the first Norman monarch of England from 1066 until his death in 1077. He was the Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward. His hold on Normandy was secure after a long struggle. Following the death of Edward the Confessor, <mask> invaded England, leading an army of Normans to victory over the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings. Struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands marked the rest of his life. <mask> was the son of the Duke Robert I of Normandy and Herleva. The anarchy which plagued the first years of his rule, as well as his illegitimate status, caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father.Both for control of the child duke and for their own ends, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other during his childhood and adolescence. In 1047, <mask> was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy. He had a powerful ally in the neighboring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, <mask> was able to arrange the appointment of his supporters as bishops and abbots in the Norman church. He gained control of the neighboring county of Maine thanks to his consolidation of power. <mask> was once a contender for the throne of England held by Edward the Confessor, his first cousin. Edward named the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson as king on his deathbed.<mask> built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066. He killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings. On Christmas Day, 1066, <mask> was crowned king. He made arrangements for the governance of England before returning to Normandy. <mask> spent the majority of his reign in continental Europe after several unsuccessful rebellions. Problems with his son, Robert, and threats of invasions of England by the Danes marked <mask>'s final years. The Domesday Book was a survey listing all the land-holdings in England along with their pre-Conquest and current holders.He died while leading a campaign in northern France and was buried in Caen. His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, Norman nobility on the land, and a change in the composition of the English clergy. He didn't try to integrate his various domains into a single empire. Normandy went to Robert, and England went to his second son, <mask>. Normandy began raiding in the late 8th century. The county of Rouen was ceded to Rollo by King Charles the Simple of France. The lands around Rouen became the core of Normandy.It is possible that Normandy was used as a base when the attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century. King thelred the Unready took Emma, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy, as his second wife in 1002. thelred and his family took refuge in Normandy in 1013 after being driven out of England by King Swein I of Danes. thelred was allowed to return home after Swein's death, but his son objected. Cnut became king of England after the death of thelred. Edward and Alfred went into exile in Normandy after their mother, Emma, became Cnut's second wife. The English throne fell to Harold Harefoot, his son by his first wife, after Cnut's death in 1035.England was not stable. Alfred returned to England in 1036 to challenge Harold as king. One story implicates Earl in Alfred's death, but others blame Harold. Edward followed his half-brother Harthacnut to England after Harthacnut's death in June 1042. <mask> was most likely born at the end of 1028. Robert I was the son of Richard II. He may have been a tanner orembalmer because his mother was a daughter of Fulbert of Falaise.Herleva was not married to Robert. She was married to Herluin de Conteville and had two sons and a daughter. Walter, Herleva's brother, became a supporter of <mask> during his minority. Robert had a daughter with another mistress. The duke was Robert I, who succeeded his older brother Richard III. Richard's death was sudden and he had been at odds with his brother over the succession. Robert was accused of killing Richard by some writers.Alan III of Brittany waged war against the duchy, possibly in an attempt to take control, as noble families despoiled the Church. Many of the noblemen that Robert gathered would become prominent during <mask>'s life. They included the duke's uncle Robert, the archbishop of Rouen, who had originally opposed the duke, as well as Osbern, a nephew of the wife of Richard I, and Gilbert, a grandson of Richard I. Robert continued Norman support for the English princes Edward and Alfred, who were still in exile in northern France. Robert may have been betrothed to a daughter of King Cnut, but no marriage took place. If Robert had a legitimate son, it's not clear if <mask> would have replaced him in the ducal succession. <mask>'s association with his father on ducal charters suggests that he was Robert's most likely heir.The duke went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1034. Although some of his supporters tried to stop him, he convened a council in January 1035 and had the assembled Norman magnates swear fealty to <mask> as his heir before leaving for Jerusalem. He died on his way back to Normandy. Evidence shows that <mask> was either seven or eight years old at the time of his illegitimate birth. He was able to succeed to his father's duchy because of the support of his great-uncle and King Henry I of France. The support given to the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England in 1036 shows that the new duke's guardians were attempting to continue his father's policies, but Archbishop Robert's death in March 1037 removed one of <mask>'s main supporters. One of the priorities of those vying for power was the control of the young duke.Gilbert of Brionne took charge of <mask> after Alan of Brittany died. Gilbert and another guardian, Turchetil, were both killed around the time of Gilbert's death. Osbern, another guardian, was killed in <mask>'s chamber while he slept. According to Orderic Vitalis, Walter, <mask>'s maternal uncle, was sometimes forced to hide the young duke in the houses of peasants. Eleanor Searle thinks that <mask> was raised with three cousins who became important in his career: <mask>n, Roger de Beaumont, and Roger of Montgomery. Although many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during <mask>'s minority, the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government. King Henry continued to support the young duke, but in late 1046 opponents of <mask> came together in a rebellion centred in lower Normandy, led by Guy of Burgundy.According to legend, an attempt was made to seize <mask> at Valognes, but he escaped under cover of darkness, seeking refuge with King Henry. Henry and <mask> were victorious at the Battle of Val-s-Dunes near Caen in early 1047, although few details of the actual fighting are recorded. King Henry's men and leadership played an important part in the battle, according to <mask> of Poitiers. <mask> promulgated the Truce of God throughout his duchy in an effort to limit warfare and violence by limiting the days of the year when fighting was allowed. The Battle of Val-s-Dunes was a turning point in <mask>'s battle to gain control of the duchy. The period from 1047 to 1054 was almost continuous warfare. <mask> tried to consolidate power against Guy of Burgundy, who retreated to his castle at Brionne.The duke succeeded in exiling Guy. <mask> and King Henry collaborated against the Count of Anjou to address his growing power. They captured an Angevin fortress, but didn't accomplish much else. After the death of Hugh IV of Maine in 1051, Geoffrey tried to expand his authority. The fortresses at Alenon and Domfront, as well as the border of Maine and Normandy, were held by the Bellme family. Duke <mask> was Alenon's overlord, but he was not the king of France. The Bellme family, whose lands were strategically placed between their three different overlords, were able to play each of them against the other and secure virtual independence for themselves.After the death of Hugh of Maine, <mask> and King Henry were able to get the Bellme family strongholds at Alenon and Dom. He was able to get the Bellme family to act in line with his interests. At the same time as some Norman nobles began to contest <mask>'s increasing power, the king and Martel made a common cause against him. Henry's about-face was probably motivated by a desire to retain dominance over Normandy, which was now threatened by <mask>'s growing mastery of his duchy. The royal forces, which had overrun and were garrisoned in the fortresses at Domfront and Alenon, promptly surrendered out of fear after hearing how quickly some of his men were going to besiege the royal fortress at Domfront, William. <mask> was involved in military actions against his own nobles as well as with the new Archbishop of Rouen. The king and Norman rebels invaded the duchy twice in February 1054.The main thrust through the county of vreux was led by Henry. <mask> divided his forces into two groups. He faced Henry. The second included some who became <mask>'s firm supporters, such as Robert, Count of Eu, Walter Giffard, and <mask> Warenne. The second force defeated the invaders. The duke's supporters were able to dethrone the archbishop. The conflict between <mask> and the French king and the Count of Anjou continued into the 10th century.<mask> defeated Henry and Geoffrey at the Battle of Varaville in 1057. <mask>'s last invasion of Normandy was this one. <mask> invaded the County of Dreux in 1058 and took Tillires-sur-Avre and Thimert. The siege of Thimert lasted for two years until Henry's death. There was a shift in the balance of power towards <mask> after the deaths of Count Geoffrey and the king. The daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders was a factor in <mask>'s favour. Pope Leo IX forbade the marriage at the Council of Rheims in October 1049.The marriage went ahead despite the pope's disapproval. According to a late source not generally considered to be reliable, papal sanction was not secured until 1059, but as papal-Norman relations were generally good, and Norman clergy were able to visit Rome without incident, it was probably secured earlier. Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have led to the founding of two monasteries in Caen. Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories, with ties to the French royal house and to the German emperors, so the marriage was important in bolstering <mask>'s status. The marriage produced four sons and five or six daughters and was considered a success by contemporary writers. Contemporary depictions of <mask> on the Bayeux Tapestry and on his seals and coins are depictions designed to assert his authority. A guttural voice can be heard in some written descriptions of a burly and robust appearance.He had good health until old age, but he became fat later in life. He was able to draw bows because he was strong. He was described as a fighter and a horseman by Martel. When the rest of <mask>'s remains were destroyed, his only bone to survive was his thigh. There are records of two tutors for <mask> during the late 1030s and early 1040s, but the extent of his literary education is not known. There is no evidence that he sponsored any intellectual activities. According to Orderic Vitalis, <mask> tried to learn to read Old English late in life, but he was unable to devote enough time to the effort and gave up.<mask>'s main hobby was hunting. There are no signs that he was unfaithful to her, which is unusual in a medieval monarch. <mask> was praised for his personal piety despite being criticized for his greed. The government that existed under earlier dukes was similar to that of the Norman administration. The administrative system around the ducal household consisted of a group of officers including stewards, butlers, and marshals. The duke was constantly travelling around the duchy. The majority of the income came from the ducal lands.One of the household departments collected this income. <mask> had close relations with the church. He made several appointments to the Norman episcopate, including the appointment of Maurilius as Archbishop of Rouen. The appointment of <mask>'s half-brother as Bishop of Bayeux was an important one. Lanfranc, a non-Norman who rose to become one of <mask>'s prominent ecclesiastical advisors, was one of the clergy he relied on for advice. From 1035 to 1066, the Norman aristocracy founded at least twenty new monastic houses, including <mask>'s two monasteries in Caen, a remarkable expansion of religious life in the duchy. The childless King Edward of England is thought to have chosen <mask> as his successor.Richard II of Normandy was Edward's maternal uncle. According to the "D" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, <mask> went to England in the later part of 1051 to try to get aid for his troubles in Normandy. <mask> was involved in warfare with Anjou at the time. It was likely that <mask>'s claim would be opposed by the Earl of Wessex, a member of the most powerful family in England. Edward's claim to the throne was supported by one of his main supporters, Godwin. The relationship between the king and the earl deteriorated in 1051, leading to the exile of Godwin and his family from England. Edward offered the throne to <mask> during the exile.A settlement was reached between the king and the earl in 1052 after the king returned from exile, restoring the earl and his family to their lands, and replacing Robert of Jumiges, a Norman who Edward had named the Bishop. The two Norman sources that mention it, <mask> of Jumiges and <mask> of Poitiers, are not precise in their dates of when this visit took place. Count Herbert II of Maine died in 1062 and <mask>, who betrothed his eldest son Robert to Herbert's sister Margaret, claimed the county through his son. <mask> secured control of the area after local nobles resisted the claim. In 1055, <mask> appointed a Norman to the bishopric. Robert Curthose was allowed to do homage to the new Count of Anjou. <mask>'s western border was secured, but his border with Brittany was not.In 1064 <mask> invaded Brittany. The duke, Conan II, was forced to focus on internal problems rather than on expansion because of its effect. <mask>'s borders in Normandy were further secured by the death of Conan. The support of some Breton nobles who supported the invasion of England in 1066 came from <mask>'s campaign in Brittany. In England, Harold succeeded to his father's earldom, and another son, Tostig, became Earl of Northumbria. Leofwine and Gyrth were granted earldoms after 1055 and 1057, respectively. Some sources claim that Harold took part in <mask>'s campaign of 1064 and swore to uphold <mask>'s claim to the English throne at the end of the campaign, but no English source reports this trip, and it is unclear if it actually happened.Harold was the main contender to succeed King Edward. <mask> Exile, son of Edmund Ironside and a grandson of thelred II, returned to England in 1057 and although he died shortly

masks:
William
William the Ba
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William fitzOsber
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William de
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
William
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texts: after his return, he brought with him his family, which included two daughters. The Earl of Mercia's younger brother Morcar was earl in 1065 when the rebels revolted against Tostig. King Edward replaced Tostig with Morcar after Harold supported the rebels and persuaded them to support his bid for the throne. The wife of Tostig was the daughter of Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders. Edward died of an illness on January 5, 1066. It's not clear what happened at Edward's deathbed.According to the biography of Edward, he was attended by his wife Edith, Harold, and the king named Harold as his successor. The Norman sources don't dispute the fact that Harold was named the next king, but they say that Edward's promise of the throne couldn't be changed on his deathbed. The clergy and magnates of England elected Harold as king, according to English sources. On January 6, 1066, Harold was crowned in Edward's new Norman-style Westminster Abbey, although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony. English sources claim that Ealdred, the Archbishop of York, performed the ceremony, while Norman sources claim that the ceremony was performed by a non-canonical archbishop. Harold's claim to the throne was not completely secure as there were other claims. King Hardrada of Norway had a claim to the throne as the uncle and heir of King Magnus I, who had made a pact with Harthacnut that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs, the other would succeed.King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations, against <mask> of Normandy. Harold's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern coast of England in May 1066 using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders. Tostig retreated to Scotland because he didn't get much local support, and further raids into Lincolnshire and near the River Humber didn't work out. <mask> of Jumiges claims that he sent an embassy to Harold to remind him of his oath to support him. For most of the summer, Harold deployed troops and ships along the English Channel to repel <mask>'s invasion force. <mask> of Poitiers describes a council called by Duke <mask>, in which the writer gives an account of a great debate that took place between <mask>'s nobles and supporters over whether to risk an invasion of England. Most of the people assembled would have been anxious to get their share of the rewards from the conquest of England, as the duke had already established control over his nobles.Pope Alexander II consented to the invasion, along with a papal banner, according to <mask> of Poitiers. According to the chronicler, the duke secured the support of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and King Sweyn II ofDenmark. Sweyn was more likely to support Harold than Henry was, so these claims should be treated with caution. Alexander gave papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, but no other source claimed papal support prior to the invasion. <mask> performed penance after the invasion and later popes made statements in support of the claim of papal approval. The government of Normandy was put in the hands of <mask>'s wife for the duration of the invasion. <mask> assembled an army in Normandy during the summer.Although <mask> of Jumiges's claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3000 ships is an exaggeration, it was probably large and mostly built from scratch. Both <mask> of Poitiers and <mask> of Jumiges agree that the fleet was built at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. The invasion force included troops from <mask>'s own territories of Normandy and Maine, as well as large numbers of mercenaries, allies, and volunteers from Brittany, northeastern France, and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. Intelligence reports from England showed that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. <mask> wanted to delay the invasion until he could land. With the arrival of the harvest season, Harold dissolved his army and kept his forces on alert throughout the summer.The local forces were defeated at the Battle of Fulford by Tostig and Hardrada. King Harold defeated the invaders and killed Tostig and Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. The Norman fleet finally set sail two days later. <mask> built a castle in Hastings, a few miles to the east, as a base of operations. He ravaged the interior and waited for Harold's return from the north, refusing to venture far from the sea, his line of communication with Normandy. Harold left most of his army in the north to fight the Norman invaders in the Battle of Hastings. He was travelling south when he learned of <mask>'s landing.Harold was in London for about a week before marching to Hastings, so it is likely that he spent about a week on his march south. <mask>'s scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle are obscure, with conflicting accounts in the sources, but all agree that <mask> led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy. Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill, about from <mask>'s castle at Hastings. While a broad outline of the battle is known, the exact events are obscured by conflicting accounts in the sources. <mask> had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers. <mask>'s army was thrown back with heavy casualties after the English soldiers formed a shield wall along the ridge.The English troops pursued the fleeing Bretons until they were attacked and destroyed by the Norman cavalry. <mask> was able to rally his troops despite rumors that the duke had been killed. The English were exposed to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry after two more Norman retreats were feigned. The sources are more confused about what happened in the afternoon than they are about Harold's death. <mask> claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but that may be a later version of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head. Harold's body was identified the day after the battle, either through his armour or marks on his body.The English dead, including some of Harold's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield. The duke refused to accept the weight of Harold's body in gold, even though his mother offered it. <mask> ordered that the body be thrown into the sea, but it's not clear if that happened. Harold's body was secretly buried at Waltham Abbey. The English did not surrender after <mask>'s victory. The English clergy and magnates did not support Edgar the theling as king. <mask> secured parts of Kent, and also sent a force to capture Winchester, where the royal treasury was.If needed, these captures secured <mask>'s rear areas and his line of retreat to Normandy. <mask> crossed the river from London to Southwark in late November. He led his forces around the south and west of London. He finally crossed the river in December. When <mask> moved on to Berkhamsted, other people also submitted. <mask> was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. <mask> tried to reconcile the native magnates after he was crowned.The lands and titles of the remaining earls were confirmed. <mask>'s niece Judith was married to <mask>of and a marriage was proposed to one of <mask>'s daughters. The theling appears to have been given lands. The uncanonical Stigand was still held by the same bishops as before the invasion. Some people who had fought against <mask> at Hastings lost their lands as did the families of Harold and his brothers. By March, <mask> was secured enough to return to Normandy, but he took with him six other people. He left his half-brother, the Bishop of Bayeux, in charge of England along with another influential supporter, <mask>bern, the son of his former guardian.Both men were named to earldoms. He kept many of the native English sheriffs even though he put two Normans in charge. The new English king went to Rouen and the Abbey of Fecamp to attend the consecration of two Norman monasteries. While <mask> was in Normandy, Eustace, the Count of Boulogne invaded, but was repulsed. English resistance began, with Eadric the Wild attacking Hereford and revolts at Exeter, where Harold's mother was a focus of resistance. A programme of castle building was undertaken by FitzOsbern and Odo to maintain their hold on the kingdom. After returning to England in December 1067, <mask> marched on the city of Exeter.<mask> built a castle after the town held out for 18 days. Harold's sons were raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland. Their forces were defeated by Eadnoth. <mask> was joined by his wife, who was crowned in May 1068. Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria supported the English resistance in 1068. According to the chronicler Orderic Vitalis, the reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of <mask>bern in Herefordshire. The king built a castle.<mask> continued on to York, building York andNottingham Castles before returning south. Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Cambridge Castles were built on his journey. <mask> placed supporters in charge of the fortifications. The king came back to Normandy late in 1068. In 1069, the theling rose in revolt and attacked York. When <mask> returned to York, he built another castle, but he was free to join King Sweyn. The king of the Danes brought a large fleet to England and attacked.The combined forces of Sweyn and Edgar captured York. His supporters proclaimed him king. <mask> wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069 after ignoring a continental revolt in Maine. He bought off the Danes. As he went, he ravaged the countryside. King Malcolm III was married to Margaret's sister, and they fled to Scotland. <mask> and Gospatric were allowed to keep their lands after they joined the revolt.During the winter, <mask> defeated the remaining rebels and built Chester and Stafford Castles. The "Harrying of the North", which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through, was over by April 1070. John Minutus, Peter, and Ermenfrid of Sion were sent by the pope and <mask> met with them. <mask> was crowned during the Easter court. The historian thinks the papal "seal of approval" for <mask>'s conquest is this one. The legates and the king held a series of council to reform and reorganize the English church. The Bishop of Elmham, thelmr, was deposed from his position.The native abbots were deposed at the council held near Easter and at a further one nearby. Lanfranc and Thomas of Bayeux were appointed to replace Ealdred, who died in September 1069. <mask> probably didn't want to give a lot of power to a family member. The papacy may have been behind the appointment of Lanfranc. At the end of the process, only two native English bishops remained in office, along with several continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor. <mask> founded Battle Abbey, a monastery at the site of the Battle of Hastings, as a memorial to the dead and as a penance for the deaths in the battle. He was confirmed in his authority over the Norman church at an ecclesiastical council held in Lillebonne.Although Sweyn promised to leave England, he returned in the spring of 1070 and joined Hereward the Wake in the Isle of Ely. Hereward's forces captured and stole from Peterborough Abbey. In 1070, <mask> was able to secure the departure of Sweyn and his fleet in order to deal with the troubles in Maine. The death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders in July 1070 led to a succession crisis as his widow, Richilde, ruled for their two young sons. Robert, Baldwin's brother, disagreed with her rule. <mask>bern accepted the marriage proposal from Richilde. Robert became count after he was killed.The Battle of Cassel upset the balance of power in northern France, as well as costing <mask> an important supporter, because he was opposed to King <mask>'s power. The last rebellion of the north was defeated by <mask>. <mask> built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely, where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding. Morcar was captured, deprived of his earldom, and imprisoned. <mask> invaded Scotland in 1072 after Malcolm invaded the north of England. Malcolm probably gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for peace because he agreed to peace with <mask> and Malcolm. The expulsion of Edgar from Malcolm's court was a part of the treaty.In early 1073, <mask> returned to Normandy to deal with the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin, the Count of Anjou. <mask> defeated Fulk's forces by the end of March 1073. <mask>'s power was more secure in northern France, but the new count of Flanders accepted the theling into his court. King Philip I of France married Robert's half- sister, who was opposed to Norman power. After leaving his army in England, <mask> returned to Normandy where he spent the rest of his life. He left England in the hands of his supporters, including Richard fitzGilbert and <mask> Warenne. <mask> felt that his control of the kingdom was secure because he was able to leave England for an entire year.While <mask> was in Normandy, the theling returned to Scotland. The castle of Montreuil-sur-Mer on the Channel was proposed by the French king as a strategic advantage against <mask>. He returned to <mask>'s court after he was forced to submit to <mask>. Philip turned his attention to Brittany, leading to a revolt in 1075. The "Revolt of the Earls" took place in 1075 when <mask> was away. Prior to 1066 in Brittany, where he still had lands, Ralph had spent most of his life. <mask>bern's son Roger had less authority than his father.The cause of his involvement in the revolt was likely due to the fact that his authority was less than his predecessors in the earldom. The exact reason for the rebellion is not known, but it was launched at the wedding of a relative of Roger. The earl of Northumbria, one of <mask>'s favorites, was also involved in the rebellion. The requested aid was from the Danes. While his men in England subdued the revolt, <mask> remained in Normandy. The Abbot of Evesham, <mask>lwig, tried to get Roger to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire. The combined efforts of Richard fitzGilbert and <mask> Warenne bottled up Ralph.After leaving his wife in England, he ended up in Brittany. The garrison was allowed to go to Brittany. Cnut arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich already surrendered. The Danes raided along the coast. <mask> went back to England in 1075 to deal with the threat from the Danes. He dealt with the aftermath of the rebellion at Christmas. The executions of Roger and <mask>of took place in a prison.<mask> went back to the continent to continue the rebellion from Brittany. <mask> advanced into Brittany and laid siege to the castle after Earl Ralph secured control of the castle. <mask> was

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texts: forced to retreat back to Normandy after King Philip of France defeated him at the Battle of Dol. <mask>'s first defeat in battle did little to change things. Count Fulk le Rechin was wounded in the unsuccessful attack on Maine. The Count of Amiens retired to a monastery. King Philip took over Simon's county before he became a monk.The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king, and Simon was a supporter of <mask>. <mask> was able to make peace with Philip in 1077. Trouble began between <mask> and his son, Robert. It is more likely that Robert was feeling powerless than that the quarrel was started when <mask> and Henry threw water at Robert. Orderic said he had previously demanded control of Maine and had been turned down. The trouble in 1077 or 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of young men, many of them the sons of <mask>'s supporters. Robert, <mask>, and Roger are the sons of Richard fitzGilbert.The young men went to the castle at Remalard to raid it. Many of <mask>'s continental enemies supported the raiders. <mask> attacked the rebels and drove them out of Remalard, but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi, where they were joined by new supporters. In January 1079. The besieged forces took the besiegers by surprise after three weeks. <mask> was saved from death by an Englishman named Toki who was killed by Robert. The king returned to Rouen after <mask>'s forces lifted the siege.<mask> affirmed that Robert would receive Normandy when he died after reaching an accommodation with him. There were difficulties in northern England because of the word of <mask>'s defeat. King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the River Tweed in August and September of 1079. The Northumbrians rebelled against the rule of <mask> in the spring of 1086 because of the lack of Norman response. The king dispatched his half-brother to deal with the rebellion after Walcher was killed. Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots in the autumn after his father left Normandy. While returning to England, Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms and build a new castle.The king wore his crown at both Gloucester and Winchester. <mask> rejected a request from the papal embassy to fealty England to the papacy. The English and Welsh sources differ on the exact purpose of <mask>'s visit to Wales. Welsh sources say it was a pilgrimage to St Davids, but the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says it was a military campaign. The former explanation is that the balance of power had recently shifted in Wales and that <mask> would have wanted to take advantage of it to extend Norman power. <mask> was back on the continent at the end of 10 81. A negotiated settlement was arranged by a papal legate after he led an expedition into Maine.Sources for <mask>'s actions last year were sparse. According to the historian, this probably means that little happened of note, and that because <mask> was on the continent, there was nothing for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to record. <mask> ordered the arrest of his half-brother. No contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half-brothers. Vitalis recorded that he had ambitions to become pope. Orderic said that <mask>'s vassals were trying to persuade them to join the invasion of southern Italy. <mask> wouldn't tolerate tampering with the king's authority over his vassals.Although he was in confinement for the rest of <mask>'s reign, his lands were not taken. The French king supported Robert when he rebelled again in 1083. The death of Queen Matilda was a blow. It would have added to <mask>'s problems if his wife had died. The state of Maine was difficult, probably because of a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont-au-Maine. After <mask>'s forces besieged his castle at Sainte-Suzanne for at least two years, he eventually made his peace with the king and was restored to favour. <mask> may have been in England before the year 1084 when he was in Normandy for the defence of England against the Danes.Cnut's death in July 1086 ended the invasion threat because English and Norman forces remained on alert. The central keep of the Tower of London was ordered by <mask> as part of his efforts to secure England. When Normans were threatened with rebellion, these fortifications allowed them to retreat into safety. Stone structures replaced earth and timber in the early castles. Most of the newly settled Normans kept household knights and did not settle their retainers with fiefs of their own, but gradually these household knights came to be granted lands of their own, a process known as subinfeudation. <mask> required his newly created magnates to contribute to a fixed quota of knights for both military campaigns and castle garrisons. The pre-Conquest English practice of basing military service on territorial units was a departure from this method.Norman and other continental magnates replaced most of the native Anglo-Saxon aristocracy after <mask>'s death. Some of the Normans who were with <mask> did not acquire large amounts of land in England. Some seem to have been reluctant to take up lands in a kingdom that was not always pacified. Some of the newly rich Normans in England came from <mask>'s close family or from the upper Norman nobility. <mask> granted some lands to his continental followers from the holdings of one or more specific Englishmen; at other times, he granted a compact grouping of lands previously held by many different Englishmen to one Norman follower, often to allow for the consolidation of lands around a strategically placed castle. According to the medieval chronicler <mask> of Malmesbury, the king seized and depopulated many miles of land, turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiasm for hunting. The New Forest depopulation was overstated according to modern historians.Archaeological and geographic studies show that most of the New Forest was a poor agricultural area when it was turned into a royal forest. <mask> introduced the forest law into areas of the country to regulate who could hunt and what could be hunted. <mask> did not attempt to integrate his separate domains into one unified realm with one set of laws. His seal from after 1066 was made for him after he conquered England and stressed his role as king, while separately mentioning his role as duke. In Normandy, <mask> acknowledged his fealty to the French king, but in England he did not. The administrative machinery of Normandy, England, and Maine remained separate from the other lands. The use of writs by England was not known on the continent.The documents produced for the government in Normandy differed from those produced in England. The English government was more complex than the Norman system. England was divided into shires or counties, which were further divided into hundreds or wapentakes. The sheriff had the same status as a Norman viscount. The sheriff collected royal revenue. <mask> had to travel more than he had as duke to oversee his expanded domain. Between 1067 and his death, he traveled between the continent and England at least 19 times.Between the Battle of Hastings and 1072, <mask> spent most of his time in England and the majority of his time in Normandy. Government was still centered on <mask>'s household and decisions would be made for other parts of his domain through a communication system that used letters and other documents. If the absence was expected to be lengthy, <mask> appointed his deputies who could make decisions. Usually, this was a member of <mask>'s close family, such as his half-brother or wife. Sometimes it was necessary to have a deputy deal with specific issues. Danegeld is a land tax. The only universal tax collected by western European rulers during this period was an advantage for <mask>.The tax was based on the value of landholdings and could be collected at different rates. In crises, the rate could be increased to as much as six shillings per hide. There were different styles and cycles of coinage between the different parts of his domain. English coins had high artistic standards and were required to be re-minted every three years. Norman coins were often of poor artistic quality and had a lower silver content. In England, no other coinage was allowed, while on the other side of the world, other coinage was considered legal tender. There is no evidence that the monetary systems of England and Normandy were integrated.<mask>'s large landholdings throughout England strengthened his rule. King Edward's heir was in charge of all of the former royal lands. The king's control of the lands of Harold and his family made him the largest secular landlord in England. <mask> ordered a survey of the landholdings held by himself and his vassals throughout his kingdom. It resulted in a book called the Domesday Book. The holdings of each landholder are shown in the listing. The listings describe the holding, who owned the land before the Conquest, its value, what the tax assessment was, and usually the number of peasants, ploughs, and any other resources the holding had.The towns were listed separately. The whole work seems to have been completed by 1 August 1086, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that <mask> received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the Salisbury Oath. <mask>'s exact motivation in ordering the survey is unclear, but it probably had several purposes, such as making a record of feudal obligations and justifying increased taxation. <mask> left England at the end of 1086. His policy of seeking allies against the French kings led him to marry his daughter to Duke Alan of Brittany. <mask> led an expedition against the French Vexin in July 1097 because his son Robert was stirring up trouble. <mask> fell ill or was injured when he seized Mantes.He died at the priory of Saint Gervase in Rouen. There are two different accounts of the events preceding his death. Orderic Vitalis has a lengthy account with speeches made by many of the principals, but it is more of an account of how a king should die than of what actually happened. The De obitu Willelmi is a copy of two 9th-century accounts with different names. The custody of England was given to <mask>'s second surviving son, also called <mask>, on the assumption that he would become king after <mask> left Normandy. Henry received money. After entrusting England to his second son, the elder <mask> sent the younger <mask> back to England on 7 or 8 September, with a letter to Lanfranc ordering the archbishop to aid the new king.Money to be distributed to the poor was one of the bequests. <mask> ordered that all of his prisoners be released. Everyone who was at <mask>'s deathbed left the body at Rouen and went to their own affairs. <mask> wanted to be buried in his foundation of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, so the clergy of Rouen arranged for the body to be sent to Caen. The funeral, attended by the bishop and abbots of Normandy as well as his son Henry, was disturbed by the assertion of a citizen of Caen who alleged that his family had been illegally despoiled of the land on which the church was built. The man was compensated after the allegation was proven to be true. The corpse was lowered into the tomb.The corpse was too large for the space, and when attendants forced it into the tomb it burst, causing a disgusting smell throughout the church. <mask>'s grave is marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription from the early 19th century. The first time the tomb was disturbed was in 1522 when the papacy ordered the grave to be opened. During the French Wars of Religion, the grave was reopened and the bones were scattered and lost, with the exception of one thigh bone. The lone relic was reburied in 1642 with a new marker and a monument 100 years later. The tomb was destroyed again during the French Revolution, but this time it was replaced with a ledger stone. The immediate consequence of <mask>'s death was a war between his sons Robert and <mask>.After the younger <mask>'s death in 1100 and the succession of his youngest brother Henry as king, England and Normandy remained at odds. The loss of authority in Normandy was caused by the difficulties over the succession, with the aristocracy regaining much of the power they had lost to the elder <mask>. Maine was mostly free of Norman influence after revolting in 1089, but his sons lost much of their control over it. Changes in the Church, aristocracy, culture, and language of the country have continued into modern times despite the impact of <mask>'s conquest. France and England had ties that lasted throughout the Middle Ages after the Conquest. The sundering of the formerly close ties between England and Sweden was one of the consequences of <mask>'s invasion. The foundation of the later medieval English kingdom was laid when <mask>'s government blended elements of the English and Norman systems.<mask> claims that the Conquest was the most radical change in European history between the Fall of Rome and the 20th century. The changes brought about by the Conquest are less radical than <mask> suggests. <mask>'s invasion is described as a plan that no ruler would have considered. <mask>'s reign has caused controversy. <mask> of Poitiers wrote glowingly of <mask>'s reign and its benefits, but the obituary notice for <mask> in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle condemns him in harsh terms. Politicians and other leaders have used <mask> and the events of his reign to show political events throughout English history. The English Church was corrupted by the Conquest during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.During the 17th and 18th centuries, some historians and lawyers saw <mask>'s reign as imposing a "Norman yoke" on the native Anglo-Saxons, an argument that continued during the 19th century. Some historians think that <mask> is one of the creators of England's greatness or that he inflicted one of the greatest defeats in English history. He has been viewed as either an enemy of the English constitution or its creator. <mask> and his wife had at least nine children. The birth order of the sons is clear, but no source gives the relative order of the daughters' birth. Robert died on February 10, 1134. The Duke of Normandy married the daughter of the Count of Conversano.Richard died around 1075. <mask> died on August 2nd, 1100. The King of England died in the New Forest. Henry died on December 1st. Edith was the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland. His second wife was a woman. The betrothed to Harold Godwinson was a nun of Saint Léger at Préaux.Cecilia was born in 1066 and died in 1127. Matilda was born around 1061 and died around 1086. A daughter of <mask> was mentioned in the book. Alan IV was the Duke of Brittany. Adela was married to Count of Blois. Alfonso VI of Len and Castile was betrothed to Agatha. There are no illegitimate children born to <mask>.11th-century French people, 11th-century monarchs of England, and 11th-century Dukes of Normandy were all killed by horse-riding

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texts: <mask> was an American novelist, historian, political activist, and literary critic who wrote for The New Yorker and The New Republic during the 1920s and 1930s. <mask>'s studies of Spanish and Latin American literature and culture are considered to be an intellectual bridge between the two continents. <mask> was the first chair of the League of American Writers and was a radical political activist during the Great Depression. <mask> broke with the Communist Party, USA in 1937 over its treatment of exiled Soviet leader Leon Trotsky, who <mask> met in Mexico in January of that year. During his family's summer vacation, <mask> was born in Long Branch, New Jersey on August 25, 1889. He was the youngest of four children and the daughter of a Confederate blockade runner during the American Civil War. The young <mask> was raised on the Upper West Side of New York City.He spent a year at a college prep school in Lausanne, Switzerland, after he was expelled from school for refusing to take a Shakespeare course. <mask> earned a bachelor's degree before completing his master's degree at Yale University. <mask> went to Paris in 1913 to read and write after working as a reporter for the New York Times. <mask> returned to New York City after World War I ended. <mask>'s first published novel was a look into a man contemplating suicide. The novel was based on the ideas of two New England writers. <mask> became associate editor of The Seven Arts in 1916, a journal that ran for just twelve issues but became an important artistic and political influence.The decline in subscriptions and supporting funds was caused by the position of its contributors. James Oppenheim, the founder and general editor of the magazine, was one of the contributors. <mask> married Margaret in January 1917. Art therapy is when she developed techniques. <mask> and Jean Toomer became friends in 1921. He was an editor for Toomer's first novel, Cane, which was inspired by his work as a school principal in the rural South. He resisted being classified as a black writer and said he was "an American".Their friendship ended after 1923 due to an affair between Toomer and Naumburg. <mask> was a regular contributor to the New Yorker. <mask> registered for the draft in 1917 because he was an anti-militarist. He was a contributing editor of The New Republic in 1925. <mask> and others worked to raise money for striking workers in Southern textile mills. He went to the Soviet Union in the summer and early fall of 1931 and wrote a book about it. In support of striking coal miners, <mask> was attacked and forcibly removed from the strike area in Kentucky in 1932.<mask> was tapped to speak at the opening session of the League of American Writers' convention in 1935, after moving close to the Communist Party, USA (CPUSA). <mask> was elected as the organization's chairman. <mask> was active in the ranks of Professional Groups for Browder and Ford during the 1936 United States Presidential election. <mask> was arrested with Earl Browder when they were campaigning for the Communist Party in Terre Haute, Indiana on September 30, 1936. <mask> went to Mexico in January of 1937 to attend the League of Revolutionary Artists and Writers congress. Leon Trotsky was held by the Joseph Stalin-led world Communist movement to be the leader of an international conspiracy to sabotage and overthrow the government of the USSR and the Russian Revolution itself. <mask> suggested in a letter to The New Republic that an international tribunal be established to investigate the merit or lack of the charges against Trotsky.The break between <mask> and the Communist Party and his denunciation at the Second Convention of the League of American Writers was caused by a harsh reply from Earl Browder. After visiting revolutionary Cuba in 1959 and being impressed, <mask> accepted the position of chairman of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee. Cuba: Prophetic Island, a sympathetic account of the Cuban revolution, was published in 1961. A living cultural bridge between North America and Latin America was created by Hispanic cultural studies. <mask> traveled to Spain in 1921 with a belief in Hispanic spiritual values. He published a cultural study. There needed to be an organic synthesis of the two Americas.He thought that Spain had achieved a "spiritual synthesis of its warring religions" and could be an example for the New World. Ernest Hemingway mocked <mask>'s ideas in his novel, Death in the Afternoon. <mask>'s novel, Rediscovery of America, expressed some of his utopian ideas. <mask> turned his attention to politics after this and other novels weren't as successful as he thought they were. His thesis about Latin America's spiritual strengths won him a lot of attention when he toured there in 1929. His lecture tour was organized by the University of Mexico. The journal Amauta had parts of Rediscovery of America that were not <mask>'s.<mask>'s literary influence was greatest in South America. He had a close relationship with Ciro Alegria. The United States State Department asked him to tour in 1942 in order to discourage alliances with the Nazi government in Germany during World War II. <mask> was declared a persona non grata by the Argentine government after he denounced the pro-Nazi drift. <mask> was attacked in his apartment by six armed men in response to some opinions he expressed in regards to Argentine neutrality in the war. He was kicked and pistol-whipped. He had a concussion that was marked severity.The attack was believed to be the work of pro-Nazi sympathizers who posed as detectives to see if <mask>'s papers were in order. <mask> published South American Journey in 1943 and Birth of a World: Simon Bolivar in terms of His Peoples in 1951 based on his travels in the region. On January 9, 1967, <mask> <mask> died in White Plains, New York. Virgin Spain: Scenes from the Spiritual Drama of a Great People is a book by Chalk Face. An introduction to a philosophy of American life was published in Primer mensaje a la América Hispana. There is a man named Charlie Chaplin. The novel "<mask> <mask> in the Hispanic World: The First Phase" was written by Arnold Chapman.44, No. The 4th of December, 1961, pp. The American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese External links the papers of <mask> <mask>.

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texts: The German Field Marshall of the Wehrmacht was convicted of war crimes after the Second World War. <mask> joined the army at a young age and served on both the Western and Eastern Front during the First World War. He rose to the rank of captain by the end of the war and helped Germany rebuild its armed forces during the inter-war period. He was the Chief of Staff to the Army Group South during the invasion of Poland at the beginning of the Second World War. <mask>'s plan was chosen by Hitler for the invasion of France in May 1940. Anticipating a firm Allied reaction should the main thrust of the invasion take place through the Netherlands, <mask> devised an innovative operation that called for an attack through the woods of the Ardennes. He was promoted to general at the end of the campaign and was involved in the invasion of the Soviet Union.He was promoted to field marshal on July 1, 1942, after he participated in the siege of Leningrad. In December 1941, Germany's fortunes in the war took a turn for the worse, and in the following year, <mask> commanded a failed relief effort. The destruction of three Soviet armies and the retreat of three others resulted from <mask>'s counteroffensive in the Third Battle of Kharkov. He was one of the commanders at the Battle of Kursk. His disagreements with Hitler led to his dismissal. He was taken prisoner by the British in August 1945, several months after Germany's defeat. In August 1946, <mask> gave testimony at the main Nuremberg trials of war criminals, and prepared a paper that helped cultivate the myth of the clean Wehrmacht.The poor treatment of prisoners of war and failing to protect civilian lives were some of the war crimes he was convicted of in 1949. He was sentenced to eighteen years in prison, but his sentence was reduced to twelve and he only served four years. He was a military advisor to the West German government. His memoir, Verlorene Siege, translated into English as Lost Victories, was highly critical of Hitler's leadership, and dealt with only the military aspects of the war. <mask> died in 1973. <mask> was born in Berlin, the tenth son of a Prussian aristocracy and a general. His father's family had Kashubian ancestry and was entitled to use the coat of arms.Hedwig <mask> was adopted by the <mask>s because they were unable to have children. Martha, the daughter of Hedwig's deceased brother, was previously adopted by them. <mask>'s mother's brother and paternal grandfather were both generals in the Franco-Prussian War, as were his adoptive fathers. Military officers rose to the rank of general on his side of the family. Gertrud, the wife of the future Generalfeldmarschall and President of Germany, was the sister of Hedwig and Helene. The Imperial Lyzeum was a Catholic Gymnasium in Strasbourg from 1894 to 1899. He joined the cadet corps.<mask> was reported to be smart and capable as a cadet. He was commissioned into the Third Foot Guards in March 1906 after six years in the cadet corps. In January 1907 he was promoted to lieutenant and in October 1913 he began the three-year officer training programme. When the First World War began in August 1914 all students of the academy were ordered to report for active service, <mask> only completed the first year of the programme. He did not complete the rest of his training. <mask> served on both the German Western and Eastern Fronts during the First World War. He was promoted to lieutenant at the beginning of the war and participated in the invasion of Belgium.The site of a massive citadel surrounded by outlying forts was captured in August 1914. In September, <mask>'s unit was transferred to East Prussia and attached to the Eighth Army. After seeing action in the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes, his unit was assigned to the Ninth Army, which was in the process of moving from Upper Silesia to Warsaw. <mask> was wounded during the retreat after the Ninth Army was forced to withdraw in the face of a Russian attack. One bullet hit his sciatic nerve, causing the leg to be numb, and he was shot in the left shoulder and left knee. Recovery took six months in hospital. On 17 June 1915, after a period of home leave, <mask> was assigned to the Tenth Army as an assistant general staff officer of operations.As the Tenth Army undertook successful attacks on Poland, Lithuania, Montenegro, and Albania, he learned how to plan and conduct offensive operations. <mask> was stationed at a new headquarters near the action during the offensive operations at Verdun in 1916. The area near the River Somme where he served as a staff supply officer was the scene of several battles during the war. A series of defensive positions between Verdun and Lens were taken over by the British and French during the winter of 1916. During the German occupation of the area, <mask> was transferred to the 4th Cavalry Division, where he served until 1917. <mask>'s unit was no longer needed on the Eastern Front after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. The German Imperial Army was starting to lose the war.On 11 November 1918, the armistice was signed. <mask> married the daughter of a Silesian landowner in 1920. He proposed after meeting her for the first time. She died in 1966. They had a daughter, Gisela, and two sons, Gero and Rdiger. Gero, a lieutenant in the Wehrmacht, died on the battlefield in the northern sector of the Eastern Front on October 29, 1942. Gisela was married to a decorated officer.The Second World War saw the deployment of the Panzer-Regiment 15. <mask> was in the armed forces after the war ended. He worked for the Frontier Defence Force in Breslau until 1919. He was involved in the restructuring of the German Imperial Army of 500,000 men into the Reichswehr, which was restricted to 100,000 men by the Versailles Treaty. <mask> was chosen as one of only 4,000 officers allowed under the treaty, because he was recognised from an early age as a talented and intelligent commander. He served as a staff officer for Wehrkremmando II and IV and taught military history and tactics until 1927. He was promoted to major and served with the General Staff at the Reichswehr Ministry in Berlin, as well as visiting other countries to learn about their military facilities.He commanded the light infantry battalion of the 4th infantry until 1934, when he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. The Nazi Party took power in Germany in 1933. In violation of the Versailles treaty, the Reichswehr had been secretly re-arming since the 1920s; the new government formally renounced the Treaty and proceeded with large scale German re-armament and expansion of the military. The chief of staff of Wehrkreiskommando III moved <mask> back to Berlin as full colonel in February 1934. He was appointed the Head of the Operations Branch of the Army General Staff on July 1, 1935. A defensive plan to protect Germany from attack by France was developed by <mask> during his time there. <mask> was in contact with two people who advocated drastic changes in warfare.The Chief of the Army General Staff, Ludwig Beck, was against such drastic changes, and therefore <mask> proposed an alternative: the development of self-propelled assault guns that would provide heavy direct-fire support to infantry. In World War II, the StuG vehicles were among the most successful and cost-effective German weapons. He became the deputy chief of staff to General Beck in October 1936. <mask> was promoted to the rank of Generalleutnant on February 4, 1938. The transfer meant that <mask> did not get Beck's post as Chief of the Army General Staff in August, despite <mask>'s urgings not to do so, as he felt Hitler's intended invasion of Czechoslovakia would be premature. General Halder took <mask>'s former post as deputy chief of staff. There was a lasting hatred between the two men.<mask> praised Hitler as a leader sent by God to save Germany in his speech at the celebration of Hitler's 50th birthday. He warned the "hostile world" that if it kept blocking the way of the German people, then he would be happy to see a world war. The rise of officers such as <mask> was part of a tendency for technocratic officers, usually ardent National Socialists, to come to the fore. <mask> was appointed Chief of Staff to the Army Group South after the Second World War invasion of Poland. He worked with the Chief of Operations to develop the operational plan. <mask>'s plan called for the concentration of the majority of the army group's armored units into the 10th Army, which would lead to the encirclement of Polish forces west of the River Vistula. Two other armies would provide flank support for Reichenau's push towards Warsaw in <mask>'s plan.<mask> thought it would be better to keep Poland as a buffer between Germany and the Soviet Union. He was worried that the Allied attack from the west would draw Germany into a two-front war. <mask> took part in a conference in August of 1939 where Hitler told his commanders to destroy Poland as a nation. He would state in his memoirs that he didn't know at the time that Hitler was going to kill Poles. He and other Wehrmacht generals received reports on the activities of the Einsatzgruppen, the Schutzstaffel death squad tasked with following the army into Poland to kill intellectuals and other civilians. The squad was assigned to round up Jews for relocation to ghettos and Nazi concentration camps. <mask> was accused of war crimes relating to Jewish and civilian deaths in the sectors under his control, as well as the deaths of prisoners of war.The invasion began successfully on 1 September 1939. The retreating Poles were pursued by the 8th, 10th and 14th Armies. The plan was for the 8th Army to advance towards d. The 10th Army was to move quickly towards the Vistula and the 14th Army was to attempt to encircle the Polish troops in the Krakw area. The encirclement and defeat of Polish forces in the Radom area was caused by these actions. The German Eighth Army was under attack from the north, so elements of the Fourth, Eighth and Tenth Armies were quickly redeployed with air support in an attempt to cut off any Polish break-out back towards Warsaw. The Battle of the Bzura resulted in the defeat of nine Polish infantry divisions and other units, the largest engagement of the war thus far.On 6 October 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 The initial plan for the invasion of France was prepared by the Commander-in-Chief of the Army Colonel General (Generaloberst) Walther von Brauchitsch, Halder, and other members of the OKH. The Schlieffen Plan of World War I called for an encirclement attack through the Netherlands and Belgium. Revisions of the plan continued in October. Manstein felt that an attack from the north would expose the German forces to attacks from the south and that he was not satisfied with the plan. Manstein felt that the operation would fail to wipe out the enemy, as it did in the First World War, because the terrain in Belgium was not well-suited for further attacks on France. Manstein's plan was submitted to the OKH by his superior, Rundstedt, who was now the chief of staff of Army Group A.The French and Allied armies were cut off by the Wehrmacht. This part of the plan became known as the Sichelschnitt. The second thrust outflanking the Maginot Line would allow the Wehrmacht to force any future defensive line much further south. Halder said the plan was completely without merit. Hitler ordered the reallocation of the forces needed to make a surprise thrust in Sedan, thus pushing the plan in the direction that <mask> had suggested. The documents detailing Fall Gelb were handed over to the Belgians on January 10, 1940. Generals Halder and Brauchitsch resented <mask>'s insistence that his plan be implemented in place of theirs.Halder had <mask> removed from Rundstedt's headquarters and sent to Stettin to lead the XXXVIII Army Corps. The Manstein Plan, a modified version of <mask>'s ideas, was approved by Hitler after he met with him. Gnther <mask>'s 4th Army had a small role in the operations in France. The first breakthrough east of Amiens was achieved by his corps during the second phase of the invasion plan. <mask> was promoted to full general and awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross after the invasion of France. The Battle of Britain <mask> advocated for a German invasion of Great Britain. The operation was risky but necessary.Air superiority was a requirement for the planned invasion. One of the four units assigned to the first wave was to be shipped across the English Channel from Boulogne to Bexhill. During the Battle of Britain, the Royal Air Force was unable to overcome the Luftwaffe. <mask> spent the rest of the year in Paris and at home. The invasion of the Soviet Union was planned by the German High Command. <mask> was one of 250 commanders to be briefed for the upcoming major offensive, first seeing detailed plans of the offensive in May 1941. His corps was part of the Fourth Panzer Group under the command of General <mask>.The Army Group was tasked with moving through the Baltic States. The offensive was launched six days before <mask> arrived at the front. The German attack on the whole front line began on June 22, 1941. The bridges near the town of Daugavpils were to be secured with the help of <mask>'s corps. The Battle of Raseiniai took place after the Soviet forces mounted a number of counterattacks. <mask>'s

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