texts: <mask> is a journalist, film maker, human rights activist, and author of more than 70 books focusing on human rights, communism, fundamentalism, history, and the Bangladesh war of independence. He received a literary award in 1995. In 1950, <mask> was born in Feni district of East Pakistan and is now in Bangladesh. He was a student at St Gregory's School. He passed the higher secondary exam. He was a student in the Department of Bengali. During the Liberation War, <mask> was one of the prominent activists.He helped to write script and poems for freedom fighter during the war. He was a student at the University of Dhaka. He started writing for teenagers when he was a student. He was a journalist after the war in the Daily Bangla and Weekly Bichitra. He was the Editor of Weekly Bichitra, which played a vital role in the punishment of liberation war criminals. He was the general secretary of the organization from 1976 to 1980. The Ekattorer Ghatak Dalal Nirmul Committee was formed in January of 1992 by 101 people.The trial of people who committed crimes against humanity in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War was called for by this committee. The Ghatak- Dalal Nirmul Committee set up mock trials in Bangladesh in 1992 to try people they accused of being war criminals. A group of people were charged with treason. After her death in 1996, the charge was dropped by the Chief advisor of the Caretaker government. The formation of the committee was made possible by <mask>. The people's court set up by the Ekattorer Ghatak- Dalal Nirmul Committee was found to be illegal by the Government of Bangladesh. He became the acting President after the death of Jahanara Imam.For years, <mask> has been writing about human rights in Bangladesh. He was arrested twice for what the government considered to be illegal attacks. He was first arrested in 2001 after the government of the Bangladesh National Party came to power. The government charged him with sedition and tarnishing the image of the government because he was investigating attacks on the Hindu minority from October to December 2001 and accused the minister of Bangladesh of taking part in war crimes. Many Hindus were intimidated and attacked by party workers in an effort to keep them away from the polls, as they generally did not vote for the Islamist parties. The accounts of the survivors were being documented. He was released on bail in January 2002.A bystander was killed when a bomb was thrown at a reception for him. In December 2002 he was arrested again. The head of the Nirmul Committee, which he founded in 1992 to work for prosecution of those responsible for genocide and other war crimes during the Bangladesh War of Independence in 1971, has continued to take an active role. Observers said that the Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami has leaders who have been alleged to have participated in paramilitary forces against liberation in 1971, which the party opposed. The government held him for an additional 90 days after the High Court ruled that his internment without charges was illegal. He claims that the mass killings of the 1971 conflict were carried out by a group of people, including a former leader of Jamaat e Islami. He said that the Razakars were founded by the leader of the Jamaat e Islami.There is a person named Yusuf. The Awami League-led government won a two-thirds majority in the Parliament in December 2008 to establish an International Crimes Tribunal to prosecute war crimes. Three men were convicted in the first trials and were prominent in the party. He called for a ban on the party. The International Crimes Tribunal convicted him. Shahriyar is a popular author for children and young adult's adventure books. He has written many great books.<mask> <mask> ignored allegations against him as lies. The books were edited. In 1989 there was a genocide in Bangladesh. The Resist Fundamentalism : Focus on Bangladesh and the White Paper : Repression on Religious Minority were written together. There was a punishment of seventy one in Bangladesh in 1999. The International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh) can be found at: http://www.iisg.nl/news/shahriar1.

masks:
Shahriyar Kabir
Kabir
Shariar Kabir
Kabir
Kabir
Shahriar
Kabir


type: paraphrased

texts: <mask> was the first premier of the People's Republic of China and died on January 8, 1976. <mask> helped the Communist Party rise to power, later helping consolidate its control, form its foreign policy, and develop the Chinese economy. <mask> was the Chinese foreign minister from 1949 to 1958. He helped organize Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China after advocating peaceful coexistence with the West after the Korean War. He helped create policies regarding disputes with the United States, Taiwan, the Soviet Union, and India. <mask> was one of the top officials who survived the Cultural Revolution. While Mao devoted most of his later years to political struggle and ideological work, <mask> was one of the main driving forces behind the affairs of state during the Cultural Revolution.He was popular in the Cultural Revolution's later stages because of his efforts to protect others from the Red Guards. In 1971 and 1972, Mao's health began to decline and Lin Biao died in a plane crash. <mask> was elected to the vacant position of First Vice Chairman of the Communist Party by the 10th Central Committee in 1973, and was designated as Mao's successor, but still struggled internally against the Gang. In January 1975, he presented the government work report at the first meeting of the 4th National People's Congress. He died after falling out of the public eye for medical treatment. Anger at the Gang of Four resulted from the massive public grief caused by his death in Beijing. Deng Xiaoping succeeded <mask> as paramount leader by 1978 and outmaneuvered the Gang of Four in the process.<mask> was the first son of the <mask> family and was born on March 5, 1898. The <mask> family were originally from China. <mask>'s family was famous as the home of families who worked as government "clerks" for generations. <mask>'s branch of the family moved to Huai'an in the late years of the Qing dynasty in order to move up the civil service ladder. After the move, the family continued to view the area as its ancestral home. <mask>'s grandfather, <mask>, and his granduncle, <mask>'ang, were the first members of the family to move to Huai'an. Panlong apparently passed the provincial exams, and <mask> claimed that Panlong served as a magistrate.<mask> was the second son of <mask>. <mask>'s birth mother was the daughter of a prominent official. The economic fortunes of <mask>'s large family of scholar-officials were decimated by a great economic recession that China suffered in the late 19th century. <mask> had a reputation for honesty, gentleness, intelligence and concern for others, but was also considered weak and lacking in discipline and determination. He was unsuccessful in his personal life and ended up drifting across China doing various jobs. <mask> remembered his father being unable to support his family because he was always away from home. <mask>, <mask>'s sick brother, adopted <mask> after he was born.The family worried that Yigan would die without an heir. <mask> was raised by Yigan's widow, whose name was Chen. Madame Chen received a traditional literary education and was from a scholarly family. <mask>'s account states that he was very close to his adoptive mother and that she gave him his interest in Chinese literature and opera. <mask> claimed to have read Journey to the West at the age of six after being taught to read and write by Madame Chen. The Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and Dream of the Red Chamber were some of the traditional Chinese novels he was reading by the age of eight. <mask>'s adoptive mother Chen died when <mask> was 10 and <mask>'s birth mother Wan died when <mask> was 9.For the next two years, <mask> and his two younger brothers lived with <mask>'s younger brother Yikui, who was <mask>'s father's younger brother. <mask>'s uncle Yigeng offered to care for <mask> in 1910. <mask> was sent to stay with his uncle in Manchuria, where <mask>geng worked in a government office, after the family in Huai'an agreed. <mask> attended a modern-style school. His previous education was all about home-schooling. <mask> was exposed to the writings of reformers and radicals, as well as new subjects such as English and science. <mask> stated at the age of fourteen that he wanted to become a great man who would take up the heavy responsibilities of the country in the future.<mask>'s uncle was transferred to Tianjin in 1913, where <mask> attended a middle school. One of the most important Chinese educators of the 20th century headed the school founded by a prominent scholar and philanthropist. Contemporary Chinese standards do not allow for unusual teaching methods. The educational model used at thePhillips Academy in the United States was adopted by <mask> when he began attending. Many students became prominent in public life because of the school's reputation and strict moral code. Ma Jun, an early communist leader executed in 1927, was one of <mask>'s friends and classmates. <mask>'s talents attracted the attention of two people.<mask>an. <mask> encouraged <mask> to marry his daughter, but <mask> declined. <mask> said that he didn't want to marry Yan's daughter to his friend. <mask> said that he declined the marriage because he feared that his financial prospects would not be promising, and that his father-in-law would eventually dominate his life. <mask> excelled in Chinese, won several awards in the school speech club, and became editor of the school newspaper in his final year at the school. Many students who were not familiar with <mask> were aware of him through his acting. A number of essays and articles written by <mask> at this time reflect the discipline, training, and concern of the country that the founding fathers attempted to instill in their students.<mask> was one of five graduating students honored at the ceremony, and one of the two valedictorians. He was influenced by the teachings of gong and neng by the time he graduated from the school. His eloquence and skills of persuasion were influenced by his participation in debates and stage performances. <mask> wanted to pursue public service and acquire the skills needed to do so. <mask> went to Japan in July of 1917 for further studies. <mask> spent most of his time in Japan at the East Asian Higher School, a language school for Chinese students. <mask>'s studies were supported by his family but their funds were limited and Japan suffered from severe inflation.<mask> wanted to win one of the scholarships offered by the Chinese government, but he had to take entrance exams in Japanese universities to do so. <mask> failed to gain admission to at least two schools. <mask>'s reported fears were compounded by the death of his uncle, <mask>, his inability to master Japanese, and the Japanese cultural chauvinism that discriminated against Chinese. <mask> disliked the ideals of elitism and militarism that he observed when he returned to China in 1919. <mask>'s diaries and letters from his time in Tokyo show a deep interest in politics and current events, in particular, the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Bolsheviks' new policies. New Youth is a magazine written by Chen Duxiu. It has been claimed that he attended the lectures of Hajime at Kyoto University, and that he read some early Japanese works on Marx.A generation of Chinese communists were influenced by the writings of Kawakami, an important figure in the early history of Japanese Marxism. <mask> is unlikely to have met him or heard any of his lectures now. <mask>'s diaries show his interest in Chinese student protests in opposition to the Sino-Japanese Joint Defence Agreement in May 1918, but he did not actively participate in them or return to China as part of the "Returning Home Movement". His involvement in political movements began after he returned to China. <mask> returned to Tianjin in the spring of 1919. Historians disagree about his involvement in the May Fourth movement. <mask>'s biography states that he was a leader of the Tianjin student protests in the May Fourth movement, but many modern scholars believe that it is highly unlikely that <mask> participated in any of the protests.Ma Jun, a founder of the Union, asked <mask> to become editor of the Bulletin in July 1919. During its brief existence from July 1919 to early 1920, the Bulletin was widely read by student groups around the country and suppressed on at least one occasion by the national government as harmful to public safety and social order. <mask> was in the first class at the university, but he was also an activist. In September, he and several other students agreed to establish the "Awakening Society", a small group, never numbering more than 25. <mask> said that "anything that is incompatible with progress in current times, such as militarism, the bourgeoisie, partylords, bureaucrats, inequality between men and women, obstinate ideas, obsolete morals, should be abolished or reformed." <mask> met his future wife in this society. The Awakening Society was similar to the Marxist study group at Peking University, with the group members using numbers instead of names for "secrecy".<mask> continued to use the name "Number Five" in later years. Immediately after the group was established, it invited Li Dazhao to give a lecture. <mask> was more involved in political activities over the next few months. There were rallies in support of a boycott of Japanese goods. The national government tried to suppress the boycott as it became more effective. On January 23, 1920, a confrontation over boycott activities in Tianjin led to the arrest of a number of people, including several Awakening Society members, and on January 29, <mask> led a march on the Governor's Office in Tianjin to present a petition calling for the arrestees' release. <mask> and three other leaders were arrested.<mask> organized discussions on Marxism while the arrestees were held. <mask> and six others were sentenced to two months in prison at their trial. They had been held over six months. After <mask>'s release, he and the Awakening Society met with several Beijing organizations and agreed to form a "Reform Federation." During these activities <mask> became more familiar with Li, who was the contact between Li in Beijing and Chen Duxiu in Shanghai. Grigori Voitinsky, a Comintern agent, was working with <mask> to organize underground Communist cells. <mask> decided to go to Europe to study after his release. He was expelled from the university.He received a scholarship even though money was a problem. He approached the Current Events Newspaper in order to get more funding for his work as a "special correspondent" in Europe. On November 7, 1920, <mask> left for Europe with a group of 196 work study students. <mask>'s experiences after the May Fourth incident seem to have been crucial to his Communist career. <mask>'s friends in the Awakening Society were also affected. 15 of the group's members became Communists, and the group remained close later on. In the next two years, <mask> and six other group members traveled to Europe, and <mask> married the youngest member of the group.<mask>'s group arrived in Marseille in December of 1920. <mask> was well provided for and did not have to do any work during his stay in Europe, which was unlike most other Chinese students who went to Europe on work-study programs. He was able to devote himself full-time to revolutionary activities because of his financial position. <mask> wrote a letter to his cousin on January 30, 1921, in which he said that his goal in Europe was to survey the social conditions in foreign countries and their methods of resolving social issues in order to apply such lessons in China after his return. <mask> told his cousin that he had to make a decision regarding his ideology. <mask>, also known as John Knight, studied the different approaches to resolving class conflict adopted by various European nations. <mask> witnessed a large miners' strike in London in January 1921 and wrote a series of articles about the conflict between workers and employers.He moved to Paris after five weeks in London because of the high interest in Russia's 1917 October Revolution. "violent means" and "gradual reform" are the two broad paths of reform <mask> identified in a letter to his cousin. <mask> doesn't have a preference for either the Russian or British way. I would prefer something between the two extremes. <mask> traveled to Britain in January 1921 to visit Edinburgh University. He returned to France at the end of January because of financial problems. <mask> did not enter any academic program in France.He joined a Chinese Communist cell in the spring of 1921. <mask> was recruited in August of the previous year by the man he had met in August of the previous year. He knew Zhang through his wife, who was a member of the Awakening Society. <mask> has been portrayed as uncertain in his politics, but his move to Communism suggests otherwise. The cell <mask> was a part of was based in Paris and included two other students. A group of Chinese radicals living in Montargis south of Paris formed a united organization with this group. The group included Cai Hesen, Li Lisan, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Deng Xiaoping, and another member of the Awakening Society.Unlike <mask>, most of the students in this group were in the work-study program. A series of conflicts with the Chinese administrators of the program over low pay and poor working conditions resulted in over a hundred students occupying the program's offices at the Sino-French Institute in Lyon in September 1921. Several people from the Montargis group were arrested and deported. <mask> lived in France until February or March 1922, when he moved with his friends to Berlin. The relatively "lenient" political atmosphere in Berlin made it more favorable as a base for overall European organizing, as evidenced by <mask>'s move to Berlin. <mask> had important Comintern connections, though the nature of these is disputed, and the Western European secretariat of the Comintern was located in Berlin. <mask> shuttled between Paris and Berlin after moving operations to Germany.<mask> was one of twenty two people present at the organization of the Chinese Youth Communist Party, established as the European Branch of the Chinese Communist Party. <mask> was elected to the three member executive committee as director of propaganda and helped draft the party's charter. He wrote for and edited the party magazine, Shaonian. <mask> was the general editor of this magazine when he first met Deng Xiaoping, who was seventeen years old at the time. <mask> remained a key member of the group despite several reorganizations and name changes. The University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow and the establishment of the Chinese Nationalist Party in Europe were some of the important activities undertaken by <mask>. The Third Congress of the Chinese Communist Party accepted the Comintern's instructions to ally with the KMT in June 1923.The instructions said that the members of the CCP should join the Nationalist Party as individuals. They joined the KMT to transform it into a vehicle of revolution. This strategy would lead to serious conflict between the KMT and the CCP within a few years. <mask> was a part of the founding of the Nationalist Party European branch. Most of the European branch's officers were communists. <mask> had a lot of contacts and personal relationships during this time. <mask> admitted some important party leaders to the party.<mask> was summoned back to China for further work after the Soviet-Nationalist alliance expanded rapidly. He returned to China as one of the most senior Chinese Communist Party members in Europe in late July 1924. In late August or early September 1924, <mask> returned to China and joined the Political Department of the Whampoa Military Academy, which he had previously worked for. The exact positions <mask> held at Whampoa are not clear. After arriving in October 1924, he became deputy director of the Academy's Political Department and later director of the department in November 1924. Even though it was technically responsible to the central government, <mask>'s political department operated under a direct mandate to educate Whampoa's cadets in the ideology of the KMT. <mask> was made the secretary of the Communist Party of Guandong-Guangxi and the representative of the Chinese Communist Party in Whampoa while he was there.The Soviet-Nationalist Party alliance was founded on the island of Whampoa. The training center of the Nationalist Party Army was supposed to be a military base from which the Nationalists would launch their campaign to unify China. The school was partly staffed by the Soviets. <mask> worked in the Political Department, which was responsible for political control. <mask> was a prominent figure at most Academy meetings, often addressing the school immediately after the commandant. The political department/party representative system was adopted in the Nationalist armed forces in 1925. <mask> became a member of the Provincial Committee's Military Section at some point after he became secretary of the Guangdong Provincial Committee.The Communist influence at the Academy was extended by <mask>. He arranged for a number of prominent Communists to join the Political Department. The Young Soldiers Association, a youth group which was dominated by the Communists, was established by <mask>. He set up a covert Communist Party branch at the academy and recruited many new members from cadet ranks. <mask> was removed from the academy because of the conflict between the student groups that set up the Society for Sun Yat-senism. <mask> was involved in two military operations conducted by the Nationalist regime in 1925. In January 1925, Chen Jiongming, an important Cantonese military leader who was driven out of Guangzhou by Sun Yat-sen, attempted to regain control of the city.The Nationalist regime's campaign against Chen consisted of forces from the Guangdong Army and two training units of the Nationalist Party Army. The fighting ended in May 1925 with the defeat of Chen's forces. <mask> was a political officer on the expedition. The Nationalists launched a second expedition after Chen attacked Guangzhou again. By this time, the Nationalist forces had been reorganized into five corps and the commissar system had been adopted in most divisions. The First Corps, made up of the Nationalist Party Army, was commanded by Whampoa graduates and <mask> was appointed director of the First Corps Political Department. The Nationalist Party's Central Executive Committee appointed Zhou Nationalist Party party representative to the First Corps.The first battle of the expedition took place in October and resulted in the capture of Chen's base. The Nationalists took control of Guangdong province at the end of 1925. <mask>'s appointment as chief of the First Corps allowed him to appoint Communists in four of the Corps' five divisions. <mask> was appointed special commissioner for the East River District, which placed him in temporary administrative control of several counties and gave him the opportunity to establish

masks:
Zhou Enlai
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou Enlai
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou Enlai
Zhou
Zhou Panlong
Zhou Jun
Zhou Enlai
Zhou Yineng
Zhou Panlong
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou Yineng
Zhou Enlai
Zhou Yigan
Zhou Enlai
Zhou Enlai
Zhou Enlai
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou Yi
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
ZhouY
ZhouYan
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou Yikui
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou
Zhou


texts: a Communist party branch. This was the high point of <mask>'s time at Whampoa. Political activities were an important part of <mask>'s life in 1925. <mask> asked for permission to marry Deng in January 1925, after keeping in touch with Deng, who he had met in the Awakening Society.The two were married in August of 1925. <mask>'s work at Whampoa came to an end with the Zhongshan Warship Incident of 20 March 1926, in which a gunboat with a mostly Communist crew moved from Whampoa to Guangzhou without Chiang's knowledge or approval. The removal of Communists from high positions in the Nationalist Party was caused by this event. According to his memoirs, the gunboat moved in protest of <mask>'s arrest. <mask>'s time in Whampoa was important in his career. He was an important Communist Party expert in this area because of his work as a political officer in the military. <mask>'s covert activities in the period were typical of his work in the Guangdong Regional Committee Military Section.The section was a secret group consisting of three members of the Provincial Central Committee, and was first responsible for organizing and directing CCP nuclei in the army. The nuclei were formed without the knowledge or authorization of the Nationalists. The Section was responsible for organizing similar nuclei in other armed groups, as well as secret societies and key services. <mask> worked in these areas until the end of the Soviet-Nationalist alliance in 1927. The Nationalist-Communist split the Extent of cooperation immediately after <mask>'s removal from his positions. According to an earlier biographer, <mask> was put in charge of an advanced training center for the people who had left the army. <mask> had an important role in securing Communist control of Ye Ting's Independent Regiment, according to recent Chinese Communist sources.The first major military action of the Communists was the Nanchang Revolt. In July of 1926, the Nationalists began their attempt to unify China. The National Revolutionary Army is an amalgam of earlier military forces with significant guidance from Russian military advisors and numerous Communists as both commanding and political officers. With the early successes of the expedition, there was a race between the Nationalist Party and the Communists for control of major southern cities, with the Communists running inside the Nationalists for control of major southern cities. Sun Chuanfang was one of the militarists targeted by the North expedition. The Communists made three attempts to seize control of the city in October of 1926, after Sun reduced his forces and defections from his army. The activities in Zhou were moved to Shanghai in the late 19th century.He was in Shanghai by December 1926, but he wasn't present for the first uprising. Early accounts show <mask> working to strengthen the indoctrination of political workers in labor unions and smuggle arms for the strikers. <mask> is said to have ordered the second and third uprisings on 20 February and 21 March. Major decisions were made by the Communist head in Shanghai, Chen Duxiu, the Party's general secretary, with a special committee of eight party officials coordinating Communist actions. The Comintern representatives in Shanghai were consulted closely by the committee. The Communist Party Central Committee's Military Commission was headed by <mask>. He worked with A. P. Appen, the Soviet military advisor to the Central Committee, to train the pickets of the General Labor Union.The Communists declared a "Red Terror" after the failed February uprising, which resulted in the murder of twenty "anti-union" figures, and the kidnapping, beating, and intimidation of others associated with anti-union activities. The third Communist uprising took place in March. 600,000 rioting workers cut power and telephone lines and seized the city's post office, police headquarters, and railway stations. The insurrectionists obeyed strict orders not to harm foreigners. The uprising was successful despite the small number of armed forces. The first Nationalist troops entered the city. As the Communists attempted to install a soviet municipal government, conflict began between the Nationalists and Communists, and on 12 April Nationalist forces, including both members of the Green Gang and soldiers under the command of a Nationalist general, attacked the Communists and quickly overcame them.On the eve of the Nationalist attack, Wang Shouhua, who was both the head of the CCP Labor Committee and the Chairman of the General Labor Committee, accepted a dinner invitation from "Big-eared Du" and was killed after he arrived. <mask> was arrested after arriving at a dinner held at the headquarters of Si Lie, a Nationalist commander of the Twenty-sixth Army. Bai Chongxi's forces quickly released him despite rumors that he had put a high price on <mask>'s head. <mask>'s sudden release may have been due to the fact that <mask> was the most senior Communist in the city, that the efforts to destroy the Communists were highly secretive at the time, and that his execution would have been seen as a violation of the cooperation agreement between the CCP and the <mask> was released after the intervention of a representative of the Twenty-sixth Army, who was able to convince his commanders that the arrest of <mask> had been a mistake. <mask> was a participant in the 5th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in Hankou, which took place from 27 April to 9 May. <mask> was re-elected to the Party's Central Committee at the end of the congress.The Nationalist Party split in two after the suppression of the Communists, with the left wing led by Wang Jingwei controlling the government in Hankou. The Communists were still trying to expand their influence through the Nationalists despite following Comintern instructions. In May 1927, Wang's left-wing government collapsed after being attacked by a friendly warlord, and Chiang's troops began an organized purge of Communists in territories formerly controlled by Wang. <mask> had to go underground in July. The Communists decided to launch a series of military revolts because they were convinced that the "revolutionary high tide" had arrived. The Nanchang Revolt was the first of these. The moving figures seem to have been Tan Pingshan and Li Lisan, while the main military figures were Ye Ting and He Long.The Communists' forces were decimated and scattered in the revolt. <mask> was sent to Hong Kong for medical treatment after contracting Malaria during the campaign. <mask> was assigned to the care of local Communists after he arrived in Hong Kong. <mask> was demoted to being an alternate member of the Politburo after he was blamed for the failure of the Nanchang campaign. <mask> left China for the Soviet Union to attend the Chinese Communist Party's Sixth National Party Congress in Moscow in June–July 1928. The Sixth Congress had to be held in Moscow because of the dangerous conditions in China. Many Chinese delegates attending the Sixth Congress were forced to travel in disguise because of the tight control of the KMT.<mask> said at the Sixth Congress that the main task of the CCP should be to win over the support of the people in the countryside and establish a soviet regime in southern China, similar to what happened in the Soviet Union. <mask>'s assessment was generally accepted by the Congress. <mask> emerged as the defacto leader of the CCP after the secretary general of the Party was found incapable of fulfilling his role. <mask> was thirty years old. <mask> was elected Director of the Central Committee Organization Department during the Sixth Congress. Li Lisan took over propaganda work. <mask> returned to China in 1929 after more than a year away.According to <mask> at the Sixth Congress in Moscow, by 1928 only ten percent of Party members were proletarians, and fewer than 32,000 union members were loyal to the Communists. Three percent of the Party were proletarians by 1929. <mask> disagreed with the timing of Li Lisan's strategy of favoring rich peasants and concentrating military forces for attacks on urban centers. <mask> tried to implement these more orthodox notions later in 1931. Mif criticized Li's strategy as "left adventurism" and criticized <mask> for compromising with Li when he was in China. <mask> admitted his mistakes in compromising with Li in January 1931 and offered to resign from the Politburo, but was retained. Mif understood that <mask>'s services as Party leader were indispensable, and that <mask> would willingly cooperate with whoever was in power.<mask> established and oversaw a network of independent Communist cells after returning to Shanghai in 1929. The threat of being discovered by the KMT secret police was <mask>'s greatest danger in his underground work. <mask> and his wife changed their residences at least once a month to avoid detection. <mask> wore a beard and pretended to be a businessman. <mask> was careful that only a few people knew where he was. <mask> hid all urban Party offices, made sure that the CCP offices never shared the same buildings in the same city, and required all Party members to use passwords. <mask> only allowed his meetings to take place before 7AM or after 7PM.<mask> avoided being seen in public places and never used public transportation. The Special Service section of the Central Committee established its own intelligence agency in November of 1928, which <mask> eventually came to control. Gu Shunzhang, <mask>'s chief lieutenant, had strong ties to Chinese secret societies and became an alternate member of the Politburo. One for the protection and safety of Party members, one for intelligence gathering, and one for facilitating internal communications were part of the operational section of Teke. <mask> wanted to establish an effective anti-espionage network within the KMT secret police. The head of the intelligence section, Chen Geng, planted a large network of moles inside the Investigation Section of the Central Operations Department in Nanjing within a short period of time. <mask> referred to Hu Di, Li Kenong, and Qian Zhuangfei as the three most distinguished intelligence workers of the Party in the 1930s.The survival of the CCP was aided by agents planted in various KMT offices. In late April 1931 <mask>'s chief aide in security affairs, Gu Shunzhang, was arrested by the KMT. Gu was a former labor organizer with strong mafia connections. Under threat of heavy torture, Gu gave the KMT secret police detailed accounts of underground CCP organizations in Wuhan, leading to the arrest and executions of over ten seniorCCP leaders in the city. Gu offered to give the KMT details of the activities of the CCP in Shanghai, but only if he could give the information directly to the KMT. One of <mask>'s agents left his cover to warn <mask> of the impending raid after intercepting a telegram requesting further instructions. The two days before Gu arrived in Nanjing gave <mask> time to evacuate Party members and to change the communication codes used by Teke, all of which were known to Gu.Gu assisted the KMT secret police in raiding the offices and residences of members who could not be evacuated in time. The death toll from the summary executions of those suspected of Communist sympathies was the largest since 1927. <mask>'s reaction to Gu's betrayal was extreme. More than fifteen members of Gu's family, some of whom worked for Teke, were murdered by the Red Squad and buried in quiet residential areas of Shanghai. Wang Bing, a member of the KMT secret police who was known for moving around in rickshaws without bodyguards, was assassinated by the Red Squad. The majority of the survivors were relocated to the Communist base. Most of its best agents were relocated because most senior staff had become exposed by Gu.Pan Hannian was <mask>'s most senior aide. One of <mask>'s most senior agents decided to stay in a hotel with his mistress the night before he was scheduled to leave, ignoring <mask>'s warnings. He was spotted as he left the hotel in the morning. Within the French Concession, Xiang was immediately arrested and imprisoned. The KMT authorities appealed directly to the authorities of the French Concession in order to prevent the chief of police from intervening in the case. <mask> was hoping that he would be given an opportunity to abduct Xiang, but that didn't happen. The French agreed to transfer Xiang to the Shanghai Garrison Headquarters, where he was subjected to torture and interrogation.After he became convinced that he had given his torturers all the information they wanted, he ordered Xiang to be executed. <mask> bought a copy of Xiang's interrogation records. The location of <mask>'s residence was disclosed by Xiang to the KMT authorities before his execution. <mask> and his wife were able to escape capture because they abandoned their apartment on the morning of Xiang's arrest. <mask> and his wife relocated to the Communist base in Jiangxi at the end of 1931 after establishing a new Politburo Standing Committee. <mask> was one of the most wanted men in China by the time he left. The Communists began to focus on establishing rural bases of operation in southern China after the failed Nanchang and Autumn Harvest Uprisings of 1927.<mask> was involved in the politics of these bases before moving to Jiangxi. Mao began an ideological purge of the populace inside the Jiangxi Soviet after he claimed the need to eliminate counterrevolutionaries and Anti-Bolsheviks. <mask> supported the campaign to uncover subversion because of his own success in planting moles in various levels of the KMT. Mao's campaign was driven by paranoia and aimed at anyone with an ideological outlook different from Mao's. It was common for suspects to be tortured until they confessed to their crimes and accused others of crimes, and wives and relatives who inquired of those being tortured were themselves arrested and tortured even more severely. Mao accused Chen Yi of being a counterrevolutionary after he tried to purge the Red Army of those who might oppose him. The Red Army's numbers were reduced from forty thousand to less than ten thousand.The campaign continued until 1931. Historians estimate that about one hundred thousand people died due to Mao's persecution. <mask> was in Shanghai at the time. <mask> was against the "excess, the panic, and the oversimplification" practiced by local officials when he arrived in Jiangxi in December 1931. <mask> criticized the campaign for focusing on the narrow persecution of anti-Maoists as anti-Bolshevists, exaggerating the threat to the Party, and condemning the use of torture after investigating those accused of Anti-Bolshevism. The campaign gradually subsided after <mask>'s resolution was passed. <mask> moved to the Jiangxi base area because he wanted the armed forces under Communist control to be used to expand the base rather than just to defend it.<mask> replaced Mao as Secretary of the First Front Army in December of 1931 and became the political commissar of the Red Army. Three people criticized Mao's tactics at the October 1932 conference. After moving to Jiangxi, <mask> met Mao for the first time since 1927, and began his relationship with Mao as his superior. Mao was demoted to being a figurehead in the Soviet government. <mask>, who had come to appreciate Mao's strategies after the series of military failures waged by other Party leaders since 1927, defended Mao but was unsuccessful. After achieving power, Mao demoted those who had opposed him, but remembered <mask>'s defense of his policies. Bo Gu took control of party affairs after arriving with the German Comintern adviser Otto Braun.<mask> reorganized and standardized the Red Army with the help of his military colleagues. The Red Army defeated four attacks by the Nationalists. The military structure led the Communists to victory. The army was able to advance steadily into Communist territory thanks to the use of blockhouse tactics and larger numbers of troops. Bo Gu and Otto Braun used orthodox tactics to respond to Chiang, and <mask> directed them. He and other military leaders were blamed for their defeat. <mask> was reappointed to the position of vice chairman of the Military Commission despite his cautious military approach being distrusted by hardliners.<mask> was accepted as leader largely because of his organizational talent and devotion to work, and because he had never shown any overt ambition to pursue supreme power within the Party. The continued orthodox tactics of Bo and Braun led to a serious defeat for the Red Army and forced the leaders of the CCP to seriously consider abandoning their bases in Jiangxi. <mask> was put in charge of organizing and supervising the Communist withdrawal after the decision to abandon Jiangxi was announced. <mask>'s goal was to break through the enemy encirclement with as few casualties as possible, and before Chiang's forces were able to completely occupy all Communist bases, he waited until the last moment to inform senior leaders of the group's movements. It is not known what criteria were used to determine who would stay and who would go, but 16,000 troops and some of the Communists' most notable commanders were left to form a rear guard. In October 1934, the withdrawal of 84,000 soldiers and civilians began. <mask>'s intelligence agents were able to identify a large section of Chiang's blockhouse lines that were manned by troops under General Chen Jitang, a Guangdong warlord who <mask> identified as being likely to prefer preserving the strength of his troops over fighting.General Chen allowed the Red Army to pass through the territory that he controlled without fighting after <mask> sent Pan Hannian to negotiate for safe passage. The Red Army had to pass through three of the four blockhouse fortifications to escape the encirclement. There were 86,000 Communists who attempted to break out of Jiangxi. Bo Gu and Otto Braun were demoralized by the loss, but <mask> remained calm. There were disagreements over the direction that the Communists should take and the causes of the Red Army's defeats during the Long March. <mask> was against the interests of Bo Gu and Otto Braun during the power struggles. Bo and Braun were removed from their positions of leadership after they were blamed for the Red Army's defeats.On October 20, 1935, the Communists re-established a base in northern Shaanxi with only a few thousand remaining members. Throughout the Long March, <mask>'s position within the CCP changed many times. <mask> was the defacto leader of the CCP by the early 1930s, and he exercised superior influence over other members of the CCP even when sharing power with Bo and Braun. After Bo and Braun were removed from senior positions following the January 1935 Zunyi Conference, <mask> mostly retained his position because he displayed a willingness to display responsibility and because his tactics in defeating Chiang's Fourth Encirclement Campaign were recognized as being successful. After the Communists reached Shaanxi, Mao took over <mask>'s leading position in the CCP, while <mask> took a secondary

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texts: position. Until their deaths in 1976, Mao and <mask> would retain their positions. During the seventh congress of the Comintern, held in August 1936, Wang Ming issued an anti-Fascist manifesto, indicating that the CCP's previous policy of "opposing Chiang Kai-shek and resisting Japan" was to be replaced by a policy of "uniting".The policy was carried out by <mask>. One of the most senior KMT commanders in the northwest was spoken to by <mask>. By 1935,Zhang was well known for his anti-Japanese sentiment and his doubts about Chiang's willingness to oppose the Japanese. <mask>'s intentions to fight against the Japanese were influenced by Zhang's disposition. <mask> established a committee to promote cooperation with Zhang. The committee worked to get the Northeast Army to join the Red Army to fight Japan. "Chinese must not fight Chinese" is one of the new patriotic slogans created by the committee.<mask> used his network of secret contacts to arrange a meeting with the leader of the "Northeast Army". <mask> and Zhang met for the first time in a church on April 7, 1936. Even though he wanted to end the civil war, unite the country, and fight the Japanese, he warned that it would be hard to achieve these goals without Chiang's cooperation. Both parties came to an agreement to secretly work together. At the same time that <mask> was establishing secret contacts withZhang, Chiang was growing suspicious of him, and became increasingly dissatisfied with his actions against the Communists. The Northeast Army and the Red Army were portrayed as being engaged in battle by <mask> and Zhang. In December 1936, Chiang Kai-shek flew to the Nationalist headquarters in Xi'an in order to test the loyalty of the local KMT military forces and to personally lead them in a final attack on Communist bases in Shaanxi.The Generalissimo was killed and most of his bodyguards were killed on December 12th when Zhang and his followers invaded his headquarters to force him to direct China's forces against the Japanese. Reactions to the kidnapping were mixed. It was seen as an opportunity to have Chiang killed. It was an opportunity to achieve a united-front policy against the Japanese, which would strengthen the overall position of theCCP. A long telegram from Joseph Stalin urged the CCP to work towards Chiang's release, explaining that a united front was the best position from which to resist the Japanese, and that only Chiang had the authority to carry out such a plan. On December 16th, <mask> reached Xi'an on a plane sent for him by Zhang Xueliang, as the chief Communist negotiator. When he realized that his life and freedom were dependent on the goodwill of the Communists, he withdrew his opposition.<mask> and Chiang had not seen each other since <mask> left Whampoa over a decade ago. In the ten years since we met, you seem to have aged very little, <mask> said. "<mask>, you were my supervisor," he said. You should do what I say. The Red Army would accept Chiang's command if he halted the civil war and resisted the Japanese. By the end of this meeting, Chiang promised to end the civil war, to resist the Japanese together, and to invite <mask> to Nanjing for further talks. On December 25, 1936, Zhang and Chiang were released.Most of the officers who participated in the Xi'an incident were executed. Chiang ended military activity against Communist bases inYan'nan, implying that he had given his word to change the direction of his policies. After the end of the KMT attacks, the CCP was able to consolidate its territories and prepare to fight the Japanese. Wang Yizhe, a Nationalist general who was seen as largely responsible for the military's lack of response after news of Zhang's betrayal, was murdered by some of the old officer corps. While <mask> was in Xi'an, he was surrounded in his office by a number of Zhang's officers, who accused the Communists of inciting the Xi'an incident and of betraying the general by convincing him to travel to Nanjing. They made a threat to kill <mask>. <mask> defended his position and maintained his composure.<mask> succeeded in calming the officers, and they left him unharmed. When the Marco Polo Bridge incident occurred, <mask> tried to get Zhang's release, but failed. <mask> accompanied the Nationalist government to its temporary capital of Wuhan when the Nationalist capital of Nanjing fell to the Japanese on December 13, 1937. The official KMT-CCP liaison office was established by <mask> as the chief representative of the CCP. <mask> established the Yangtze Bureau of the Central Committee while running the liaison office. <mask> used the Yangtze Bureau to conduct covert operations in southern China, secretly recruiting Communist operatives and establishing Party structures throughout KMT-controlled areas. In August 1937, <mask> was ordered by the CCP to focus on Communist organization at all levels of the government and society.<mask> applied his organizational talents to complete the orders. <mask> convinced the Nationalist government to approve and fund a Communist newspaper in order to spread anti-Japanese propaganda. The Nationalists viewed the approval and funding of this newspaper as one of their biggest mistakes. <mask> was able to organize large numbers of Chinese intellectuals and artists in order to promote resistance against the Japanese. Following the successful defense of Taierzhuang, <mask> staged a week-long celebration. In this event, between 400,000 and 500,000 people took part in parades, and a chorus of over 10,000 people sang songs of resistance. Over a million dollars was raised during the week.<mask> donated his monthly salary as deputy director of the Political Department. <mask> was the main contact person with the outside world and worked hard to reverse the public perception of the Communists as a "bandit organization". <mask> had contacts with over forty foreign journalists and writers, many of whom became sympathetic to the Communist cause and wrote about their sympathies in foreign publications. <mask> arranged for a Canadian medical team to travel toYan'an in order to assist the Dutch film director in producing a documentary about 400 million people. <mask> was unsuccessful in preventing the public defection of one of the founding fathers of the CCP. He resented Mao's authoritarian leadership style and was prepared to defect due to a disagreement with Mao over the implementation of the united front policy. <mask>, with the help of Wang Ming, Bo Gu and Li Kenong, tried to convince Zhang not to defect, but these negotiations were unsuccessful.Zhang placed himself under the protection of the KMT secret police after he refused to compromise. On 18 April, the Central Committee of the CCP expelled Zhang from the Party, and he issued a statement accusing them of sabotaging efforts to resist the Japanese. <mask>'s attempts to improve the prestige of the Party were dealt a serious blow. <mask> was appointed as the deputy director to the Political Department of the Military Committee by the Nationalist government. <mask> was the only Communist to hold a high-level position within the Nationalist government. <mask> used his influence within the Military Committee to promote Nationalist generals that he believed were capable, and to promote cooperation with the Red Army. In the Tai'erzhuang campaign, <mask> used his influence to ensure that the most capable Nationalist general, Li Zongren, was appointed overall commander despite Chiang's reservations about Li's loyalty.<mask> convinced Chiang to commit troops to the defense of Tai'erzhuang by promising that the Communist Eighth Route Army would attack the Japanese from the north and that the New Fourth Army would sabotage the railroad. The defense of Tai'erzhuang was a major victory for the Nationalists, as they killed 20,000 Japanese soldiers and captured a large amount of supplies and equipment. The childless <mask> befriended many orphans while he was an ambassador for the KMT. <mask> adopted a young girl in 1937. After Sun's father was executed by the KMT in 1927, Sun's mother took her to Wuhan. <mask> came upon the sixteen-year-old Sun crying outside of the Eighth Route Army Liaison Office because she had been refused permission to travel toYan'an due to her youth and lack of political connections. Sun was able to travel toYan'an after <mask> befriended her.She was the first female director of spoken drama in the PRC. <mask> adopted Sun's brother. Sun Yang was <mask>'s personal assistant. Sun Yang became the president of Renmin University after the founding of the People's Republic of China. <mask> befriended another orphan, Li Peng. In 1931, Li's father was killed by the Kuomintang. <mask> looked after him.<mask> groomed Li for leadership after the war and sent him to Moscow to study energy-related engineering. During the Cultural Revolution, <mask> placed Li within the powerful energy bureaucracy, shielding him from the Red Guards. In the fall of 1938, the Nationalist Army engaged the Japanese in the surrounding regions for over four months, allowing the KMT to withdraw farther inland, to Chongqing, bringing with them important supplies, assets, and many refugees. <mask> was nearly killed in the "fire of Changsha", which lasted for three days, destroyed two thirds of the city, killed twenty thousand civilians, and left hundreds of thousands of people homeless. The Nationalist army wanted to prevent the city from falling to the Japanese. The fire was started without warning to the residents of the city. <mask> escaped from Changsha and took refuge in a Buddhist temple in a nearby village.<mask> demanded that the causes of the fire be thoroughly investigated by authorities, that those responsible be punished, that the city be thoroughly cleaned up, and that accommodations be provided for the homeless. The Nationalists blamed three local commanders for the fire and executed them. The fire contributed to a loss of support for the KMT in China. <mask> resumed the official and unofficial operations that he had been conducting in Wuhan in January 1938 after early activities in Chongqing. <mask>'s activities included those required by his formal positions within the Nationalist government, his running of two pro-Communist newspapers, and his covert efforts to form reliable intelligence networks. Several hundred people worked under him in both official and covert roles. <mask> looked after his father in Chongqing until his father's death in 1942.<mask> was able to get the Nationalist government to release Communist political prisoners. <mask> assigned these former prisoners to lead Party organizations in southern China after they were released. <mask>'s covert activities increased the membership of theCCP tenfold within months. Efforts to suppress the activities were generally unsuccessful. <mask> fractured his elbow while riding a horse in July of 1939 while he was inYan'an to attend a series of Politburo meetings. <mask> used the occasion to brief the Comintern on the status of the united front because there was little medical care available inYan'an. <mask>'s right arm was bent for the rest of his life because he arrived in Moscow too late to mend the broken arm.During his stay, Joseph Stalin refused to see <mask> because he was displeased with the CCP's refusal to work more closely with the Nationalists. <mask>'s daughter, Sun Weishi, accompanied <mask> to Moscow. She was studying for a career in theatre after <mask> left. The Politburo accepted <mask>'s assessment that <mask> should focus his efforts on creating a network of secretCCP agents working covertly and for long periods. Communists were told to join the KMT if it would increase the ability of agents to get in. <mask> adopted a series of measures to expand the intelligence network under the cover of the Office of the Eighth Route Army. By the time <mask> returned to Chongqing in May 1940, there was a serious rift between the KMT and the CCP.Over the course of the next year, the relationship between the two parties deteriorated into arrests and executions of Party members, covert attempts by agents of both sides to eliminate each other, propaganda efforts attacking each other, and major military clashes. In January 1941, the united front was abolished after the New Fourth Army were attacked by government troops and their commanders were killed or imprisoned. <mask> directed Party leaders to conduct their operations in a more secret way. He kept in touch with foreign journalists and ambassadors through the newspapers. <mask> organized a large network of Communist spies and increased intelligence efforts within the KMT, Wang Jingwei's government, and the Empire of Japan. <mask> was told that the Soviet Union was going to be attacked by Hitler on June 22, 1941. Stalin received this information under <mask>'s signature two days before Hitler attacked.<mask> operated openly in Chongqing, befriending Chinese and foreign visitors and staging public cultural activities. <mask> was able to circulate freely among the officers of the Nationalist Army because of his close personal friendship with General Yuxiang. During an official visit toYan'an, <mask> befriended the General and convinced him to become a member of the CCP. Deng's secret agreement to supply ammunition to the Communist New Fourth Army was caused by <mask>'s intelligence agents penetrating the army of General Deng. <mask> convinced another general to install a radio transmitter that would allow secret communication between the two cities. <mask> befriended commanders in the Yunnan armed forces, who became secret CCP members, and established a radio station that broadcast Communist propaganda from the provincial government building in Kunming. <mask> was the primary representative of the CCP to the outside world.<mask> and his aides enjoyed receiving foreign visitors and made a good impression on foreign diplomats. <mask> was charming, urbane, hard-working, and living a very simple lifestyle. Ernest Hemingway and his wife, Martha Gellhorn, visited <mask> in 1941. According to Gellhorn, she and Ernest became convinced that the Communists would take over China after meeting <mask>. <mask> was partially funded by donations from sympathetic foreigners, overseas Chinese, and the China Defense League, which was supported by Sun Yat-sen's widow. <mask> wanted to start and run a number of businesses in China. <mask>'s businesses grew to include several trading companies operating in several Chinese cities, an oil refinery, and factories for producing industrial materials, cloths, Western medicines, and other commodities.<mask> made great profits in currency trading and commodity speculation, especially in American dollars and gold. opium plantations in remote areas generated <mask>'s most lucrative business. <mask> justified opium production and distribution in KMT-controlled areas by the huge profits generated for the CCP, and by the effects that opium addiction might have on KMT soldiers and government officials. <mask>'s relationship with Mao was not as good as it was in 1943. The Chairman of the Communist Party of China was trying to have his political theories accepted as the Party's dogma. Mao organized a campaign to get the members of the CCP to like him. The Maoist personality cult dominated Chinese politics until the end of the Cultural Revolution.<mask> was harshly criticized in this campaign after returning toYan'an. <mask> was labeled an "empiricist" because he had cooperated with the Comintern and with Mao's enemies. <mask> was attacked by Mao as a "collaborator and assistant of dogmatism". After Mao became convinced of <mask>'s subservience in the latest period of the campaign, Mao and his allies withdrew their accusation that the CCP organizations in southern China were in fact led by KMT secret agents. <mask> defended himself by engaging in a long series of public reflections and self-criticisms, and he gave a number of speeches praising Mao and Mao's leadership. He joined Mao's allies in attacking Mao's enemies. Moscow was distressed by the persecution of <mask> and a personal letter was written to Mao.<mask>'s praise for Mao's leadership and his attacks on Mao's enemies convinced Mao that <mask>'s conversion to Maoism was genuine, a precondition for <mask>'s political survival. By the seventh congress of the CCP in 1945, Mao was acknowledged as the overall leader of the CCP, and the dogma of Mao's Thought was firmly entrenched among the Party's leadership. The United States began to plan for an invasion of Japan, which they assumed would be based in China, and American political and military leaders became eager to make contact with the Communists. The "Dixie mission", an American military observation group, was allowed to travel toYan'an in June 1944. Mao and <mask> were interested in gaining American aid. The Americans were promised support for any future American military actions to attack the Japanese in China. In a gesture of goodwill, communist guerrilla units were instructed to rescue downed American airmen.By the time the Americans left, they had become convinced that the CCP was a party seeking orderly democratic growth towards socialism, and suggested greater cooperation between the CCP and the American military. <mask> tried to convince General Joseph Stilwell of the need for the Americans to supply the Communists and of the Communist's desire for a united Chinese government after the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt decided to remove him from office because of his open dislike of the Nationalist government in general. Patrick J. Hurley refused to align the American military with the CCP unless the Party made concessions to the KMT, which Mao and <mask> found unacceptable. Mao and <mask> were invited to take part in an American-endorsed peace conference after Japan surrendered. There was apprehension that the Nationalists were planning to assassinate or imprison the two people, and that the invitation from Chiang was a trap. After taking control of Mao's security detail, <mask> inspected their plane and lodgings but found nothing.Mao refused to enter his accommodations until <mask> personally inspected them. <mask> introduced Mao to many local celebrities and statesmen that he had befriended during his previous stay in Chongqing. During the forty-three days of negotiations, Mao and Chiang met eleven times to discuss the conditions of post-war China. The negotiations ended with nothing. P.J. ignored <mask>'s offer to withdraw the Red Army from southern China. Mao was insulted by Hurley's ultimatum. <mask> stayed behind to sort out the details of the conference's resolution after Mao returned.Major skirmishes between the Communists and Nationalists made future negotiations pointless. He accused members of the US embassy of being against him and favoring the Communists. After Harry S. Truman became President of the United States, he nominated General George C. Marshall as his special envoy to China. Marshall was charged with brokering a ceasefire between the CCP and KMT, and to influence both Mao and Chiang to abide by the Chongqing agreement, which both had

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texts: signed. Marshall's nomination was seen as a positive development by the top leadership of the CCP, and they hoped that he would be more flexible in his negotiations. <mask> was in Chongqing to negotiate with Marshall. The first phase of talks went well.Marshall represented the Americans, <mask> represented the Communists, and Zhang Qun represented the KMT. Both sides agreed in January 1946 to cease hostilities and reorganize their armies to separate them from political parties. Neither side would be able to implement the changes that <mask> signed. Political freedom, local autonomy, free elections, and the release of political prisoners were all promised by the speaker. <mask> expressed his opposition to civil war. These agreements were viewed optimistically by the leadership of the CCP. <mask> was appointed as one of eight leaders to participate in a future coalition government.<mask> should be nominated as China's vice president. <mask> received orders to manipulate Marshall in order to advance the peace process after Mao expressed a desire to visit the United States. Marshall's negotiations deteriorated as neither the KMT nor the CCP were willing to sacrifice any of the advantages that they had gained, to de-politicize their armies, or to sacrifice any degree of autonomy in areas their side controlled. In the summer and spring of 1946, communist forces were forced to retreat after a few major battles in Manchuria. In other parts of China, the government armies increased their attacks. On 3 May 1946, <mask> and his wife left Chongqing for the Nationalist capital of Nanjing. <mask> informed Marshall that he no longer had the confidence of the CCP after negotiations deteriorated.Nationalist troops took control of the Communist city of Zhangjiakou on October 11. The National Assembly was called into session without the participation of the Communists and was ordered to draft a constitution on November 15. <mask> held a press conference in which he condemned the KMT for tearing up the agreements from the political consultative conference. <mask> and the entire delegation left for Yan'an on November 19th. The Chinese Civil War resumed after the failure of negotiations. <mask> kept an interest in intelligence work, but turned his attention to military affairs. <mask> was Mao's chief aide, as well as the vice chairman of the Military Commission of the Central Committee, and the general chief of staff.<mask> continued to direct underground activities as the head of the Urban Work Committee of the Central Committee. The KMT army's troop strength, distribution, positions, and other details were given to the commanding general by <mask>'s intelligence agents. This intelligence allowed Communist forces to avoid major battles and to engage Nationalist forces in a campaign of guerrilla warfare that resulted in a series of major victories. The KMT troops in the northwest were either defeated or exhausted by February 1948. Over a million pieces of artillery and 40,000 army uniforms were captured on 4 May 1948. Beijing and Tianjin were seized by the Communists in January 1949. General Li Zongren took over as president of the Nationalist government on January 21, 1949.On 1 April 1949 Li began peace negotiations with a six-member delegation. The delegates were led by <mask>. <mask> asked why he went to see Chiang Kai-shek before he left Nanjing. Even though he had technically retired, Zhang said that his consent would be needed to finalize any agreement. <mask> asked if Zhang had the necessary credentials to implement the terms of the CCP's wishes. <mask> produced a final version of a "draft agreement for internal peace", which was an ultimatum to accept the demands of the CCP. After five days, the KMT government did not respond to <mask>'s demands.Mao and <mask> issued an "order to the army for country-wide advance". Li went into exile in America in October after the PLA captured his stronghold of Guangdong. The last KMT-controlled city on mainland China was captured by the PLA in December 1949. China's international influence was low in the early 1950s. China's pretensions of universalism were shattered by a string of military defeats and incursions by Europeans and Japanese. China's international prestige had declined to "almost nothing" by the end of Yuan ShiKai's reign. China's role in World War II was questioned by other Allied leaders.The Korean War ensured that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control and that the PRC would remain outside of the United Nations for the foreseeable future. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949, <mask> was appointed both the Prime Minister of the Government Administration Council and the Minister of Foreign Affairs. <mask> became the architect of early PRC foreign policy through the coordination of these two offices and his position as a member of the five-man standing committee of the Politburo. <mask> was respected as a senior revolutionary within China by the early 1950s. <mask>'s earliest efforts to improve the prestige of the PRC involved recruiting prominent Chinese politicians, capitalists, intellectuals, and military leaders who were not technically affiliated with the CCP. After <mask>'s underground network successfully escorted the family of Zhang's family to Beijing, <mask> was able to convince him to accept a position inside the PRC in 1949. The other members of the KMT delegation that <mask> had negotiated with in 1949 accepted the same terms.Sun Yat-sen's widow, Soong Ching-ling, who was estranged from her family and had opposed the KMT for many years, joined the PRC in 1949. A prominent industrialist who had refused offers of a government post for many years was persuaded to accept a position in the new government. Fu Zuoyi, the KMT commander who surrendered the Beijing garrison in 1948, was persuaded to join the PLA and become the minister of water scarcity. <mask>'s first diplomatic successes came as a result of successfully pursuing a warm relationship with India's first post- independence prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. <mask> succeeded in persuading India to accept China's occupation of Tibet in 1950 and 1951. During the negotiations to settle the Korean War, India was persuaded to act as a neutral mediator. <mask> was in the process of demobilizing half of the PLA's 5.6 million soldiers when the Korean War broke out.In May <mask> and Mao urged Kim to be cautious if he were to invade and conquer South Korea, but Kim refused to listen to them. <mask> criticized both the UN and US initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory" after the United States sent the Seventh Fleet to neutralize the Taiwan Strait. <mask> and other Chinese leaders were less optimistic than Kim, who predicted that he would win the war by the end of August. <mask> was worried that the United States would intervene because he did not share Kim's confidence that the war would end quickly. To counter the possibility of an American invasion into North Korea or China, <mask> secured a Soviet commitment to have the USSR support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 Chinese soldiers along the North Korean border, but they were strictly ordered not to move into North. <mask> ordered Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea and directed his military advisor in North Korea to analyze the military situation there. According to Lei, the most likely landing location would be Incheon.On 15 September 1950, MacArthur landed in Incheon, met little resistance, and captured the capital city of South Korea. Most of the North Korean tanks were destroyed in bombing raids. North Korean troops quickly disintegrated. <mask> warned the United States that the Chinese people would not tolerate foreign aggression and 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 On 1 October 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 800-381-0266 Kim appealed to Mao to reinforce his army after Stalin refused to become directly involved in the war. The Chinese leadership held an emergency meeting at Zhongnanhai on 2 October to discuss whether or not to send military aid.<mask> supported Mao's position that China should send military aid regardless of the strength of American forces. The meeting concluded with a resolution to send military forces to Korea. <mask> traveled to Stalin's summer resort on the Black Sea in order to get his support. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment, but warned <mask> that the air force would need two or three months to prepare, and no ground troops would be sent. Stalin told <mask> that the Soviet air force would only operate over Chinese airspace after an undisclosed period of time, and that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis. Stalin did not agree to send military equipment until March 1951. The 200,000 Chinese troops were ordered to enter North Korea on October 25th, 1950, after <mask> met with Mao and others.After consulting with Stalin, Mao appointed <mask> the overall commander of the People's Volunteer Army, a special unit of the People's Liberation Army, China's armed forces that would intervene in the Korean War and coordinate the war effort. The orders were delivered in the name of the Central Military Commission. After a stalemate around the Thirty-eighth Parallel, the two sides agreed to negotiate an armistice. The truce talks began on 10 July. The Chinese negotiating team was headed by <mask>. After two years of negotiations, a ceasefire agreement was signed at Panmunjom. <mask>'s last military assignment was the Korean War.<mask> had headed the Central Military Commission since 1947. After the eighth Party Congress, <mask> gave up his post in the Military Commission and focused on his work in the Standing Committee, the State Council, and on foreign affairs. <mask> attended Stalin's funeral in Moscow four days after he died. Mao might have decided not to travel to Moscow because no senior Soviet politician had yet traveled to Beijing, or because Stalin had rejected an offer to meet with Mao in 1948. While in Moscow, <mask> was allowed to stand with the new leaders of the Soviet Union, instead of with the other. <mask> walked behind the gun carriage carrying Stalin's coffin. After <mask> traveled to Moscow, Khrushchev visited Beijing to mark the fifth anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic.In 1952, <mask> signed an economic and cultural agreement with the Mongolian People's Republic, giving tacit recognition to the independence of what had been known as "Outer Mongolia" in the past. <mask> worked to conclude an agreement with Kim in order to help the postwar reconstruction of North Korea's economy. <mask> held talks with the prime minister of Burma and promoted China's efforts to send supplies to the rebels in Vietnam. <mask> traveled to Switzerland to attend the conference to settle the Franco-Vietnamese War. He assisted the major powers in ironing out the agreement to end the war. French Indochina was to be divided into five different countries according to the negotiated peace. In order to create a coalition government in a united Vietnam, elections were agreed to be held within two years.John Foster Dulles was the American secretary of state and <mask> was in the same room. Dulles walked out of the room after <mask> politely offered to shake his hand. <mask> was thought to have turned this moment of possible humiliation into a small victory by shrugging his shoulders. <mask> countered Dulles' insistence that China wouldn't be given a seat at the sessions. <mask> had lunch with Charlie Chaplin, who had been living in Switzerland since being blacklisted in the United States for his radical politics. <mask> was a participant in the Asian–African Conference in 1955. The conference in Bandung was a meeting of twenty-nine African and Asian states and was called to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism.<mask> made the United States appear to be a serious threat to the peace and stability of the region by giving the conference a neutral stance. <mask> said that while China was working towards world peace and the progress of mankind, "aggressive circles" within the United States were aiding the Nationalists in Taiwan and planning to rearm the Japanese. "The population of Asia will never forget that the first atom bomb was exploded on Asian soil," he was quoted as saying. With the support of its most prestigious participants, the conference produced a strong declaration in favor of peace, the abolition of nuclear arms, general arms reduction, and the principle of universal representation at the United Nations. An assassination attempt was made against <mask> when a bomb was planted on the Air India plane Kashmir Princess, which was used for <mask>'s trip from Hong Kong to Jakarta. <mask> avoided the attempt when he changed planes at the last minute, but all 11 of the flight's other passengers were killed, with only three crew members surviving the crash. The attempt was blamed on one of the intelligence agencies of the KMT.There was a second attempt on <mask>'s life at the Bandung conference, according to journalist Joseph Trento. <mask> found out about the bomb on the Kashmir Princess after being warned of the plot by his own intelligence officers and did not attempt to stop it because he viewed those that died as disposable. <mask> used the crash to warn the British about the KMT intelligence operatives in Hong Kong, and then pressured Great Britain to shut down the Nationalist intelligence network in Hong Kong. He hoped that the incident would improve Britain's relationship with the PRC. The official explanation for <mask>'s absence on the flight is that he had surgery and had to change his schedule. China's international political situation began to improve after the Bandung conference. With the help of many of the nonaligned powers who had taken part in the conference, the US-backed position economically and politically boycotting the PRC began to erode.The PRC gained China's seat at the UN in 1971. When the PRC was founded on 1 October 1949, <mask> told all governments that any countries wishing to have diplomatic contact with the PRC must end their relationship with the leaders of the former regime on Taiwan and support the PRC's claim to China's seat in the United Nations. The first foreign policy document was issued by the new government. The PRC gained diplomatic relationships with other communist countries and with thirteen non-communist countries, but talks with most Western governments were unsuccessful. <mask> emerged from the Bandung conference with a reputation as a flexible and open-minded negotiator. <mask> was aware that the United States would back the defacto independence of Taiwan with military force, so he persuaded his government to stop the shelling. <mask> said in a formal announcement in May 1955 that the PRC would "strive for the liberation of Taiwan by peaceful means so far as it is possible."<mask> argued that the resolution of the conflict with the Taiwan authorities was an internal matter and that Taiwan was part of China. The post of Minister of Foreign Affairs was passed to Chen Yi, a general with little prior diplomatic experience. The diplomatic corps of the PRC was reduced after <mask> resigned. Some were sent to work in labor camps to be replaced by others who had been labelled "rightists". Sino-American relations began to improve in the early 1970s. In order to consider growth at levels desired by the Party's leadership, large imports of American technology and technical expertise were essential, as advised by Mao's workers in the petroleum industry. The era of "ping-pong diplomacy" began when the Chinese invited the American ping-pong team to visit.Nixon's security advisor, Henry Kissinger, flew to China in 1971 to prepare for a meeting between Nixon and Mao. The United States agreed to allow the transfer of American money to China, to allow American-owned ships to conduct trade with China, and to allow Chinese exports into the United States for the first time. The negotiations were so sensitive that they were hidden from the American public, the State Department, and all foreign governments. On the morning of 21 February 1972, Richard Nixon arrived in Beijing and met with <mask> and Mao. The diplomatic substance of Nixon's visit was resolved in the Shanghai Communique, which summarized both sides' positions without attempting to resolve them. The "US side" affirmed that America's involvement in the Vietnam War did not constitute "outside intervention" in Vietnam's affairs, and pledged continued support for South Korea. All foreign troops should be withdrawn from their own countries and Korea should be unified according to the demands of North Korea according to the Chinese side.Both sides agreed to disagree on Taiwan's status. Both sides' intentions to work towards the relaxation of tensions in Asia and the world were endorsed by the closing sections of the Shanghai Communique. There was a major policy shift between the United States and China. The Great Leap forward was started by Mao Zedong to increase China's production levels in industry and agriculture with unrealistic targets. <mask> was a popular and practical administrator. Frank Diktter described <mask> as the "midwife" of the Great Leap Forward, who "transformed nightmares into reality". Mao's economic policies had failed and he had developed a lifestyle that was out of touch with his older colleagues.Among the activities that seemed contrary to his popular image were the swims in his private pool in Zhongnanhai, his many villas around China that he would travel to on a private train, his private, book-lined study, and the camaraderie of an ever-changing succession of enthusiastic young Veteran revolutionaries like Deng Xiaoping and <mask> seemed less and less enthusiastic about his vision of continuous revolutionary

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